Editorial Advisory Board
Eileen Abels, University of Maryland at College Park Nancy H. Allen, Denver University Danuta Nitecki, Associate University Librarian, Yale University Mary Jean Pavelsek, New York University Nancy Roderer, Johns Hopkins Univeristy Robert A. Seal, Texas Christian University
Contents
Contributors Preface xi
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Understanding Information‐Seeking: The Public Library Context 1 Gloria J. Leckie and Lisa M. Given
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.
Introduction 1 Information-Seeking, The Public and Library Collections 7 Information-Seeking and Reference Services 20 The Information-Seeking of Particular Populations 36 Information-Seeking, Instruction, Training, and Searching 39 Information-Seeking and The Physical Environment 53 Conclusion: Information-Seeking and Models of the Public Library 60 References 62
Providing Library Services for Urban Children: Challenges and Strategies 73 Sheri Anita Massey, Ann Carlson Weeks, and Teresa Y. Neely
I. II. III. IV.
Introduction 73 Challenges Facing Urban Children 76 Examples of Successful Strategies and Initiatives Conclusion 89 References 92
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Three Decades of Challenges and Changes in US Embassy Libraries Around the World 99 Wendy A. Simmons
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.
Introduction 99 Libraries in the State Department 101 Early History 103 The Recent Past 106 Contemporary Conditions 108 International Information Programs 109 Conclusions 130 References 130
‘‘Going Where the Users are: We’ll Get There Only If We Want to’’ 133 Diane Kresh
I. Introduction 133 II. Literature Review 134 III. Success in Virtual Reference Depends on Libraries Working Together 135 IV. The Burgeoning Information Service Industry 138 V. Virtual Reference is no DiVerent from Traditional Reference 139 VI. Who Uses Virtual Reference and Why? 141 VII. Library Services are in a Period of Transition 142 VIII. Community Building in Reference Service 144 IX. Reinventing Libraries 146 X. Conclusions 154 References 155
Building Networks, Building Trust: Statewide Virtual Reference 159 Buff Hirko
I. Introduction 159 II. Project Activities and Results 162 III. The Washington VR Summit: Celebrating and Sustaining Success 183 IV. Conclusions 186
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The Changing Role of the Info‐Entrepreneur
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Mary Ellen Bates
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI.
Introduction 187 Overview of the Info-Entrepreneur Profession 188 Examples of Info-Entrepreneur Projects 191 Types of Info-Entrepreneurs: Niches, Generalists, Technique-Specialists 194 Would You be a Successful Info-Entrepreneur? 202 Ten Mistakes New Info-Entrepreneurs Make 204 Addressing Pricing Issues: ‘You’re Charging Me What?!?’ 207 Marketing Challenges for Info-Entrepreneurs 209 Surfacing Your Value: Providing Value-Added Deliverables 213 Where the Info-Entrepreneur Profession is Headed 216 Key Resources for Info-Entrepreneurs 217 References 222
Understanding the Picture User
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Henry Pisciotta
I. Introduction 223 II. The Questions 225 III. The Problems 238 References 242
Evaluating User Information Needs Through a Library Portal Environment: New Opportunity and New Challenges 247 Dongming Zhang
I. II. III. IV. V.
Index
Introduction 247 Review of Library Portal Concept and Technologies 247 Portal Usage Analysis and Service Improvement 252 MyWelch Case: The Development of Welch Library Portal 253 Discussion and Further Thoughts 265 References 268 269
Contributors
Numbers in parantheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.
Mary Ellen Bates (187), Bates Information Services Inc, USA Lisa M. Given (1), School of Library and Information Studies, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB, Canada Buff Hirko (159), Statewide Virtual Reference Project, Washington State Library, Lacey, WA USA Diane Kresh (133), Veterans History Project, Library of Congress, Washington DC, USA Gloria J. Leckie (1), Faculty of Information and Media Studies, University of Western Ontario, London ON, Canada Sheri Anita Massey (73), College of Information Studies, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Teresa Y. Neely (73), University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA Henry Pisciotta (223), Arts and Architecture Librarian, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA Wendy A. Simmons (99), United State Consulate General, Lagos, Nigeria Ann Carlson Weeks (73), College of Information Studies, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Dongming Zhang (247), Advanced Technologies and Information Systems, The William H. Welch Medical Library, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Information-seekers Challenge Libraries and Information-providers
Advances in Librarianship is dedicated to the publication of critical articles and surveys of a variety of aspects of the field of librarianship and related subjects, based on the published literature, research in progress, and current developments, relating to all segments of the profession. Contributing authors are encouraged to address provocative and stimulating topics that will ensure that trends are identified and research results of interest are made available as quickly as possible in a rapidly changing profession. Yet, authors are also encouraged to add an historical perspective as appropriate since we better understand the future through the past. Volume 29 presents a group of chapters that together oVer a snapshot of the changing characteristics of information-seekers and the ways diVerent types of libraries and information professionals are responding to their demands. Working as co-editors, we shared responsibility of identifying authors who could address this theme from varying perspectives. We suggested several possible ways to approach this ‘‘userfocused’’ topic, inviting contributions on what information-seekers expect of libraries, on the role of librarians and other information professionals in responding and sometimes shaping those expectations, on innovative user services and methods to organize and present information, and on challenges of training those assisting information-seekers. Although several more writers accepted our invitation to contribute to this volume, eleven successfully completed eight thoughtful manuscripts. Members of the Editorial Board provided excellent guidance through review of drafts with valuable feedback for the authors. The result is a collection of eight chapters, each providing unique insights about people who seek information and the organizations or professionals from whom they obtain their sought information. Authors have formulated their insights through reviews of published research, data gathering eVorts from information-seekers, or experience in the
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field. In all cases, the contributors have observed changing patterns of information-seeking behaviors and the impact of these changes on the provision of library services or access to the information. This collection is not intended to be comprehensive, but rather is illustrative, of the diversity of motivations and approaches to seek information, and the variety of ways that diVerent libraries and information-providers respond to the demands for information. The premise behind this collection is what one of its authors observes, that ‘‘user’’ is a pluralistic concept and those assisting information-seekers are challenged by the variety of their interests as well as the format and accessibility of the information itself. The chapters are loosely arranged to oVer the reader continuity to explore three broad perspectives, however, each chapter was prepared without awareness of the others and can as easily be read in whatever sequence is appealing. The groupings reflect potential readers’ interests by type of library, reference and information service concerns, and new formats of information and its access. Information-seekers are sometimes characterized by the type of library they visit. The first three chapters describe diverse institutional environments focused on providing access to information and the people seeking information in them. Two Canadian colleagues begin this perspective by considering what is known about information-seekers and the providers that assist them when viewed within the public library context. Through their thorough review of an extensive body of research addressing activities in public libraries, Gloria J. Leckie, Associate Dean, Faculty of Information and Media Studies, University of Western Ontario, and Lisa M. Given, Associate Professor, School of Library and Information Studies, University of Alberta, not only characterize the behavior of readers and importance of information in this library setting, but they also frame the topic, clarify definitions, and raise questions about information-seekers that may apply in any setting. Public libraries joined by school libraries and media centers, particularly those in metropolitan areas, are important institutions influencing behaviors that value information-seeking as a fundamental habit within a democratic society. In Chapter 2, Sheri Anita Massey, currently a doctoral student, Ann Carlson Weeks, Professor of the Practice, College of Information Studies, University of Maryland at College Park, and Teresa Y. Neely, Director, University Libraries at the University of New Mexico, thoughtfully review school and public library-based research to develop an understanding of the information-seeking characteristics of urban children and the initiatives these library settings have taken to foster their reading habits.
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In Chapter 3, readers are challenged to review their assumption that information is available to those who seek it and consider how readers around the world might experience freedom to access information. U.S. Embassy libraries have upheld a mission of extending opportunities to read books and journals Americans take for granted where otherwise these sources of information might be restricted. Wendy A. Simmons, an Information Resource OYcer with the United State Consulate General in Lagos, Nigeria, oVers a unique review of the challenges that face people on several continents who seek such information as trade policies, law, and the arts that may diVer from what they can find within their own culture. She does so by going beyond the published literature she reviews, and shares reflections from seventeen Information Resource OYcers that have witnessed major changes in both the technological availability of information and the support of these information ambassadors around the world. The next three chapters consider services and professionals that facilitate information-seeking. In Chapter 4, Diane Kresh, Director of the Veterans Project at the Library of Congress, explores user expectations and behaviors as part of her review of digital reference services. The impact of the Internet on how people seek information has influenced the provision of services to assist them to do so. This chapter provides a historic survey of the development of digital reference services as well as thoughtful observations about lessons learned and practical suggestions for future provision of assistance to those seeking information through the Web. In Chapter 5, BuV Hirko, Statewide Virtual Reference Project Coordinator at the Washington State Library, reviews the development of one state’s approach to evolving an electronic-based, collaborative reference service to assist information-seekers from a variety of types of libraries, and discusses the challenges of developing the skills librarians need to engage in this new environment of assistance. An emerging type of professional, the ‘‘info-entrepreneur’’ and the assistance it provides to complement traditional reference services, is discussed by Mary Ellen Bates, of Bates Information Services, Inc., in Chapter 6. These professionals not only identify information to meet needs expressed by those seeking both information and their assistance services, but they also analyze and synthesize information to package knowledge or collected data appropriate for a particular activity. These entrepreneurs, pressed to surface the value their activities provide, challenge us to understand behaviors to seek information as well as the use of the information found. Finally, two chapters close the volume with explorations of new technological applications that define the way information is sought.
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Henry Pisciotta, Art and Architecture Librarian at the Pennsylvania State University Library, shares a comprehensive overview in Chapter 7 of the relatively short history of research on the use of pictorial information and oVers insights about what is viewed and how images are used by the various seekers of this information category that has become increasingly popular in its digital formats. Information portals are the topic of Chapter 8, written by Dongming Zhang, Associate Director for Advanced Technologies and Information Systems at William H. Welch Medical Library, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. After his short historic review of the development and characteristics of portals, he discusses development of ‘‘MyWelch,’’ a medical library’s portal, and related research to understand health and medical information-seeking behavior as well as ways to respond to this focused need for information. Information-seekers described in this volume are as diverse as the services which libraries and professionals have developed to assist them. There is no single profile of ‘‘the user’’ or ‘‘the information-seeker.’’ This volume’s chapters unfold multifaceted views of people who seek information, including insights on their behaviors, their motivations, and their uses of information. The volume’s contributors share an appreciation and interest to understand the importance information has, through the perspective of those who seek it: citizens in a democratic society and those in more restrictive cultures; urban children impressionable to learn the value of information and adults who hire specialists to collect and analyze information; people who come to a library and those who prefer to seek information through the Web or personal portals; readers of words and viewers of images. This volume of Advances in Librarianship is successful if it adds to an understanding of the evolving needs of information-seekers, which in turn contributes to continued improvements of library services and our professional development. The authors deserve most credit for any praise this volume might receive. We thank each for their contribution and the quick response to the editorial suggestions we sent them to finalize their chapters. We also appreciate the helpful feedback members of the Editorial Board gave us to prepare these suggestions after reading several of the chapter drafts. Special thanks are extended to these supportive Editorial Board members–Nancy Allen, Dean and Director of Penrose Library, Denver University; Mary Jean Pavelsek, International Business Librarian, New York University Libraries; Nancy Roderer, Director of Welch Medical Library, Johns Hopkins University; and Robert Seal, University Librarian, Texas Christian University. We also appreciate the patience and support
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Chris Pringle, Publisher, Social Sciences Elsevier extended to us as our primary contact with our publisher. We take pleasure to salute this excellent behind-the-scenes editorial and production team. Danuta A. Nitecki and Eileen Abels Co-editors May 1, 2005
Understanding Information‐Seeking: The Public Library Context Gloria J. Leckiea and Lisa M. Givenb a
Faculty of Information and Media Studies, University of Western Ontario, London ON, Canada b School of Library and Information Studies, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB, Canada
I. Introduction The history of the public library is long and rich, and continues to reflect this institution’s initial mission: to respond to the needs of an evolving democratic society. From its early days as a subscription service for the middle-class, through its evolution to become an educational site for the lower-classes and new immigrants, the public library has served as a touch-stone for urban industrial society in North America (Lerner, 1998, p. 138; Shera, 1974). Over the past century, public libraries have evolved to respond to the growing needs of the communities they serve and continue to do so with recent advances in technologies (such as DVDs, electronic books, the Internet, etc.), and with a more global outlook on the ways that people seek and share information. Indeed, the public library’s constituents today are exceedingly diverse, including children and adults from a broad range of socio-economic, cultural, and educational backgrounds, all of whom seek information for a variety of personal and work-related purposes. The fact that public libraries have been fulfilling patrons’ information needs for well over a century is a testament to their enduring success and versatility as information providers, and also points to the overall eVectiveness of public librarians as intermediaries in the provision process. What do we know about how the public uses the public library to satisfy its information-related needs? The answer to that question is that we actually know less than we should because until recently, the research literature on information-seeking concentrated on the information-seeking behaviors
ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 29 # 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2830(05)29001-3
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and practices of academics, scholarly researchers and various professional groups, such as doctors, nurses, engineers and the like (Case, 2002; Julien, 1996; Leckie et al., 1996). In-depth studies of the information-seeking of members of the general public in relation to the public library are far fewer in number. Although this is now changing and more research is being directed towards the study of the general public, there are still large gaps in the research literature and there are very few published papers that have tried to pull together what is known about information-seeking in relation to the public library. The aim of this overview is to tease out what we understand about information-seeking in the context of the public library by considering what is known about information-seekers (i.e., the public) and the primary information providers (i.e., librarians) who assist them. Since the two groups are intimately connected in their common concern with library materials for the public’s enrichment, research and pleasure, it is impossible to comment on the information-seeking activities of the public without touching on the professional work of those who serve them. We begin with an overview of what is meant by the term ‘‘information-seeking’’ and a summary of the research literature about it. We then review five distinct areas of the literature related to the public’s information-seeking, including: (1) the use of the public library and its collections, (2) reference services and reference transactions, (3) the information needs and seeking behaviors of specific populations, (4) information technologies, training and searching, and (5) informationseeking and the physical environment. A wide variety of published materials will be included because much of what we know, or think we know, about the information-seeking of the public and their use of public libraries has to be deduced from works that did not have information-seeking as their primary focus. A. Defining Information-Seeking
Information-seeking is a phrase that has been much used and abused and there are literally hundreds of studies that attempt to examine various aspects of information-seeking as a general phenomenon. However, the all-encompassing nature of the phrase is undermined by the fact that ‘‘seeking’’ may be only one type of activity related to information in which people engage. At the macro level, some scholars have begun to substitute more all-inclusive terms, such as ‘‘information behavior’’ or ‘‘information practices’’ to describe a broad range of activities that relate to the location and use of information (Foster, 2004; Hjorland, 2000; Niedzwiedzka, 2003; Wilson, 1999, 2000). Studies of this type do
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examine people’s purposeful quests for information (such as finding an interesting novel to read, or locating consumer information before buying a new car), but they also explore the role that serendipity and/ or non-purposeful information acquisition can play in individuals’ daily lives (Foster and Ford, 2003; Spink, 2004). At the same time, a number of other researchers use quite specific terms to describe the micro-level aspects of various information-related activities, such as ‘‘information encountering,’’ ‘‘information browsing,’’ ‘‘information foraging,’’ ‘‘environmental scanning,’’ and other related concepts (Chang and Rice, 1993; Choo, 2001; Erdelez, 1999; Sandstrom, 1994). Other studies point to the importance of examining situational contexts in concert with people’s informational activities ( Johnson 2003; Talja et al., 1999). All of these studies are linked by their central focus on individuals’ personal behaviors and/or perceptions as they engage in a multitude of information-related activities. We are aware that, as Frohmann (2004) notes, all too often research about information-seeking fails to adequately define what is meant by the term; consequently, it has become a phrase of convenience for any and all activities that have some sort of informational component. To avoid this pitfall, we take the perspective that information-seeking is, first and foremost, a process during which a person actively and purposefully seeks something that informs him or her, according to his or her particular need at the time. Informing could take place in a variety of ways (by sight, hearing, touch, smell), but in the context of the public library, informing is most likely to happen through users’ interactions with texts (i.e., print, images, sound and other media, in hard copy or in digital form), and with human intermediaries (such as librarians and other patrons). For the purposes of this overview, then, we shall use the phrase ‘‘informationseeking’’ to describe, ultimately, what is the most prevalent informationrelated activity undertaken by patrons of public libraries: the purposeful search for information, in a range of formats and to serve various purposes as defined by library users themselves. Having said this, we also recognize the very important place of serendipitous or other non-purposeful behaviors in library patrons’ information worlds and so discussion of browsing and information encountering also will be included. B. Information-Seeking of the Public: an Evolution of Research and Practice
The history of information-seeking, as a point of focus in both the practice and research of library and information studies (LIS), reaches back as far as the mid-1900s, but has grown most substantially over the
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past two decades. Although it is beyond the scope of this review to provide a comprehensive history of this work, especially given the number of excellent published reviews on the topic (Case, 2002; Dervin and Nilan, 1986; Hewins, 1990; Julien, 1996; Julien and Duggan, 2000; Sugar, 1995), it is worth noting a few milestones that have shaped this area of the field. Many authors point to publications from the early 1900s as marking the early beginnings of the information-seeking literature (Bouazza, 1989; Case, 2002; Wilson, 1994). As Julien (1996) notes in her analysis of the information needs and uses literature from the early 1990s, ‘‘user studies tend to focus on the information needs of the privileged (e.g., scholars and professionals) as opposed to the ‘average citizen’’’ ( p. 63), a trend dating back through the 1950s. However, Bernard Berelson’s (1949) study of public library users (and his call for librarians to recommit themselves to serving users’ needs) marks something of a turning point in this area of the field; the majority of studies that are focused on users’ information needs and their uses of various information sources date from this point, with a substantial increase in this body of work from the 1980s to the present. In the decades following Berelson’s work, a number of studies emerged that have been classified using the terms ‘‘information needs,’’ ‘‘information use,’’ or ‘‘user studies’’—terms that have commonly come to represent explorations of the ways that people seek, locate and make use of information in various contexts (though not usually the public library). Robert Taylor’s work (1968), for example, set the stage for numerous investigations of individuals’ information-seeking strategies in libraries, by investigating the ways that patrons asked questions at the reference desk. Since that time, other scholars have examined the role of the reference desk and the reference librarian in order to gain an understanding of users’ informational activities (Antell, 2004; Dervin and Dewdney, 1986; Dewdney and Michell, 1996; McKenzie, 2003a). Various models and theories also explore individuals’ motivations for their information-seeking activities; these include Nicholas Belkin’s (1984) ASK (anomalous states of knowledge) model, used to explore the principle of uncertainty in information acquisition, and Brenda Dervin’s explorations of ‘‘sensemaking’’ as one mechanism for understanding the ways that people seek and use information in order to address a perceived ‘‘gap’’ in their knowledge base. Dervin’s ‘‘sense-making’’ theory sets out the idea that an information need ‘‘situation’’ (e.g., where a person is newly diagnosed with cancer) leads to a ‘‘gap’’ in the individual’s knowledge base; this ‘‘gap’’ prevents the person from making sense of the situation at hand, and the individual must ‘‘bridge’’ this gap with whatever information is available to
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him/her (Dervin and Nilan, 1986, p. 21; see also, Savolainen, 1993 for an extensive overview of Dervin’s work). Other studies have examined information-seeking processes in combination with aVective elements that can alter human behavior. Constance Mellon’s (1986) work, for example, examined the concept of ‘‘library anxiety’’ and the ways that this altered library users’ behaviors. Carol Kuhlthau’s (2004) model of the Information Search Process (ISP) is heavily cited in the information-seeking literature, and has extended beyond its original focus on students seeking information for assignments to a number of other informational contexts. The ISP model describes information-seeking activities in terms of six stages, where feelings, thoughts and actions are woven together as person begins and ends his or her search for information. Kuhlthau (2004, pp. 44–50) outlines these six stages, as follows: (1) task initiation, where a person first recognizes the need for information, (2) topic selection, where a general content area is chosen, (3) pre-focus exploration, which is characterized by feelings of confusion, uncertainty and doubt, (4) focus formulation, which is often the turning point in the process, as individuals gain confidence in the search for information, (5) information collection, marked by eVective and eYcient interaction between the user and the information system, and finally, (6) search closure, where the person feels satisfied or disappointed, depending on the results of the search. In addition, a number of researchers have explored the habitual patterns and interpersonal connections that can drive (or serve as barriers to) people’s decisions regarding how and when to seek information. For instance, Harris and Dewdney (1994) examined the information and referral systems put in place to help battered women. After their review of the literature, the authors proposed six general principles of information-seeking, including:
information needs arise from the person’s situation; the decision to seek help/information or not is aVected by many factors; people tend to seek the information that is most accessible; people tend first to seek help/information from interpersonal sources, especially from people like themselves; information-seekers expect emotional support; and people follow habitual patterns in seeking information.
By the late 1990s, Julien and Duggan (2000) found an increasing interest in the general public as a focus of the information-seeking literature ( p. 304). Currently, this trend continues as evidenced by
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research reported at the Information Seeking in Context conference, published in The New Review of Information Behaviour Research (Wilson and Barrulas, 2002) and in other venues. Of particular note in this area is Savolainen’s work (1999, 1995) exploring what he termed everyday life information-seeking (ELIS). Following on the many studies that articulated diVerent professions (such as engineers or nurses) and academic groups (including students and professors), Savolainen pioneered an area of research that labelled regular citizens as their own category of information-seekers. Subsequently, there have been a number of other studies that examine ELIS for a range of purposes and life contexts (Given, 2002; Hersberger, 2001; Huotari and Chatman, 2001; McKenzie, 2003b), including a special issue of Library and Information Science Research on this topic (Spink and Cole, 2001a). The contexts in which ELIS occur are quite varied, and include health, finance, housing, travel, and a host of other situational topics related to people’s daily lives (Marcella and Baxter, 1999a; Spink et al., 1999; Williamson and Manaszewicz, 2002). It is worth pointing out that while much of the research noted above explores individuals’ quests for information in non-library contexts, with little or no reference to the public library, these studies do include findings that are of value to those planning public library services and collections. For example, Catherine Ross’ (2000) examination of readers’ perspectives on reading for pleasure has direct relevance to librarians selecting materials for public libraries and Carol Kulthau’s (2004) work on the information-search processes of students is certainly applicable to helping young adults use the public library. There are a number of studies as well,that mention the public library explicitly and even take this context as a direct focus for ELIS (Budd, 2001; Coles, 1999; Gluck et al., 1996; Pendleton and Chatman, 1998; Vincent, 1988). What is clear from the literature is that although there is a large body of work related to information-seeking and information-seekers from a variety of theoretical perspectives, there is still a need for more research and professional literature that examines both the information-seeking of the public and the role of the public library in individuals’ daily lives (particularly as new technologies raise new information needs). Despite these gaps in the body of research, there are a number of general trends evident in the information-seeking literature that do apply across contexts and user populations, and which can set the stage for this discussion. Some of these general trends include:
people’s information needs are grounded in contexts, changing as diVerent problems, issues, or situations arise in a person’s life;
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individuals’ information needs change over time, both as new information informs one situation (resulting in a change in what information is then needed) and across the life span (as people move from school to work, or explore their health, financial or other personal issues); people often use habitual approaches in locating information—using interpersonal sources, where possible, and returning to resources that have served them well in the past; people also use a range of sources of information to solve their information needs—including formal and informal sources, such as other people, textual resources, audiovisual materials, etc.; people seek information in both active (e.g., going to the public library) and more serendipitous (e.g., overhearing a conversation on the bus) ways; it is diYcult to separate these activities, at times, as the human mind works in fluid ways as it is continually engaged with and learns from the world around it, and a one-size-fits-all model for information-seeking is inappropriate in most cases—children and adults have diVerent approaches to locating and using information, as do people across socio-economic, cultural and social contexts.
With these general points in mind, we now turn to a discussion of information-seeking in the context of the public library.
II. Information-Seeking, The Public and Library Collections A. Who is the Public?
Who are the information-seekers who use the public library and its collections and services? Through library‐use statistics and surveys, we actually know quite a bit about the answer to that question, although estimates vary depending on the statistical source used. Baker and Wallace (2002) cite a number of surveys showing that between 51–76% of the American population uses the public library, depending on the state of residence. The American Library Association (1998) Gallup poll indicated that about 66% of adult Americans state that they use the public library at least once a year. The current annual statistical report of the Public Library Association (PLA) indicates that, in the largest American population centers, just over half (ranging 51–55%) of the population is registered library users. In the United Kingdom, although some surveys have shown that about 58% of the population is registered library borrowers, other data indicate that the proportion of borrowers
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who are active is lower at about 32% of the population (Smith, 1999). Although comparable data are not available for Canada, public libraries, despite having only 30% of the collection resources, accounted for 77% of the reference inquiries and 88% of the circulation reported by all diVerent types of libraries in a national survey (Schrader and Brundin, 2002, pp. 14–15). As a cautionary note, though, Smith (1999) suggests that surveys may exaggerate actual library usage patterns. He remarks that a minority of frequent library users will be disproportionately high in any sample, a fact that has also been shown to be true in other studies (Clark, 1998). Checking the actual data from the circulation database of one public library, Smith found that although about a ‘‘quarter of members borrow or return books at least once a month...most members have not used the library in the previous six months’’ ( p. 304). Taking into account the turnover in library membership, Smith draws the conclusion that there is far more casual use of public libraries than has been commonly acknowledged. On the other hand, Clark (1998) questions why we have not paid more attention to the heavy-borrower group of patrons, since they are the backbone of library service. He remarks that this group should be ‘‘the subject of major public relations campaigns and consulted closely on what they need and want’’ ( p. 306). The clientele of public libraries has been described as middle class. It has been known for decades that there is a strong relationship among education, income levels and library use and most library surveys do show that public library users are better educated and have average family incomes or higher (Smith, 1999). However, surveys also have shown that even those who do not use public libraries hold them in relatively high esteem. Katz (2002) suggests that the reason the public library is so well regarded even by those who do not use it is that most people ‘‘consider themselves middle class or bordering on this distinction’’ ( p. 8) and thus hold many of the same aspirations as to the societal value of the public library. With respect to gender, Vavrek (2000) compared the findings of three surveys of library users and found that, as has been true in the past, the majority of public library users were females, although the proportion varied considerably from study to study. Smith (1999) also found that women and girls tended to be heavier library users than males in the studies that he reviewed. He notes that ‘‘Women borrow more books than men do; heavy borrowers are more likely to be women.... Girls of all ages read more than boys, borrow more books from public libraries and borrow more frequently’’ ( p. 306). However, the issue is not as straightforward as it may seem, since gender diVerences also may be related to
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the type of public library. Leckie and Hopkins (2002, p. 342) found that males were a much higher proportion of the patrons of two large central public libraries than is true of public libraries in general. As to the age of the typical public library user, that is more diYcult to determine. Vavrek noted ( p. 62) that one survey showed the largest proportion of users to be in the 25–34 age group, while another survey showed the 35–44 age group as the most frequent users. Vavrek himself comments ( p. 62) that both may be incorrect since the 13–18 age group was not included in the studies and may, in fact, represent the largest group of patrons. Along a similar line, Smith (1999) notes that ‘‘children use public libraries more than adults, with use peaking at about age 10 to 12 when children become more independent in their reading choices’’ ( p. 307). In terms of the use of large central libraries, Leckie and Hopkins (2002, p. 342) found that the patron profile of the two central libraries studies was relatively young: over half of survey respondents were under 34 years of age. Regarding the overall usage of public libraries, the PLA statistics (2004, 78–79) show that registered library patrons each borrow between 11 and 17 items per year, on average. On a per capita basis, public libraries circulate 7–15 items, record about 4–6 visits per patron per year, and conduct about 1–2 reference transactions. These numbers would, of course, be higher if only registered borrowers were considered. When taken as overall average numbers rather than per capita, the PLA data show that American public libraries had over 757 million visitors coming through their doors, circulated something like 1.3 billion items, and conducted on the order of 212 million reference transactions (PLA 2004, 109–110). Similarly, in Canada, the ‘‘typical public library answered 26,000 queries, circulated 265,000 items and facilitated on-site use of 99,000 items’’ (Schrader and Brundin, 2002, p. 34). Wiegand (2003) has commented that: American libraries have done three things exceptionally well in the past century... they have (1) made information accessible to millions of people on a variety of subjects, (2) provided tens of thousands of places where patrons have been able to meet formally as clubs or groups, or informally as citizens or students utilizing a civic institution and cultural agency, and (3) furnished billions of reading materials to billions of people ( p. 370).
Thus despite threats to their wellbeing due to budget cuts and other imperatives, and although their roles and usage perhaps have been overshadowed by dominant commercial interests and various elements in the cultural landscape, North American public libraries currently seem to be thriving.
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B. The Nature of Public Library Collections
Public library collections are as varied as libraries themselves and the communities that they serve, so it is very diYcult to make sweeping generalizations about the types of collections that they might contain. However, there are a few common observations that can be made safely about public library collections in the early 21st century. First, any discussion of information-seeking in public libraries would not be possible without one fundamental assumption, and that is that public libraries have a collection of resources and materials that the public wants to use and consult and thus they will seek the information they need at the library. However, the importance of good library collections to the public has been downplayed and the description of the public library as ‘‘the people’s university’’ has gone out of fashion. In their research about central libraries, Leckie and Hopkins (2002) found that the public places a high value on comprehensive and complete collections, and that study participants frequently expressed fears that library collections would be diminished. The authors comment that: Given the diversity of reasons for searching for information, the importance of the breadth and depth of the central library’s collection cannot be overstated.... Large research-level collections usually are associated only with university libraries, but it is clear from this study that the public needs and wants access to a high quality, comprehensive public research collection, including both print and electronic resources ( p. 355).
Second, contemporary public library collections are increasingly diversified. Books, periodicals and newspapers continue to be the backbone of library collections, but music CDs, sheet music, videos, DVDs, maps, photographs, audio books, electronic books, video games, full-text databases and other non-print items are also important materials, particularly for certain group of users. Videos, music and related AV materials, for example, account for a significant proportion of circulation (Oder, 2002) and can be a catalyst for attracting new patrons to the library. A further element of collection diversification is that public libraries currently act as gateways to a wide variety of information resources. They do this in a number of ways, including, for instance, library bulletin boards and programs, reference referrals to other institutions, recommended Internet sites, and connections to community networks. Pettigrew et al. (2002) demonstrate that online community information networks accessed through the public library are now an important component of many people’s everyday information-seeking. Third, most public libraries today have a high proportion of their holdings in fiction for both adults and children. The precise proportion is
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very diYcult to pin down because major statistical sources do not distinguish library holdings by fiction and non-fiction. However, most public library watchers would agree that the majority of items circulated by public libraries are works of fiction, with estimates varying from about 60% of circulation, to as high as 80% or more ( Ross et al., 2002; Smith, 1999; Shearer, 1996a; Van Fleet, 2003; Wiegand, 2001). After studying the circulation records of one public library, Smith (1999) makes the point that ‘‘of 30 hardback and paperback best-sellers of 1997, which were in stock, between 80% and 90% of all copies were on loan’’ ( p. 309). The data shows that consistently, across public libraries, there is high demand for fiction of all types, but current fiction is particularly popular. Unfortunately, as Van Fleet (2003) has pointed out, public libraries have long been ambivalent or even dismissive about popular fiction despite the growing body of research showing the beneficial impacts of reading fiction. Fourth, public libraries have a wide variety of specialized collections which are immensely useful to patrons seeking very particular sorts of information. Examples of special collections include genealogical resources, local history collections, photographic and visual arts collections, auto repair and other specialized manuals, foreign language collections, government documents, rare books and many others. Some special collections are a real drawing card for the public: genealogical and local history resources, in particular, are very popular and heavily used, especially with more of these collections online (King, 2003; Litzer and Barnett, 2004). McClelland (2004) notes that: Local materials are the most valuable part of a library’s collection because they are so rare, unique and often irreplaceable. Acquiring local materials will attract visitors to your library, whether they be genealogists intent on find the missing link in their family tree or the student who has to complete a project on some well known local figure ( p. 75).
Fifth, all public library collections have gaps of some sort. Budgets are limited, community needs vary and choices have to be made about the materials that can be purchased. There is a considerable body of research about collection gaps and biases and it is not possible to review all of it here. Collection evaluation studies are usually of two types: looking at the collection from the perspective of serving a particular user group ( Rothbauer and McKechnie, 1999; Spence, 1999) or regarding a weakness in particular topical areas ( Budd and Wyatt, 2002; Dilevko and Atkinson, 2002; Webster, 1998). Both types of gaps have a great potential to aVect the ability of certain patrons to find and use materials of interest to them. However, outright collection gaps are not the only problem since there are
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also other more subtle biases that creep into the materials selection process. Dilevko and Gottlieb (2003) demonstrate that a respected, standard selection tool such as the Public Library Catalog has a variety of ‘‘ideological frames’’ ( p. 291) built into it, including an imbalance of perspectives, overemphasis on only some aspects of topics, and lack of inclusion of popular works. In terms of selection for diVerent patron groups, Baker and Wallace (2002, p. 24) cite the example of one public library which mistakenly thought that its largest clientele was mature Anglo women. Since these patrons tended to talk to librarians more, selection decisions were made to support their interests. However, further analysis revealed the largest user group was actually young adults, whose needs had been relatively ignored. To ensure that a public library’s collection is balanced and meeting the needs of its community, public librarians first need to understand the profile of their community and the community’s information-related needs (Nelson, 2001). Gaps in the collection then must be identified and steps taken to rectify those gaps. Sixth, the collection development strategies and priorities of public libraries change over time in part because the topics that are of interest or relevant to the public also change over time (see, for instance, the annual book buying survey in the February issues of Library Journal ). A good example is consumer health. Twenty years ago, not many public libraries had large collections of consumer health materials, but within the past decade, this has begun to change quite rapidly. Consumer health is now an area that is receiving a lot of attention from public librarians, library patrons and other information providers (Allcock, 2000; Baker et al., 1998; Gillaspy, 2000; Huntington, 2004; Lyon, 2001). There is even now a text devoted to the provision of consumer health information (Baker and Manbeck, 2002). However, catering to changes in public tastes can be problematic for libraries. Budd and Wyatt (2002) note that there has been a longstanding debate as to whether public libraries should develop collections based on public demand, or the quality of titles. Their study indicated that, for the most part, public libraries try to do both. Alabaster (2002) recommends starting with a solid core collection as the foundation to meet a wide variety of information needs. Finally, access to collections may be just as important as the collections themselves. The library satisfaction survey conducted by D’Elia and Rodger (1996) showed that a great deal of patrons’ satisfaction with libraries has to do with the availability of information about how to access collections. Access can be provided in numerous ways, including displays, book lists, signage, suitable shelving, user-friendly library catalogs and reference services. In an interesting study of catalog access, Kreider (2000) examined patrons’ use of subject headings at the
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Cleveland Public Library. She makes the point that while LC subject headings usually succeed in providing access to topics of general interest, they are ‘‘largely lacking in coverage of specialized topics and local interest’’ ( p. 129). The library has a number of specialized collections (involving chess, folklore, Orientalia, auto repair manuals, public administration documents and photographs) for which there were inadequate LC subject headings. Also, the library wanted to provide subject headings for adult fiction and juvenile materials. Accordingly, to meet the information-seeking needs of their patrons, the library developed unique headings for their special collections which they then submitted to LC for approval, a process that Kreider felt had worked well for the library and its clientele. Kreider’s research raises a very important issue, namely that any collection with inadequate access may very well go unused, no matter what its importance. C. What Is the Public Seeking Information On?
What do members of the public use the library for? The answer to that depends, in part, on what questions are asked, so comparing surveys is quite diYcult. Nonetheless, some trends are apparent. The study conducted by D’Elia et al. (2002) found that the top reasons for using the library were to: (1) find information, (2) find information on personal interests, (3) borrow items for personal enjoyment, (4) research personal projects, (5) find local history and genealogy materials, and (6) find government information. Slightly diVerent findings in three surveys discussed by Vavrek (2000) were that about half of library patrons used the library to borrow books, followed by using reference services and attending programs or meetings in the library. Borrowing books was also the main service used by the vast majority of patrons in the United Kingdom (Smith, 1999, p. 307). The participants in the Canadian study by Leckie and Hopkins (2002) indicated that their primary reasons for visiting the central library were to, in order of frequency (1) look for information on a topic, (2) borrow/return materials, (3) read, (4) study, (5) use the Internet, (6) browse, (7) photocopy, and (8) use e-mail. In Vavrek’s review (2000), citizens said that their main purpose in visiting the library was for ‘‘enjoyment or hobbies’’ ( p. 62), followed closely by doing school or class assignments, and finding information for personal use, such as on health or consumer issues. The Counting on Results study (SteVen and Lance, 2002) demonstrates that libraries are used for an extremely wide range of purposes, from meeting new people, to enjoying a concert, to obtaining a specific fact or document. Furthermore, the authors suggest that demographic
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variables play a very large role in what patrons do at the public library. For instance, age was found to be the most statistically significant factor influencing what patrons use the library for. Youth tended to use the library to study and use computer resources. Adults used the library for focused research and reading materials, while seniors used the library for recreational activities, learning and educational purposes ( p. 278). The findings suggest that overly convenient categorization of patrons’ library experiences may do a disservice to the true breadth and reach of public library services. We might expect that members of a heterogeneous public would have information needs that are just as diverse as they are, and this seemingly common-sense fact appears to be true much of the time. The particular sorts of information that people seek could be about anything and everything. Leckie and Hopkins (2002, pp. 347–348) note that interviews with central library patrons revealed a very wide array of information needs, from auto repair and aviation history to painting, travel, religious study and welding. Despite the potentially wide variety of areas of interest to the public, there are some topics that seem to be more popular than others. Marcella and Baxter (1999b) found that respondents in their study were more likely to go to the public library for information related to leisure and recreation, educational needs, health care and legal concerns. Smith (1999) noted that, from British circulation data, the most popular categories of non-fiction were, in order, health and the body, computers, business, languages, law, do-it-yourself, history, literature, the paranormal, society, parenting, myths and the environment. More recent American data (HoVert, 2004) indicates that the most popular areas of public library collection purchasing are in medicine and health, how-to books, biography, history, cooking, arts and crafts, travel, self-help and psychology, and computers and technology. While generally useful, categorizations of borrowing have to be scrutinized carefully since, as Baker and Wallace (2002, pp. 64–65) point out, types of borrowing vary considerably by locale, age, and gender. For instance, one Australian study found that women were more likely to have read craft books and romances, while men were more likely to have read hobby and self-instructional books. Older people were more likely to have read religious books than younger people ( Baker and Wallace, 2002, pp. 64–65). Another way of determining what the public is interested in reading is to look at what they are searching for on the online public access catalog (OPAC). Kreider (2000) analyzed the subject searches from 1250 OPAC transactions of the Cleveland Public Library. She found that the
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most popular subject headings had to do with medicine, business, finance, animals, sports, language, home improvement, cooking, crafts and collectibles. Medical topics were by far the most commonly searched. Furthermore, Kreider found that patrons were making good use of the unique subject headings developed for the library’s special collections. For example, the library facilitates access to its auto repair manuals by providing headings for specific models of cars instead of just the manufacturer’s name. In addition patrons readily used the subject headings assigned to the adult fiction and juvenile materials. Providing appropriate subject terminology, therefore, has quite a bit to do with what patrons can find to meet their information needs. With respect to non-print formats, Oder (2002) reports on a survey of 407 American public libraries which found that 60% of the video collection is fiction and that ‘‘circulation of feature films understandably outpaces that of nonfiction video’’ ( p. 39). Along these lines, Smith (1999) found that most people borrowed current adult feature films and that educational videos were a much smaller percentage of total video borrowing. Children’s videos borrowed were primarily ‘‘cartoons and Disney films’’ ( p. 310). As for music, Oder’s findings were that music CDs generated high circulation but since they are so popular, are very prone to theft. Smith notes that ‘‘people borrow the same music CDs and cassettes from public libraries as are sold in shops’’ ( p. 310). Smith found that about 54% of the music borrowed from the library he examined was rock-and-roll and popular performances [rock/pop] which corresponds very closely to the percentage of rock/pop discs sold (56%). Also, about one quarter of music borrowed from the library were Top 40 hits, which is comparable to Top 40 discs as a percentage of all music sales. Smith concluded that as far as video and music borrowing goes, the public primarily want to borrow items that are popular at the moment. D. Browsing, Information Encounters and the Self-Help Philosophy
Information-seeking is often thought of as an active process by purposeful human agents. However, one aspect about the public’s informationseeking that is not considered as often as it should be is that a certain amount of information is gathered serendipitously or passively. The role of browsing in public library information-seeking cannot be overstated. As any public services librarian knows, a large number of library patrons never use the catalog and do not ask for help, preferring just to roam the stacks in areas of interest to them. Baker (1996) confirms this, pointing out that numerous studies have shown that fiction readers
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like to browse and select books for themselves. One study cited by Baker showed that over 80% of the fiction borrowers in the study had not used the catalog to find the books that they wanted to read. In terms of nonfiction, often patrons do not have a specific work in mind to meet their information need, and so browsing becomes a way of exploring possibilities about what books look like they might be helpful, or narrowing down the topic. Undoubtedly two of the most thorough reviews of browsing are those done by Goodall (1989) and Baker (1996), who examined all of the research about browsing conducted up to the time of their reviews. Some of the findings from the studies they cite include:
well over half of the participants chose their books by browsing; browsing was influenced by factors such as cover design, the book blurb, print size and the height of shelves; patrons become accustomed to the shelf arrangement in their public libraries and expressed satisfaction with it even when it often frustrated their attempts to browse; most patrons chose books using a combination of browsing and known authors; only about 20% of patrons were looking for specific books; patrons not looking for specific books often did not know what to look for; about half of library patrons did not find what they wanted on their visit to the library; when patrons did not find the fiction titles that they wanted to borrow, they substituted other titles; over one-third of respondents chose any book that looked interesting, and those who chose books that looked interesting were least likely to have enjoyed their books.
Goodall expressed concern at the time that public librarians generally were not aware of the research on browsing and so she made a number of recommendations about how browsing could be facilitated better. Some of those recommendations included: (1) arranging fiction into sections by genre or alphabetically, (2) regular weeding to keep the shelves from becoming too crowded, which inhibits browsing, (3) developing more imaginative displays, (4) providing more reading lists and handy bookmarks, and (5) having reference guides to fiction readily available in the fiction area. Today, many of these suggestions are routinely incorporated into recommendations for the development of eVective Readers’ Advisory services (Burgin, 2004; Shearer and Burgin, 2001).
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Browsing is also highly related to information encountering, although the two are slightly diVerent processes. Erdelez (1999) defines information encountering as the ‘‘unexpected discovery of useful or interesting information’’ ( p. 25). Encountering also refers to the accidental discovery of information or incidental information acquisition ( Williamson, 1998). Encountering often occurs when a patron who is searching for information on one topic or who is carrying out some routine activity accidentally finds helpful information on another topic. Erdelez points out that not all patrons encounter unexpected information and even for those who do, not all regard accidental information as being part of their information behaviors. However, there are some individuals who ‘‘encounter information on a regular basis and perceive it as an important element of their information acquisition’’ ( p. 26). Williamson (1998) notes that for the seniors in her study, information acquisition through everyday monitoring of media and through conversation was common and that the incidental information gathered often was used later in another situation. Erdelez suggests that information encountering has many implications for library service, including helping to explain certain patron behaviors and interactions in the reference interview, and for improving online searching to allow patrons to more easily capture the information they accidentally encounter. Information encountering also emphasizes the need to keep collections well organized and weeded to facilitate browsing for the cross-pollination of ideas. The principle underpinning browsing and many other activities that patrons engage in within the public library is that of self-help. Self-help has been built into the very foundations of the public library. Since its inception, public libraries were seen as institutions of self-help, where the ordinary citizen could have access to a wide variety of materials to educate and develop him/herself (Shera, 1974, pp. 226–237). Today, self-help and self-service are ingrained and endemic as fundamental operating principles across a wide variety of institutions such as banks, retail stores, recreational facilities, educational institutions and various government agencies. It is not surprising, then, that public library users expect to be able to find basic library materials for themselves, and often prefer to do so (Armstrong, 2001). In their research, Marcella and Baxter (1999b, p. 119) found that the top three preferred methods of obtaining information by the public included talking face to face with someone, reading a book and looking through a collection without help from the staV. This latter point emphasizes the fact that a great many people want to be able to find library materials on their own and have an expectation that they should be able to do so. Whether they can successfully navigate, by themselves, the systems put in place to help them is another matter.
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E. Reading as Information-Seeking
Information-seeking, reading and the use of library collections are inextricably linked. Although there are other ways of seeking and acquiring information (such as viewing images or listening to tapes), the vast majority of information-seeking in the public library involves reading. Whether the reading is of paper copy or electronic text is of no importance—reading is taking place every day, in every public library. As Leckie and Hopkins demonstrate (2002) from their observational seating data, reading is often the major activity occurring in the library at any point in time. Reading, of course, is the end point in the information search and is the way in which the information need is ultimately satisfied. No one would doubt that a patron who asks a question about how to do certain home repairs, is then helped to find an appropriate book and finally takes the book home to read about specific repairs is engaging in informationseeking. We tend to associate information-seeking with giving the patron knowledge that s/he currently does not have and/or solving a problem for the patron. Through reading, the patron becomes informed and a book on home repairs certainly has the potential to do exactly that. But what about reading for pleasure? Some scholars, such as Wayne Wiegand, contend that reading in general, and reading for pleasure in particular, has been undervalued as a library activity. The undervaluing, he suggests, starts with ‘‘library and information science programs across the country [that] almost totally ignore the literature on the social nature and act of reading’’ (2001, p. 9). Wiegand believes that the undervaluing of reading, as a cultural phenomenon, has occurred during the period of modernity, where the ‘‘stories that the state regarded as so essential to the social order’’ were institutionalized while ‘‘the communication of stories—no matter what their cultural form—became categorized as leisure and thus trivialized by the dominant culture’’ ( p. 10). As a result, Weigand notes that a higher priority came to be placed on ‘‘useful information’’ rather than the stories that people wanted to read. To overcome the subtle biases against popular fiction and to better meet the needs of library patrons, Van Fleet (2003) recommends that librarians need to be better educated about the socio-psychological role of popular fiction reading and pay closer attention to good selection practices for popular fiction collections. Reading for pleasure is most often associated with works of fiction. As has been noted, contemporary public libraries have large fiction collections and the public is reading these collections avidly, even though, as Chelton (1999) points out, ‘‘public libraries have at best had
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an ambiguous relationship with fiction’’ ( p. 42). An interesting issue to consider, then, is the relationship between reading for pleasure and what we regard as information-seeking. Are pleasure readers, and more specifically fiction readers, seeking information? On the surface of it, yes, they are seeking information about what to read: about diVerent fiction genres, authors, types of stories, publishers, award winners and a whole host of other things related to fictional works. In this sense, fiction readers are no diVerent from other patrons who approach the reference desk with a particular problem-based or knowledge-based question, such as how to repair a crack in a plaster wall. All the principles of good reference service and the reference interview (as discussed in section III.B) apply to both fiction and non-fiction readers alike. Looking at the issue at another level, though, what about the actual act of reading fiction? Does reading fiction for pleasure inform the reader in the same way that reading for education or problem-solving does? Is reading fiction really just another form of information-seeking? The answer to that question is complex, perhaps even more complex than we might imagine. In a study of 194 adults who read extensively for pleasure, Catherine Ross (2000; 1999) has explored this question in some detail. She found that even though readers of narrative stories often stated that they read merely to be entertained, further probing revealed that a certain book or books had made a diVerence to their lives in major ways. Examples included causing the reader to see a new perspective, providing a role model for identity, giving courage to make a change, or facilitating a greater understanding of the world (as in the case of reading Freedom at Midnight, a fictional account of the partition of India). Ross’s research demonstrates that, in addition to being entertained, fictional works can indeed be informing for the reader. Moreover, reading for pleasure is not solely confined to fiction, as Shearer (2004) and Ross (2004) both stress. Many people read both fiction and non-fiction for pleasure, while some read more non-fiction for pleasure than fiction. Readers have a wide variety of reasons for reading nonfiction, including to become more knowledgeable in general, to indulge in a favorite interest or theme, to discover something new, or to be inspired by what other people have done with their lives. Furthermore, Ross (2004) notes that for some people, the line between fiction and non-fiction is rather blurry and what is important is the topic or genre (e.g., war stories, whether fictional or not). Wiegand makes a similar point when he states that patrons of public libraries are ‘‘coming primarily to fulfill needs and interests satisfied largely the act of reading, and what they read is largely the stories (e.g., biographies, mysteries, Civil War battles, Newbery–Caldecott winners, romances and African–American diaspora narratives) that
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contain the cultural information they value’’ ( p. 8). As an example of nonfiction pleasure reading, Shearer (2004) mentions that two very popular areas are how-to books and advice books. He suggests that ‘‘the expectation of the reader of a how-to book is that such a book may make a diVerence in what the reader is able to do after reading it... the reader hopes for a practical, positive diVerence in the experience of life’’ ( p. 77). Overall, then, it seems that the boundary between reading for pleasure and seeking information is far more permeable than has been thought of. Reading has a strong informing component no matter whether it is fiction or non-fiction works that are being read and thus we should remember that reading for pleasure warrants far more attention under the rubric of information-seeking than it has received to date.
III. Information-Seeking and Reference Services A. The Information-Seeker and General Principles of Reference Service
It could be argued that the best window on the information-seeking habits of the public vis-a`-vis public libraries is through a consideration of reference services and transactions because the thoughts and actions of the public while seeking information are often manifested through interactions with reference librarians and other public services staV. It is not our intent in this section to review the voluminous literature on how reference services ought to be organized and conducted to provide the most eVective service to the public. Rather, our goal is to examine key works that are useful in terms of gathering together the explicit and tacit knowledge that professional librarianship has developed over the years about the information-seeking behaviors of the public. Two of the classic and most longstanding works in reference librarianship are Richard Bopp and Linda Smith’s edited work Reference and Information Services: An Introduction (2001), and William Katz’s Introduction to Reference Work, Vols. I and II, (2002). Both have been used as texts in countless reference courses in library science programs worldwide. Popular teaching tools such as these have the power to influence how future librarians come to regard not only the provision of reference services in general, but also the patron and the information-seeking habits of the public. What do they say or suggest about information-seekers and the librarians whose work it is to assist them? The Bopp and Smith text begins by noting that searching for information is frustrating, overwhelming and confusing and that a fundamental role of librarians is to assist library patrons in their quest
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for relevant information. In the opening chapter, which examines the history of reference services, the authors point out that libraries ‘‘try to make access to the information they contain user-friendly’’ ( Bunge and Bopp, 2001, p. 3) and for many patrons, this works quite well at times. Nonetheless, patrons often will ‘‘confront barriers to finding what they need, whether it be their own time limitations, lack of knowledge of what sources exist or how to find and use them, or the sheer size and complexity of the world of information’’ ( p. 3). Katz (2002) extends some of these ideas a bit further. He notes that people want information for personal decision-making, and that they aren’t too interested in how that information is obtained. Katz refers to studies that have shown that people place a high value on receiving information from personal sources, such as friends and family (which he refers to the back-fence method of information-seeking), as well as from their own personal library, including Internet bookmarks. Other research supports these contentions; for instance, Marcella and Baxter (1999b, p. 119) found that the major methods of obtaining information by the public included, in order of importance:
talking face to face with someone; reading a book; looking through a collection without help; reading a newspaper; talking to someone by telephone; listening to the radio; watching television; reading a leaflet/pamphlet; using a computer; reading a magazine, and writing a letter.
Thus, for most people, ease and convenience are important when seeking the information they need. Only while these convenient and wellunderstood mechanisms have failed will people seek help from the formal system, including libraries ( Katz, Vol. II, pp. 30–31). Libraries, though, are not always particularly well organized to meet patrons’ needs. Katz notes that although libraries have used standard divisions of knowledge (i.e., by disciplines) to organize their collections, ‘‘people rarely seek information within those specific, logical areas’’ ( Vol. II, p. 18). Underscoring the philosophy of self-help, Katz further suggests that many patrons will not naturally seek assistance from reference librarians unless there is good signage and other mechanisms to make it obvious that reference assistance is readily available. Yet in an era when there is
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information overload from a variety of media and other sources, most people could use some assistance in wading through the glut of information to find what they need and in understanding how information is organized in the public library. Thus, according to Katz, since the ability to find and process information is very diYcult, ‘‘reference librarians should see their primary function as one of assisting in this important processing operation’’ ( p. 19). Since patrons could ask questions about almost anything, what types of reference services should be provided to best help the patron? According to the authors included in the Bopp and Smith text, there are a variety of approaches that could or should be employed, including services to deal with ready-reference questions (including virtual readyreference), bibliographic verification and interlibrary loan, community information and referral, more in-depth research questions, readers’ advisory and information literacy instruction. Not only must librarians provide services that anticipate the myriad of questions that patrons may ask, they must also strive to elicit those questions successfully through carefully conducting individual reference interviews, which is discussed in more detail in section III.B. But as to the general purpose of the reference interview, Bopp comments that it is ‘‘essentially a conversation between a reference staV member and a user, the goal of which is to ascertain the user’s information need and take appropriate action’’ ( Bopp 2001, p. 47). The author hastens to point out that the reference interview, ‘‘although a conversation... is not casual’’ ( p. 47) and requires discipline on the part of the librarian to be successful. Katz describes the reference interview as ‘‘an art form with diVerent responses for diVerent people, diVerent situations’’ ( p. 125) and stresses that although there are some general principles, much of the time the reference interview will be unique to a person and a situation. In that regard, the Bopp and Smith text notes that the role of the librarian in conducting the reference interview is very similar to that of other professionals, such as health care practitioners, who also act in a helping capacity and must elicit information from their clients, all of whom have slightly diVerent needs. Why is the reference interview important? It is important in part because the goal aspired to by most reference librarians is to answer patrons’ questions well and direct them to resources that actually satisfy their information needs. Librarians take pride in their abilities to help patrons and so the old debate (reinvigorated by a 1986 article by Hernon and McClure; see also Durrance, 1989) over what percentage of reference questions are actually answered correctly continues to be a source of
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irritation for the profession. Following this, the reference interview is key because interactions between librarians and patrons can frequently go awry unless care is taken to prevent miscommunication from happening, as section III.B will show. Finally, from an organizational standpoint, the reference interview is important because ‘‘the librarian’s ability to clarify the exact nature of the user’s information need has been identified as a key element in user satisfaction with reference service’’ (Bopp, 2001, p. 47). Not only do reference librarians have to be skilled at the reference interview, Rubin (2001, in Bopp and Smith) stresses that they also need to act according to certain ethical principles with respect to patrons and their information-seeking ( p. 34). Three of the most fundamental principles are (1) protecting the privacy of information-seekers and the confidentiality of their queries, (2) respecting intellectual freedom and open access to information, and (3) respecting the intellectual property of others (i.e., copyright and other proprietary rights). Because the public may not always be cognizant of these principles when seeking information, it is sometimes necessary for reference professionals to articulate them in their interactions with library patrons. One of the most diYcult of these principles to uphold is intellectual freedom, where the very real result is that one patron’s request to remove certain material has the potential to aVect the abilities of many other patrons who wish to find and use that same material. Although there are guidelines and suggested procedures for dealing with challenges to material (American Library Association, 2002), it still may be a very problematic area for reference librarians who have to work with the public daily and defend the concept to them. It may also be diYcult for librarians who personally find certain materials oVensive but are professionally bound to defend the public’s right to view them (Harkovitch et al., 2003). The ability to work directly with the public, particularly in conducting the reference interview, does not come naturally for all librarians. Accordingly, Bopp (2001) suggests that librarians need to develop characteristics which will enable them to refine their expertise in this area, including developing a desire and commitment to help, improving the ability to focus and concentrate fully on one patron and his/her need, showing sensitivity towards the patron’s need, cultivating patience, and continually developing a broad knowledge of varied public interests as well as a solid in-depth knowledge of a myriad of information sources and subject specialities ( pp. 49–51). Finally, because of the uncertainties inherent in the public’s information-seeking processes, Bunge and Bopp (2001) point out that
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working with the public is diYcult and even debilitating ( p. 18), so that stress and burnout are very real concerns for reference librarians. In addition, again due to the uncertainties and complexities of informationseeking, it is quite likely that reference librarians are going to encounter ‘‘angry or upset users’’ (Bopp, 2001, p. 64). This same author comments that: the very nature of reference materials — their noncirculating status, the self-help component often necessary in large libraries, the diYculty of accurately using and interpreting computerized catalogs — and the very imperfect nature of human beings inevitably lead to expressions of frustration and even anger from library users. Sometimes it is restrictive library policies that irritate them, sometimes it is incomplete library collections or insuYcient or inadequate service from library staV.... Reference librarians need to be prepared to deal eVectively with the encounter ( p. 64).
From the points presented above, the characteristics of typical public library information-seekers include the following:
they may be self-suYcient and be able to find relevant information using various library systems some of the time; patrons may encounter useful information on a topic serendipitously, often in their search for information on another topic; they are likely to feel confused, overwhelmed, and/or frustrated in their search for information at some point. When an informationseeking experience is not fulfilled or goes seriously wrong, some patrons may react in anger or frustration; most patrons do not have knowledge of all the possible sources of information available; there is a strong possibility that patrons will have to seek help from a librarian or other staV member at some point; their need for assistance is on a continuum, from queries requiring a relatively straightforward factual answer (i.e., what is the population of India?) to a diYcult in-depth search requiring multiple sources and formats, or even a referral to outside sources or agencies; patrons may not be able to adequately articulate their queries and/or the librarian may not fully understand those queries, so a carefully constructed reference interview is paramount; their stated needs for information and the actual needs for information may, in fact, diVer. Patrons often have more complex information needs than their initial questions would suggest, and they have an expectation that the librarian will do whatever is necessary to assist them in clarifying the information need and finding appropriate resources.
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Reference librarians have to cope with these features of the public’s information-seeking on a daily basis. It would be easy to imagine that many reference librarians would feel quite overwhelmed by the diYculties inherent in filling the public’s information needs, but this generally does not seem to be the case. Rubin (2001, p. 30) suggests that the reason for this has to do with the development of a strong sense of purpose in reference librarianship. He demonstrates that, over time, a service ethic has developed that fosters the belief that reference librarians should do the most that they possibly can to answer patrons’ questions and to help them find appropriate information (in other words, provide the highest level of service possible). This belief is widely held and has been codified in guidelines adopted by the Reference and User Services Association (1996) as well as similar guidelines put forward by other groups. Dealing with the vagaries of the public’s information queries, then, is seen as both a professional duty and challenge. B. More on the Reference Transaction
Undoubtedly the single largest area of professional literature that deals with the specific elements of providing reference services is that devoted to reference transactions and the reference interview. An excellent summary of the reference transaction literature was provided in a previous review by John Richardson (2002), and we do not intend to replicate that here. Instead, we will concentrate on selective studies that specifically address various aspects of information-seeking at the reference desk. It is clear from the sheer volume of writing on the topic that understanding and responding to the queries of the public is not a straightforward task for library staV. But what exactly are the particular issues related to the information-seeking questions of the public as presented at the reference desk? A number of studies have tried to answer this by examining various elements of the reference transaction or interview in detail. A good starting point is the work done by Catherine Ross and her colleagues in a series of important articles relating to their Library Visit Study. This large multi-year study has come about from an ongoing class assignment in the required reference services course of the MLIS program at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario. The purpose of the ‘‘library visit’’ assignment is to sensitize students (as possible future reference librarians) to how it feels to be a member of the public needing to find out information on some topic. Each student is required to go to a library and ask a reference question, and then complete a questionnaire evaluating their experiences, compose a very
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precise and detailed account of what was said by all parties, what actions and behaviors occurred, and what outcomes were achieved, and summarize what parts of the experience they found helpful and not helpful. Over the years, hundreds of library visits have been conducted and analysed, with 70% of them being in public libraries ( Ross and Nilsen, 2000), so the assignment has yielded a wealth of information about what actually takes place between public library reference librarians (or other staV members) and information-seekers. Ross and Dewdney (1994) and Dewdney and Ross (1994) summarized the findings of the early library visits, including 52 visits to public libraries, by compiling some of the best and worst practices in reference encounters. In general, the authors found that the patron seeking information was more likely to have a positive feeling from the encounter if certain identifiable behaviors on the part of the reference librarian were present, including:
looking up and smiling; approaching the patron; really listening to the request; guiding the patron to an area rather than pointing; explaining what the librarian was doing and why; asking questions that clarified what the patron really wanted; seeming genuinely interested in the request; was knowledgeable about sources; was willing to investigate further and was not discouraged, and asked the patron to come back if she/he didn’t find the information.
Unfortunately, almost half (46%) of the participants who asked their questions in public libraries felt that the reference librarians they encountered were not helpful and did not exhibit the behaviors noted above. Participants encountering these librarians stated that they would be unwilling or were not certain that they would return to those librarians again to ask another question (Ross and Dewdney, 1994, 262). Examples of bad practices on the part of reference librarians included:
unwelcoming body language and not looking up; not really listening; not conducting a reference interview to clarify the question; didn’t seem to regard the question as important; implying the search was futile; not following up to see if suitable information was found, and not volunteering any explanation of the various steps in the search.
As a whole, these poor practices could suggest to informationseekers that their questions were really just too much of a bother for
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some reference librarians to deal with adequately. In the library visit study, information-seekers were often told to go and look in the stacks at a particular call number, with little or no follow-up by the librarian to see if anything useful was found (called unmonitored referrals). Ross and Dewdney (1998) suggest strategies like this are a way of ‘‘getting rid of the user’’ ( p. 153) in order to bring closure to the reference transaction, particularly in the face of a seemingly endless stream of other patrons who also need assistance. However, since the end result of unmonitored referrals is that the information-seeker often leaves empty handed or with less-than-ideal information, the closure is regarded as negative. Unmonitored referrals are not the only strategy of negative closure; others include trying to get the patron to accept less-than-adequate information, warning the patron to accept defeat, claiming the information does not exist, signaling nonverbally that the transaction is over and many other similar strategies. From an information-seeking perspective, the interesting part of negative closure is that information-seekers often fight back and resist the attempts of the librarian to end the so-far unsuccessful transaction. Ross and Dewdney (1998) refer to these as counter-strategies ( p. 157), and they include returning to the reference desk, refusing to accept a referral elsewhere, playing dumb, refusing to accept the answer provided, keeping the process going by talking, proposing a diVerent course of action, or starting the process again with another librarian. Informationseekers in the public library are, it seems, quite persistent and are able to readily recognize when their interests are not being served. Taking all the poor practices noted above into account, one of the more serious implications of the Ross and Dewdney research is that the reference interview, long advocated as the backbone of good reference service, may have been in danger of falling into disuse by the mid-1990s and perhaps even still. At the time, Ross and Dewdney (1994, 265) suggested that it was all too easy for librarians to consult a computer, write down something on a piece of paper and hand it to the patron, which usually resulted in a very poor outcome for the information-seeker. Reflecting on this more recently, Ross (2003, p. 40) reiterated that the reference interview is one of the most essential components of responding to the public’s information-seeking but unfortunately, it happens only about half of the time. Ross states that she is ‘‘willing to make a bold claim: a reference interview (the asking of one or more questions intended to discover the user’s information needs) must be conducted in every transaction’’ ( p. 39). She goes on to comment that ‘‘the institutions that will survive into the twenty-first century and beyond are those that serve their clients and give them the help they need’’ ( p. 39).
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As the studies noted above demonstrate, the information-seeking endeavors of the public can easily go wrong, so reference librarians are encouraged to become very skilled at the reference interview. The reference interview is, in reality, a complex series of related practices that are enacted in concert, and each step in the process is important as a lead-in to the next step. As Ross et al. (2002) point out, the first 30 seconds of the interaction can make or break what follows. Librarians must work at becoming adept at question negotiation and interpersonal behaviors (such as eye contact) that facilitate a good outcome for the information seeker. Conducting a good reference interview, however, does not in itself guarantee a successful transaction, although it certainly will go a long way towards that goal. One of the primary reasons why diYculties arise within the reference interview has to do with the very nature of communication between people, in this case a librarian and a patron. Dewdney and Michell (1996) took a look at several hundred communication mishaps at the reference desk that were reported by librarians and found a number of diVerent kinds of common communication problems, which they organized into classes depending on their severity. Some of the typical accidents analyzed included: failing to hear clearly what the other person had said, pronunciation problems, homophones (such as Turkey vs. turkey), synonyms, memory problems (e.g., asking for Animal Graveyard instead of Pet Cemetery) and communication problems carried over from a previous situation (e.g., the student asking for the book ‘‘Oranges and Peaches’’ because his instructor had told him to, when the book actually was ‘‘The Origin of the Species’’). Dewdney and Michell (1996, 532–534) discuss how reference librarians can cope with communication mishaps, beginning with a better understanding of why patrons ask certain types of questions and the assumptions or mental models about the library that they often carry with them when seeking information. The authors suggest that patrons have quite a simplistic view of libraries, believing that they are for the most part organized by subject but also by format, thus causing them to ask questions about where they can find a particular subject or format rather than about their specific need or problem. Two assumptions made by patrons are:‘‘that (i) if only they can locate the section or subject area, they will be able to find the answer to more specific questions by themselves, and (ii) librarians know where these locations are because it is their job’’ ( p. 532). Hence patrons ‘‘present their information needs as questions about subjects or locations rather than as problem-centered statements [such as] I want to get rid of whiteflies on my aspidistra)’’ ( p. 533). Unfortunately for the information-seeker, problemcentered statements are far more likely to give the librarian a better starting point for the most appropriate assistance.
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Furthermore, as Pyati (2003) points out, communication is not just a matter of understanding language, but also cultural practices. She comments that many limited-English users came from countries that did not have a tradition of public library service and therefore may not regard the public library as an agency that can help them. If they do use the library, they are often reluctant to ask for help and are referred to as ‘‘passive information-seekers’’ ( p. 267).The role of gatekeepers in various ethnolinguistic communities is not well understood. Would gatekeepers be more likely to use the public library and thus act as an entrance portal for other members of the community? More research on these questions is needed. Pyati suggests that reference librarians in libraries serving multilingual communities need to have increased cultural sensitivity and should have a training program to help them develop the intercultural aspects of the reference interview. Ross et al. (2002) oVer other specific suggestions for reference librarians working with patrons for whom English is a second language, including avoidance of jargon and negative questions, using simple, clear sentences, checking often for comprehension and using visual aids ( pp. 153–155). To further complicate the communication picture, research has shown that, frequently, people do not seek information from public libraries just for themselves but are looking for information for others. Gross and Saxton (2001) refer to these types of questions as ‘‘imposed queries’’ whereby the question has been imposed on the patron by someone else, rather than self-generated. The authors found that about ‘‘25% of users responding to a survey of reference services were in the library on behalf of someone else’’ ( p. 175), a figure which the authors state would have been higher if minors had been included in their study. Gross and Saxton note that library patrons asked questions for a wide variety of people, but some of the most common sources of imposed queries were employers and other business associates, instructors, family members and friends ( p. 172). It stands to reason that the risk of various communication accidents happening with imposed queries is even greater than for self-generated queries. Furthermore, in the case of imposed queries, the reference librarian must draw out that the information sought is really for another person. Knowledge of this fact could make a great deal of diVerence to the success of the transaction (such as in the case of material needed for a child rather than another adult). Finally, Pamela McKenzie (2003a) has raised the issue that very often, patrons must deal with more than one staV member while seeking information, and this may work against a successful outcome. DiYculties with multiple staV encounters include requiring the user to explain the query multiple times, chatting between the staV members while ignoring
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the patron, passing the patron from one staV member to the next with no explanation of what has already been done on the query, and abandoning the patron while going oV to consult another staV member. Mackenzie suggests that the ‘‘one user/one staV member’’ ( p. 21) model of reference service is highly questionable and that better professional guidelines are needed to ensure that patrons’ information needs are met when they interact with several staV members during the same transaction. Based on these texts and studies, it can be concluded that
patrons often have only a vague or ill-formed idea of the question/ need they are attempting to formulate; patrons tend to ask questions about general subject areas or formats, believing that once in the correct area, they will be able to find specific information themselves; even those with a clear idea of their problem often have diYculty articulating their questions; for native English speakers, miscommunication often happens due to specific language features such as homonyms (i.e., China the country, vs. china dishes), syntactical errors, mispronunciation and memory lapses; non-native English speakers may have even more communication accidents and may not have the vocabulary to adequately express their questions; a relatively large number of library patrons may, in fact, be asking a question for another person; patrons feel more satisfied with the reference encounter if the librarian greets them, has an open, approachable manner, conducts a reference interview, and follows up on whether suitable information was found; patrons are aware when the librarian is trying to bring a premature or unsatisfactory closure to the reference transaction and will use a variety of strategies to keep the transaction moving ahead, and patrons interacting with multiple staV members about their questions are more vulnerable to feeling abandoned or shuZed around and need to be included in the discussions and decisions about the best sources to answer the query.
C. Reader’s Advisory Service
Given the primacy of reading for both pleasure and educative purposes, it is no surprise that public librarians see a need to become more proactive in helping library patrons find appropriate books to read, a practice which has come to be known as Reader’s Advisory. Saricks and
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Brown (1997) note that while Reader’s Advisory services are not new and programs have been documented since the 1920s, ‘‘their role in libraries and the philosophy on which they are based have changed dramatically’’ (p. 1). The authors comment that ‘‘librarians today find themselves in the midst of a readers’ advisory renaissance’’ ( p. 6) as more and more librarians and libraries express interest in creating and/or expanding Readers’ Advisory services. Although Reader’s Advisory originated to help patrons find suitable fiction books, it has now expanded into the non-fiction arena as well (Burgin, 2004). Kenneth Shearer (1996b) provides a synopsis of the overarching philosophy behind Readers’ Advisory when he states: Libraries not only locate needed information, they also recommend good reading. Books expand the imagination, knowledge, spirit, understanding, ideas and social world of their users. On occasion, the readers’ advisor’s guidance leads a patron to stories which compellingly speak to her and help her in her own life. (Preface) Some of the necessary first steps taken in a Readers’ Advisory service do not even involve talking with patrons. Ross et al. (2002) refer to these steps as ‘‘passive strategies’’ and Armstrong calls them ‘‘indirect library services’’ (2001). This behind-the-scene work includes ‘‘putting spine labels on books, shelving books in separate genre collections, ...creating bookmarks and annotated book lists and setting up attractive displays that are constantly replenished’’ ( Ross et al. p. 162). All of this background work is important in creating an environment where readers understand that reading is valued, and where they will feel comfortable approaching librarians to talk about reading. When it comes to interacting with library patrons, Readers’ Advisory service uses some of the same best practices as the Reference Interview, but is quite a diVerent transaction. Shearer (1996) points out that: Unlike a reference transaction, the successful conclusion of a readers’ advisory transaction is not the provision of a fact or missing data, nor does it attempt to fill a known gap in an otherwise complete informational or knowledge framework. The success of a reader’s advisory transaction is reflected in a reader discovering a book (or cassette or software) which is enjoyable, entertaining, stimulating, mind stretching and eye opening; it is the realm of the subjective. On the other hand, the success of a reference transaction is reflected in the provision of a correct answer to a question or the filling of a gap in knowledge; it is the realm of the objective. ( p. 3) In assisting readers with book choices, the readers’ advisor librarian takes a diVerent approach than in searching for an answer to a question.
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According to Saricks and Brown (1997, p. 8), readers’ advisor librarians must be willing to read widely themselves, develop a knowledge of the preferences and interests of their patrons, and be familiar with popular genres of reading. In describing the readers’ advisory interview, Ross et al. (2002, p. 167) note that the important component is getting the reader to talk about the books that s/he likes to read. Open-ended invitations to talk, such as ‘‘Tell me about a book that you have really enjoyed,’’ are suggested as a good way to develop a rapport with the patron. The authors remind readers’ advisory librarians that they must be careful not to fall into the trap of recommending books they themselves enjoyed or being judgmental about the types of books the patron enjoys ( p. 173). The goal of good readers’ advisory is to make the link between the reader and the types of books s/he wants to read. Instituting a readers’ advisory service does not automatically mean that the reading needs of the public will be met. First, numerous studies have shown that readers typically are reluctant to approach librarians to discuss reading. Baker (1996) summarized the ‘‘four most common reasons,’’ including: ‘‘(1) patrons like to make up their own mind about the fiction they select, (2) staV look busy and/or unapproachable, (3) staV wouldn’t know what readers would like, and (4) a question about fiction would be perceived as frivolous and a waste of staV time’’ ( pp. 129–130). As a result, Baker cites other research demonstrating that readers were often frustrated in their attempts to find suitable reading material, complaining that the books they wanted were not on the shelves, there was not enough current material, or that they had run out of authors. Furthermore, Shearer (1996b, p. 6) notes that the participants in his study of readers’ advisory practices had diYculty identifying whom to ask for help in the first place. In general, it takes a lot of commitment, work and a track record of successful interactions to get readers over their reluctance to approach staV about their reading. Saricks and Brown (1997) comment that ‘‘only when readers have been helped and are made comfortable coming to the desk do we find substantial numbers of readers asking us directly for assistance’’ ( p. 67). Second, as is true for the reference transaction, the readers’ advisory interview can go wrong or be handled poorly by advisory staV. May (2001) noted that common diYculties included indicating to the patron that questions on reading are not welcomed, indicating that such questions are diYcult and unpleasant, asking only perfunctory questions about the patron’s domains of reading, not asking the reader about the appeal of works, and staV members remarking on their own reading preferences. Smith (2001) and Ross et al. (2002) suggest that a good readers’ advisory interview must include an open and welcoming
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atmosphere, enthusiasm for the reader’s interests, nonjudgmental discussion of those interests, asking the reader what they liked and disliked about certain books, and determining what they might like to read on this occasion. Do public libraries do enough to meet the needs of their readers? Mary Kay Chelton (1999), a well known expert in the area of services to assist and advise readers, is critical of what passes for readers’ advisory in many cases. She notes that very few library science programs have courses on readers’ advisory. This may be a contributing factor as to why public librarians generally have a rather poor understanding of readers and the gratifications they receive from reading. The arrangement of library spaces and collections often does little to allow readers to browse and help themselves. Chelton decries the currently popular description of the public library as an ‘‘information’’ agency, at the expense of the ‘‘knowledge of, or the will to act on the knowledge of, the possibility for social and self information contained in narrative stories’’ ( p. 46). She states that if public libraries ignore their readers, increasing numbers of those readers will decamp to superstores or second-hand bookstores. So, although Readers’ Advisory services may be having a renaissance, it seems that there is still much room for improvement in meeting the reading needs of the public. D. Reference Service at a Distance: Telephone and Virtual Reference
Telephone reference service has been around for most of this century (Kern, 2004; see, for example, Gannett, 1936) and although it is being displaced in some cases by electronic reference, telephone enquiries from the public are still a major way that people seek information. Marcella and Baxter (1999) and Williamson (1998) found that the telephone was an important information-seeking mechanism for many of the participants in their studies and some people prefer to use the telephone rather than appearing in person or using a computer. Because the telephone is such a familiar technology, Quinn (1995) notes that telephone reference is often ‘‘taken for granted or overlooked by both patrons and professional staV alike’’ ( p. 39) yet ‘‘when used proactively, the telephone can be a powerful reference tool’’ ( p. 48). Unfortunately, Quinn’s study found that telephone reference often is not done very well. Because of the lack of visual cues, the recommended practices for good telephone reference interviewing are diVerent than for face-to-face transactions. Ross et al. (2002, pp. 128–131) note that the reference librarian needs to pay more attention to practices such as (1) acknowledging what was said by repeating parts of the question, (2) using minimal encouragers (such as
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Go on, or Anything else?), and (3) explaining what s/he is doing away from the phone so that the caller is not left wondering if anything is happening. Quinn comments that doing telephone reference well is vitally important to the library because ‘‘it conveys an image of the library to patrons and to the larger community’’ ( p. 39). Telephone reference continues to be an important service for many public libraries and their patrons and is evolving in new ways. For instance, Tour (1998) reports on one Florida library’s decision to expand and enhance their telephone reference as a completely separate service from the service for walk-in patrons. Tour notes that this was a win-win situation, as both phone-in patrons and walk-in patrons then had the undivided attention of reference librarians since phone calls no longer interrupted the librarians at the reference desk. The telephone service was also linked to a database where queries could be easily tracked and counted. Although telephone reference will continue to exist for some time, the current area of growth is in electronic reference services. This encompasses a wide range of approaches, from email, to online digital reference collections, to chat and instant messaging, to interactive live reference, to Internet-based initiatives such as the Internet Public Library (www.ipl.org/ref) and Ask a Librarian (www.ask-a-librarian.org/uk), which have been responding to the public’s questions for a number of years. The potential advantages of virtual reference are summed up nicely by Ross et al. (2002): With digital reference service, the library staV can transact the reference interview, refer the user to the online catalog and indexes, escort users through complex searches, provide bibliographic instruction and evaluation of sources, and deliver the required information in the form of Web sites or electronic journal articles or entries in electronic references tools.... At the end, the user has electronic text or graphics that can be printed out or stored electronically ( p. 186). Although on the face of it, providing reference service virtually might sound like a fairly straightforward task, in actuality, it is often more diYcult than face-to-face or even telephone reference. Ross et al. (2002, pp. 188–190) point out some of the advantages of e-mail reference (convenience for patrons especially for the mobility-impaired, specific answers to questions rather than referrals, helpful for limited English speakers) as well as disadvantages ( patrons may not provide enough context for the question, necessity of many back-and-forth messages, unrealistic patron expectations about immediacy of answers, takes too much time to explain to the user how the answer was found so information literacy instruction is short-changed).
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In her review of the literature, Sullivan (2004) noted some of the characteristics of e-mail reference, including the fact that a greater proportion of the questions were more complex than in face-to-face transactions, that this form of reference takes much longer (taking an average of 40 minutes or more to answer an e-mail query in many cases and at least 10 minutes to type the answer) and that the volume of e-mail queries are increasing (with some public libraries reporting more than 200 queries per month; the Internet Public Library answers about 1000 queries per month). Echoing some of these findings, Murray and Tschernitz (2004) found that ‘‘many reference enquiries are either basic or complex, and the middle of the range is disappearing’’ ( p. 85). Furthermore, librarians in the study observed that many users were actually reluctant to use electronic resources themselves and that these sources are used ‘‘far more by the library staV in answering enquiries than by users attempting to find information for themselves’’ ( p. 85). Public libraries also are currently expanding into live virtual reference, including chat (also known as real-time, online, or synchronous reference) and live interaction using Web contact center software. Numerous texts now exist regarding how to organize and operate virtual reference services; examples include Lankes (2004), CoVman (2003), Kimmel and Heise (2003), Ronan (2003a), and Meola and Stormont, 2002. CoVman (2003) provides a good summary of the history of these diVerent forms of electronic reference and notes that while email reference was the earliest and easiest form of electronic reference, it has a serious disadvantage in that the librarian does all of the work and the patron is passive. To introduce more interactivity into the process, chat is one of the ‘‘quickest and easiest ways for a library to set up shop on the Web’’ ( p. 17). However, chat also has its problems and limitations, mainly its inability to handle large volumes of requests and its limitations with respect to handling pictures and other larger files.The mainstream chat software usually does not allow the reference librarian to share Web pages, escort users through online databases or help them refine their search strategies (although newer generations of chat-like software are overcoming some of these problems). Accordingly, libraries began experimenting with Web contact center software (used by e-commerce sites) which does allow for those sorts of activities. CoVman expects that this latter approach to electronic reference will mean that even more libraries will develop interactive electronic reference services in the immediate future. Although electronic reference may, in fact, take more staV time than for face-to-face transactions, if public libraries want to meet the needs of their patrons, it seems necessary for them to go down the electronic
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reference road. Electronic information-seeking by the public, both adults and children, is now an everyday reality and large numbers of people have the expectation that they should be able to seek information solely in a virtual mode if they so choose. However, as Ronan (2003b) notes, ‘‘one of the biggest challenges in providing reference services in real-time is learning to communicate eVectively with remote users and to translate the interpersonal skills used at the physical reference desk into the virtual environment’’ ( p. 43). Nilsen and Ross (forthcoming 2006) discovered that in virtual encounters, the all-important reference interview is often lacking: only 20% of the electronic reference transactions they analyzed had any form of reference interview and participants in the study complained that the information they received virtually was not that helpful. Kenney (2002) notes that ‘‘libraries must oVer this [electronic reference] service and they need to do it well; if they don’t someone else most certainly will’’ ( p. 47).
IV. The Information-Seeking of Particular Populations A. Children and Young Adults
Information-seeking research in a public library context is perhaps best known for its focus on specific user populations, reflective, perhaps, of our tendency to define this institution by the people it is intended to serve. One of the largest bodies of literature in this area is that which examines the information needs and activities of children and young adults. These studies cross a range of topics that can be grouped into three general categories of informational activities in which young people engage: those related to school-work (from elementary through high school); those related to leisure (such as reading or playing computer games); and, those related to personal exploration (from health issues to career planning). In addition, these studies explore a wide range of developmental stages in children’s lives—from early literacy (McKechnie, 2000) through advanced study—and include both topics that youngsters are required to explore (such as information for school projects, as examined by Fourie, 1995) to the information that they examine to feed their own curiosities. Shenton and Dixon’s (2002) study of youngsters’ attitudes regarding the public library, for example, reveals their need for school-related information as well as information related to personal interests. In addition, this study points to major criticisms of these institutions and the fact that children will look beyond the public library if other sources can satisfy their information needs.
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Shenton and Dixon (2004) also conducted research to explore youngsters’ generic information-seeking activities, which they note have been relatively understudied in comparison to investigations into specific information providers/sources for young people, and the processes young people use while searching. The authors found that when children and young adults sought information, they often used ‘‘untaught, expedient methods’’ ( p. 183) and, like many adults, had great diYculty identifying appropriate search terms or concepts, and were frequently confused by terminology such as Contents, or Index. They seldom consulted more than a few sources and typically used the same search strategies that had worked for them in the past, regardless of the source. Also, the quantity of information was often equated with ‘‘goodness’’ of information, and very few children in the study thought about how best to evaluate or verify the accuracy of information. The single greatest source of frustration for young information-seekers was the lack of information pitched at an appropriate level for their needs. Finally, the study revealed that many young people attempted to simplify the information-seeking process by repeatedly visiting the same source (whether a magazine or a Web site) to see what new developments were being reported. The Shenton and Dixon study (2004) also provides details on the varied contexts that surround children’s information searches, for both school-related and personal situations. Sources used included books at home, people (such as parents and teachers), material from school resource centers and public libraries, CD-ROM products, Web sites and textbooks. This is quite consistent with much of the existing literature (Chelton and Cool, 2004; Vavrek, 2004; Walter, 2003; Winston and Paone, 2001) which demonstrates that the information resources children use are highly varied (such as people, texts, online chat rooms, etc.) and cross a range of multi-media formats, setting a very high bar for public library services and collections that are designed to meet young patrons’ needs. In this context, the public library serves as only one centre (of many) that serves children and young adults’ information needs, in addition to what the Internet, the school library, the home, and other sources of information can oVer these individuals. B. Adults
The literature that examines adults’ information-seeking activities is equally varied and reflects the complex situations that give rise to diVerent types of information needs. Although adults’ information needs certainly shift to suit changes across the life span (say, from parenting information when a person is 20, to retirement planning when they are 50), the literature
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points to four general categories of information needs, including those related to:
work (including self-employment); leisure (from travel planning to recreational reading); personal issues (including health, finances, etc.), and education (including college or university, as well as selfimprovement courses).
Within these four categories, there are also a number of special needs that arise for specific populations and/or at diVerent points in an individual’s life. Older adults, for example, may seek information related to medical, financial or leisure activities that are markedly diVerent from the information required by younger adults (Honnold and Mesaros, 2004; Wicks, 2004). Ethnic minorities may require multilingual materials and reference services, as well as specialized collections related to immigration, housing, or learning English as a second language (Bala and Adkins, 2004; Pyati, 2003). In addition, some library patrons may have visual or physical impairments, learning disabilities, or other needs that require information to be presented in particular ways—such as large-print texts, or Web sites that can be verbalized through a screen reader (Hecker, 1996; Holt and Hole, 2003; McCain, 2002; Mendle, 1995; Williamson et al., 2000). Some researchers have explored issues of gender and sexual orientation on people’s experiences as seekers of information (Higgins and Hawamdeh, 2001; Rothbauer and McKechnie, 1999). For instance, women may require particular information related to health, career planning, or other topics that aVect women’s lives (Dewdney et al., 1996; Harris et al., 2001; King, 1995). Socio-economic and cultural factors also may play a significant role in shaping a person’s information-seeking activities. Armstrong et al. (2000), for example, point to the barriers that low-income people face while using the library, a theme that has been examined by a number of other researchers in this field (Chatman, 1991; Chatman and Pendleton, 1995; Spink and Cole, 2001b). Also, literacy levels vary widely among adult populations, so the public library must oVer information and services to meet a range of reading, computer, and other literacy-skill levels (Antell, 2004; Baker et al., 1997; SarkodieMensah, 2000; Scates, 1999). Overall, the literature that examines adults’ and children’s information-seeking activities points to the wide variation in these individuals’ life-circumstances, and the various ways that the public library has responded to meet their multi-faceted information needs. Across all user groups, there are a number of general themes emerging from the
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literature that point to the ways that public libraries can best serve patrons’ needs, including:
Children and young adults have information needs that cross their lifeworlds, related to school, home, health, recreation, and planning for the future; Children and young adults respond to information presented in a range of formats, from puppets for young children, to interactive online games that include vibrant images and sounds for young adults; The public library serves as one centre (among many) where children and young adults turn for information, in addition to the Internet, school resources, bookshelves at home, and other sources; All patrons need information to be presented in a range of formats, both online and in-house; Defining patrons purely by categories based on age or other characteristics (such as ‘‘young adult’’ or ‘‘visually impaired’’) is counterproductive; although it is important to recognize patrons’ special needs, and the ways that particular information-seeking activities may shift over the life-span, it is important to treat all patrons as individuals, with particular (and highly personal) information needs, and Patrons’ information needs are multi-faceted and changeable, so while they may come to the public library for help with work or school, they may leave with long-awaited novel in hand and thus the library needs to facilitate all types of information-seeking activities.
V. Information-Seeking, Instruction, Training, and Searching A. Information Literacy Instruction and Technology Training
In contemporary public libraries, patrons who are seeking information, whether they are placing a hold on a specific fiction title or searching for books on a topic, inevitably will encounter various information retrieval technologies. In smaller rural branch libraries, the technology encountered may be a lone computer. In large urban libraries, the technologies encountered could encompass computers, numerous software packages, printers, microfiche readers, video viewers, audio workstations, electronic book (or e-book) readers and specialized workstations for the physically disabled, to name a few. The finding of information is highly related to patrons’ abilities to successfully use and navigate various information technologies, while the understanding, evaluating and using of information depends on patrons’ general information literacy
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knowledge and critical thinking abilities. Thus because the understanding of information and the technology to find and use that information are so intertwined, the lines between what is considered to be information literacy instruction and technology training are often very blurry. As a result, we have combined the two areas in this discussion. How can public libraries facilitate the ability of their patrons to successfully use the technologies available to them to search for and use needed information? Some technologies are more prominent than others, so helping patrons to become technologically self-suYcient and information literate largely translates into helping them learn to use computers and computerized information retrieval. Enabling patrons to successfully use computers, however, is not an easy task. The first step is to provide some sort of technology training. It may be an obvious fact, but it is worth repeating that not all patrons have the same views of technology. Some are eager to try new technologies and some are not. The key is to help patrons to be as self-suYcient in their informationseeking as they want to be. Technology training has to do largely with the mastery of technical skills, such as using a mouse or navigating an interface, and certain conceptual skills, such as understanding the diVerences between word processing and e-mail. The main way that public libraries enable patrons to become more comfortable with computer technologies is to provide in-house training. It is currently quite common for larger public library systems to have a computer training facility where regular courses and workshops are oVered. Sometimes technology training is a stand-alone type of training while at other times, it is a component of the library’s information literacy instruction. For instance, a workshop on learning to use the Internet could include some basic technical skills as well as searching and retrieval skills. Another consideration is that technology training often needs to be adapted to suit the needs of particular groups (Van Fleet and Antell, 2002). One of the first hurdles in technology training is that when it comes to computers, some patrons are actually quite fearful, a phenomenon that has been termed variously computer anxiety, technophobia, or technostress. Harrison (2000, p. 33) points out that while it was once thought that women and older people were more likely to be computer phobic, recent research has debunked those ideas. She notes that ‘‘previous experience with computers is the biggest predictor of computer anxiety: people who have been longer exposed to computers, and were introduced to them in the proper way, will feel significantly more comfortable using those computers’’ ( p. 34). A number of other factors also may contribute to computer anxiety. For instance, Harrison cites a study by
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Anderson (1996), which found that even playfulness has a role in reducing computer anxiety since those who were able to play around with computers felt less anxious. Even with training, not everyone is readily conversant with all technologies and so will require assistance at various points. Unfortunately, for librarians, some of this assistance has relatively little to do with information-seeking and more to do with technological inexperience and/or glitches. Reference librarians have long complained about the inordinate amount of time required to deal with technical problems with, for instance, public access printers. An assessment of the library program of the Gates Foundation found that the workload of public librarians had increased with the installation of computers and that a ‘‘substantial number raised concerns about the costs of printing and the diYculties of avoiding unwanted printing by unsophisticated users’’ (Gordon et al., 2001, p. 136). Librarians also questioned whether it should be their responsibility to teach about word processing and e-mail. However, public librarians cannot completely ignore the fact that a number of patrons have diYculties with technology because, in the end, these diYculties do limit information-seeking by discouraging the independent self-help that many patrons desire. Librarians have a vested interest in encouraging patrons to become more self-suYcient with respect to information technologies. It would not be possible nor desirable for librarians to interact with every patron, particularly for informationseeking activities which are relatively straightforward, such as looking up the call number for a specific book. To keep to manageable workloads, reference librarians depend upon the fact that numbers of patrons can search for and find a certain amount of information on their own. Mastery of technologies, however, is only part of the equation. The other part of the equation, and many would assert the most challenging part, is information literacy instruction: helping people to understand and use the universe of information resources at their disposal. Like many topics in this review, the literature on information literacy, or bibliographic instruction as it was formerly called, is so large that it is impossible to cover it in any depth here. Much of that literature has focused on academic libraries and surprisingly little has been written about information literacy in public libraries. While the major information literacy guidelines in LIS were developed with higher education in mind (Association of College and Research Libraries, 2000), they also could just as easily apply to members of the public. The guidelines stress that information literate persons should be able to determine what information they need, find that information relatively eYciently, evaluate it and then use it to accomplish a purpose. Information literacy is also linked to
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concerns about the growth of the digital divide (Hargittai, 2002a; Julien and Boon, 2003) since those who do not have information literacy skills are less able to find and retrieve digital information. As to the role of public librarians in information literacy, Harris (1992) found that public librarians were far more ambivalent about information literacy than academic librarians. At the time, there was very little agreement among public librarians surveyed as to whether public librarians ought to have an instructional role at all or whether they should concentrate on information provision (Harris, 1989). While 76% of librarians in Harris’ study thought that library patrons should be taught how to use and access information, 87% thought that the best way to do so was as a normal part of the reference transaction, on a oneon-one basis (also noted by Bruce and Lampson, 2002; Wilson, 2003). Information literacy instructional programs, therefore, were not common in public libraries. However, that time seems to be passing. More public librarians are now actively creating and/or expanding their information literacy instructional programs, though this is far from the norm as yet ( Julien and Breu, 2005). Julien and Breu’s research (2005) into the practices of Canadian public libraries with respect to information literacy is one of the few recent studies on the topic. The authors found that 85% of the librarians surveyed believed that public librarians ought to be involved in information literacy instruction and that 97% of them believed that adult Canadians needed such instruction. As to why the public required instructional programs, the main reasons cited were that: (1) they simply did not have adequate skills, and (2) that they had never been taught this before, but other important reasons included (3) facilitating adaptation to technological change, and (4) enabling the public to deal with information in diVerent formats. It was also recognized that children needed information literacy instruction, primarily to: (1) prepare them for the future, (2) support their educational pursuits, (3) prepare them for adulthood, and (4) facilitate better use of information. Most often librarians carried out information literacy instruction (at 22% of libraries) but library technicians and clerks were also heavily involved. What kinds of instructional programs are in place in public libraries? Julien and Breu’s results (2005) show that about 18% of public libraries are oVering courses or workshops on Internet searching, 16% oVer general workshops on searching, and 9% oVer basic computer instruction. About 10% of libraries have instructional programs designed for children and 6% for seniors. As to the specific skills being taught, the authors’ findings confirm the intertwining of information literacy
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and technology training. The public libraries surveyed report that they teach
searching the Internet (27% of responding libraries); searching the catalog (16%); using e-mail (12%); searching databases (11%); using computers (10%); evaluating sources (9%), and word processing (7%).
Despite the concerns of librarians about how information literacy programs will be funded, public librarians are becoming more and more involved in information literacy instruction and indications are that this will continue into the future. As Julien and Breu (2005) and D’Elia et al. (2002) point out, since various governments are making a commitment to the digital connectedness of their citizens, it is important that public libraries play a strong role in helping citizens to become information literate or else they risk being left out of policy discussions and developments pertaining to the so-called information highway. B. Online Catalogs
One of the most common library computer technologies that patrons interact with is the online public access catalog (known as the OPAC or WebPAC). Yet, as is well documented in the information retrieval literature, searching the average library catalog, even with the greater flexibility of Web interfaces, continues to be a challenge (Borgman, 1996; Novotny, 2004; Thomas, 2001). There are a wide variety of well-documented reasons as to why OPAC searching is problematic for so many people, including
searching errors because of spelling and typographical mistakes; scrolling too quickly and missing relevant information; problems with understanding and using the basic standardized elements of the information records in the catalog, such as subject headings; diYculties with Boolean logic and keyword searching; inability to refine their searches; the way in which the information about the library’s resources is displayed, or diYculty interpreting what those displays actually mean; the usability of the interface, and the functionality and constraints of the underlying software.
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Although one might imagine that many of the findings on OPAC searching noted above would be applicable across a wide variety of people, very few studies have actually been done in public libraries. Debra Slone (2000) comments that most studies have been conducted in academic libraries, very diVerent environments from public libraries which must ‘‘advance the needs of a more indeterminate, inclusive and heterogeneous population. Use of studies in academic settings, therefore, cannot yield data necessary to fully understand public library users and the wide range of needs that characterize them’’ ( p. 758). Accordingly, Slone (2000) undertook an investigation into what behaviors and strategies public library patrons used in searching the library’s catalog, and whether or not they felt confident about using the OPAC to find the information they needed. Slone found that patrons were divided into three distinct groups with diVerent types of queries at the catalog, including 1. those who knew what they were searching for (known-item searchers); 2. those who had no idea what they were searching for and relied solely on the catalog to help them (unknown-item searchers), and 3. those who had no idea what they were searching for but used the catalog minimally to find the appropriate section or area of the library in which to browse (area searchers). Of the three search types, patrons who were doing unknown-item searches had the most diYcult time and were unsuccessful at finding something relevant in over 50% of their searches. Some of the diYculties had to do with doing subject searching: most patrons seemed unable to either narrow or broaden their searches eVectively, or to think of alternate terms if their first terms yielded no results. In addition, if the first screen of results did not look promising, patrons often did not look at subsequent screens even if there would have been helpful citations. Frustration and lack of confidence were common feelings as searches progressed. Slone notes that ‘‘unknown-item searchers became frustrated after the first few unsuccessful search terms and gave up easily’’ ( p. 764). The few who were successful at unknown-item searches were the patrons who started with broad, general terms, and then used the subject headings of retrieved items to help them narrow their search to something more specific. Area searchers fared much better: 88% of patrons using this approach found something they were happy with at the shelves. Since the goal was to find a relevant area of the shelves and go to that area to make further evaluations about what materials to borrow, area searchers kept
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their searches to a minimum. Area searchers were fast, with no search taking ‘‘longer than 1 minute and all but one were eYcient and successful’’ ( p. 763). In addition, area searchers often left the computer to find the appropriate area of the shelves, examined and found relevant materials, and then returned to the computer to do known-item searches to amass further citations. Slone comments that ‘‘most area searches were performed with [a] level of eYciency, swiftness and confidence’’ ( p. 762). In fact, 75% of area searchers expressed confidence that their searches would lead them to relevant materials. Known-item searches were also very successful, again with an 88% success rate ( p. 761). These searchers were the least likely to make mistakes, since they were often searching from handwritten lists of authors and titles. When mistakes occurred that aVected the search, they were usually typographical or spelling errors. Confidence was fairly high: 63% of searchers felt confident that they would find the needed material ( p. 764). DiVerent types of library patrons also may have particular sorts of problems with OPAC searching. Sit (1998) explored the OPAC use of older public library patrons, over the age of 50. He found that generally, these patrons were able to successfully perform simple searches such as on authors and titles but had diYculty with more advanced searches, especially involving Boolean logic. About 40% of participants had diYculty noticing and/or comprehending parts of the information displayed in the records. Patrons also had diYculty switching databases (i.e., from author to title, or author to subject). In addition, about 30% of participant errors were made due to specifying the wrong search field, omitting a search field or entering commands at the wrong time. Because of the diYculties associated with searching online catalogs, Joe (1999) comments that the OPAC actually has become a barrier to information-seeking in many cases. To see how this could be remedied, Joe devised a study where public library patrons who were using the OPAC were approached by a librarian and oVered assistance, even if they had not asked for it. The results were very revealing: of the 189 patrons approached, 89 (44%) readily accepted the assistance. Joe comments (p. 154) that: Each of the 89 acceptances...was a wonderful opportunity to work with the patron. These types of dialogues do not usually occur at the reference desk [where the patron] at best might be allowed to view the computer screen.... During this study, the librarian was standing or seated beside the patron at the terminal. There was no reference desk or barrier between the two parties [which was very] conducive to the idea of working with the patron.
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From these studies, it is obvious that the OPAC has the potential to have a large impact on how successful patrons are in their informationseeking activities. Overall, what does the research suggest? Quite simply, it is highly likely that a large number of public library patrons on any given day will have diYculties in their OPAC searches and will give up, will miss much relevant material or will feel very frustrated by their searching. Approaches that appear to work best are searching for specific known items, using the subject headings from broad searches to narrow down topics, or using a combination of OPAC searching with shelf browsing. Slone (2000, p. 766) suggests that current OPAC interfaces need to do a better job of incorporating hints or help screens for the diVerent types of searching. Sit (1998) remarks that better OPAC interface design and more appropriate labeling is sorely needed while Joe (1999) urges public library administrators to set aside money to enable public services staV to assist more patrons directly with their OPAC searching. C. Other Databases
Beyond the OPAC, public libraries have a variety of other types of bibliographic and full-text databases. Some of these are at stand-alone workstations, while others are networked and incorporated into the menu of the library’s Web interface. While a great deal of research has examined what searchers, in general, do when using databases, the situation is similar to that of OPAC-use research in that very few studies of database use have been carried out in public libraries. Thus, we have to extract what might be common database-use issues for public library patrons from studies that have looked at searchers in other settings. Quite a number of database searching studies have been conducted in universities, particularly with students. Although students do not have exactly the same characteristics as public library patrons, the one area of strong similarity is that when it comes to using databases, they are often novices, just like many public library patrons. McCarthy et al. (1997) provide a good bibliography of early studies of student use of CDROM bibliographic databases. In general, these studies found that students could not choose a database which would adequately cover their topic, could not select citations appropriate to their topics, had diYculty reading the citations from their searches, could not tell the diVerence between scholarly works and popular articles, were discouraged when encountering foreign language citations, were impatient and unwilling to sort through citations to find the most relevant, did not understand
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the relationship between the citations retrieved and the library’s actual holdings, and many other similar diYculties. Although the problems cited above undoubtedly still exist, more recent work on database searching has concentrated on the characteristics of database interfaces, and the searching of full-text databases, digital libraries and Web resources. An example of direction that the research is now taking is the volume by Borner and Chen (2002). Chapters in this volume address issues such as how to make interfaces appear more like games, how visual interfaces could be used to organize and store documents retrieved, how to improve searching within documents, how to provide better browsing for photographs and various other topics. Another recent example is work by Park (2000) who looked at whether it was easier for end-user database searchers to search via an integrated interface (that searches multiple databases all at once) or a common interface (that uses the same interface but allows the users to search each database separately). Participants in Park’s study preferred the common interface because it gave the users greater control over the databases searched and was easier to keep track of results. Park comments that since integrated databases are currently recommended, libraries may have to rethink the kinds of interfaces they are providing for multiple database searching. Overall, the challenges related to searching public-access databases and digital resources are very similar to those for searching the OPAC and could include some or all of the following:
general lack of awareness of existence or purpose of databases; choosing a database that does not match the person’s information need; not understanding the underlying structure of the database; diYculties with search term formulation and lack of awareness of the thesaurus; diYculties with searching techniques, such as using keywords and Boolean; diYculty navigating the interface or using multiple interfaces; inability to understand and evaluate the citations retrieved, and diYculty locating items once citations have been retrieved.
Whatever the conclusions of various studies, the inescapable fact is that as the number of CD-ROM, online and full-text databases in public libraries grow, many of them with diVerent search interfaces, it becomes increasingly hard for patrons and librarians alike to know all the peculiarities of the diVerent products (MacKellar and Elliott, 1999). Unlike in a university environment, where students in a discipline (and the librarians responsible for providing regular assistance with searching) come to
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know the main database in that discipline relatively well, public library patrons may only use databases occasionally and thus may have forgotten the search conventions learned previously. McCarthy, et al. (1997) comment that the introduction of electronic databases in academic libraries has ‘‘created an increase in demand for point-of-use assistance’’ yet ‘‘vendors have promoted their products for end-users, claiming little or no assistance is needed from professional staV’’ ( p. 130). Given the experience of academic libraries, it is highly likely that an increased demand for librarian assistance with databases and other online resources will also be the case in public libraries. Yet, as Williamson and Bannister (2003) found, the public librarians in their research believed that they did not have enough knowledge of the four databases included in the study to feel comfortable either searching those databases for patrons, or instructing patrons on how to use the databases. Training for successful intermediation, then, becomes a very important consideration when public libraries are considering whether to expand their CD-ROM and online database oVerings. D. The Internet
Internet access in public libraries has spread very rapidly during the past decade and its potential impact on the library has caused concern among public librarians. Would the Internet diminish the number of people using the library? Early results suggest perhaps not. A survey of public library and Internet users reported by D’Elia et al. (2002) found that 75% of the Internet users use the public library and 60% of the public library users also use the Internet ( p. 806). Furthermore, Internet users did not appear to use the public library any less frequently than non-Internet users. However, when it came to finding specific types of information, the survey responses did indicate some diVerences. Twice as many Internet users were likely to use the Web rather than the library to search for information on consumer products, business, community services, government, and jobs or careers. Also, twice as many Internet users were using the Web to do job-related research, read newspapers and magazine, and to do children’s schoolwork. The authors conclude that ‘‘the library is already beginning to experience competition for the information franchise’’ ( p. 818). Despite the potential for competition for the public’s preferred sources of information, the ongoing presence of the Internet in public libraries is a certainty. Accordingly, it is very worthwhile for librarians to have a better understanding of what people do when they search the Web in the library. Because Web-searching research is still in its infancy, it is
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only recently that we have started to amass a body of literature on what Internet users do when they search. Spink et al. (2001) comment that there is ‘‘relatively little understanding about how people actually search the Web. We understand more about how people use non-Web-based IR [information retrieval] systems than how they use the Web’’ ( p. 226). Some of the largest studies carried out to date are those done by Spink et al. (2001) who conducted three studies on the Alta Vista and Excite search engines, with several million queries analyzed. The researchers found that, on an average, searchers posed 2–3 questions in a single search session. About half of searchers submitted a single query, while almost a third entered three or more queries. Those who entered multiple queries often modified their initial query by subsequently changing some of the terms, but overall, there was no change in the number of terms in the query. In general, Web searchers were ‘‘more likely to add than delete a term’’ ( p. 228) but even so, not many terms were changed in each subsequent search statement. The typical Web searcher viewed eight pages, but interestingly, about 28% of searchers examined only a single page. Finally, less than 5% of searches used Boolean operators and when those operators were used, ‘‘and’’ was the most common one. In light of this finding, the authors question the usefulness of advanced features on current search engines. Slone (2002) conducted a study to explore the ways in which public library patrons specifically search the Internet. Two objectives of the study were to examine patrons’ Internet search patterns and determine whether their search goals aVected search patterns. Slone found that, generally, there were four major ways that public library users searched the Internet, including, in order of frequency, (1) linking to other sites (90% of participants), (2) searching by URLs (45%), (3) using search engines (42%), and (4) searching within a specific domain (19%). Novice users were more likely to use fewer search approaches and features than more experienced users. Slone discovered that the way in which patrons searched the Internet was related to their goals in searching: those searching for jobs did the broadest searches and accessed a large number of sites, whereas those searching for educational purposes searched fewer sites but used more Web tools and search approaches. Those searching for recreational purposes searched primarily by serendipity and abandoned searching strategies that were too ‘‘cognitively cumbersome’’ ( p. 1166). What can be said at this point about the ways in which people search the Internet? Although comparisons between studies are diYcult because of diVerent data definitions and analyses, the research cited in a number of reviews (Hargittai, 2002b; Spink, 2003; Yang, 2005) indicate that, in general, many Internet searchers:
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do a lot of browsing; have similar patterns of surfing; miss relevant hits and/or retrieve numerous irrelevant hits; frequently do not scroll to the bottom of long screens; make frequent use of the ‘‘back’’ button; view only a small number of pages per query; have trouble moving from screen to screen; have a tendency to get lost while searching; cannot enter valid search terms; use short queries and very few queries per search; largely do not take advantage of advanced features, and do not use Boolean operators very much or very well.
What kinds of Internet sites does the public want to access? Spink et al. (2001) considered this question in their study, and found that the most frequently accessed categories of sites were, in order of frequency:
entertainment, recreation (17% of sites); sex, pornography, sexual preferences (17%); commerce, travel, employment, economy (13%); computers, the Internet (13%); health, science (9%); people, places, things (7%); society, culture, ethnicity, religion (6%); education, humanities (6%); performing and fine arts (5%), and government (3%).
In a subsequent update to that study, Wolfram et al. (2001) noted that the popularity of certain topics had shifted in the two years between the studies. The top five types of sites in the subsequent analysis were (1) commerce, travel, employment and the economy (24%), (2) people, places and things (20%), (3) computers and the Internet (11%), (4) sex, pornography and sexual preferences (8%), and (5) health and the sciences (8%). In another large-scale study of Internet use, Ann Curry (2002) examined the Web transaction logs of the public access Internet terminals in five Canadian public libraries. Over 19,000 URLs were classified by subject and genre. Curry found that the most popular subjects accessed were, in descending order, science and technology, recreation, arts and popular culture, lifestyles, consumer products, business and economics, media, humanities and sex. Although many of these topics are similar to those noted by Spink et al. there is quite a diVerence as to the relative popularity of various topics. For instance, by far the most
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popular topic in the Canadian study was science and technology, which was halfway down the list in the Spink study. Sex sites were accessed far less often in Curry’s research. These diVerences can be explained in part because Curry’s study used data from public terminals, so users would be far less likely to be accessing sex sites (and in fact, may have been blocked from doing so). In contrast, in the Spink et al. research, a large proportion of searchers would have been using private computers and thus would have been freer to make decisions about what to view. Furthermore, the two studies had diVerent methods of categorizing the sites, which is always a problem when trying to compare research. Regarding types of sites (or genres) accessed in public libraries, Curry found usage patterns as follows:
e-mail (39% of usage); corporate sites (25%); access points such as search engines and directories (10%); Web communities (8%); e-commerce (5%); chat and message boards (3%); personal Web pages (2.5%); personals/classified (2%), and educational institutions (2%).
It is clear from these studies that the public is using a large array of Web resources on a wide variety of topics but it is also evident from information retrieval studies that most people do not have the patience or expertise to carry out complex searches that would give them the optimum results. Yang (2005) has noted that Internet users ‘‘do not want to engage in an involved retrieval process. Instead, they expect immediate answers while expending minimum eVort’’ ( p. 39). Thus, for many information-seekers, the information taken from the Web could be characterized as merely convenient, or even ‘‘quick and dirty.’’ Since the Internet is now pervasive and publicly accessible in the majority of public libraries, a key question to ask is: What should public libraries be doing to use the resources of the Internet to provide service to patrons? The answers to that question are emerging. Prabha and Irwin (2003) conducted a survey of a random sample of American and Canadian public libraries to see what Web-based services they were oVering. The authors found that libraries were providing: access to large reference sites like the Internet Public Library (95%), access to Web collections (72%), e-mail addresses and contact information for reference librarians (69%), links to external Web sites (67%), access to the library’s catalog through the Web (65%), access to databases (63%), links to search engines (58%),
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interactive reference services (21%), and e-mail reference (16%). Janes (2002) discovered that the majority of public librarians in her study had very positive views of providing library services via the Web, even more so than academic librarians. Furthermore, 95% of the librarians in the study had had training in the use of the Internet. One area where the Internet can have a huge impact is on the delivery of reference services. A number of studies have shown that that reference librarians perceive the Internet to be useful in answering queries (Stover, 2000) and that a large proportion of reference questions can be quickly and correctly answered using the Internet ( Janes and McClure, 1999; Zumalt and Pasicznyuk, 1998). However, Ross and Nilsen (2000) found that reference librarians in public libraries were making use of the Internet for only about 6% of the queries studied, despite the fact that the Internet would have been a useful source in at least half of the questions. The authors remark that ‘‘it seems safe to say that the full potential of the Internet as a reference source is not yet being realized’’ ( p. 152). Nonetheless, with cooperative Internet reference sites such as the Internet Public Library and new initiatives such as live interactive reference, the profile and popularity of Internet reference continues to grow. Wilson (2004) provides a very good summary of the wide variety of ways that the Internet can be used to enhance and improve the public library’s services. Some of the areas include: (1) more eVective promotion of the library, (2) digital collections, (3) digital referral services, (4) customizing the library’s catalog, (5) providing easier access to research databases and electronic journals, (6) increasing the visibility of Readers’ Advisory services by providing book reviews, authors online, and book discussions, and (7) developing content for specific groups of patrons, such as young adults, seniors, ethno-linguistic communities and the disabled. Another mechanism is to improve the library’s visibility through its Web presence. Hildrebrand (2003) notes that until now, library Web sites largely have been used to provide relatively static information about library services and branches. However, he suggests that libraries could take this further by taking advantage of ‘‘emerging Web technologies to develop Web sites which become a one stop shop for delivering and accessing a wide range of library services’’ ( p. 140). Along these lines, Jones and Pfeil (2004) examine the ways in which Web pages can be used to target a specific clientele such as young adults. Finally, what about providing searching assistance to patrons who are using the Internet within the library? Given that many people are not expert Internet searchers, what could be done to assist them in their Web-based information-seeking? Is the presence and use of the Internet
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in public libraries actually a way to take advantage of the ‘‘teachable moment’’ and expand information literacy? Wilson (2004), Wilson (2003), Block (2003) and Gordon (2001) all suggest a number of ideas for utilizing the Internet to make patrons more confident and more successful in their information-seeking and more aware of the resources of both the library and the Net, including:
specific Internet usage instructional programming; online Web tutorials; virtual library tours; pages with search tips; Web question and answer [Q & A] pages; Web pages for specific audiences, such as young adults or seniors; Web-logs for specific purposes, such as Readers’ Advisory; online guides to the library’s collections; linking to good Web sites and repositories of reliable factual information; savvy searchers pages, with the latest on new browsers or interesting features, and posting patrons’ suggestions about the library’s Web site.
Given that: (a) many public library patrons are also heavy users of the Internet, (b) the Internet has already replaced the public library for at least some information-seeking, and (c) the public library may be the only place that some patrons have access to the Internet (D’Elia et al., 2002), it seems imperative for public libraries to pay attention to their on-site Internet users and to assist them in using the Internet to the fullest possible. With the current constraints on public library resources and budgets and the growing demand for digital services, this task is, of course, easier said than done.
VI. Information-Seeking and The Physical Environment Although largely overlooked in the information-seeking research literature, the physical environment has a large influence both on how willing the public is to use the library for information-seeking and how their information-seeking is carried out. While there are many excellent current resources in terms of building and designing libraries and library spaces (McCabe and Kennedy, 2003; Sannwald, 2001; Webb, 2000; Williamsburg Regional Library, 2001), many authors either make only passing reference to the role of physical space in information-seeking or make the assumption that everything about libraries is somehow related
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to information-seeking and therefore needs no specific explication. As a result, there is no convenient nor comprehensive single work which gathers together all of the considerations on this topic. Accordingly, this portion of the review draws upon both the existing literature and the experiences of the two authors in conducting original research into the use of public libraries by patrons, all the while noting that it is not possible in this short section to do full justice to all the considerations about information-seeking and the physical environment. The physical environment of the public library can be thought of as two distinct but very highly interrelated conceptual zones. The first zone is that of physical ‘‘space,’’ which involves the location, architecture, and interior design of the building itself. As far as the public is concerned, the zone of physical space is somewhat neutral, or perhaps ambiguous would be a more accurate term. True, it is invested with certain types of meanings, such as the vision of the architect, the interplay of municipal politics in determining its creation and purpose, and the perspectives of librarians involved in planning for the public’s optimal use of the facility. However, for most part, on the day that a new library opens its doors, it is untested space. ‘‘Space’’ does not evolve into something more meaningful until the inhabitants of the premises begin to put their stamp upon it. Accordingly, the second zone is ‘‘place,’’ by which we mean the sense of place that the library comes to represent in the hearts and minds of its clientele, staV and larger community. As children carve out their favorite areas of the children’s library, adult patrons find a cozy corner to read and reflect and staV re-arrange the furniture to facilitate the best interactions with patrons, the physical space begins to take on a character reflective of its community of inhabitants and over time, becomes a true place. Since both space and place can have an impact upon information-seeking, for the purposes of this discussion, we shall deal with each in turn, although we must emphasize that separating the two is somewhat arbitrary and diYcult. First, physical space. Postmodern scholars would undoubtedly argue that no space is neutral and that hidden agendas or ideologies permeate every type of public structure that is built. Those scholars are right in the sense that human-made physical spaces are bounded by the societal and individual thinking that goes into their creation. Although community involvement in library space planning is recommended (see, for instance, chapter 5 in McCabe and Kennedy 2003), the majority of library patrons usually do not have a direct voice into the micro-details of library construction (such as where best to place a dividing wall or a reference desk), some of the important decisions that later may aVect how they view and use the building are made for them by architects, planners and
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librarians. It is extremely important for public librarians to be intimately involved in the process of library building and design because it is librarians, with their decades of working with the public, who have the best insights into public use of the library. However, this is a challenge because as Curry and Henriquez (1998) note, librarians and architects do not speak the same language nor have the same vision of public libraries. In their study, public librarians thought in terms of ‘‘how successfully the new building would serve the clientele, [and] how the building would cope with increased demands for services’’ while the architects saw the building in ‘‘much more static, symbolic terms. They described what the building ‘is’ while the librarians described what the building ‘does’’’ ( p. 89). One of the most important early space-related decisions concerns the library and its location. Where a public library is located may have a large impact on who can use it and ultimately, therefore, on the information-seeking that takes place within it. Is it accessible? Is it handy to public transportation? Is there ample room for parking? Is it safe? Is it easy to find? Is the location aesthetically pleasing? In her review of the literature, Koontz (1997) provides ample evidence that ‘‘siting’’ and accessibility are two of the major factors aVecting library use. She notes that ‘‘the location of a library facility is, initially, the most important decision that library planners and managers make. Mistakes in site selection result in less than maximum potential, eVectiveness and equity of service’’ ( p. 6). Koontz points out that it is very diYcult to recover from a serious siting mistake, which can aVect the library’s potential for decades. Once a good location has been determined, and an overall architectural vision of the public library has been approved, there are a plethora of important architectural and design decisions to be made that may aVect the public’s ability to find and use the resources they need. A handy overall checklist is provided by Sannwald (2001). Some of the many decisions which could aVect information-seeking include:
large well-lit exterior signage visible to passing cars; convenient book-drops, accessible for both foot and vehicular traYc; circulation desk clearly visible and identifiable; reference desks of appropriate height for adults, children and the disabled; reference desks constructed to allow a sense of privacy; arrangement of book stacks in parallel ranges for easily location of materials; a variety of types of seating and work spaces;
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seating to accommodate those with mobility problems (such as seniors); adequate space to accommodate information technologies and their use; appropriate lighting for computer terminals and reading areas; acoustically separate study rooms for groups; clearly marked floor designations; children’s area arranged in such a way that adults also can be accommodated, and barrier-free access to all areas of the library.
Once the physical space has been designed and built, and all the furnishings, materials and equipment are in place, the library is ready for public use. At this point, the public will determine whether the vision of the architect and the knowledge of the librarians and designers have come together to create a workable space. This leads us into a discussion of the second conceptual zone, that being the ‘‘place’’ of the library. Will the building facilitate the needs and uses envisioned? Is the building flexible enough to accommodate unanticipated needs and uses? Will the building be able to evolve over time in response to its multiple communities of use? Will the public feel comfortable and happy when using the premises? Will it become a real ‘‘place’’ in the community, the kind of place that fits into the everyday lives of its users? Many public libraries begin to find the answers to those questions immediately upon opening (Lackney and Zajfen, 2005; Williamsburg Regional Library, 2001, pp. 105–116). Lackney and Zajfen, (2005) cite the lessons learned in three diVerent public library projects. In particular, some of the issues that had an impact upon information-seeking were (1) constricted circulation and reference desk areas, (2) lack of privacy when staV had to converse with patrons, (3) general lack of interior signage, (4) problems with noise, lighting and glare, (5) need for more seating options and tables large enough to lay out work, (6) inaccessible shelving, (7) not enough quiet places for study, (8) not enough computer terminals and long wait lines to use the computers, (9) poor sight lines causing concerns with safety, and (10) unstable heating and cooling, making some areas of the library uncomfortable. Some of these issues can be remedied relatively easily (such as increasing good signage) while others are more problematic (like not having enough space to meet the demand for computer use). The expectations of the public about public spaces are changing. Lushington (2001) notes that, in the past, library patrons had to put up with buildings created from visions of the public library that were never intended to focus on the public’s needs. The author points out that
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public libraries were often envisioned stereotypically as ‘‘the city monument,’’ ‘‘the great reading room,’’ or ‘‘the big book stacks.’’ All of these models of the library created problems for library users, who had to put up with various inconveniences and inaccessibility of the physical spaces of the building. Lushington remarks that: For decades, library users responded to these library stereotypes with a touching and hopeful loyalty. They appreciated the monumental appearance of the city library. They sat in the uncomfortable chairs in the reading rooms, baking in summer heat and shivering in winter cold. They ferreted out the books in the book stacks in spite of confusing arrangements and circuitous stack mazes. They waited patiently to check out books. However, in the twenty first century, there are signs that users are becoming impatient with the cumbersome and confusing arrangement of some libraries. When users have money and can get their books delivered from Amazon in four days, ... it’s not surprising that they forego the physical obstacles presented by many libraries ( p. 21).
What has the public come to expect today with respect to the spaces they encounter in daily life? Since many of the so-called public spaces they encounter are shopping malls and other commercial spaces, these undoubtedly have an influence on shaping what the public likes and does not like. There has been a great deal of discussion of the impact of largescale bookstores on the physical spaces of libraries. Elements such as having comfortable reading chairs and couches, ample room to browse, display racks that are not too high, and food and coVee available within the store are advantages that are not lost on the public and have aVected the public’s perception of what ought to be in public libraries as well. In an interesting discussion of how retailing concepts can apply to libraries, Stanley (2003) states that ‘‘it is not the space allocated to books that is critical; it is the space allocated to people. Customer comfort will determine how many books are borrowed and how long customers will stay in your library’’ ( p. 79). He recommends that only 40% of the library’s floor space should be allocated to book stacks and tables and the remaining 60% to browsing. Michaels (2003, p. 22) recounts the example of one public library that took the retail trends of longer service hours, food and more self-service to heart in the design of a new branch library, ending up with a smaller space but with more personal service. The author remarks that ‘‘both circulation and library use are up and the citizens and staV are happy.’’ In another example, the public library was designed entirely around the concept of how it would be experienced by its users, so increased attention was paid to personalized orientation and assistance, as well as setting themes for diVerent areas of the library (Williams, 2002). In our research (Leckie and
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Hopkins, 2002), it was clear that the public expects (and wants) to see natural light (via skylights and/or large windows), airiness, spaciousness, comfortable, modern furnishings and clean facilities in their public libraries. They also appreciate variety in library space: some needed to be in quiet areas with study carrels, while others preferred the busier and more open areas of reading tables and high-traYc seating. It was also noticeable that patrons who frequented the public library regularly had favorite areas in the library where they went to work and read. Undoubtedly, problems with the physical spaces of the library are very important and can greatly aVect the public’s perception of the building, so physical concerns cannot be ignored. However, fostering the evolution of the library into a ‘‘place’’ involves more than fixing or improving any physical problems with the premises. Two other key elements are necessary, including, first, facilitating the library as an intellectual place, and second, developing the library’s ability to create social capital. What makes a public library an intellectual place, the kind of place where information-seeking, information use and the pleasurable enjoyment of library materials go hand-in-hand? Much of what makes this happen centers around the work of professional librarians and involves good professional practices, vision, innovation, and experimentation. First and foremost, as we have already noted earlier in this review, the public has a desire to have access to good collections in areas that are of prime interest to them, so excellence in collection development practices are paramount. Furthermore, public librarians add value to collections by the services and programs that they oVer, and these value-added elements are not always just about the physical spaces of the library. As one example, we have reviewed how Reader’s Advisory services could be so useful to many patrons of the public library. Of course the best way to signal to the public that the library is a ‘‘reading place’’ is to be receptive to questions about reading preferences and to strive for excellence in Reader’s Advisory services. Another aspect of Reader’s Advisory service that might turn a ‘‘space’’ into a ‘‘reading place’’ could be greater facilitation of browsing by using recommended practices (from Baker, 1996 and Goodall, 1989) such as:
arrangement of fiction into sections by genre or alphabetically; increased shelf-guidance and signage; more shelving units allowing face-out display; good lighting and comfortable chairs; weeding the collection: a smaller, well-used current collection is better than a large and outdated collection;
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keeping the shelves from becoming too crowded; providing access to returned books; more imaginative displays; more reading lists and handy bookmarks, and providing a bulletin board for posting book reviews and information about award winners.
There are a myriad of other ways that the library space is turned into an intellectual place, including providing comfortable and appealing spaces and interesting programming for children and young adults, meeting the needs of historical and genealogical researchers, helping community members in their job searches, creating literacy programs and all of the hundreds of other things that public librarians do on a daily basis that signal to the public that the library is a place where study, quiet reflection, research, reading, education, personal growth, development and inspiration are all alive and well. The second aspect of ‘‘place’’ that we have noted above is building upon the library’s ability to create social capital. Social capital can be defined as the ‘‘values and social networks that enable coordination and cooperation within society,’’ the glue which strengthens our civil society (Kranitz, 2001). How does the library foster these social connections? Again, there are many formal ways, such as interaction between library patrons and library staV, providing bulletin boards of library/community events, special community programs in meeting rooms and auditoria, children’s story time and reading programs, author events, adult book discussion groups and friends of the library, to name a few. However, there are also innumerable informal ways that social capital is created within the library and here the inter-relationships between place and space need to be emphasized. For instance, providing adequate rooms for group study, comfortable chairs for reading magazines and newspapers, having pleasant spaces where librarians and patrons can converse and interact, arranging seating areas to take advantage of inspiring vistas, providing easy access to coVee and food, and providing outdoor benches and seating areas are all ways to facilitate informal interaction among patrons. It is important, then, that librarians recognize that patrons’ spatial needs are not only as diverse as their information needs, but that space and place are closely intertwined with the information-seeking activities in which people engage. Patrons’ frustrations or dissatisfaction with public libraries often have more to do with the way that information is packaged or presented in the physical or digital library environment than with the quality or availability of the information itself. By attending to the public’s needs for diVerent types of workable, aesthetically and
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ergonomically pleasing spaces, public libraries also indirectly serve those individuals’ information needs and thus allow the library to develop as a meaningful place in the lives of its users.
VII. Conclusion: Information-Seeking and Models of the Public Library The public library is a very resilient institution. It has been, and always will be, many things to many diVerent people but it is unwavering in its fundamental purpose of meeting the public’s informational and reading needs and providing a place where those seeking information can find assistance with their queries. It is a place where the public can go to seek information in all of its forms, from conversing with other patrons, to interacting with librarians and other library staV, reading about how to make a rug or repair a bathtub, studying Renaissance architecture, searching through an electronic genealogical archive, browsing the stacks for fiction, surfing the Web for a school assignment or searching a specialized database for job opportunities. Given the breadth of information-seeking that takes place in the typical public library, what model might be appropriate to describe what the library is and does? Numerous models have been proposed. Simon (2002) sums up a number of them, including the public library as a community center, play space, study hall, lifelong learning center and cultural center. Bundy (2004) provides an even longer list of models, including knowledge warehouse, cathedral of human knowledge, idea center, information switchboard, the community’s front porch, the new village green and the street corner university. David Carr (2003; 2002) and Thomas Augst (2001) argue forcefully that the library is, in the grand sense, one of our foremost cultural institutions, and more specifically acts as an agency of culture. Carr (2002) states that: Our collections are not only for capturing and holding the culture at hand, they are also structures designed to enable individuals to negotiate the evolving complexities of one life and to recover the powers of personal strength against a thoughtless and uncritical distrust of intellect. Our task, then, as librarians is to rescue our patrons, to enable the broadest and deepest thinking, the kind of thinking that allows us all to go beyond ourselves as we know ourselves, to go beyond our educations, and to go beyond every other limit set upon us by others ( p. 284).
Similarly, Augst (2001, p. 16) comments that the library has represented ‘‘arguments about the location, form and power of knowledge in
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particular social and historical contexts. As a symbolic space, a type of collection, a kind of building, the library gives institutional form to our collective memory.’’ Carr, Augst and other authors may very well be accurate in their descriptions of the library’s overarching cultural purpose and roles. However, in terms of information-seeking and given the prominence of contemporary information technologies in that process, the model that we prefer is the one described by Nardi and O’Day (1999) and that is the public library as an information ecology. An information ecology is: A place with books, magazines, tapes, films and librarians who can help you find and use them.... In a library, access to information for all clients is a core value. This value shapes the policies around which the library is organized, including those relating to technology. A library is a place where people and technology come together in congenial relations, guided by the values of the library ( p. 49).
The authors note that the word ‘ecology’ evokes diversity in a way that the word ‘community’ does not. While a community can be diverse, it can also be homogeneous. An ecology, on the other hand, is composed of parts which are as diVerent from one another as ‘‘oak trees and scrub jays in a California woodland ecology’’ ( p. 56). The other very useful part of the information ecology model, particularly as far as informationseeking goes, is that librarians are described as a ‘‘keystone species’’ ( pp. 53–54). A keystone species is one whose presence is critical to the overall survival of the ecology itself. In the case of a highly technological environment such as the contemporary public library, librarians provide the intelligent searching and filtering that the public so desperately needs. They also provide much more. Nardi (1998, p. 49) comments that, in the course of her research, she was struck by:... the ‘‘high tech, high touch’’ service librarians provided their clients. The latest technologies were in use... [but] right alongside them was the enactment of the librarians’ ethic of service. The librarians contributed their special human abilities of tact, diplomacy, judgment and empathy. Their contributions turned the libraries we studied into places where clients felt comfortable and cared for, at the same time they were receiving the benefits of the most advanced information technologies. If we regard the librarian as the beating heart of the ecological body we call the public library, in eVect working information through the system so that each patron may find the informative life-blood s/he needs, then patrons’ information-seeking behaviors can be seen to be just as vital to the survival of the system as its other attendant parts. This ecological interplay among the library, the librarian and the patron is
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Providing Library Services for Urban Children: Challenges and Strategies Sheri Anita Massey,a Ann Carlson Weeks,a and Teresa Y. Neelyb a
College of Information Studies, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA b University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
I. Introduction A. The Decline of the City
The U.S. Census Bureau reports that 25.7% of individuals residing in the United States were under the age of 18 in the year 2003 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a). Within that group 17.6%, about 12 million children, were living in poverty (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004b). Of the children classified as living in poverty, most lived in metropolitan areas. As defined by the OYce of Management and Budget (OMB), metropolitan areas are geographic entities with more than 50,000 inhabitants, or an urbanized area made up of a central place and adjacent territories where the general population density is at least 1000 people per square mile of land (U.S. Census Bureau 2004c). The largest city in a metropolitan area is called a ‘‘central city’’ or an urban center. These densely populated urban cities are home to most children living in poverty in metropolitan areas. The term ‘‘urban’’ often carries with it references to poverty, crime, or disadvantaged marginalized populations. When searching for information on urban children, terms such as inner-city, at-risk, and socially disadvantaged are listed as related terms and used interchangeably. While this chapter gives attention to disadvantaged urban youth, the term ‘‘urban’’ is used with caution. Not all urban children confront trouble at home, violence in the streets, and/or problems at school. However, the focus of this chapter is ‘‘at-risk’’ children who are often systematically locked out of the benefits of urban life. In this chapter, the term ‘‘at-risk urban children’’ is defined as youth who reside in central cities, and have ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 29 # 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
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an increased chance of academic failure because of personal behaviors, past educational diYculties, or family problems (MidkiV et al., 1991). Because of low academic performance, at-risk children are more likely to live in poverty, maintain a low employment status and engage in criminal behaviors later in life (National Center for Family Literacy, 2003). Theorists note that factors contributing to the decline of the city, such as white and corporate flight, de-industrialization and post-industrial transformation have led to high poverty in urban centers (Gingrich, 1998; Kantor and Brenzel, 1992; Lynn et al., 2003; Ogbu, 1994). An examination of the decline of the urban center from the 1920s to the 1990s illuminates the relationship between the city and the services it provides. This relationship contributes significantly to the deterioration of urban education and the inequities that exist in many urban school and public library systems across the United States. Beginning in the 1920s, African–American southerners in search of employment migrated to urban centers in the north (Kantor and Brenzel, 1992; Kozol, 1991; Orr, 1999). During the 1930s and 1940s, these individuals were increasingly forced out of agricultural positions in the south due to mechanization, and subsequently lured to northern cities by the demands for massive numbers of low-skilled workers needed to fulfill the industrial demands created by WWII1. As people of color moved into the urban centers, white people began to move out. This phenomenon, known as ‘‘white flight,’’ created a largely poor, minority urban center and a wealthy, rich suburb. In many areas, the ‘‘city’’ was primarily made up of impoverished, marginalized individuals and families living in low-income neighborhoods, who were kept from moving out by unfair housing practices and racial discrimination (Kantor and Brenzel, 1992; Kozol, 1991). The trend of minority migration to the city for employment and white flight to the suburbs would continue for decades. Post‐war market changes of the 1950s further contributed to the decline of urban areas. After the war, manufacturing activities in the cities decreased and the need for a large, low-skilled labor force dried up (Kantor and Brenzel, 1992; Kozol, 1991; Orr, 1999). Because of stagnant post-war economic conditions and increased competition from international companies, US factories moved from cities to suburbs to take advantage of lower taxes and operating costs. This corporate flight and lack of jobs led to unemployment for the substantial numbers of 1 African–American migration began to slow by the 1970s, just as Latino migration began in large numbers and continues today. Latinos from Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America and Puerto Rico migrated to the United States lured by the same demand for lowskilled employees (Kantor and Brenzel, 1992).
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undereducated and unskilled laborers of color who were unqualified for the developing information driven professions and, therefore, locked into low-wage jobs. Post-industrial transformation, or the change of the economy from industrialization to ‘‘financial, administrative and social service’’ (Kantor and Brenzel, 1992), resulted in many African– American city dwellers being unprepared to compete in the new labor market. Thus, the combination of northern migration, white and corporate flight, de-industrialization and post-industrial transformation have contributed to the decline of urban cities. These factors have led to concentrated areas of people of color, high levels of unemployment, and poverty for many of the adults and children that live in urban areas today (Kantor and Brenzel, 1992; Kozol, 1991). B. Libraries, Education and Children in the United States
Libraries have long been part of the history of the American education system. Historians have documented the presence of libraries in schools since the early 19th century (Clyde, 1999). Libraries for and funded by the public, with the mission of meeting the needs and interests of children, appear as early as 1835 (Gross, 1967; Power, 1943). According to the American Library Association (ALA), the mission of libraries includes the principle that: ‘‘books and other library resources should be provided for the interest, information, and enlightenment of all people of the community the library serves’’ (American Library Association, 2004c). This mission embraces all people, even those who have been relegated to the lower rungs of the American social hierarchy. In particular, public and school libraries oVer services and resources to all members of their communities—regardless of race, color, religion, or class. By providing equal information access, school and public libraries often serve as spaces for social change and liberation. They are seen as ‘‘places in which children of poor people have a chance to broaden their horizons and expand the reference points of their vocabulary and imagination’’ (Kozol, 2000). However, libraries exist within the structure of inequity that characterizes the American education system (Bowles, 1976). Unequal funding between rich and poor schools leads to inadequate library facilities, outdated print collections and unqualified staV. Kozol states that ‘‘archaic systems of financial allocation’’ lead to ‘‘a conscious act of social demarcation: a shameful way of building barriers around a child’s mind, of starving intellect, of amputating dreams’’ (Kozol, 2000, p. 4). The decline of the city has aVected the availability and quality of the services available to children in urban areas including library services.
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School and public libraries share the responsibility of meeting the information needs of the children they serve. This chapter addresses four questions regarding library services to urban youth: 1. What challenges do urban children face that make them a unique library user population? 2. What strategies and initiatives have been put in place since the 1970s to meet the information needs of urban children, and which of these initiatives have been successful? 3. What factors have aVected the implementation of these initiatives over the last 30 years? 4. What are the common characteristics of successful programs related to these strategies and initiatives?
II. Challenges Facing Urban Children The decline of central cities has created an environment of joblessness and poverty for many urban residents. The resulting conditions can negatively aVect children living in those cities by exposing them to factors that may lead to social, economic, and health problems. Children who are exposed to one or more of the risk factors listed below are more likely to: drop out of school, become teen parents, find themselves dependent on social services such as welfare, and/or find themselves unprepared to excel in the labor market (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2000, 2004; Herb, 2001; Keogh, 2000; Ruiz et al., 2002). Identified risk factors include:
Language minority children—English as a Second Language (ESL); Parents with low education levels; Large families with children closely spaced—overcrowded homes; Non-traditional family structures—single parent, extended families, caregivers other than biological parents; Little or no contact with parents—absent parents, incarcerated parents, or parents with criminal histories; Inadequate housing or homelessness—transient lifestyle, frequent changes in residence; Health issues often related to poor diet and nutrition; Exposure to individuals with substance abuse problems in the home, and Exposure to violence in the home or neighborhood.
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The factors listed above are not discrete; they are often interrelated—one problem causing or contributing to another. Educational theorists put forward that race, class and socio-economic status play a large role in determining which children will be at-risk, thus perpetuating the existing capitalist economic and social structure (Herb, 2001; Lynn et al., 2003; Ogbu, 1994; Shujaa, 1994; Solorzano, 1995). Many urban children are confronted with one or more of the risk factors noted above. When combined with troubling environmental factors, these challenges can result in larger problems that must be addressed. These problems can include low self-esteem; feelings of forced assimilation, negative views of schools and other service institutions, low reading skill levels, discipline problems, and lowered expectations for their futures (Agada, 2001; Button, 1993; Flores, 1997; Frary, 1971; Herb, 2001; Ogbu, 1994; Shujaa, 1994). At-risk urban children are a unique library user population facing phenomenal obstacles in their daily lives. In conjunction with schools and other social institutions, public and school libraries share the responsibility of providing and continually improving quality services that address their needs.
III. Examples of Successful Strategies and Initiatives Although not the first to discuss library services to disadvantaged children, in 1971 Mildred Frary wrote about the challenges inherent in providing eVective school library services to the growing population of socially disadvantaged children in metropolitan areas (Frary, 1971). The authors of this chapter chose to use Frary’s work to outline what were considered to be promising practices in providing library services to atrisk urban children in the early 1970s, and then to continue the discussion by suggesting which services appear to have been eVective over the past 35 years, comment on continuing challenges, and suggest strategies for the future. Based on the research of the 1950s and 1960s, Frary identified examples of initiatives and strategies, which had the potential to improve school library services for urban children including:
Specialized training and professional development for librarians working in urban settings; Multicultural materials and programming; Technology-based services; Community outreach, and Public and school library cooperation.
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Over the past 35 years, the above strategies have been used eVectively in some areas to improve services for ‘‘at risk’’ children; however, in many parts of the country, the library community continues its struggle to meet the unique information needs of urban children. In the following section of this chapter, each initiative or strategy suggested by Frary is revisited. The discussion is then expanded to describe ongoing diYculties, as well as more contemporary services and programs oVered by public as well as school libraries for this user group. A. Specialized Training for Librarians in Urban Settings
Frary talked briefly about the need to provide specialized preparation for individuals planning to work in urban school libraries. She simply indicated that capable personnel were needed to act as catalysts in providing the motivation and the experiences necessary to enable urban children to become literate (Frary, 1971, p. 413). Since the publication of Frary’s work, it has become increasingly evident that school and public children’s librarians face tremendous diYculties working in under-resourced urban settings. They combat poor working conditions caused by budget cuts (or operate without a budget), unsupportive administrators, emotionally and behaviorally challenged children, low salaries, and population fragmentation caused by high levels of ethnic diversity among users (Fullan, 2001). These diYculties cause many new, talented professionals to leave their urban positions after few years, making the retention of children’s librarians in large metropolitan systems a challenge (Elder, 1996). In addition, the library profession in general is expected to face a major shortage of librarians within the next few years due to anticipated large scale retirements. Examples of two programs preparing librarians to work eVectively in urban areas are Preparing Librarians for Urban Schools (PLUS) and Public Urban Library Service Education (PULSE). The Center for Digital Literacy at Syracuse University developed and implemented Preparing Librarians for Urban Schools (PLUS). Launched in August 2002 with funding from the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) and the Jon Ben Snow Foundation, PLUS is a partnership among the School of Information Studies at Syracuse, the Robin Hood Foundation, and New York area school districts to provide distance graduate education in urban school librarianship (Syracuse University School of Information Studies n.d.). The distance education program, which is supplemented with some classroom instruction, allows PLUS students to work through a curriculum that reflects the needs of library media specialists working in urban
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elementary schools (Syracuse University School of Information Studies n.d. ‘‘PLUS‐Preparing Librarians for Urban Schools.’’ Web page, [accessed 21 November 2004]. Available at http://istweb.syr.edu/academics/graduate/mls/mediaprogram/plus/ ). Participants in the PLUS program take specialized coursework that focuses on motivating highly discouraged students, learning with technology, serving as agents of change within schools, and promoting multiculturalism. The courses also focus on helping students gain a greater understanding of the population they will serve. For example, the curriculum emphasizes New York school policies, curricula, and student populations, and participants gain a greater awareness of alternative family dynamics (Syracuse University School of Information Studies n.d. ‘‘PLUS‐ Preparing Librarians for Urban Schools.’’ Web page, [accessed 21 November 2004]. Available at http://istweb.syr.edu/academics/graduate/mls/ mediaprogram/plus/ ). It is this specialized curriculum, along with a practicum placement in an urban setting, that sets PLUS apart from more traditional school library media preparation programs. The first cohort of PLUS students graduated in May 2004. Syracuse researchers plan to evaluate the impact of the specialized training on the participants, the schools in which the librarians work, and the surrounding communities (Holmes, 2003). Similar specialized training is available for urban public librarians and discussed below. The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL), in collaboration with the Pratt Institute School of Library and Information Science, has developed the Public Urban Library Service Education (PULSE) program to meet demands for library professionals in center cities (Brooklyn Public Library, 2004; Pratt Institute School of Library and Information Science n.d.). Initiated in 2003, the PULSE program is designed to attract new librarians from diverse cultures and backgrounds to the library field in order to meet the anticipated shortages in major urban public libraries (American Library Association 2004f; Pratt Institute School of Library and Information Science n.d.). The goal of PULSE is to produce graduates with a wide range of on-the-job experiences, who can exhibit diverse and creative leadership for, and service to, urban public libraries. The growth of programs that target the needs of librarians working in urban areas represents forward progress since the 1970s. Innovative and highly specialized pre-professional programs such as PLUS and PULSE are made possible through collaboration, renewable funding and sustainable leadership. For example, the collaborative agreement between the public schools of New York City and the Center for Digital Literacy at Syracuse University allows a team of individuals to actively seek funding for the specialized training that the library media specialists receive. The agreement also brings together leaders in urban school
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librarianship from colleges and universities around the world (Syracuse University School of Information Studies n.d. ‘‘PLUS‐Preparing Librarians for Urban Schools.’’ Web page, [accessed 21 November 2004]. Available at http://istweb.syr.edu/academics/graduate/mls/mediaprogram/plus/ ). These newly developed programs provide unprecedented opportunities for school and public library professionals working with children, to obtain and improve skills specifically needed to work eVectively in urban libraries. B. Multicultural Materials and Programming
The use of multicultural children’s books to engage African–American and Latino children was a much discussed topic in the 1970s. Some librarians stressed the need for literature that reflected the experiences of the children reading the books, while others strongly championed the use of Newbery and Caldecott award winners with all children, ‘‘hoping that literacy would suddenly blossom,’’ regardless of the child’s background (Frary, 1971, p. 407). The research of the time, however, indicated that children were more likely to read story books that contained content that reflected their environment or ethnic group (Frary, 1971). Frary correlated reading interest with reading ability believing that reading ability increased when children read literature of interest to them. She called for an increase in the availability of relevant literature to disadvantaged children. ‘‘Relevant’’ literature of Frary’s time is considered multicultural today. Literature is considered multicultural when it presents authentic experiences (historic and contemporary) of a culture outside the dominant culture (Sims-Bishop, 1983). Educators and children’s literature scholars and researchers argue that incorporating a more inclusive multicultural and global perspective in the classroom is beneficial and necessary for children. Banks holds that multicultural literature helps children develop more positive racial attitudes and perceptions, and can result in students choosing more friends from outside racial, ethnic and cultural groups (Banks, 1999). Padak and Rasinski agree adding that literature can provide the catalyst for defining, analyzing, and acting upon issues related to various ethnic groups in society (Padak and Rasinski, 1993); and Joels writes that children’s books can be used in the classroom as a vehicle to increase multicultural and global understanding ( Joels, 1999). Frary’s discussion of multicultural children’s literature in the school library reflected research being conducted on school library collections prior to 1971, when her article was written. In a landmark 1965 study, Larrick analyzed 5000 trade books published for children from 1962 to 1964 (Larrick, 1965). She found that less than 1% of those books
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mentioned contemporary African–Americans in the text or illustrations. White children could see themselves in the stories they read and heard, but they were unlikely to see anyone diVerent from themselves. Conversely, children of color had few storybook characters that aYrmed their identities, and were left with mostly white views of American society (Mendoza and Reese, 2001). According to Larrick, both circumstances are detrimental, limiting children’s views of the world and negatively aVecting self-esteem (Larrick, 1965). Combined with the changing social climate throughout the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Larrick’s research motivated book-buyers to push for a change in the publishing industry. Subsequently, publishers increased production of children’s books that represented the diverse cultural landscape of the United States with more sensitivity, accuracy, and authenticity (Hirschfelder, 1993). In 1983, Sims-Bishop (1983) conducted what can be considered a companion study to Larrick’s work on race representation in children’s books. She examined picture books published primarily after Larrick’s study, focusing on the late 1960s, the 1970s and 1980s. She reported an increased number of multicultural picture books available to youth, which she categorized as socially conscious, melting pot, and culturally conscious books (Sims-Bishop, 1983). Sims-Bishop found an increase in socially conscious books that authentically represented the African– American experiences from an African–American individual’s point of view. Sims-Bishop and others have noted an increase in the diversity of multicultural picture books available to children since 1965, but note that there is work to be done before library collections are representative of the diversity in the American population (Hirschfelder, 1993). The rise in the number of multicultural children’s books produced since the 1970s has transformed the way scholars evaluate children’s literature. There has been an increase in the number of Caldecott and Newbery medals awarded to multicultural work for children (American Library Association, 2004a,e) However, Sims-Bishop suggests that while diverse stories are being increasingly told, they are not coming from the populations they represent (Sims-Bishop, 1983). In other words, it is mostly white authors and illustrators writing the stories of non-white communities and subsequently winning the awards (Mendoza and Reese, 2001; Sims-Bishop, 1983). Researchers have found that multicultural literature is often most accurate when produced by a member of the group being portrayed in the story (Mikkelsen, 1998). Though some object to this practice (Aronson, 2001), awards that recognize work by authors and illustrators of color are increasing (American Library Association, 2004d). Since the mid-1970s major literary awards have recognized the value of the diverse
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experiences in books for children (American Library Association, 2004d). For instance, since 1976 the Coretta Scott King Award has recognized the exemplary work of authors and illustrators of African descent (American Library Association, 2004b). Similarly, the Pura Belpre´ Award has acknowledged contributions of Latino book creators since 1996 (American Library Association and Association for Library Service to Children, 2004). There has been a remarkable increase in the availability of authentic multicultural children’s literature from the communities being represented, and in the recognition of book creators of color since Frary’s article. However, like other areas of work related to urban youth, there is still much to be done. For example, contemporary Hmong, Pacific Island and Native American/American Indian peoples, among others, continue to remain under-represented in books for children (Horning et al., 2004; Cooperative Children’s Book Center n.d.). Simply producing more multicultural materials does not ensure their use by at-risk urban children. Funds for purchasing multicultural print materials may not be available in urban libraries. In 2000, Philadelphia, Washington (DC), and Boston schools reported books dating back to the 1950s and 60s on library shelves (Brown, 2004). Similar situations exist in urban schools across the United States (Brown, 1990; Kozol, 1991; Manzo, 1999). In many urban library systems, funds for telecommunications technology acquisition are more easily attainable than funds for print collection development (Brown, 2004). As computer technologies and telecommunications infrastructure become more available in urban schools and public libraries through outside funding sources such as E-rate2, digital libraries could play increasingly important roles in providing schools with access to diverse content. Digital libraries can be considered extensions of, but not replacements for, physical libraries. They have benefits such as 24 access, bringing the library to the user, enabling simultaneous use of individual resources, powerful searching and browsing, the ability to share unique collections, and timely access to current information. Especially important for under-resourced urban schools is that digital libraries allow educators to use and re-use easily accessible content from reliable sources in new and creative ways. One example of a digital library designed for children is the International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL).
2
E-rate is a program regulated by the Federal Communications Commission that provides telecommunications discounts for schools and libraries
.
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The International Children’s Digital Library ICDL, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the IMLS, is a research project at the University of Maryland College Park to create a digitized collection of international children’s books with access free of charge via the Internet (Hourcade et al., 2003). The goals of the project are to create a collection that ‘‘reflects the similarities and diVerences in cultures, societies, interests, lifestyles, and priorities of people around the world’’ (Weeks, 2003). Unlike digital libraries that generally contain only public domain and out of copyright materials, the ICDL oVers online access to historical as well as contemporary, in copyright literature in multiple languages. To date, this unique collection is the largest international collection of children’s multicultural and multilingual literature available online. Researchers have begun to explore the role of digital libraries in urban education and how they can be integrated into the curriculum to support learning objectives (Weeks, 2003). Projects such as the ICDL can provide under-resourced urban libraries access to a diverse collection of multicultural children’s literature using technology they may already have. They are able to do so through collaboration and information-sharing, and renewable funding sources. The ICDL collection is made available through international contributors including authors and illustrators, national libraries, private organizations and publishers worldwide. Financial support for the library from the NSF and IMLS allow the materials to be available free of cost. Combined, these practices allow the researchers to focus on building a collection that meets the diverse needs of readers in the US and abroad. Multicultural literature, available in either physical or digital formats, can be used eVectively by librarians working with at-risk urban children by addressing the issues of low self-esteem, low reading scores and negative views of social institutions they may have. Growth in the use of multicultural children’s literature has had a significant positive impact on the provision of library services to urban children. The research reviewed suggests significant growth in the creation, evaluation and dissemination of multicultural literature for young urban people since the 1970s with improvement eVorts continuing today. This area has seen the most growth since Frary’s piece was published. C. Technology-based Services
Researchers and scholars believe that technology may be used to compensate for children’s limited reading ability, to enrich reading and learning experiences, and to serve as a vehicle for individual expression (MidkiV et al., 1991). Frary encouraged librarians to seek out and use
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information transmitted in formats other than the traditional book with urban children. In the 1970s, these formats meant photographs, television, films and tape recordings. Today, the computer oVers the most frequent example of an alternative format. Unfortunately, studies show that low-income Latino and African– American students are less likely to use computers at school and less likely to have computers at home than their white and Asian counterparts (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2000). This reality puts them at a significant disadvantage in accessing advanced technology and decreases opportunities for them to become computer literate, or to learn the computer-related skills they will need to be competitive in the workplace (Pachon et al., 2000). For many, libraries can help bridge this gap by providing access to technology and connections to the online world and its resources. E-rate, private organizations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and other funding assistance programs and organizations have helped provide hardware, infrastructure and connectivity to under-resourced schools and libraries in urban areas (Federal Communications Commission, 2004; Trotter, 2000). Although there has been a rapid proliferation of information technologies in schools and libraries since the 1970s, in many cases there has not been the educational framework nor the training in place to eVectively implement these technologies in urban settings (Brown, 2004; Education Week on the Web Special Report Series, 2001). Studies have found that children in high poverty urban areas can become ‘‘technology losers’’ when computers are used as substitutes for typewriters or flash cards and are not used to support challenging learning goals (Cuban et al., 2001). An example of how technology can be used eVectively to support learning goals is The Digital Library Project developed by CUIP3, a collaborative partnership among the University of Chicago, The Chicago Public Schools (CPS), and 26 CPS schools (University of Chicago and The Chicago Public Schools Department of eLearning n.d.). The CUIP partners have created a suite of initiatives for supporting educators in integrating technology resources into classrooms. For example, in 1997 the CUIP staV created a user-friendly Web site that provides access to a dynamic set of curriculum relevant materials, based on a wish list developed by librarians, teachers and technology coordinators. Responding to educators’ expressed needs, the developers created a list of 3 CUIP is an abbreviation for the Chicago Public Schools and the University of Chicago Internet Project.
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resources including professional, math, music and reference resources, as well as materials related to local interests, current events, and African– American history. The result is a Web site called eCUIP, or electronic CUIP, that allows schools to access a digital library of curriculum-related materials collected through the partnership. Teachers and library media specialists are invited to collaborate with project staV in producing curriculum modules for the digital library, which are specially designed for use in Chicago Public Schools. Additional training is available to ensure the integration of technology into the classroom supports student inquiry. The extent to which the CUIP staV have collaborated with educators to develop eCUIP and related resources that integrate new technology into the curriculum is uncommon. Many technologies designed for use in schools are developed without teacher input. Over 30 years ago, Frary encouraged the increased use of alternative technologies in agencies serving urban youth; however, limited progress has been made in realizing the full pedagogical benefits of existing and emerging technologies. While hardware and software continue to be introduced into classrooms and libraries, more research is needed to determine how these technologies are being used, and in some cases, if they are being used at all. D. Community Outreach
Frary wrote that the librarian’s role was to act as a catalyst to increase community learning (Frary, 1971). She added that promoting the use of library materials in the homes of disadvantaged children could lead to increased literacy development for the children and their families. Libraries seek to be a visible presence in the communities they serve by partnering with and maintaining programs for their user populations (Constantino, 1994). However, Asch suggests that lack of knowledge of school and public library services presents a barrier to many lowincome urban users (Asch, 1998). Herb proposes that community outreach is one method that can be used by urban librarians to become knowledgeable about the surrounding community and the challenges faced by the local population (Herb, 2001). Implementation of outreach services also increases library visibility and presents opportunities to inform the surrounding community of the diverse services the library provides. Increased visibility can then translate into increased use, expanded services and community-relevant programming (Asch, 1998). Beginning in early childhood, libraries seek to support youth throughout their growth and development, thus promoting academic
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success and assuring lifelong library use (Herb, 2001). In a survey conducted by the Urban Libraries Council (ULC) in 2002, researchers found that public libraries work in four major areas that aVect the quality of life for urban youth: strengthening children and their families, preparing children for school success, supporting out of school learning, and recognizing and supporting youth as community assets (Urban Libraries Council, 2002). School libraries function in a similar manner to support student success. The ULC council also reported that 84% of the public libraries they surveyed provided additional family literacy and reading programs (Urban Libraries Council, 2002). Family-oriented services, including computer classes and spaces for child care assistance, were available for new families, and families new to the US. After school support at the school or public library provides the individualized homework help that many children are not able to receive at home. Services such as homework help; camps, workshops, and other personal learning opportunities; college and career information; and youth employment information and opportunities make public and school libraries invaluable resources to urban youth throughout their development. By expanding the library’s role in the community, libraries strengthen families and support growing children (Urban Libraries Council, 2002). Cleveland, Ohio is an example of a large, urban center battling the eVects of high poverty within its population. In 2003, 46.9% of children in Cleveland were living in poverty or distressed areas, the highest percentage of children under 18 years old living in poverty in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003). The Cleveland Public Library has created an urban outreach program that is successfully meeting the needs of its community. Library leaders recognized that low-income parents are faced with economic, social, and educational challenges that make it diYcult to establish positive behaviors and attitudes that nurture achievement in their children (Feldman, 1999). In response to the growing needs of local families, the library used federal Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA) funding through the State Library of Ohio, along with matching library funds, to develop the Family Learning Connection (FLC) in 1997 (Cleveland Public Library, 2000; Institute of Museum and Library Services, 2000). The FLC is a family literacy initiative, designed to increase opportunities for parent-child reading, playing and computer interactions (Feldman, 1999). Since Frary’s article in the 1970s, libraries have been successful in making community outreach an integral part of their missions. Community outreach allows libraries to actively provide information and services to urban families thereby empowering care givers, and providing positive and meaningful experiences with literacy (Herb, 2001). Programs such as
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the FLC can be found in urban school and public libraries across the United States (Urban Libraries Council, 2002). Strong leadership in the libraries and in the communities, and collaborations between librarians and community organizers, have contributed to the success of programs such as these. E. Public and School Library Cooperation
Public and school libraries have traditionally worked with a range of cultural institutions to extend the services they oVer their users. The projects and services created as a result of these partnerships can positively impact the at-risk children by reinforcing learning outside of the classroom. For example, the Indianapolis–Marion County Library has partnered with the Children’s Museum of Indianapolis to create InfoZone, a branch of the library inside the museum (Indianapolis–Marion County Public Library and The Children’s Museum of Indianapolis, 2005). Children visiting the museum can also visit the InfoZone library for in-depth information on topics of interest. This unique library/ museum partnership brings together captivating museum exhibits and rich library resources under one roof. While the value of partnerships between school and public libraries and cultural institutions cannot be underestimated, it is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss them in depth. We have chosen to focus on the cooperative relationships between school and public libraries as those were the relationships addressed in Frary’s original article. School and public library cooperation to reinforce learning connections was not a new phenomenon in the 1970s; however, Frary particularly emphasized the importance of library cooperation in maintaining parental enthusiasm and participation in children’s educational lives (Frary, 1971). For at-risk children, increased parental involvement helps to oVset low reading skill levels, low self-esteem and discipline problems (Keogh, 2000). Discussions of school–public library cooperation can be seen as early as 1945 when the first set of national school library standards were published by the American Library Association (Fitzgibbons, 2000). However, it was not until the 1970s and late 1980s that cooperation between these two institutions became more widely realized (Fitzgibbons, 2000). As evidenced in the Spring 2001 special issue of the Journal of Youth Services on school–public library cooperation, thirty years after Frary’s piece, scholars and researchers continue to exchange suggestions to facilitate cooperative relationships between libraries serving youth in an attempt to institutionalize the practice. According to Fitzgibbons, the roles of school and public libraries are complementary and mutually reinforcing (Fitzgibbons, 1989, 2001).
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Public libraries meet the learning needs of pre-school children. School libraries provide structured learning experiences for young people ages 5 to 18, while public libraries provide recreational, supplemental curricular, and other information resources for young people and their families, as well as resources and services for out of school adults and other members of the community. When both school and public libraries are well supported, they allow children to grow within the libraries, seamlessly passing from resource to resource (Fitzgibbons, 2001). School and public library partnerships come in many forms, from simple communications to shared facilities (Mercier, 1991). Networking and resource sharing are the most basic forms of library partnering. In the past, Fitzgibbons reports, psychological, funding, political, legal, communication and planning issues represented barriers to information-sharing. However, the Internet and electronic technologies have changed the way networking and resource sharing takes place, making school and public library partnerships more feasible. Other forms of school and public library cooperation include co-sponsored information services and instruction for community groups, programs that encourage reading and literacy for individuals of all ages, collaborative collection development arrangements, and the creation of joint school–public library facilities. The increasing development of informal community consortia and more formal resource sharing agreements among school, public and academic libraries is likely to continue. Regardless of the level of the relationship, there is a general consensus that even the simplest form of cooperation can extend the resource base and allow library staV to better meet local information needs (Fitzgibbons, 1989, 2000, 2001; Mercier, 1991). One program dedicated to fostering collaboration and outreach is the Connecting Libraries and Schools Project (CLASP) in New York—a partnership among the New York Public Library, the Brooklyn Public Library, the Queens Borough Public Library, and local area elementary and middle schools (New York Public Library n.d.). Since 1991, CLASP has accomplished its major goal of connecting public libraries and schools through a variety of programs and services including literacy workshops for parents and staV development for local educators. Modifying CLASP based on evaluative feedback has helped the program remain dynamic and assures its continued growth. In order for school and public libraries to move toward increased cooperation, Fitzgibbons suggests that library staV engage in shared visioning, formal planning and active communicating (Fitzgibbons, 2000). Communication and commitment are vital to the success of cooperative programs. While school–public library cooperation is not unusual, the level of collaboration that the CLASP project has shown is
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quite unusual. Programs such as CLASP have been successful because of strong support from local organizations, their commitment to collaboration with the community as well as with library staV, and funding from outside organizations such as the DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Foundation4.
IV. Conclusion A. Promising Practices: Summary of Common Elements and Useful Strategies
The implementation of strategies for improving library services for urban children suggested by Frary and others over the past thirty years ago has not been without diYculties. Funding sources that once existed to support promising practices have been eliminated. StaV training is often limited to infrequent sessions with little opportunity for acquisition and utilization of new skills; and high staV turnover rates caused by the strain of working in high-poverty urban areas have led to inconsistent staYng and leadership (Fullan, 2001). StaV discontent and apathy have made information-sharing between personnel and the community a challenge. As new technologies are created, new divides open rendering obsolete technology for which dedicated individuals fiercely fought. These and other issues have slowed the progress of implementing programs designed to improve the chances for at-risk urban children to achieve. However, from the progress that has been made, it is possible to identify common elements and useful strategies that facilitate and support the implementation of programs such as those discussed above. Four characteristics of exceptional programs emerged from the review of published research consulted for this chapter:
leadership that actively seeks to build new relationships that may result in increased collaboration; extensive staV training with opportunities to implement innovation in authentic ways; collaboration and information-sharing, and creative funding and budgeting.
Libraries that have successfully implemented programs such as those mentioned above embody most, if not all, of these characteristics. 4 The DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Foundation is a charitable, grant-making institution. For more information visit: http://www.rd.com/corporate/rd_foundation.html
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B. Leadership
Pachon et al. (2000) stress the value of entrepreneurial leadership, or leadership demonstrated by individuals with vision and entrepreneurial drive. Entrepreneurial library leaders provide direction and support for their staV, display resourcefulness in obtaining funding, and strive to create a culture of collaboration that outlasts their time with a given organization (Pachon et al., 2000). The creation of a culture of collaboration by the leader and others in the organization is fundamental to the continued success of the initiatives discussed in this chapter. It is the leader that fosters a culture that supports change, establishes a shared vision for the program, and equips staV with the tools needed to sustain successful programs that ensure the future success of collaborative endeavors (Fullan, 2001). Leaders of the PLUS, PULSE, and eCUIP programs demonstrate this characteristic by building partnerships with universities and community organizations, by identifying renewable funding sources, and by oVering public and school library professionals and classroom teachers the tools needed to create change in their learning and teaching environments. C. Training
Professional development for teachers and librarians in many highpoverty urban settings is often fragmented and piecemeal. Only when educators have the skills they need for teaching will the students become proficient in the concepts being imparted. Cohesive training programs must be based on a set of standards that provide guidance and direction for staV. PLUS and PULSE are examples of pre-professional programs designed to prepare school and public library personnel for employment in urban areas before they enter the workplace. In addition to preprofessional preparation, an ongoing professional development plan enables practitioners the day-to-day opportunities to apply new skills in real world settings. This type of pre-professional training, as well as ongoing professional development, requires a time commitment from library staV and support from leadership. In addition, a professionally developed program that is coordinated, focused on clear learning goals, and sustainable over time is key to improving library service (Fullan, 2001). D. Collaboration and Information-Sharing
When programs are implemented in isolation continued success is unlikely. Collaboration beyond the library or school fosters increased information-sharing, thus potentially enlarging the support network and
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extending the reach of limited resources. Shared visioning, informationsharing and collaboration promote the development of a cohesive program (Fullan, 2001). The Internet has proven eVective in promoting and supporting collaboration in urban school and public libraries. Resource and information-sharing through online catalogs and portals is made possible with the use of Internet technology (Fitzgibbons, 2000). All of the programs presented in this chapter recognize the importance of collaboration and information-sharing between public and school libraries, as well as among community groups, local government and universities. E. Sustainable/Renewable/Creative Funding Sources
Federal funding earmarked solely for library use, such as the grants awarded by the Improving Literacy Through School Libraries Program5, are welcomed, but insuYcient, to provide the needed resources for urban young people (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). Federal, earmarked funds are needed, because in many communities policy makers are not aware of the importance and value of libraries in meeting the needs of urban youth. As a result, they are often the targets of budget cuts and unlikely to receive locally allocated funds. Both public and school libraries must make use of empirical research to demonstrate the economic value of the services they provide. The same research demonstrating the eVect of libraries on student achievement may also be used to actively seek innovative, sustainable, and/or renewable sources of funding. Fostering government, university, industry and business relationships to boost limited financial budgets has proven to be a viable option as well (Bell, 1994). Many of the programs presented in this chapter, such as the ICDL, eCUIP and PLUS, have utilized partnerships for, among other things, renewable sources of financial support. F. A Final Word
The challenges involved in providing library services to urban children are often inextricably tied to the problems of urban education and the decline of the city. The implementation of programs designed to support at-risk urban youth have been slow to take hold and become part of the fabric that makes up many school and public libraries. The programs and 5
Part of the reading skills improvement grants oVered through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act/No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
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projects explored since Frary’s article illustrate that regardless of setbacks, positive changes can be made with the right infrastructure in place. Ongoing research on the implementation of the above mentioned initiatives may identify additional barriers that ultimately limit beneficial services from the children who need them most. Old questions surrounding necessity of adequate and suYcient funding and the importance of demonstrating the value of the library to key stakeholders remain. Thirty years have demonstrated that it is not reasonable to expect overnight success in resolving deep-rooted problems that have existed for so long; however, there is suYcient evidence to suggest that with continued eVort and the development of new strategies based upon new technologies and new collaborations, the information needs of at-risk urban youth can be eVectively addressed. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this chapter. References Agada, J. (2001). ‘‘Deconstructing the at-risk student phenomenon: Can librarian values salvage education for the 21st century?’’ Web page, [accessed 8 December 2004]. Available at http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlevents/agada.pdf American Library Association and Association for Library Service to Children (2004). ‘‘The Pura Belpre´ Award.’’ Web page, [accessed 2 February 2005]. Available at http://www.ala.org/ala/alsc/awardsscholarships/literaryawds/ belpremedal/belprmedal.htm American Library Association (2004a). ‘‘Caldecott medal winners and honor books, 1938-present.’’ Web page, [accessed 28 November 2004]. Available at http://w ww .al a. or g / ala /a lsc /a wa rdssc ho l ar shi p s/l ite ra rya wds/ ca ldec ot tmedal/caldecotthonors/caldecot tmedal.htm American Library Association (2004b). ‘‘Coretta Scott King Book Awards.’’ Web page, [accessed 2 February 2005]. Available at http://www.ala.org/ala/srrt/ corettascottking/corettascott.htm American Library Association (2004c). ‘‘Library Bill of Rights.’’ Web page, [accessed 7 October 2004]. Available at http: //www.ala.org American Library Association (2004d). ‘‘Literary and related awards.’’ Web page, [accessed 13 January 2005]. Available at http://www.ala.org/ala/alsc/ awardsscholarships/literaryawds/literaryrelated.htm American Library Association (2004e). ‘‘Newbery medal and honor books, 1922present.’’ Web page, [accessed 28 November 2004]. Available at http://www. ala.org/ala/al sc/awardsscholarships/li teraryawds/newberymedal/newberyhonors/newberymedal.htm American Library Association (2004f). ‘‘Pilot program oVers urban library training.’’ Web page, [accessed 19 November 2004]. Available at http://www.ala.org/
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Three Decades of Challenges and Changes in US Embassy Libraries Around the World Wendy A. Simmons
United State Consulate General, Lagos, Nigeria*
I. Introduction At many crucial moments in recent foreign aVairs, relations between the United States and other nations of the world have hinged on our diplomats providing accurate and timely information to governments and foreign publics about our government’s policies and our goals (Dunlop, 1996). Within the US government, our relations with other peoples of the world was coined as public diplomacy, as opposed to oYcial diplomacy between governments, by the Kennedy administration. Despite strains in US relations with other countries, international opinion polls mostly show that Americans are still admired, even as there are disagreements with US policies (Pew Research Center for People and the Press, 2003; What the World Thinks, 2004). Since the terror attacks of 11 September 2001 [9/11], the American public has become more aware of the image of the US overseas and the problems that image has. If left only to movies, television, music videos and CNN, the impression of America is likely to be distorted. Misunderstandings of US society, the reasoning goes, are the basis for many people around the world, particularly young people, to dislike Americans and feel compelled to challenge us (Beers, 2002; U.S. Tries to Beautify, 2002; Tutwiler, 2004). In the soul searching that took place after the attacks, criticisms were leveled at the US government for its failure to conduct eVective public diplomacy. Among the litany of complaints by the many commissions, *The views expressed in this article are those of the author and in no way express official U.S. government policy.
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studies, articles, reports, etc. are that cultural exchanges, such as artistic and cultural ambassador programs were cut and that many print publications were eliminated (Advisory Group on Public Diplomacy for the Arab and Muslim World, 2003; Center for Arts & Culture, 2004; Making the Case to the World, 2003; United States National Advisory Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 2004; Public Diplomacy Council, 2005). Most of these reports also lament that over the last 20 years many of the libraries we established for local people around the world are now closed or for all intents and purposes shut to the public in order to focus on services for the elite, decision-making level of societies. How can foreign publics get to know us if we have drastically reduced our presence overseas? What role can libraries play in the confrontation against terror? Does open access to information provide a wedge against extremist views among impressionable youth? Americans may take for granted that well stocked and equipped libraries are necessary to democracy and to enterprise. Our schools, universities, private organizations and municipalities have libraries that are focal points for their institutions or their communities. In foreign countries, US embassy libraries or Information Resource Centers (IRCs) provide overseas publics with access to current and authoritative information about the US, providing a service that modestly mirrors what Americans have on home soil. Libraries and IRCs of US embassies are one of the many tools of US diplomacy overseas that engage the public. They provide a service that is a unique exception to other sections of US missions abroad, by responding to queries from the public for information they need for their own work, professional or personal goals. As with any organization, it is the creativity and dedication of the staV, adapting to change and making the best use of resources, that makes the program successful. IRC staV use electronic and print resources to answer complex queries and up to date technologies to distribute information. They prepare outreach products that are highly regarded by host country users (Quan, 1998). United States embassy libraries have had their critics over the years. Conservatives accused the United States Information Service (USIS, the overseas name for the United States Information Agency or USIA) libraries of holding books and documents in their collections that did not suYciently support the policy viewpoint of the administration, particularly during the Cold War (Drummond, 1953, 1). Academics complained that USIS libraries in the 1960s in India had ‘‘bland’’ collections (Boewe, 2004, 25). On the left, they are criticized for being primarily a propaganda tool for US imperialist policies overseas, rather than a library with range of ideas, in the American mold (Rosenzweig,
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2003, 10). The reality is more benign. According to the Foreign AVairs Manual ‘‘The information resource base available through an IRC should be balanced and representative of the prominent currents of past and contemporary US thought . . .’’ (United States Department of State, 2005). Critics who actually visit embassy libraries and IRCs overseas, look at the collections, and speak to local patrons who the service is intended for may find that the embassy libraries and IRCs are (or were) one of the most popular services provided by the US government, and are considered a great loss if they were closed ( Jones, 1997). Depending on the host country, the IRC staV may be a respected member of a local library community and information sector. In a closed society, the IRC may be a refuge where readers have the possibility of free and open access to a diversity of opinion. In poor developing countries an IRC may be the only or one of the only locations to provide access to current information, in print and electronically. This article describes some challenges IRC staVs have faced over the last 30 years. It follows the diversity of the responses and accommodations from diVerent corners of the globe to external challenges, to changing information technology throughout the system and in librarianship, and to changing directives and funding from within the headquarters in Washington that mandate the program.
II. Libraries in the State Department The network of more than 170 IRCs around the world form one of the largest networks of US government libraries. IRCs were established, from the 1940s, to provide citizens in each country with authoritative, balanced, current information on US politics, government, law, economics, society, culture and the arts. The collections are about the United States, with only basic information about the host country. Each IRC responds to local conditions, local needs, and local expectations within local capabilities, while at the same time conforming to State Department initiatives and goals that are established centrally in Washington. As the target audience for IRC services changed over the last 20 to 30 years, demands for documentation and reporting on the contribution of IRC activity toward successful bilateral relations have increased. American visitors may be welcome, but IRCs are mandated by Congress to serve local populations. Information Resource Center staV members are hired as permanent employees of a US embassy or consulate. They are usually trained and experienced English-speaking librarians, but in countries without
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formal library education, or good quality libraries, the embassy hires professionals or university graduates in related disciplines with English language abilities and provides on-the-job training. An American Foreign Service oYcer, who directs all the public diplomacy activities for an embassy, supervises the library as part of his or her activities, serves in a country for an assignment of two to four years. That American is not a librarian, so both he or she and the local staV are assisted and counseled by a small corps of professional American librarians, who are Foreign Service oYcers, specializing in library work. Each of these American librarians, whose oYcial title is Information Resource OYcer (IRO) lives in a country that is a regional hub and is responsible for advising between four and twelve countries in a region, depending on the size of the program and the ease of travel. IROs visit each country approximately twice a year to train IRC staV, and assist with administrative and personnel issues. They may take a role in public programming during their regional visits. IROs conduct training workshops for staV in their regions. They are in contact by e-mail otherwise. Information Resource Centers are part of the Public Diplomacy sections of embassy operations, so IRC staVs integrate their work first and foremost with their cultural aVairs and press oYce colleagues within Public Diplomacy. Public AVairs Sections, as they are known overseas, are likened to a three-legged stool, each leg required for the unit to be balanced and functioning well. Cultural section programs engage local academic, nongovernmental organizations, the civil service, politicians in and out of government, professionals, labor unions and artistic communities by organizing tours of US speakers, administering educational exchange programs, nominating local professionals for visitor programs to the US, holding artistic exhibits, musical tours and much more. Press sections work with the local and international media to inform the public about oYcial US activities and policies in their country. They are spokespersons for an embassy or consulate. Besides conducting research on demand, IRC staVs support the press and cultural sections of the Public AVairs OYces with information that is often attractively presented, to enhance their interactions with local contacts. They may prepare informational products to accompany an American coming to speak about any topic from community policing, to ethics in journalism, to reforming university administrations, to trade liberalization or museum management issues, to name a few, which are given to local audiences. IRCs have their own constituencies, drawn from press and cultural contacts as well as from other researchers with questions about the US. In Washington, the Bureaus of International Information Programs and of Educational and Cultural AVairs of the State Department assist
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public diplomacy programs in US embassies through products and services, while day-to-day operations are funded through Public Diplomacy sections in each regional bureau of the State Department. Information Resource Center funding in each country is part of the general budget for public diplomacy operations. The amount devoted to library resources is at the discretion of the American Foreign Service oYcer at a particular post, from money authorized by Public Diplomacy oYces in regional bureaus of the State Department, hopefully in consultation with their IRO. Information technology oVers US embassy librarians challenges and rewards similar to librarians around the world. In developed countries, US embassy library staVs make heavy use of technology and are usually among the most progressive and innovative professionals in their country. In many developing countries, however, US embassy librarians are far ahead of their local counterparts in all aspects of using information technology. Libraries are rarely a spending priority for any institution, even less for a population that as a rule does not read and does not consume information as Americans do. Internet is still a novelty for many people in poor countries, even at the professional level, and library automation software is being installed for the first time in many places around the world. In this context, US embassy librarians are models of sound library practice to their colleagues. There is rarely any local venue for training or gaining practice in the use of information technology, however, so staVs are often self-taught, with the help of occasional visits from IROs and regional workshops. Modern American library practice goes beyond the use of information technology, however. American librarians’ standards for high quality service, regardless of the customer, for open access to shelves and resources (Dizard, 2004, 179), for development of programs, and for proactive marketing of library services are also aspects of US library training and practice which are not common to many countries. These skills and values also must be learned on the job, for the most part.
III. Early History The OYce of War Information within the State Department was the entity responsible for up to 28 libraries established around the world during World War II, as well as for press operations and cultural exchange programs by the time it disbanded in 1945 (Wieck, 1992, 11). From that time, embassy libraries were generally established within operations of USIA. USIA was established in the Eisenhower Administration, by
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consolidating the Division of Cultural Cooperation, the International Information Division and the Central Translation Bureau of the State Department into one operation. Part of the legislation establishing USIA was, among others, a section referred to as Smith-Mundt, that forbids dissemination of information by USIA to domestic audiences, to safeguard against the government propagandizing to its own citizens (Borys and Manning, 2004, 3). Although relatively unknown within the US, USIA attracted many talented journalists, academics and artists to join the US Foreign Service, especially under the tenure of Edward R. Murrow during the Kennedy Administration. They were inspired by his catch phrase, ‘‘Telling America’s Story to the World’’ and his concept that the most important challenge we face with the world’s population was to make positive contact within ‘‘the last three feet,’’ that is person to person (Zaharna, 2003). The history of US embassy libraries mirrors the other parts of USIA. Up to the 1980s was generally a period of growth and expansion around the world in the context of the Cold War (Borys and Manning, 2004, 5). In European countries with long-standing, mature diplomatic relations with the US, embassy libraries oVered readers modest but good collections on the US, suitable for university-level readers doing serious research on American topics (Castle, 1955, 61). The use of American fee-paid databases, accessed via telephone lines, and the introduction of library automation software occurred more or less at the same time in embassy libraries as in other libraries of the developed world or the US. US embassy librarians were on equal footing with regard to database use and library automation as innovative and well-endowed local libraries. Internet use naturally followed from earlier use of information technology. In the developing world, in countries with friendly relations to the US, embassy libraries were often model, modest public libraries, catering to all, but particularly favored by secondary school and university students. The concept of reaching the successor generation was a common theme in USIS and USIS library services (United States Information Agency, 1999). Library staV were trained by IROs to use US resources and inculcated with US theories of reference services and open access library shelves. Many developing countries could not hope to aVord to provide such services. USIS libraries frequently oVered the most up-todate source of information available in the country. Congress funds the US embassy library program, and although mostly the relationship is straightforward, there have been occasional rocky moments. The definition of balance in the collections was tested during the McCarthy era, when USIS libraries in Europe were accused of
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having books in their collections that were not suYciently supportive of US policy in the Cold War or that even supported Communism. President Eisenhower may be the only US President ever to wade into a debate on the content of USIS library collections, squarely on the side of holding a variety of information and responsible points of view, in balanced collections, in US overseas libraries (Ripley, 1953, 3). Through the 1950s, 1960s and into the 1970s, multiple libraries in major cities around each country were established as part of USIS operations, from Brazil and Colombia, to Nigeria and Zaire, and to Indonesia and Thailand. In Latin America, Germany and elsewhere, USIS oYcers often worked closely with a network of local institutions, loosely called binational centers that taught English and/or served as American cultural centers. These centers had libraries that received support from USIS librarians and donations of American books and periodicals. United States Information Service libraries also suVered as a result of their open, public access services. As the most visible oYcial American presence in many countries, whenever local populations were upset with US policy, the libraries were easy targets of their anger. USIS libraries bore the brunt in Africa, Europe and Asia—being trashed, occupied, and fire bombed. From 1947 to 1964, 75 incidents took place in 33 countries around the globe (Kurzman, 1964, A17). In Jakarta and Surabaya, Indonesia, USIS libraries were sacked and books burned by angry students in 1964 (USIS Library Seized, 1964). In 1984, 73 students occupied the USIS library in Kwangju, South Korea, although the incident ended peacefully after five days (Dunlop, 1996). A bomb damaged the USIS library in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1952 (Bomb wrecks USIS Library, 1952, 13); students attacked the USIS library in Accra, Ghana in 1965 to protest US policy in the Congo and Southeast Asia (U.S. library in Ghana damaged, 1965, A13). According to a retired Foreign Service OYcer, USIA workers in that era liked to joke that their library was just a stone’s throw away from the local university (Dizard, 2004, 154). USIS libraries also provoked host governments, in countries such as China and Yugoslavia, where relations with the US were frosty during the Cold War (U.S. library draws Changchun Chinese, 1947, 3; Closing of Belgrade Library Threatens New Row with Tito 1946, 1). Over the years USIS libraries have had a major impact on the library communities in many countries. USIS Singapore established that country’s first free public library in 1950 (Halsema, 1989). Former IRO Rachel Barreto Edensword introduced CD-ROM technology to many Central American countries in the late 1980s (Edensword, 1990, 4). At the time, CD-ROM technology was a huge advance for the region, oVering users a
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compact resource, with enormous storage capacity, and frequently updated information, in an area that was just becoming familiar with information technology. USIS libraries of Germany developed a variety of sophisticated business information products in the mid-1990s to respond to the needs of both US and German business clients, with heavy emphasis on electronic resources and distribution (Rajczak, 1997, 227). The USIS library in Ecuador played an influential role in upgrading the quality of library education in that country in the late 1980s through the establishment of a library education curriculum that emphasized professionalism, the use of technology and modern management styles to a generation of new, young librarians (Sosa, 1998, 6). From 1987 to 1998, USIA developed a small exchange program for librarians with the American Library Association. American librarians went overseas to work in local institutions and foreign librarians came to the US for periods of three to nine months. The Library Fellow Program oVered US librarians the professional opportunity to concentrate on their areas of expertise, to make a contribution to the development of libraries and librarianship around the world and to reinforce the concept of libraries as essential democratic institutions. The program was extremely popular for both the American librarians taking part as well as the overseas library communities that hosted them and USIA was criticized when it lost funding. (American Library Association, 2000; KniVel, 1997, 30).
IV. The Recent Past A great shock to the US embassy library program and possibly the most transforming was the passage of a piece of legislation called the Stark Amendment. At the height of the 1980s and early 1990s downsizing of many US local governments, Congressman Pete Stark of California, whose district was closing libraries due to lack of funds, criticized the existence of USIS libraries in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, where citizens could aVord to have local libraries providing the same services. The 102nd Congress agreed, in 1992, to cut USIA’s budget by $15.2 million, specifically for libraries in Western Europe, Japan and Canada (United States. House of Representatives, Amendment 777, 1992). Funding was cut, staV was laid oV and a number of USIS libraries closed. The end of the Cold War brought a sense of security to the US and Congress was less inclined to fund an agency that had been seen as needed to counteract ‘‘enemy propaganda’’ during this ongoing conflict
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from the time of World War II. In addition, new embassies were required in Eastern Europe and Asia for countries that had been part of the Soviet Union, or in South East Asia and elsewhere where diplomatic relations with the US were established for the first time. Overall, the 1990s saw USIA’s budget cut by almost one third. A great deal of soul-searching took place among IRC staV and IROs at this time. Even operations in developing countries, which were not the targets of the Stark Amendment, saw staYng and budgets under severe threat. In countries that had multiple libraries in diVerent cities, usually one library or IRC was left open—the one within the US embassy. This facility was also under pressure to downsize and transform to meet the budgetary restrictions and focus on elite sectors of society. (Center for Arts and Culture, 2004). Information services did not lag behind however. Collections shrank and focused more on bilateral issues with each country. IRC collection formats and services had been, by necessity, extended over time to include electronic resources, providing proactive and significant research to the American diplomatic community within as well as out of the US missions. Materials on US society and culture, including fiction, were withdrawn and donated to local libraries and staV was laid oV. A transformation to the Information Resource Center concept, developed by local staVs and American Information Resource OYcers took hold. The current Foreign AVairs Manual defines the missions of IRCs as: ‘‘To advance US Government policy goals by identifying and selectively disseminating information to host country contacts who influence policy and public opinion on issues central to US interests. An IRC should utilize the most eYcient and cost-eVective technology and delivery systems appropriate to the infrastructure of the host country.’’ (Department of State, 2005). Public AVairs Sections were established in the new countries using the minimalist model for IRCs from the beginning; a few established locations resisted the change to small, non-circulating collections within impenetrable embassy compounds and maintained open libraries in separate buildings called American Cultural Centers. Due to funding problems, US consulates in Western European countries were also cut drastically or closed entirely. US diplomatic missions in other countries, specifically public diplomacy sections and libraries throughout Africa and Asia, were also curtailed or closed. In Latin America, American Cultural Center closings often involved turning many assets, including library collections, over to the binational centers and thereafter ties to them dwindled. Patrons around the world lamented the closing of the USIS libraries in their countries (Berry, 2003, 8; Islam, 2003; Lewis, 1997, 49).
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However, many IRC staV members embraced the change. Innovative IRC librarians often led their USIS colleagues in the use of information technology, and frequently established the first Web presence for the embassy on the Internet. The IRCs produced current awareness services, in print and online, which were highly regarded by the local library community, academics and researchers. Proactive outreach and reaching within the US Mission to sections outside of USIS became a new mantra. Walk-in patrons, in a broad sense, were discouraged in favor of ‘‘target audiences,’’ the opinion leaders and decision makers within a society. An IRC is not judged by the quantity of users fillings its seats, but by the quality of outreach done by the staV and the significance of the users and their questions to US policy goals. Databases maintain anecdotal stories of the value of IRC reference work and proactive dissemination of information for users, especially members of target audiences. Library services were reaching the highest level of government—the Prime Minister’s oYce in London, the Chancellor’s oYce in Berlin, the Presidency of Brazil, Parliament in Cape Town, to name a few. American oYcers knew they had a service that was too important and valuable to give up.
V. Contemporary Conditions The events of 9/11 that stunned the world also aVected Public Diplomacy operations, and the many writers now bemoan the cuts to these operations, including and especially library closings (Berry, 2003; Muravchik, 2002; Robison, 2002). A new program of establishing partnerships with local institutions that agree to receive a collection on the US and Internet-connected computers in exchange for use of the facility and staV to help host public diplomacy programs, especially outside capital cities, is called American Corners. Establishing these Corners is a high priority for many Public AVairs OYcers around the world, as there is a new push to reach broader, younger and wider audiences through this program. The collections and programs being conducted in them are also focused on attracting this segment of the population. The jury is still out on whether these hybrid centers will have continuing resources to bring about the desired result of ‘‘telling America’s story to the world’’ again. The libraries and librarians working for the State Department have come almost full circle to again serving a young, general audience. In October 1999, the United States Information Agency was disbanded, and its operations distributed throughout regional and thematic oYces of the State Department. The oYces and oYcers still use the term
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public diplomacy to describe their work. Overseas, USIS oYces have become Public AVairs Sections within embassies, although services to the public remain mostly the same. IRC also became more integrated into State Department operations and many now seek to provide valuable information services to the embassy community as well as outside users. IRC staV have accommodated to two completely diVerent kinds of demands.
VI. International Information Programs If ever there were opportunity for a case study of an organization undergoing drastic change, while being responsible for directing change in program operations in more than 170 countries around the world, the section of the Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP) of the State Department tasked with directing the worldwide IRC program would be an ideal candidate. IIP began as a bureau of USIA responsible for a newswire operations provided to embassy missions overseas from the 1960s. During the final years of USIA, it became a laboratory for the ‘‘Reinvention of Government’’ program directed by Vice President Gore during the second term of the Clinton Administration. The reorganization was undertaken to address the call for smaller budgets and more products, for flattening the hierarchy and getting maximum return from technology investments. Among the changes was a new ‘‘home’’ from the IRO corps and IRC support services, from the education and cultural side of the USIA house, to the I Bureau, previously home of press and information programs. With some very diYcult and protracted integration exercises, IROs in Washington and service overseas landed in the new IIP Bureau, distributed among geographical units, called teams, along with a team intended to set policy and serve IROs and IRCs in the worldwide program. Of particular importance to IRC operations are services provided from IIP, including: book translations into the major world languages, and funding to posts for translation in regional or local languages; print and online publications, and journals for distribution to foreign audiences on US policy and society topics, a US government news service highlighting key issues in foreign policy, internal alert and table of content services highlighting new sources and resources of information on topics of interest in the diplomatic milieu, development of bibliographies and recommended books for standard print IRC and American Corner collections, database development for record keeping on IRC
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activities, and worldwide contracts to provide accounts for all IRCs on major US commercial databases. Around the world, IRCs now have access to the same basic online resources, whether in Buenos Aires, Bamako, Budapest or Beijing, connectivity permitting. One product was developed by IROs in the late 1990s specifically to alleviate the resource gap caused by closing down USIS libraries. A CDROM called InfoUSA was developed and pressed in the thousands for distribution by IRCs around the world and is updated about once a year. InfoUSA CDs have extensive, full-text documentation on all aspects of US domestic issues that are frequently asked questions to IRCs around the world, as well as links to hundreds of Internet sites for other resources. It is widely donated to media houses, educational institutions and other contacts. It has been loaded on hundreds of university library network servers around the world. (McDuV, 2000). The IROs resident in Washington also develop training programs for IRC staV and for IROs. As an ad hoc team, they administer the travel budgets of IROs worldwide and insure that IRCs are conforming to State Department policy and guidelines in all aspects of their operations. The IROs in Washington are routinely requested by other sections of the State Department, the Executive Branch and from Congress, to report on IRC eVectiveness, activities and often—despite the recent clamor from outsiders—are called upon to justify the IRC program. The rest of this article is a report of the changes in IRC programs in selected case studies from each region of the world, contributed by Information Resource OYcers or Information Resource Center Directors about their programs. The 17 entries are organized by continent. Each was chosen to showcase the adaptive strategy of the IRC in coping with major changes, whether in the society, such as war, civil unrest or heavy government control of information, or the innovative use of technology or the response to severe cutbacks in staV and other resources. Contributors were asked to discuss the challenges they faced in the last ten to fifteen years and how local staVs overcame them. AFRICA FREETOWN, SIERRA LEONE
William Middleton, IRO Dakar, Senegal The changes that the Freetown Information Resource Center has gone through over the past decade were caused not so much by changes in US government policy or budgets as by events in Sierra Leone itself. The US Embassy in Freetown re-opened its IRC in January 2004, seven years
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after the military coup of May 1997 had forced it to close to the public. At the time that it closed, the IRC had a circulating book collection of several thousand volumes, a full-time staV of two, an OPAC and automated circulation system, and a large, loyal clientele. The fighting that closed the IRC also closed much of the rest of the embassy for extended periods. The Public AVairs Section, of which the IRC is part, went from eight local employees to two, and there was no American oYcer assigned to the Public AVairs Section. The embassy was hit by small arms fire during the fighting; no one was hurt, but the IRC did have bullet holes in it when it re-opened. When, thanks to a UN peacekeeping force, some stability returned to Freetown, the embassy began bringing its operations back up to pre-war levels. The first American oYcer for Public AVairs arrived in Freetown in the spring of 2003, and one of his highest priorities was getting the IRC re-opened. It took him less than a year. The IRC re-opened in a completely refurbished space with over 500 new reference books and subscriptions to about 40 periodicals. Although the IRC was still interested in circulating books, it wanted to evaluate the information environment and the user community for a while before taking that step. Now, after a year of operation, the IRC has determined that the situation is suYciently stable, and demand suYciently great, to warrant oVering circulation services again. Book circulation is a more important component of IRC activities in a place like Freetown than it is elsewhere. The telecommunications infrastructure of Sierra Leone, never fully developed, was badly damaged during the war. It is being rebuilt and extended now, but the audience for electronically distributed information products remains tiny. Moreover, Freetown is a compact city where people go to appointments on foot and do business in person. Books are the right technology for this environment. That said, one of the IRC’s biggest attractions is its three free Internet workstations. Although Freetown does have a growing number of cyber cafes, and the Internet connection in the IRC is still extremely slow, it’s no slower than elsewhere, the space is pleasant, and it’s free. The Freetown IRC faces two major challenges. Prior to the war, most IRC clients were students and young people. At the time that the war closed the IRC, the staV had, in accordance with State Department directives, begun to reach out to more elite audiences. By the time the IRC reopened in 2003, the State Department had begun reversing its focus; younger audiences were indeed critical to public diplomacy eVorts, they said. In Sierra Leone, however, unrest and instability had closed schools and universities for years. In addition, the city had been flooded
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with refugees from the countryside, many of whom still remain, afraid or reluctant to return home. Schools were unable to cope with the demand. As a result, many teenaged Sierra Leonians today have had little or no schooling. People speak of a lost generation—young people who have not acquired a reading habit and whose literacy skills are at best weak. Reaching these people will be one of the IRC’s greatest challenges. The other challenge will come when the embassy—and the IRC—move to a new location on a hilltop outside of town. Although the embassy’s current location in the center of the downtown is convenient for clients, it is also insecure, with no walls or setbacks separating it from the street. But the new location is remote, out of range for most pedestrians and as yet unserved by public transportation. Figuring out how best to serve clients from this new site will be the Freetown IRC’s second major challenge. KINSHASA, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Anne Carson, IRO for Central Africa, Washington, DC Alain Mesa, IRC Director, Kinshasa On the wall of the IRC in Kinshasa is a plaque from the American Library Association from 1992, congratulating the library for its 50th Anniversary. Established in 1942, the IRC is now over 60 years old, reflecting an early US interest in this vast, rich country in the heart of Africa. The USIS library of Kinshasa was a full service library with a collection of about 4000 books, until its move from a prominent Mobil building on a main street of Kinshasa overlooking the Congo River to an embassy compound, in 1999. Information Resource Center Kinshasa currently has about 1500 non-circulating titles and 8 Internet workstations for training and public use. The staV holds book discussions and other programs and is used by other Public AVairs units as well as the rest of the embassy. Internet orientation training has been extremely successful, providing those who want to learn to use the Internet with a good basic introduction to searching, starting with the State Department sites and demonstrating its possibilities as a portal to information on other US government sites. The satisfaction of clients who are able to search for and find desired information on their own has proven to be a real attraction. The weekly training is done in two sessions. The first provides a basic introduction to the Web, searching techniques and important government Web sites; the follow-up a week later reviews the basics and introduces search engines and more specialized sites. The success of the program can be measured by the increased demand for appointments and the increasingly sophisticated searches that patrons are undertaking.
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Popularity of the Internet access service is reflected in the increasing use, leading to shorter time slots for users. The IRC develops special Internet training programs for group audiences, including: women entrepreneurs, female nurses, lawyers and magistrates, and HIV/AIDS groups. LOME, TOGO
Foli Kuevidjen, IRC Director, Lome´ The American Cultural Center Library in Lome´ was inaugurated in May just after Togo attained independence on April 27, 1960. It was located on the ‘‘Avenue des Allie´ s,’’ very close to a popular gathering place called ‘‘Fre´ au Jardin.’’ Lome´ , a small bustling commercial town of about 100,000 inhabitants at that time never had a public library. The Germans, who first colonized Togo in 1884, kept written legal documents and treaties in Berlin and gathered geographical maps at what is known today as the National Library. In 1961, the British Embassy also created a reading room for the general public. At the library’s inaugural ceremony, the first democratically elected president of Togo, Mr. Sylvanus Olympio, signed up as the first patron of American Cultural Center library. On that memorable day, he borrowed books. Other dignitaries and cabinet ministers who accompanied him also got membership cards. The core-collection in the library was less than 1000 titles in English and French. The library was heavily used by the Togolese. In 1968, the American Cultural Center moved to its present location not too far from the beach road near the ‘‘Grand marche´ ’’ and has coexisted with the US Embassy ever since. The library has served students, teachers, government functionaries and people from all walks of life. The post-independence era in Togo has always been described as the most awakened period in the intellectual evolution of the country. Students came in numbers to the American Cultural Center library, which later became the Martin Luther King, Jr., Library. Membership had attained the 1000 mark by 1970. The US landed man on the moon in 1969 and the moon rock that was exhibited in the library lured many more patrons. Several visitors who also came to watch exhibits on the moon landing read titles on space discovery in the library. In the 1990s, the dust of democracy swirling in the air from the crumbling of the Berlin Wall settled and sparked protest movements throughout Francophone West Africa. The library expanded its outreach activities by organizing book debates that dealt with human rights, the rule of law and democracy. In 1992, the library was partially closed because of unrest and political violence that erupted sporadically in
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Lome´ . The patronage dwindled during a nine-month strike that crippled the economy of the country. In 1999, the United States Information Service merged with the State Department. Today, the library is smaller and post 9/11 security measures have curtailed activities. The library is now an Information Resource Center with Internet connectivity. The IRC Director has provided an opening for the entire US Mission with the Ministry of Defense by holding book discussions that included military oYcers, and helped spark increased professionalism among local journalists with ongoing Internet training workshops. Another significant role the library plays is the support that it provides to English Language students. Research is now performed online and American Corners have been created throughout the country to serve those who are far away from Lome´ . NAIROBI, KENYA
Fenghua Wang, IRO Nairobi Before the bombing of the US Embassy in Kenya in 1998, the USIS library in Nairobi was located in a building next to the Chancery, in the city center. Users could walk into the library freely, and the staV had no idea who they were and what their purpose was in coming. The IRC moved into the new embassy compound in March 2003, located about 10 kilometers away from the original city center location. The staV finds the new location a major improvement in terms of the types of clients they receive to meet its goals (more targeted and selected). There are also more American users. Security concerns make everyone feel better knowing who uses the library. In the new facility, the IRC expanded its holdings from about 2000 volumes to about 6000 volumes. Its mission also expanded from the traditional walk-in lending library, providing support to Cultural section programs, to today’s membership-based active outreach arm of the Public AVairs Section, although walk-in users are still accepted. Most users come to the IRC with specific research goals. Its co-location with the rest of the Chancery increased the IRC’s visibility and ensures that it is fully integrated into Nairobi Mission programs. In addition, the IRC organizes its own programs and actively reaches out to Kenyans to promote democracy, human rights, counter-terrorism and better understanding of US policy, society and cultural values. Through a series of outreach programs in 2004, the Nairobi IRC enhanced its image as a leading information provider in Kenya. Its membership has expanded from 485 at the end of 2003 to the current 635. Its programs also serve to promote the US government
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publications on US policy, society, and culture. There is a significant increase in the number of institutions capable of receiving IRC information electronically, from virtually none in the late 90s to about 85% using e-mail and 80% with full Internet access in 2004 and e-mail is the preferred delivery method for search results. PRETORIA, SOUTH AFRICA
Karen Hartman, IRO, Pretoria In 1988, a USIS Pretoria library was opened in an oYce building in downtown Pretoria, near the US Embassy. This library was open to the public and had small circulating and reference collections, several periodicals, and some electronic databases. The users ranged from university students to Supreme Court judges. In 1993 the library moved to a new US Embassy building in Arcadia, Pretoria. Coinciding with the building of a new embassy, the end of South Africa’s apartheid government in 1994 allowed free access to information and censorship was abolished. Public libraries in primarily white areas were opened to people from all races, and plans were made to build libraries in disadvantaged areas. There was a diminished need to have a circulating library for the public in downtown Pretoria. The USIS library became a closed-access, by appointment only library in January of 1994, essentially going from a traditional library to an Information Resource Center (IRC), focusing on outreach to targeted audiences such as government oYcials, politicians, academic researchers, businesses, students, and journalists. The IRC also began to provide guidance and support for the four other American libraries in South Africa, two of which are open-access circulating libraries. Currently the Pretoria IRC has 1600 books, including reference titles, and 60 periodical subscriptions. The reference specialists make much use of online databases such as Lexis-Nexis and Factiva. Most queries are received via e-mail, telephone, and fax. The IRC is moving to putting more information on the Embassy Web site and sending out alerts to contacts with a hyperlink to the Web page that has the information, rather than sending out large e-mail attachments. Internet usage has grown dramatically in South Africa in the past 5 years, and most members of the targeted audiences have e-mail service. Increasingly, the IRC staV supports research for US Mission staV. About half of all questions come from inside the Mission. There has been an increase in questions related to southern African aVairs. Human rights, economic aVairs, foreign relations, law and justice, health, environment, security, and social aVairs are other main topics.
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ASIA BEIJING, CHINA
Mike HuV, IRO, Beijing It was very fitting indeed that IRC Beijing was established at the end of 1993, when NCSA Mosaic, the early Web browsing application, was released, and when the letters ‘WWW’ and ‘HTTP’ first began to appear in the popular press in the United States. Over the past twelve years, the most significant impact on the work of IRC Beijing has been the phenomenal spread of the use of the World Wide Web in China. In October of 1997, there were 620,000 Internet users in a country of 1.2 billion people. At the end of 2003, there were 11.5 million regular Internet users in China, an 18-fold increase in six years (13th Issue of China’s Internet Development and Usage Report, May 20, 2004). Though this growth has been dramatic, it has not changed the fact that the government of the People’s Republic of China severely restricts and controls the free-flow of information, in speech and in print, in books and on computers (Empirical Analysis of Internet Filtering in China, http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/ filtering/china/, last updated on March 20, 2003). It is in this environment that IRC Beijing endeavors to disseminate authoritative information about the United States to its audience of academics, government oYcials, journalists, business people, and students. Approximately 90% of all reference queries are now answered by e-mail. IRC users most often request information related to regional security, economics and trade, and the rule of law. Because the IRC uses an unfiltered Internet connection provided by the Department of State instead of the filtered connections oVered by local ISPs, it can provide information to its users that is otherwise inaccessible in China. The IRC staV primarily use online journal databases and US Government Web sites in their research. Though most reference questions are researched and answered through the use of the Internet, the library maintains a print and microfilm collection that is unique in China. In 2004, the IRC added to its collection approximately 900 rolls of microfilmed diplomatic correspondence related to China; this collection, purchased from the National Archives, is a record of US impressions of China from 1790 until the founding of the People’s Republic. It is the only library in mainland China where this information is available, and American studies researchers from across the country have traveled to Beijing to make use of it. The IRC maintains a small collection of approximately 3000 volumes on American studies and US–China relations. In 2005, the IRC will begin to
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circulate materials to its users via interlibrary loan agreements with university and research institute libraries in Beijing. JAKARTA, INDONESIA
Stephen Mallinger, IRO, Bangkok, Thailand The Information Resource Center (IRC) in Jakarta is located within the American Embassy compound. The present IRC replaced the very popular Zorinsky Library, operated by the United States Information Service (USIS) that was formerly housed outside of the Embassy in the American Information and Commercial center. The Zorinsky Library was the best public library in Indonesia and generated a huge amount of goodwill and respect for the United States. It oVered a wide variety of resources and services that served as a model for public library development in Indonesia. Transitioning to a small closed information center with a minimal print collection was not an easy process for the IRC staV. The librarians had been trained in traditional librarianship with a focus almost solely on managing print collections; there were no local models to follow or local training for the online world. They were used to serving clients they could see and direct them to books on shelves, not to providing extensive research on demand or developing a state-of-the-art online information service. American Mission oYcers supervising them often did not have a clear vision of an eVective and viable service. The IRC still lends small roving book collections to local institutions and recently incorporated a print collection on US–Indonesian bilateral relations. Indonesia’s gap in developing an eVective and widespread Internet infrastructure made disseminating information diYcult. The IRC staV as well as the American oYcers has had to adapt to a number of issues:
Developing an online presence (the Mission’s Web page) was necessary to the eVectiveness and very survival of the IRC, and it must be changed constantly and provide instant updating. Seeing the client base was not merely Jakarta residents but the whole country of Indonesia. The staV could not wait for the phone to ring to respond; they must continually and proactively provide and market their services. The IRC services have to be unique and support the Mission’s overall program. OVering Internet access is not special in a city where there are hundreds of low cost Internet cafes.
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With the IRC now inside the main building, Americans and locally employed staV provided a new audience. Working directly with the Mission staV upgrades the IRC image but also presents new challenges. The IRC had always supported Embassy public aVairs programs. The new challenge was to develop IRC programs where the staV themselves would be the speakers, teachers, trainers and presenters.
The newest IRC initiative is providing support to the American Corners project. It is no surprise that Indonesia’s security situation has made it diYcult or nearly impossible to permit walk-in visitors. Realizing the importance of Indonesia the Mission initiated a very large project to open Americana collections in local academic institutions throughout Indonesia (jakarta.usembassy.gov/americancorners). The IRC, while not managing the entire Corners program, has been tasked with providing resources (print, web, and a/v), training librarians, creating Web sites, and providing reference support for the ten sites. This will not only enrich the program and provide venues for IRC programming, but also add hundreds of important new IRC clients and increasing dissemination of IRC products. The IRC librarians are getting out of their cubicles and traveling to institutions across Indonesia where they speak on resources, teach about new information technology and showcase new products that further mutual understanding between our two nations. SEOUL, KOREA
Elizabeth Leonard, IRO, Tokyo, Japan In just ten years, the IRC in Seoul has transformed itself from a 20,000volume circulating library with an average of 400 walk-ins daily—mostly students, professors, and businessmen—to a specialized, proactive, politically attuned, techno-savvy, US Mission centered reference and information service. At the same time, the staV has discovered that postal delivery of information is still preferred over electronic by some Koreans, even those that have e-mail, and the staV continues to fine-tune the most eVective mix of technology and traditional methods to reach their target audiences. The IRC provides essential support for ‘‘American Corners’’ in three cities that closed USIS libraries in the mid-1990s, and organizes US diplomat speaker programs for live audiences. Factors that have aVected the IRC over the time of its operation include a long history of Korean student activism—one group occupied the USIS library in 1985. Current anti-American sentiment among a youth generation that is rising as a political force in Korea has moved the IRC into a two-pronged strategy to disseminate both US policy information and US ‘‘soft’’ content such as the popular Outline of America
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series, mostly in Korean language translations. As of July 2004, over 30 million Koreans used the Internet, or 68.2% of the total population, with the heaviest use among those under age 30 (Source: Ministry of Information and Communication). By 2002, the Internet as a tool for reaching Korean audiences became a key component in the work of the Embassy’s public diplomacy team. In 2005, an Internet Outreach position replaced the duties of a collection development librarian retiring after 31 years. The Embassy Web site (seoul.usembassy.gov/) links to interactive chats, such as ‘‘Cafe USA’’ (cafe.daum.net/usembassy), webcasts, blogs, and broadband digital video conferences for wide reaching dialogs with Koreans across the country. 2005 Profile: In 2005, the IRC’s goal is to become fully aligned with other elements of the Embassy to maintain that dialog, staying current on political hot-button issues such as North Korea and the US military presence in South Korea, and keeping at the vanguard in the use of technology. The IRC currently manages the Mission Web site and creates an evolving menu of Web-based content to get US messages out to Koreans. A Korean language CD‐ROM version of the State Department’s ‘‘InfoUSA’’ (usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/) for distribution to schools and libraries is in production. Primary users are members of government, media, think-tanks, academia, and NGOs throughout the Republic of Korea. About 30% of reference questions come from US Mission staV. 50% of queries from Koreans are broadly classified as ‘‘mutual understanding,’’ while 20% are on security topics and 15% on economics and trade. Most contact with Koreans is made by fax, phone or e-mail, but the IRC remains open to the public during afternoon hours, attracting 10–15 visitors per day. About 50% of the IRC’s target audience—2700 individuals—receive US texts selected according to their interests via e-mail. 14 commercial and government databases are the source of half of the outreach material and one third of reference responses. Printed reference material—about 4000 volumes and 125 periodical subscriptions—is still needed for most reference activity. EUROPE BRUSSELS, BELGIUM
Peg Walther, IRO for Northern Europe, Washington, DC Brussels IRC, like so many libraries and information centers, functions diVerently than it was 10 short years ago. Most of the changes reflect the substantial changes in telecommunications and the publishing industries. Some are due to stricter security measures, which moved all embassy
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functions behind guarded walls. These changes have simultaneously enabled the Brussels IRC to reach more people in one way, yet fewer people in another. Ten years ago, in 1994, during the 16 hours a week The American Library (as IRC Belgium was then called) was open to the public, people could walk in and use its sophisticated network of electronic databases on CD-ROM, sit and relax with an issue of one of their 250 plus journals or newspapers in paper, check a fact from one of their 2500 reference books, as well as borrow a book from their collection. As an early adopter of new technology, IRC Brussels also serviced more technologically advanced members of the public by posting information on the Mission Website, which the IRC developed and maintained, and sending articles via its electronic bulletin board system. Just two years later, in December 1996, The American Library moved from its spacious location to a much smaller space in a business area. The next year, fiscal resources were reduced. With fewer resources to support public open hours, the access policy changed to require appointments to visit the IRC. Fewer people walked into the IRC. On the other hand, more people were beginning to rely on Internet e-mail for communication, and the World Wide Web for information. IRC Brussels refocused its energies to exploit the advantages of the Internet. Through the mission Web site, it could be argued that the IRC now reaches more of the public than ever. Moreover, with its sophisticated use of the Goldmine contact management system, the IRC is better able to deliver just the right information to just the right person. Under Eddy Olislaeger’s wise and intelligent leadership, the IRC in Brussels has always taken a thoughtful, strategic approach to information services. The strategy now is to employ the best technology tools available to produce a variety of Web-based information products from summaries to in-depths reports, on broad or narrowly focused topics, delivered by ‘‘pushing’’ information to people identified as having an interest in the topic as well as by letting people ‘‘pull’’ the information to themselves by subscribing to specific IRC information products. Furthermore, when these unique products are clustered together by topic, each contributes a diVerent dimension to the discussion on the subject. These clusters by subject, or dossiers, which are posted to the Web (www.uspolicy.be), are excellent resources for in-depth research on US foreign policy. Another strategic role these information products play is to reinforce the relationships with audiences who come to the Mission’s speaker programs. IRC produced information is supplied to audiences as before, as a handout during, and as a follow-up, after the program. In this way, the IRC helps the audience keep in touch with the US Mission (and vice versa).
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Information Resource Center staV continues to meet the challenges posed by change with enthusiasm. In doing so, they use every resource available: print and electronic publications, new and older Web technologies, as well as the intelligence and creativity of every person on staV. The staV is well versed on current events and mission goals, and with excellent support from American foreign service oYcers, keeps up to date on information technology. MOSCOW, RUSSIA
Barbara Conaty, IRO, Moscow Russia, a country that spans 11 time zones and is home to 145 million people, is currently served by four Information Resource Centers located in the Moscow Embassy and in consulates in St. Petersburg, Vladivostok, and Yekaterinburg. During the period of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the transformation of the USIS into a unit of the US Department of State, research, reference, and outreach services were provided by five American Centers. From 2001 through 2003, IRCs were established at each consulate and now have responsibility for providing mission support and service to key audiences in the host country. A particularly interesting development in Russia has been the successful deployment of an additional 25 American Corners to urban and regional locations. The network, buttressed by reliance on IIP’s and other electronic information products and by representative collections of American books and materials, is able to disseminate the message of the State Department to alumni of American programs, local oYcials, students of English and many others unable to visit IRCs in their four locations. At the Moscow IRC, in addition to commercial databases, the staV relies on two key Russian language databases. There is a small ready reference collection but in large part the resources of the Internet are the other important tools used by the three members of the Moscow IRC staV to fulfill information requests. Only St. Petersburg continues to maintain a representative collection of American books and other materials. All IRCs in Russia are closed to the general public though in Vladivostok and St. Petersburg, IRC’s are used for some programming and can be visited by appointment. The country’s IRC staV transforms the Russian edition of the Washington File into three separate information products sent by e-mail to members of target audiences. There is also a monthly product that focuses on a single topical issue and provides Russian language materials on the topic. For the audience of the American Centers and Corners, there is a new bilingual electronic magazine called Discover
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America produced by the Moscow IRC staV. It is important to note that in terms of Internet use, only some 14 million Russians use the Internet. Moreover, apart from the international centers of Moscow and St. Petersburg, the use of the English language for business, education, journalism, and government is not widespread. ROME, ITALY
Marge Melun, IRO, Rome The IRC in Rome has undergone enormous changes in the last 10 years. It has evolved from a traditional lending library to a fully electronic resource center capable of responding to complicated research requests and preparing sophisticated presentations and products on topics important to American public diplomacy objectives in Italy. The former USIS library, with approximately 8000 circulating titles, was located on the ground floor of a villa on the American Embassy compound. It was open to the public and enjoyed much popularity among students and devotees of Americana. In the mid-1990s, when USIS libraries in Europe were closed and the Rome IRC staV was moved to a smaller space, the circulating collection was donated to a local institution; the staV members and the remaining titles (mostly reference) were moved into the Public AVairs building on the Embassy compound. The IRC has defined its mission to serve the information needs of the Embassy, and the audience of contacts in Italy. While the number of staV has remained constant at 5 over the years, last year saw the retirement and departure of 3 senior staV members with over 100 years of combined experience. The new staV replacements bring an array of new skills and ideas suited to 21st century electronic research and communication realities. The staV is proactive in designing products in anticipation of user needs. The expansion of electronic communications—e-mail, Web pages, faxes—and availability of electronic databases has revolutionized the way the IRC does business. It is no longer essential to have in-person contact to establish an exchange of information. Thus the IRC has virtually no ‘outside visitors.’ Most information is exchanged via e-mail, phone and fax. Reference annuals, encyclopedias, government documents, newspapers, journals—the majority of resources needed in an IRC, are available online through the Internet or commercial databases accessed through Internet connections. All IRC staV are trained and experienced in using their PCs to access information and produce products (such as a weekly electronic journal ‘‘Spotlight on the U.S.’’) which supports the aims of American public diplomacy.
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TBILISI, GEORGIA
Pamela Dragovich, IRO, Vienna, Austria The USIS library in Tbilisi, Georgia was established in 1995 and located at Tbilisi State University. Its collection consisted of 3000 general reference books on US politics, history, culture and society, as well as its ProQuest CD-ROMS covering the period 1986–2000. USIS staV members trained the university staV on traditional library services such as, reference, circulation, and collection development to continue with the successful functioning of library services. With the merger of USIS into the State Department in 1999 came the transition of typical open access book-based libraries into predominantly electronic information environments serving specific audiences. Following USIA’s merger with the State Department, new objectives dictated change in the library operations. The USIS library became the American Center for Information Resources (ACIR) and its responsibilities focused on programming and serving the information needs of Embassy staV and key Georgian audiences in the government, the media, NGOs and academia. Today the ACIR’s collection comprises 300 books and 13 serial subscriptions as well as, EbscoHost with a budget of around $15,000. Its collection is non-circulating and access to the ACIR is by appointment only. Since 1999, the ACIR moved several times but its current location is in the Sheraton Metechi Palace Hotel across town from the Chancery. The larger collection was eventually donated to a new American Studies Center within the university library. The ACIR shares responsibility for the Embassy’s Web site, specifically the Georgian– language version. The staV of two librarians also handles 90 reference requests on average per month on questions ranging from ready reference to more in-depth research. Primary responsibilities of the ACIR are research/reference; electronic distribution of US government information, sent to about 200 subscribers twice a day; and very eVective outreach activity such as establishing American Corners. The 2003 ‘‘Rose Revolution’’ produced a new generation of Georgian government oYcials. Today, the ACIR sends information about the US electronically and directly to the oYces of the President, Prime Minister and Speaker of the Parliament. According to the current ACIR director, ‘‘The ACIR has come a long way from being a public USIS library and telling ‘America’s story’ to a closed Information Resource Center serving two very diVerent audiences—the staV of the US Embassy in Tbilisi and Georgian policy and decision makers.’’
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WARSAW, POLAND
Monika Rokicka, IRC Coordinator, Warsaw The American Information Resource Center in Warsaw is one of many specialized information centers operating in foreign cultural institutions and diplomatic posts. In 1959, the library was established as part of the embassy’s cultural section, open to the general public. It was the only venue in Warsaw where one could find books and magazines from the ‘‘free world.’’ For many years, it oVered resources to students interested in American fiction or to individuals who just wanted to freely read Newsweek or Time. In the 1980s, due to changing socio-political situations, opposition and union leaders were frequent visitors, and requested that librarians order specialized materials concerning social and economic policies as well as the history of trade unions in the US. The American library was a testament to America’s commitment to intellectual freedom and seen as a foundation of a democratic society. Poles, always eager for knowledge, used the library’s resources despite the many obstacles and repressions used against those who wanted to visit the Embassy. During the visit of the first President Bush in 1989, an agreement was signed to open a cultural center that would include the existing library. The Center opened in October 1992. The book collections grew, with a focus on law, economy, politics, international relations, management, social sciences, and the environment. In five months a print catalogue of 8000 titles was converted to the Data Trek system. The collection was enriched by a database of periodical articles on CD-ROMs, a state-of-the-art innovation at that time. In 1996, only four years after opening at its current location, a new concept was developed to reflect the changes taking place in the world with the emergence of new technologies, the Internet, and the need to assure fast access to information. In changing the character of activities into information services initiated by the post, and by conducting outreach programs to a selected public, embassy libraries worldwide transformed into specialized information resource centers. For Warsaw, it meant the beginning of enormous changes for the library including a change of location—back to the Embassy’s premises. It oVered a chance to analyze the function an American library should have in completely new political and economic conditions. It took almost a year to transform the library into the Information Center in its current form. That time was used to answer questions about what the center was supposed to be and whom it should serve. In defining new guidelines, it was determined that the principal goal of the American Information Resource Center was to promote US policy by
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the selection and dissemination of materials to recipients in the host country who have influence on its policy and the public with regard to matters crucial to US interests. The operations of the AIRC are based on the synergy of all aspects of the operation (i.e., the expertise and skills of its staV, and the use of both traditional media and digital technology to better realize its goals). Resources span six areas: international security, economy, democracy and human rights, culture and science, information and communications and contemporary global issues. Due to the changes in services oVered, the population of users was also limited to employees of government institutions, social organizations, representatives of culture and media, scholars, and students. The Center’s services are available with a telephone call or by mail, by fax or electronically. MIDDLE EAST THE ARABIAN PENINSULA, JORDAN AND LEBANON
Henry Mendelsohn, IRO, Abu Dhabi Until the mid-1990s IRCs in the Gulf region did not exist, for the most part. Embassies and consulates sometimes had small collections of reference books used primarily for student advising. As Internet access developed, and the region grew in importance to US policy, the need for selective distribution of information to policymakers was recognized. Bandwidth in parts of the Arab world, particularly in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, plus Yemen, Jordan and Lebanon, has increased significantly in recent years. At the same time the region grew in importance to US policy objectives, and has accelerated in the post 9/11 era. Regional policymakers, journalists, academics and youth now desire succinct, focused materials that explicate US policy, society and values and the embassy and consulate IRCs fill this need. Today, American Embassy and Consulate Information Resource Centers (IRCs) in the Arabian Peninsula, Jordan and Lebanon strive to deliver the US government message to host government policymakers, ministry oYcials, journalists, academics, students and youth. IRCs from Sana’a to Riyadh, from Abu Dhabi to Beirut, use a variety of resources and methods to deliver policy materials such as transcripts of policy statements, press briefings, Congressional hearings, government and think tank reports, CRS reports and Web sites to their audiences. One of the primary tools for delivering content is the embassy or consulate Web page. Embassy and consulate Web pages are particularly eVective in delivering content because they allow their audience to access them when they
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choose to, without having to contact the embassy directly. Journalists, academics and government oYcials are hesitant to contact the IRC for information because of regional anti-American sentiments, but usage and anecdotal data indicates that people find relevant content on Web sites, and documents such as press releases and travel advisories from the Web sites are often cited in newspaper stories. Stringent security procedures also discourage persons from visiting fortress like embassies and consulates for all but the most necessary of reasons such as applying for visas. Because Internet access is fairly wide spread in the GCC countries, Yemen, Jordan and Lebanon, it is relatively easy to access information on Web sites. In some cases the Web pages are translated into Arabic, and even when they are not, they provide links to the State Department’s Arabic language Web pages. Most of the pages focus on local stories, that is, they strive to tell the embassy’s story, its activities, programs, and key events, to the local audiences, and leave Washington-based Web pages to focus on Washington and international news. Embassy Sana’a’s Web page is particularly eVective on telling the embassy’s story to Yemen (yemen. usembassy.gov) and the Embassy Amman (jordan.usembassy.gov) page has developed chat rooms where Jordanians may ask questions of embassy oYcials, and a polling feature that allows persons to vote on key issues. Web pages alone are not enough however, and policy documents are also e-mailed, faxed and hand delivered to key contacts. In Kuwait ministry contacts prefer to fax queries, while in Yemen journalists prefer e-mail. One method that embassies use to develop trust and build relationships is to organize training programs by IRC staV that teaches contacts how to eVectively use the Internet to find information, communicate and publish. Skills training develops trust, builds relationships, and facilitates the free flow of information across borders. Unlike other regions, IRCs in the Arabian Peninsula, Jordan and Lebanon contain few books and journals because people will not come to the embassy to do research; they prefer to call or e-mail. Libraries are fairly wide spread in the region, and Internet access is increasing, especially through Internet cafes, and in the more highly developed Gulf countries through intensive PC and Internet use in the home. In Yemen the government subsidizes Internet access and costs are very reasonable, and although many persons cannot aVord personal computers they use Internet cafes, which are wide spread. The government of Jordan has made it a priority to install broadband Internet connectivity in colleges and universities. Lacking is the knowledge of how to find accurate and authoritative US information as well as adequate English language skills. IRCs fill this gap by quickly being able to get the information into the right hands when it is needed.
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WESTERN HEMISPHERE BOGOTA, COLOMBIA
Andrea McGlinchey, IRO Brası´lia, Brazil Cecilia Granados, IRC Director, Bogota´ It is possible that the Information Resource Center in Bogota´, Colombia, could claim the distinction of occupying the tiniest space among all IRCs. It was established in 1996 by the USIS librarian who was moved from a downtown location in a binational center (BNC), with thousands of titles in the collection to a set of three cubicles and a closet on a floor of the highly secure new embassy building. There is no public access. This extremely compact space is responsible for the Web site of the largest US Embassy in the world (colombia.usembassy.gov), the principal vehicle for dissemination of information on the US and bilateral issues. The site, which had 20,984 visitors in September 2004, provides readily accessible answers to common reference queries, and is super-rich with links to all varieties of information about the US—political, economic, human interest, consular and educational. The IRC Director manages the site. The IRC Web page within the site provides direct access to IRC outreach products, and is accessible in both Spanish and English. There is an eVort to provide as much Spanish language material as possible. For the past several years, Plan Colombia dominated the IRC’s and the Embassy’s activities. Coca eradication is still one of the top priority topics, in addition to democracy, anti-terrorism, Colombian travel and migration and free market principles. The small print collection of 655 titles consists primarily of reference works related to bilateral interests between the US and Colombia, and titles about contemporary American society, institutions, and culture. As online access becomes available, the print or CD-ROM title is no longer purchased. The IRC subscribes to 10 journals to support program objectives. The staV uses a small collection of ‘‘ready reference’’ print resources. The rest of the print collection is maintained in a locked room. The IRC provides a limited number of periodical subscriptions, reference books and CD-ROMs to the 10 binational centers libraries and donates withdrawn reference books from its own collection. Significant potential lays in the IRC’s close relationships with community institutions, including public, BNC, university and government libraries. The Colombian library environment has come alive with the federal government’s initiatives to improve literacy and create open access to collections as a means of educating an active and resilient citizenry to exploit the power of a democratic system. Projects abound, including the
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Ministry of Culture/National Library Plan Nacional de Lectura y Bibliotecas and the Bogota´ Biblored project of neighborhood public libraries for all. This cultural explosion oVers a golden opportunity for the IRC to be involved, especially in the form of book donations, cooperative programs, speakers and training. Public AVairs and the IRC have already donated several English language collections to communities in the San Andres Islands. In process is a donation of ten youth reference collections to selected institutions. The IRC will continue to maintain close ties with organizations that serve their communities, with the support of the federal and municipal governments. In the long term, this policy will prove eVective in strengthening democratic practices and improving quality of life. BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA
L. Stephen Perry, IRO, Buenos Aires The Buenos Aires IRC started out as the Lincoln Center, a high use public facility that had been operating for well over 45 years on Calle Florida, a highly traYcked pedestrian street in downtown Buenos Aires. Because of the location of the Lincoln Center to government oYces, stores, boutiques, restaurants, shopping centers, galleries and cultural events, it was permanently assured of a huge walk-in audience, who routinely came in to browse the collections, to read magazines from and about the US or from over 18,000 books on the US. The Lincoln Center also had the only active permanent collection of American Studies materials in all of Argentina and this alone made it a magnet for thousands of Argentine University and high school students. This scenario changed permanently in 1996 when USIA decided to shut down the Lincoln Center and other USIS Libraries in favor of smaller, much more tightly focused Information Resource Centers that would be built inside embassies and consulates. The idea not only was to save money, but to get out of the business of public libraries after the end of the Cold War. The extensive circulating collection at the Lincoln Center was donated to the ICANA, the Binational Center of Buenos Aires. The reference collection was transferred to the new IRC within the US Embassy compound, approximately half of the Lincoln Center staV transferred to the IRC. Currently, the IRC has a non-circulating print reference collection of about 2300 titles and subscribes to 20 print journals. It has a small collection of reference works on Argentina, its history and its people, to answer questions that come from the Mission. Users of the IRC include: government ministries, NGOs, lawyers, and the media. However, the IRC welcomes university students who are working on research projects related to some aspect of the US. It also hosts secondary
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students working on Model UN projects. The staV maintains the Mission’s Web site (argentina.usembassy.gov) The IRC is open to the larger public by appointment only. SANTO DOMINGO, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Jean Cavanaugh, IRO for the Caribbean, Washington, DC The US Information Service (USIS) library for many years was run out of the binational center, Instituto Dominicano–Americano, located in the capital, Santo Domingo. If you took a snapshot of the USIS library in the early to mid-1980s, you would see a small circulating collection supporting the English teaching and technical training activities taking place at the institute. The clients were primarily school children and their teachers. The library was open to the public and the collection’s most popular materials were directories, encyclopedias, almanacs, magazines and newspapers. Dominican business people pored over the US newspapers looking for information on what and how to export to the United States. Dominicans have historically close ties with the US, with one million Dominicans living in the US. This means that in all probability each of the 8 million Dominicans in the Dominican Republic has a relative in the US, creating a great need for travel, business, and directory-type information. When the focus of the USIS ‘‘library program’’ evolved from providing general information and circulation books toward targeted information services, the US Embassy oYcers in Santo Domingo found that the BNC’s goals often diverged from those of their Mission. This shifting public diplomacy strategy led to the USIS library moving from the BNC into Embassy space, and changing its program to focus its outreach products and services on targeted audiences. The Information Resource Center (IRC), as it was now called, through the leadership, energy and connections fostered by its Director Sonia de Moya, very quickly took the lead in using information technology. The IRC developed the first free BBS in the country for academic audiences, using all of USIA’s electronic products, much of it reposted by commercial BBS services. The IRC developed policy ‘‘dossiers’’ and a highly respected research service used by influential Dominicans from the President to the director of the Dominican stock market, FCC-equivalent chairman, members of congress, academics and journalists. With the expansion of electronic resources, the increase in the staV technological skill level and creativity, the IRC’s products and services have increased. Paper outreach products in the form of newsletters, promotional materials and information packets, are easily tailored to specific audience interest. The recent launch of the IRC’s ‘‘virtual library’’ oVers what does not now exist in the Dominican Republic: a collection of
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Spanish language information in the form of reports, databases, electronic books and government information presented in a user-friendly manner and open to any Dominican with internet access. An added feature for select audiences includes access to subscription databases with yet more information in Spanish. The challenge for the IRC has always been to find appropriate information for their Spanish speaking audiences. Now that they have amassed this new electronic collection, the next challenge will be to impart their navigation skills to their customers and help to cultivate information literacy in local institutions.
VII. Conclusions Since the end of World War II, US embassy libraries have grown or contracted along with the fortunes of their parent body, whether the United States Information Agency or the Public AVairs OYces of the Regional Bureaus at the Department of State. At this writing, the overall budgets of the State Department, along with most of the federal government, have contracted due to costs of war, domestic security needs and the war against terrorism. As demonstrated from the submissions of both American and foreign national librarians above, however, funding has rarely stopped the IRC staVs around the world from responding creatively and eVectively to local needs and often taking part in the shaping of the history of their countries. The challenge for IRCs is to stay ahead of the curve, by analyzing and anticipating future needs of the Department of State and trends in US public diplomacy, and by making the best use of the tools available, both technological and managerial, from American librarianship. If past is prologue, the IRCs will perform well, as long as resources are not again drastically reduced. Americans can be assured that they are well served by a community of dedicated professionals who represent the profession and the country in all corners of the globe. References Advisory group on Public, Diplomacy for the Arab and Muslim World (2003). Changing minds, winning peace: A new strategic direction for U.S. public diplomacy in the Arab and Muslim World. Submitted to the Committee on Appropriations, U.S. House of Representatives, 2003,. 81 pp. Available at: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/24882. df. American Library Association. International Relations Office 2000. ‘‘Library fellows.’’ Available at: http://www.ala.org/ala/iro/awardsactivities/libraryfellows.htm [accessed. 01 May 2005]. Beers, C. (2002). Public Service and Public Diplomacy, Address delivered at The Citadel, The Military Academy of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 17 October 2002. Available at: http://www.state.gov/r/us/15912.htm
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Berry, J. N. III (2003). Librarians are public diplomats: USIA libraries did more for peace than all the current surveillance—Editorial. Library Journal 128(12), 8. Boewe, C. (2004). American studies in India: A personal memoir. American Studies International 42(1), 49–92. Bomb wrecks USIS library. Washington Post, 10 July 1952, p 13. Borys, C. A., and Manning, M. J. (2004). U.S. embassy libraries forthcoming in Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. 9 pp. manuscript. Castle, E. W. (1955). Billions, Blunders and Money: The fantastic story of how Uncle Sam is squandering your money overseas. The Devin-Adair Co, New York, NY. Center for Arts and Culture (2004). Cultural diplomacy: Recommendations & research. Center, 29 pp. Washington, DC. Available at: http://www.culturalpolicy.org/ pdf/culturaldiplomacy.pdf Closing of Belgrade library threatens new row with Tito. Washington Post, 26 September 1946, p. 1. Dizard, W. P., Jr. (2004). Inventing public diplomacy: The story of the United States Information Agency. Lynne Reinner, Boulder. Drummond, R. (1953). State of the Nation: Top-level review of USIS libraries’ policy. Christian Science Monitor, 19 June, p. 1. Dunlop, T.P.H. (1996). Interview, 12 July, by Charles Stuart Kennedy. The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign AVairs Oral History Project. Edensword, R. B. (1990). USIS activities in support of library technology development in Central America, Colombia and Ecuador. In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on new information technology, Guadalajara, Mexico, 26–28 November 1990. MicroUse Information, pp. 41–43. West Newton, Massachusetts, MA. Available at: http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT’90/ 041-bar.html Halsema, J. J. (1989). Interview, 19 August by G. Lewis Schmidt. The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign AVairs Oral History Project. Islam, K. (2003). The old USIS library: Searching for a diVerent America. The Daily Star, 8 November. Available at: http://www.thedailystar.net/2003/11/08/08/ d31108210185.htm Jones, J. (1997). Embassy libraries close doors to public, go online. Federal Computer Week., 28 July, 2 pp. Available at: http://www.fcw.com/ KniVel, L. (1997). Abandoning overseas fellowships is penny wise, pound foolish. American Libraries 28(4), 30. Kurzman, D. (1964). USIS libraries a favorite spot to vent anti-American venom. Washington Post, 11 December, A17. Lewis, M. (1997). Shelving access to USIA libraries abroad (U.S. Information Service closes its libraries in Europe). American Libraries 28(2), 49. Making the case to the world. Los Angeles Times, 18 October 2003, B24. McDuV, R. (2000). The electronic experience: USIA E-Journals and Info USA. Bangalore, India: Documentation Research and Training Centre, 9 pp. Available at: http:// hdl.handle.net/1849/33 Muravchik, J. (2002). Hearts, Minds and the War against Terror. Commentary 113(5), 25–31. PEW research center for the people and the press (2003). Views of a changing world 2003: How global publics view war in Iraq, democracy, islam and governance, globalization. 136 pp. Available at: http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/185.pdf Public Diplomacy Council (2005). A call for action on public diplomacy. George Washington University, School of Media and Public AVairs, Washington, DC, 21 pp. Available at: http://www.pdi/gwu/edu
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Quan, M. B. (1998). The developing role for USIS librarians using new internet technology. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on new information technology, Hanoi, Vietnam, 24–26 March 1998. MicroUse Information, West Newton, Massacusetts, MA pp. 233–240. Available at: http://web.simmons. edu/~chen/nit/NIT’98/98-233-Quan.html Rajczak, N. (1997). Using a product development model to create new embassy public aVairs services for business. INSPEL 31(4), 227–233. Ripley, J. (1953). Ike clarifies ‘Book-Burning’. Christian Science Monitor 17 June, p. 3. Robison, O. (2002). The public diplomacy dilemma. Commentary aired on Vermont Public Radio, 19 July 2002. Available at: http://www.salzburg.seminar.org/ orcomments/template.cfm?id¼330 Rosenzweig, M. (2003). Letter to the Editor: Propaganda & Librarianship. Library Journal 128(15), 10. Sosa, J. (1998). In search of library excellence in the country of Abdala Bucaram (El Loco). In New ways to serve the library user: A global perspective. The Proceedings of the Annual Program of the International Relations Round Table and the International Relations Committee of the American Library Association, Washington, DC, June 1998. American Library Association, Chicago. Available at: http://oldweb.ala. org/work/international/intlppre/sosa.html Tutwiler, M. (2004). Tutwiler says U.S. public diplomacy must engage youth, Remarks before the House Subcommittee on Appropriations, 4 February 2004. Available at: http://tokyo. usembassy.gov/e/p/tp-20040205-09.html U.S. library draws Changchun Chinese. New York Times, 12 March 1947, 3. U.S. library in Ghana damaged. Washington Post, 13 March 1965, A13. U.S. tries to beautify tarnished image in Muslim world. Islamonline.Net News, 12 December 2002. Available at: http://www.islamonline.net/english/news/200212/19/article15.shtml USIS library seized by Indonesian youth. Washington Post, 16 August 1964, A21. United States Department of State (2005). Foreign AVairs Manual. Chapter 10, Section 353. 4b, p. 9. United States House of Representatives (1992). Public Law 5678, Amendment 777. United States Information Agency (1999). USIA Supports 3,000 Journalists at NATO 50th Anniversary Summit, Runs Summit Web Site, Hosts International Visitors. News Release No. 019–99, 19 April 1999. Available at: http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/usia/ usiahome/releases/apr19nto.htm United States National Advisory Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (2004). The 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 585. Government Printing OYce, Washington, DC. Available at:http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/ What the world thinks of America : A unique survey of 10 countries. Guardian Online, 15 October 2004. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/ 0,5860,1327656,00.html Wieck, R. (1992). Ignorance Abroad: American Educational and Cultural Foreign Policy and the OYce of Assistant Secretary of State, pp. 11–13. Praeger, Westport, CT. Zaharna, R. S. (2003). Is arm’s length public diplomacy effective? Remarks at The Heritage Foundation, Washington, DC 10 July 2003. Available at: http://nw08. american.edu/~zaharna/heritage.html
‘‘Going Where the Users are: We’ll Get There Only If We Want to’’ Diane Kresh
Veterans History Project, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Avenue SE, Washington DC, USA
Computers in libraries are like the icing on the cake—they add to the whole experience, but just make a sticky mess on their own. Unsourced; could be anyone.
I. Introduction A significant amount of experimentation in virtual collection building and public service has been underway for the past few years. The time has now come to stop experimenting and commit instead to building collaborative, scalable and sustainable programs to meet patrons at their point of need. Our failure to do so will mean a relegation of libraries to the back ranks of information gatherers and suppliers. While it is unlikely that libraries will disappear altogether, they will become afterthoughts unless librarians consciously rethink their roles in society and academia becoming less the passive retainer and more the active participant in the creation and maintenance of information and knowledge. The resources and means are available to make librarians viable and necessary contributors to eYcient information retrieval. However, do librarians have the will, the imagination and the confidence to do so? This chapter will evaluate the development of virtual reference services and will suggest a road map for where to go next. Technology and networking services have become integral parts of public service as we create smarter, better, faster ways of making information available. Whether we call reference ‘‘virtual,’’ ‘‘digital,’’ ‘‘live,’’ ‘‘electronic,’’ ‘‘interactive,’’ ‘‘real-time,’’ ‘‘Web-based,’’ ‘‘synchronous,’’ or ‘‘asynchronous,’’ it is still reference. E-mail, in-person, telephone, chat,
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written correspondence, even faxes, all are viable means of communicating with a library user. Libraries that support a range of service options provide the best chances for patrons to receive meaningful service. A library’s success in this new environment is dependent upon using the traditional strengths of librarians—identifying, organizing, indexing, evaluating, disseminating information—to create new services, and to rethink how to provide service so that the imported technology is not overlaid on a workflow that did not work well to begin with (Seeman, 2002).
II. Literature Review Cultural and market transitions and their influence on library services have been well-documented. New phrases such as the late Anne Lipow’s ‘‘in your face reference,’’ have entered the vernacular; Web sites created by librarians track the use of the Internet by researchers, compare and contrast digital and ‘‘face to face’’ reference interactions, and evaluate chat reference services and tools. These new sites provide resources such as bibliographies and case studies on digital reference (http://www. teachinglibrarian.org), regularly updated lists on collaborative live reference services real-time reference services oVered by two or more libraries (http://www.lis.uiuc.edu/~b-sloan/bernie.htm), and musings on the brave new world of the librarian (http://www.theshiftedlibrarian.com/). The Virtual Reference Desk, (VRD), a project operated out of the Information Institute of Syracuse University, consistently provides guidance for practitioners of digital reference. With its annual conferences, research studies, standard setting activities, and Dig_Ref listserv (http:// www.vrd.org/Dig_Ref/dig_ref.shtml), the librarians at VRD have contributed significantly to the advancement of digital reference and have initiated a professional dialogue. When did virtual reference begin? One of the first online reference services was the Electronic Access to Reference Service (EARS), initiated by the University of Maryland’s Health Services Library in Baltimore, in 1984 (Wasik, 1999). The first ‘‘live’’ customer chat service may be traced back to a company called Telebase, a fee-based reference and document delivery service (Ware et al., 2000). Telebase launched the first live customer service online chat capability with Compuserve in 1985. The service, called SOS, allowed users to ask for search help or for clarification of the answers that they retrieved online. Librarians began experimenting with MUDS and MOOS, early interactive systems used mainly on college campuses, in the early 1990s (Eustace, 1996). E-mail reference services began in the early 1990s in some academic (Bristow, 1992, 1995)
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and public libraries. Other, more specialized, e-mail services dealt with specific communities of users: Joan of Art (1993) a service from the National Museum of American Art (http://www.nmaa.si.edu/) served art researchers; Ask Eric (1992), now existing in a diVerent form as (http://www.eric.ed.gov/), was an Internet based service that provided education information to teachers, librarians, counselors, administrators, parents, and anyone interested in education throughout the United States and the world; and the Virtual Reference Desk Network (http://www. vrd.org/network.shtml), a collaborative, Internet-based question and answer service provided support to Ask-an-Expert services by accepting out-of-scope and overflow questions for teachers, students and parents. Bill Drew, State University of New York (SUNY) at Morrisville, is generally credited with initiating the first chat service in the Fall of 1998. Sam Stormont and Marc Meola’s TalkBack Project (http://www.library. temple.edu/ref/interactref.html), created for Temple University in November 1998 (Stormont, 2001) built upon both Drew’s work and upon Temple’s e-mail reference service which Stormont had established in 1995.
III. Success in Virtual Reference Depends on Libraries Working Together Cooperation has been at the center of librarianship from the earliest days of the profession. Witness the long history of cooperative innovations like interlibrary loan, union catalogs, library consortia and now, electronic reference (Straw, 2003). Quite simply, today’s networks and technology options enable librarians to cover once potentially out of scope another’s desks, and features like ‘‘conference’’ and ‘‘transfer’’ enable librarians to refer questions to groups of subject or language experts. Other tangible benefits include: expanded hours of service for individual libraries; shared publicity and branding; shared training and the emergence of commonly developed and understood best practices; networking and community building; and more eYcient use of the librarian’s time (McGlamery, 2004). While it is true that lack of familiarity with local information (e.g., hours of service, costs of photocopying, borrowing practices, etc.), concerns for quality control (if I let another library answer my question will it do as good a job) and fears that cooperatives favor the local library members (a frequently voiced argument against national or global cooperatives) may stymie some, the advantages of increased coverage, creating communal solidarity and access to subject expertise and collections should outweigh the disadvantages which can be overcome
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with commitment to making the cooperative work, staV training and shared policy development. In the late 1990s, librarians began building consortia around the use of chat software to create a 24 hours a day, seven days a week (‘‘24/7’’) service option for patrons. In such programs, a library is always open to meet the needs of a patron through a cooperative coverage service model. While there is a strong history of and support for cooperative programs in libraries, cooperative reference service managed through consortia was a new concept and was approached by practitioners with some wariness. One of the first significant consortia, statewide services was the Metropolitan Cooperative Library System (MCLS), a partnership among public and academic libraries launched in southern California (McGlamery and CoVman, 2000; Helfer, February 2003). The consortium later added the 24/7 Academic Cooperative, with 70 participating colleges and universities, including the California State colleges, Baruch, Boston, Brigham Young, and Tufts Universities. Santa Monica Public Library was the first public library in California to oVer chat when it went ‘‘live’’ to the public in July 1, 2000. Cleveland’s Know it Now (http:// www.cpl.org/vrd/learnmore.html) began serving Cuyahoga County, Ohio and the communities of the CLEVNET Libraries in 2001. The Minneapolis Public Libraries, in conjunction with Hennepin County Libraries (http://www.mplib.org/askaquestion.asp), began oVering a variety of free library reference services designed to help meet the needs of students, enabling them to ask questions any time. Examples of statewide services include Maryland’s AskUsNow (http://www.askusnow. info), a live, ‘‘24/7,’’ multi-type library cooperative that serves all of the state’s residents and students; and Q and A NJ (http://www.qandanj. org/), New Jersey’s virtual reference service providing free reference service in real-time from librarians across the state (Van Houten, 2004). The Library of Congress began providing digital reference services via the Internet in the mid-1990s and moved beyond its own walls in the spring of 2000 when it and 16 other libraries launched the Collaborative Digital Reference Service (CDRS) pilot. The goal of CDRS was to create a community of professional librarians who would work together to oVer online reference services locally and to refer questions to others within the subscription group or globally. As the CDRS project began to grow beyond the ability of the in-house, pilot software to function smoothly, the Library of Congress entered a collaborative partnership with Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) to develop what is now known as QuestionPoint (http://www.questionpoint.org/), a fully integrated reference management system. The CDRS pilot was completed in June 2002 when the QuestionPoint software was launched worldwide.
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From a small pilot of 16 libraries, QuestionPoint is now used in more than 1000 libraries in 20 countries around the world and functions as both a virtual reference service and knowledge resource, and infrastructure of software and communications tools. Its searchable, global Knowledge Base has grown to more than 7000 active question-andanswer pairs. In late 2004, QuestionPoint merged with MCLS’ 24/7 service, bringing together strong administrative tools for managing reference transactions and a global reference network (QuestionPoint) with a cooperative network that serves more than 500 libraries and supports real-time chat and collaborative browsing (24/7) (Quint, 2004). In January 2003, The National Library of Canada, a founding member of CDRS/QuestionPoint, launched Virtual Reference Canada (http://www. nlc-bnc.ca/vrc-rvc/index.html), a bilingual web-based reference service undertaken by the National Library of Canada and Canadian libraries and research institutions. Other ground-breaking projects include: the Internet Public Library (IPL) (http://www.ipl.org/) which began in 1995 as a graduate student project at the University of Michigan’s School of Information ( Janes, 1998). It was the first public library on the Internet to oVer everything from e-mail based assistance to online collections, reference help, exhibits and a children’s story hour. Across the globe, the National Library of Australia launched ‘‘AskNow’’ in January of 2003 (http://www.nla. gov.au/infoserv/askus.html), a real-time, interactive, chat service, staVed on a time share basis by librarians from the National Library and other state libraries. The Brisbane City Council Library Service, Queensland Australia, Richland County Public Library in South Carolina and several other libraries joined forces in late 2000 to form the first inter-continental 24/7 live service, ‘‘Answers Now.’’ Proudly proclaiming ‘‘answers now. all the time. across the world’’ (http://www.richland.lib.sc.us/answersnow.html), Answers Now is a free, real-time, web-based reference service that allows library members access to a reference librarian 24 hours a day, seven days a week and oVers assistance with homework, personal research, hobbies and interests. While many cooperative virtual reference programs are being established, they will not be eVective without trust. Given available technology, libraries can build on one another’s services, share subject and language expertise, collaborate on answering a researcher’s question, and enable access to one another’s collections. Libraries can consider forming ‘‘aYnity groups’’ (e.g., a band of local history and genealogy libraries) or other flexible networks to allow librarians to work together in many diVerent configurations. Such networks could be based on language groups, subject specialists, regional libraries, the possibilities
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are endless. The benefits of collaborative digital reference are significant. Librarians can meet patrons at their point of need and since there is too much information and no library can do it all, collaborative reference allows librarians to build on strengths.
IV. The Burgeoning Information Service Industry The current information‐seeking landscape is complicated and increasingly crowded. Search engines are popular and Internet searchers are generally positive about their online search experience (Pew, 2005). Search engines oVer vast amounts of information from the desktop and we can easily envision a future of item level retrieval (books, videos, sound recordings) that is convenient, customized, and changeable. Internet searchers, however, remain ignorant of how search engines actually operate or the financial tensions that come into play in displaying search results. Moreover, users do not often understand the diVerent kinds of search results that are retrieved or are unable to evaluate the authenticity of the information provided. Librarians can play an important role in improving the eVectiveness of online searches. The problem is, Internet searchers do not always turn to librarians to get help. The US population with access to the Internet topped 200 million in 2004 (Yahoo News 3/19/04). A series of reports published by the Pew Internet and American Life Project provide extensive data about the habits of online users, information that can help librarians shape innovative and responsive library service programs. A Pew report released in early 2002 acknowledged the shift in the status of the Internet, from a ‘‘shiny new toy’’ to a tool for assisting ‘‘wired Americans’’ with ‘‘life’’ management. The report documented the increasing dependence on the Internet to perform work-related tasks, to make purchases and perform other financial transactions, to write e-mails and to seek information that is important to their everyday lives. A follow-up study found that the growing numbers of experienced Internet users coupled with the encroachment of the Internet into all aspects of American culture raised Americans’ expectations about what is available online. A tangible result of raising expectations was that searchers began turning to the Internet first for information on health care, government services, news or electronic commerce (Pew Internet and American Life, 2002). A report released in 2003 analyzed use by students stating that 73% of American college students use the Internet more than they use libraries and that 80% of Internet users search it to find answers to questions (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2003). The Internet shows no
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signs of scaling back its reach. It is expected to become more embedded in everyday and commercial life. Other research demonstrates, however, that in spite of the popularity of the Internet, libraries are still being used, and not just their online resources. An OCLC White Paper on the Information Habits of College Students (OCLC, 2002) surveyed 1050 qualified respondents and found that although more than 31% of all respondents use Internet search engines to find answers to their questions, people who use Internet search engines express frustration because they estimate half of their searches are unsuccessful. The report further found that nearly 9 out of 10 students (89%) also use the campus library’s print resources, including books, journals, articles, and encyclopedias. Similarly, a 2002 survey of 3097 adults conducted by the School of Informatics and Urban Libraries Councils (reported in ‘‘The Impact of Internet Use on Public Library Use, (www.buValo.edu/reporter/vol36n16/articles/LibraryStudy.html) oVered further assurance that all information‐seeking is not happening on the Internet. Among the study’s findings: Internet use does not reduce library use; patrons use the Internet to get news, health information, recipes and other short-term material in a brief format, and use the library for in-depth research and extensive reading; 75.2% of Internet users also use the library and 60.3 % of library users also use the Internet. No evidence was found among respondents who used both the library and the Internet that Internet use was changing the reasons why people used the library or the frequency of their library use, but that respondents used each information source for diVerent reasons.
V. Virtual Reference is no Different from Traditional Reference We are living in an age where we can have the best of both worlds. We can seek information from the Internet and through libraries, either in-person or online. But just how diVerent is virtual reference from traditional reference? Joseph Janes, an Associate Professor in the Information School, University of Washington, contends the diVerence is not much. Each has the same goal of providing direct, professional assistance to people seeking information, wherever and whenever they need it ( Janes, 2004). The chief diVerence is that the librarian is robbed of both visual and audio cues that can often help contextualize and clarify the question. If it is not so diVerent, why have not all libraries adopted virtual reference? In those libraries that have, why are the use statistics so low? The answers may lie in the nature of the medium itself.
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Chat is a powerful outreach tool and enables libraries to reach patrons they never would have reached. Further, it can help clarify a reference question which would take longer to do in e-mail; it can be an eVective tool in bibliographic instruction as the librarian assists the patron in learning more eVective ways to search the Internet, through co-browsing and escorting; and it can also be used in more formal library instruction ( Jaworowski, 2001). The availability of the complete transcript of the reference transaction facilitates follow up and provides managers and supervisors with a potential training tool to disprove the often quoted McClure and Hernon 55% rule (reference librarians are right only 55 % of the time: McClure, Hernon, 1985). There is patron comfort level and satisfaction to be considered; the patron is already on the Internet and can get live reference help from a librarian without leaving the desktop. A range of chat products are available and the relative merits of each have been discussed elsewhere (Hirko, 2003). Investment in costly virtual reference software is not de rigueur, either. For example, Instant Messaging (IM), popular with students and young people, is not proprietary and a library can get started right away with ‘‘real’’ time reference without a huge investment in software or staV training. (Foley, 2001). Chat technology does have its downside, however. Some transactions never get oV the ground—the system crashes or the patron’s browser crashes—and co-browsing proprietary databases can be diYcult (Boyer, 2001). Most librarians have also unfortunately experienced the ‘‘disappearing patron’’ phenomenon. The patron logged on, submitted the question and then, just went away. What happened? Was the problem technical or a lack of awareness of the process on the part of the patron? Chat (and e-mail) is very diVerent from face-to-face interactions. Face-toface interactions are conversations between the librarian and the patron, occasioning the provision of more context by the user, more instruction and encouragement by the librarian and a feeling of co-dependence on the success of the outcome. Chat is diVerent. It is a diVerent means of conducting business, and because it feels diVerent and somewhat awkward, it can further impede eVective communication. The library literature also reports that librarians express concern that chat is timeconsuming; everything has to be typed out, from eliciting more information to clarify the question, to keeping the patron apprised of the steps being taken, to providing the final answer. Any new, adopted technology presents training challenges for the staV: a lack of familiarity with the tools; concerns about interoperability with other systems; and the need to integrate the new with the old. Some librarians have expressed diYculty in juggling the telephone, chat and the
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in-person patron (Ford, 2002). Professionals also care about standards and spend lots of time creating and maintaining performance benchmarks and best practices. With an unfamiliar medium like chat, there are the usual worries about the quality of the online exchange. It is hard but not impossible to conduct a reference interview in a chat session. Further, because chat sessions are often limited to quick searches, the resources located and referred tend to be web-based and not the library’s research oriented and comprehensive analog resources. Challenges yes, but obstacles that can be overcome with vision, training, and imagination.
VI. Who Uses Virtual Reference and Why? Why do patrons use virtual reference? The most overriding reason is convenience. (Kibbee, 2004). The younger generation (pretty much everyone younger than ‘‘Boomers’’) appears comfortable with chat but several factors aVect use of chat or e-mail, including technical ease, (e.g., connection speed, software reliability and ease of use); the user’s language ability; and the urgency and type of question. In general, communication is brief, with little context provided, and anonymous. Moreover, there is a strong local component to the questions, for example, questions about hours of service, users services, library holdings, database use and troubleshooting. As libraries consider how and whether to provide online reference, they must determine what niche they will be filling. Many libraries post tips and suggestions on their ‘‘Ask A Librarian’’ home pages about the kinds of inquiries best served by chat. Such information helps manage users’ expectations and oVers clear alternatives. For example, the Newman Library at Baruch College (http://newman.baruch.cuny.edu/e_ref/ default.htmainb) suggests that its chat service is most eVective in oVering advice on how to begin researching a topic; providing tips on how to search databases and the library catalogs, or the web; evaluating the usefulness of a resource (book, article, Web site, etc.); and tracking down whether the library has a copy of a book, magazine, journal, etc. The librarians at Baruch suggest further that if students need a lot of instruction in how to use a database, they should consider coming to the library’s reference desk or attending library workshops. The types of questions at Baruch range from the usual (‘‘how do I renew or borrow books?’’) to the unusual (‘‘seeking sources on New Mexico’s aliens from outer space’’) (Baruch College Magazine, 2004). Frankly, there is no professional consensus on the types of questions—factual versus where-to-find or directional questions—best
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answered by chat or virtual reference. Research conducted by Joe Janes (2000) observed that in general, online expert services (Ask Jeeves, Yahoo, GOOGLE Answers) tended to be heavily used for fact based questions although they can provide extensive research for a fee. The fact that they have a 70% accuracy rate for fact-based questions but a low response rate of 59% for source questions about where to find information may suggest a niche for library virtual reference programs to satisfy.
VII. Library Services are in a Period of Transition Some libraries have successfully integrated virtual and traditional reference services; but many have not yet tried, preferring to wait until the dust settles. While we are in this period of transition, we must be mindful of the need not to be overly critical if at first we do not succeed, to nurture fledgling services, to establish rigorous standards to ensure high quality, and not to be afraid to stop or change if something is not working the way we expected (or wanted). Most librarians created virtual reference services in response to patron needs ( Janes and Hill, 2002) and now that most services have matured, we need to think more critically about what niche digital reference fills. Virtual services are prevalent in both public and academic libraries and users run the gamut from students to retirees and everyone in between. As libraries have implemented virtual reference services they have had to: assess the optimal allocation of staV resources to meet the demand; re-evaluate staV training needs and, where appropriate, enable staV to build new skill sets; consider how to combine the reference interview and delivery of resources; change existing or establish new service policies; and create evaluation and assessment tools. They have also had to consider what patrons really want as opposed to what librarians think they want or need (Abels, Griner and Turqman, 2004). More importantly, virtual services must deliver the goods. With more information services providers dotting the landscape, users will go elsewhere with their resource needs if libraries fail to meet their needs. However, as eager as librarians are to deliver reference services where they live, not all librarians are enthusiastic about digital references services (McKinzie and Lauer, 2002) and argue that virtual tools (e-mail, chat) will never take the place of in-person and telephone reference. In a two-part article, Steve CoVman and Linda Arret (2004) themselves both early adopters of digital reference, question the investments made in chat reference software when the numbers of users do not appear to justify the expense, and urge librarians to go back to basics: the telephone,
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e-mail, and improving library Web sites to attract repeat library users. Indeed, a look at the lessons learned from implementing telephone reference may enable libraries to make the most eVective use of chat technology (Kern, 2004). Informal surveys posted to the Dig-Ref Listserv (http://www.vrd. org/Dig_Ref/dig_ref.shtml) have shown that the volume of e-mail and chat questions are not overwhelming, but they are growing. To increase growth, libraries must do a better job of letting their patrons know what services are available to them. There is hardly a library that has not redesigned its web home page to advertise its reference services. However, such redesign has not necessarily led to increased use of libraries. Unfortunately, many library Web sites continue to replicate the physical and functional organization of the traditional library. Web-savvy users who are not familiar with traditional library organization methods do not view our Web sites as transparent or able to meet their information‐ seeking requirements. What about the quality of digital reference services, particularly as compared with other networked reference assistance provided by both the commercial and the non-profit sectors? To find out more about library ‘‘competitors,’’ Cornell University undertook a study to compare and contrast its digital reference services with those of Google Answers (Kenney, 2003). Google responded to a representative sampling of already answered, reference questions drawn from Cornell and a study of online chat services (Kaske and Arnold, 2002). The study gave Cornell (and, by extension, the profession) the chance to evaluate the eVectiveness of Google’s freelance responders when compared to credentialed experts. The results were interesting and pointed to some critical issues that warrant further research and study. First, the study revealed the need for continual assessment of digital reference services. One might have expected the answers by the credentialed experts to be significantly better but such was not the case. Further, the study underscored the need for information professionals to keep abreast of changes and developments in the field. Such currency will not only help library professionals retain their skills but may suggest possible areas for outsourcing or referral of certain kinds of questions (e.g., outsource quick facts or ready reference questions and keep the questions that request access to sources of information). Finally, what can we learn from commercial services and how can we use what we learn to justify our programs more eVectively to library administrators who are anxious to trim costs? Given the nature of chat reference—quick and anonymous—are we doing our best for our patrons? If not, how can we improve the experience? How can the richness of the face-to-face exchange be retained or
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supplemented in computer-mediated interactions? How can librarians overcome the loss of bibliographic instruction in computer mediated interaction? How can library professionals take advantage of the best mode of reference has to oVer? How can reference professionals routinize the practices of transferring a question from chat into an e-mail question to be handled more fully later? How can we use technology to reach out eVectively to other communities, for example testing Voice Over Internet Prototcol (VoIP) or other tools that work with screen readers for serving the visually impaired. One such experiment that shows promise is InfoEyes (http://infoeyes.org/particpantinfo.htm), a project designed to create a model for a multi-state, collaboration for the visually impaired. Coordinated by the Illinois State Library with several participant libraries scattered throughout the United States, the project uses Question Point e-mail and management software. Users can interact with a librarian via voice, text chat, and co-browsing in the InfoEyes online reference room. For an evaluation of the project, see http://www. infoeyes.org/particpantinfo.htm. Most of the concerns about the eVectiveness or the appropriateness of chat in the reference environment will only be addressed through continued experimentation coupled with a commitment to finding the best link between both worlds, the in-person and online. No quick fix or ‘‘one size fits all’’ solution has yet appeared on the horizon and may never do so. Indeed, practice suggests that no single mode of providing reference takes more time per librarian or patron than any other mode. The length of time a transaction takes depends on a number of factors: the patron, the complexity of the question, the skill of the librarian, and the range of sources available to answer the question. Many patrons use more than one means of library inquiry. Increasingly, some library responses are in more than just a single mode of service. Face-to-face, telephone, e-mail, and online, interactive reference services can, when buttressed by a user-centered focus, mesh into an eVective array of public services.
VIII. Community Building in Reference Service A more vibrant community has emerged from our collective re-imagining of reference and information services. The afore-mentioned VRD annual conference is perhaps one of the best forums for practitioners of virtual reference, encouraging thinking ‘‘out loud’’ and problem solving, information‐seeking and sharing. Job announcements for librarians in all sectors of librarianship still clamor for ‘‘dynamic’’ and ‘‘innovative’’
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‘‘collaborators’’ and ‘‘leaders’’ who will move reference and information services into the 21st century. Articles about library web-based services regularly appear in the popular press (e.g., New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Chronicle of Higher Education, Washington Post) as virtual services have become more commonplace. Community building tools are also becoming more unconventional. According to dictionary publisher Merriam-Webster, ‘‘blog’’ topped the list of most looked-up terms on its Web site during 2004 besting ‘‘electoral,’’ ‘‘cicada,’’ and ‘‘defenestration.’’ Put simply, a weblog is a web-based tool that allows an author (the blogger) to post information for use by others. The types of blogs that exist are as varied and as diverse in subject matter as the people who create and maintain them. The Pew Internet & American Life project reports that a blog is created every 5.8 seconds, and blog analysis firm Technorati estimates that the number of blogs in existence now exceeds 4.9 million. As a result, librarians have a less formal means of sharing tips, keeping up with current trends, pointing to the best information sites on the Internet (Gary Price’s www.resourceshelf.com) and sharing personal views on issues in librarianship ( Jessamyn West’s www.librarian.net/). As librarians increase their use of personal blogs, they may find their niche in library services (Pomerantz and Stutzman, 2004). It is particularly tantalizing to consider their potential use in reference, itself a social environment in which patrons interact with librarians. With a blog, the patron can interact with multiple librarians at once (or any member of the blogosphere, for that matter). As more and more individuals contribute to the conversation initiated by the question, a thread is established and as it grows, more and more information is added from diverse perspectives, thereby enriching the original exchange and reducing the need for a more formal ‘‘referral’’ to another source. Tools are being developed to improve the richness and authenticity of the information chain that is being built. For example, ‘‘TrackBack,’’ allows weblog authors to connect their own comments directly to others’ posts. It was designed to provide a method of notification between Web sites and behaves like citation practices followed in scholarly and other publishing contexts for generations. In this context, information is fluid, and tools like link resolvers and TrackBack could enable users to move seamlessly from one link to another, connecting to each other in widening, concentric circles, and all the while adding and annotating, educating and enriching. Information becomes less an end in itself, an object, and more a journey. Although technically a listserv, Stumpers (http://domin.dom.edu/ depts/gslis/stumpers), is an early example of an online community as defined here. Begun in 1992, ‘‘Stumper’’ questions are posted to the list
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to be answered by the community, either an individual, and not all members are librarians, or by many as an answer is added to or improved upon. While clearly a helpful place when one is ‘‘stumped’’ by a question, it is also a means of keeping one’s reference skills up and increasing awareness of hot topics, current events and issues and trends in the field. Libraries are also experimenting with Real Simple Syndication (RSS), a format for broadcasting news and the content of news-like sites, such as Wired, news-oriented community sites like Slashdot, and personal weblogs. Anything that can be broken down into discrete items can be syndicated via RSS. With RSS, libraries can provide more customized services to patrons, informing them of new acquisitions, the status of book loans, or anything the library wants to communicate without the patron having to visit the Web site. Librarians have also created new tools for patrons. For example, they use their evaluation skills to create virtual reference shelves and sites of frequently asked questions (FAQs) to allow for patron self-help (http:// lii.org/). Such tools serve many purposes: in the real-time environment, the patron can search them while the librarian thinks through a reference strategy. They can also build patron awareness of what resources libraries have available online and to which resources on the web librarians feel confident pointing patrons. They help keep librarians actively engaged in evaluating and assessing web content and creating new tools for answering questions and locating information.
IX. Reinventing Libraries Today’s librarian must work in a world witness to the ubiquity of technological innovation; globalization; volatile economies; expanding educational formats and opportunities, demographic shifts; population diversity; changing workplace structures; new demands and expectations from workers; and changes in customer expectations and lifestyles. (htttp://www.ala.org/congress/2nd_congress/finalreport.html#soc) Any analysis of the eVectiveness of virtual reference services strikes at the heart of what librarianship as a whole needs to address if librarians are to be eVective in meeting the patrons at their point of need. Several definable patterns have emerged from research that urges dramatic change in the profession as a whole. In 2003, OCLC undertook an environmental scan produced for OCLCs worldwide membership to examine the significant issues and trends aVecting OCLC, libraries, museums, archives and other allied organizations, both now and in the future. The scan provides a high-level view of the information landscape,
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intended both to inform and stimulate discussion about future strategic directions (OCLC, 2003). The researchers examined five landscapes— social, economic, technology, research and learning, and library— through interviews with vendors, librarians and archivists and through focus group interviews with senior citizens, teachers and students. Some characteristics of our current culture emerged providing implications for the future of libraries and the services they provide. For example, the social landscape alone describes three trends that could profoundly aVect library service: self service (users do know what they want and know how to get it), satisfaction (look at the success of Google, Yahoo and other ‘‘ask a’’ services to know that online information consumers like what they get) and seamlessness (work and play are blended; the world is always ‘‘on,’’ look at the number of people who stay connected: clicking on the laptop while waiting at the airport, searching the Internet on their cell phones, etc.). The OCLC study does not provide answers but raises questions about what we do, and asks us to re-imagine ourselves and our institutions so that we can remain relevant in a web dominated world. How do libraries articulate and justify the value of libraries when collections are no longer the chief asset? How do libraries find and sustain their space? How do we equip librarians to work in the global workplace? How can librarians work as members of teams that may extend beyond the bricks and mortar of their home institution to an online consortium or collaborative network? Today’s librarians need skills in technology and information systems, project management, copyright and licensing; and contract administration. They need to be advocates and collaborators, they need to be entrepreneurial and willing to test new solutions. They need to multi-task, be skilled in negotiation and conflict management. Library education needs to move beyond a focus on the container to a focus on information and knowledge and how it is used by people (Myburgh, 2003). Understanding the impact information has on the quality of life and the relationship between society and technology is central to a professional and international perspective. Virtual reference is not perfect and it has its critics. However, with Google (and others) ‘‘poaching’’ on our space, librarians have a lot to think about. Our personal history has shown us that transitions are hard. It was not too many years ago that libraries resisted telephone service. Any library that has not jumped into the online reference world should; it really cannot aVord not to do so. A home page with a few links does not make a virtual reference program, nor does a library Director’s decree or even an Instant Messaging (IM) account. As with any undertaking, virtual reference must be carefully considered and the costs and benefits
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analyzed. Many libraries have taken the plunge into virtual information services and have valuable experience to share. For those who choose to face up to the challenge of implementing a virtual reference service, a few practical ‘‘dos and don’ts:’’ A. Start with a Vision and Lead
Know where you are going so that you will recognize it when you get there. The importance of vision cannot be underestimated. Defining a vision means knowing your patrons, looking at your services, finding out where the gaps are and figuring out how best to fill them. If you do not know who your patrons are or what they want, find out. Hold focus sessions, send out online surveys, stop them when you see them and ask them. Once you have found out what they want, take concrete steps to achieve what they want. For example, if your goal is to respond to patron inquiries with a certain time frame (e.g., 24 hours), what steps is your library going to take to ensure the goal is met? Not every library can or should provide all services all the time for everyone. The library that needs to oVer ‘‘24/7’’ services only occasionally can work with other institutions or commercial services (Koch, 2003) to ensure that coverage. Service begins and ends with the library patron. Imagine creative uses for virtual reference tools. Sponsor chat sessions with library experts or subject specialists to accompany a library exhibit opening, provide a discussion forum for a hot news topic. Invite authors of newly published books or artists opening new exhibits to participate in focused chat sessions. Use online reference tools to package and deliver information in new and innovative ways; discover new information sources and create new content. The goal should be improvement, not perfection (Wittenborg, 2004). The rate of change and changing technology precludes our taking the time to build the best mousetrap, but an engagement in continuous improvement will go a long way toward demonstrating to our users that we are working and will continue to work to meet their needs. B. Get Your Staff on Board
Even the best ideas will not fly without staV buy-in and staV adapt to new ideas at diVerent paces. Some reasons for resistance to technological innovation include: staV fears of job elimination; inherent contradictions between the innovation and the employees’ customs, habits and personal beliefs; and the personalities of the employees, some of whom may be naturally risk-averse (Weiner, 2003). The challenge for the change agent
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(manager) is to present a clear and detailed vision of the service change options and be sensitive to staV concerns. Then step back and let staV be part of the solution. Divide the changes into manageable chunks so that everything does not alter at once. Hold staV forums or general briefings on new directions and create tasks groups for figuring out the details. Both are eVective ways to involve staV and play to their strengths. Do not be impatient. Do not expect everyone to get on board at once. One can start small with a group of enthusiastic supporters (‘‘early adopters’’) and build from there. A critical mass of supporters will eventually develop. Encourage those who are interested to step into leadership positions. Encourage experimentation and do not be afraid to try something else if what you planned at first does not work. If you force adoption of a new service model before staV are ready, you will be defeated in the long run. Involving staV may take longer but you will have a better and better supported service in the end. Do not underestimate or undervalue the ways in which staV view themselves as professionals. They may feel that they went into librarianship for reasons that are no longer valid. Stress that the work is the same, only the tools are diVerent. The same service values that brought us into the profession in the first place still apply. Take the time to thank and reward the staV for moving forward. Recognize early successes, no matter how small. C. Rethink Reference
Stop thinking of reference as an end in itself. Think of it as only a part of the information chain along with IT, communications, cataloging, preservation and all library services and functions that support and address the needs of the users. Obsessing over the numbers of questions asked is not useful as we will never catch up with the millions of queries processed per day by Google. Think instead about the quality of the reference exchanges and whether we as librarians are doing all we can to link patrons with our collections and services. Digital libraries are, by necessity, interdependent, but our siloed organizations have not yet caught up with them. Know your users and re-examine your workflow (Penka, 2003). Build-in more feedback mechanisms, how will we know patrons are served if we do not ask them? Re-examine the organization and look for its strengths and weaknesses. Adopt a model of continuous improvement. Increasingly, we see new models of librarianship emerging in which the skills and expertise of reference librarians, catalogers, and programmers combine to create new services and products to enhance public service. Services should be better integrated and we should think more holistically. This trend toward integration of library services can be
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seen in many tangible ways. Look at the amount of literature that has been published on the concept of the Information Commons, shared space between IT and library staV, and how such space should be staVed and furnished, to achieve maximum benefit to the user community. In the mid-1990s, the Library of Congress formed the Bibliographic Enrichment Advisory Team (BEAT) including cataloging, reference, and IT to focus on improving access to the Library’s collections through enriched bibliographic records. Through linking bibliographic records to ‘‘born digital’’ materials and digitizing public domain texts, tables of contents, summaries, or reviews, new synergies among library professionals sprang to life. Reference librarians, with their real-world knowledge of users information-seeking behavior, catalogers, with their appreciation of authority control and description, now worked with IT programmers which led to improved access to resources. Team members gained new perspectives, skills, and appreciation for the expertise of their colleagues. Libraries can better integrate virtual into existing reference services by providing multiple links to both of those services through online library catalogs, digital collections, and online databases. Libraries can adopt tools that provide eVective patron co-browsing and work to build librarian competencies in technical troubleshooting, digital content search strategies, and appropriate referral to expert online services. D. Increase Professional Development and Staff Training
Change can be scary, even if it is a good change. There are lot of outside forces driving change in the library profession including: technological innovation, economic uncertainty, changes in workplace structure, changes in educational structures and tools, increased globalization and population diversity, lack of civic engagement and concerns for national security. Professional practices and values are changing as well. We have shifted emphasis from valuing the collections to valuing expertise; we have moved from single, facility-based enterprises to those that are campus-wide. Our means of acquiring materials have changed, moving from owning to licensing, from item collecting to aggregating, from aggregating to disaggregating, from disseminating to publishing. We have created new organizing schema, and now we are trying to go where the users are. Again, the traditional fundamental nature of librarianship has not changed but technology and new tools can be used to enhance delivery of information and services. New business models are also needed as are an evolution in the skill set of the librarian. The traditional attributes of the profession—the customer-focused, subject
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and/or language expert who was goal-oriented, self-directed, technically literate, and professionally aware—must evolve into a new professional who can manage projects, negotiate and administer contracts, cope eVectively with conflict and change, manage multiple media and new priorities and forecast the future. How do we prepare our existing staVs or prepare new students in library science for the challenges that await them? The School of Information Studies at Syracuse University with funding from the Institute for Museum and Library Services (IMLS), launched the Digital Reference Education Initiative (DREI) in response to requests for comprehensive training and competencies in digital reference. Bringing together the collective expertise of practitioners, library educators, and digital reference software developers, DREI hopes to create an adaptable collection of core competencies, standards, tools, and training materials that may be used in various library and other information industry settings, and to provide access to these materials through the DREI Web site http://drei.syr.edu. In late 2001 the Reference and Users Services Association (RUSA) of the American Library Association (ALA) initiated a revision of their standards to reflect the growing belief that while in-person and remote reference interviews share some points in common, each has its own peculiar characteristics that need to be addressed separately in standard guidelines. The five main areas of the previous standards (Approachability, Interest, Listening/Inquiring, Searching, and Follow-Up) remain the same, but three distinct categories of interactions (general, face-toface encounters, and remote) have been added to address reference encounters by telephone, e-mail, chat, etc., where traditional visual and non-verbal cues do not exist. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Discussion Group on Reference first met in 1998. Created to address the eVects of new technology on reference work and on user expectations, the Discussion group became the permanent Standing Committee on Reference Work in 2002. Once established, one of its first acts was to create tools including digital reference guidelines (http:// www.ifla.org/VII/s36/pubs/drg03.htm) and standards and guidelines (http://www.ifla.org/VII/s36/pubs/drsp.htm). Important work by Charles McClure and R. David Lankes has helped to define measures and standards for assessing the quality of digital reference service (Choltco-Devlin, Gross, Lankes, McClure, 2002). The University of Michigan School of Information (SI) and a few other library schools are incorporating classes in virtual reference into their curricula. The Internet Public Library innovated a program with students
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of the University of Michigan Library School wherein incoming graduate students learned reference service skills through analyzing, answering and describing an e-mail reference transaction. The weekly assignment forced students to see the reference process as a series of explicit steps including organizing and packaging the information for its maximum benefit to the users (Plumb, 2004). In addition to skill development, library administrators can invite luminaries in the field to come to the library for workshops or lectures. Encourage staV to attend conferences, consider staV exchanges, or partner with a library school and oVer credit for projects so that the time of staV professionals can be freed up to do other things. The students get experience in their profession, the professional gets time to be refreshed and re-energized (Yontz, 2003). If budgets are low and funds scarce, collaborate with another institution to get the message out that the world is changing and the staV has to change with it. Experiment with telework or expanded work weeks so that staV can be equipped to work at home and take classes or attend workshops during the day to increase professional development. Think in terms of continuous improvement instead of ‘‘if we just get it right, we would not have to change it.’’ Listservs and blogs oVer lots of practical advice about how to administer digital reference services including oVering suggestions and sharing experiences on staYng, the kinds of questions that should be handled in the virtual environment, time frames for answering, and patron privacy (e.g., how long to keep a transcript). Begin codifying benchmarks so that they can be shared with the community and so that you know when you have reached your goal. Start with some basics: decide what questions would best be answered by a virtual reference service and decide how long it should take to answer a question. Set up protocols for answering the questions; be brief, be clear, give the user time to respond, check in frequently, and stay away from library jargon (Williamson, 2002). There is not a ‘‘one size fits all’’ virtual reference set up. So experiment, seek advice from others and decide what works best for your library, based on its vision (mission), staYng, and patron needs. E. Redefine the Library
Stop defining ‘‘library’’ as the bricks and mortar of the library building. Think about what libraries do and then re-imagine how we can do that better. Libraries collect and aggregate materials to facilitate use, preserve those materials for future generations, provide free and open access to local and global resources, support lifelong learning and serve the public good. All necessary to ensure an enlightened citizenry, without which
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there can be no democracy. As libraries evolve, they must accept change as a constant, innovate with a sense of purpose, and assemble diverse experts to create and sustain new roles. The world of scholarly communication is evolving and with that evolution comes the potential for profound changes in the ways libraries have historically interacted with scholars and creators (Lougee, 2004). As libraries move beyond the physical archive of created, fixed content, they will increase their involvement with authors and content creators, serve as catalysts for collaboration and assume responsibility for the content management, archival and dissemination functions. While some may argue that there are entities better suited to this role (e.g., technology services to provide access) libraries, with their inherent attributes of integrity, authenticity and trust are ideally suited to such new roles. Finally, libraries must be prepared to address copyright, which may be the single biggest challenge to the future of libraries and the promise of free and open access to materials. One recent example, the National Institute of Health scaled back its plan to require the results of NIH-sponsored medical research to be publicly available for free on a government-sponsored Web site (The Washington Post, 17 January 2005). The final version of the plan lengthened the deadline for posting the free version online from six months after publication in a journal to one year, and NIH faced criticism that it buckled under pressure from scientific publishers. While the movement toward diVerent and more open publication models through more unconventional methods and means continues, it is unclear how they will take eVect and in what disciplines. As we rethink the library and its role in society, we should not be afraid to market ourselves and compete openly with other service providers. We should reach out to people who have not been in a library in years, create services that will save them time and publicize those services (Price, 2003). We should expand our definition of library patron. If patrons come to our institutions from outside our geographic areas or tax bases, should we turn them away? New services require new funding and business models. There are many public libraries that already agree to answer questions from outside of their tax bases. Others are more restrictive. Set up informal networks; determine if a collaborative network is appropriate for your library. Help build the brand of libraries and make sure that no question goes unanswered. Raise the profile of librarians as trusted advisors and information mediators. Understand the learning styles and behaviors of the next generation of library users, because our failure to do so will deeply aVect the future of libraries. ‘‘NextGens’’ (or Millenials) (Abrams, 2004), comprised of people born between 1982 and 2002 (my two sons are among them), at 81 million are
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the largest population group since the Baby Boomers (my generation) topped oV at 87 million. Understanding what makes them tick can help libraries tailor services far into the future. Because they were ‘‘born with a chip,’’ for them, computers are not technology, they are a way of life (Oblinger, 2003). A few characteristics of NextGens include being content agnostic (all stuV is online, it does not matter if it is print or music and it does not matter who owns it); expecting to have information available wherever they are and whenever they need it (think wireless PDAs, digital phones), multitasking with ease (IMing with friends while burning a CD with an open text book on the lap). Their fascination with interactive video games has led them to expect content-rich Web pages, not structured indexes and tables of contents. They work and ‘‘play’’ online with friends and classmates so collaboration and group work are important. They dislike being kept waiting; believe that doing is more important than knowing; and expect good customer service. Library services will have to meet GenExers where they live, work and play and if they do not, they will go elsewhere. Virtual reference with its technology focus, content over format bias and emphasis on collaboration is a start in the right direction to attract these users but we will have to dream bigger.
X. Conclusions With library budget cuts, fewer library education programs and competition from commercial web-based information services, the fight is on for the future of libraries. The viability of libraries and their ability to ‘‘support equity and lifelong free choice learning’’ (Odor, 2004) are in jeopardy. As a profession, we cannot depend on the largess of Bill and Melinda Gates (USA Today, 1/13/05) who are almost single-handedly keeping public libraries awash in computers. In 2004, the American Library Association launched a new Web site in 2004 (www.ala.org/ libraryfunding.) to track cuts in libraries, some of which have been dramatic. For example, the city of Salinas in California became the first city in California to close all of its libraries due to a budget cut for the three libraries of $7.1 million. A threatened closure of all 52 libraries in BuValo & Erie County, NY in December 2004 was staved oV at the last minute when the Erie County legislature agreed to share part of a onecent sales tax increase with municipalities in eVect keeping branches open, but still reducing the library’s budget by $2.5 million. This is not happy news for libraries. All the more reason to get in touch with our users and convince them that they need us which means
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convincing ourselves that staying the same is not good enough. There is still a lot to learn about virtual reference practice, about users and their needs, about staV training, evaluation and marketing of these new services. We should be heartened by the progress we have made but resolved to do more. In closing, I return to the OCLC Environmental Scan and the observed trends of self-service, disaggregation, and collaboration. Patrons are finding what they want and think it is good enough; what they want is the page not the book; and when they connect with one another, they want to be part of a community that adds value, provides context, and leads to other content. How such findings will aVect the future of virtual services remains to be seen. What is clear is that the information landscape is changing. Consumers are more savvy, they have more choices and they are less patient. So we must leverage what we know and what we have learned and speak to what people need. We must understand the user and the tensions that exist between respect for privacy and the need to know more about our customers so that we can personalize our services. There will always be a desire for the library as a physical space, a community space, but as increasingly those spaces are created online, if libraries remain the same, the only space left for us will be lease space. Our legacy deserves better and the NextGENers are watching. References Abels, E., Griner, L., and Turqman, M. (2004). If you build it will they come? They will if you build what they need. Information Outlook 8(10), 13(5). Abrams, S., and Luther, J. (2004). Born with the chip. Library Journal. Baruch Wired: Ask a Librarian. (2004). Baruch College Magazine, Winter/Spring. Available at: http://www.baruch.cuny.edu/magazine/ws04/feat1f.html Boyer, J. (2001). Virtual reference as the NCSU libraries: The first one hundred days. Information Technology and Libraries 20(3), 122–128 September. Available at: http://www.lita.org/ital/2003_boyer.html/ Bristow, A. (1992). Academic reference service over electronic mail. College and Research Libraries News 10, 631–632. Bristow, A., and Buechley, M. (1995). Academic reference service over e-mail: an update. College and Research Libraries News 7, 459–462, July/August. CoVman, S., and Arret, L. (2004). To chat or not to chat-taking another look at virtual reference. Part 1 and 2. Searcher 12(7/8), July/September. Available at: http://www.infotoday.com/searcher/jul04/arret_coVman.shtml, Available at: http://www.infotoday.com/searcher/sep04/arret_coVman.shtml Eustace, K. (1996). Going my way? Beyond the WEB and the MOO in the library. Australian Library Review 13(1), 44–53. Foley, M. (2002). Instant messaging reference in an academic library: A case study. College and Research Libraries 63(1), 36–45.
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Ford, C. (2002). An exploratory study of the diVerences between face-to-face and computer mediated reference interactions. Virtual Reference Desk, Conference. Available at: http://www.vrd.org/conferences/VRD2002/proceedings/ford.shtml Helfer, D. (2003). Searcher 11(2), 63. Hernon, P., and McClure, C. (1986). Unobtrusive reference testing: The fifty-five percent rule. Library Journal 111(April 15), 37–41. Hirko, B. (2002). Live, digital reference marketplace. Library Journal net Connect. Available at: http://libraryjournal.reviewsnews.com/index.asp?layout¼article& articleid¼CA251679 [accessed 15 October 2002]. Horrigan, J., Lee, J., and Lee, R. (2002). ‘‘Getting Serious Online: As Americans Gain Experience, They Use the Web More at Work, Write E-mails with More Significant Content, Perform More Online Transactions, and Pursue More Serious Activities.’’ Pew Internet and American Life Project. Horrigan, J., Lee, J., and Lee, R. (2002). Counting on the Internet: Most expect to find key information online, most find the information they seek. 29 December 2002. Available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/80/report_display.asp Horrigan, J., Lee, J., and Lee, R. (2005). A Decade of Adoption. How the Internet has woven itself into American Life. 25 January 2005. Available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/148/report_display.asp Janes, J. (1998). The Internet public library: An intellectual history. Library Hi Tech 16(2), 55–68. Janes, J. (2003). Question negotiation in the technological environment. D-Lib Magazine 9(2), February [n.p.]. Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february03/janes/02janes.html Janes, J. (2004). Digital Reference Isn’t. OCLC Symposium, ALA Mid-Winter 2004. Available at: http://www.oclc.org/community/topics/virtualreference/#top Janes, J., and Hill, C. (2002). Finger on the pulse: Librarians describe evolving reference practice in an increasingly digital world. Reference & Users Quarterly 42(1), 54–65. Jaworowski, C. (2001). There’s More to Chat than Chit-Chat: Using Chat Software for Library Instruction. Information Strategies 2001, Holiday Inn Select, Fort Myers, Florida 14–16 November. Available at: http://library.fgu.edu/Conferences/infostrategies/presentations/2001/jaworo Kaske, N., and Kaske, A. (2003). Evaluation of Chat Reference Service Quality. D-Lib Magazine 9(2), Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february03/white/ 02white.html Kenney, A. R., McGovern, N. Y., Martinez, I. T., and Heidig, L. J. (2003). ‘‘Google Meets eBay: What academic librarians can learn from alternative information providers.’’ D-Lib Magazine 9(6), [n.p.]. Available at: www.dlib.org/dlib/june03/ kenney/06kenney.html Kern, K. (2004). Haven’t We Been Here Before? Lessons from Telephone Reference. The Reference Librarian (The Haworth Information Press), 85, 1–17. Kibbee, J. (2004). User Behavior and Digital Reference. Libraries in a Digital Age Conference, May 2004. ASIST, Dubrovnik, Croatia. Koch, N. (2002). Ready with answers around the clock. The New York Times, 29 August. Lee, R., and Fox, S. (2005). The Future of the ‘‘Internet.’’ 9 January 2005. Available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/145/report_display.asp Maloney, K. (2004). ASIS & T Bulletin October/November.
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Lee, R., and Fox, S. (2005). The Future of the ‘‘Internet.’’ 9 January 2005. Available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/145/report_display.asp Lougee, W. (2004). Scholarly Communication and Libraries Unbound: The Opportunity of the Commons. Workshop on Scholarly Communication as an Information Commons. 31 March–2 April. Available at: http://www.info-commons.org/blog/archives/ 000410.html McClure, C. R., Lankes, D., Gross, M., and Choltco-Devlin, B. (2002). Statistics, Measures, and Quality Standards for Assessing Digital Reference Library Services: Guidelines and Procedures. Available at: http://quartz.syr.edu/quality/ McGlamery, S., and CoVman, S. (2000). Moving reference to the Web. Reference & Users Quarterly 39(4). McGlamery, S. (2004). Cooperative Reference: Why it takes a Village to provide a virtual reference service. OCLC Symposium. ALA Mid-Winter. Available at: http://www.oclc.org/community/topics/virtualreference/#top McKinzie, S., and Lauer, J. (2002). Virtual reference: overrated, inflated and not even real. The Charleston Advisor 4(2), Available at: http://www.charlestonco.com/ features.cfm?id¼112&type¼ed Myburgh, S. (2003). ‘‘Education directions for new information professionals.’’ The Australian Library Journal 52(3). Available at: http://alia.org.au/publishing/ alj/52.3/ Oblinger, D. (2003). ‘‘Boomers, Gen-Xers, and Millennials: Understanding the ‘New Students’’’ EDUCAUSE Review 38(4), 37–47. Available at: www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM0342.pdf OCLC. (2002). How Academic Librarians Can Influence Students Web-Based Information Choices. OCLC White Paper on the Information Habits of College Students, June 2002. Available at: http://www5.oclc.org/downloads/community/informationhabits.pdf, Available at: http://www5.oclc.org/downloads/community/informationhabits.pdf OCLC Environmental Scan: Pattern Recognition (2003). Available at: http://www. oclc.org/membership/escan/introduction/default.htm Oder, N. (2004). No Sacred Cows. Library Journal 128(6), 20, 22–23. OutsellNow-Friday Edition 21 January 2005. Penka, J. (2003). The technological challenges of digital reference. D-Lib Magazine 9 (2). Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february03/penka/02penka.html Pew Internet and American Life Project. 2002. Plumb, A. (2004). The Internet Public Library as a Teaching Tool for Shockingly Traditional Reference Skills. The Reference Librarian 85, The Haworth Information Press, 33–41 (an imprint of the Haworth Press, Inc.). Pomerantz, J., and Stutzman, F. (2004). Lyceum: A Blosphere for library reference. Available at: http://www.ils.unc.edu/~jpom/conf/JCDL2004.pdf Price, G. (2003). What Google Teaches Us That Has Nothing to Do With Searching. InfoToday 11(10). Quint, B. OCLC Acquires 24/7 Reference Services. Available at: http://www. infotoday.com/newsbreaks/nb040823–2.shtml Seemon, C. (2002). Invisible Fences: A shocking theory for re-examining workflow. Computers in Libraries. July/August 2002. Stormont, S. (2000). Interactive reference project: Assessment after two years. Paper presented at Facets of Digital Reference Service: The Virtual Reference Desk Second Annual Digital Reference Conference, 16–17 October 2000. Available at: http://www.vrd.org/ conferences/VRD2000/proceedings/stormont.shtml
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Straw, J. (2003). When the walls came tumbling down: The development of Cooperative service and resources Sharing in Libraries: 1976–2002. The Reference Librarian 83/84, 263–276. The Haworth Information Press (an imprint of the Haworth Press, Inc.). Van Houten, C. (2004). Wired New Jersey: Q and A NJ. The Reference Librarian. 85, 91–100. The Haworth Information Press (an imprint of The Haworth Press, Inc). Ware, S. A., Howe, P. S., and Scalese, R. G. (2000). Interactive Reference at a Distance: A Corporate Model for Academic Libraries. Reference Librarian 69/70, 171–179. Wasik, J. (1999). Building and Maintaining Digital Reference Services. EDO-IR-99–04 March. Available at: http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed427794.html Weiner, S. G. (2003). Portal: Libraries and the Academy. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 3(1),69, 10 pgs January. Williamson, J. (2002). The Reality of Virtual Reference: A View from the Edge. Feliciter (3). Wittenborg, K. (2003). Rocking the Boat in Leadership: Council on Libraries and Information (CLIR). Washington, DC. Available at: http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/ pub123/wittenborg.html Yontz, E. (2003). On My Mind: How You Can Help Save Library Education. American Libraries 34(1), 42.
Building Networks, Building Trust: Statewide Virtual Reference Buff Hirko
Statewide Virtual Reference Project, Washington State Library, Lacey, WA, USA
I. Introduction Washington’s Statewide Virtual Reference (VRS) Project began in 2001, following some early adapters, but also at a time when most libraries and states still were considering the merits, possibilities, and pitfalls of the service. This chapter follows the development and implementation of a virtual reference (VR) service, along with support activities such as training, marketing, and assessment, in several collaborative library alliances across Washington State; describes unexpected opportunities, and plans for future sustainability. It ends with an analysis of experiences, successes, and failures, along with plans for the future based on the many things that were learned. At this writing (March 2005), a number of statewide consortia provide virtual reference service, but they are funded and structured in very diVerent ways. California,1 Colorado,2 Florida,3 Kansas,4 Maryland,5 Montana,6 New Jersey,7 North Carolina,8 and Oregon9 all support collaborative service using a single vendor product. While some are mature services, like QandANJ, others like North Carolina’s NCKnows are still in the pilot phase. Illinois extended its Ask-Us! ‘‘Year of Testing’’ of 1
http://www.asknow.org/ http://www.askcolorado.org/ 3 http://www.askalibrarian.org/ 4 http://skyways.lib.ks.us/KSL/KLNB/KANAnswerWeb/ 5 http://www.askusnow.info/ 6 http://montanalibraries.org/AskA/AskA.asp 7 http://www.qandanj.org 8 http://ncknows.org/about.htm 9 http://www.oregonlibraries.net/ 2
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three diVerent vendor products through mid-2005. Other states are at varying stages of implementing service. The number and type of libraries participating in these statewide consortia vary greatly, as do the administering authorities, support services, and funding bases. Coverage ranges from a few hours daily during the week to around-the-clock. No consistent model has emerged. Washington state followed yet another course. A. Genesis of the Project
VRS began as a ‘‘mid-cycle’’ initiative in May 2001, wholly funded by the Washington State Library (WSL) through the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA).10 The original proposal envisioned ‘‘a consortia model of statewide virtual reference service through collaborative staYng and cooperative funding’’ and budgeted for a project coordinator, supporting advisory committee(s), and contracting services for a variety of activities such as training and programming. The Library Council of Washington guidelines for new LSTA initiatives directed that each be funded for a three-year period.11 In the case of VRS, the three years began after the mid-cycle phase, which ended in September 2001. The initiative was an ambitious plan to connect libraries of every type and size across a large state—one with a history of resistance to library collaboration. In addition to the divergent characteristics of special and academic institutions, no state-level funding for public libraries is provided in Washington. Geographic diversity and distance, dramatic population variations, uneven distribution of wealth, and mixed library service areas (ranging from small town to multicounty) create significant jurisdictional obstacles. Nonetheless, initial responses to virtual reference service were enthusiastic and optimistic. Technology and economics were converging to make the idea of library cooperation very attractive. The Library of Congress (LC) launched the Collaborative Digital Reference Service (CDRS) in summer 2000. It established an international network of libraries to provide digital reference services to members on behalf of their users. That fall, two significant events triggered interest in VR in Washington. First, Washington Library Trainers (WALT) sponsored a workshop presented by Joseph Janes, Susan McGlamery, and
10 Normally, new LSTA projects are funded by WSL to start at the beginning of the Federal Fiscal Year (October 1). 11 The Library Council of Washington advises the State Librarian and the OYce of the Secretary of State on statewide library issues and the expenditure of federal funds.
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Steve CoVman.12 ‘‘Real-Time Reference: Are We Ready for 24/7?’’ proved so popular that additional workshops were scheduled around the state. The second annual Virtual Reference Desk Conference took place in Seattle that November, increasing awareness of the new service and building on the workshops. In early 2001, a group of administrators from all types of libraries met with Assistant State Librarian for Customer Services Jan Walsh13 to discuss the possibility of pursuing virtual reference service activities throughout Washington. The high level of interest generated in that meeting led to approval of the LSTA-funded initiative and recruitment of volunteers to serve on an advisory committee. Nearly thirty interested representatives from academic, public, special, and school libraries responded. They met in June with Jan Walsh and new project coordinator BuV Hirko to discuss organization and expectations for the initiative. Because an advisory committee of thirty members would be unwieldy, the group was asked to suggest areas that needed more detailed attention and also indicate areas of personal interest in which they were willing to participate. Along with a Steering Committee, they recommended the formation of several ad hoc subcommittees: Needs Assessment, Grants/Pilot Testing, Training/Best Practices, Marketing, Collaboration Models, and Software Options. The scope of project interest was defined to include all online/digital reference service (i.e., by chat, e-mail, and electronic form). The group specified a basic time line. This began with needs assessment and an inventory of current online reference practices across the state, followed by development of grant cycle guidelines, applications, and awards. The target date for the initial grant announcement was January 2002. The Steering Committee met for the first time in August 2001.14 Members share some notable characteristics: creativity, a willingness to take risks, collegiality, common sense, and good humor. These were 12
At that time Joseph Janes was Assistant Professor, University of Washington Information School; Susan McGlamery served as Reference Coordinator for Metropolitan Cooperative Library System (Los Angeles); and Steve CoVman was Product Development Manager, Library Services and Systems, Inc. 13 Jan Walsh was appointed Washington State Librarian on 7 November 2002. 14 2001–2002 Statewide Virtual Reference Project Steering Committee members: Eileen Anderson, Washington Library Media Association; BuV Hirko, Washington State Library; Jean Holcomb, King County Law Library; nancy Huling, University of Washington; Joesph Janes, ISchool, University of Washington; Linda Malone, LaConner Regional Library; Verla Peterson, City University; Barbara Pitney, King County Library System; Matthew Saxton, ISchool, University of Washington; Liz Stroup, Timberland Regional Library; Lou Vyhnanek, Washington State University; Jan Walsh, Washington State Library; Jonalyn Woolf-Ivory, Sno-Isle Regional Library.
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displayed in the discussion and quick agreement on the project tagline: ‘‘Combining the power of libraries, librarians, and technology to help all Washingtonians get information wherever they are.’’ Steering Committee members not only supported the many activities pursued through project years, but also are the primary source of ideas and inspiration. In addition, they voluntarily presented programs about VRS activities at a number of annual conferences sponsored by organizations such as Virtual Reference Desk and Washington Library Association. Committee meetings were held near-monthly through the first year and at twomonth to three-month intervals in subsequent years. They follow an informal structure that encourages participation and allows free-flowing discussion. No minutes are taken, but the project coordinator sends meeting notes via e-mail within a week and members are asked to add to or correct them.15
II. Project Activities and Results A. Inventory of Reference Services in Washington Libraries
The first activity to be initiated was the inventory, which provided a snapshot of reference services across the state. The format was a postcard survey mailed to all (about 370) academic, public and special libraries in July; a second mailing was made to nearly 2400 K-12 institutions after Labor Day. The survey was designed to make response as easy as possible. It included a letter introducing the project, the purpose of the survey, and the project coordinator’s contact information. The postcard itself was pre-addressed and prepaid using business reply mail in order to minimize the cost of unreturned cards. Each postcard also was labeled to identify the library to which it was sent, minimizing data entry for the recipient. The survey consisted of service statements in a check box format. See Box 1 for a copy of the Postcard Survey Questionnaire. Although replies required minimal eVort, a surprising number of comments—such as ‘‘Web page coming soon,’’ ‘‘none of the above,’’ and ‘‘we only provide answers for our own staV ’’—were scribbled in the margins. There was inevitable confusion. Not everyone understood the phrase ‘‘real-time online reference service,’’ some special libraries apparently assumed that they would be asked to participate in a public-access service (information is used only for statistical purposes), and WSL’s 15 Complete notes for all Steering Committee meetings since June 2001 are available at: http://www.secstate.wa.gov/library/libraries/projects/virtualRef/committees.aspx
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Box 1 Postcard Survey for Annual Reference Inventory [ADDRESS LABEL] CONTACT NAME: E‐MAIL ADDRESS: TELEPHONE: Please check all services currently oVered by your library: □ Answer walk‐in reference questions □ Answer reference questions via telephone □ Provide 800 number for telephone reference □ Answer reference questions via e‐mail □ Answer reference questions via online form □ Provide Internet access to patrons in library □ Provide real‐time online reference service □ Library Web page URL: □ Please check to indicate your willingness to answer additional questions by telephone.
aging mailing lists generated many ‘‘wrong address’’ returns. However, the response rate was gratifying—61% of academic, public and special libraries and 31% of schools.16 The success of the postcard format led to its use annually, although K-12 libraries were not surveyed again until January 2005. The initial inventory provided a base line against which progress could be measured. Among the findings from the first year:
Internet access for patrons was provided in 100% of academic and public libraries, 84% of school, and 47% of special libraries; Library Web pages were published by 85% of academic, 63% of public, 25% of school, and 39% of special libraries; E-mail reference service was oVered by 85% of academic, 68% of public & special, and 29% of school libraries.
In terms of the VRS focus, the most important finding was that more than 50 % of responding Washington libraries with Web pages also oVered e-mail reference—the beginning of digital service. The inventory
16 Complete results of the inventories for 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 are available at: http://www.secstate.wa.gov/library/libraries/projects/virtualRef/activities.aspx
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established that Washington was well-positioned to explore virtual reference. Data collected in subsequent years indicates a steady increase in the number of libraries answering questions via e-mail, providing computers for public access to the Internet, oVering Web pages, and delivering chat reference service. K-12 libraries saw the most significant change. In 2001 only 28% provided e-mail answers; in 2005, that figure rose to 38%. Schools oVering Web pages grew from 26% to 41% during the four-year period. The statistics continue to underscore the potential for digital reference service throughout the state. Interestingly, the marginal comments change little from year to year. In spite of our attempts to clarify the phrase, some respondents continue to assume that assisting patrons in the use of online databases is ‘‘real-time online reference.’’ B. Grant Criteria
The primary focus during the last months of 2001 was finalizing grant criteria. The Steering Committee suggested a number of possible grant project areas for research, including software testing, collaborative service (including multi-type), peripheral testing for voice and image delivery, homework help service, multilingual support, staV training, and more. All recommendations were forwarded to the Grants Subcommittee, which was tasked with designing the actual application guidelines and form. In 2001, only one Washington library (King County Library System) oVered chat reference service—and it was in the process of switching vendors. The variety and sophistication of vendor products available at that time was limited, and both the Steering Committee and the Grants Subcommittee viewed the grants as a means of learning more about applications through observing actual service delivery and use. Eight $30,000 grant awards were available the first year. The only significant limitation for use of the money was that hardware was not funded, with the exception of peripheral devices that would support Video and Voice over IP. In order to work toward the goal of statewide service, the application was weighted to favor cooperative projects. This was a significant departure from some other statewide virtual reference eVorts. In many (but not all) other states, one vendor product is licensed with funding from diVering combinations of LSTA, state, and local money. Libraries then choose whether or not to join a single, centrally administered consortium. Given the Washington experience with previous statewide cooperative library ventures, encouraging growth from the ‘‘ground up’’ was the preferred method. The Steering Committee
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hoped that successful collaborative projects would add member libraries and link together over time to create a statewide network. Along with the grant cycle and statewide inventory, other activities began. The Software Subcommittee researched information about current virtual reference software vendors and products (e.g., costs, features, technical requirements, and contact information). The resulting matrix was posted to the project Web site, along with other data useful for libraries applying for grants or considering implementing a digital reference service. Examples of online policies, usage statistics from several libraries, links to online resources (such as the DIG_REF online discussion list,17 LC’s Collaborative Digital Reference Service site,18 Stephen Francoeur’s Digital Reference Site,19 selected survey data, and relevant bibliographies), and Steering Committee meeting notes were included. Progress reports on project activities were added continually. C. Collaboration Models
The Collaboration Subcommittee met in September to begin developing a model for statewide cooperation, which was considered an urgent issue. The discussion began with wide-ranging brainstorming on fiscal and governing agreements, but quickly turned from a review of existing consortia in other states to an exploration of underlying concerns. Questions such as ‘‘What’s in it for me and/or my patrons?’’ and ‘‘Why would special libraries be willing to share resources or expertise?’’ provoked lengthy debate. Although training opportunities, patron education, and shared marketing were seen as pluses, the focus remained on overcoming jurisdictional barriers. Logical ways in which a statewide consortium might be established included:
The development of regional or geographic consortia from cooperative pilot projects; Consortia growing from a shared customer base, either geographic or social, or Multi-type alliances sharing specialized expertise and resources.
Subcommittee members felt strongly that they had insuYcient information for designing a financial and organizational model for statewide collaboration, given the many doubts expressed during the discussion, 17
Available at: http://www.vrd.org/Dig_Ref/dig_ref.shtml Incorporated into OCLC’s QuestionPoint service in 2002; information available at: http://www.loc.gov/rr/digiref/ 19 Available at: http://www.teachinglibrarian.org/digref.htm 18
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and recommended that another meeting be scheduled after grant projects were underway. When the group re-assembled the following May, they agreed that the best method for gathering information about collaboration among Washington libraries was to survey cooperating grant project institutions about their experiences. A questionnaire was distributed to all participating grant project libraries in January and also was incorporated into the final grant report due September 30, 2003. The questions asked are included in Box 2. The responses were surprisingly consistent. The attractions of collaboration included the eYciency of shared staYng and/or resources, support for distance education, increased understanding of patron information needs in a common locale, and enriched service for patrons. Because most of the grant projects centered in a common geographic area, they benefited from joint problem-solving using the unique perspectives oVered by staV from diVerent types of libraries. More importantly, drawing on the increased knowledge of other libraries’ collection strengths and staV expertise meant that patrons’ queries could be directed to the most appropriate, most eVective resources. The patron receives the best answer from the library that not only has relevant information but also the skill to find it quickly.
Box 2 Collaboration Questionnaire for VRS Grant Project Libraries 1 Why did libraries participating in the 2002 VRS grant demonstration project decide to collaborate? 2 What do libraries hope to gain from collaboration that could not be attained? 3 What persuaded libraries of diVerent type, size or other diVerentiation to work together? 4 How was commitment to collaboration obtained from administrators and/ or funding sources? 5 What methods are used to gain staV agreement to cooperate with other libraries? 6 What are the barriers, conflicts and tensions experienced in collaboration? Please elaborate. 7 What incentives to collaborate exist apart from grant funds? 8 What are staV attitudes toward collaboration? Please elaborate. 9 Does collaboration aVect job responsibilities? If so, how? 10 Does collaboration eVect statistical reporting? If so, how? 11 What political issues are raised by collaboration? Are they beneficial or counterproductive?
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Few significant barriers were reported, although paperwork required by the grant process (at both local and state levels) was confusing to some and understanding procedural diVerences among libraries required patience. In some instances, formal inter-institutional agreements were needed to proceed with pilot projects, an added workload. Those cooperative projects that were able to collaborate regionally on an informal basis reported more positive experiences. The single most cited and most important result of cooperation was the increased knowledge and trust gained among libraries. Sharing ideas and proven methods meant much less re-inventing of wheels, saving time and energy. The initial Needs Assessment Subcommittee meeting was conducted via online chat. This generated much interest, since it not only utilized the very format underlying VR but also demonstrated advantages such as travel time saved and the automatic generation of a written transcript. The format did require some adaptation, and not all participants were equally comfortable with it. Chat was confusing if the agenda was not followed closely. Although chat was used for only a few meetings, the experience provided an introduction to this increasingly popular communication mechanism for several members and also allowed participation by individuals who would have been unable to attend in person. D. Focus Groups
Four user focus groups were assembled in early 2002 in response to a subcommittee recommendation. One included re-entry workers in Port Angeles, a small city on the Olympic peninsula which suVers from logging industry woes. Another in the aZuent Puget Sound city of Bellevue gathered library users aged fifty-plus, and Hispanics met in the agricultural center of Monroe. These discussions were facilitated by a contract consultant.20 In the last focus group, a large number of teenagers met via online chat, an event jointly conducted by the project coordinator and a public library youth specialist. The same questions were asked in each focus group and are included in Box 3. The results were surprisingly uniform, given the varying composition of the groups. The single most common theme was the lack of awareness of the wide range of library services, which was seen as a marketing failure. Both the returning workers and the fifty-plus patrons used the term ‘‘marketing,’’ the Hispanics referred to ‘‘promotion,’’ and the teens talked about ‘‘advertising.’’ Several key points were stressed: 20
Owens, Patricia L., former Connecticut state Librarian.
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‘‘I didn’t know the library could help with that.’’ We are a 24-hour, 7-day society. Yellow Pages work—library classifications are too confusing. Libraries need to advertise and market their services. Library signage that is simple and clear is needed. We have a fast-food mentality: it has to be quick.
Although some of the statements such as the classification and signage remarks seem to relate to physical library locations, they also point to the need for thoughtful design of web sites to ensure that digital reference services are easy to use and understand. Certainly the ‘‘fastfood’’ comment reflects the changing expectations of users. All of the focus groups viewed the idea of online, real-time information service favorably, especially if it is oVered around the clock. There was consensus that the first thing displayed on the screen should be LIVE ANSWER SERVICE from the library. The consultant’s final recommendation was that ‘‘All LSTA-funded virtual reference pilot projects should have a solid marketing component.’’21 E. Grant Cycle I
A videoconference was broadcast to four sites across Washington at the beginning of the grant cycle. This heightened interest in and provided general information about virtual reference service, as well as grant guideline details. The event featured presentations by Joseph Janes and Box 3 Focus Group Questions What type of questions do you need help with in your day‐to‐day life? Where do you get answers to your questions? If you have a computer at home, what is it mainly used for? Who are the main users of your household computer? Would you say you need help with questions during the day, evening or weekend? 6 How does the library help you now? 7 What else could the library do to help you? 8 What would be your dream of getting information in the simplest way?
1 2 3 4 5
21
Owens, P. L. (2002). Focus Group Results: March 2002, Statewide Virtual Reference Project, Washington State Library. Available at: http://www.secstate.wa.gov/library/ libraries/projects/virtualRef/textdocs/VRSFocusGroup.htm
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Matthew Saxton (University of Washington Information School) from one of the sites, and David Lankes via a live feed from Syracuse University. Participants were engaged and asked thoughtful questions. More importantly, the event provided an opportunity for librarians to meet representatives from other institutions that were interested in grant projects. In two cases, partnerships were formed as a result. A second videoconference was broadcast in October 2003, during which grant library representatives reported on their project experiences. This event also was well-received. Not only was information shared as required in the grant guidelines, but the variety of project practices and commitment to continued VR activities was extremely encouraging. Seven grant proposals were submitted and accepted; all involved two or more libraries and three were multi-type as well.22 Four funded shared chat service, two were marketing proposals, and one tested the potential for supporting distance education courses. Pilot projects involved a total of sixteen libraries, four vendor applications, and varying emphases. Happily, all did include some marketing activities. The two marketing proposals took dissimilar approaches. One contracted with a commercial firm to provide marketing guidelines applicable to either an academic or public library setting; the other funded planning, materials, and local events for rural public libraries. The distance education proposal explored the receptiveness of distance education faculty and students to digital reference, with staV librarians monitoring online courses and contacting individual faculty members and students to oVer assistance. The shared service proposals also varied: one connected two geographically distant community colleges, another linked a four-year university with a nearby community college, two community colleges partnered with three rural public library systems, and three Seattle libraries—public, county law, and university health science—joined to provide triaged expertise. Many aspects of virtual reference service were tested and reported through these wide-ranging projects, reflecting the Steering Committee’s original vision. 22 2002 Washington Virtual Reference Grant Awards: King County Library System/ University of Washington, develop marketing guidelines; Washington State University– Vancouver/Clark College, establish shared chat service; Spokane Falls Community College/Spokane Community College/Pend Oreille County Library/Stevens County Library/Whitman County Library, establish shared chat service; Skagit Valley College/Grays Harbor College, establish shared chat service; Seattle Public Library/King County Law Library/University of Washington Health Sciences Library, establish shared chat service; Tacoma Community College/Highline Community College, test reference delivery for distance education courses; Whitman County Library/Pend Oreille County Library/Stevens County Library, develop marketing plan and materials.
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The grant project with the most far-reaching impact was the KCLSUW partnership. Virtual Reference Services: Marketing Guidelines, the manual produced for the project, oVered both a primer on eVective marketing of library services and excellent practical examples for both academic and public libraries.23 This was an important instance of multi-type library cooperation in Washington state. Steering Committee members felt strongly that the manual’s clear, understandable and thorough recommendations should be shared with other libraries. There was still suYcient time left in the cycle (which ended September 30, 2003) for the guidelines to be used by Washington grant libraries. A three-site videoconference was quickly scheduled, and two of the marketing firm’s representatives presented a two-hour outline of the guidelines, which were then posted to the project web site. The question and answer portion of the videoconference was also lively and useful. This valuable manual has been used by libraries both in the state and around the country to define brands, identify target audiences, create memorable logos and usable web sites, develop marketing plans, evaluate materials and activities, and more. A number of other web sites subsequently linked to the document, and it is included in WebJunction’s ‘‘Policies and Practices’’ section. F. QuestionPoint Washington
Several unanticipated opportunities arose, beginning with the beta test of the new VR application being jointly developed by OCLC and LC to extend CDRS. Eight Steering Committee members volunteered their libraries as test sites, beginning in March 2002.24 The Washington State Library was one of these, oVering the chance for the project coordinator to directly participate in VR service delivery. The QuestionPoint Washington group (QPWA) became an integral piece of the VRS project. Representatives from QPWA libraries meet quarterly to share not only software problems and solutions, but also training and scheduling concerns, referral procedures, policy questions, and more. In spite of the diVering sizes and types of libraries, the lack of a formal organizational structure (other than the project coordinator’s role as group administrator and liaison with OCLC) make it a very egalitarian group. Each library 23 Girvin Strategic Branding & Design, Virtual Reference Services: Marketing Guidelines, 2002. Available at: http://www.secstate.wa.gov/library/libraries/projects/virtualRef/textdocs/ MarketingGuidelines.pdf 24 Original members as of February 2002: City University, Ellensburg Public Library, King County Law Library, LaConner Regional Library, Seattle Public Library, Timberland Regional Library, University of Washington, Washington State Library.
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implemented service on a local timetable; some oVered only e-mail, some also provided basic chat, and some enhanced chat. The gradual nature of this process meant that member libraries naturally shared their experiences with each other, good and bad. At the end of the beta period, the VRS project funded a one-year subscription for all of the original members. Beta participants received an additional six months’ subscription at no cost, meaning that QPWA was stable through December 2003 (after that date, libraries accepted responsibility for subscription payments). However, one member library director moved to another state in summer 2002 and her successor elected to discontinue membership. Another small public library system was recruited to participate. By early 2003, QPWA members recognized a general level of frustration and confusion that could only be solved by a hands-on training session. Limited online software training was available at that time and was considered inadequate. The project coordinator contacted OCLC. The timing was serendipitous, since on-site QP training was not yet developed. QP managers and trainers traveled to Washington to present a two-day workshop in May. Both library and QuestionPoint staV members benefited from the candid exchange of information. Washington librarians received expert assistance, and QP representatives were exposed to a wide range of questions and issues encountered by front-line service providers. Sixteen libraries participate in QPWA as of January 2005. All use QuestionPoint e-mail, some also use QP chat. Two libraries combine QP e-mail with another vendor’s chat application. Two of the original members have switched from QP enhanced chat to basic chat, having discovered that the plug-in required by the enhanced application prevented service to a primary target audience. Many government agencies maintain tight network security and will not allow downloads. For this reason, Seattle Public Library (SPL) was unable to serve city agencies and employees and could not even install the software on in-library computers. SPL’s chat sessions increased dramatically from a five per month average to 193 after switching to basic chat in early 2004. Member libraries tinkered with service hours, redesigned web pages, changed staYng models and made other modifications that were shared via QPWA. One library has loaned an expert provider to other members as a trainer, and QPWA meetings often are billed as ‘‘nuts and bolts’’ sessions for sharing tips and techniques. Meetings have been hosted by diVerent members, giving staV members the chance to tour other facilities. Library staVs are now familiar with the collections, expertise, policies and procedures of group members. QPWA has oVered an
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unusual opportunity to exchange ideas, since very diVerent institutions are involved—special, academic, public, large and small. However, the greatest benefit has been the individual and institutional relationships and trust built through the three years of working together. Customers are the ultimate beneficiaries of this increased knowledge. G. Training: ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere Answers’’
Working with the Training and Best Practices Subcommittee, the project coordinator contracted with Seattle Public Library to develop a training curriculum for delivery beginning in fall 2002, shortly after the first grant projects started work.25 At that time, there were no established virtual reference training programs that could serve as the basis for VRS eVorts. Libraries licensed an application and then assigned staV members to man the virtual desk with no more than a cursory introduction to the new software, a process decried by many speakers at the 2001 Virtual Reference Desk Conference. Most vendor training focused on the use of software applications. Subcommittee members identified a number of challenges. The statewide nature of VRS meant that staV members participating in training would represent a wide range of experience and education levels, would work in every type and size of library, and would be based in widely separated locations in a large geographic area. In addition, their libraries used several diVerent VR software applications. Two early subcommittee decisions had long-range, important implications. The curriculum must be software neutral, but also should incorporate the use of chat software as part of the training experience. That is, chat meetings should be used as part of training classes. The primary emphasis was on training staV to provide real-time reference service in the online environment, based on core competencies related to:
Chat skills; Online reference interviews; Internet searching; Database searching; Collaborative browsing; Use of scripts; Evaluating chat sessions, and Technical troubleshooting.
25 Mary Bucher Ross and Daria Cal were the primary curriculum developers, assisted by Emily Keller, a University of Washington Information School student.
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In October 2002, the ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere Answers’’ curriculum was introduced to eight contract librarians (all were chat reference providers in public and academic libraries) during a one and one-half day ‘‘Train the Trainer’’ workshop. The first day followed the same format as the orientation class, and the next day was used to share training tips, as well as for general discussion. Workshop participants applauded the curriculum for its appealing qualities—hands-on, involving, and fun— and its novel approach. The emphasis on learning from the user’s point of view, as exemplified by online activities like the ‘‘Secret Patron’’ and ‘‘Virtual Field Trip’’ exercises, was new to everyone.26 Classes of six to twelve individuals from libraries of mixed types have participated in the program over a three-year period. Each class begins with an in-person orientation day, after which participants are given assignments and participate in online and self-paced activities with a topical focus over a five-week period. The schedule is included in Box 4. The blending of face to face and online environments, individual and group activities, self-paced exercises and scheduled meetings oVer an optimal mix of discovery and reinforcement. Both learners and trainers praise the curriculum for its breadth and relevance. The Secret Patron exercise is the most-frequently cited activity, one which makes a powerful impact. Each participant is given a scenario based on a real chat transcript and then logs on to three diVerent virtual reference services, playing the role of library customer. Experiencing a chat session from the user’s perspective is an eye-opener for many. Learners post observations
Box 4 Weekly Training Schedule Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5
26
Orientation, readings, class discussion list sign up (information literacy) online chat meeting, readings, virtual field trips (reference interview) online chat meeting, readings, secret patron activities (evaluation) online chat meeting, readings, checking the competition (policies & procedures) online chat meeting, readings, policy questions
For comprehensive information about the training curriculum and class experiences, see Hirko, BuV and Mary Bucher Ross, Virtual Reference Training: The Complete Guide to Providing Anytime, Anywhere Answers (American Library Association, Chicago, 2004).
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to the class online discussion list about their experiences in this and other activities, their readings, and anecdotes from the workplace. The trainers use the list to add comments, as well as oVering encouragement and suggestions. Rather than instruct library staV members in the best or correct online reference techniques, the program provides opportunities for them to experience a wide range of services firsthand. On return to the workplace, each can apply what was learned using techniques and strategies appropriate to his or her personal style, library, and community. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the training reported by participants is that its usefulness extends well beyond the online realm. They apply the learned skills on the desk and on the phone, and have greatly enhanced the ability to critique their own work. Libraries that register staV members for the training understand that the work is part of normal work duties and that schedules need to accommodate training activities. Although two or three participants have complained about the amount of work required to complete the class (in each case, these individuals were unexpectedly zealous), there have been many comments in post-training evaluations that wistfully wish for added practice time. Trainers and the curriculum developers met on several occasions to discuss experiences and a number of modifications were made to ensure that materials remain up to date, relevant, and practical. Use of the curriculum continues to evolve. The course was adapted for an ‘‘AllStaV Day’’ training event at City University (Bellevue, WA). StaV members who participated in ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere’’ classes sifted through course materials, discussed training experiences, added issues of local interest (e.g., writing scripted messages), and presented the results to their colleagues. In addition, a ‘‘Train the Trainer’’ workshop is scheduled for March 2005 in Montana. Those trained will then deliver the curriculum to library staV members across that state, testing its eVectiveness in a new geographic region. Two adjunct workshops grew out of ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere Answers’’ training. Steering Committee members noted the need for shorter, introductory VR workshops for both staV members and administrators. These would answer questions such as ‘‘What is it?’’ ‘‘How do you do it?’’ and ‘‘What does it take to start a service?’’ in a flexible two to six hour format. Once more, the project contracted with the Seattle Public Library team that developed the original curriculum. The materials— PowerPoint presentations, documents, links and other resources—were posted to the Web. The workshops were designed for in-person delivery, but making the materials available online oVered easy access from any location.
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‘‘Virtual Reference 101’’ is aimed at staV members in libraries that do not currently oVer a live, online digital reference service.27 It includes face to face discussion, interactive exercises, and live demonstrations of virtual reference services. It also covers the basic concepts of collaborative services, the importance of providing customer service at the point of need, types of reference transactions that benefit from real-time interaction, possibilities for 24/7 delivery through consortia, innovative approaches to virtual reference, national and international trends, the importance of marketing, and more. Resources include lists of recommended Web sites, articles, online discussion lists; links to virtual reference services in all types of libraries; and examples of chat reference transcripts and evaluation eVorts. ‘‘Going Virtual’’ has some similar components, but targets decisionmakers in libraries that are considering implementing a live, online digital reference service.28 It deals with basic concepts, benefits, delivery options, collaborative possibilities, primary considerations for implementation (funding, staYng, training, etc.), software selection, and related concerns. Along with live demonstrations, it oVers a thorough review of the planning process and a number of useful resources. The modular design of each workshop allows a great deal of customization for specific groups, which will be tested in future presentations in Puerto Rico and Texas. The workshops were presented to a number of diVerent audiences, ranging from a private academic library cooperative meeting to an open registration event for Puget Sound libraries to Washington Library Association pre-conferences. Evaluations give high marks to both the clarity and usefulness of the content, as well as the presenters’ knowledge and enthusiasm. The favorite comment received via e-mail after a workshop for staV from a number of small, rural libraries was ‘‘I came thinking it [virtual reference] would never work for us and left knowing it can!’’ Perhaps the best indicator of success is that one library system approached the eastern Washington ‘‘AskUs24/7’’ cooperative with an interest in joining. H. ‘‘Wally,’’ Librarians’ Index to the Internet for Washington State
One other unexpected opportunity arose in early 2002. Viewed in retrospect, that period was remarkable for its many new schemes—all loosely 27 Workshop outline and materials are available at http://vrstrain.spl.org/virtual01/. Note that this is not a self-paced tutorial, but is designed for in-person delivery. 28 Workshop outline and materials are available at: http://vrstrain.spl.org/goingvirtual/. Note that this is not a self-paced tutorial, but is designed for in-person delivery.
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linked by VRS, but having little in common with each other. Along with the first grant cycle, the focus groups, QPWA, and training development, work to create a regional version of Librarians’ Index to the Internet (LII, or lii.org) began. A Library Council of Washington member suggested contacting LII Director Karen Schneider after hearing her present the idea at a LITA Forum. The VRS Project Coordinator and LII Director met at ALA Midwinter in New Orleans and agreed informally to pursue the concept. There was a big potential benefit for virtual reference. LII oVers an excellent start page for chat sessions and a Washington version could add valuable local resources to an already robust portal. ‘‘The Zero-Sum Hub and Spoke: A Model for Providing Quality Web Portal Services,’’ was the initial proposal for developing a new Washington-focused site. It summarized the need for authoritative, well-organized resources, benefits provided by LII like training and a strong database, expectations for contributing partners, and related costs. The new portal would include all of the records in the parent LII database, plus the Washington-related ones added by local contributors. After reviewing the document, the project steering committee recommended that Karen Schneider present talking points and also instruct an introductory lii.org training session. The primary consideration at the WSL end was funding. As it happened, only seven of eight possible grants were funded in 2002. The unused grant money was suYcient to contract with LII for a first, discounted year of service. In July, the LII Director presented the proposal at a public library directors’ meeting and also conducted two half-day workshops that introduced the lii.org training program to prospective contributors. Recruitment announcements noted that in return for completing the free five-week online LII training class, participants would agree to contribute 25 records to the lii.org database over a one-year period. Libraries were expected to support LII contributor activities as paid work time, since the creation of a customized portal for Washington would benefit all. Both accountability and buy-in are high as a result of this. Another presentation was made to community college library directors in Spokane in fall 2002, with one notable development. When the regional portal URL was announced (wa.lii.org), it was instantly dubbed ‘‘Wally’’—a friendly, memorable nickname. The site debuted in January 2003, when we began to build the ‘‘Washington State’’ section after training contributors and designing a logo.29 By the time workshops to promote Wally were presented in Yakima, Port Angeles and Olympia in 29
The current portal is available at: http://wa.lii.org
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September 2003, more than thirty Washington librarians had been trained and nearly 600 new Washington-related records added. E-mailings of ‘‘What’s New in Washington’’ began in the summer, providing a weekly update on newly-added resources. Wa.lii.org contains more than 1300 Washington-contributed records in January 2005. The next stage of portal development will begin with improved marketing eVorts to increase awareness of Wally. This need was indicated in a late 2004 online survey, along with encouragement to continue to expand the site. A new design and features will be incorporated, including the ability to e-mail search results. This and other functional improvements should provide a larger and even more appreciative user base. I. Grant Cycle II
A second and final grant cycle was announced in January 2003. $150,000 for awards was made available, and the only significant diVerence in grant guidelines was that up to $10,000 of each award could be used for hardware costs. This change was made as a response to concerns that very small libraries might need to update equipment in order to support VR software and telecommunications needs. Six awards were made. Four of the 2002 projects added libraries to their cooperatives and one switched to a new partner.30 In addition, a new consortium of three public and one community college libraries was formed on the Olympic Peninsula. These expanded projects greatly increased the availability of digital reference services throughout the state, and also illustrated the potential for growing existing consortia. The eastern Washington ‘‘AskUs24/7’’ library group ( two Spokane community colleges and six rural public systems) serve nine counties in an area larger than New England. As members of the 24/7 Reference cooperative, they provide 30 2003 Washington Virtual Reference Grant Awards: The Washington State Law Library and Elisabeth C. Miller Horticultural Library (University of Washington) joined the Seattle Public Library/King County Law Library/University of Washington Health Sciences Library group for triaged expert services; five high school libraries (Anacortes, Sedro-Woolley, LaConner, Mount Vernon, and Friday Harbor) joined the Skagit Valley College/Grays Harbor College cooperative shared chat; Pullman (Neill) Public Library, Asotin County Rural Library District and North Central Regional Library joined with Spokane Falls Community College/Spokane Community College/Pend Oreille County Library/Stevens County Library/Whitman County Library to provide shared chat service; Whitman County Rural Library, Pullman (Neill) Public Library, and Asotin County Rural Library continued cooperative marketing eVorts; Washington State University–Vancouver and Washington State University–Pullman partnered for service to distance education students; and North Olympic Library System, JeVerson County Library, Port Townsend Library, and Peninsula College Library developed shared email reference service.
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round the clock coverage. The success of this project is especially significant, since barriers of distance and weather make it diYcult for patrons to physically visit their libraries. The rural public library partners in the continuing marketing grant project (all part of this same 24/7 group) are very eVective in raising awareness of VR through school visits. Teachers receive clock hours [continuing education credits] for attending workshops, an important enticement. Presentations to parents and students result in invaluable word of mouth promotion. As a result, service usage increased steadily throughout the two-year grant period. Although Washington State University-Vancouver’s partner for the 2002 grant (Clark College, a nearby community college) decided not to continue, the service continued during the new cycle with WSU-Pullman in a joint eVort to serve distance education students. The most exciting new collaboration joined five high school libraries with Skagit Valley and Grays Harbor Colleges. Everyone involved in this project feels that introducing VR to secondary students will greatly benefit their transition to college and university library services. Nearly all staV members from each of the college and school libraries participated in ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere Answers’’ training. The secondary school librarians presented a program on the project at the 2004 Washington Library Media Association annual conference, underscoring both their commitment and interest in encouraging others. J. Marketing with Library Ambassadors
While the previous discussion has outlined a seemingly unbroken record of project successes, there was a notable failure. Steering Committee members continued to discuss marketing and ways in which the project could provide direct help to Washington libraries raise awareness of VR services. At the same time, there was concern that project eVorts not conflict with another Washington State Library LSTA project, the Statewide Marketing Initiative. (The latter is the result of years of specialized projects that incorporated a marketing element, while many libraries and individuals expressed the need for statewide promotion that was not related to any specific service.) An intriguing suggestion was made in a fall 2003 Steering Committee meeting: why not contract with VR spokespersons? These individuals would be skilled presenters who also were knowledgeable about virtual reference services. The project would develop a presentation format and materials which the spokespersons would use to promote a local library’s VR to lay audiences, such as Chambers of Commerce, PTAs, faculty groups, etc. Since this program involved no branding or promotion through the media, but was focused on
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promoting local VR service, it would not interfere with the Statewide Marketing Initiative. The logic behind this idea was that most branch or department managers have neither the time nor presentation skills needed to promote library oVerings. After considerable discussion during which the idea was refined and fleshed out, the project contracted with a consultant to design a Spokesperson Job Template. This included a description of the purpose and duties of the position, recommended experience/ background for individuals, training required to perform the duties, estimate of time commitment, instructions for coordinating logistics, a format and ideas for presentations, and technological options for delivery. With this document in hand, contract ‘‘library ambassadors’’ (the replacement term for ‘‘spokespersons’’) were recruited. Six individuals from both east and west of the mountains were contracted, since libraries oVering chat service were located around the state. All were skilled, engaging presenters with experience with both reference and technology. The project coordinator developed a PowerPoint presentation that described VR in lay terms, and the group of ambassadors met for a fourhour orientation/training session in January 2004. All of the prepared materials were thoroughly discussed, ideas were shared, and the need to avoid library jargon was emphasized. Each would work directly with local library directors and/or managers to identify appropriate community groups for presentations, as well as coordinating physical meeting arrangements. The overall goal was to both explain virtual reference—how it works, what it oVers—as it might be used by members of the community group, and also to oVer a live demonstration of the VR service oVered by the local library. The availability of Library Ambassadors, funded by VRS and thus a free service to local libraries, was widely announced shortly after the January orientation session. The contract ambassadors were encouraged to make their own contacts as well as work with any libraries that requested service through the project coordinator. The announcement was targeted to all Washington libraries oVering chat reference and was repeated several times. Steering Committee members also marketed the service to their own organizations. In spite of these eVorts, only two requests were received between February and September 30, when the ambassador contracts expired. One presentation was made to a Rotary Club and another to a law faculty group. There were two events that lifted the experience above total disappointment. As the ambassador service was being developed, it was noted that homeschooler groups would be a logical audience for the
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presentations. A quick online search identified two major events sponsored by the Washington Homeschool Organization (WHO): the annual state convention at the Western Washington Fairgrounds in June and the August curriculum exhibit in Spokane. The project sponsored an exhibit booth at both events, as well as a ninety-minute class introducing VR at the convention. The project coordinator and ambassadors staVed both events. An estimated 400þ visitors stopped at the booth during the twoday June convention and more than fifty participated in the class. About 150 homeschool parents stopped at the booth at the Spokane WHO exhibition. The response to demonstrations was very positive, generating many useful questions. Although there was little awareness of virtual reference service among attendees before they visited these events, there was a high level of appreciation for its quality, availability, and applicability for homeschool use. On balance, the ambassador program was unsuccessful. The budget would have allowed about three dozen events, but only two of the envisioned community presentations were delivered. It is diYcult to judge the lack of interest, although informal conversations with library managers who read the announcements but did not request the service oVer an idea. In spite of eVorts to make ambassador presentations easy— free of charge, pre-planned, with skilled library speakers—the work required by local library representatives was still regarded as onerous. Identifying appropriate organizations and locations, as well as coordinating the events, needed more time than was available. It remains an interesting concept, but a more detailed investigation of methods for implementation at the local level is needed. K. VET: The Virtual Evaluation Toolkit
In October 2003, the Steering Committee reviewed work to date. They recommended that evaluation be the logical next step, following the training and marketing activities. Members encouraged the Needs Assessment Subcommittee to develop a methodology that could be used by grant project libraries, since the second grant cycle would end in September 2004. The result was VET, the Virtual Evaluation Toolkit.31 The subcommittee met seven times between October and the following June. The group agreed that the purpose of VET was to help libraries improve virtual reference services, increasing awareness, usage, 31
Hirko, BuV, ed., VET: The Virtual Evaluation Toolkit, Statewide Virtual Reference Project, Washington State Library, 2004. The complete manual, which incorporates results of three test site assessments. Available at: http://vrstrain.spl.org/textdocs/VETmanual.pdf
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and customer satisfaction. Several important suggestions were made at the initial meeting, building on existing activities rather than inventing new ones. First, VR must be evaluated in the context of overall reference service. Online exercises from the ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere Answers’’ curriculum (e.g., Secret Patron, Virtual Field Trips) could provide the basis for evaluation tools. Further, VRS trainers possessed skills for evaluating chat reference services both remotely and on site. (A ‘‘SWAT’’ team approach was envisioned.) Finally, VRS grant libraries had implemented additional activities that could be modified for our purposes, most notably the peer transcript review process implemented by Matt Saxton at Seattle Public Library.32 Subcommittee worked intensively to collect, sort, and assess relevant information. The project coordinator acted as compiler and editor. The VET manual is organized in three levels, based on the resources (staV, time, funds, etc.) needed to put the tools into practice. The project contracted with two ‘‘Anytime, Anywhere’’ trainers to conduct test evaluations at three library sites—academic, public, and special, targeting May–June as the test period. The three library evaluations were intended to test the tools in actual use so that shortcomings could be corrected prior to posting the manual and results to the Web. The Table of contents of the final document is reproduced in Box 5. Fortunately, grant project libraries were very enthusiastic. In each test site library, some staV members had participated in the VRS training classes, so the activities and evaluators were familiar. The trainers were asked to begin in mid-May and complete their activities by mid-June to accommodate the end of the academic year, but the time squeeze resulted in some confusion and less than optimum task organization. Coordinating personal job time with library schedules at three diVerent institutions was challenging. When the evaluators met with the subcommittee following their work, they reported positively about the process and all that they had learned from it. Subcommittee members were equally impressed with the final reports, which were both pragmatic and insightful. The value of objective evaluators (that is, librarians not associated with the test sites) was underscored. In addition, the evaluators oVered pointed, valuable advice on refining the tools, the process, and the report to make them easier to implement. Among the recommendations were lengthening the 32 Saxton, Matthew, et al., ‘‘Show Me Yours and I’ll Show You Mine! Implementing Peer Review’’ presentation made at the Virtual Reference Desk Conference, 8 November 2004. PowerPoint and handouts. Available at: http://www.vrd.org/conferences/VRD2004/ proceedings/presentation.cfm?PID=401
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Box 5 Box of Contents, Virtual Evaluation Toolkit INTRODUCTION HOW TO USE VET PRE‐EVALUATION PREPARATION ASSEMBLE A TEAM IDENTIFY EXPECTATIONS STAFF BUY‐IN TOOLS LEVEL I Web Site Evaluation Checklist Virtual Reference Policy Checklist Virtual Reference Transaction Checklist Customer Use and Satisfaction Survey level LEVEL II Web Site Usage Provider Self‐Evaluation LEVEL III Peer Transcript Review Transcript Analysis Focus Groups Usability Testing Cost REPORT: TEST SITE LIBRARIES KING COUNTY LAW LIBRARY KING COUNTY LIBRARY SYSTEM NORWOOD COLE LIBRARY, SKAGIT VALLEY COLLEGE Evaluation Report Template Sample Report FOLLOW‐UP BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX: QUESTION SCENARIOS USED FOR TEST EVALUATION INDEX
evaluation period, completing the assessment of one library before starting another, identifying authentication requirements before beginning virtual activities, and modifying the report template to reduce repetition. Three months after the completion of the original test site evaluations, a questionnaire was sent to each of the participating libraries to determine their reaction to and use of the reports. All appreciated the VET process and the eVectiveness of the evaluators, and some made
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modifications to their services in response to the recommendations. They also provided feedback that will be incorporated into the manual.
III. The Washington VR Summit: Celebrating and Sustaining Success The success of VRS activities led to the extension of the project (at a much reduced funding level) through September 2006, since the need for ongoing training and evaluation remains. As with all LSTA initatives, the project itself also must be evaluated. Steering Committee members expressed deep concern about the project’s termination, since existing cooperatives established by grant projects were continuing and expanding. Support activities would be needed beyond 2006. The discussion of these issues led to the recommendation for a ‘‘Virtual Reference Summit.’’ The purpose of the summit was to develop proposals for replacing the LSTA-funded project with a mechanism that will provide continuing coordination and support in areas such as training, marketing, evaluation, user group facilitation, and related concerns. The attendees’ expressed priorities and desired direction for the future would be the basis for an action plan. The Steering Committee believed that this ground up approach, which mirrors much of the success of the past three years, would lead to a robust virtual reference service future in Washington State. Titled ‘‘The Washington VR Summit: Celebrating and Sustaining Success,’’ the all-day event was held at the new central Seattle Public Library on February 9, 2005. Representatives from all Washington libraries involved in grant projects, QPWA, and all others oVering chat reference service were invited, as well as VR coordinators from surrounding states and British Columbia. A questionnaire was e-mailed to all invitees in order to determine overall awareness of project activities and potential barriers to continuing digital reference service in the long term. Responses were received from nearly half of the group, and they indicated that VRS had high visibility. The biggest challenge to ongoing participation in VR by respondents’ libraries was lack of stable funding (11 of 29 responses). There were several thoughtful comments, such as: ‘‘...the biggest hurdle for most any public school library is lack of trained staV and an infrastructure that would support VR implementation.’’ ‘‘While funding might be a problem, the real challenge is juggling a number of user services with limited staYng. StaV aren’t resistant, but they’re very stretched. And collaborations add the burden of trying to get to know other libraries while keeping up with one’s own.’’
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Sixty representatives from libraries of every type across the state, as well as Oregon and British Columbia, attended.33 The Summit began with Joe Janes presenting a keynote address that briefly reviewed Washington’s past and present digital reference experiences, then moved to concerns and questions for the future. He framed questions personally, addressing the participants as one library professional speaking with colleagues. Many of his points were compelling, and they became themes that were repeated throughout the day:
‘‘Where do people want to find us? and for what?’’ ‘‘What should be the focus of library services? What do we do best and how do we add value?’’ ‘‘What can we give up? (We are no longer ready reference specialists, although that is the basis for the reference service model.)’’ ‘‘How much reference do we need? (We can ask this or someone else will—provosts, mayors, other administrators. If we ask it, we can do something principled and professional.)’’ ‘‘If we are valuable, how do we convey the case?’’
Susan McGlamery followed this presentation with an in-depth discussion of collaboration. She noted the benefits of increased hours of coverage, depth of service (subject and language expertise), and the collegiality that results from shared practices and policies. OVering service around the clock means not only that library expertise is available when and where people have questions, but also that the visibility and utility of that expertise is greatly enhanced. A regional or national cooperative can also oVer specialized resources and skills (e.g., medical, legal, business, science, art, genealogy, Spanish). She identified the biggest issues in collaborative service as governance/administration, knowledge management, and quality control and acknowledged that these required continuing attention and evaluation. Ultimately, cooperation is the key to success if libraries want to be useful to their communities. Each librarian can add unique skills and knowledge that result in stronger service, and resource sharing is a more sustainable model. These presentations, along with a review of VRS Project activities to date, established the context for the following sessions. Summit participants discussed the range of support services, along with possibilities for collaboration and the role of the state library after the end of LSTA funding for the project. There was overwhelming support for the training 33
See the summary of Summit presentations and discussions in Hirko, BuV. ‘‘The Washington VR Summit: Post-Summit Report,’’ 22 February 2005. Available at: http:// www.secstate.wa.gov/library/libraries/projects/virtualRef/textdocs/VRSummitReport.doc
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program, with recommendations for adding a ‘‘refresher’’ course as well as converting the curriculum to an all-online, self-paced course. The value of cross-training between libraries of diVering types was underscored. Along with the cooperative grant projects, it was cited as the source of increasing trust and respect among library staV members and administrations. Attendees also urged the development of online training for end users. Other suggestions included a library marketing blog, increased discussion about regional collaboration, and establishing a mechanism for sharing information and experiences with multiple software vendors. The Summit’s final half-hour summarized participants’ ideas about and priorities for the future. The first recommended step was a survey of Washington libraries to determine interest in and support for continuing service and coordinated support. Possible questions to be asked include:
‘‘How important is a cooperative service to your library?’’ ‘‘How much would your library be willing to pay for coordinated support?’’ ‘‘Would your library be willing to switch vendors in order to join a statewide collaborative service?’’
There was consensus that the term for the service should be changed to ‘‘collaborative reference,’’ dropping the word ‘‘virtual.’’ A ‘‘culture of collaboration’’ should be nurtured. There was strong endorsement for the leadership currently provided by the Statewide Virtual Reference Project. That is typified by Steering Committee membership, but more importantly is embodied in the project coordinator position. The coordinator acts as a knowledge base for statewide VR service and participation and also as the primary communicator and connector. An advisory council made up of representatives from multi-type libraries across the state was recommended, along with a permanent coordinator. No funding source was specified, although both member fees and WSL were mentioned. The Steering Committee was tasked with investigating possibilities and developing a practical post-LSTA funding structure for statewide collaboration. Evaluation forms completed at the end of the Summit indicated that the event was successful on several levels. It increased knowledge and understanding of both the project per se and participating libraries involvement. There was much appreciation for the opportunity to meet with representatives of libraries currently delivering VR and hear about their experiences. Participants felt that the event succeeded in its goal of developing proposals for the future. During a brief meeting the morning following the Summit, Steering Committee members expressed great
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satisfaction with recommendations and the enthusiasm for collaboration. They agreed to schedule a conference call to discuss the survey and its implementation. Work on developing an action plan will begin at the scheduled April meeting.
IV. Conclusions As noted earlier, Washington’s project contrasts with other states that have established statewide VR service. Most statewide virtual reference coordinators are hands-on consortium administrators with responsibilities that encompass not only vendor contracting and liaison duties, but also operator scheduling and training, software/hardware/telecommunications maintenance and troubleshooting, statistical data gathering and reporting, and other eVorts. In a 2004 telephone conference, several coordinators from other states expressed frustration that these duties prevent them from pursuing the kind of support activities (training, marketing, evaluation) that Washington has completed. There also is some lack of familiarity with vendors other than the one used by their respective networks, limiting knowledge of competing products’ functionality and support. That said, it remains the goal of the Statewide Virtual Reference Project to connect as many libraries as possible into a single shared service. One new development will contribute significantly toward this goal: OCLC’s addition of 24/7 Reference to its QuestionPoint application. As of October 2004, nine academic and public Washington libraries use 24/7 and sixteen academic and public libraries use QP. When OCLC completes development of the planned combined product, these 25 libraries can potentially share service. The results of the Summit underscored the success of VRS and an eagerness to extend its positive eVects to more libraries and communities in Washington and the Pacific Northwest. In a place where there was no tradition of cooperation among libraries, the shared services that were established as grant pilot projects continue to flourish and grow. It is also important to note the extent to which the project fulfilled IMLS’s goal of sharing information about LSTA-funded project practices and experiences with the greater library community. Whatever happens after September 2006, the Washington Statewide Virtual Reference Project has produced a rich array of resources that will continue to be used and improved by libraries throughout the US and beyond.
The Changing Role of the Info‐Entrepreneur Mary Ellen Bates*
Bates Information Services Inc., USA
I. Introduction One of the very first information entrepreneur businesses was Information Unlimited, founded by Sue Rugge and Georgia Finnigan back in 1971. Charging $10/hour for their research, Sue and Georgia essentially created a new industry, oVering on-demand research provided by skilled librarians and researchers, to anyone who was willing to pay. Sue went on to found two more independent research companies, Information on Demand and The Rugge Group. Sue was also co-founder of The Information Professionals Institute, a company that focused on seminars for the information industry (including an all-day workshop on how to become an information entrepreneur). Sue saw the profession change dramatically over the years, before her untimely death in 1999. The advent and growth of online databases meant that independent researchers had access to the same high-end information that large corporate libraries had. The Web, of course, exponentially increased the amount of information available. As professionals in all fields have become aware of the scope and depth of the content accessible online and on the Web, the challenge of describing what it is that an information entrepreneur does has diminished. As with more traditional librarians, we info-entrepreneurs have struggled over the years with what to call ourselves and how to describe what it is we do. Alice Sizer Warner used to say, ‘‘I’m a funny kind of librarian’’ and, *While Mary Ellen Bates was the 2004–2005 President of the Association of Independent Information Professionals, this chapter reflects only her personal views and does not necessarily reflect those of AIIP. She can be contacted at [email protected] or through www.BatesInfo.com
ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 29 # 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2830(05)29006-2
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coming from someone who looked like the quintessential grandmother from Central Casting, that always got people’s attention. Others of us have used the term ‘‘information broker,’’ although this term has fallen into disfavor, as it suggests that our role is simply to connect a buyer with the information. It fails to surface the fact that we not only find information but also provide analysis and synthesis. Often, the information is not just out there waiting to be sold; it must be gleaned from telephone interviews, surveys, reviews of public records, and other information sources. Many of us ‘‘funny kind of librarians’’ now call ourselves info-entrepreneurs, independent researchers, independent information professionals, information consultants or even (wince) ‘‘informationists.’’ Whatever we call ourselves, we have jobs that never get boring. This chapter will look at the info-entrepreneur profession as a whole, will examine the major types of projects we get and the types of services we provide, how we surface the value we add—in order to address the It’s All On The Web For Free myth—and the skills required to become a successful info-entrepreneur.
II. Overview of the Info-Entrepreneur Profession Most people have at least some notion of what info-entrepreneurship covers—finding, organizing and managing information. But diVerent people define this profession diVerently, and it is a common misconception that most research can be done on the Web. While the Internet has radically changed how info-entrepreneurs operate, much of our work involves research outside the portion of the Web that most people are familiar with—that is, the Web beyond what you can find by typing a few words into your favorite search engine. In the most general terms, info-entrepreneurs work for themselves or as partners in a two-person or three-person business; they provide information services, such as research, analysis, information management or consulting services; and they charge their clients for their services, either per project or on an hourly or daily basis. Many info-entrepreneurs worked as librarians or researchers before launching their own businesses; they may have spent years honing their research skills within large organizations or research centers. Others started out as professionals in other fields—lawyers, engineers, journalists, architects or marketing consultants, for example—who then shifted their focus to providing research support to others within their profession. Some large research and consulting companies may be considered info-entrepreneurs; Find/SVP’s Teltech division (www.teltech.com) is one such
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company, and Sue Rugge’s Information On Demand had 50 employees in the early 1980s. What all successful independent information professionals (another term for info-entrepreneur) have in common are strong entrepreneurial skills. They enjoy the challenge of building a business, they are good at managing their clients, and they are self-motivated. Info-entrepreneurship is a wide-open field—there are far more potential clients than there are people providing information services to them. No one has accurate numbers on the total number of independent info pros in the marketplace. The Association of Independent Information Professionals, the trade association of the profession, has over 700 members in 25 countries, but this does not accurately reflect the total number of independent information professionals in business at any point in time; probably many more info-entrepreneurs exist who are not AIIP members. There is some turnover among independent information businesses; that reflects the entrepreneurial world as a whole, in which, according to anecdotal evidence, more than half of all small businesses close within five years. People leave info-entrepreneurship for a number of reasons:
They miss the daily stimulation of a more traditional oYce environment. They have diYculty dealing with a dramatically fluctuating cash flow. They do not enjoy the amount of administrative and marketing work required. A client oVers them a full-time job that they cannot resist.
That said, a recent survey of AIIP members showed that over half of them had been in business for at least six years, and thirty percent had been running their business for a decade or more. Info-entrepreneurship encompasses a wide variety of services. Most independent info pros specialize in a particular kind of research and focus on a specific industry or vertical market. Many of us have a wide range of clients—mine include self-employed speechwriters, engineers, ad agencies, executives from Fortune 100 firms, lawyers, and doctoral students, among others—but most of us focus on a specific market. Some info-entrepreneurs may target the healthcare industry, architectural firms, the aviation market or the chemical industry. While many of us also have clients outside our primary market, we tend to target our marketing eVorts on a specific subject area or industry. The info-entrepreneur profession has changed dramatically over the years. When I first set up shop, back in 1991, the Web was hardly more than a gleam in the eye of Tim Berners-Lee. Explaining to prospective clients why they should hire me was a challenge; most of them had never encountered a professional online service such as Dialog or LexisNexis,
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and they had no idea how much information was hidden in online databases. Fast-forward 14 years, and the information environment is much richer, if perhaps also more chaotic. In addition to the more traditional research services using the fee-based online services, print library collections, public records and telephone research, we can much more eYciently identify resources in collections throughout the world; download reports, white papers and other material from obscure organizations; identify the expert in Hong Kong who knows the answer to the client’s question; and maintain contact with colleagues and clients when out of the oYce—even out of the country. Interestingly, many info-entrepreneurs report that they have given up trying to explain what they do to people who are not potential clients. Instead of trying to describe the need for and availability of high-end information, they often give such people non-descript responses such as ‘‘I do market research’’ or ‘‘I am a market analyst.’’ For potential clients, on the other hand, they often start out with a generic ‘‘I do market research such as...’’ and, in the next breath, get into examples that more accurately describe what they do that relate to the potential client’s own business. A related progression in terms of the independent information profession has been the evolution in the types of services we provide. In the 1970s and 1980s, we often provided what is sometimes referred to as ‘‘rip and ship’’—conduct an online search, print out the bibliographic citations and, if we were lucky, abstracts, rip the pages oV the printer and ship them to the client. As more content became available online, we could oVer something closer to instant gratification; at least the clients did not have to wait for us to arrange for photocopies of the cited articles. But the advent of the Web brought a whole new meaning to ‘‘instant gratification,’’ and now clients often feel that they can get more information than they could possibly absorb, just by typing a few words in a search engine. Partly as a response to that perception that it is all available for free on the Web, many info-entrepreneurs have focused on providing answers, not just information—oVering analysis and synthesis of the results of our research, tracking issues and trends over time, and even delivering the results of our research via a conference call or a PowerPoint presentation. One of the somewhat unexpected consequences of this change of focus on adding value is that our clients have a much better understanding of what we can do and why it is cost-eVective to hire us to conduct research and present the results. In fact, many info-entrepreneurs report that their clients have been driving the development of new services. ‘‘Don’t just tell me what you found,’’ their clients say. ‘‘Tell me why it’s important and why I should care.’’ Of
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course, this requires the cultivation of a client base that has the ability to pay for the higher expense of this added value. This does not necessarily mean focusing on Fortune 500 clients; some of my best clients are twoperson or three-person consulting or marketing firms who themselves are providing high-end services to clients and who need the analysis and synthesis services we oVer. Interestingly, the report ‘‘Search Engine Users’’ (Fallows, 2005) found that 68% of users say that search engines are a fair and unbiased source of information. While it may be that search engines attempt to be unbiased in their relevance ranking of results, the information within the Web sites listed in the results may not be ‘‘fair and unbiased.’’ Info-entrepreneurs use this as a selling point; they are expert at evaluating the reliability and trustworthiness of information, and know how to attempt to verify information before passing it along to a client. One more change in the independent information profession is the increased percentage of people who have not come from a library background. For instance, a decade ago, probably three-quarters of the membership in the Association of Independent Information Professionals had masters’ degrees in library/information science. The latest survey of AIIP members showed that under half have graduate degrees in library science, and a quarter have masters’ degrees in other subject areas, most notably in business administration. Other advanced degrees among AIIP members include microbiology, mechanical engineering, economics, international management, special education, public administration, history, communications, marketing, computer and information sciences, law and social work. There is even a doctor of veterinary medicine among the membership. This greater mix of education and professional background leads to a broader scope of services that all AIIP members can oVer to their clients, through building teams of subcontractors who have the specialized expertise or network needed for a particular project.
III. Examples of Info-Entrepreneur Projects One of the most striking ways that the Web has changed the independent information professional’s business is in how we conduct our research. There are far more information resources available on the Web than there were a few years ago, and more options are being developed seemingly every week. Some information sources, such as broadcast news clips, were primarily available through very expensive specialty online services, and were far beyond the budget of an info-entrepreneur. Early
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in 2005, both Google and Yahoo announced pilot projects that enable searchers to find television footage by searching the closed-captioning text that accompanies news, sports, entertainment and other programs, and other free Web-based services oVer this capability as well. Who, back in 2003, would have thought that blogs would be as popular and, well, ‘‘mainstream’’ as they are now? According to ‘‘The State of Blogging,’’ a report by the Pew Internet & American Life Project, over a quarter of Internet users in the US read blogs. (Rainie, 2005) That means that over 32 million Americans find at least something interesting or useful in the blogosphere. This entirely dis-intermediated information channel, where there is no editor between the ‘‘reporter’’ and the reader, brings new challenges to info-entrepreneurs. We have to find ways to search for blog entries, we have to evaluate the reputation and reliability of bloggers, and we often have to educate our clients about what blogs are all about. (The Pew report also found that, while 27 percent of Internet users read blogs, 62 percent said they were ‘‘not really sure what the term [blog] means.’’) Access to these types of non-traditional information sources continue to have an impact on the services provided by info-entrepreneurs. We now need to maintain our proficiency not only in using the fee-based online services, but we need to stay on top of how to search these new information tools as well. While every independent info pro will confirm that there is no such thing as a ‘‘typical’’ research project, the following are descriptions of a few research projects told to me by fellow info pros, that demonstrate the range and variety of information sources info-entrepreneurs use during the course of their research. Note that some details of these examples have been altered to protect client confidentiality. A. Color Printer Market
Objective: A client needed to learn what consumers thought about the quality of color ink-jet printers. Did they expect the same quality as traditional photographic film processing? Did they generally just use color printers to add pizzazz to a marketing brochure or sales chart? What did they like and dislike in color ink-jet printers? Research: I searched a number of online databases, to see what was written in the trade press about ink-jet printers and about consumer purchases and use of digital cameras. I also searched market research report databases to find consulting reports on the color printer market. I searched the Web for product specifications for various color printers and for discussions of these printers in various Web-based forums and
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online bulletin boards. I scanned a number of blogs that discuss consumer electronics and photography, and followed the links there to additional reports and analyses. After I had pulled all the material together—more than 300 pages of information—I wrote an analysis of the major concerns of consumers and an executive summary for my client to provide to her vice president. Total time: 50 hours B. Finding Funding
Objective: My client, a public/private consortium, needed to identify potential sources of grants and funding in order to expand its eVorts in recruiting information technology companies as tenants for a new ‘‘technology village’’ oYce complex as well as to train IT workers directly. Research: I started with a general Web search and identified a model program in another state. On their Web site, I found program descriptions and contact information so my client could talk with them directly. I searched the US Department of Education’s Web site and found two federal funding initiatives. I also found information on a new bill in Congress that would have a direct impact on my client’s program and looked up information on the chief sponsor of the bill. It turned out that one of my client’s senators is very interested in this issue, so I called his oYce and obtained further details. I also searched the Foundation Center’s database and identified a number of relevant grant programs. I ended with an in-depth search in one of the professional online services for success stories of companies announcing funding they had received for on-the-job training of IT workers. Total time: 25 hours C. Press Coverage of an Organization
Objective: The director of a government agency that dealt with healthrelated issues wanted to track how the press had covered his agency over the past two years. He needed visual maps or displays of the press coverage, by type of publication, by month, by ‘‘tone’’ (whether it was positive, negative or neutral), and so on. Research: I conducted extensive online research to find mentions of the agency in newspapers, trade publications, newsletters, peerreviewed journals and newswires. I searched a number of Usenet newsgroups that focus on health issues. I identified the blogs that appeared to be most influential in the field of health research that this agency was primarily concerned with. Then I compiled a spreadsheet and noted,
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for each item, the month of publication, the tone, the general subject matter, the media type, whether the item was news, an editorial or analysis, and whether the source was based in the US or not. Using Excel’s chart-building function, I created a number of charts and graphs that visually displayed trends in the agency’s press coverage. Total time: 15 hours
IV. Types of Info-Entrepreneurs: Niches, Generalists, Technique-Specialists Info-entrepreneurs are a diverse group, and there is surprisingly little overlap among the services provided and client bases of independent information professionals. When asked to describe our business, some of us mention the types of research in which we specialize—online research, archival research, searches of public records, and so on. Others will describe themselves by the industries they primarily service—architectural design firms, IT companies, or the automotive industry, for example. While many of us have clients in a number of fields or industries, most of us focus our marketing eVorts to a niche. Some info-entrepreneurs advertise themselves as ‘‘generalists,’’ oVering to find any type of information on virtually any subject area. This can be an eVective marketing strategy, but these info-entrepreneurs must work harder to identify a coherent client base that can be relied upon for repeat work and for referrals to other prospective clients. Most of us have discovered that we are, in fact, more memorable if we concentrate on a particular type of research or industry; while it would appear that we have unduly limited the universe of potential clients, we expand our referral network because many people remember that ‘‘so-and-so is that researcher who specializes in the sports marketing industry,’’ for example. In addition to focusing on a type of research, most info-entrepreneurs limit themselves to one or two types of research, and subcontract out any necessary research in other areas. For example, someone who specializes in telephone research may also conduct Web research but call in an online research expert for those aspects of a project. An online researcher may bring in a public records researcher to complete a project that requires the expertise and on-the-ground research skills of someone who has been around courthouse documents for years. The following are descriptions of some of the general types of research services provided by info-entrepreneurs.
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A. Online Research
With the prevalence of databases on the Web, most independent info pros who provide research services of any sort include at least some online research in their portfolio. That may include locating government statistics on international trade, analyzing company filings with the US Securities and Exchange Commission, or searching online catalogs of libraries around the world. However, the professional online services such as Dialog, Factiva and LexisNexis are even richer sources of information than the free or public Web. These databases include material that never appears on the Web, and they provide sophisticated search tools and value-added features that enable users to conduct in-depth research in ways not possible on the Web (Bates, 2004). Using the professional online services can be an expensive proposition. These services charge by the search, by the document, by the amount of time spent online, or by various other pricing algorithms. Info-entrepreneurs do pass along the online expenses to their clients, and these costs can add up to a third or even half of the total project cost. Note that there is very little demand in the marketplace for independent info pros who only provide Web research. The public perception, whether or not it is correct, is that it takes no great skill to search the Web. Info-entrepreneurs set themselves apart by oVering access to online research sources not generally available to their clients, and by using uncommon and lesser-known Web-based sources. B. Library Research
When the independent information profession began, much of our research involved going to libraries on behalf of clients. There are still some instances that call for library research or, similarly, contacting information centers or other brick-and-mortar collections of material. An independent info pro might travel to a government agency’s information center to search a database not available on the Web, e-mail a university library in Sweden to find a copy of a doctoral thesis, arrange to visit a trade association’s library to use its specialized collection, or review records in the National Archives to determine how a particular site was used by the US Army fifty years ago, in order to determine what hazardous materials may still be lurking in the soil and groundwater. As more government agencies, embassies, associations and other organizations make their information available on the Web, there is less of a demand than formerly for hands-on library research. On the
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other hand, library research can sometimes unearth information not available anywhere in electronic format. The secret to success in manual research is to find an industry or subject specialization, or to provide a service that most clients cannot do on their own. Some independent info pros provide document delivery services (more about this below); some track down photographs from archives; some create bibliographies of sources not available online. Although it is possible to provide manual research in a small town, it is a lot easier if the info-entrepreneur lives in or near a large city with access to public, academic and government libraries. Manual research tends to be a low-margin business; it is often labor-intensive, and it does not use the ‘‘sexy’’ tools of online research or other esoteric sources. As a result, it is even more important than for other types of research that the info-entrepreneur develop deliverables or reports that showcase the value provided. Independent info pros also need to be very clientoriented; they are providing a service that at times might appear to be clerical, so they must ensure that their clients know that they are receiving customized, personalized service that they could not get anywhere else. C. Public Records Research
While there has been much consternation recently about supposedly easy access to personal information on the Web, a great deal of information about individuals has always been available in court clerks’ and county recorders’ oYces and other government agencies. Some of these records are now available on the Web, but the majority of the content still resides only in print files. Public records research includes such tasks as:
reviewing bankruptcy filings to determine what assets are held by a corporation; conducting a pre-employment check of a school bus driver to make sure he has no criminal record or driving oVenses; looking through articles of incorporation to identify the executives of a privately-held company, and finding prior court testimony given by an expert witness, to determine how she is likely to testify for an upcoming case.
Public records research is a specialized field best suited for independent info pros who are detail-oriented, who enjoy doing on-site research at courthouses and government agencies, and who have good people skills. Unlike online research, there is no single massive aggregated collection of sources or databases you can consult; public records work involves going directly to where the records are kept and just digging
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around. Public records research is more art than science; one learns how to be a good searcher through experience and training under a more experienced researcher. No one has written a definitive how-to manual on public records research, because the techniques used for one source are entirely diVerent from those used for another. One courthouse may have its own internally-built database to index court cases; another may have a purely manual filing and indexing system. One government agency might feed all its records into a fee-based online service, and another might require that all requests go through a clerk. As is probably obvious now, public records research is not for the faint of heart. A number of US states require that a public records researcher have a private investigator’s license; this work requires a good understanding of the ins and outs of various government agencies, and it takes an intuitive sense to know when you have found all the pieces of the puzzle. D. Telephone Research
Despite the much-talked-about ‘‘information explosion,’’ a lot of information never appears in print or in any electronic format. Sometimes, the fastest way to obtain it is simply to call an expert in the field and ask. Telephone research is an art form, and many independent info pros do not have the special combination of charm, patience, persistence, chutzpah, and the ability to talk to anyone about anything that a good telephone researcher needs. It diVers from other types of research in that so much depends on human interactions. If the researcher is having a bad day, or she catches the interview subject on a bad day, that is it. There are generally no second chances with a telephone interview. Since phone research is such a high-touch business, success depends on the info-entrepreneur’s skill in getting each interview right the first time. This type of work tends to involve more hours per project, and a longer turnaround time, than other types of research because of its very nature. Merely identifying the person who can answer a research question might involve 10 or 15 calls. When you factor in the inevitable delays brought on by voice mail tag, varying business schedules and time zones, it means that very few telephone research projects can be completed in less than a week, even if the total amount of time spent on the phone is only a fraction of that time. The kind of telephone research I am referring to here requires more sophisticated research techniques than simply running through a list of survey questions with a pre-selected list of contacts. Usually, the telephone research info-entrepreneur will get assignments to find out about
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a specific topic; the info-entrepreneur has to develop his own leads. That often requires some preliminary online or library research to identify likely sources for the information, as well as deciding on the best way to approach the project and exactly what questions to ask. Telephone researchers can get much of their work in the form of referrals from other independent info pros and from researchers within organizations. From a marketing point of view, networking is particularly important in order to develop a large client base of subcontracting sources. E. Document Delivery
Tracking down obscure citations, and obtaining photocopies, reprints or original copies of articles, reports and books, is the job of document delivery firms. Unlike most other types of independent information businesses, ‘‘doc del’’ firms may employ a number of people, due to the amount of clerical and paraprofessional work involved. A document delivery company acts, in a sense, as a librarian’s—or researcher’s— librarian. Once the client has identified the white paper, academic treatise, industrial standard, conference paper, 20-year-old annual report, or obscure article from a Polish medical journal that she needs, the document delivery firm’s job is to get a copy of the item. Sometimes that means searching online library catalogs to find an institution that subscribes to the journal or maintains an archive of old corporate annual reports, and arranging to send someone to that library to photocopy the material. Sometimes it involves contacting the publisher and negotiating an appropriate royalty payment for a copy. Sometimes it means tracking down the original author or conference speaker to see if she is willing to supply a copy of her paper or presentation. Many document delivery clients are librarians looking for material they do not have in their own collections and may not have been able to find through their own network of sources. That means that document delivery firms often get diYcult, incomplete or incorrect citations. So part of the job of a good document delivery researcher is to think like a detective. To an extent, document delivery firms are threatened by the perception that ‘‘it’s all available on the Web.’’ People are sometimes not willing to wait a week for an article when they are accustomed to getting material at the click of a mouse. Customers often balk at the price for document delivery; a single article can easily cost $25 or $50, once the publisher’s royalty fee is included in the invoice. This is particularly the case with the advent of Google Scholar (scholar.google.com), which provides searchers with bibliographic citations but often the only indicator of where to obtain the full text of the article is the publisher’s Web
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site, and many publishers are not interested in handling one-oV consumer queries for articles. Document delivery is a specialized niche for people who are detailoriented, able to generate and manage large volumes of orders, and can identify clients willing to pay the not-unsubstantial fees. F. Competitive Intelligence
Despite rumors to the contrary, competitive intelligence (CI) does not require diving into dumpsters and digging up a company’s strategic plans from the trash. What CI does involve is using a variety of research and analytical skills to gather information on a company or industry and to figure out what it means. CI research may tackle questions such as ‘‘why are my competitors pulling back from Asia,’’ ‘‘what is my competitor’s product development strategy,’’ or ‘‘what do purchasers think of our products and those of our competitors.’’ Some of this information is available via in-depth online research—in market research reports, industry newsletters, published interviews with executives, and so on. But much of this type of intelligence resides in more obscure sources, so CI research may involve researching public records to find factory blueprints filed with construction permits, for example; monitoring company Web sites to see what jobs are being advertised, or what new oYces or divisions have been opened; or conducting telephone interviews with a target company’s vendors, customers and competitors. More than most other info-entrepreneur specialties, CI researchers have seen their work processes change dramatically over the past few years, due to the increased information available on the Web in blogs, government filings, consumer complaint Web sites (the ‘‘I Hate XYZ Company’’ sites), and the like. Interestingly, some Web-based information is less available now than a few years ago, as Web managers have become more savvy to the CI information that can be gleaned from organization charts or the robots.txt files that are intended to exclude certain pages from search engine spiders. CI often includes analyzing research findings and developing conclusions regarding a company’s strategies; this additional step beyond simply finding the information can be daunting to some info-entrepreneurs. CI researchers find it challenging to dig up hidden information without compromising the confidentiality of their clients and without misrepresenting themselves. In fact, this is one reason why CI research may be outsourced to independent information professionals; the CI department within a company does not want its employees associated
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with the research and prefers to have an independent researcher making those probing phone calls. The principle professional association for this type of research is the Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals (www.scip.org). SCIP members include CI researchers and analysts within organizations, CI consulting firms, and academicians in business and related disciplines. G. Information Management
While most independent info pros specialize in particular types of research, some provide more general consulting services related to the acquisition, organization, management, and distribution of information within organizations. These consultants may provide ‘‘information audits’’—in-depth surveys of an organization’s information needs and resources—and oVer recommendations on what information sources should be acquired, how these sources should be distributed within the organization through intranets or other technologies, and how to teach employees how best to use the information. Information consultants also help set up information resource centers and libraries and hire professional librarians to staV them, develop Web sites and databases to organize and disseminate internal and external information, and oVer workshops and training sessions on information-related topics. Most information consultants come from a library background or have formal training in library and information services. This is one aspect of the independent information profession that has seen quite a bit of change over the past few years. Info pros within organizations sometimes bring in a consultant to help in negotiating sixfigure contracts with the professional online services, finding that they get a more favorable deal when they bring in someone skilled in the art of staring down an account executive. As corporate library budgets get cut, there is more of a need to promote the library to its internal client base, in order to raise awareness and generate advocates for its continued funding, so info-entrepreneurs with expertise in marketing have found an increased demand for their services. H. Library Staffing
Libraries within organizations, sometimes called ‘‘special libraries,’’ may need help in recruiting new staV or finding temporary help during a busy period or while a staV member is on leave. In fact, some organizations want the entire library function handled by a third party, preferring to pay a set fee to have all the staYng responsibilities managed by someone who
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understands the information profession, rather than trying to build and staV the library internally. Library staYng companies usually focus on a single geographic region or a vertical market—law firm libraries or engineering firm libraries, for example—since it is diYcult to maintain staYng quality when the client libraries are spread out throughout the country. With the exception of firms that only do library personnel recruitment, most staYng companies consist of the principal(s) and a number of information professionals. Thus, one of the skills that these types of independent info pros need is the ability to manage and motivate employees. This is one skill that those of us who are one-person businesses do not have to develop. I. Training and Seminars
A number of independent info pros oVer training, workshops or seminars on research-related topics, in addition to other information services. They often find that these are good vehicles for marketing their expertise, expanding their client base, and keeping their information skills sharp. (There is no incentive more powerful to encourage you to stay up to date on a topic than knowing you will be speaking about it in front of a room full of people.) Some independent info pros work their seminar schedule around trips they already have planned—to professional conferences, meetings with clients, and the like—and they handle all the marketing, registration, and administrative tasks involved in organizing and promoting their sessions. Others work with the organizers of existing professional conferences to present their workshop as pre-conference or post-conference sessions. They piggyback on the attendance and marketing eVort of a larger conference, but give up a portion of their income in exchange for having someone else handle all the marketing and administrative work. In fact, info pros who give pre-conference and post-conference workshops are often simply paid a flat fee, regardless of the number of people attending the session. The independent route works best for info-entrepreneurs who already have some name recognition and/or a large base of contacts they can market to; generating interest in their workshops from scratch is diYcult, time-consuming and expensive. A third option, which works well for some independent info pros, is to market workshops to professional organizations, who then handle the promotion and administrative responsibilities. Workshops and seminars can be a nice source of supplemental income for info-entrepreneurs who are lively speakers and can develop presentations that pique people’s interest. Some info pros worry that they will be giving away their professional trade secrets by teaching
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others their research techniques. This is a misplaced concern. The skills that got the speaker to this point will keep her ahead of the pack. More importantly, most of her clients will be calling her for work because they know she has years of expertise that cannot be acquired overnight— even with the best workshop. Teaching others about research helps to build their appreciation of what is involved in independent info pros’ work and enables the workshop attendees to do simple research themselves.
V. Would You be a Successful Info-Entrepreneur? One of the most rewarding aspects of being an independent info pro is having almost unlimited flexibility. We can try out a new product or service without first running it by three committees and four vice presidents. We can take a break in the middle of the afternoon and take a walk in the park. We can maintain at least an appearance of being in our oYce, even when working from a cybercafe in London, as long as we bring along a laptop and cell phone. The curious thing about this profession, though, is that it requires an unusual set of skills that are not all innate in most people. Some of these skills have become more important with the advent of the Web, blogs and instant messaging, but most of them have always been basic to succeeding as an info-entrepreneur. A. People Skills
Running an information business requires great people skills—getting along with a wide variety of personality types, being able to talk with an irate client without becoming defensive, belligerent or tongue-tied, and to talk enthusiastically about your business to prospective clients. Most independent info pros have clients all over the country, not to mention the world. So they have to come across well on the telephone and via e-mail, instant messaging and other electronic media, since this may be the only contact most clients will have with them. Beyond client management, being an independent info pro means having client attraction skills as well. Info-entrepreneurs have to be the kind of person that people enjoy working with. Information services are an expense that clients choose to incur. Clients will call one info pro rather than another, or choose to do the work themselves, because they know one info pro will deliver cost-eVectively, on time, and with a minimum of aggravation and eVort.
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B. Entrepreneurial Skills
New independent info pros often underestimate the need for entrepreneurial skills. In addition to being able to find information cost-eVectively, they must be able to develop and build a business in which people are willing to pay $75, $100 or even $200 an hour for their time. Building an independent information business means having a high tolerance for risk. No more regular paychecks every two weeks; the revenue comes in when a job is done, and if there are no projects, there is no revenue. While most info-entrepreneurs do build a large enough clientele that there is usually at least one project in the works, a tolerance for fluctuating cash flow is a must. As any entrepreneur knows, running a business means that the owner has to market—and that means marketing himself as well as his company. Marketing never, ever goes away, even after the business has been functioning for years. Fortunately, this has become significantly more cost-eVective with the ubiquity of e-mail. Rather than needing to go to the expense of designing, printing, and mailing client newsletters, for example, an info-entrepreneur can format them in a PDF file, use a list-hosting service to handle e-mail delivery to hundreds or thousands of readers, and can make the newsletter available on a Web site and through an RSS feed. Some independent info pros actively participate in e-mail discussion lists that are read by their prospective clients. By demonstrating their expertise and familiarity with the industry, and by refraining from any blatant sales pitches, they can generate new business within the discussion list subscribership. Most successful independent info pros tend to be detail-oriented. They can see the big picture, but they also focus on the little things that make that big picture happen. Being a one-person operation means that there is no one else to catch their mistakes, cover for them or take the blame if they miss something. Time management is also a critical entrepreneurial skill. The ability to function in a work setting with very little structure is something that can be a real challenge to some new infoentrepreneurs. C. Business Skills
In addition to entrepreneurial skills, independent info pros need to master the basics of business management, since owning an information business means taking on the roles of CEO, CFO, Marketing Director, Sales Manager, and Strategic Planning VP as well as Researcher and Filing Clerk.
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Info-entrepreneurs must feel comfortable projecting a professional image to everyone they deal with. This may take some practice. Some independent info pros find it hard to sound professional when they are sitting at the phone in their bathrobe and slippers, or when they are doing business with a friend. They also have to be able to talk with their client about budgets, payment terms and their hourly rate. I sometimes think of independent info pros as information pit-bulls. We are the people who will not take ‘‘no’’ for an answer, who keep on digging for what our client has asked us to find, hour after hour. Persistence is an admirable trait in a researcher, but it can get in our way if we are running a business. We only earn money for the time that we can bill to a client. If a client is not willing to pay for more than two hours of research, we have to stop at that point, even though we may have identified many other avenues to explore. D. Information Skills
In order to succeed, info-entrepreneurs need to have experience as researchers or be willing to subcontract out any project involving types of research in which they are not already an expert. It takes a surprising amount of time and money to learn how to search the professional online services, how to find court documents, how to conduct eVective telephone research, and so on, and those costs cannot, as a rule, be passed along to clients. Many independent info pros come from a library background, complete with Masters degrees in library science and years behind the reference desk. Librarians have the advantage of knowing where to look for information, how to find it quickly, how to evaluate and organize it, how to interview clients to make sure they are looking for the right information in the first place, and countless other research-related skills. As noted earlier, fewer than half the business owners in the Association of Independent Information Professionals have MLS degrees, but more than three quarters had at least one post-graduate degree.
VI. Ten Mistakes New Info-Entrepreneurs Make There is a reason why some people are drawn to become an independent information professional, and it is the word ‘‘independent.’’ That sometimes means that we have to learn everything first-hand, rather than by learning it from others. With that caveat, the following are ten mistakes that many info-entrepreneurs make at some point.
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A. Sending out Brochures in a Direct Mail Campaign
Unsolicited brochures sent out in a direct mail campaign are almost never a successful strategy for independent info pros. We are oVering a highend service, not a car wash. While some carefully-planned and designed campaigns can work if they are sent to a select group and sent repeatedly—once every week or two—most direct mail campaigns are simply a waste of postage. The same holds true to making cold calls; just as no one selects an accountant or lawyer because of an unexpected telemarketing call, this is not a successful strategy for info-entrepreneurs. B. Marketing Only to His Local Area
Unless an info-entrepreneur is specializing in staYng of libraries, limiting the marketing focus to a city or region artificially restricts the possible growth of an info-entrepreneur’s business. Many independent info pros have never met their clients face to face; they focused on marketing to an industry or profession throughout the country (or the world), and have found this to be a much more eYcient technique. There is a finite number of prospective clients in one city, and any region will eventually suVer an economic slow-down. By having clients throughout the country, an info-entrepreneur can maintain a steady flow of projects, regardless of the state of the local economy. C. Telling Prospects that She can Find any Information
As was discussed earlier, it is diYcult to build word of mouth if an infoentrepreneur describes herself as a generalist. Just as we do not go to a general practitioner for cancer surgery, likewise a client is much more inclined to use an info-entrepreneur who has background in and a familiarity with the client’s industry and information needs. D. Offering to Discount His Fee for New Clients
It can be tempting for a newly independent information professional to try to attract new clients by discounting the first job. There are a couple of drawbacks with this approach: it tends to attract overly price-sensitive clients who will switch to another info-entrepreneur who oVers a better ‘‘deal,’’ and—as much as the info-entrepreneur explains the discount at the beginning—the next job, at a higher rate, will feel to many clients like a bait and switch.
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E. Hanging onto a Comfortable Niche that is not Profitable
It can be tempting for an info-entrepreneur to stay with the market he is familiar with. To an extent, that can be a good thing; he has credibility and contacts in that niche. Yet if the market is not one that can provide him with adequate profits in the long run, he must move to markets with greater potential. For example, as much as someone may find it personally gratifying to provide medical research to consumers recently diagnosed with an illness, this is a niche with very little long-term viability. The chances for repeat business is low—one hopes!—and consumers are often much more price-sensitive than larger organizations. F. Marketing to the Wrong People
While it is much easier to talk to peers within a prospective client’s organization, these may not be the decision-makers. Successful infoentrepreneurs learn how to work their way, gracefully, up the decisionmaking tree until they identify the person who understands the need to purchase research services and who has the direct authority to approve the budget for the project. G. Relying on a Web Site, Google AdWords, or a Listing in a Business Directory or the Yellow Pages to Generate Business
While having a Web site can be a useful way to let potential clients find out about an independent info pro, a Web site by itself will generate very little business. Likewise, purchasing advertising space for specific search terms on a search engine may drive traYc to an info-entrepreneur’s site, but these are most likely not prospective clients. Very few people rely on a print directory to identify someone to provide information services. It can lend credibility to have a listing in the professional association that an independent info pro’s clients belong to, but a general-purpose business directory or Yellow Pages listing is usually not a wise investment. H. Sending Unsolicited E-mails Promoting His Business
While spam filters have been developed to eliminate the most egregious of this electronic form of junk mail, some info-entrepreneurs have tried to use this technique to generate business. The likelihood of this succeeding is miniscule, and chance of having legal action taken against the sender is much too large to make this a successful strategy.
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I. Designing His Marketing Materials Himself
Many info-entrepreneurs are strapped for cash during their first year, and they wince at the thought of paying a designer to develop a logo, Web site, brochure, and other corporate identity material. However, the info-entrepreneurs who do not make this investment in themselves and their businesses send a clear message to their prospective clients that they are not confident in the viability of their own business. J. Scaling Back His Marketing if He Has One Big Client
This is perhaps the most frequent mistake of info-entrepreneurs. They land one big contract with a client, which keeps them busy 30 or even 40 hours a week. They have no interest in bringing in much more business right then, but every big client—regardless of the legalese in the contract—eventually scales back. The info-entrepreneur who maintained contact with his prospective clients during this time of feast will experience far less famine while he builds up new business to replace the lost ‘‘one big client.’’
VII. Addressing Pricing Issues: ‘You’re Charging Me What?!?’ All info-entrepreneurs deal with the issue of sticker shock. There continues to be a perception that finding information is a simple, painless, virtually eVortless process. The advent of Google Answers (answers. google.com) has presented an additional challenge. At this site, researchers who have been ‘‘carefully screened’’ by Google will attempt to answer questions posted by people willing to pay anywhere from $2.50 to $200 for the information. Undoubtedly, these researchers are skilled and diligent, but they appear to limit their research to what they can find on the Web which, as I explored in my white paper for Factiva (snurl. com/factiva), can be a serious limitation. For simple or basic questions, Google Answers can be a great way for people who are not willing or able to use a local public library to get their information needs met at a reasonable cost. However, if these same people expect info-entrepreneurs to work on a similar pay scale, they are soon faced with the realization that independent info pros work on a very diVerent level than Google Answers researchers. In addition to Google Answers questions, here are a few of the more common questions that info-entrepreneurs hear. ‘‘How can you sell me someone else’s information?’’
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Most independent info pros do not focus on developing original research-that is, they do not spend all their time conducting surveys of individuals, or studying trends and writing their own market research reports. Instead, they gather information from a number of sources, including the Web, trade and professional journals, newspapers, magazines, government agencies, associations, and consulting reports. What they are charging for is not the information per se but their time and skill in finding the information, and in knowing where to go to find it. That is why an independent info pro will still charge even if he did not find the information that exactly answered the client’s question—the client is paying for the info pro’s time, not just for the information retrieved. Compare it to going to a doctor for an illness; you pay the doctor for her time regardless of whether or not you were eventually cured. Unlike real estate agents and personal injury lawyers, independent info pros do not work on a contingency basis, hoping to cash in big if their client finds the information particularly useful. ‘‘Why do you charge me when everything I need is free on the Web?’’ Three words: Time Is Money. An independent info pro should be able to find useful, accurate and relevant information in less time than her client can. But more to the point, most information is not available on the free Web. It is hidden in databases that do not show up in search engines. It appears in articles and white papers that never make their way to the Web. It is found in government and association reports that are hidden deep within Web sites. It is buried in a book chapter or periodical article housed only in a library somewhere, or in a document filed in a county courthouse. Or it is unearthed by doing telephone research, interviewing experts to get their take on a given situation. In addition to finding information that simply never shows up in a Web search engine, independent info pros also add value by analyzing and synthesizing the results—by providing not just information but answers. ‘‘What if you don’t find any information?’’ There are really very few research projects for which no information exists. An info-entrepreneur might not be able to find the exact answer. For example, chances are that no one knows the exact value of all the personal property of US residents—and yes, this was a real research question. However, a good researcher can often find enough information to deduce or extrapolate an answer. To use the example just mentioned, there are useful statistics from insurance industry associations and from the US Census Bureau that enabled the client to make an educated guess. Sometimes finding no information is just what the client wants to hear. If a client has invented a new infrared, hands-free potato peeler, he
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would be delighted to hear that an info-entrepreneur can find no existing patents for similar inventions. If a company is considering marketing its new children’s pager to parents in western Canada, it will be pleased to learn that no Canadian newspapers or parents’ magazines have mentioned a similar product in the past five years. As I mentioned earlier in the section on the mistakes new infoentrepreneurs make, they are often tempted to discount their fees in order to generate business. However, discounting cuts their perceived value. The client is likely to think to himself, ‘‘If you’re willing to cut your rates, how could you have been worth much in the first place? Don’t you have any work?’’ Once an info-entrepreneur is perceived as low-cost, clients tend to push back on their services, ask for lower and lower budgets, and ask for research at the last minute on the assumption that the info-entrepreneur probably does not have much business and is sitting around, waiting for work. Info-entrepreneurs gain more business by being perceived as ‘‘expensive but worth it’’ than as ‘‘an inexpensive source for research.’’ In addition, info-entrepreneurs seldom get larger projects by catering to small projects and oVering discounts. Info-entrepreneurs often gather more business, through referrals, by being perceived by a small business owner as ‘‘she sounds like she’d be a great resource, but I can’t aVord it. She caters to businesses with more of a budget than I have.’’ While the small business owner may not be able to use the info-entrepreneur, he is likely to remember who she is and that she oVers a high-value service, and to mention her the next time he is at a meeting or party and is talking with someone who works for a larger company who needs some high-end research services.
VIII. Marketing Challenges for Info-Entrepreneurs Marketing is something that never ends for info-entrepreneurs. We are always explaining what we do and why we charge money for it, and we need to stay in regular contact with our clients and prospects to help them remember to call us when they have an information need. The process of explaining what we do has become more challenging with our clients’ increasing familiarity with the Web. A quick poll of some fellow info-entrepreneurs turned up these new challenges:
Sources and availability diVer among countries. Information you can find on a US-based company may not be available for a UK company, for example.
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Geographic regions—‘‘Europe,’’ or ‘‘the Middle East’’ for example— are not monolithic cultures but a collection of individual countries. Trends in one country will not necessarily be the same in another. While, a few years ago, most information on the Web was in English, now two-thirds of all Internet users do not speak English as their first language (according to global-reach.biz); this will inevitably result in a larger proportion of Web content being written in languages other than English as well.
Related to this, of course, is the problem of IAOTWFF. That probably is not as familiar an acronym as ASAP or IMO, but it should be. It stands for It’s All On The Web For Free, and all info-entrepreneurs—as well as most librarians and info pros—have to battle this misperception daily. I was heartened to read the article in the 5 February 2004 New York Times, titled ‘‘When a Search Engine Isn’t Enough, Call a Librarian.’’ (Selingo, 2004) My favorite quote came from Joe Janes, an associate professor at the University of Washington Information School and founder of the Internet Public Library. Janes said, ‘‘When Google doesn’t work, most people don’t have a plan B. Librarians have lots of plan Bs.’’ Of course, the battle is not over. The day after that Times article appeared, the cartoon strip ‘‘Get Fuzzy’’ featured a religious proselytizer coming to the door and asking one of the strip characters, ‘‘Do you believe in an infallible power?,’’ to which the character replies, ‘‘You mean like Google?’’ Finally, the Pew Internet & American Life Project (www.pewinternet.org) issued a report in January 2005, titled ‘‘Search Engine Users,’’ which found that ‘‘92% of those who use search engines say they are confident about their searching abilities, with over half of them, 52%, saying they’re ‘very confident’.’’ This report suggests that info-entrepreneurs will need to continue to educate their clients about the expertise they bring to the table. There are a number of approaches for handling the IAOTWFF problem. Some of the issues that I mention to my IAOTWFF clients include:
The problem of the invisible Web: The content that search engines cannot or will not crawl. The almost-hidden Web: That portion of the Web that specialized search engines may index, somewhat, but that is still not entirely indexed and searchable, such as audio and video broadcasts, and still images. Timeliness of search engine indexes: Anything added within the last month probably is not searchable yet.
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Depth: The Web does not have much of a memory, and something from six months ago, while still tremendously valuable to my client, may have been removed. Quality: Unlike published content, which has been vetted by an editor, anyone can post anything on the Web, regardless of truthfulness or accuracy. Time vs. money: Often, it is far more cost-eVective to pay an infoentrepreneur to conduct research, on both the Web and value-added online services, than for clients to conduct the research themselves.
In fact, there are times when info-entrepreneurs use some version of the marketing technique of selling FUD—Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt. When faced with IAOTWFF, one response can be, ‘‘As a researcher, how do you know you are basing your decisions on the best information? Your competitor probably has access to information resources beyond the open Web. Do you? Are you sure that the information you found from that search engine is really the most accurate, most current, and most complete?’’ Another aspect of the response to IAOTWFF is to focus on providing value to clients by going beyond simply delivering the information you find. I will discuss that in the next section of this article; infoentrepreneurs often oVer these value-added services when they talk with clients. The clients may not realize all the summarization, distillation, and analysis of information that info-entrepreneurs can provide until we market those services. In fact, I have gotten into the habit of building at least some distillation into every project estimate; I want to make sure that I provide not only the best information that I can but also make it as accessible to my clients as possible, and this requires some after-search massaging of the results. Another marketing concept that, like FUD, was not originally referring to the info-entrepreneur business but that does have some applicability is the idea of the Unique Selling Proposition, or USP. Companies respond to competitive pressures by focusing on their Unique Selling Proposition-the service or product they oVer that their competitors do not or cannot provide. This is even more critical now that clients can use the Web to shop around for other independent info pros and can use the alternative services such as Google Answers to find information. A company’s USP may be based on:
Price: People shop at Costco because buying in large quantities is cheaper. Exceptional customer service: Nordstrom has set itself apart from other department stores by building a strong ethic of amazing customer service.
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Unique features: Amazon.com established itself by providing access to any book in print, usually at a discount, with one-click purchasing and recommendations of other books the buyer might also want.
The purpose of a USP is to motivate prospects to buy a product or service, to convey the unique value of a company, and to ensure consistent brand identity. One formula for identifying an info-entrepreneur’s USP is to work on an ‘‘elevator speech’’ -that 30-second description of her business that she could use when riding in the elevator with someone. The key to an elevator speech is to focus on benefits, not features. An info-entrepreneur’s elevator speech is usually built around the following model: ‘‘Do you know how [state the information problem the prospect has]? What I do is [state the solution your product/service oVers]’’ For example, ‘‘You know how hard it is to find good solid information on your competitors’ new products? Well, I use resources that go way beyond what you can find on Google to dig up information on what your competitor may have in the pipeline.’’ This elevator speech articulates an info-entrepreneur’s unique selling proposition, and demonstrates that she understands how to do competitive intelligence and that she has access to information in the fee-based online services, the invisible Web, and other nontraditional sources. It answers the client’s unspoken question, ‘‘What’s in it for me?’’ Once an info-entrepreneur has established her USP, she can include it in all her marketing eVorts. A telephone researcher, for example, may include the tag line ‘‘Answering Impossible Questions Since 1992’’; a patent researcher might say ‘‘Are you sure you’re the first person to invent that? Let us prove it.’’ Other resources for help with marketing are the info pro divisions of the major professional online services, some of which provide white papers and studies that support the eVorts of information professionals in explaining the benefits of research beyond the Web. These materials are available to anyone—you need not be a subscriber. Dialog has developed a fairly extensive program for info pros, called Quantum 2 [quantum.dialog.com]. The White Papers, Case Studies (yes, I wrote a couple of them), and Marketing Tools are very relevant for info-entrepreneurs. Similar to Quantum2, Factiva’s info pro program [www.factiva.com/ infopro] also has white papers, case studies, and presentations that can be powerful tools for addressing the IAOTWFF issue.
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IX. Surfacing Your Value: Providing Value-Added Deliverables As has been discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the key aspects of an info-entrepreneur’s business is the ability to provide deliverables that clearly surface his added value. Pulling together a list of Web sites, or downloading a few articles from a fee-based service, does not by itself do much to generate repeat business from clients who have budgets for independent info pros’ services. Being a value-adding info pro, which is what helps surface our value, means providing answers, not just information. The more an info-entrepreneur can make his deliverables plug-and-play for his customers, the more obvious, quantifiable value he provides and the easier it becomes to challenge the issue of IAOTWFF. What often challenges us info-entrepreneurs is our own immersion in information. We are accustomed to swimming in oceans of data, so we do not think twice about going through 50 or 100 pages of material, particularly if we know it is high-quality information. Our clients, on the other hand, could sometimes be described as ‘‘data-intolerant’’; unlike us, they do not spend all day looking for information, and they usually do not appreciate getting a data dump, when most of the other information they receive is in distilled format. Info-entrepreneurs also need to be as user-friendly as a search engine. For starters, that means making it easy to contact us—being available for phone calls during regular oYce hours, returning e-mails promptly, reducing or eliminating paperwork and excessive legalese when agreeing on the budget and scope of a project, and providing the information in the format and medium most convenient to our client. I remember the first time a client asked me to give him the results of my extensive research in a PowerPoint presentation, of no more than six slides, and no more than four bullet points per slide. Initially, I was somewhat put oV by the request; ‘‘You want me to reduce all this tremendously valuable information into a mere six slides? Don’t you care about all the in-depth information I have for you?’’ Then I realized that what my client was asking me to do was to frictionlessly insert my deliverable into the information flow to which he had become accustomed. Everyone else delivers information to him in PowerPoint slides, so I needed to, too. Yes, it was hard to extract the 24 key points to fit on those six slides, but he valued this report far more than a 45-page collection of articles and reports. In addition to the occasional PowerPoint presentation of results, info-entrepreneurs develop resources, skills, and tools to oVer high-end
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research that clearly and demonstrably goes beyond what a client could find on the Web. This might include conducting primary research or telephone research, providing data analysis to help the client understand what the information means, writing an executive summary, or creating charts and graphs to help the client visualize the information more easily. I sometimes oVer to produce an ‘‘information topography’’ report in addition to other analysis. What is that, you ask? Think about the process you go through while doing research. As you search a professional online service, you realize that—contrary to your client’s expectations—very little has been written about the research topic in consumer publications. You find that the only Web sites addressing this topic are based in Europe. Or you notice that most of the discussions of the topic are from a couple of years ago and the issue seems to have died out completely in the last 6 months. None of these discoveries is evident in the material you send to your client; this is information about information, what you found on your way to the results you are sending your client. This information is both tremendously useful and something that only an experienced information professional can discern and make evident. When is the last time you saw a search engine provide this kind of information along with search results? Another can’t-get-this-on-Google service is an Executive Information Service, such as what Kim Dority of G.K. Dority & Associates (Castle Rock, CO) has developed. She positions this service as the equivalent of a clairvoyant personal librarian—someone who learns what her client would want to know about and then provides that material in a way that the client can easily absorb. This is not just a current awareness or alerting service; it is a clipping service on steroids. She begins by interviewing her clients to find out:
what they read what they don’t have time to read but wish they did what industry issues, competitors, and people they want monitored whether they want to stay updated on current business books or any upcoming conferences whether they want any non-business-oriented interests monitored
Then Kim finds out whether her clients want the results in an outline format, as a customized Web page with links to pertinent information, as a graphic map, as a PowerPoint presentation, or as bullet points in a memo. Once she understands what her clients want and how and when they want it, Kim becomes the eyes and ears of her client. By providing analysis and distillation of the results, she ensures that she is
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competition-proof; no search engine or electronic clipping service can provide the tangible added value she oVers. Another challenge of info-entrepreneurs is when they have to show to a client that there is no information on a particular subject. For starters, we make sure during the reference interview that the client understands that she is paying us for our research skills, not for a specific answer. We are providing a professional service to our clients, not merely going through the motions of retrieving data. During the reference interview, we also remind clients that we cannot guarantee a result; we cannot make up an answer out of thin air, and the fact that no information exists is itself useful information. While this seems intuitive to most information professionals, we sometimes forget that our clients are accustomed to typing a couple of words in a search engine and retrieving hundreds of thousands of results; their assumption is that surely we professionals will be able to find something to meet their specific information need. We also check with the client to find out whether she understood that we might find an answer contrary to what she was looking for. In some situations, the client may be willing to pay for the research but is not interested in detailed information explaining why their proposed idea will not work. For example, a client once wanted to build a marketing campaign around the theory that people who owned dogs would be inclined to buy a certain type of snack food (for humans). It turned out that I could not find any correlation between dog owners and a fondness for the client’s product. He did not need to hear about all the sources I searched or why dog owners are not a homogenous group; he just needed to know whether or not his idea would fly. For those projects where an info-entrepreneur is asked, in essence, to prove a negative, he has to make sure that his client recognizes the value that he provided, and that no answer is, in fact, a full answer. These types of reports need to be more than a short memo to the client saying ‘‘sorry, nothing found.’’ They need a full executive summary, and if possible several pages describing the research process, including the online and Web-based sources searched, the people interviewed, and so on. If any of the experts expressed their opinions about why the information being searched for probably was not going to be found, their comments will also be included in the client report. The report can also include recommendations on where the infoentrepreneur might go next in the research in order to explore other options, mention similar or related topics that might be useful, and oVer other ways of approaching the question. Sometimes, finding nothing can spur an info-entrepreneur and the client to think more creatively about
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how to frame the issue and to think about what information in a parallel track might be useful. Another technique that some info-entrepreneurs use in the situation of being asked to prove a negative is ‘‘value-based pricing.’’ Instead of charging the client for how long the work took or how many kilobytes the deliverable contains, they charge the client for how valuable the information is. This can be tricky, of course, since clients usually do not exclaim, ‘‘Oh my goodness! This information has just saved us $5 million in development costs for a product that I now see that no one wants!’’ Amelia Kassel (2002), a long-time info-entrepreneur, wrote an extensive article titled ‘‘Value-Added Deliverables: Rungs on the Info Pro’s Ladder To Success.’’ In this article, she covers why information professionals need to focus on providing value-added deliverables and provides specific tips on how to prepare research results that provide added value. The article includes an interesting side-bar that discusses what roles an information professional (and this applies to info-entrepreneurs as well as more traditional librarians and info pros) should play. Can— and, more importantly, should—they oVer interpretations of the information they find? Should they provide recommendations as to the next step the client should take? Or should they limit themselves to providing analysis, executive summaries and a synthesis of the information? For the info-entrepreneur, the answer is a definite ‘‘it depends.’’ Some clients do expect recommendations for future action, in addition to the research and synthesis of results. Some info-entrepreneurs specialize in this type of work; they are comfortable spending significant time learning about a client’s industry, analyzing trends, talking with experts, and then making recommendations as to what options the client has and what directions look most appropriate. Other info-entrepreneurs focus on clients who need information, usually distilled down into a few pages, but who do not need recommendations or specific interpretations of the information.
X. Where the Info-Entrepreneur Profession is Headed While I have believed for decades that this is a strong career option, I am even more convinced of that now. As so many of our prospective clients realize, there is far more information out there than can be Googled, and—for that matter—who has time to absorb all the information available through a simple Google search? Info-entrepreneurs understand that it is in adding value that we are able to clearly surface what we oVer and why clients need our services, and most info-entrepreneurs
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are spending more and more of their time providing this analysis and synthesis as well as more basic research. I am particularly encouraged by the number of people entering this profession from outside the library field. While those of us with MLS degrees will always be drawn to this line of work, it strengthens us all when we also have architects, lawyers, marketing professionals, engineers and other non-library experts working as info-entrepreneurs. Many of us rely on subcontracting and referrals to build our network of services to our clients, and having subject specialists as well as information specialists in the profession greatly increases the value we all oVer. As has always been the case, the biggest challenge is to cultivate people who have the fairly disparate skills of marketing, business management, entrepreneurship, and research and analysis that are required to successfully run an information entrepreneurship business. Fortunately, the Association of Independent Information Professionals, now approaching its third decade, will continue to serve as a key resource to enable new info-entrepreneurs to enter the field and for existing businesses to grow and thrive.
XI. Key Resources for Info-Entrepreneurs A. Info-Entrepreneur Association
The primary association for current and aspiring info-entrepreneurs is the Association of Independent Information Professionals (www.aiip. org). AIIP was founded in 1987 and currently has over 700 members in 25 countries. AIIP provides a wealth of resources and tools for those who are interested in info-entrepreneurship. Member benefits include:
Access to AIIP’s very active and collegial members-only e-mail discussion list Significant discounts to information industry services and products from AIIP’s Industry Partners and Industry AYliates, including waiver of monthly minimums or annual fees for many services A listing in the online and print AIIP membership directory, along with a description of your services and background Participation in AIIP’s Referral Program and Speaker’s Bureau Participation in AIIP’s Volunteer Mentor Program Access to AIIP’s New Member Guidebook and to a monthly Benefits In Action newsletter introducing first-year members to the tools available to them through AIIP
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Sample subcontracting and non-disclosure agreements Subscription to AIIP’s quarterly newsletter Discounted rate for AIIP’s annual conference and other associations’ annual conferences.
AIIP members provide a wide range of information services to clients, including specialized research, information, knowledge, and records management, writing, editing, indexing, training, and database design. All AIIP members subscribe to the AIIP Code of Ethical Business Practice (www.aiip.org/AboutAIIP/aiipethics.html). There are five categories of membership in AIIP:
Full members: individuals who are owners of a business that provides information services Associate members: individuals who support the objectives of AIIP Student members: individuals who support the objectives of AIIP and are currently enrolled in an accredited degree-granting college or university Supporting members: individuals or organizations that support the objectives of AIIP and wish to provide significant financial support to the Association Retired members: individuals who were previously owners of information businesses, were Full members of AIIP for at least 3 years, and who have withdrawn from their information business.
Membership dues for Full and Associate members are $175/year; Student members $50, Supporting members $500, and Retired members $75. For more information, you can contact AIIP at: Association of Independent Information Professionals Suite 1001 8550 United Plaza Blvd. Baton Rouge, LA 70809 [email protected] www.aiip.org 225.408.4400 B. Ready Reference Resources
One of the challenges of being an info-entrepreneur is that it can be costly to build and maintain a deep ready-reference collection equivalent to what most reference librarians have available at their fingertips.
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However, there are a few hard-copy books that many independent info pros find worth the investment.
AIIP Membership Directory (2004–2005, Association of Independent Information Professionals www.aiip.org) Encyclopedia of Business Information Sources (2004, Thomson Gale) Fulltext Sources Online (twice yearly, Glose and Fletcher, eds., Information Today, Inc.).
The AIIP directory is fairly obvious; there are times when we need to tap into the expertise of the members of the Association of Independent Information Professionals, and the print directory is sometimes easier to use and has more information than the Web-based version. The Directory is available at no charge to AIIP members, and available for purchase by non-members for $75, by contacting AIIP at [email protected]. While the Encyclopedia of Business Information Sources sounds somewhat specific to business researching, the information contained is useful to virtually every info-entrepreneur. And FSO—a directory at least 2 inches thick that lists the online information services through which the full text of a periodical can be searched—is worth its weight in gold when an info-entrepreneur needs to identify subject-specific online sources that he wants to search. Most info-entrepreneurs also maintain a virtual ready-reference shelf—a bookmark or ‘‘favorites’’ file of the Web-based resources they consult on a regular basis. These are a few sites that I keep on my browser toolbar that I could not live without:
Librarians’ Index to the Internet (www.lii.org) Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) LibrarySpot.com RefDesk.com Statistical Abstract of the US (www.census.gov/statab/www/) Virtual Reference Desk (www.loc.gov/rr/askalib/virtualref.html).
LII and Open Directory Project are two well-established humanbuilt Web directories. Neither is perfect, and both are somewhat UScentric. Yet most Web research these days involves not only a search engine, but also a hunt for the most appropriate portal or information resource, and that is where Web directories shine. LibrarySpot.com, RefDesk.com, and the Virtual Reference Desk are nice aggregations of all the basic reference books we librarians used to keep behind the reference desk. However, I find that I rarely use these for client projects; my clients can find basic look-up information on their own. I do use these tools for my own research, though—when I need to
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find a list of holidays around the world, an encyclopedia, or an acronym look-up site. The Web version of Statistical Abstracts (United States Census Bureau) is something I cannot imagine doing without. Not only is it a good resource for both US and worldwide statistics, but it also serves as a pointer to the most reliable third-party information sources for statistics. This looks like a fairly minimalist ready-reference desk, although it is far deeper than what most info-entrepreneurs could access five or six years ago. C. E-Newsletters of Use to the Info-Entrepreneur
I sometimes feel like the Red Queen in Through the Looking-Glass, who told Alice, ‘‘HERE, you see, it takes all the running YOU can do to keep in the same place. If you want to get somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as that!’’ Reading the following resources on a regular basis should at least keep independent info pros in the same place, informationally speaking. FreePint www.freepint.com Edited by William Hann, this fortnightly newsletter provides in-depth articles on all aspects of Web research. See also the Bar, a discussion forum for info pros, at www.freepint.com/bar. NewsBreaks www.infotoday.com/newsbreaks Provided by Information Today Inc., this weekly update includes information industry news, written by the editors and writers of the various ITI publications. ResearchBuzz www.researchbuzz.com Tara Calishain edits this lively newsletter and blog, looking at Web research, invisible Web tools, and other information sources. ResourceShelf www.resourceshelf.com Edited by Gary Price, this is one of the best ways of keeping up on library-related news and issues. SearchDay www.searchenginewatch.com/searchday Edited by Chris Sherman, this daily newsletter covers new developments in the search engine world.
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Virtual Chase www.virtualchase.com Edited by Genie Tyburski, this newsletter is ostensibly written for the legal industry, but Genie’s articles are valuable to any info pro. Dilbert Newsletter www.dilbert.com/comics/dilbert/dnrc/ When you go to this site, select the ‘‘Dilbert Newsletter’’ option. Note that this newsletter is for ‘‘Dogbert’s New Ruling Class. When Dogbert conquers the planet and becomes Supreme Ruler, DNRC members will have complete dominion over everyone else.’’ Alright, I admit that I really read this one to remind myself of why I enjoy being an independent info pro! D. Additional Books on the Info-Entrepreneur Profession
Building and Running a Successful Research Business by Mary Ellen Bates. Information Today, 2003. $29.95. I wrote this book as a handbook to help info-entrepreneurs launch, manage and grow their businesses. It includes sections on getting started, running the business, marketing, and researching. The Consultant’s Calling: Bringing Who You Are to What You Do by GeoVrey M. Bellman. Jossey-Bass, 2001. $19.95. Although at times a bit touchy-feely, a very useful book on how consultants can best work with clients. Some of his advice applies to any independent info pro business. Copyright & Information Professionals: Complying With the Law by Stephanie Ardito. Association of Independent Information Professionals, 1998. $25 (www.aiip.org). Written by an expert in the field of copyright, this white paper looks at copyright issues from the perspective of an independent info pro. How to Avoid Liability: The Information Professional’s Guide to Negligence and Warranty Risks by T. R. Halvorson. Association of Independent Information Professionals, 1998. $25 (www.aiip.org). White paper explaining how independent info pros can get themselves in trouble by promising too much or by relying too heavily on disclaimers. Million-Dollar Consulting: The Professional’s Guide to Growing a Business by Alan Weiss. McGraw-Hill, 2002. $16.95. While most info-entrepreneur projects do not get to the $1 million level, Weiss’ advice on how to think strategically and take a business to a higher level is useful to any info-entrepreneur.
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Super Searchers Make It On Their Own: Top Independent Information Professionals Share Their Secrets for Starting and Running a Research Business by Suzanne Sabroski. Information Today, 2002. $24.95 (www.infotoday. com/supersearchers). Interviews with eleven independent info pros (full disclosure: I was one of the people interviewed) on how they started and successfully run their businesses. References Bates, M. E. (2004). Free, Fee-based and Value-Added Information Services. Factiva. Available at: www.factiva.com/collateral/files/whitepaper_feevsfree_0504.pdf June 2004. Encyclopedia of Business Information Sources (2004). Thomson Gale. Farmington Hills, MI. Fallows, D. (2005). Search Engine Users, 23 January 2005. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Available at: www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Searchengine_ users.pdf Glose, M. B., and Fletcher, L. E. (eds.) Fulltext Sources Online, twice yearly publication. Information Today, Inc. Available at: http://www.books.infotoday.com/ directories/fso.shtml Kassel, A. (2002). Value-Added Deliverables: Rungs on the Info Pro’s Ladder To Success. Searcher , p. 42þ, November/December. Available at: www. infotoday.com/searcher/nov02/kassel.htm Rainie, L. (2005). The State of Blogging. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Available at: www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_blogging_data.pdf Selingo, J. (2004). When a Search Engine Isn’t Enough, Call a Librarian. New York Times , p. 5, 5 February. Available at: snipurl.com/dko3 United States Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States, Annual. Available at: www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract-04.html
Understanding the Picture User Henry Pisciotta
Arts and Architecture Librarian, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
I. Introduction This chapter reviews published studies of the use of pictorial information. Examining image user studies surfaces several research questions often addressed by this body of work, as well as some frequently encountered problems. These questions and problems organize this survey of the literature. Image user studies were included in two valuable reviews of digital image research and development, published by Christie Stephenson and Corinne Jo¨rgensen in 1999 ( Jo¨rgensen, 1999; Stephenson, 1999). This overview considers research since that time, focusing on assessment that was not targeted at a single system or service. While attempting to incorporate some interesting research from the information and educational technology communities, this discussion of image delivery as an aspect of digital library development limits coverage of those important literatures. During the 1980s and early 1990s, digital images were usually approached as a technical problem. At that time in higher education and cultural institutions, projects and publications focused on the mechanics, standards, and labor for creating, describing, storing, and retrieving image files and study continues in those areas. Digital images were a novelty then and user studies were largely confined to ‘‘laboratory’’ environments. User studies for image delivery were moved from the lab to the field by the American Memory User Evaluation, conducted at 44 schools and libraries between 1991 and 1993, and the Museum Educational Site Licensing Project (MESL), which was conducted between 1994 and 1997 at seven museums and seven universities (Stephenson and McClung, 1998a,b; Veccia et al., 1993). Since that time, the perception of digital images has changed from novel to inevitable. Now faculty members say, ‘‘They are here to stay’’ and ‘‘They are expected by students and peers’’ (Farley, 2004). ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 29 # 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2830(05)29007-4
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This growth in the popularity of digital images, together with a general increase in assessment of information services, has stimulated an abundance of research since the American Memory and MESL projects. Image user studies have employed the full range of methods found in other digital library assessment. Listing some of the large-scale studies illustrates this: Museum Educational Site Licensing Project (MESL), 1994–1997, (Stephenson and McClung, 1998a,b)
Scope: Images of artworks produced by seven museums and mounted on separate systems by seven universities. Methods: Pre-test and post-test surveys and focus groups. Related work: Follow up study comparing the costs of the MESL distribution method to distribution via 35mm slide libraries (Besser and Yamashita, 1998). The AMICO University Testbed project which informally evaluated use of the AMICO Library image database at sixteen colleges and universities (Art Museum Image Consortium, 1999; Gay and Rieger, 1999).
Visual Information‐Seeking Oriented Research (VISOR) 1999–2002 (Conniss et al., 2000, 2003)
Scope: Study of picture searching in ten diVerent organizations, including academic, commercial, research, cultural, and governmental settings conducted by researchers at Northumbria University. Methods: Structured interviews and observations of searches with framework analysis. Related work: Further testing of the VISOR categories of image use by other researchers at Northumbria1 (Eakins et al., 2004). Visual Image User Study (VIUS), 2001–2003 (Pisciotta et al., 2005)
Scope: Assessment of picture use and needs for digital image delivery across many disciplines (arts, humanities, and environmental sciences) at a large and complex school, Pennsylvania State University. Methods: Surveys, focus groups, interviews, authentication logs, prototyping, think-aloud protocols, pre-test and post-test surveys. Related work: The California Digital Library’s Image Service Demonstrator Project assessing user requirements for image delivery at the University of California campuses1(Farley, 2004).
Use of Digital Resources in Humanities and Social Sciences Undergraduate Education (shortened here to UDR), 2003–20051 (Harley, 2004) 1 Only the preliminary reports from these projects were available at the time of this writing.
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Scope: Multi-institutional assessment of the availability and use of all forms of digital resources for undergraduate education in the humanities and social sciences. Included here since the first phase includes substantive information about digital image use. Methods: Surveys, focus group discussions, interviews, and transaction log analysis.
This group of projects has implemented all of the methods listed in Denise Troll Covey’s survey of the assessment methods applied at Digital Library Federation (DLF) member institutions. (Covey, 2001). These studies, and the others cited below, have been very diYcult to compare, since the conditions, definitions, and metrics vary. Those interested in any of the specific findings mentioned in this article should consult the source so that the result can be understood in its original context. As a body of work, the past decade of image user studies have treated these questions about image delivery:
Is there a market? Which sources are used? What are the disciplinary needs? What are the needs of diVerent educational levels or types of organizations? What are the obstacles and motivations? How does picture seeking work? What do users do with pictures?
The discussion of these questions and the progress made toward answering them surfaces some problems with the existing state of research in this area:
The The The The The
problem of isolating images student problem problem of studying the future problem of applying what we have learned problem of ‘‘user’’ as singular or plural.
II. The Questions A. Is There a Market?
In 1998, Howard Besser speculated that as picture collections change from collections of unique slides held in the remote portions of an academic department’s facilities to digital collections that could be used
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simultaneously from many locations, they would see a larger and more multi-disciplinary group of users (Besser and Yamashita, 1998). Yet there have been few attempts to measure the breadth of the market for digital image delivery services. ‘‘Motivations for studying use are often focused on improving the quality of a particular resource or ‘‘brand,’’ not on understanding the potential markets for those brands’’ (Harley, 2004, p. 13). One approach to understanding this market is to chart the extent of current picture usage, digital or not. General surveys of information users indicate that pictures are an important format for a wide variety of people. The Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc. survey of education and research at US colleges and universities, ranked pictures in a list of 17 document types and found that it was the fourth most-used format for teaching (behind books, journals, and news) and the seventh most important format for undergraduate students (behind the same formats as well as data, electronic datasets, and electronic indexes) (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc. 2002). The VIUS project covered 68 academic departments and centers where 75% of faculty and 55% of students reported that they use digital or analog pictures (other than the illustrations in books and magazines) for educational purposes (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 36). Roughly 70–80% of faculty specified using digital images in Berkeley’s UDR study (Harley, 2004, p. 36). At Penn State, 75 percent of faculty and students said they plan to increase their use of digital images. (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 36) Some of this increase in anticipated usage may be due to the slow conversion of analog picture collections. Also, when building web pages, many people find themselves becoming picture editors (just as word processing once turned them into typographers). Whatever the reasons, the potential market for digital images seems substantial and it seems likely to grow. B. Which Sources are Used?
The large number of picture consumers may suggest to planners that new image databases will find an eager audience. However, they should consider which sources are currently the most popular. 1. Licensed Databases
Many libraries subscribe to the handful of image databases currently available via licensing. By this means they may be providing one or two million images to their users. Yet use studies indicate that these rich resources have not supplied many of the images used by students and faculty. In summarizing faculty interviews conducted by the Research Libraries Group, Gu¨ nter Waibel explained that ‘‘those interviewed were
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largely unaware of licensed resources available to them. Among the minority that had tried to use licensed resources, a number of faculty found that the content did not speak to their immediate interest.... By and large, the library played only a small role in supplying the faculty with digital image content’’ (Waibel, 2004). Only about 3 to 10% of the image users in the VIUS surveys reported that they had used the major image databases licensed by Penn State (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 37). The DLF/Outsell study indicated that about 20% of picture-using teachers or researchers and fewer than 10% of picture-using undergrads consult online databases to find images (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, 2002). 2. Campus Databases
Databases of images mounted locally, especially those constructed with a focus on teaching needs, seem to have been used slightly more than licensed resources, presumably because they can better reflect local interests. The success of image services at George Madison University is one of several examples (Pitt et al., 2002). Yet, generally campus databases have supplied only a small portion of the total usage of pictures (Harley, 2004, p. 37; Pisciotta et al., 2005, pp. 37 and 45). 3. Personal Collections
Personal collections of pictures constitute a special type of source. They may serve as an alternative to the other sources listed here, but may also be a result of using those other sources. Diane Harley credits the VIUS project with revealing the widespread existence of personal collections of pictures and the importance of this type of resource (Harley et al., 2004, p. 18). While personal collections clearly play a role, that role has been diYcult to quantify. The VIUS project found that 44% faculty who use pictures, or 32% of all faculty surveyed, maintained a personal collection. (Similarly, 44% of student picture users, or 24% of all students, maintain smaller collections for educational purposes). A separate survey of Penn State faculty reported 51% of all faculty maintaining personal collections (Kerlin, 2002; Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 45). Yet the DLF/Outsell survey showed much lower use of personal picture collections (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, 2002). The URD survey indicated that 64–71% of faculty have and draw upon a personal collection of digital resources, though not necessarily pictures (Harley, 2004, p. 37). A study of natural resources researchers (both academics and practitioners) revealed personal collections (of any format) to be the most frequently consulted
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source of information, but at a lower rate: 29% (Salwasser and MurrayRust, 2002). These types of picture collections were frequently a topic of discussion in focus groups and interviews. In addition, these solo picture collectors are often intensive users of institutionally managed collections (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p.46). 4. Search Engines
Most users get images from the Web, often via search engines such as the Google Image Search (Waibel, 2004; Waibel and Arcolio, 2005). ‘‘More than four-fifths of respondents reported using search engines to find digital materials, while less than one-fifth of respondents reported using commercial image databases (such as Saskia or AMICO)’’ (Harley, 2004, p. 35). Search engines were also the most used source for images in the DLF/Outsell survey (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, 2002). Search engines have quickly become the most popular way to find images. This implies that strategies such as exposing parts or all of image databases to search engines could appeal to users (Waibel, 2004). C. What are the Disciplinary Needs?
Disciplinary diVerences in the character of image use seem likely but are diYcult to detail with existing user studies. Some of the digital library user studies, such as the Ithaka study on electronic journals, illustrated important, but not surprising, disciplinary diVerences in the behavior and preferences of users (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, 2002; Guthrie and Schonfeld, 2004). Yet, coverage of images is limited. The Penn State study, covering arts, humanities, and many sci-tech fields related to the environment, observed that ‘‘arts and architecture faculty use a larger number of pictures, per capita, than their colleagues—a predictable result. However, the faculty in earth and mineral sciences (which includes geography, meteorology, among others) use a larger number of digital images than others. As a head-count picture-using faculty in earth and mineral sciences and agriculture outnumber those in arts and architecture by more than two to one’’ (Pisciotta et al., 2005, pp. 38–40). With diVerent disciplinary groupings, the Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc. survey found widespread use of pictures, especially among arts and humanities and biological sciences users (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc. 2002). Clearly pictures are deployed in many fields, but the nature of these uses may be completely distinct from one another. Consider these anecdotal, but real, extremes: A meteorologist processes thousands of satellite photographs every month with an image analysis program that returns
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tabular data. A painter studied an accidentally discovered photograph for several months, making many drawings and paintings based upon it. The statistical approach of these broad studies can seldom relate academic disciplines to specific search or use behaviors. Evaluations of discipline-specific digital library projects, such as the Alexandria Digital Library for geographic information, the Oregon State University Natural Resources Digital Library, the Archaeology Data Service at the University of York, and others, have often unearthed more detailed aspects of disciplinary needs. Natural resources researchers, for example, often search for many forms of information (transportation, land use, habitat, vegetation, water quality, history, etc.) for a specific location (Condron et al., 1999; Hill et al., 1997; Salwasser and Murray-Rust, 2002). Likewise, many image user studies have been limited to collections or users with specific disciplinary scope. Youngok Choi and Edie Rasmussen reviewed several of them (Choi and Rasmussen, 2003, pp. 500–502). These experiments often highlight a search behavior characteristic of the disciplinary endeavor. A study of searches for pictorial information on American history, for example, showed that dates and terms referring to historical periods were important. Queries for a specific known image were unusual with that group (Choi and Rasmussen, 2003, pp. 506–507). Searches for the names of artists were key for art history and film studies (Armitage and Enser, 1997). Even subfields can have their own trends. Students of medieval art history seldom looked for names of artists, since few names for medieval artists survive (Chen, 2001). The size of a picture was an important criterion for some journalists (Oranager, 1997). Among the subjects of the VISOR research, art historians, radiologists, and police conducted more known-item picture searches (Conniss et al., 2000, p. 125). But comparison between these types of studies only seems safe when obvious and common-sensical. DiVerences in the methods and conditions of this type of study make more subtle revelations diYcult. For example, Choi and Rasmussen (2003) observed, interestingly, that those seeking images for topics in American history gave the textual description of the image a high level of importance when judging relevance or a picture. Is this true of other groups? D. What are the Needs of Different Educational Levels or Types of Organizations?
Once placed on the Internet, collections built for one audience often find many more audiences. This brings questions about the needs of diVerent educational levels to the fore. Within higher education, some diVerences in the perceptions of students and faculty have been identified. For
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example, students seem more interested in the metadata that accompanies an image than do faculty. Students, more than faculty, regard digital images as timesavers (Pisciotta et al., 2005, pp. 43–44; Sandore, 1998, pp. 111 and 118). Some work has been done to understand how K-12 education may benefit from the types of large image databases available to many colleges and universities. The evaluative feedback from these settings demonstrates that some aspects of digital images, such as need for teaching support and relevant content, resemble the situation in higher education. An issue emphasized in K-through-12 assessment is the desirability of packaging information in ways that correspond to the themes in curricula. While teachers express interest in this type of interpretive precoordination for their own uses, they often do not want the images to be overly-interpreted for students—particularly when they are used as primary resources that stimulate critical thinking (Hamma, 2004; Staum-Kuniej, 2001; Veccia et al., 1993). The VISOR project was unique in comparing several diVerent types of organizations: two commercial picture services, a broadcasting organization, the radiology department of a hospital, a newspaper publisher, an architecture firm, an art history department, a medical picture library, a regional museum, and a police department. In spite of these disparate environments, the study found important common characteristics to the search behaviors observed in each setting. These included categories of image searches, common criteria for judging relevancy, classes of image uses (Conniss et al., 2000), and a generalized framework for evaluating image services in an institutional context (Conniss et al., 2003). (The VISOR evaluation framework is a process, expressed with a flow chart, rather than the framework proposed by Samantha Hastings (1999) which is a matrix for assessing aspects of retrieval.) The VISOR classes of image usage are being applied in the analysis of a survey conducted on many types of experienced picture users (Eakins et al., 2004). E. Questions of Scope
These first four questions relate to the scope of an image delivery system. Understanding users in these ways (the market, the sources, the disciplines, and educational levels) can help determine if there should be one image delivery system or many. Can the diVering requirements of disciplines, levels, and perhaps even organizations be managed eVectively with a single software approach, perhaps a customizable one? Will a single media metadata schema meet a variety of needs? Should Google Image Search or similar tools be considered an important route for getting images onto the screens of users? Christie Stevenson is one of
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those asking that systems be designed to fit needs of specialized, disciplinary groups (Stephenson, 1999) but the VISOR work asserts that some aspects of system design might suit all (Conniss et al., 2000; Eakins et al., 2004). Taken in sum, image user studies suggest that both approaches may be worthwhile. Some characteristics of picture searching seem common enough to suit all environments while some user groups clearly have significant idiosyncratic needs. F. What are the Obstacles and Motivations?
Several image user studies list the perceived obstacles to digital image use. The items on these lists are similar even if the priorities vary somewhat from one study to the next. These types of impediments relate closely to acceptance of other educational technology, as documented in many local studies, such as those of the University of Washington (Gustafson, 2003–4). 1. Infrastructure and Technical Ability
Adequate equipment, bandwidth, and system reliability are frequently put forward as obstacles to digital image use, especially by faculty members. Similarly, comfort with technology correlates strongly to digital image usage (Harley et al., 2004; Pisciotta et al., 2005; Sandore, 1998; Stebley, 1998; Waibel, 2004). 2. Support
UDR discussion groups yielded an impressive list of tasks that faculty perform, frequently without help, when using digital resources (Harley, 2004, p. 26). Faculty have expressed a desire for help with practically every aspect of image use. Some want help because they lack familiarity with the technology. Others want help because they have become too familiar with it. Easy access to images as well as to digital cameras, inexpensive scanners, and other equipment has stimulated many do-it-yourself activities. Faculty often find that they can handle many of their imaging needs, but frequently the clerical eVort grows beyond expectations. Many also suspect that they are unnecessarily duplicating the eVorts of colleagues (Dooris et al., 2005; Gustafson, 2003–2004; Pisciotta et al., 2005; Stebley, 1998). 3. Rights and Permissions
Users, especially faculty members, want help with understanding permitted uses (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 42). Cautious ‘‘less-said-the-better’’
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approaches to image databases do nothing to overcome the copyright barrier that some users perceive. Contacting an authority or reading the fine print in a license are unlikely to meet user preferences for convenience. Perhaps conveying information about permitted use occurs too often at the collection level, rather than with individual items. Users often do not recognize the item they have retrieved as belonging to a collection and federated search systems sometimes remove most signs of that context (Harley, 2004, p. 23). 4. Content
In several studies, both faculty and students placed a very high priority on content. Simply put, they have no interest in using a system unless it supplies the types of images they want (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 37; Sandor, 1998, p. 118; Stebley, 1998). This factor often seems to be a ‘‘deal breaker’’ between users and image services. The VISOR researchers recommended to the several types of organizations they studied, that: ‘‘Users may be aided in their work tasks by being able to influence the image collection content.... Similarly, those in charge of acquisitions should be informed of unsatisfied searches which stem from gaps in the collection’’ (Conniss et al., 2000, p. 128). This advice sounds obvious to the traditional, collection-building librarian or visual resources curator, but has not been successfully implemented in a subscription image database. Academic library digitization projects have predominantely mounted highly specialized materials—useful, to be sure, but seldom capable of supplying a substantial portion of the materials needed to teach a course. Image collections that primarily serve teaching, usually managed by visual resources curators, have often led the way toward digital collections based on detailed observation of local needs. Just as licensed electronic texts supplement, but do not replace, reserved readings for courses, quickly tailoring pictorial collections to the needs of local users may be the strongest argument to local production of digital images (Besser and Yamashita, 1998, p.12). 5. Convenience
In sum, students and faculty are more likely to adopt digital image resources if they are relevant and convenient. This is probably not unique to digital images (Pisciotta, 2003; Tenopir, 2003, p. 4). Assuming that infrastructure and copyright have not posed insurmountable obstacles, users often negotiate some trade-oV between convenience and content.
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For example, they may be highly motivated by useful content and thus be willing to persist through numerous inconveniences, as did students in a test group using an awkward search interface (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 44). Or users may be persuaded by delightful conveniences to make do with lesser content, as some faculty have explained: ‘‘Almost every faculty member interviewed praised Google Image Search as a quick, reliable way of retrieving images for teaching. While the limitations in terms of file size and color fidelity were apparent to everybody, ease of use and the search engine’s ability to deliver a suitable image for almost any request outweighed its shortcomings’’ (Waibel, 2004).
G. How Does Picture-Seeking Work?
Investigations of this question have been the most common and perhaps the richest form of image user study. Based upon examination of search behavior (usually in the form of captured queries, search observations, or similar data) these studies attempt to categorize types of searches, phases in the retrieval process, and the kinds of decisions made by searchers. More detailed reviews of this literature, primarily a product of the information science community, appear elsewhere (Choi and Rasmussen, 2003, pp. 500–502; Enser, 2000; Jo¨ rgensen, 1999; Rasmussen, 1997, pp. 172–175). Image users may begin with a need that is primarily verbal or one that is primarily visual (Frost, 2001, pp. 55–56). This interplay between the verbal and visual as well as the complexity of what might be meant by ‘‘visual’’ seem to make the analysis of image retrieval much more intricate than text retrieval. The slippery question of what people see in images has been studied as a way of informing how images should be described. Examples include Turner, 1995; Jo¨ rgensen, 1996; and 1998. Visual qualities that have been studied as factors in retrieval include color, shape, sharpness, texture, size, abstraction, thematic content, emotional content, aesthetic quality, and many others. An important theme in the study of image retrieval has been the role of purely visual retrieval devices—usually called ‘‘content based indexing’’ or ‘‘content based retrieval.’’ These search or sort by qualities such as shape or color or texture, which have been analyzed by algorithms. Once discussed as a potential replacement for verbal descriptions, recent user studies predict that content based indexing is likely to play a useful, but subservient role to text-based retrieval in most image systems. Drawing or submitting existing images to initiate inquires has proven awkward for users, leading some to call for the development of these techniques as tools for dealing
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with the results of text searches—permitting, for example, a sort by size or sharpness or a request to ‘‘find more like this one’’2 (Chen, 2001; Enser, 2000, p. 208; Frost, 2001). Several retrieval researchers outline search and selection processes that vary according to the planned use of an image. These well-argued schemes help clarify the workings of image retrieval, but they are varied ways of understanding. They are informative but seldom cumulative— perhaps as interpretive as the process of describing a picture (Conniss et al., 2000, pp. 46–48; Eakins et al., 2004; Hastings, 1999). For example, Raya Fidel examined 100 inquiries to a stock photography agency and discussed image searches as points between a ‘‘data pole’’ where images are needed as sources of information and an ‘‘object pole’’ where images are components to be used for some other task (such as a magazine cover). She noted that search precision was often more desirable for the data pole and high recall (lots of results to browse) more desirable with the object pole (Fidel, 1997). Teams of Northumbrian researchers surveyed frequent users of image collections and arrived at seven categories of uses that drive image selection: illustration, information processing, information dissemination, learning, generation of ideas, aesthetic value, and emotive value (Conniss et al., 2000; Eakins et al., 2004, p. 630). Their categories do not all fit easily on Fidel’s continuum but this does not devalue either interpretation. In spite of their diVerences, each schematic description of image retrieval constructs some form of consistency across many types of users and collections. Seemingly universal principles can be found. The eVectiveness of browsing thumbnail images may be an example (e.g. Hastings, 1999, p. 448). The brain brings impressive eYciency to this task and almost all image retrieval systems accommodate this type of perusal. Considering the plethora of selection criteria that have been observed in image user studies, this type of display may be meeting an exceptionally wide range of needs. H. What do Users do With Pictures?
Delivering images is not the end of the story. If they are to be used, they need to be delivered in a way that will be useful. Many factors contribute to closer ties between retrieval and use. For example, conveying information about permitted uses, or enforcing those permissions, has strongly influenced the design of some systems. Since using digital images 2
Content based retrieval has found some success in highly specialized applications such as face recognition software for matching mug shots (Zhao, Chellappa, Phillips, and Rosenfeld, 2003).
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requires tools (viewing software, projectors, and the like) the image delivered often needs to be compatible with other environments. The information retrieval literature mentioned above, demonstrated that understanding the search for an image was facilitated by understanding its intended employment. Other studies have examined, in operational terms, what people do with pictures after they have been retrieved. In an academic environment, people collect, research, teach, and learn with images. 1. Collect
Perhaps the statistics on the prevalence of personal collections should not be surprising. For those who employ quantities of pictures, typical activities include retrieving the pictures (often from more than one source), aggregating them, then creating some form of presentation, which may require another phase of selection, re-sequencing, redescription, or other manipulations. These actions bear a strong resemblance to the activities required to build an image database: acquisition, aggregation, description, etc. Using pictures often resembles collecting whether or not the user accumulates a stash. A study at Indiana University proposes modeling the process of assembling lectures from pictorial collections by observing teachers in situ (Dalmau, 2004). Most image database systems meet these needs with a ‘‘shopping cart’’ or ‘‘light table’’ function. Perhaps that is not enough. ‘‘Image databases supporting instruction cannot stop at merely aggregating content— they also have to supply the functionality to unravel the content again for reaggregation into other resources. Faculty, departments, or entire campuses can (and already do) create their own teaching databases geared towards their specific need by ‘‘cherrypicking’’ from licensed resources and combining them with their own assets. In the activity of campus reaggregation, capturing descriptive metadata alongside the digital image becomes a crucial component’’ (Waibel, 2004).
Personal collections of slides or other photos are certainly not a recent phenomenon. In fact, several idiosyncratic collections started in a shoe-box and grew into important research collections, such as Nikolaus Pevsner’s Buildings of England, Henri van der Waal’s Decimal Index to the Art of the Lowlands, and others (Bailey and Graham, 2000; Lavin, 1997). Even if completely cobbled from other sources, personal collections built by a knowledgeable individual can become important resources. However going digital with personal collections triggers four considerations: the desire of these private collectors to use external resources together with their own images; the new ease in sharing these
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collections with others, the need for metadata (at least filenames) where none may have been needed before; and an increased desire for support (with conversion, metadata, software, storage, etc.). Based upon the high value that many users place upon their own collections, LionShare, a multi-institutional development project coordinated at Penn State University, experiments with modifications of peer-to-peer technology as a collection management solution—an approach that could blend decentralized collecting with more traditional institutional collection building (LionShare, 2004). 2. Research
Research has been identified as an important use for digital images. The DLF/Outsell survey showed that teaching with all forms of pictures is only slightly more widespread than using pictures in research. The VIUS study found that digital images were a bit more likely to be used for research than teaching, at least at present (Digital Library Federation and Outsell, 2002; Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 41). An unanswered question is the extent to which research processes might be altered by digital media. New conveniences aside, will this more malleable medium result in methodological changes? It certainly has in many science and technology fields, where computer analysis of two-dimensional images has been conducted for quite some time. Perhaps art history poses the most interesting setting for this question, since visual analysis may be more central to this humanities discipline than any other. Based on his interviews and surveys of art historians, Christopher Bailey and Margaret Graham have shown that many art historians believe digital technology is changing their research. Bailey speculates that art historical inquiry could be altered much as it was by earlier innovations in photography (Bailey and Graham, 2000; Wyngaard, 2003). To explore that possibility, the Digital Imagery for Works of Art workshop stimulated dialog between information scientists and art historians (Kiernan et al., 2001). 3. Teach
Most people, including faculty, expect digital images to be very useful for teaching, but the location of that teaching is less certain. Will digital images be most useful as projections in the classroom, as resources for a course web site or course management system, or as elements in student initiated work, such as illustrations for papers, etc.? All of these, and perhaps others, have proven valuable, but projection in the classroom may be the most diYcult at present. Faculty discomfort with using
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technology in the classroom continues to be a factor in the acceptance of digital images (Pisciotta et al., 2005, pp. 42–43; Sandore, 1998, p. 115). Many teachers have relegated digital pictures exclusively for student review of course content via the web (Harley et al., 2004 p. 380). In spite of many improvements in bandwidth, projectors, and related devices, ‘‘The digital distribution environment, as a whole, appears to be good for individual usage... [but] digital image distribution in its existing form is problematic for group viewing situations’’ (Besser and Yamashita, 1998, p. 13). One independent reviewer for the VIUS project remarked that some obstacles to digital image use (such as copyright and classroom equipment) might often be cited by faculty with deeper misgivings about the medium than they are willing to discuss (Pisciotta et al., 2005, p. 56). The awkwardness of mastering technology in front of an audience may be one of these misgivings. Of course, many faculty have been teaching with digital images in the classroom and elsewhere and, as the UDR project has noted ‘‘the degree to which personal teaching style and philosophy influence use was significant’’ (Harley, 2004). 4. Learn
Now that ‘‘teaching’’ and ‘‘learning’’ have become inseparable terms, it is appropriate that image studies explore the end result of most academic uses: learning. The measurement of educational outcomes seems a diYcult area of research. The assessment team of the American Digital Imaging Project, part of Yale’s Electronic Library Initiatives, is probably unique for venturing into this area by making close observations of a handful of courses in American Studies. Using a combination of interviews with faculty and the contents of course exercises prepared by students, this project describes: (1) how teachers employ images, (2) how students analyze the images, and (3) what types of support activities facilitate these processes. In the first phase of work, a preliminary rubric has been developed for each of these three areas in order to classify potential outcomes. For example, the matrix describing teaching with images features an axis with three purposes for using images: as illustration, as secondary evidence, and as primary evidence. The other axis contains four key elements: the criteria for selecting images, the plan for how students encounter the images, the intellectual goals, and the motivational goals (Nitecki and Rando, 2004). The resulting twelve categories of teaching uses have interesting implications for image delivery. One of several possible applications may be the presentation of descriptive metadata. For visual illustration the name of the thing depicted may be an adequate description (perhaps, the Revolutionary War).
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Yet for the surrogate image to serve as primary evidence, many aspects of the original creation, such as authorship, location, patronage, provenance, etc., might be critical information (perhaps the rendering of the American Revolution was a post oYce mural produced for one of the Great Depression recovery programs). Of course, learning also occurs outside the programs designed by teachers, and libraries are certainly one of the important sites for independent learning. Can independent learning with images be assessed? If so, perhaps the projects assessing museum web sites would provide interesting models and benchmarking data. For example, museums are often able to analyze ‘‘formal learners’’ (those meeting the requirements of some educational program) separately from ‘‘informal learners’’ (those with personal educational objectives). A survey of assessment projects from museums as well as some libraries and other cultural institutions was conducted by the Cultural Content Forum (Alice Grant Consulting, 2003). I. Questions of Interaction
Answers to these last three questions (What are the obstacles? How does picture-seeking work? What is done with pictures?) can inform the development of software tools, interfaces, and system design—the ways that users interact with a system or service. An example is the problem of how closely use tools should be tied to a retrieval system. Clearly many teachers project images in classrooms by using Microsoft’s ubiquitous PowerPoint program. Clearly some have chosen other viewing software and swear by it. Teachers have often invested many hours of work packaging images with these applications. Yet several image services require or promote a proprietary viewer tied to the retrieval system (Farley, 2004; Pisciotta et al., 2005; Waibel, 2004). Many search interfaces are modeled closely on bibliographic and full text databases. Do these take adequate advantage of the eYciency of browsing images? Are databases suYciently permeable as a system design? Perhaps they should interact more easily with popular choices such as the Google Image Search (Waibel, 2004). Perhaps they should interact more easily with personal collecting activities (LionShare, 2004).
III. The Problems Several problems are common in image user studies.
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A. The Problem of Isolating Images
One problem common to all image user studies is the rationale for limiting themselves to digital images. After consulting a Web site for information about today’s weather and being greeted by competing windows spouting sound, video, still images, and interactive animations, a subject might well turn to a researcher and ask, ‘‘Why are you limiting your study to the still pictures?’’ Indeed, the technologies for storing and providing the various digital media have some strong similarities and several of the newest data standards, such as courseware standards for ‘‘learning objects,’’ encourage thinking about all digital media together. The multimedia scope of the UDR project addresses this concern, by including all digital media, but, ironically, expresses the need to move beyond them into more complex aggregations of file types: ‘‘We also identify [an] emerging area, complex media environments, for which, to our knowledge, user studies per se are not yet available. These rich media environments include N-way video, GIS, virtual reality, simulations, and games’’ (Harley et al., 2004, p. 16). B. The Student Problem
Too little information about students can be found in image user studies. Many of the studies mentioned here exclude student input (and all of those that include students were able to obtain more data from faculty than students). Why do students prefer digital images? Why do they maintain personal collections? Why are they more concerned than faculty members about image quality or one-stop shopping? (Pisciotta et al., 2005). Numerous logistical factors make obtaining data and perceptions extremely diYcult (Harley et al., 2004 p. 13). C. The Problem of Studying the Future
How can anyone study something that is changing rapidly? Introducing people to something as new as digital media generates usage but also slowly generates ideas for new uses (Sandore, 1998, p. 114). For example, users have seldom expressed interest in content based retrieval techniques (Eakins et al., 2004). Is this simply because they do not have enough experience with these retrieval methods to understand their potential uses? One way to cope with this chicken-or-egg problem focuses on the subset of users that have a high level of interest in technology and are enthused about the new potential. However, keying on these innovators can produce services that do not provide the productivity increases
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desired by the majority of consumers (Pisciotta, 2003). An interesting, but not foolproof, technique for bridging this gap between innovators and the majority has been devised by John Eakins, Pam Briggs, and Brian Burford. They have designed a questionnaire that compares importance of specific search features as rated by those who have used the feature with the ratings by those who have not. By this method they predict that some content-based retrieval techniques (sharpness, size, and file type) might prove more popular than others (Eakins et al., 2004). Another solution requires an ongoing assessment program. For image services this is very rare. Nearly all of the research cited here resulted from projects rather than programs, most funded with grants. Faced with a dearth of ongoing assessment, another approach would be for projects to build upon previous user studies. While this has certainly occurred it has been hampered by a lack of comparable metrics, definitions, and instruments—making comparison of results diYcult. Need for coordinated measurement has been noted at several levels. On a matter as specific as query analysis, Bernard Jansen and Udo Pooch plead for consistent definitions of terms as basic as ‘‘query’’ or ‘‘session’’ ( Jansen and Pooch, 2001, pp. 242–244). The Cultural Content Forum has been foiled in some of its attempts to coordinate the results of cultural heritage assessment projects, but has made some interesting progress in establishing a set of defined user profiles which can help standardize demographic categories for users (Alice Grant Consulting, 2003). No standard instruments like Lib-QUALþ have been developed in the area of image delivery—perhaps because of the diversity and instability inherent in image services at this stage in their development. D. The Problem of Applying What We Have Learned
The distance between understanding what users want and providing it can be great. In the case of the digital image systems and services currently available, this distance seems like a long road filled with potholes. The suggestions made in the results of image user studies have often failed to find an implementation. For example, some studies have demonstrated the value of detailed metadata, but also pointed out that institutions were unable to provide the labor needed to create them. In 1999 Jo¨ rgensen called for user-contributed metadata as a boon to underdescribed image collections, and others have agreed with that position, but software development of that feature has been slow ( Jo¨ rgensen, 1999, p. 294 and 313; Oranager, 1996, p. 205). Influencing software changes in proprietary systems often conflicts with the priority those developers must place on a business plan. Open source systems seem to
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oVer more potential for experimentation, but require much more local overhead. Even when implementation is feasible for some particular user preference, the choice of how to design for it is partly a guess. Verification of that guess can happen with subsequent study, but often the time required to develop the new feature makes further evaluation impractical, because of the short span of most image use studies to date. E. The Problem of ‘‘User’’ as Singular or Plural
Many of the researchers whose work has been summarized here have said (all in their own ways) that ‘‘user’’ should not be misunderstood as a singular entity. ‘‘There is no single type of academic user, nor do users see the world in the categories constructed by researchers and librarians’’ (Harley, 2004 p. 20). The term needs to be unpacked, at least into numerous types and groups (Alice Grant Consulting, 2003). Quantitative methods can seldom produce the granularity needed to solve unique problems (and numerical methods are often distrusted by the very scholars with whom we are trying to collaborate). ‘‘Looking for quantifiable results, say in diVerences of age or gender in a given population, is reassuring for researchers, and no doubt for funders. It gives us something to fall back on, and makes us feel less terrified about the messiness of reality’’ (Bailey and Graham, 2000). Users are people. It would be a mistake to abandon the people skills that have been such an important element in library services. This is especially critical if support professionals are to work closely with faculty in matters such as classroom pedagogy or personal collections. Sometimes ‘‘we needed a methodology that would allow us to explore with our partners, not to investigate them’’ (Nitecki and Rando, 2004. p. 179). Ironically, together with the reminder that ‘‘user’’ is plural, this body of research implies that the problems being tackled will be solved by teams, not individuals. ‘‘Not surprisingly, the expertise required to plan and create online collections and services that bring together resources for teaching and scholarship is rarely found completely within the library. It occurs instead through the combined thinking of scholars, information professionals, and technologists’’ (Greenstein and Thorin, 2002, p. 31). In the case of digital image delivery the location of key team members seems quite scattered across university campuses—including visual resource curators, museum professionals, imaging specialist, educational technologists, and others. Someone in each setting must step forward to coordinate these eVorts. Librarians and visual resources curators often aspire to coordinate this work. Perhaps faculty also hope that we will take on that role. The service rubric developed from the statements of faculty
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participating in Yale’s American Digital Imaging Project, envisions a progression from our traditional role as collection builders, to responsive consultants, to leaders who aVect change (Nitecki and Rando, 2004, p. 188). References Alice Grant Consulting (2003). Evaluation of digital cultural content: Analysis of evaluation material. Cultural Content Forum. Available at: http://www.culturalcontentforum.org/publications/ Art Museum Image Consortium (1999). University Testbed Research Meeting and Results, 3–4 June. Available at: http://www.amico.org/univ/univtestbed/u.results. html Armitage, L. H., and Enser, P. G. B. (1997). Analysis of user need in image archives. Journal of Information Science 23(4), 287–299. Bailey, C., and Graham, M. (2000). Compare and contrast: Measuring the impact of digital imaging on the discipline of art history. Available at: http://www.unites.uqam.ca/ AHWA/Meetings/2000.CIHA/ Besser, H., and Yamashita, R. (1998). The cost of digital image distribution: The social and economic implications of the production, distribution and usage of image data. School of Information Management and Systems. University of California, Berkeley. Available at: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Imaging/Databases/1998mellon/. This report was summarized in Besser, H. (1999). Digital image distribution: A study of costs and uses. D-Lib Magazine 5(10). Chen, H. (2001). An analysis of image retrieval tasks in the field of art history. Information Processing and Management 37, 701–720. Choi, Y., and Rasmussen, E. (2003). Searching for images: The analysis of user’s queries for image retrieval in american history. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 54(6), 498–511. Condron, F., Richards, J., Robinson, D., and Wise, A. (1999). Strategies for digital data: Findings and recommendations from digital data in archaeology: a survey of user needs. Available at: http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/project/strategies/index.html Conniss, L. R., Ashford, J. A., and Graham, M. E. (2000). Information Seeking Behaviour in Image Retrieval: VISOR I Final Report. Institute for Image Data Research, 2000 (Library and Information Commission Research Report 95). Conniss, L. R., Davis, J. E., and Graham, M. E. (2003). A User-Oriented Evaluation Framework for the Development of Electronic Image Retrieval Systems in the Workplace: VISOR II Final Report. Institute for Image Data Research, 2003 (Library and Information Commission Research Report 144). Covey, D. T. (2001). Usage and Usability Assessment: Library Practices and Concerns. Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington, DC Available at: http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub105abst.html Dalmau, M. (2004). Reviving DIDO: Using contextual inquiry to inform the redesign of an art image resource. Paper presented at the Digital Library Federation Spring Forum, 20 April, 2004. Available at: http://www.diglib.org/forums/Spring2004/springforum04abs.htm Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc. (2002). Dimensions and use of the scholarly information environment: Introduction to a data set assembled by the Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc.. Digital Library Federation and Council on Library
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Kerlin, J. (2002). FACAC Faculty Survey 2002. Teaching and Learning with Technology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Available at: http://tlt.its.psu. edu/surveys/spring2002/faculty2002.html Lavin, M. A. (1997). Making computers work for the history of art. Art Bulletin 79(2), 198–201. LionShare (2004). Connecting and Extending Peer-to-Peer Networks: LionShare White Paper, October 2004. Available at: http://lionshare.its.psu.edu/main/info/docspresentation/LionShareWP.pdf Nitecki, D. A., and Rando, W. (2004). Evolving an assessment of the impact on pedagogy, learning and library support of teaching with digital images. In Outcomes Assessment in Higher Education Views and Perspectives, (Peter Hernon, and Robert, E. Dugan, eds.), pp. 175–196. Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO. Oranager, S. (1997). Image retrieval: Theoretical analysis and empirical user studies on accessing information in images. Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science 34, 202–211. Pisciotta, H. (2003). Image delivery and the critical masses. Journal of Library Administration 39(2/3), 123–138. Pisciotta, H., Dooris, M., Frost, J., and Halm, M. (2005). Penn State’s Visual Image User Study. Portal: Libraries and the Academy 5(1), 33–58. Pitt, S., Updike, C., and Guthrie, M. (2002). Integrating digital images into the art and art history curriculum. EDUCAUSE Quarterly 25(2), 38–44. Rasmussen, E. M. (1997). Indexing images. In Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, (Martha Williams, ed.), 32, 169–196. Salwasser, J., and Murray-Rust, C. (2002). Assessing need for a natural resources digital library. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship, 33. Available at: http:// www.istl.org/02-winter/article2.html Sandore, B. (1998). Findings of the instructor/student survey. In Stevenson and McClung, 1998a, 100–121. Staum-Kuniej, S. (2001). The IUPUI/IMLS Community Project: Virtual partnerships that build k-life learning communities through technology. Art Documentation: Bulletin of the Art Libraries Society of North America 20(2), 7–22. Stebley, L. (1998). Faculty perspectives on teaching with digital images. In Besser and Nakashima 1998. This is a part of the unpaged report above by Besser, etc. Whatever approach is used here should resemble the approach with Sandore, 1998. Stephenson, C. (1999). Recent developments in cultural heritage image databases: Directions for user-centered design. Library Trends 48(2), 410–437. Stephenson, C., and McClung, P. (eds.) (1998a). Delivering Digital Images: Cultural Heritage Resources for Education. Getty Information Institute, Los Angeles. Stephenson, C., and McClung, P. (eds.) (1998b). Images Online: Perspectives on the Museum Educational Site Licensing Project. Getty Information Institute, Los Angeles. Tenopir, C. (2003). Use and Users of Electronic Library Resources: An Overview and Analysis of Recent Research Studies. Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington, DC. Available at: www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub120abst.html Turner, J. M. (1995). Comparing user-assigned terms with indexer-assigned terms for storage and retrieval of moving images: Research results. In Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science 32, 9–12. Veccia, S., Springer, M., and Lacy, M. (1993). American Memory User Evaluation, 1991– 1993. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (ERIC Doc. ED382511)
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Waibel, G. (2004). Out of the database, into the classroom: Findings from the Instructional Technology Advisory Group. RLG Focus 67. Available at: http:// www.rlg.org/en/page.php?Page_ID¼17063#article2 Waibel, G., and Arcolio, A. (2005). Out of the Database, Into the Classroom: Final Report from the RLG Instructional Technology Advisory Group. Available at: http://www.rlg. org/en/page.php?Page_ID¼406. Wyngaard, S. (2003). Introduction. (to special issue on ‘‘Digital Images and Art Libraries’’) Journal of Library Administration 39(2/3), 1–4. Zhao, W., Chellappa, R., Phillips, P. J., and Rosenfeld, A. (2003). Face recognition: A literature survey. ACM Computing Surveys 35(4), 399–459.
Evaluating User Information Needs Through a Library Portal Environment: New Opportunity and New Challenges Dongming Zhang
Advanced Technologies and Information Systems, The William H. Welch Medical Library, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
I. Introduction Since 1999, the idea of a library portal service, called ‘‘MyLibrary,’’ has been well discussed and conceptualized. The service is an integrated approach to build library online service components into one user interface, which can be personalized and customizable based on users’ preferences and interests. North Carolina State, Cornell, and Virginia Commonwealth Universities pioneered their models, and similar models have been implemented in many university libraries since then. This chapter will provide a brief history of library portal development and discuss how the concepts and services of library information portals are defined and developed. It will use a medical information portal, MyWelch, to illustrate how a library portal service can be an ideal environment to understand users’ information-seeking behavior and their needs, and for library and portal developers to continue their work in order to respond to such needs. The chapter will discuss some issues related to further developments and what portals will become in the future.
II. Review of Library Portal Concept and Technologies A. Introduction
The Internet and the Web have changed and continuously impact the landscape of production, dissemination, sharing and proliferation of ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 29 # 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
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information. Libraries, as important information centers in modern society, have experienced dramatic changes and challenges. These include:
Libraries are spending more money on electronic resources and core collections are becoming more electronic, instead of print; More journals, books and even reference tools are becoming available online and in full-text; More primary resources are being scanned and are available online; Functions and services of Integrated Library Systems (ILS) are expanding and are provided through the Web; Interlibrary loan and document delivery applications are becoming more Web friendly and files can be sent via e-mail attachments; In addition to providing regular in-person and telephone reference service, reference service staV are using e-mail, Web forms and online chat tools; Users are more frequently using library online services instead of coming to the physical library locations, and Online learning is becoming more common and in-class teaching is enhanced by a variety of course management systems and educational application software.
Historically, librarians have been among the innovators who look into how new information technologies could be applied to their work and services. For example, the range of innovative applications that librarians have incorporated into library workflows and services include early creation of MARC formats, Boolean document searching, database technology applied in developing Integrated Library Systems, exploration of computerized subject indexing, OCR scanning in preservation projects, and complex Web article retrieval ranking. It is not surprising when MyYahoo first appeared in 1998 as an information portal that allows online users to personalize their Web accounts and oVers one-stop shopping functionality, that librarians were among those who quickly adopted this idea and built initial frameworks and prototypes for library services and application integration. B. Library Portal Review: Discussion, Issues, and Experience
In his editorial introduction, Morgan (2000), the creator of the open source-based MyLibrary@NCState application that has been used by many other libraries currently, presented the challenges that library professionals faced, i.e., to build customizable and personalized user interfaces for better library services as well as for better librarianship practice through these services. Several pioneering academic libraries
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started their own MyLibrary adventures as early as 1999. Among the articles that discussed their library portal implementation, Cohen et al. (2000) revealed that the purpose behind the portal development at Cornell was to provide a research oriented personalized interface to library patrons due to excessive information overload and MyYahoolike commercial systems, which will not ever become good tools for academic users. Ketchell (2000) discussed how the ‘‘My’’ trend impacted library information system design and, in particular, how to diVerentiate among commercial, corporate, and library portals; and that library portal designers might learn to better channel our information to users from both commercial and corporate information portals. After analyzing their six month’s usage data, Ghaphery et al. (2000, 2002) discovered the 80– 20 rule (i.e., approximately, 80% of usage log access were contributed by 20% frequent users, and their in house MyLibrary system seemed primarily to be used as an instructional tool). Lakos and Gray (2000) was more concerned about how to overcome obstacles within an organizational culture in order to make MyLibrary successful. These obstacles could be internal and external resistance to the impacts and changes of direction, range from the user community to library operational staV. Thomas (2000) compared the diVerence between library cataloging systems and portal systems, and indicated that portals would oVer a wide range of information and associated services with its fast-pace updating and rich context including images, full-text and sound; a scholar portal would be an ideal platform to integrate the library catalogs, and for librarians to create innovative services for our users. C. Library Portal Review: Definitions and Features
Lakos (2004) defined library portal as ‘‘a customized learning and transactional Web environment, designed purposefully to enable and individual end-user to personalize the content and look of Web site for his/her own individual preference.’’ Maloney (2004) indicated that a portal is a Web-based tool, which provides a customizable interface to information aggregated from a variety of sources. McDonald (2004) listed an array of features for a library portal system, including single point gateway, Web-based aggregation point, targeted user group and my home page. An Association of Research Libraries (2004) task force conducted an initial survey among several dozen universities on their portal application in 2002, and kept track of their continuing development. In the final report, it listed and described a variety of portal definitions from surveyed universities:
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‘‘An environment that fits specific needs, or stated another way, architecting the environment so people can do what they need to do.’’ ‘‘An interactive gateway to resources and services.’’ ‘‘Web gateway to digital resources and services that provides a high level of seamless integration and includes a features-rich kit of tools that facilitates use along the entire scholarly communications spectrum.’’ ‘‘A user-centric (i.e., customized and personalized) Web page that allows users to easily locate all the Web contents they commonly use—a one-stop Web page.’’
Although the definition of library portal service could vary depending on diVerent perspectives, there are two elements that appear to be key features. First, the portal must be easy to use, (i.e., users can customize and personalize their portal environment and select those resources and contents important to their work). Second, the portal must provide an array of valued library services and functions that further facilitate users’ information needs (e.g., meta-search interface, document delivery, SFX full-text links, and Ask-a-Librarian interface). There have been many discussions on the other characteristics portals should have, and which service and function elements should be included in the Web sites so that these sites can be called ‘‘Portals.’’ Some functions and features require complex programming expertise to build or integrate. Others may be more dependent on external eVorts and interests and not controlled by librarians, for example, most libraries are depending on ILS vendors or publishers to develop meta-search engines. In the ARL survey, developers from diVerent universities listed the following functions and features that most portal applications commonly have:
Single sign-on mechanism; Search interface that can perform searching across multiple resources; Services that support users’ information needs, and User empowerment, (i.e., customization and personalization).
The report also lists the following other services and functions considered among portal developers:
Links to course management systems; ILS integrations that allow users to view their library accounts; Virtual referencing or Ask-a-Librarian functions; Inclusion of a digital repository system, and Interfaces that can be integrated with a campus or university portal.
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D. Library Portal Review: Examples of Current Systems
Implemented in 1998, the MyLibrary@NCState model is a pioneering system that had a big impact on the wide use of MyLibrary systems because it was made available on an open source basis, and because of its generic design that can be implemented to meet the needs of most libraries. With the purpose of developing the capability to organize, assemble, and present to the user a ‘customized library’ reflecting his/ her major interests and needs, an attractive and intuitive listing of or gateway to multi-format information resources and services, the team developed and deployed the following components that constituted the MyLibrary@NCState application:
Current Awareness: Users will receive and search on a regular basis lists of new books that are added to the library’s collection based on Library of Congress classification numbers. Librarian contact: Based on users’ disciplines, the system will display the names of librarians who are knowledgeable and responsible for the correspondent subject areas. Messages from the Librarian: Librarians will regularly send updated messages to users to keep them abreast of the recent developments in their selected areas. Online Bookmarks: Users can always connect to the system from their home or oYce by using generic browsers to access their personalized bookmark set. User Interface customization: Users can change the color, fonts and layouts of their personalized portal.
Also developed and implemented in 1998, Virginia Commonwealth University’s ‘‘MyLibrary’’ started to serve the local academic community after library professionals across the Internet enthusiastically tested it. The VCU version of MyLibrary has the following technical and service features:
Customizable choices of databases and library services; Prominent choices for most popular databases; Bookmarks of up to six Web sites; Customizable search boxes (choices include library catalog, online journal search, university e-mail look-up, and Internet search engines); Links to customizable lists of electronic journals (‘‘MyJournals’’); Automatic login feature via cookies; ‘‘What’s New’’ feature for alerting users to new choices; Access through a single edit screen for most choices, and Multiple simultaneous users.
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Cornell University’s MyLibrary was initially discussed and developed between 1998 and 1999. The development has been continuing and five major services have been established:
MyLinks provides a function for users to collect, organize, and maintain links to electronic resources from the Library’s gateway or other Web sites; MyUpdates provides a service that periodically sends users information about new books, electronic journals and other library materials with users’ preferences; MyContents provides users with the table of contents of journals periodically; MyCatalog allows users to customize their use of the university catalog and save their search preferences, individual searches and specific records, and MyDocumentDelivery allows users to obtain PDF formatted copies of articles, books, and other materials from the library print collections.
Among health science library portal systems, ‘‘Health SmartLibrary’’ (HSL) from Northwestern University has provided several creative ways to facilitate users’ needs in health science areas. There is a ‘‘Quick Search’’ function that applies a user’s query to a list of Web sites and information collections including Google, PubMed, Ovid Medline and library catalog. There is an automated journal literature search that uses MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) terms to fetch those literatures that match individual users’ interest areas.
III. Portal Usage Analysis and Service Improvement While portal users have been enjoying the freedom and capability to customize and personalize their information-seeking environments and make their work more eVective and eYcient, there will be further and continued tasks for librarians and information professionals, i.e., how to continue to improve services by providing new and individualized services based on the analysis of user profiles and usage data. During the past several years, library portal discussion has been more focused on what the library information portal should be and which service elements a typical portal should have, there has not been much discussion on how we should take advantage of a portal environment to observe and understand users’ behavior and needs in order to make appropriate adjustments or continuous development eVorts. Librarians and information professionals have long been studying Web usage data analysis to gain understanding of users’ information-seeking
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behavior and needs. Huberman et al. (1998), for example, obtained a Web log file from an AOL (America Online) sample file that contained a considerable amount of data that revealed patterns of user informationseeking-behavior on the Web. Based on these patterns, they developed a mathematical ‘‘law of surfing’’ that determines the probability distribution of the depth, (i.e., the number of pages a user visits within a Web site. Tao and Mutagh (2000) developed a transactional model to represent actual user access courses, which adapted data mining techniques such as sequence analysis and associate rules application toward building personalized Web systems. Bracke (2004) explored Web usage data analysis by applying multinomial logistic regression in his data mining project and tried to achieve an understanding of how users access electronic resources from both on and oV campus. Choo et al. (2000) installed client software on participants’ workstations to collect all Web related actions such as URL calls, page requests, and browser menu selections. Although regular Web usage analysis has been an eVective way for assessing overall user needs in a Web environment, the usage data gathering and analysis in portal systems could have more advantages. As regular Web sites are connectionless environments where usage analysis can only be conducted through IP-based file access, portal systems provide a quasi-connected environment where individual user profiles can be established through an authentication mechanism and daily actions such as login and logout, and access to resources and services can be recorded, thereby making it possible to build individual-based usage files for observing and evaluating users’ information seeking-behavior and understanding users’ needs. In the following section, I will describe the development of a library information portal in a health science setting, MyWelch; present how users’ information-seeking behavior has been observed and evaluated; and review how the developers responded to make proper adjustment in the portal design to satisfy users’ needs.
IV. MyWelch Case: The Development of Welch Library Portal A. Design and Development Overview
Developed by Johns Hopkins University’s Welch Medical Library, MyWelch is a Web-based academic library portal that allows faculty, students, and staV of the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions to customize their online information environment. Since its launch in July 2002, more than 2000 user accounts have been created and are active, with an average of 66 user sessions and 5000 page views per day.
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One of the greatest challenges in developing MyWelch has been understanding users’ information-seeking behavior. That knowledge serves as the basis for creating features and functions that will enhance their experience in terms of time and productivity. Instead of conducting user surveys and writing specifications prior to the development, we began this project by conducting a comprehensive evaluation of dozens of MyLibrary sites. After reviewing the sites, we contacted the developers and librarians responsible for creating them to inquire as to whether they developed their site in-house or if they used a vendor, whether they used commercial software or freeware, what software and hardware was used in their development, how long their sites were in development and/or production, how well they have been received by their user communities, and any obstacles they had encountered along the way. Our initial prototype was based on our analysis of the information we collected and existing knowledge of library operations. We conducted our first user survey based on this prototype, expecting that users would be able to provide more eVective feedback after having reviewed the system in action. The online survey prompted users to provide feedback about their initial impressions of MyWelch as well as suggestions on how we might improve it. During the analysis and implementation stages, we focused on two user-centric principles, ‘‘Ease of Use’’ and ‘‘Value-added Information,’’ and identified and developed the following functions and services accordingly. 1. Ease of Use
One Stop Login: Since MyWelch provides access to many features that require user authentication, we strove to optimize the user experience by requiring a single sign-on. Taking advantage of the university’s (LDAP) authentication system, we developed a login mechanism inside MyWelch that allows users to access web e-mail accounts, library accounts, calendars, and the campus course management system, without needing to repeatedly enter their user names and passwords. Building Server-based Bookmarks: The Welch Medical Library has thousands of electronic resources from which users may select. Since users cannot bookmark these resources from public or shared workstations, we created a bookmark feature within MyWelch that allows users to access the resources of their choosing from anywhere. Useful Services: MyWelch provides access to a number of services, including a ‘‘Weather Update,’’ an ‘‘Academic Calendar,’’ the ‘‘Library Document Delivery System,’’ and a ‘‘Web File Server.’’
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MyNotepad: Users have a space to write and store notes for easy access from within the application. Web File System: Users can upload, download and share files using the application’s Web-based file system. MyWelch Search: The search feature allows users to simultaneously search both static and dynamic library content, displaying results by category. 2. Value-added Information
Two sources of information oVer content of value to users:
Syndicated news feeds allow users to browse headlines and story summaries from their favorite news sources by selecting from a list of news feeds (e.g., ABC Health, CNN Health) and/or adding their own via RSS URL. Electronic journal table of contents (TOC) are featured through which users can select those journals appropriate to their academic and professional interests in order to keep updated by reading recent articles and news.
MyInterests: PubMed, a search and retrieval interface from the National Library of Medicine, is an important information-seeking tool for health science professionals and researchers. In MyWelch, we developed a ‘‘MyInterests’’ function to fetch the most recent articles from PubMed based on the research and clinical subject areas users specify in their profile configuration. Ask MyLibrarian: This function allows users to submit questions and receive answers from reference librarians online. Customization (Profile): MyWelch allows users to create custom profiles that specify their interest areas so that the system can better understand their needs; also, users are able to minimize or deselect any features of their choosing. Personalization: Users also can customize their interface by choosing from a selection of six colors and three layouts as well as adding, removing or minimizing content modules. Figure 1 illustrates how these features might appear on a user’s customized portal. B. Usage Data Collection and Tracking
From the beginning, we considered the portal an innovative approach for providing services to users as well as a mean for librarians to gain better
256 Fig. 1 MyWelch: user’s initial home page.
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understanding of users’ information-seeking behavior. We designed and deployed usage tracking and data collection mechanisms throughout the application in conjunction with user profiling and the university’s LDAP authentication. New users need the unique user names and passwords provided by Johns Hopkins University’s LDAP system in order to create their MyWelch accounts. Account creation includes the random assignment of a system identification number; the selection of a user’s academic or professional subject areas; identification of his or her primary field of research, teaching, studying, administration or clinical work (multiple choices); and customization of his or her MyWelch interface, including layout and color. Users are then provided a list of library resources based on their user profiles. Whatever resources they choose to select will be saved in their account as bookmarks. The information obtained during the initial account creation allows MyWelch to build a user profile, i.e., user’s department and academic status (faculty, staV or student); primary research or professional areas and interests; a selection of electronic resources; and interface parameters. While using MyWelch, data collection functions are deployed to track every move and information access until a user logs out or his/ her session times out. This data collection is anonymous and based only on system IDs. We have created several data synthesis and reporting functions for the system developers and librarians. These functions include: Daily and weekly user access report: This function reports daily and weekly user access, including through both the regular login process and cookie process. The report includes login time, total page views, and logout time. It further breaks down to user status (e.g., faculty, students, staV, and others) (Figs. 2 to 4). User customization and personalization report: This report includes information about users’ selection of layouts, color, content box displays, and other customization options (Fig. 5). Individual functions reports: These are detailed reports about each individual feature. They contain access time and usage statistics. They further break down to user status (e.g., faculty, students, and staV) (Fig. 6). C. Usage Data Collection and Observations 1. Data Collection and User Session Clustering
An individual user’s session is composed of multiple user actions in a certain period of time. We have used a method to cluster users’ seeking
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Fig. 2 Daily usage statistics.
Fig. 3 New user account’s summary.
actions into seeking sessions based on designated time intervals in order to accurately discover and describe each usage session. During the process of collecting usage data, we recorded all of the users’ actions, i.e., accessing a service or function, and then clustered these actions into sessions based on time intervals. Figure 7 illustrates an example of a session.
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Fig. 4 Daily user and session usage data.
2. Examples of Some Usage Patterns Through User Session Observations
After clustering all usage data into user sessions, we observed several diVerent usage patterns from user session collections: Pattern 1 ‘‘DiVerentiating and extracting’’: This type of session is observed as focused and systematic browsing on a special object or target. During these sessions, users usually visited a short list of selected sites. There was little bookmarking and more designated and pre-built query searching. The sessions typically lasted more than 40 minutes on average and have the shortest seeking duration between clicks (0.5–2 min.) and the largest number of clicks per session (>¼ 30). We consider these to be ‘‘diVerentiating and extracting’’ sessions. A typical example is displayed in Table I.
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Fig. 5 Users’ menu configuration usage data.
Fig. 6 Users’ content box usage data.
Pattern 2 ‘‘Gathering and collecting’’: This type of session is observed as predictive and general purposeful seeking, which is less definitive and systematic. In this pattern, the session involved bookmarking and browsing newly found sites as well as selected Web sites and a lot of generic
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Fig. 7 Example of a user session determined by clustering action into a time interval.
searching. Users changed their queries often and accessed a broad range of subjects; each session typically lasted between 20 to 40 minutes and had a medium number of clicks and moderate browsing time (more than 3 minutes and less than 9 minutes) between clicks. The sessions had an average number of clicks (15–30). We consider these sessions to be ‘‘gathering and collecting’’ sessions. An example of such a session is displayed in Table II. Pattern 3 ‘‘Keeping up awareness’’: This type of session is observed as unfocused and scattered information-seeking. In this category, the session included all seeking modes during which users mostly browsed e-journals (TOC), current health news coverage and other selected (pre-defined) Web sites; sessions had some searching actions; the subject areas accessed were broad. Each session lasted typically less than 20 minutes in duration and had fewer clicks and longer seeking time (less than or equal to 5 minutes) between clicks. The sessions had on average fewer than 15 clicks. We consider these to be ‘‘keeping up awareness’’ sessions. An example of such a session is displayed in Table III. These three types of user session patterns provided a standard base for us to further analyze individual users’ seeking needs. For example, users who have a greater number of clicks in a short period of time likely will be ‘‘glancing’’ and these sessions typically happened when the user was accessing ‘‘News’’ and ‘‘Search’’ services. When users were reading the content from their bookmark’s links, their sessions would have fewer numbers of clicks and had longer duration between clicks; these users’ behaviors were considered ‘‘browsing’’ actions. Such analysis, together with regularly generated statistical reports and user surveys, provided important clues that guided our portal development for new functions and user interfaces throughout the MyWelch project.
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Table I An Example of a Typical ‘‘DiVerentiating and Extracting’’ Session PubMed search MyEresources Personal Link PubMed search PubMed search Personal Link Research Link Research Link Research Link Research Link MyEresources Personal Link MyEresources MyEresources PubMed Search Google Search PubMed Search MyEresources MyEresources MyServices MyServices AskMyLibrarian Personal Links Research Links MyEresources MyEresources Google Search PubMed Search Session 26: 50 minutes
PubMed Biostatistics PubMed Pubmed CDC American Academy of Pediatrics National Survey CSHCN NLM NLM Lexis-nexis NSF Journal of Adult Development Journal of Aging and Health PubMed Google Search PubMed Critical Reviews in Diagnostic Imaging Annals of Internal Medicine Calendar Library Borrower account COMERCIO CRE Archives of Internal Medicine Trends in the Well-Being of America’s Children and Youth, c2001 Google Search PubMed
11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003
03:15 03:19 03:20 03:23 03:24 03:25 03:29
PM PM PM PM PM PM PM
11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003
03:32 03:35 03:37 03:39 03:43 03:45 03:47 03:48 03:48 03:49 03:50
PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM
11-JAN-2003 03:52 PM 11-JAN-2003 03:53 PM 11-JAN-2003 03:54 PM 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003 11-JAN-2003
03:55 03:57 03:58 03:59 04:00
PM PM PM PM PM
11-JAN-2003 04:03 PM 11-JAN-2003 04:05 PM
D. Continue Adjustment and Development
Six major adjustments were made to MyWelch based on results of gathering user feedback and analysis of user behavior patterns undertaken through the project’s assessment process. These include improvements for users to login, to find their favorite links, to communicate with
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Table II An Example of a Typical ‘‘Gathering and Collecting’’ Session MyEresources PubMed Search Google Search MyEresources MyEresources Personal Link MyEresources MyEresources MyEresources MyEresources Personal Link News-NIH Session 29: 39 minutes
Molecular Diagnosis PubMed Google Search Physical Therapy in Sport American Journal of Contact Dermatitis COMERCIO JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association New England Journal of Medicine Archives of Internal Medicine Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology Radiounica Foreign Investigator Grants
04-DEC-2002 04-DEC-2002 04-DEC-2002 04-DEC-2002 04-DEC-2002
09:17:00 09:19:00 09:22:00 09:26:00 09:29:00
AM AM AM AM AM
04-DEC-2002 09:33:00 AM 04-DEC-2002 09:37:00 AM 04-DEC-2002 09:38:00 AM 04-DEC-2002 09:43:00 AM 04-DEC-2002 09:46:00 AM 04-DEC-2002 09:50:00 AM 04-DEC-2002 09:56:00 AM
Table III An Example of a Typical ‘‘Keeping up Awareness’’ Session News MyEresources MyProfile Ejournals (TOC) Alert Session 12: 20 minutes
CNN news Journal of Clinical Investigation Customization New England Journal of Medicine Journal category
08-DEC-2002 07:28 PM 08-DEC-2002 07:33 PM 08-DEC-2002 07:40 PM 08-DEC-2002 07:43PM 08-DEC-2002 07:48 PM
colleagues, to select electronic journals of interest, and to link to PubMed easily. The development of each adjustment to the portal design will be discussed in detail below: Cookie login. After the launch of MyWelch, many users put the MyWelch screen as their initial home page on their browsers. We also learned that this group of users wanted access to MyWelch without having to login every
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time they want to access it. To accommodate this need, we developed a ‘‘cookie mode’’ that users wound not need to login every time they accessed the application i.e., with this connecting mode, when their browsers point to the MyWelch, the system activates communication between the user’s cookie on the client side and system variables on the server side to complete the user authentication processes. We asked this mode be only used on users’ individual desktops or laptops and all cookie variables are encrypted and have limited life time on users’ desktop and laptops. Function/Contents box minimization and selection/de-selection. MyWelch has numerous features that users accessed with varying frequencies. In order to streamline users’ information-seeking process, we developed a configuration option that allows users to minimize or deselect function/content boxes they do not use. After configuring their accounts with this option, once users login their MyWelch accounts, their favorite content/function boxes would appear on the top or in significant positions on the screen to use easily, whereas, other boxes would be minimized or behind the screen. Most frequently used links. We have developed a server feature in MyWelch called ‘‘My 5 most accessed’’ to store the user’s five most accessed links, enabling the user to get to the resources they most need as quickly as possible. Deletion of information forum function. We created an online forum to foster scholarly communication among members of the Johns Hopkins Medical Institution community. However, we found that only a handful of people used the forum. Therefore, we decided to disable the function until we could further refine it into a more desirable format. In the future, for example, we may oVer a service that allows users to create their own subject-specific forums to discuss various issues related to academic and campus activities. Modification and enhancement of electronic resource selection process. The number of electronic resources available in academic libraries has increased substantially over the past several years, making it more challenging for librarians and library patrons to find resources most relevant to their research or professional areas of interest. MyWelch attempts to help by mapping users’ areas of expertise to subject headings and then further mapping these subject headings to individual electronic resources. After studying the usage statistics, we found that the mappings were too broad and led to too many resource selections since many electronic resources cover a wide range of subjects. Users still had diYculties narrowing down their electronic resource selections. So we then developed several strategies that complement the subject-mapping approach, for example, displaying a ‘‘journal impact factor’’ which based on citations usage and ranking calculation as a means of providing the
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user with more information for their decision on making electronic resources selection. We also developed a feature called ‘‘peer usage’’ that identifies the ten most-used electronic resources by the faculty and staV from within a user’s department so a user has an even better frame of reference when selecting electronic resources. Addition of PubMed automated search. Examining MyWelch’s usage statistics, we found that PubMed was one of the primary search interfaces used on the first click action. How we could help users optimize or automate their regular search tasks became an interesting challenge. We created a service called ‘‘MyInterests’’ that searches PubMed automatically based on users’ configurations of subject interests. When a user logs into MyWelch, through a special program that connect to PubMed databases, a list of updated articles appear on his/her screen without the user needing to launch the PubMed interface. Further, to provide more flexibility and customization, we have developed an interface so that users can customize their search terms to get their search results automatically.
V. Discussion and Further Thoughts The idea emerged in 1999 and thus the history of library portal technology has been only five years old. However, librarians and information professionals have already recognized its importance both to empower users and potentially to leverage library service to a new level in the Internet Web world. Current implementation and practices from many universities and academic organizations have already shown that the library portal holds the promise to alleviative information overflowing and overloading with help from librarians and information professionals. Meanwhile, there have been many issues that need to be addressed to further push this technology forward. Our experience with MyWelch has been one of those strong cases, which indicate both promises and issues that remain to be solved. A. Privacy Issue
Library portals provide great benefits for users to be able to personalize their own frequently accessed resources, services and tools, that is better information organization, convenient service requesting, and eYcient working productivities. However, less privacy would be oVered because portal systems and their associated databases have to ‘‘remember’’ what they would like to have on their portal home page. Further, librarians and information professionals would collect and analyze usage data in order to better serve users’ needs. The librarian and
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information professional has a new challenge to face: how to preserve users’ information privacy while providing personalization for their information-seeking practice. In MyWelch, we have made users aware of this issue at the beginning when they start to use the system; the initial login screen of MyWelch presents the library’s privacy policy that states the library will collect and analyze statistics on resource usage so that the library can improve MyWelch for our users. We also warn that we may share aggregate data with others, we never identify individual users. Indeed during our practice in MyWelch portal development and service, each user account is assigned a generic system number as its name. All users’ activities and accesses are being recorded under their system account names during either the regular usage data collection or specific data analysis process. Our data analysis does not particularly target specific user accounts, rather, it focuses on specific users groups to understand their specific needs, for example, researchers with certain common interest areas, students with a specific graduation year, or clinicians who would like to get a quick glance of recent updates. B. Building User Community
During the development stage, interacting with the user community to learn and understand how users perform their daily information-seeking and management is crucial to the success of a portal system. What is more important and challenging to librarians and information professionals is how to maintain the relationship with the user community throughout regular operations and make users feel they are the important stakeholders and key players to make systems useful and successful. This requires keeping communication channels open and responding to users’ questions quickly. MyWelch has an ‘‘ask MyLibrarian’’ function and several particular mailing lists, which target frequent user and less-frequent users groups. We also plan to integrate virtual chat and co-browsing functions to foster communication among users and librarians. C. Linking Library Portal to Integrated Library System (ILS) and Campus Portal
In recent years, building university campus portal systems have become important IT projects in many universities. Usually, these campus systems include functions that relate to campus news, calendars, student registration, courses selection and grade reporting, financial aid, e-mail, and other customizable Web sites. Library portals and integrated library system (ILS) are important campus resources for study, teaching and researching.
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Integrating these into campus portal systems would potentially make the library portal more accessible to users and increase usage statistics. A challenge librarians may face would be how a library portal could bring important functions from an ILS, such as circulation, document delivery, and Inter-Library loan into the portal system, and further be smoothly integrated into a university campus portal. Librarians need to motivate and educate and work with ILS vendors to develop appropriate open system architecture for portal integration. In linking to campus portals, library portal developers could take advantage of university IT resources and applications e.g., university directory service for single sign-on, university network security protection, and proxy systems for remote access; but they also wish to ensure the independence of library portals in so far as users’ needs and behavior could be understood and analyzed, and their voice not be submerged among other university applications. D. Next Step: From Information Portal to Knowledge Portal
While initial goals for building library portal systems are to empower users with personalization and customization capability and to increase their information-seeking and management productivity, the next step will be to build mechanisms that foster information sharing and users communication toward building knowledge discovery and management. Detlor (2004) defined three diVerent areas that comprise knowledge portal systems i.e., a content space to facilitate information access and retrieval; a communication space to support the negotiation of collective interpretations and shared meanings; and a coordination space to support cooperative work action and work processes. Although there are still tasks that need to be completed and issues that need to be addressed toward building such a knowledge portal, current library portals from diVerent universities and organizations, with their upper-level campus portals, already possess some features of these spaces and their associated functions to a certain degree. For example, a meta-search function and a Web-based storage area do provide functions within a content space; Ask MyLibrarian and virtual referencing functions that provide users with a reference service in a synchronized or asynchronized way as well as interest or subject-based user bulletin board discussions within a library portal do provide communication space and channels that facilitate interaction and communication among portal users; the purpose of creating a coordination space is to coordinate work processes and information needs from diVerent organizations and departments, which seems more appropriate at campus portal level.
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As we can foresee when users use their browsers to connect to library portals to start their daily information-seeking, knowledge base building, and helping to create and share new knowledge with colleagues, these activities would greatly leverage the existing patterns of learning, information dissemination, knowledge acquisition, and research, and therefore, help to move forward the academic advancement and organizational transformation. References Association of Research Libraries (2004). The current state of portal applications in ARL Libraries. Available at: http://www.arl.org/access/scholarsportal/SPupdateMay04.html Bracke, P. (2004). Web usage mining at an academic health sciences library: An exploratory study. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 92(4), 421–428. Choo, C. W., Detlor, B., and Turnbull, D. (2000). Information seeking on the Web: An integrated model of browsing and searching. Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science, 31 October–4 November, pp. 3–16. Washington, DC. Cohen, S., Fereira, J., Horne, A., Kibbee, B., Mistlebauer, H., and Smith, A. (2000). MyLibrary—Personalized electronic services in the Cornell University Library. DLib Magazine 6(4). Detlor, B. (2004). Towards knowledge portal: From human issues to intelligent agents. pp. 11–15. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Ghaphery, J., and Ream, D. (2000). VCU’s My Library: Librarians love it... users? Well maybe. Information Technology and Libraries 19(4). Ghaphery, J. (2002). My library at Virginia Commonwealth University third year evaluation. D-Lib Magazine 8(7/8). Huberman, B. A., Pirolli, P. L., Pitkow, J. E., and Lukose, R. M. (1998). Strong regularities in World Wide Web surfing. Science 280(5360), 95–97. Ketchell, D. (2000). Too many channels: Making sense out of portals and personalization. Information Technology and Libraries 19(4). Lakos, A., and Gray, C. (2000). Personalized library portals as organizational culture change agent. Information Technology and Libraries 19(4). Lakos, A. (2004). Portal Vision. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 31(1), 8–9. McDonald, R. (2004). An Environmental landscape. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 31(1), 10–11. Maloney, K. (2004). Library technology and planning for change. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 31(1), 12–14. Morgan, E. (2000). The challenges of user-centered, customizable interface to library resources. Information Technology and Libraries 19(4), 1–4. Tao, F., and Mutagh, F. (2000). Towards Knowledge Discovery from WWW Log Data. In The International Conference on Information Technology: Coding and Computing (ITCC’00) , 302. Thomas, S. (2000). Abundance, attention, and access: Of portals and catalogs. ARL Bimonthly Report, 212. Available at: http://www.arl.org/newsltr/212/portal.html
Index
American Center for Information Resources (ACIR) 123 American Library Association (ALA) Reference and Users Services Association (RUSA) 151 Answers Now 137 AskNow 137 Association of Independent Information Professionals (AIIP) 189, 191, 204, 217–219, 221–222 Bibliographic Enrichment Advisory Team (BEAT) 150 Bureaus of International Information Programs and of Educational and Cultural AVairs 102 Collaborative Digital Reference Service (CDRS) 136, 160 Connecting Libraries and Schools Project (CLASP) 88 Cookiemode 264 Customized library 251 Digital Library Federation and Outsell, Inc. survey 226 Digital Library Project, CUIP3 84–85 Digital Reference Education Initiative (DREI) 151
eCUIP 84–85, 90–91 Electronic Access to Reference Service (EARS) 134 Environmental scanning 3 Everyday life information-seeking (ELIS) 6 Family Learning Connection (FLC) 86 Google 142–143, 147, 149 Health SmartLibrary 252 Image delivery system scope 230 Image source search engine 228 Image user academic uses 235–238 faculty profile 228 obstacles/motivations 231–233 search process 233–234 Image user studies checklist 225 problems 225, 239–241 Improving Literacy Through School Libraries Program 91 Info-entrepreneurs client interview 214 marketing skills 209–212 pricing issues 207–209 ten mistakes 204–207 Information browsing 3 Information encountering 3, 17
270 Information foraging 3 Information landscape 155 Information literacy 40–43, 46–47 Information needs 4, 6–7 Information practices 2 Information provider anytime, anywhere answers 178, 181 core competencies 172 going virtual 175 library fellow program 106 reference librarians 22–26 reference services 20, 22 VET 180–182 virtual reference 101, 175 weekly training schedule 173 Information providers 1–2 Information reference services digital 34 electronic 34–36 internet 34–35, 48–53 See also telephone reference Information Resource Center (IRC) Abu Dhabi 125 Beijing 115–116 Bogota 126 Brussels 119 Buenos Aires 128 Freetown 110 Jakarta 116 Kinshasa 112 Lome 113 Moscow 121 Nairobi 114 Pretoria 115 Rome 122 Santo Domingo 128 Seoul 118 Tbilisi 122 Warsaw 123 mission statement 107 Information retrieval technologies 39 Information Search Process (ISP) 5 Information sharing 1 Information use 4
Index
Information-seeker 2, 6–7, 13, 20, 23–24, 26–29, 37, 51 characteristics 24 Information-seeking 1–7, 10, 13, 15, 18–21, 23–25, 27–28, 33, 36–39, 41, 45, 52–56, 61, 138–139, 150, 224, 247, 252–255, 257–261, 264, 266–268 definition 2–3 methods 21, 44 research and practice 3 six general principles 5 Information-seeking behavior 1, 253 adults 37–38 children 36–37, 39 young adults 36–37, 39 InfoZone 87 Instant Messaging (IM) 140 Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) 151, 160 Integrated library systems (ILS) 248, 250 International Children’s Digital Library ICDL 82–83 International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) 151 Internet 137–138, 247 Internet Public Library 151 ISP model 5 Law of surfing 253 LDAP system 254, 257 Librarian 60–62 Librarians’ Index to the Internet (LII, or lii.org) 176 Library and information studies (LIS) 3 Library of Congress (LC) 160 Library portal application features 250 Library portal concept and technologies 247 challenges 248–249 definitions and functions 249
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Library portal service 247 major services 252 Library portals integration to campus portals and ILS 266 privacy issues 265 relationship with user community 266 transformation to knowledge portals 267 Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA) 86 Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA) 160–161, 164, 168, 178, 183–186 Library uses 13 Library, physical facilities checklist 55–56 Listservs 134, 143, 145, 152 Metropolitan Cooperative Library System (MCLS) 136 Museum Educational Site Licensing Project (MESL) 223 MyLibrary 247–249, 251, 254 service features 251 MyWelch 253. See also Welch portal library MyYahoo 248 Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) 136, 146–147 Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC or WebPAC) 43–47, 69, 111 Portal developers, services and functions 250 Portal usage analysis 252 Postcard Survey for Annual Reference Inventory 163 Preparing Librarians for Urban Schools (PLUS) 78–79, 90 Public librarians. See Information providers Public library 1–3, 6–11
Public Library Association (PLA) 7 Public library services 10 Public library user behavior 8–9, 14–15 browsing 16 Public Urban Library Service Education (PULSE) 78–79, 90 QuestionPoint 136–137 QuestionPoint Washington group (QPWA) 170–171, 176 Readers’ advisory 16, 22, 31–33, 52–53 Real Simple Syndication (RSS) 146 Reference interview 17, 19, 22–23, 25, 27–31, 34, 36, 141–142, 151, 172–173, 215 Reference librarian 4, 20, 22–29, 34, 41, 52, 137, 140, 149–150, 218, 255 School of Information Studies at Syracuse University 151 Self-help philosophy. See self-help principle Self-help principle 17, 21 Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals 200 State Library of Ohio 86 Subscription service 1 TalkBack Project 135 Technological advances DVD 1 electronic books 1 internet 1 Telephone reference 33–34 United States Information Service (USIS) 100, 104–110, 112, 114–115, 117–118, 121–123, 126, 128–129 Urban children risk factors 76 strategy for better library facilities 77
272 Urban Libraries Council (ULC) 85–86 Urban youth positive work of public libraries 85 Use of Digital Resources in Humanities and Social Sciences Undergraduate Education (UDR) 224–225 User studies 4 User-centric principles ease of use 254 value-added information 255 Virtual Reference (VR) service 159–160, 162–163, 166–167, 169–172, 174, 176–179
Index
Virtual Reference Desk, (VRD) 134 Conference 161 Visual Image User Study (VIUS) 224, 226–227, 236–237 Visual Information Seeking Oriented Research (VISOR) 224 VRS Grant Project Libraries Collaboration Questionnaire 166 Wally 176–177 Washington State Library (WSL) 160 Washington’s Statewide Virtual Reference (VRS) Project 159 Welch portal library data collection and tracking 255 data observation 257 design and development 253, 263
