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Abkhaz A Comprehensive Self-Tutor
George Hewitt
2010 LINCOM EUROPA
Published by LINCOM GmbH 2010.
LINCOM GmbH Gmunderstr. 35 D-81379 Muenchen
[email protected] www.lincom-europa.com webshop: lincom.eu All rights reserved, including the rights of translation into any foreign language. No part of this book may be reproduced in any way without the permission of the publisher. Printed in E.C. Printed on chlorine-free paper Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-Publication-Data A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek (http://www.ddb.de)
Cover photographs by the author. Front cover (bottom to top): The famous Besletka Bridge, located a short drive inland just to the south of the capital, Sukhum. Typical village-view. Here we see a maize-store framed against the mountains in a homestead in Durypsh in northern Abkhazia. Top of the 19th-century Russian Orthodox monastery at New Athos, located a 20-minute drive along the main highway to the north of Sukhum. Back cover: View towards the mountains from the bridge bringing traffic along the main highway into Sukhum.
Ари сышәкәы зхәыҷқәа аҧсуа бызшоа дзырҵо аҭаацза зегьы ирзыскуеит
Contents INTRODUCTION
9
Gco-linguistic Position
9
Phonology
9
Stress
14
History o f the Study o f the Abkhaz and its Scripts
16
Spelling-conventions
20
An Alternative Script
23
Acknowledgements and Recommended Reading
24
References
25
LESSON 1
29
The singular and plural forms o f nouns Cardinal numerals Noun-Adjective combinations Number-marking within the NP LESSON 2
40
The person pronouns The marking o f possession Postpositions and postpositional phrases Ordinals Temporal expressions Adjectives which stand before their nouns Quantifiers How to say 'full o f X' How to coordinate nouns/noun-phrases The days o f the week and other expression o f time LESSON 3 The markers for the subject o f intransitive verbs Monovalent Stative verbs in the Present tense The markers for the indirect object o f verbs Bivalent Stative verbs in the Present tense The negative form o f Stative verbs in the Present tense
50
The Present tense (affirmative and negative) o f the idcntity-copula LESSON 4
61
The formation o f Yes-No questions for Stative verbs in the Present The formation WH-questions for Stative verbs in the Present The formation o f tag-questions fo r Stative verbs in the Present The formation o f alternative questions for Stative verbs in the Present The formation o f relative expressions LESSON 5
75
The formation o f other WH-questions with Stative verbs in the Present The formation o f subordinate expressions o f Time, Place, Manner, Reason Telling the time The use o f the Adverbial case in question-formation The formation o f the Past tense (finite and non-finite, affirmative and negative) o f Stative verbs The formation o f relative expressions and questions in the Past tense o f Stative verbs LESSON
6
87
Present tense o f Dynamic verbs (finite and non-flnite, affirmative and negative) The formation o f relative forms based on the Present o f Dynamic verbs How to state the time 'at which' Agent-marking with transitive verbs (and the marking o f their direct objects) Detransitivisation-processes The formation o f reflexives How to form questions on reflexives The formation o f the verbal noun (Masdar) and o f abstract nouns How to express the notion 'manner o f VERBing' LESSON 7 How to form the Simple Past (or Aorist) o f Dynamic verbs (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) Relative forms based on the Aorist How to form the Past Indefinite o f Dynamic verbs (affirmative and negative,
99
finite and non-finite) How to form questions on both the Aorist and Past Indefinite How to form the Past Absolute (affirmative and negative) o f Dynamic verbs How to form the Absolute (affirmative and negative) o f Stative verbs Expressions for 'alone'; 'by oneself; 'oneself as Emphatic; 'by oneself; 'in person'; 'each separately' The morphology and syntax o f the comparative and superlative grades o f adjectives Equativc expressions Adverb-formation LESSON
8
110
The Imperfect tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) o f Dynamic verbs Relative forms based on the Imperfect How to form questions on the Imperfect Preverbs The function o f the a-grade vs the zero/reduced grade Root-extensions The morphology and associated syntax o f the verbs meaning 'begin' and 'finish' LESSON 9
125
The incorporation within the verb-form o f the Instrumental and Benefactive postpositions Other Relational Particles within verb-forms Adjective and nouns amalgamated with the verb-roots: -шьа-,-тә(ы)-, -xaPseudo-passives Stative passives Potential verb-forms How to express involuntary, accidental actions How to form Imperatives and Prohibitions LESSON 10 The Future I tense (affirmative and negative, finit and non-finite) o f Dynamic verbs
137
Relative forms based on the Future F The Future Absolute Questions (including Deliberative Questions) based on the Future 1 The Future I tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) o f Stative verbs Exhortations The Iterative suffix Protasis-formation and future conditions Present conditions for both Stative and Dynamic verbs Other functions o f protasis-forms: interrogative; dcbilive; complement to 'want'; possibility; permission; colloquialism for 'why not?' LESSON I I
148
The Perfect tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) o f Dynamic verbs The non-finite Perfect form o f Stative verbs Relatives formed on the Perfect Conjoining verbs for the meanings: 'both...and'; 'either...or'; 'neither...nor' The formation o f Causative verb-forms and the associated syntax The Stative passive o f Causative verbs The Resultative converb The formation o f Reciprocals in intransitive and transitive verbs LESSON 12 The Pluperfect tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) Relatives based on the Pluperfect The Future II tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) Relatives based on the Future II The Conditional I tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) Relatives based on the Conditional I The Conditional II tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) Relatives based on the Conditional II The formation o f past and unreal conditions Some other combinations with protasis-forms Interrogative and subordinate formations for the four tenses introduced in this lesson
162
LESSON 13
176
The formation and function o f the Subjunctive mood The construction for the remaining conditions The formation and function o f the Optative mood The formation and function o f the Evidential mood
LESSON 14
188
Subordinate expressions for the meanings: 'when'; 'after'; 'where/whithcr/whence'; 'how/as/like1; 'as soon as'; 'while'; 'until'; 'before'; 'since the time'; 'the reason why' Questions and exclamations o f the type 'what kind of?!' How to say 'ct cetera'
LESSON 15
202
Expressions o f Cause Remaining Absolutes How to say 'as if, as though' The Construction for Direct Speech How to make Indirect Statements Noun-complement ('that'-type) expressions
LESSON 16
217
Expressions o f Fear The formation o f the Purposive converb The Purposive Converb (in the role o f Complement) The Purposive Converb (to express an Indirect Command) The Purposive Converb (to express a Purposive) Other expressions o f Purpose How to say 'almost' How to express Results The temporal expression 'being on the point of...' LESSON 17 How to say 'Every time that' How to say 'Coinciding with'
233
How to say 'about/concerning' How to form Conccssive expressions How to form the equivalent o f Clausal Comparatives How to form Equative expressions How to say 'the more...the more' How to say 'let alone/far from' The element Заҵа Special uses o f the identity copula How to compose a letter LESSON 18
249
Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite Expressions Indefinite Adverbs How to say 'in case' How to say 'have no option but to' How to produce Echo Questions The suffixes -шьа-,-(р)ҭа/ҭра-,-ха-
LESSON 19
265
Remaining affixes: (a) Nominal; (b) Verbal; (c) Adverbial A final colloquialism LESSON 20
283
Texts (with vocabularies) APPENDIX
299
G R A M M A T IC A L SU M M AR Y
302
KEY TO THE EXERCISES
311
Introduction Geo-linguistic Position The North-West Caucasian language-family consists o f the three branches: Circassian, Ubykh, and Abkhaz. The family lakes its name from Ihe geographical spread o f its members across their historical homeland. In the wake o f Russia's completion o f its acquisition o f the North Caucasus in 1864, mass populalionmovemenis saw all the Ubykhs and most o f both the Circassians and Abkhazians abandon the Caucasus for life in diaspora-coinmunilies localcd in various parts o f Ihe Ottoman Empire but concenlraled in (what is today's) Turkey. Prior to that dale, ihe distribution o f Ihese peoples was as follows: speakers o f the Abkhaz dialects were localcd in the triangular pocket o f land in north-west Transcaucasia that is known to the world as Abkhazia, which, following its war with Georgia (14 August 1992 to 30 September 1993), became a de facto independent stale, achieving de iure recognition from Russia (and then Nicaragua) on 26 August 2008. The Republic o f Abkhazia is bounded by: the River Ingur, which separates it from Georgia's province o f Mingrelia; the Great Caucasus mounlain-range; and the Black Sea. Two dialects, T ’ ap’anta and Ashkharywa, traditionally described as sub-dialecls o f Abaza, were/are spoken across the Klukhor Pass in the geographical North Caucasus where their ancestors settled in what is today Karachay-Cherkcssia (Russian Federation) via waves o f migration out o f Abkhazia from ihe 141*1 to the 181^ cenlury. The Ubykhs, numerically always Ihe smallest o f the three spccch-communitics, occupied a small strip o f territory situated around the modern-day Russian city o f Sochi between ihe valleys o f the Bu and Hamish rivers. To the north o f ihe Ubykhs, the Circassian dialecl-groups slretchcd from the Black Sea and Kuban basin along (he foothills o f the mountains as far as the Ossetian-speaking areas in the central North Caucasus. Phonology A ll members o f the family are characterised by large inventories o f consonantal phonemes and correspondingly small numbers o f vowels. A ll Caucasian languages possess voiceless ejective consonants, where the basic buccal articulation (viz. Ihe movement o f the specch-organs in the mouth) is accompanied by a closure and opening o f the glottis (or vocal cords), which in isolation produces a glottal stop. Secondary features o f palatalisation (or the addition o f a palatal glide, viz. y-sound, lo the basic plain consonsant) and labialisation (or some accompanying movement o f (he lips) are also typical for North-West Caucasian. The lowest number o f consonantal phonemes in (his family is found in the East Circassian Kabardian dialect, whilst Ubykh boasted 80 (possibly 83, depending on one's analysis). The literary dialect o f Abkhaz (Abzhywa), based on the Abkhaz spoken from the capital Aqw ’ a (more widely known as Sukhum) south-eastwards down to the linguistic frontier with
9
Mingrclian (a sister-language Lo South Caucasian Georgian), has the following 58 (possibly 59) consonants:
The 58 (?59) Consonantal Phonemes of Literary Abkhaz (Abzhywa Dialect) Bilabial:
b
P
d
t
d°
t°
f to
dz
ts
ts'
P' i
V
s
2
J
3
J°
3°
§
\
q’
X
И
qj’
xJ
ui
qO-
x°
Labio-dental: Alveolar:
Alveolo-palatal:
d j°
lc °
Ц:0'
Palato-alveolar:
d3
tj
tr
Retroflex:
4A
t§
Velar:
9
k
t§’ k'
9<
k)
ki'
9°
K°
k°'
Uvular:
h
Pharyngal:
h° [Laryngal
?l
O f the original dialects spoken across the territory o f Abkhazia only one other, n o rth western) Bzyp, still survives in the historical homeland. Bzyp extends Abzhywa's system to 67 (or 6 8 ) firstly by fillin g out the alveolo-palatal series with /tp d* tc' c * c° г°/, which arc sounds produced between the alveolar ridge (as in English s and z) and the palate (as for English sh and its voiced counterpart heard in the middle o f the word vision)-, and then it also has (wo additional back fricatives, which, i f the basic complement are correctly classified as uvular (= sounds produced against the soft palate at the back o f Ihe mouth), must be pharyngalised uvulars /х' X'0^ which is lo say uvulars with an additional constriction in the throat. Diagrams o f x-rays made o f the articulations o f a range o f interesting consonants arc available in Bgazhba 1964:71 -92, or pp.
8 6 -110
in the 2006 reprint).
/ц/, the pronunciation o f which resembles that o f the first component o f French
huit '8 ', derives from Л0/ [S4J, preserved in the most divergent o f the Abkhaz-Abaza *1 normally coll these last six fricatives 'back fricatives', as their articulation lends lo shifl between more velar and more uvular depending on Ihe phonetic environment
10
dialects. T ’ap’anta, and lor some speakers a relic o f this origin is a perceptible conslriclion o f (he pharynx during its articulation. The phonological feature o f labialisation has a variety ol' phonetic realisations: with vclars/uvulars it is simple lip-rounding; lor (he alveolar plosives it is rather a case o f double articulations with lip-trilling [fp db fp’] — speakers without labialisation in this series, something which is rather typical o f the speech o f Turkish Abkhazians, produce straight alvcolars; the labialised pharyngal fricative is articulated f Г1ЧI; Cat ford (1972.680; 1977.190-191) has suggested that the two palato-alveolar fricatives be treated as co-articulated bilabio-palatal fricatives and thus be represented as [$$ 0 j] or [i)a 4 .1] rather than [JM 3 W|; the alveolo-palatals require labiodentalisation with (usually) the right side o f the lower lip brought in contact with the upper teeth lo give [fpf d jv tcf']. The glottal slop |?I occurs as an allophonic variant fo r/q ’/ intervocalically, but, as Chirikba observes (1996.15), it is also heard in |?aj] ’no' (cf. [a:j] 'yes'), where /q'/ is never found. And so, if the glottal stop is lo be included in the overall inventory, this would raise the total for Abzhywa to 59. Some speakers have the idiosyncrasy o f replacing the |p’) in the single lexeme /a’p’a/ 'thin' with an otherwise unencountered [Г]. The relroflexes are articulated with the tongue-lip curlcd slightly backwards, whilst the pharyngals arc produced in the throat, lower than the uvulars and higher lhan the larynx, which is where English produces its laryngal h. Most analysts operate with two (possibly three) vocalic phonemes in each o f the family's languages, the most radical proposal being lh a to f Kuipers (1960.104), who argued for 'the absence o f an opposition consonant-vowel' in Kabardian. For Abkhaz we have the open vowel Id and the close vowel /a/; there is also a lengthened (or double-mora = two-beal) open vowel, most (but not all) instantiations o f which derive elymologically from older sequences o f either voiced pharyngal fricative plus open vowel
or the reverse sequence *04, bolli o f which are actually preserved in
T ’ap’anta Abaza. The distinction can be demonstrated by comparing the Abkhaz root /a:j/ 'come', which derives from ♦la j, as seen in T ’ ap’ anta faj, with the verb-form [da:'be:t’] 'we saw you-MASC', which derives from */da.
II
articulated and heard. As an example o f a long open vowel which cannot be so derived, consider the root /-maat/ 'rouble' from Mingrelian /manatil 'rouble'. It might be concluded from (he last example that a long vowel w ill result, whenever two open vowels stand side by side. This is, in fact, not so, for, in such cases, one o f the open vowels is lost, or, to put it another way, the two vowels merge wilh no further consequences. Consider what happens when the definite-generic article la-1 is prefixed (o a root beginning with the open vowel: the root for 'mother' is /-an/, as can be seen in /s.an/ 'my mother', whereas '(the) mother' is pronounced [an|, which is the phonetic realisation o f the morphological sequence /а.аЫ (for comparison cf. /,S3.mat°a/ 'my clothing’ vs /’amat°a/ '(the) clothing'). In similar fashion, a sequence o f two long open vowels reduces to a single long open vowel. For example, the notion 'come down' is expressed by /Ibaa/. The Subjunctive suffix is /-aa(j)t’/. I f one combines them for the expression 'Let him/her come down!', one hears [dal'baa(j)t’] (from /de.fbaa.aa(j)t'/), which is homophonous with Ihe Simple Past '(S)Hc came down', representing the morphological structure /ds.l'baa.Qt’/-1. What about the sequences /da.h’ga.jt’/ and /d.aa.h.'ga.jt'/7 According to the rules, both should produce the same phonetic sequence [daa'ge:t’|, even though the former means 'we look him/her', whereas the lalter means 'we brought him/her'4. This phonetic sequence is attested with both meanings, but, in order to avoid the ambiguity, the latter notion is more likely to be expressed by the phonetic sequence [daah'ge:t’|, whilst [dah'ge:t’l lends to be used for the former meaning. And so, in these instances, the basic voicing rule is ignored. As already seen in passing, the sequence o f open vowel I d plus /j/ produces [e:], but note [d 3 gpajjx'tc*a0 je:J from /da.g.baja.X-'te°a3°a.j/ 'how did (s)he speak about him?', where the open vowel remains unchanged. On the other hand, the sequence o f open vowel I d plus M usually produces [o:J, as in the second o f the following pair o f examples: | ji'salh4e:t'] (from /ja's.a.l.fPa.jt’/) 'She said il/lhem to me' vs [ji'so:h4e:t‘] (from /je.'s,a.w.h0 a.jt’/) 'You-MASC said it/them to me'; but both [awp'] and [o:p’] are possible as realisations o f /aa.w.p'/ 'it is it'; also, we have fjiq'awts’e:] from /'je.q’a.w.ts’a j/ 'what did you-MASC do?'.
■^Note Ihe form (<1а :/а {|)|’] 'Lei him/her come', which derives from the root -o:)-. Bui whal happens if one wishes to form Ihe Subjunctive for the parallel root -a:-? The form is |dafa:f jOt’], where the root seems to he transformed into -aj-. For a sequence containing this last form see Ihe final text in Lesson 20. 4 In the history o f English, the Old Bnglish verbs lettan 'hinder1and leetan 'allow' fell together lo give lei. The result was thal 'let' has ceased lo convey the former meaning other than in the two contexts o f (i) the phrase 'without let or hindrance' and (ii) the call 'let' from Ihe net-judge (or, these days, the umpire) in tennis to indicate that Ihe ball brushed Ihe net during service.
12
The raising o l'/а/ when followed by / / is blocked i f immediately preceded by another Id o r /IV5. Consider: |de:la'ge:t'| from /daj.la.'ga.jl7 '(s)he went сга/.y' vs | hajla'ge:l’| from /fiaj.la.'ga.jt'/ 'we went crazy' or |'ajlagara| from /'a.aj.la.gara/ 'going crazy', where the initial open vowel is the article. However, in the case o f the postposition /-aj.pg/ (cf. |se:pg| from /s.aj.p§/ ’like me’), whilst Ihe pharyngal fricative usually provides protection (producing fhajpgj, only rarely | tie:pg|), the prefixation o f
I d does not, with the result that the pronunciation (e:pg] from /a.aj.pg/ 'like it' is universal, though in the script the open vowel is occasionally written. If a noun ends in the open vowel and is followed by an adjective starting with |e:j, the open vowel is elided as the two words merge, as in: [a'le:kwatp*‘a] from la.'la ajk0 a'te°'a/ ’the black dog' (vs |'a(b)le:kwatp,’al from /'a.(b)la ajk°a'tp°’a/ 'the black eye'). The sequence o f close vowel Ы plus /j/ produces [ i:]. On the other hand, the sequence o f close vowel h i plus /w/ is realised as (u:|, as in: [sal'fe:t’| from /sa.L'tajt’/ 'she drove me to distraction (literally: she ale me)’ vs [si:'fe:t'] from /sa j ’ta.jt’/ 'he drove me to distraction' and [su:'fe:t’l from /sa.w.'fa.jt’/ 'you-MASC drove me lo distraction'. In the Unite Aorist (or Simple Past) the /j/ o f the finite suffix /jt’/ and an immediately preceding open vowel arc sometimes dropped, as in: [da'tale.t’] or [da'talt’] from /da'talajt’/ '(s)he entered it'. The sequence /awa/ normally remains unchanged (e.g. /'a.wa/ '(the) relative'; /a'wap a/ '(the) heavy felt-cloak o f a shepherd'; /a.wa'sa/ '(the) sheep'), but, if the /wa/ is the Dynamic suffix (in Dynamic verbs), it merges with a preceding open vowel (irrespective o f whether this belongs to the verbal root or to some other suffix) to produce by a morphophonological rule I d], e.g. [baxftsoz] from /b.axUsa.'wa.z/ 'where you-FEM were going'; ['jiq'alts's] from /'js.q'al.ts’awa/ 'that which she is doing'. This rule is, however, blocked i f the sequence is immediately preceded by the voiceless pharyngal fricative, as in: [ jisaha'we:t'] from /ja.s.a.ha'wajt’/ 'I hear it/them'. Another morphophonological rule causes a 3rd person plural pronominal prefix /г/ in verb-forms to shift to Id in the presence o f the Causative prefix /г/, which itself remains unaltered, e.g. [|lr'be:t'] from /ja.r.'ba.jt’/ ’they saw it/them’ vs [ jisdar’be:t'] from /ja.s.rar.'ba.jt'/ 'They shewed it/them to me = made me see it/them'; [ jiddar'be:t’J from /ja.r.ra.r.'ba.jt'/ They shewed it/them to them'; [jidsar'bert’l from /ja.rsa.r.'ba.jt’/ 'I shewed it/them lo them' or [jidsmar’beit'] from /jar.s.me.r.'bajt'/ 'I did not shew it/them lo them'. We have already mentioned the morphophonological rule that voices voiceless Column III agent-prcfixes when they stand in front o f a verbal root starting with a voiced consonant. That this is not a simple phonological rule can be illustrated by
-’ Note, however, the exclamation [he:t'] 'a call to goals in ihe distance1.
13
pairs such as the following: [sdzax'wan| from /s.dzax 'wa.rV '1 was sewing' vs Ijizdzax'wan] from /ja.s.dzax.'wa.n/ '1 was sewing it/lhcm'. Stress Staling the rules for slress-assignment presents serious problems. Building on work by Dybo (1977), Spruit (1985) published a detailed analysis o f stress-patterning. Having begun by considering 'each word as consisting o f a string o f elements С(ә) or Ca (where C is any consonant)', he noted that 'in addition, there are elements o f a and aa (a being counted a separate element in morpheme-initial position .1 For purposes o f exposition: 'Elements С(ә), Ca (and also the instances o f a, aa just mentioned) are combincdly referred lo "C(a)". In the absence o f a, ihe occurrence o f ә is lo a very large extent predictable. A stressed element C(d) is realized as C& or, in the absence o f a, as Сә.' Spruit then uses a variety o f diagnostic tests which permit him lo conclude lhal 'the large majority o f ihe elements C(a) can be divided into two classcs as regards ihe stress, which we label D for "dominant" and R for "recessive” ...The general rule for the stress is that it falls on the first D in the word not followed by another D' (citations from pp. 31-32). It follows from this dial the definite-generic article la-1 is D and that the nominal root /-la/ 'eye' is R, as Ihe slress-patteming for '(the) eye' is /'ala/ (arising out o f the DR sequence o f elements), whereas the nominal root /-la/ 'dog' is D, as ihe stress-patterning for '(the) dog' is /a'lal (arising out o f the DD sequence o f elements). I f the placcment-rule is relatively simple, the problem resides in determining whether a particular element is classified as D or R. Spruit was able to provide relevant labels for many o f the grammatical morphemes. We have already stated the definitc-gcneric article la-1 lo be D. Other D grammemes include: The suffix l -га/ marking Ihe verbal noun (Masdar), e.g. /a.dz.'ra/ 'baking' (= DDD) vs /'a.dz_ra/ 'getting lost' (= DRD); The agenl-suffix l -цә/ seen in /a ts ’a'^a/ (= DDD); The relative prefix /ja-/ marking intransitive subjects and transitive direct objects, e.g. /’ja.q'a.s.ts’a.z/ 'that which I did', where the initial two elements are DR (cf. the verbal noun /'aq 'a ts'a ra/ 'doing'). On the other hand, the otherwise homophonous non-relative Column 1 prefix is R, being stressless in forms like /jaq’a.s.'ts’a.]t'/ 'I did it/them', cf. /ja.z.'ba.z/ 'who saw it/lhem' (from /aba'ra/ 'seeing' = DDD) vs [’jazbaz] from /'ja.s.ba.z/ 'whom I saw'; The Column III agenl-prcfix for singular non-human entities /(n)a-/ 'it', e.g. from /'a fara/ 'eating' (= DRD) we have /'j.a.fajt’/ 'it ate it/them' (= RDRR) (cf. /ja.s-'fa.jt’/ 'I ate it/them' ( - RRRR), which shews that the other Column III agentprefixes are R); The Column II indirect/oblique object prefixes, e.g. /s .'ra jta jt'/ 'he gave me to them' (= RDRRR):
14
The conjunctional prefixes /апә-/ 'when1, /ga-/ 'how', /a xb-/ 'where', anti /za-/ 'why', e.g. /j.a'na.q'ar.ts’a./ 'when Ihcy did il/lhem'; /ja.’ga.q’a.la.z/ 'how it/they happened' (cf. /'a.q’a. la.ra/ 'happening'); /s.a'xb.b.ba.z/ 'where you-FEM saw me'; /s.'za.b./.wa/ 'why you-FEM are killing me' (from /a.J.'ra/ 'killing' = DDD); The interrogative element /-Ьа/, which attaches lo ihe first three o f the conjunctional prefixes lo form equivalent questions, is (almost!) ALW A YS stressed, e.g. [Jwan'batSD] from /J°.an'ba.tsawa/ 'when are you-PL going?' (from /a.tsa.'ra/ 'going' = DDD); [ba’banxol from /b.axi.’ba.n.xa.wa/ 'where do you-FEM live?' (cf. /a n xa 'ra / 'living'); | Jwag'paq'o:] from /J° 3 .g.'ba.q'a.w/ 'how are youPL?', where wc note that ihe initial voiced bilabial plosive o f ihe interrogative marker has been devoiced by voicing assimilation; BUT note (jigpa'lo:mfiwe:| from /ja.g.ba.'La.w.m.h°a.j/ 'how did you-MASC not say (it/them) lo her?'; The reflexive verbal prefix /t.g/, as in: |l'tg 3 lji:t'| from /l.'tgaLJajtV (= DDRDR) 'she killed herself (cf. [atga'Jhf] from /atg.a'Jajt'/ (= DDDDR) 'it killed itse lf ). Spruit demonstrated (hat some elements seem to alter iheir categorisation depending on context. For example, he mentioned the following: The Causative prefix is D O N LY IF the first element o f its verbal root is D (otherwise il is R), e.g. /а.г.Ьа.'га/ (= DDDD) 'causing to see; shewing' from /a b a W (= DDD) 'seeing'; BUT /'adz.ra/ (= DRD) 'getting lost' AN D /'ar.dz.ra/ (= DRRD) 'losing'; The negative prefix is D O N LY in causative verb-forms, e.g. [ jisam'feit'] from /ja.sa.m.'ta.jt’/ (= RRRRR) 'I did not eat it/them’ vs [das'martcV.t'l from /das.'ma.r.te°a.jt’/ (= RDDRRR) 'I did not gel him/her to go to sleep'. Note, however, that even in the non-causative form fd'mate’e;!’] from /d.'mate0 a.jt’/ (= RDRR) the negative prefix carries the stress and thus would appear to be D here too; The Column III agcnt-prcfixcs arc D O N LY in causative verb-forms, e.g. [jis'fe:t’] from /ja.s.'fa.|t’/ (= RRRR) vs [d'sartpV.t’] from /d.'sar.te°ajt’/ (= RDRRR) 'I got him/her to go lo sleep'; The Column I pronominal prefixes (marking inlransilive subjects and transitive direct objects) are typically R but shift lo D in preverbless causatives, as in: ['darte*ana) from /'da.r.tp°a.na/ (= DRRD) 'having caused him/her to go lo sleep'. Note again, however, that from /’арага/ (= DRD) 'leaping' we find Ihe unexpected paltcm of: ['sape:t’ | from /’sa.pa.jt'/ 'I lept', which is clearly noncausative. Subsequently, Trigo returned to the question and presented a rc-analysis lhal operates wilh three phonological rules, which apply at two separate levels (Ihe word and the compound), further arguing that 'infixalion in Abkhaz triggers the re-application o f phonological rules' (1992.191-2). Sec also Yanagisawa (2005). 15
So that readers w ill know how lo pronounce the Abkhaz words ihcy encounter in this volume, the stressed syllabic is everywhere indicated by highlighting the relevant vowel in bold font, though in this Introduction /'/ is used, as required by 1PA convention. Where words have two stress-patterns, the vowels in both syllables w ill be so marked; i f one o f the highlighted vowels is bracketed, this means that Ihe vowel in question is optionally realised, but, if it is, it alone carries the stress. Sometimes secondary stress is important and is marked by underlining. History o f the Study o f Abkhaz and its Scripts The famous 17th-ceniury Turkish traveller, Evliya Celebi, whose mother was Abkhazian, provides the earliest concrete linguistic evidence for North West Caucasian in his Seyahat-Name (Liber Pcregrinalionis) o f the 1640s, citing examples o f Ubykh (mis-styled Abaza), Circassian and probably (as argued by Chirikba 1996a.56-68) the Sadz dialect o f Abkhaz, still then spoken in Abkhazia. More extensive items o f vocabulary were adduced by Johann Anton Giildenstadt in the description he wrote o f his own travels in the Caucasus between 1770 and 1773. Though Georg Rosen included reference lo Abkhaz in a paper delivered in 1845 on two Kartvelian languages (Svan and Mingrelian) and Abkhaz, the first person lo attempt a full-scale description o f Abkhaz and provide it with a script was the Russian Baron Pjgtr Uslar (1816-1875), whose grammar o f Abkhaz first appeared in lithographic format in 1862; it was printed in 1887, the final 27 pages being devoted to the only scholarly investigation on Ubykh to have been conducted while the Ubykhs still inhabited Ubykhia. Uslar worked with speakers o f the Bzyp dialect. Hardly surprisingly, given the formidable challenges [rased by the language, he failed to distinguish all o f its 67 consonant-phonemes with his Cyrillic-based script o f 55 characters. It was after Uslar's pioneering efforts that the first moves were made to publish works in Abkhaz, and his script underwent a number o f adaptations, the most successful o f which was introduced in 1909 by Andrej Ch’och’ua (1879-1965), who authored a series o f school-primcrs over the years; this version also employed 55 characters and remained in use until 1926. The brilliant but eccentric Georgian-Scot Nikolaj Marr (1865-1934) employed his own staggeringly complex, so-called 'Analytical Alphabet' (with its 75 characters) for his 1926 Abkhaz-Russian dictionary. Although this system was Roman-based, it was not adopted as the oflicial Abkhaz script when in 1928 the Soviet Union, in pursuance o f its Romanisalion-drive ( latinizatsija) for the 'Young Written Languages' (viz. those languages granted literary status by the early Soviets and for which either scripts were first devised or recently devised orthographies received official approval), sanctioned the 'Unified Abkhaz Alphabet' devised by one o f the finest o f all caucasologists, Nikolaj Jakovlev (1892-1974). Until this time (viz. 16
(he late 1920s) most published works had been in Ihe Bzyp dialect (such as the Gospels o f 1912, reprinted with Ch'och’ua's original script in 1975 by the Institute for Bible Translation in Stockholm, and again in a sumptuous, large-formal edition lor use by the Orthodox Church in Abkhazia in 2006; the edition was transcribed into the contemporary script and published in 1998), but partly because most prominent writers o f the day hailed from Abzhywa-speaking areas and also because Abzhywa is phonetically the simpler o f the two varieties surviving in the Abkhazian homeland, from this time Abzhywa has been the basis o f the literary language — see Bgazhba ( 1964) for a description o f Bzyp and Bgazhba ( 1967) for his survey o f the history o f writing in Abkhazia. As the USSR lumcd away from internationalism and concentrated on cultivating homo sovielicus, roman-based scripts were abandoned. Between 1936 and 1938 C yrillic became the base for yet new orthographies for all the Young Written Languages, with two significant exceptions, both within Soviet Georgia. In 1931 Stalin had reduced the status o f Abkhazia lo that o f a mere ASSR (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) within the confines o f his native Georgia, and South Ossetia had been granted the status o f an Autonomous Region therein a decade earlier. In 1938 new Georgian-based orthographies were approved for both Abkhaz and the Ossetic o f South Ossetia (even though C yrillic was introduced for the Ossetic o f North Ossetia, inside Russia). It can be persuasively argued that the Georgian script is the best already established writing-system to serve as base for the representation o f any Caucasian language, but this shift was primarily motivated not by linguistic considerations but in order to underscore Abkhazia's new subservience to Tbilisi. As the repression o f Abkhazian culture intensified under the sustained attempt by Abkhazia-born Mingrelian Lavrcnt’ i Beria (1899-1953) and his successor in Tbilisi, the Svan K ’ and id Chark’ viani, to gcorgianisc Abkhazia, publishing o f materials in Abkhaz diminished and dried up altogether after all Abkhaz languageschools were closed in 1945-46 and replaced by Georgian language-schools, in which children were beaten if overheard speaking Abkhaz. W ith the deaths o f Stalin and Beria in 1953 anti-Abkhazian measures were reversed: teaching o f the language and publishing in it were restored, and, because the political climate would never have tolerated the reintroduction o f the Georgian-based orthography, a committee was set up lo devise a new Cyrillic-based script, which was introduced in 1954 and remained unaltered until 1999. Although not all Cyrillic's characters were utilised, fourteen nonC yrillic items were incorporated. Even so, from the very start the script left much lo be desired: it was incompatible with the Cyrillic-based orthography that Abaza has used since 1938; some graphs differed in phonetic realisation between Russian and Abkhaz; there was inconsistency in the marking o f certain phonological features. The chart below presents this Cyrillic-based script, along with its Georgian-based predecessor. The fundamental ordering o f the post-1953 alphabet is naturally 17
determined by that o f Russian, but, when the Georgian-based orthography was in use, it was the sequence o f the basic Georgian alphabet which delermined the order of letters (see D/.hanashia's Abkhaz-Georgian Dictionary, which, though it was published only in 1954, had been prepared in the late 1930s and thus uses Ihe Georgian alphabet lor both languages):
Chart of the (1954-1999) Cyrillic- and (1938-1954) Georgian-based Alphabets foi Abkhaz (with IPA equivalents) Cyr
A(a),
Б,б
В,в
Г,г
Гь,гь
Гу.гу
5.5
1)Ь,ҕь
(S
а°
<У.'1
е;
{по
9
9*
9°
Ы
ui
в°
Ж,ж
Жь,жь
Жә,жә 3,з
5-3 d
5ә,ӡә
5У-5У
a(a) Geo
л(л)
6
IPA
a(:)
b
3 V
Cyr
Дл
Дә,дә
Е,е
Geo
;13
3
а°
%
3
5°
г
dz
ф
do
IPA
d
d°
Л е
Cyr
И.и
K ,k
Кь.кь
К у.ку
Қ,қ
Қь.қь
Ку.қу
K ,k
Кь,кь
Geo
O
J k’
J° ki’
J-3 к°'
,1
А°
з°
ki
to k°
а
k
q'
*
М,м
Н.н
О,о
П,п
П),п,
P,p
С,с
ә
6
го
.3
?)
6
ь
m
П
0
р’
р
r
S
Т.Ҭ
Ҭә.ҭә
У.у
ф.ф
Х,х
Хь,хь
Х у.ху
ь
bo
ь7)
X
X'
Х°
(D O
IPA
*:)/К»
Cyr
Ky.fcy Л ,л
Geo
;ra
IPA
q°'
e? i
Cyr
T.t
Тә.тә
Geo
0
IPA
t’
л° ,o.
t
О>0
•з
%
t°
<■)!
1
w(e)
Cyr
Ҳ,ҳ
Ҳә,ҳә
Geo
j
Jo
IPA
h
Cyr
« 1Л
Ц.ц
Цә.цә
0
в°
f )0
Is
Ш ,ш
Ҵ ,и
Цә.цә Ч,ч
te°
V ts’
V0 tc0.
Шь,
Шә,
Ы ,ы
(a,a
шь
шә
18
к
Ҷ.ч S
Вә
tj
Ц'
L§
џ.џ
Џь,џь
*
°
Geo
Sa
IPA
l§'
§
VI
■;i<>
1
Л
J
J°
Ә
4
% <1л
Ә
d3
Regarding inconsistency, one can easily sec (hal, whilst the diacritic that resembles a descending serif on the basis character marks aspiration with, for instance, ҭ [ lh], which contrasts with the ejeclive articulation o f the basic character itself ( t |t’)), in the ease o f
4
it indicates ejective articulation ft/’] (versus the voiceless
aspirate articulation o f the basic character ч [tJ])! In the case o f ҳ, it indicates neither but merely marks a change in the point o f articulation (from the uvular position o f the basic character 10 the pharynx). The secondary feature o f labialisation is here sometimes shewn by the diacritic lhal resembles a little schwa (as in ҳә) and sometimes by the (semi-)vocalic (bilabial glide) character y. And so, since the (semivocalic character could have two functions in certain environments (e.g. alongside a basic character indicating a velar plosive), one needed to be able to distinguish in the script between, say, the labialised velar o f /a.kw’a'da/ 'weak' and the plain velar followed by the bilabial semi-vowel o f /ja.z.'k’.wa.da/ 'who is grabbing me?'. The solution, practised for 55 years, was to write the labialised velar as in: акуада, and lo place ihe reverse-aposlrophe after the velar character when followed by semi-vowel y lo represent a sequence o f two distinct phonemic units, as in: сызк‘уада. Despile some quite trenchant opposition, the first president o f independent Abkhazia, Vladislav Ardzinba, managed lo introduce a spelling-reform in 1999. As a result, ihe secondary feature o f labialisation became consistantly marked by the schwa-like diacritic, thereby doing away with any need for the reverse-apostrophe. This means that the two words used at the end o f the previous paragraph to demonstrate the 55 year-long inconsistency thereafter became written as: акәада and сызкуада, respectively. The post-1999 character-set is presented, with the same Georgian and IPA equivalents, below:
The Same Chart But Incorporating the 1999-Reform Б.6
B,b
Г,г
Гь.гь
Гә,гә
i) ,5
1)Ь ,ҔЬ
1)3,53
Ф)
A
3
a
а°
avi
c;
(no
C77)
IPA
Q(0
b
V
9
9*
9°
И
ui
Cyr
Д,д
Дә,дә
E,e
Ж,ж
Жь,жь
Жә.жә
3,3
3 .5
Зә.ӡә
(no
3
a3
a
а»
%
d
do
d°
e
3
3°
z
dz
rift0
Cyr
A(a), a(a)
Geo
Geo IPA
d
19
Cyr
И,и
K ,k
Кь.кь
Кә.кә
Қ,қ
Қь,қь
Қә.қә
K ,k
Кь,кь
Geo
O
.1° kJ-
JV) k°'
d° k)
ifo k°
.1
a°
k
q’
qj'
П,п
Ҧ.п,
P.p
C.c
3
<4
ь s
Хә,хә
IPA
i(:)/K0
J k1
Cyr
Кә.кә
Л ,л
М,м
H,h
O,o
Geo
аз
i™
a
Б
<4
IPA
Ч°’
1
m
n
0
Р'
p
r
Cyr
Т,т
Тә,тә
Хд
Ҭәд-ә
У,у
Ф.Ф
X.x
Хь,хь
Geo
Л t’
л° ,о.
O)
0)0
7)
%
b
bo
b7)
t
t°
u(:)/
f
X
xi
X°
IPA
w(e)
Cyr
Ҳ.ҳ
Ҳә,ҳә
Geo
J
Jo
e
0
IPA
h
h°
ts
Cyr
«i/ч
Ш ,ш
Geo IPA
15’
Ц,ц
Цә.цә
Ҷ.ч
Ҵә,цә Ч,ч
Ҵ.Ц
tc°
V ts*
V» tBo-
r> t;
V’
Ы ,ы
Q,a
Џ.М
Џь.џь
X3
%
°
Шь,
Ш ә,
шь
ШӘ
‘Әо
•a
■Әо
(jo
3
§
;
J°
Ә
4
*
Г.з t§
d3
Spelling-convenlions Spelling is mostly straightforward, sound-sequences being largely written as they are pronounced. However, there are some observations that need to be made. Consider the Present Indicative conjugation o f the verb 'be seated':
Present Tense of 'be seated' стәоуп бтәоуп
I am sealed
ҳтәоуп
we are sealed
you-FEM are
шәтәоуп
you-PL arc seated
шәтәоуп
you-PL are seated
seated утәоуп
you-MASC are seated
дтәоуп
(s)hc is sealed
итәоуп
they are seated
итзоуп
it is seated
итәоуп
they are sealed
20
Clearly, Ihe changing subject is indicated by the initial component o f the verb-form. Where this subjecl-prcfix is a sibilant (viz. 1st person singular and 2nd person plural), it can be articulated with no vocalic element intervening between it and the plosive at the start o f the verb-root, producing |stP'o:p'| and |JwtP’o:p |, respectively. Since the characters for the bilabial and palatal semi vowels (or glides) can incorporate a vocalic element, that clement w ill naturally be articulated in this context, producing dissyllabic Iwe'tP’oip’l and |jftP'o:p’]. In the case o f the 1st person plural form, even though one might hear something o f a vowel-sound after the initial fricative, no vowel-character is written. The omission is the most glaring in the remaining cases (i.e. where the subject is 2nd person feminine or 3rd person human singular), for here it is a physical impossibility to articulate [b| or [d], respectively, immediately before |tP'] without a vocoid o f some description intervening. But, since no close vowel occurs with the 1st person singular marker (and, thus, none is written there), no vowel is written elsewhere in the paradigm either in order not to upset the orthographic paradigmatic harmony. The same is true when the root begins with any dental plosive or affricate (e.g. дӡахуеит [dedzax'weif) '(s)he is sewing'). I f one thinks one hears some kind o f vocoid (presumably an open vowel) after the 1st
person plural prefix ҳ and is uncertain whether lo write it6, test whal happens
when ihe 1st person singular prefix is substituled for it in the verb-form in question. If the close vowel is heard (and thus written) in that context, then the appropriate vowelcharacter w ill appear in that spot throughout the paradigm. For example, hearing [tial'ba:jt’] 'we came down', one wrilcs ҳалбааит, because for 'I came down' we have сылбавит. Bui, even i f one thinks one hears a vowel in [ h(a)tsap'] 'we shall go/let's be off, then', one writes ҳцап, as ihe 1st person singular is [stsap'] = сцап. In the case o f the 2 nd person feminine singular prefix /Ы standing next to a root begining with the voiced bilabial plosive, no vocoid is heard, but ihe consonant is lengthened, as in: |a'la b:ap'] from /a'la a.b.bap’/ 'you-FEM w ill see the dog, then' I f a verb-form morphologically contains a sequence o f two pronominal prefixes represented by the palatal semi-vowel (or glide), then only one is written, as in: иҳәсит 'He said it/them' from /ja.j.'h°ajtV = [ji*hwe:t’ ] 7 (cf. исҳәеит 'I said it/lhcm'). However, i f the first o f the two homophonous prefixes is the stressed relative prefix, then bolh are written, as in: ииҳәаз 'that which he said' from /'js.J.h°az/ = [’jl:hwaz]; if the second instantiation should carry the stress, then only one is again written, as in: имаз 'that which he had' from /j.'ja.ma.z/ = ['jimazj. I f there are three such prefixes in a row, then only two are written, even if the first in the series is the relative marker, as
6In (his conlcxl the vowel w ill always be the open vowel, as the close vowel is lowered alongside (he voiceless pharyngal fricative, as explained earlier. 7Notc the abscnce o f lengthening in the first syllable.
21
in: ииҭеит 'He gave it/them to him' from /j.'js.J.tajt'/ =
and ииҭаз 'that which he
gave him' from /j.'ja.j.ta.z/ = |'ji:laz|. II 'ihe Dynamic sunix ya is immediately preceded by a y in the verbal root, the two coalesce, as in: иауеи8 | ja'we:| 'Why? Whal’s the reason?' from /j.a.w.'wa.j/, literally 'What is it doing?'; ироуеит | ji'ro:(w)e:t’ | 'They get it/them' from /ja.'r.aw.wajt’/. The fact that the graphs и and y can be articulated in a variety o f ways, depending on the context is a needlessly troublesome feature o f the Abkhaz orthography. The problem seems to be felt more in the case o f y, insofar as, when realised as [u:], there is some fluctuation in the writing o f it as cither y or ыу. Take the verbal root /tc 0 ’awa/ 'cry', which is pronounced [tpf'u:a]; Kaslandzia enters the verbal noun in his 2 -volume Abkhaz-Russian Dictionary (2005) in the form ацәуара (with a stress-marker over the problematic graph), whereas in the earlier 2 -volume dictionary produced by the Abkhazian Research Institute in 1986-7 under the editorship o f Shakryl, Kondzharija and Chkadua its verbal noun is presented as ацәыуара (with stress-marker over the ы). Since the standard orthography docs not indicate stress, my feeling is that the articulation [u:] should always be written as ыу in order to avoid learners possibly having lo hesitate over whether lo pronounce this particular word (correctly) as [a'tpf'u:ara] or (incorrectly) as [atcf,'wara], and in this work I place the closc-vowel in brackets for this articulation. This leaves readers free to articulate y as [we] whenever it is not immediately followed by a vowel. An alternative solution would be lo follow the practice o f Genko (1896-1941, when he perished in the siege o f Leningrad). In his posthumously published Abkhaz-Russian Dictionary (1998) he employs neilher и nor y, preferring и and y, preceded, followed or not (as the case may be) by ы. His representation o f Ihe verbal noun for 'cry' is, thus, аҵәыуара (cf. the Imperative уыҵәыуа 'Cry (to a man)!', which in the standard orthography would read уцә(ы)уа). For the palatal semi-vowel (or glide) an example from Genko would be иыцәыит 'it turned sour' (built on the root цә(ы) turn sour'), which in the standard orthography would be иҵәит. Whilst the standard orthography looks neater, Genko's system is closer to the underlying morphological structure and lacks ambiguity. When a verb-form should begin with the pronominal prefix и that correlates with intransitive subjects or transitive direct objects which are either 3rd person nonhuman singular or 3rd person plural entities, it drops when immediately preceded by its referent. Examples: Ицо(и)т 'It goes/They go' vs Ала(қәа) цо(и)т The dog(s) goes/go'; Избо(и)т 'I see it/them' vs Ала(қза) збо(и)т 'I sec the dog(s)'. Given this rule, let us examine common practice when the sequence еи- comes into play. I f Аҷкоынцәа еисит (= |e;'si:t']) means The lads quarrelled', one would expect They
8 Altcm alively, иауази or иауазеи.
quarrelled' lo he written as Иеисит, but, in lacl. it is as often as not written simply as Еисит, though the pronunciation is now [je:'si:t'|. This peculiarity might possibly result from the fact that the vowel-charactcr in question is palatalised when used for Russian, but, since this ambiguity in Abkhaz can be avoided, it should be, and the и should be written wherever the initial palatal glide is pronounced, thereby rendering Иеисит the norm whenever the initial prefix's referent does not immediately precede it; cf. еиқәзыршәаз икнытә/икынтә 'from the compiler (literally: the one who compiled it)', which I would preferably sec written as иеиқәзыршәаз икны тә/ икынтә. An Alternative Script Some scripts are attractive to the eye, others arc not. To express a personal prejudice. C yrillic belongs firm ly in the latter category; lacking a sufficient balance of graphs with ascenders and descenders, the characters fail lo break up a page o f text in a fashion that is pleasing on the eye and, when hand-written, have a tendency lo merge. Appearance aside. C yrillic is not well suited lo representing languages with more demanding phonetic systems than exist in Russian. The Georgian script, on the other hand, is both a pleasure to behold and extremely well placed to serve as the base for any language thai opposes voiced, voiceless aspirated and voiceless glotlalised series o f plosives and affricates (as do the indigenous Caucasian languages). But, as we have stated, any relum lo a Georgian base is out o f the question for Abkhaz. Js there any alternative available for the Abkhazians lo introduce? Since the majority o f the world's ethnic Abkhazians live in Turkey, where, whilst not necessarily literate in Abkhaz, they arc able to read and write Turkish, which sincc Ihe early years o f the republic has uliliscd the Roman alphabet, albeit with specific phonetic values for some o f the graphs, could nol Turkish roman form the basis o f a more approachable script? W ith Ihis thought in mind, and following the lead o f Monika Hohlig's suggestion (1983) for creating a Roman-based orthography for use across the Circassian communities (in and outside Ihe Caucasus), I published my own proposal initially in 1995 for such a script for Abkhaz; subsequently, in 1999,1 made two slight alterations (and then demonstrated how this script could be employed for other North Caucasian languages). The proposed alphabet o f 1999 is set out below, and this book ends with two texts written in it. Whichever script is finally agreed should serve the Abkhaz-speaking world, wordslress should certainly be indicated.
Proposed Roman-based Alphabet for Abkhaz Cyr
A(a),
Б,б
Вз
Г,г
Гь,гь
a(a) 23
Гә,гә
$,5
5 Ь,5Ь
5 ә,5ә
Rom
a(a)
b
v
g
g'
gu
Cyr
Дл
Дә.дз
E,e
Ж,ж
Жь.жь
Жә,жә 3,3
Rom
d
du
c
1
.i
Cyr
И,и
K, k
Кь,кь
Кә.кә
Rom
y/yi/iy
k’
k’ i
Cyr
Кә.кә
Л .л
Rom
q'u
Cyr Rom
g
gi
gu
3.5
Зз,ӡә
ju
z
dz
cu
Қ.қ
Қьдь
Қә.қә
K ,k
Кь,kb
k’u
k
ki
ku
q’
q’ i
M .m
Н,н
0
П,п
H.ri,
p,P
C,c
1
m
П
0
Р'
P
r
s
T.t
Тз.тә
T. t
Ҭә,ҭә
У.у
Ф.Ф
X,x
Хь,хь
Хә.хә
t’
t’ u
t
tu
w/wi /
r
X
xi
xu
,o
IW
Cyr
Ҳ.ҳ
Ҳә.ҳә
Ц.ц
Цә.цә
Ц .ц
Ҵә.цз Ч,ч
Ҷ.Ч
Ҽ,ҽ
Rom
h
hu
ts
фи
is’
C’ u
s
4'
C
Cyr
Чл
Ш ,ш
111b.
Ш ә,
Ы,ы
Џ.М
Џь,џь
U lb
шә
5
5U
c
c
Rom
Ф'
5
i
yu
Acknowledgements and Recommcndcd Reading A number o f people made commenls on drafts o f this book. I should like to lhank Vjacheslav Chirikba, Asida Lomia, Neli Tarba, and Boris Dzhonua for their observations. Tamio Yanagisawa deserves special mention for the time he spent reading carefully through each section; his keen eye proved especially valuable for detecting misplaced stresses, which would otherwise have gone unnoticed. A particular debt o f gratitude is, as always, due lo my wife, Zaira Khiba, for answering constant stream o f questions during the writing o f the book and for checking the whole work, both the English and the Abkhaz; without her input the grammar would never have been completed. Naturally, all deficiencies remain my own. Over the years I have benefited from a number o f publications, being either Abkhaz materials themselves or linguistic investigations into the language. Whilst it i impossible lo name everyone whose work has (directly or indirectly) fed into this sell tutor, one has to acknowledge that any research on Abkhaz necessarily builds on the pioneering studies o f the late Ketcvan Lomtalidzc (1911-2007), written mostly in
24
Georgian. My own introduction lo Abkhaz came from one o f her pupils, Inga Shaduri, during my first year in Soviet Georgia ( 1975-76) courtesy o f the British Council's cultural exchange programme with the USSR. Illustrations (sometimes adapted to suit the amount o f grammar covered upto the place in this work where they arc cited) might derive from folk-tcxts (collccted and published by such scholars as: Sergei Zukhba (Zyxw ba), Shota Salaq’aia, Zurab Dzhap’ wa), the writings o f the 'Father of Abkhaz Literature', Dmitry Gulia (Dyrm it’ Gw lia) (1874-1960), or newspapers, journals and publications for children. Illustrative material found in Dzhanashia's and Kaslandzia's dictionaries has been borrowed. But one author whose output 1 have plundered more than any other is Dzhot'a T ’ap’aghw ywa. His 1985 collection o f texts for schoolchildren seemed to me, when I first became acquainted with it, to contain some ideal examples for learning purposes (especially as, by appending questions to his texts, he presents varianl-forms for some o f the verb-forms used therein), and I wish lo take this opportunity to express lo him my sincere gralitude for his permission to copy some o f his lexis in this book. I have utilised them (again possibly slightly adapted) throughout the book but especially in Lesson 20; during the summer o f 2008 I happened lo chance upon the same aulhor's 1986 colleclion designed for use in Russian language-schools, and some materials are taken from this volume loo (in Lesson 20 alone). The sixteen proverbs presented in Lesson 19 were taken from SHamba [’gamba] and Gwyrgw lia (2003). Further lexis, including those for more advanced reading, can be found in: Dum 6 zil (1967), Hewitt & Khiba (1998, for which recordings are available), Hewitt (2005), Yanagisawa (2006), and Dzhapua & Hewitt (2008). Rare material from the early Soviet period recently (re)published can be found in Dzhap’ wa (2001) and Kukba (2007). Amongst other publications which those interested in Abkhaz might profitably consult are ihe following: my own early grammar (Hewitt 1979); Chkadua's analysis o f the moods and lenses (1970, in Russian); Yanagisawa's examination o f the verb (2004); Shinkuba's Abkhaz-Russian intensive course (2003); Jakovlev's belatedly (and posthumously) published grammar (2006, in Russian); B.G. Jonua (Dzhonua) and A.N. Kiut's short introductory course (2003), which is available on-line at: hltp://leam.apsny.com; and EnderTiftikci's conversational course, which is still in the proccss o f refinement, though a draft appeared in 2008. References Bgazhba, Kh. 1964. Bzybskij dialekt abxazskogo jazyka [The Bzyp Dialect o f the Abkhaz Language]. Tbilisi: Nauka. Reprinted 2006. Bgazhba, Kh. 1967. Iz istorii pis'mennosti v abxazii [From the History o f W riting in Abkhazia|. Tbilisi: Mecniereba. Calford, J.C. 1972. Labialisation in Caucasian languages, with special reference lo 25
Abkhaz, in A. Rigaull & R. Charbonncau (eds.) Proceedings o f the Seventh
International Congress o f Phonetic Sciences, 22-28 August 1971, 679-681. The Hague: Mouton. Catford, J.C. 1977. Fundamental Problems in Phonetics. Edinburgh: University Press. Chirikba, V.A. 1996. Common West Caucasian. The reconstruction o f its
phonological system and parts o f its lexicon and morphology. Leiden: Research School CNWS. Chirikba, V.A. 1996a. Sadz, an Abkhaz dialed in Turkey, NSL S. Linguistic Studies
in the non-Slavic languages o f the Commonwealth o f Independent States and the Baltic Republics, 67-81. Chicago: University Press. Chkadua, L.P. 1970. Sistema vremen i osnovnyx modal'nyx obrazovanij
abxazsko-
abazinskix dialektax |The System o f Tenses and Basic Modal Formations in the Abkhaz-Abaza Dialects). Tbilisi: Mecniereba. Chkadua, L.P. 2005. Glagol'noe slovoobrazovanie v abxazskom jazyke [Verb WordFormation in the Abkhaz Language]. Sukhum: Academy Press. Dumezil, G. 1967. Documents Anatoliens sur les Langues et les Traditions du
Caucase, V: Etudes Abkhaz. Paris: Librairie Adrien-Maisonneuve. Dzhapua, Z. & Hewitt, B.G. 2008. Pages from Abkhazian Folklore. Sukhum: Academy Press. Dzhap’ wa, Z. (ed.) 2001. Apswaa Rfolk'lor Zaatw 'i Ants’amtakwa (A.H. Genka
inap'ylajwyrakwa raxltw ’) [Early Recordings o f Abkhazian Folklore (from the manuscripts o f A.N. Genko)]. A q w ’ a: Academy Press. Dzhanashia, B. 1954. apxazur-kartuli leksik’oni [Abkhaz-Georgian Dictionary]. Tbilisi: Mecniereba. Genko, A.N. 1998. Abxazsko-russkij slovar' [Abkhaz-Russian Dictionary]. Sukhum: Alashara. Hewitt, B.G. 1979. Lingua Descriptive Studies 2: Abkhaz (in collaboration with Z.K.
Khiba). Amsterdam: North Holland. Since published by Croom Helm and also Routledge. Hewitt, B.G. 1995. A suggestion for Romanizing the Abkhaz alphabet (based on Monika HOhlig's Adighe Alfabet), in BSOAS, LVU1, 334-340. Hewitt, B.G. 1999. Roman-based alphabets as a life-line for endangered languages, in Ja.G. Testelets & E.V. Rakhilina (eds.) Tipologija i teorija jazyka. Ot opisanija
k objasneniju. K 60-letiju Aleksandra Evgenjevicha Kibrika [Typology and Linguistic Theory. From Description lo Explanation. For the 60th Birthday o f A.E. K ibrik], 613-621. Moscow: Jazyki Russkoj Kul'tury. Hewitt, B.G. 2005. Abkhazian Folktales (with grammatical introduction, translation,
notes, and vocabulary). Miinchen: Lincom. 26
Hewill, B.G. & Khiba, Z.K. 1998. An Abkhaz Newspaper Reader (with supplements). Kensington (Maryland): Dunwoody Press. Hohlig, M. 1983. Adighe Alfabet. Berlin. 2nd cd. with Turkish and English glosses, 1990. Jakovlev, N.F. 2006. Crammatika abxazskogo lileraturnogo jazyka [Grammar o f the Abkhaz Literary Language]. Sukhum: Academy Press. Jonua, B.G. & Kiut, A.N. 2003. Samouchitel' abxazsogo jazyka, chast' I ]Sclf-tutor for the Abkhaz Language, Part 1]. Sukhum: Soros Foundation. Kaslandzija, V.A. 2005. Abxazsko-russkij slovar' (Abkhaz-Russian Dictionary], 2. vols. Sukhum: University Press. Kuipers, A.H. I960. Phoneme and Morpheme in Kabardian. ’S-Gravenhage: Mouton. Kukba, V.I. 2007. Izbrannye trudy [Selected Works]. Sukhum: Academy Press. Shakryl, K., Kondzharija, V., & Chkadua, L.P. 1986-87. Apswa Byzfra A^war [Dictionary o f the Abkhaz Language], 2 vols. Sukhum: Alashara. SHamba, O. & Gw yrgw lia, B. 2003. Apswa Zhwapq'akwa [Abkhazian Proverbs|. Aqw ’ a: Abkhazia's National Fund for the Development o f Understanding and Knowledge. Shinkuba, A. Sh. 2003. Intensivnyj kurs abxazskogo jazyka [Intensive Course in the Abkhaz Language]. Sukhum: Academy Press. Spruit, A. 1983. Abkhaz verbs o f local reference, in Studia Caucasica 5, 55-75. Republished as Chapter I o f his doctoral thesis Abkhaz Studies, Leiden, 1986. Spruit, A. 1985. Stress in Abkhaz, in Studia Caucasica 6, 31-81. Republished as Chapter II o f his doctoral thesis Abkhaz Studies, Leiden, 1986. T ’ap’ aghw ywa, Dzh.K’ . 1985. Ajtahwakwa ryjwrazy ast’at'iakwa rejzga l-lll
ak 'lasskwa rzy [Collection o f articles for composition-writing for classes I-III]. Sukhum: Alashara. T ’ ap’aghwywa, Dzh.K’ . 1986. Apswa Byzshwa awrys SHk'olkwa rzy (lll-Vlll ak'l.) (Abkhaz Language for Russian schools (III-V III classes)], 3rd edition. Sukhum: Alashara. T iftikci, E. 2008. Atsha 1. Apsshwa Arts’aga Shwqw 'y: Alagamta [Bridge I : Abkhaz Language Primer: Beginning]. Ankara. Private Publication. Trigo, L. 1992. Abkhaz stress shift, in G. Hewitt (ed.) Caucasian Perspectives, 191235. Uslar, P. 1887. Etnografija Kavkaza. Jazykoznanie. Abxazskij jazyk [Ethnography o f the Caucasus. Linguistics. The Abkhaz Language]. Tiflis. Yanagisawa, T. 2004. Studies in the Abkhaz Verbal Structure. Nagoya: University Press. Yanagisawa, T. 2005. Schwa in Abkhaz. Japanese Slavic and East European Studies, 27
26, 23-36. Yanagisawa, T. 2006. Analysis o f Texts and a Basic Lexicon o f the Abkhaz Language. (In association with Ana Tsvinaria). Nagoya: University Press. [Revised edition under the title Analytic Dictionary o f Abkhaz (in association with the late Anna Tsvinaria-Abramishvili), to be pupblished by Hitu/.i Syobo in 2010] George Hewitt Doncaster (South Yorkshire) March 2009
28
Lesson I
In this lesson you w ill learn about: • The singular and plural forms o f nouns • Cardinal numerals • Noun-Adjeclivc combinations « Number-marking within the NP___________________________________________
The citation-form o f nouns (and adjectives), which is to say the form in which such words appear in dictionaries, unites the lexical item itself with the article a-. In the divergent Abaza dialect, this articles marks definiteness and equates to English 'the', but in standard Abkhaz it has more o f a definite-generic quality, so that, unless it is replaced by another specific marker, this article w ill normally be present, even in contexts where the English equivalent would not use 'the' (and might even require the indefinite 'a(n)1) — bare nominal stems (i.e. nouns without any prefix or indefinitemarking suffix) arc rather uncommon in Abkhaz. I f a nominal root begins in a-, the presence o f the definite-generic article is not immediately obvious, as there is neither lengthening nor doubling o f the initial vowel; in such cases ihe definite-generic article w ill be placed in square brackets in vocabulary-lists (e.g. (а|ан 'mother', [а]аб 'father'). There are iwo basic pluraliscrs for nouns, and both arc suffixed to the noun in question. These suffixes are -цәа for nouns referring to humans and -қәа for other types o f nouns. However, the latter is sometimes used where it would not be anticipated, as with ахәыҷы 'child', which in the plural becomcs ахәыҷқәа 'children'. This example indicates that the singular form can undergo change when shifted to the plural. In the case o f'ch ild ' the change is not great (and, in fact, final -ы w ill always drop before a pluraliser and transfer its stress to it), but it is more radical in the case o f ахаца 'man', which bccomes ахацәа 'men'; for апҳәыс 'woman' the change is so radical that one might almost speak o f rool-suppletion, which is when an entirely different root is employed, for the form in question is аҳәса(қәа) 'women'. Examples:
Human Nouns
Non-human Nouns
English
Singular
Plural
English
Singular
Plural
girl
аӡҕаб
аӡҕабцәа
tree
ацла
ацлақәа
son
ana
аҧацәа
horse
аҽы
аҽқәа
daughter
аҧҳа
аҧҳацәа
flea
аӡ
аӡқәа
grandmother
анд(ы)у
анд(ы)уцәа
water
аӡы
аӡқәа
grandfather
абд(ы)у
абд(ы)уцәа
dog
ала
алақәа
pupil
ацааы
ацаацәа
eye
а(б)ла
а(б)лақәа
29
teacher
арцааы
арцаацәа
fish
аҧсыӡ
ап,сы5 қза
dead person
аҧсы
аҧецәа
soul
аҧсы
аҧсқза
mother
[а|ан
анацәа
god
анцәа 1
анцәақәа
father
|а|аб
абацәа
billy-goat
аб
абқәа
brother
[а|аиашьа
аи(а)шьцәа2
book
ашәкәы
ашәкәқәа
sister
|а]аиаҳәшьа
аи(а)ҳәшь-
goat
аџьма
аџьмақәа
falcon
ахьшь(ы)ц-
ахьшьцба-
ба
қәа
цәа1 friend
ааыза
ааызцәа/ аиаызцәа4
shepherd
ахьча
ахьшьцәа
hawk
ахьшь
ахьшьқәа
peasant
анхааы
анха(а)цәа 5
chair
акәардз
акәардәқәа
hunter
ашәары/а-
ашәары/а-
rope
ашаха
ашахақәа
цаа
ца(а)цәа
|а|аашьааы
аашьа(а)-
medicine
ахәшә
ахәшәқәа
squirrel
аеш
аешқәа
lazybones
цәа representa
ахаҭарнак
tive
ахаҭарнакцәа
thief
аҕьыч
аҕьычцәа
cheese
[а]ашә
ашәқәа
old woman
аҭакәажә
аҭакәажә-
door
ашә
ашәқәа
skewer
ацәы
ацәқәа
цәа old man
аҭаҳмада
аҭаҳмада-
host
аҧшәма
аҧшзмацәа
river
аӡиас
аӡиасқәа
guest
асас
асасцәа
lake
аӡиа
аӡиақәа
doctor
аҳақьым
аҳақьымцәа
cart
ауардын
ауардынқәа
artist
асахьаҭых-
асахьаҭых-
house
ааны
аанқәа
аы
ыацәа
цәа
1This word looks lo be the plural o f 'mother', but clearly 'mothers' (in modem Abkhaz at least) is produced differently. However, there are indications that the word is felt to be plural, and in this connection it might be relevant lo cite ашацәа, which is a word for 'Creator' in the country's old pagan religion, formed from ihe root -ша- 'create' by suffixation o f -цоа (sec Dzhanashia 1954.334). 2This form strictly means '(the) mutual brothers'; see below for changes when whose brothers arc specified. ■'This form strictly means '(the) mutual sisters'; sec below for changes when whose sisters arc specified. '’ This form strictly means ’(the) mutual friends’; sec below for changes when whose friends arc specified. 3|n some words ending in the agenl-inarker -о(ы) this marker drops in ihe plural, and in others it is retained, as in the words for 'pupil' and ’teacher'; here and in some other items it is optional.
30
There are lour additional plural-sulTixes, each o f which is o f restricted but specific application: (i) -aa collcctivcly pluraliscs nouns indicating clans, lown-populations, and (sub-)cthnonyms (especially for the regional sub-divisions o f the Abkhazian people, as historically constituted); (ii) -ap is used for (often the young of) animals, the -c ог-шь o f the singular being replaced by the pluraliscr; (iii) -pa indicates an agglomeration o f trees o f one-species and so equates to English 'plantation o f X'; (iv) -paa, which looks lo be a union o f (iii) and (i), is found with proper-names and means 'X and friends'. Examples o f -aa: The self-designation for an Abkhazian is Аҧсуа, where the initial vowel is sometimes treated as though it is part o f the root6 and at other limes not, and where the final component can be regarded as a kind o f human classifier. The collective plural is, thus, Аҧсуаа (occasionally Аҧсыуаа) 'the Abkhazians (sc. as an entire race)', which is to be contrasted with Аҧсацәа '(group o f individual) Abkhazians', in which the bilabial glide o f the human classifier is dropped. The Abkhazians' traditional northern neighbours were known as Аублаа 'Ubykhs', which also seems to have served as the singular form (e.g. Аублаа бызшәа 'the Ubykh language'). The noun for 'person, human being' ауавы seems lo consist o f the human classifier plus the agenl-suffix, and in the plural this latter is replaced by -aa to give ayaa 'people'. Other ethnonyms typically employ the usual human pluraliser (though some, rather inexplicably, also allow the non-human pluraliser): Абзып, 'Bzyp' => бзыҧаа; Асадз 'Sadz'7 => садзаа; Ашьхаруа 'Ashkhary wa1* => ашьхараа/ашьхаруацәа: Аедыгьа 'Circassian, Adyghe' => Аедыгьцәа Ақырҭуа 'Georgian' => Ақырҭцәа; Агыруа 4 'Mingrelian' => Агырцәа/Агырқәа; Ашәан(ы)уа 'Svan' => Ашәанцәа/Ашәанқза; Абаза 'Abaza' => абазацәа/абазақәа; Аирманы 'Armenian' => Аирманцәа/Аирманқәа; 6Thc root is cognate with -n,c-. the root o f the verb 'die', so that this ethnonym w ill originally have meant 'mortal' (sec V. Chirikba's 'On the etymology o f the ethnonym t ape.wa/ 'Abkhaz', in The Annual o f the Society fo r Ihe Study o f Cuucusiu 3. 13-18. Chicago); it is, thus, not lo be connected, as it is in folk-etymology, with the noun meaning 'soul'. ^Another (northern) Abkhazian dialect-group no longer found in Abkhazia itself. 8This is a group who speak the non-literary form o f Abaza. 9fn the short vocabulary-list at the end o f his 2-volume 'Journal o f a Residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838 and 1839’ ( 1840) for the three North West Caucasian languages still then spoken on their historical territories James Stanislaus Bell includes what is clearly an attempt to render this ethnonym for the language he called 'Azra' ('Azgha' being the Ubykh term for the Abkhazians), but Ihe meaning he assigned to it was 'slave'. In view o f the wild claims lo historical ownership o f Abkhazia that exploded in the lead-up to the Georgian-Abkhazian war o f 1992-93, this gives a rather significant indication o f the social role played by Mingrelians in Abkhazian society at that lime.
31
Аџьам 'Persian' => Аџьамцза/Аџьамуаа; Арап, 'Arab; negro' => Араҧцәа; Аҭырқза T urk' => Аҭырқзцза; Аурыс 'Russian' => Аурысцәа/Аурысқза; Англыз 'English' => Англызцза; Афранцыз 'French' => Афранцызцза; Американ/Американуаа(ы) 'American' => Американцза/Америквнуаа; Абырзвн 'Greek' => Абырзенцәа/Абырзенқәа; Аиапонуао(ы) 'Japanese' => Аиапонуаа; Агермануае(ы)/Алемса 'German' => Агермануаа/Алемсаа; Акитаиуав(ы) 'Chinese' => Акитаиуаа. For the ethnonyms o f peoples not historically known lo the Abkhazians, the model is to borrow ihe equivalent lexeme from Russian. Abkhazian surnames typically end in -6 a, a transformation o f the nominal root -ҧа 'son', and this suffix is dropped when reference is to the clan-mcmbcrship: Хьиба '(surname) Khiba10' => Хьиаа 'the Khiba clan'; Амҷба '(surname) Am ich’ba' => Амҷаа 'the Am ich’ ba clan'; Арозынба '(surname) Ardzinba' => Ардзынаа 'the Ardzinba clan'. For the populations o f towns we have: Akaa 'Sukhum (Abkhazia's capital)' => акзаа 'the residents o f Sukhum'; Гздоуҭа 'Gudauta' => гздоуҭаа 'the residents o f Gudauta’; Цабал 'Ts'ebclda' => цабалаа 'the residents o f Ts’ebelda'; Жзыргьыҭ 'Zugdidi (capital o f Mingrelia) => жәыргьыҭаа 'the residents o f Zugdidi'; Қарҭ T b ilis i (Georgia’s capital)' => қарҭаа 'the residents o f Tbilisi'; Қзҭешь 'Kutaisi' => қзҭешьаа 'the residents o f Kutaisi'. Examples o f -ap: аҵыс 'bird' => ацар 'flock o f birds' vs ацарақәа 'birds (viewed individually)'; ашьышь 'piglet' => ашьар '(group o() piglets' vs ашьарақза 'piglets (individually)'; асыс 'lamb' => acap 'flock o f lambs' vs асарақәа 'lambs (individually)'; акзҷышь 'chick' => акәҷар 'flock o f chicks' vs акзҷарақәа 'chicks (individually)'; аҳзыс 'calf => аҳәар 'herd o f calves’ vs аҳәарақәа 'calves (individually)'; амшзҳәыс 'bcar-cub' => амшәҳзар 'family o f bear-cubs' vs амшәҳәарақәа 'bcar-cubs (individually)'; аҽдыс 'foal' => аҽцар 'herd o f foals' vs аҽдарақза 'foals (individually)'; аџьма^ыс '18-month old goat' => аџьмаҿар 'flock o f kids' vs аџьма^арақәа 'kids (individually)'. Note that from the adjective аҿа 'young' is produced the collective a'qap 'the young (collectively)'. Examples o f -oa:
^M eaning 'son o f goldsmith'; cf. ахьи 'goldsmith' vs ахьы 'gold'.
32
аџь 'оак' => аџьра 'oak-planiation'; ал 'alder' => алра 'aldcr-plantation'; |а|аа 'yew' => аара 'yew-planlalion'; ахьа 'chcslnut' => ахьара 'chcstnut-plantation'; ашә 'beech' => ашәра 'becch-planlation'; амза 'pine' => амзара 'pine-planlation'; аҧса 'Пг' => аҧсара 'fir-planialion'; араш 'е1ш' => арашра 'elm-planialion'; ашыц 'Ьох-lrcc' => ашыцра 'Ьох-trcc plantation'. In some cases a group o f trees is not indicated by this pluraliser added lo the treename but rather by the suffix indicating the place where the entity marked by the nominal root to which it is attached (in this case the fruit) can be found, namely -рҭа, e.g. алаҳа 'fig' => алаҳарҭа 'fig-orchard' (vs. алаҳацла 'fig-tree'); адәа 'apple' => ацзарҭа 'apple-orchard' (vs. ацәацла 'apple-tree'); аҳа 'реаг' => аҳарҭа 'pear-orchard (vs. аҳадла 'pear-tree')'. Examples o f -paa: Алхас 'Alkhas' => Алхасраа 'Alkhas and friends'; Гәында 'Gunda' => Гәынцараа 'Gunda and friends'; Хьфаф 'K h jfa f => Хьфафраа 'K hjfaf and friends'. Numerals The cardinal system is as presented below: 1
акы
50
аынаажәи жәаба
2
аба
60
хынаажәа
3
хп,а
70
хынаажәи жәаба
4
п,шьба
80
ҧшьынеажәа
5
хәба
90
ҧшьыноажәи жәаба
6
фба
100
шәкы
7
бжьба
200
аышә
8
ааба
300
хышә
9
жәба
400
ҧшьышә
10
жәаба
500
хәышә
II
жәеиза11
600
фышә
12
жәаеа
700
быжьшәы
13
жәаха12
800
аашәы
14
жәиҧшь
900
жә(ы)шәы
15
жәохә
1 ,0 0 0
зқьы
16
жәаф
2 ,0 0 0
анызқь
17
жәибжь
3,000
хнызқь
18
жәаа
8 ,0 0 0
аанызқь
19
зеижә | sic |
9,000
жәнызқь
20
«аажәа
1 0 ,0 0 0
жәанызқь
" T h e - и- is the coordinator 'and', usually suffixed to both elements conjoined , 2 N.B. жәаха 'not long since'.
33
30
еажәи жзаба
m illion
миллионк
31
аажәи жәеиза
2,006
анызқьи фба
40
©ынаажәа
5 ,127
хәнызқьи шәи аажәи бжьба
The list reveals that the counting-system is based on units not o f '10' but '20'. This means that, unlike Lhe typically (Indo-)European system, which operates with multiples o f '10', Abkhaz operates (uplo '99' at least) with multiples o f '20' (albeit itself'twice. 10'), so that '30' is '20.& 10' (literally 'twice. I0 .& 10') and '59' is '40.& 19' (literally '2.x.lw ice.l0.& 10.&.9'). For compound numerals from '21' (саажәи акы) upwards each clement except the last w ill take the coordinator -и 'and'. The forms in the above-list are those used for abstract-counting and for reference to non-human entities. For reference lo humans' Г w ill be аӡәы ('21' = аажәи аӡәы) whereas '2' is аыџьа(&ы(к)) ('22' = аажәи аыџьа(аы(к))), whilst from '3' upwards the suffix -аы(к) either replaces the element - 6 a in the above-list or, if the basic cardinal lacks -6 a, is simply added to the cardinal (e.g. жәаы(к) '9', саынаажәи жәааааы(к) '52'). The question now lo be asked is: how are the cardinals combined with nouns or noun-adjective combinations? And so firstly let us see how nouns and adjccLives combine. Most adjectives follow their nouns (those which precede w ill be discussed later) and are written separately from them (devoid o f the definilc-generic article which accompanies them in their citation-forms), e.g. аҵла '(the) tree' +аҳарак 'tali' => ацла ҳарак '(ihe) tall tree'; acac '(the) guest' + абааҧсы 'rotten' => acac бааҧсы '(the) no-good guest’. When such sequences are plural ised, the following variants arc found: (a) i f the adjective alone is marked for plurality, it Lakes the pluraliser appropriate to the root in question (e.g. ацла ҳаракқәа '(the) tall trees'; acac бааҧсцәа '(the) no-good guests'); (b) the noun loo may сагту its own pluraliser, and, if a human noun is so pluralised, the accompanying adjective may be pluralised by cither the human or ihe non-human plural suffix (e.g. аилақәа ҳаракқәа '(the) tall trees'; асасцәа бааҧсцәа/бааҧсқәа '(the) no-good guests'). In order to say 'one N', suffix -к(ы) lo the bare root o f the noun in question, regardless o f whether it denotes a human or non-human (e.g. хацак 'one man', ҧҳәыск 'one woman', цәак 'one apple', ҷкәынак 'one boy', ӡкы 'one flea', ӡык 'one water'). In the case o f a sequence o f noun+adjective this cardinal is suffixed to the adjective alone (e.g. хаца д(ы)ук 'one big man', ҧҳәыс д(ы)ук 'one big woman’, цәа д(ы)ук one big apple', ҷкәына д(ы)ук 'one big boy', 3 д(ы)ук 'one big Пеа', ӡ(ы) д(ы)ук 'one big water'; ҵла ҳаракык 'one tall tree'13).
^ T h c NP has one main stress, as indicated. Were (he adjective arliculatcd alone, the stress would be as in ҳаракык.
34
11'
the cardinal is written in full as a separate word, it mostly follows its noun (+
adjective) if the noun belongs to the non-human class (though sec footnotes 16 and 18 below), but it Irccly either precedes or follows a human noun (+ adjective); plurality is indicated in the ways just explained, e.g. Non-human: ’(the)
2
apples’ = ацәақәа аба
'(the) 39 apples' = ацәақәа аажзи зеижә '(the) (Ihe)
100
apples' = ацәақәа шәкы
big apples' = аҵәа(қәа) д(ы)уқәа аба
2
'(the) 39 big apples' = ацәа(қәа) д(ы)уқәа аажәи зеижә '(the)
100
big apples' = ацәа(қәа) 14 д(ы)уқәа шәкы
Human: '(the)
2
boys' = аҷкәынцәа аыџьа(аы(к)) / аыџьа(аы(к)) аҷкәынцәа
'(the) 39 boys' = аҷкәынцәа аажәи зеижәаы(к) / аажзи зеижәаы(к) аҷкәынцәа '(the)
100
'(the)
2
boys' = аҷкәынцәа шәаы(к) / шәаы(к) аҷкзынцза
big boys' = аҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцәа аыџьа(аы(к)) / аҷкәынцәа
д(ы)уқәа аыџьа(аы(к)) / аыуьа(аы(к)) аҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцәа / аыџьа(аы(к)) аҷкәынцәа д(ы)уқаа '(the) 39 big boys' = аҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцәа аажәи зеижәаы(к) / аҷкәынцәа д(ы)уқәа аажәи зеижәаы(к) / аажәи зеижәаы(к) аҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцәа / аажәи звижәаы(к) аҷкәынцәа д(ы)уқәа ’(the)
100
big boys’ = аҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцәа шәаы(к) / аҷкәынцәа
д(ы)уқәа шәаы(к) / шәаы(к) аҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцза / шзаы(к) аҷкәынцәа д(ы)уқәа As long as a proposed cardinal epithet o f a human noun does not carry the suffix -K 'Г , Ihe noun may drop its article, e.g. '(the)
100
boys' = шәаы ҷкәынцәа
'((he)
100
big boys' - шәаы ҷкәын(цәа) д(ы)уцәа / шәаы ҷкзынцәа
д(ы)уқза But the cardinal is not always written in full as a separate word. The cardinal root (i.e. minus any suffix -6 a; if the noun is human, there is more flexibility over ihe use with the cardinal root o f the human classifier -аы, but the higher the cardinal, the more likely it seems that this clement w ill be present) is prefixed to (he noun and usually written with a hyphen. The noun usually stands in the singular (necessarily so for non-human nouns, but the human pluraliser -цәа seems more likely to be present
14The pluraliser on the noun in these last three examples less likely lo appear bccausc, no doubt, o f ihe double indication o f plurality in the pluraliser on the adjective and in the prcscncc o f the cardinal within the NP.
35
i f there is an adjective in the phrase), and, i f the numeral is between I and 10, Ihe suffix -K 'I ' is added (but not for such nouns indicating time-periods as 'day', 'month', 'year', e.g. аымш
'2
days', аымыз
'2
months', аышықзса
'2
years'); between
11
and
19 this suffix is optional, but from 20 to 99 it is not used; there seems to be greater fluctuation in the use o f -k with human nouns. These rules apply lo sequences o f cardinal+noun only; i f an adjcctive is postposed, then the suffix -k is more likely to be present, e.g. Non-human '(the)
apples' = а(ы)-цәак
2
'(the)
11
apples' - жәеиза-цәа(к)
'(the)
20
apples' = шажәа-цәа
(the)
2
big apples' = а(ы)-цәа д(ы)ук
'(the)
11
big apples' = жәеиза-дәа д(ы)ук
'(the)
20
big apples' = оажәа-ҵәа д(ы)ук
Moving to 100 and above, we find: '(the)
10 0
apples' = шә-ҵәак or ҵәашәк
’(the)
101
apples' = шәи ак-дәа 15
'(the)
102
apples' = шәи ©(ы)-ҵәак 16
'(the)
100
big apples' = шә-цәа д(ы)ук
'(the)
101
big apples' = шәи ак-цәад(ы )ук 17
'(the)
102
big apples' = шәи а(ы)-цәа д (ы )ук 18
Human: '(the)
2
boys' = а(ы)-ҷкәынак
'(the)
11
boys’ = жәеиза(а)-ҷкәына(к)
'(the)
20
boys' = аажәа(а)-ҷкәына / аажәааы-ҷкәына / аажәа-ҷкәын
'(the)
2
big boys' = а(ы)-ҷкәына д(ы)у(цәа)к 19
'(the)
11
big boys' = жәеизаа-чкәына д(ы)у(цәа)к
'(the)
20
big boys' = аажәаа(ы)-ҷкәына д(ы)у(цәа)к
M oving lo 100 and above we find: '(the)
100
boys' = шәаы-чкәын(а(к)), шә(аы)-ҷкәынак or possibly even
ҷкәынашәк '(the)
101
boys' = шәи аӡә-ҷкәын(а(к)) / шәи аӡәы-ҷкәын
'(the)
102
boys' = шәи аыџьа-чкәын(а(к))
,
-K
is impossible, as Ihe same element is preseni in Ihe cardinal prefix.
l6 Also possible is ihe sequence шәи оба пәа(к), which combines free-standing and pre-poscd cardinal with a noun unmarked for plurality. I 7 N.B. that the - k is restored in the presence o f the adjective. l8 Also possible is the sequence шзи оба uaa д (ы )у(к), which again combines free-standing and d is posed cardinal with a noun unmarked for plurality, as in the alternative in footnote 16. l9Nole the possible presence o f the human pluraliser on the adjective.
36
'(Ihe) 103 big boys' = шзи х<аы-ҷкзын(а(к)) '(the)
10 0
big boys' = шә(<аы)-ҷкоына д(ы)у(цәа)к
'(ihe)
101
big boys' = шои аӡа-чкоына д(ы)у(цаа)к
'(ihe)
102
big boys' = шзи аыџьа-ҷкәына д(ы)у(цза)к
'(ihe) 103 big boys' = шәи хаы-ҷкәына д(ы)у(цәа)к If the cardinal never lakes (he suffix - 6 a, a non-human noun can appear in its bare slcm (i.e. wilhoul article or pluraliser) and be followed by the cardinal (e.g. цәа аажәа '2 0
apples', yaca шзк
'1 0 0
sheep').
In view o f the greal range o f possibilities, perhaps one should observe as rule o f thumb: for human nouns treat the numeral as an independent word, but for non-human nouns prefix it lo the noun. Adding Ihe article before Ihe cardinal makes the phrase definile (e.g. аҧшь-ҵзак 'the 4 apples (under discussion)', аҧшьаы(к) аҷкәынцза = аҷкәынцәа аҧшьаы(к) or even аҧшьаы-ҷкзынцәа 'the 4 boys (under discussion)'). A preposed cardinal with human classifier -аы alone can be followed by a pluralised noun minus article (e.g. ҧшьаы-ҷкзынцәа '(the) 4 boys'). Such a phrase can be made indefinite by adding -қзак 'some' (cf. цәақзак 'some apples', ҷкзынцзақзак 'some boys'), as in: ҧшьаы-чкзынцзақзак 'some/any 4 boys', and in the case o f a non-human noun this would give sequences like: гџнь-цзақзак 'some/any 4 apples'. Selection o f adjectives
аҿыц
new
ахәыҷы
little; child
аҧшӡа
beautiful
[а|аша
bitler
аца
hot; biller; maize-
ахьшәашәа
cold, cool
store а;ә£за
strong
[а]аашьа
lazy
ашкәакәа
black
white
[а]аиқза(ҵза)
акаҧшь20
red
ааежь
yellow
аиадза
green; navy blue
жәаангәыҧш-
sky-blue
шәыла ацәыкаҧшь
reddish
ацәаежь
yellowish
ацәиацәа
greenish/blueish
ацзиқзадза
blackish
акәанда vs аҧха
warm (of liquids &
ацзкәанда
warmish
air) vs warm (of other objects) 2®With animate nouns the tendency is to drop Ihe initial ka-.
37
атата
soft
ажәпа
thick; numerous
акәыш
clcvcr
акьаҿ
short; shirt
ақра
variegated
аҭбаа
wide, broad
аҵа(ы)ула
deep
акьашь
dirty
абзиа
good
ацәгьа
bad
38
Exorcises I. Translate the following into English: 1. аыџьа аҧацәа 2
. цлақәак
3.
П)Сыӡк
12 .
асасцәа бзиақәа ҧшьыноажәи
жәибжыаы(к) 13. жәа-бла span
4. шәары/аца(<а)цәақәак
14. ашәкәы жәпақәа аынаажәи жәааа
5. аӡиас ҭбаақәа
15. ашә татақәа хәба
6
. уардын кьашьк
16. аааык аишьцәа бзиақәа
7. аҭаҳмадацәа кәышцәа
17. аеш (ка)ҧшьқәа жәба
8.
18. ф-шәы ҕәҕәак
аӡ ца (N.B. i f the sequence аӡ ца
existed, what would it mean?)
19. аҕьычцәа цәгьацәа жәааа(-)саы(к)
9. аҭакәажә аашьацәа
20.
10. 11.
шәи ак-л(а) еиқәадәа vs
хьшьцбак
шәи акы-ал(а ) 21 еиқәацәа = шәи ак(ы)-
зеижә-зиа даулак___________
бл(а) еиқәацәа_____________________
2. Translate the following into Abkhaz: 1. Some girls.
13. Sixteen clever teachers.
2. Four daughters.
14. Twenty-five white fish.
3. One broad river.
15. The thirteen new pupils (under
4. The green cheeses.
discussion).
5. Some strong ropes.
16. Thirty-eight small horses.
6
. One white horse.
17. Fifty-two strong old women.
7. The Abkhazians.
18. Eighty-eight tall houses.
8.
19. Two hundred and two no-good
The dirty children.
9. Some lazy thieves.
hunters.
10. One goat.
20. 9,800 broad green trees. [N.B. 'green'
11. Fifteen beautiful girls.
precedes 'broad' in Abkhaz]
12. Some bitter medicines.
2 'Note the odd retention here o f the article, the presence o f which seems lo be connected with the need lo distinguish between Ihe numerical expression based on ала and thal based on а(б)ла.
39
Lesson 2
In this lesson you w ill learn about: • The person pronouns • The marking o f possession • Postpositions and postpositional phrases ■ Ordinals • Temporal expressions • Adjectives which stand before their nouns • Quantifiers • How lo say 'full o f X ' • How to coordinate nouns/noun-phrases • The days o f the week and other expression o f lime___________________________
Abkhaz is like English insofar as it does not allcr the shape o f ils nouns lo indicate iheir functions within a clause, but there the similarity ends. It is true lhat word-order plays a role in identifying such functions, but, whereas modem English opcrales wilh ihe clausal sequence: Subject-Verb-Object, Abkhaz applies ihe order: Subject-ObjeclVerb. Also, Abkhaz employs a series o f markers which are attached before the rools o f words to indicate Ihe relationship between the word in question and another elemenl (or olher elements) within ihe phrase or clause. These markers are called pronominal prefixes. In this lesson we shall see how ihcy relate (a) a possessed noun to its possessor, and (b) a postposition lo the (pro)noun or NP il governs. But we shall begin by considering the basic system o f pronouns. The pronominal system o f Abkhaz is as follows: i) Personal pronouns SINGULAR 1si 2
person
nd person (human male; indefinite)
2 nd
person (human female)
PLURAL
ca(pa)
ҳа(ра)
ya(pa)
шәа(ра)
6 a(pa)
шәа(ра)
3rd person (human male; non-human)
иа(ра)
да(ра)
3rd person (human female)
ла(ра)
да(ра)
Sometimes ҳарҭ 'wc/us' is used for ҳа(ра), as is шәарҭ for шәа(ра) 'you-PL', the former in each pair originally marking exclusiveness as opposed lo the inclusivcncss o f the latter (as first observed by N. Jakovlev). Under the influence o f olher languages (such as Russian) the 2nd person plural pronoun is often used when addressing a single addressee for ihe sake o f politeness. ii) Demonstrative pronouns 40
SING ULAR 1st
person dcixis
PLURAL
а(б)ри
а(ба)рҭ|
person deixis
а(б)ни
а(ба)нҭ
3rd person dcixis
у(бр)и
у(ба)рҭ
2 nd
The term 'dcixis' comes from the Greek work for 'shew, point out', and so, if the speaker wishes to indicate an object in his/her vicinity, this is done by selecting Ihc 1st person deictic forms, which thus equate to English 'this/these'. English has only a two-way opposition, contrasting with (he latter the forms 'that/those'. Most Caucasian languages make further distinctions by virtue, as here in Abkhaz, o f differentiating between entities near the addressee OR within vision (for this (he 2nd person deictic forms are selected) and those which are within the horizon o f some third party OR out o f vision (for this the 3rd person deictic forms are chosen, (hcse being the commonest o f the three sets in the language). The demonstrative pronouns also function as demonstrative adjectives2, and, when used in this role they stand first in the NP and agree with the head-noun for number, e.g. а(б)ри кавказтәи ауапа еиқәаҵәа 'this black Caucasian bourka3' vs а(ба)рҭ кавказтзи ауапа еиқәацәақәа 'these black Caucasian bourkas'
Possession Since there is no Genitive case to mark the possessor, the possessed noun carries a prefix to indicate who owns it — compare the form o f these possessive markers with the pronouns given above: SINGULAR
PLURAL
I st person
с(ы)-
Ҳ(а)-
2 nd
person (human male, indefinite)
y-
шә(ы)-
2 nd
person (human female)
б(ы)-
шә(ы)-
3rd person (human male)
И-
р(ы)-
3rd person (human female)
л(ы)-
р(ы)-
3rd person (non-human)
a-
р(ы)-
ereas the independcnl personal pronouns in ihe 3rd person singular have only (he distinction 'human female' vs 'human male/non-human', the possessive prefixes add the further distinction 'human male' vs 'non-human'. We can now demonstrate how the elements presented above combine to indicate possession. The possessor stands in front o f the possessed noun, and the latter takes 'These three plural forms are sometimes pleonastically marked for plurality by adding ihe non-human pluraliser -қәа. 2 Bul, when so used, the pleonastic pluraliser o f the equivalent pronominal form is impossible. ■1In the Caucasus a bourka is ihe usually black, heavy fell-cloak worn by shepherds and (traditionally al least) others spending lime out o f doors as a protection against the elements.
41
Ihc possessive prolix appropriate lo Ihc possessor, as can be seen in Ihe following examples: (ca(pa)) сыаны/сыанқәа 'my house/houses' (ya(pa)) уеимаа/уеимаақәа 'your-M ALE shoe/shoes' (ба(ра)) быцкы/быҵкқәа 'your-FEM dress/dresses' (иа(ра)) иаымҭа/иаымҭақза 'his wrillen work/works' (иа(ра)) аб^ьы/аб(ы) 5 ьқәа 'ils (e.g. the tree's) leaf/leaves' (ла(ра)) лашәа/лашәақәа 'her song/songs' (ҳа(ра)) ҳбаҳча/ҳбаҳчақза 'our garden/gardens' (шәа(ра)) шзашьа/шзашьцәа 'your-PL brolher/brolhers' (да(ра)) раҳәшьа/раҳәшьцәа 'their sister/sisters' As we see, the personal pronoun is itself optional, usually used only for purposes of emphasis, as the information it conveys is recapitulated by the possessive prefix. а(ба)рҭ рмашьына/рмашьынақәа 'these persons' car/cars' у(бр)и лымаҳә/лымаҳәцәа 'that (female) person's sister's husband/sisters' husbands (or daughter's husband/daughters' husbands)' у(бр)и иаыза/иаызцәа 'that (male) person's friend/friends' у(ба)рҭ рырахә 'those persons' cattle' Combinations involving a noun or NP as possessor can be illustrated by: саб иуапа 'my father's room' мшын ца(ы)улақәак рыҧшаҳәақәа 'some deep seas' coasts' Сасрыкәа иашьцәа ҧшьынаажәи зеижзаы (к)/п,шьы наажзи зеижзаы(к) Сасрыкәа иашьцәа 'Sasryqw’ a's 99 brothers' (sc. the central family from the national Nart epic) An>cya жәлар penoc 'the Abkhazian people's epic' у(бр)и ашьха д(ы)у ашьапы 'the foot o f that large mountain' ҧҳәыс еибак лҧа зацәы 'а/one widow woman's only son' (ca(pa)) саҳәшьа еицбы лы(б)ла(қәа) ҧшӡақәа 'my younger sister's beautiful eyes' (да(ра)) рашьа еиҳабы ихцәы каҧшь 'their older brother's red hair' The same method o f linkage applies between (pro)nouns or NPs and postpositions. Postpositions perform the same function in Abkhaz as prepositions in English (viz. they indicate certain types o f relationship, often spatial) but arc placed after the entities they govern. Sometimes a postposition is attached directly to a non human noun in the singular (i.e. without any pronominal prefix) and might at first glance appear to be more akin to a case-ending, but substituting a plural noun usually reveals the element's true status. Consider: шьапыла 'on fool', which might look like an Instrumental case in -ла o f ашьапы '(the/its) loot', but, if Ihc noun is pluralised, we
42
gel ашьапқәа рыла 'with/by the/its le d '4 — note that when attached dircctly lo a singular noun, this postposition usually causcs the aniclc lo drop, but it is restored in the full poslpositional phrase o f ihe plural. A similar example occurs wilh -aa 'without; apart from' (e.g. гәыцрада 'without hope' vs агәыҕрақәа рыда 'without hopes'; ажьа цыхәада 'the rabbit without a tail'). One postposition where this test fails is -ka 'to', as in ааныка '(to) home', for an alternative postposition (-ахь) is called into service with the plural (viz. аанқәарахь 'to(wards) the houses'). When a noun ends in a vowel and (he following postposition begins with the 3rd person non-human prefix a-, the two words are usually run together. There follows a selection o f examples illustrating some o f the commonest postpositions: (ca(pa)) сзы 'for me'; acam; аба рзы5 'at
2
o'clock'
сааҭк ашьҭахь 'after an hour1; (ca(pa)) сышьҭахь 'behind me' ҳааны |а]аҧхьа 'before/in front o f our house' у(бр)и ашьха д(ы)у ашьапаҿы 'at the fool o f that large mountain' (ҳа(ра)) ҳакны = (ҳа(ра)) ҳҿы 'at our place = chez nous' х-класск ркны 'in class 3' (literally 'in 3 classes') [а]ашҭа^ы / [а]ашҭақәа рҿы6 'in the yard / in the yards' [а]автор скынтә 7 'from me, Ihe author' (cf. а(б)ри акынтә 'because o f this; for this reason') ақалақь [а]ахь 'to(wards) (he town/city'; ақалақьқәа рахь 'to(wards) the towns/cities' амшын atuka 'in (he direction o f the sea' зегь рацкьыс/раасҭа/реиҳа than everyone/all' адгьыл аҵа 'beneath the earth' ацла амца(н) 'beneath (he tree' (шәа(ра)) шәеиҧш8 'like you-PL' (ya(pa)) уцынхәрас/уцымхәрас 'instead o f you-MASC' аз-аврцә 'on this side o f the water = river' vs аӡ-нырцә 'on that side o f the water1 (ба(ра)) баан 'in your-FEM day'; [а]аибашьр[а ]аан 'during the war' асааҭхҧанӡа 'until/uplo 3 o'clock' (N.B. -нӡа never lakes the plural prefix p-) а(б)рантә(и) 'from here' ҳа(ра) ҳабжьара 'between us' 4Given what we shall discover later about verbal agreement, it might be preferable lo say that the agrcemcnt-prefix for a 3rd person singular noun-human entity is either a-, as in the table given above, or zero (viz. 0 -), and that the actual analysis o f forms like шьапыла is шьапы.0 .ла 'foot.it.by'. ^Alternative forms for the postposition are: -зыҳәа(н)/-зын. 6ln addition to its poslpositional function, -чы also exists as a nominal root meaning 'mouth, facc'. 7AIso found is скнытә. 8A peculiarity o f this postposition is that, i f the governed clement is a non-human noun, one would have expected the sequence /[а)аипш/ lo have been pronounced [ajpgl, whereas in fact it is pronounced (ejpg) and spelled accordingly as еипди.
43
зықь мааҭ pakapa 'about
1, 0 0 0
roubles (амааҭ)'; an alternative is to suffix -ka to
the numeral or NP concerned (e.g. зықька мааҭ 'about 1,000 roubles'; хымшка 'about 3 days') Let us now return to the numeral system and examine how Abkhaz forms its ordinals. The ordinals, which place objects in numerical sequence, are formed by suffixing -тәи lo Ihe non-human cardinals and by prefixing the article a- (optional from 'N th ' upward); for ' 1 0 0 th' and 'millionth', the indefinite article is placed before this suffix9. It follows from the above that the ordinal system does not differentiate between humans and non-humans, e.g. The ordinal system is as presented below: 1st 2
nd
[а|актәи / [а]ап,хьатәи
50ih
(а)аынаажәи жәабатәи
аабатәи
60th
(а)хынаажәатәи
3rd
ахҧатәи
70lh
(а)хынаажәи жәабатәи
4th
аҧшьбатәи
80th
(а)п,шьынеажәатәи
5lh
ахәбатәи
90th
(а)ҧшьымаажәи-жәабатәи
6 th
афбатәи
1 0 0 th
(а)шә(ы)ктәи
7th
абыжьбатәи
2 0 0 th
(а)аышәтзи
8 th
[а]аабатәи
300th
(а)хышәтәи
9th
ажәбатәи
400lh
(а)ҧшьышәтәи
1 0 th
ажәабатәи
500lh
(а)хәышәтәи
1 1 th
(а)жәеизатәи
600lh
(а)фышәтәи
1 2 th
(а)жәааатәи
700th
(а)быжьшәтәи
13th
(а)жәахатәи
800lh
(|а.])аашәтәи
14th
(а)жәиҧшьтәи
900th
(а)жә(ы)шәтәи
15th
(а)жәохәтәи
1 ,0 0 0 th
(а)з(ы)қьтәи
I 6 lh
(а)жәафтәи
2 ,0 0 0 th
(а)анызқьтәи
17th
(а)жәибжьтәи
3,000th
(а)хнызқьтәи
18th
(а)жәаатәи
8 ,0 0 0 lh
([а])аанызқьтәи
19th
(а)зеижәтәи [sic]
9,000th
(а)жәнызқьтәи
2 0 th
(а)аажәатәи
1 0 ,0 0 0 th
(а)жәанызқьтәи
30lh
(а)аажәи жәабатәи
millionth
(а)миллионктәи
31st
(а)аажәи жәеизатәи
2,006th
(а)анызқьи фбатәи
40th
(а)аынаажәатәи
5,127th
(а)хәнызқьи шәи аажәи бжьбатәи
The ordinals belong lo the group o f adjeclivcs which in Abkhaz precede their nouns, as does any olher adjective formed with this same suffix. And, when following adjeclivcs so formed, the noun w ill retain its own article, which, i f the NP requires a 9Some speakers seem not lo object to (he indefinite article (= primary num eral) -k- appearing ulso in multiples o f a 100 .
44
possessive marker, w ill be replaced by Ihe appropriate possessive prefix. Proposed adjcctives never lake a pluraliser to agree with a plural noun, e.g. аҧхьатәи ахзҭа '(ihe) first part1 актәи акласс '(the) first class' Аҧснытәи ааы '(the) Abkhazian wine' аҧхьатәи иҧҳәыс 'his first wife' ахәылҧазтәи (= ахәылбыҽхатәи) аиадәақәа '(the) evening stars' (cf. (а)хәылбыҽха '(in) the evening; ахәылҧаз 'in the evening') Temporal adjcctives, such as this last, sometimes do not themselves lake the article, but their nouns still do, unless it is replaced by a possessive prefix; the same is true for locative adjectives so formed, e.g. (а)шьыжьтәи аиадәа (the) Morning Star' (cf. ашьыжь '(the) morning'; шьыжьы 'in the morning') шьыжьымҭантәи амра ашәахәақәа '(the) rays o f the morning sun' (cf. ашьыжьымҭан '(the) morning'; шьыжьымҭан 'in the morning') шьыбжьонтәи ашоура '(the) midday heat' (cf. ашьыбжьон '(the) midday'; шьыбжьон 'at midday') шьыбжьышьҭахьтәи аҧша '(the) afternoon breeze' (cf. ашьыбжьышьҭахь '(the) afternoon’; шьыбжьышьҭахь 'in the afternoon') уахатәи ачара 'tonight's wedding-feast' (cf. yaxa 'tonight') иахьатәи агазеҭқәа 'today's papers' (cf. иахьа 'today') иацтәи ача 'yesterday's bread' (cf. иацы 'yesterday') жәацтәи [а]аизара 'the meeting the day before yesterday' (cf. жәацы
'2
days ago')
иахатәи быҧхыӡқәа 'уоиг-FEM last night's dreams' (cf. иаха 'last night') Уадәтәи акәты адкьыс иахьатәи акәтаҕь (еиҕь(ы)уп10) 'Better today's egg than tomorrow's chicken' (cf. уадәы 'tomorrow') уадаашьҭахьтзи ацатәхәы 'the lesson the day after tomorrow' (cf. уадәашьҭахь 'the day after tomorrow') сынтәатәи аҽаара 'this year's harvest' (cf. сынтәа 'this year') дыҧхтәи рҳамҭақәа 'their gifts o f last year' (cf. ҵыҧх 'last year') ҽаантәи аҭыжьымҭақәа 'next year's publications' (cf. ҽааны 'next year') аҽынтәи амш 'that day's weather' (cf. аҽиы '(on) that day1) уахынлатәи аус(ы)ура 'night work(ing)' (cf. уахынла 'by night') уажәтәи [а]аамҭа 'the present time’ (cf. уажәы 'now') ҽынлатәи сус(ы)ура 'my day(-time) work(ing)’ (cf. еынла 'by day') аратәи аҷкәынцоа 'local lads' (cf. apa 'here') уатәи шәус 'your-PL job over there' (cf. ya 'there') *®This is the Present tense o f the Stative verb meaning 'it is better’; see Lesson 3 for the structure o f such verti-fonns.
45
арҕьарахьтәи аоны 'ihc house on Ihe right' (cf. |а|арр>арахь 'to the right') армарахьтәи амаа 'the road on the left' (cf. [а|армарахь 'to the left') An almost similar adjective-forming suffix is -тә(ы), one o f whose functions is lo indicate the material oul o f which a noun is made. Adjeclivcs so formed also prcccdc their nouns, which this time do not, however, take their own article, and any possessive prefix attaches to the adjcclive. e.g. Аҳәынҭқарратә бызшәа 'the state-languagc' аҭцааратә ус(ы)урақәа 'research works' сыхьтәы мацәаз 'my gold ring' Аџьынџьтәылатә еибашьра11 д(ы)уӡза 12 'The Great Patriotic War (= World War II)' I f another preposed adjective follows one ending in -тәи, then this second adjective does not have to carry any article, but it preferably docs, e.g. Адснытәи (а)ҳәынҭқарратә университет 'The Abkhazian State University' Қырҭтәылатәи (а)пролетартә шәкәыаоцәа расоциациа 'the Association o f Proletarian Writers o f Georgia' Note атәым 'foreign' also precedes its noun (minus article), as in: атәым yaa '(the) foreigner' and атәым бызшәа '(the) foreign language' Other adjectives which precede their nouns are those indicating ethnicity and such 'pronominal' adjeclivcs as (д)аҽа 'other' (cf. the human pronoun (д)аҽазәы 'other person'), e.g. аҧсуа бызшәа / аҧсшәа '(the) Abkhaz (language)' ҳагыруа гәылацәа 'our Mingrclian neighbours' агыруа бызшәа / агыршәа '(the) Mingrelian (language)' аурыс жәлар 'the Russian people’ хаы(к) ақырҭуа ҭыҧҳацәа 'three Georgian girls' санглыз аызцәа ҧшьаы(к) 'my four English friends' (д)аеа шәкәык 'one other book' (д)аҽа оыџьа аҷкәынцәа 'two other/another two boys' Notice what happens w ilh the quantifier 'many'. In its simplest guise, it stands alter its hcad-noun, which is in the singular, adding the human classifier i f qualifying a human noun, e.g. ашәкәы рацәа 'many books' vs а ры ч рацәаа 'many thieves' It can, however, be turned into an adverb (by suffixing -ны and prefixing и-), whilst still appearing to function grammatically as an adjective, though perhaps the
1 'The citation-form is [а]аибашьра '(the) war'. 12Adjeclivcs can be intensified by ihc suffix - 3a, and reduplicating (he consonant increases the level o f imensificalion even further.
46
fundamental force o f (his modified ilcm could he captured by translating as 'in abundance', lor this lime ihc hcad-noun is marked for plurality, e.g. ирацәаны ашәкәқәа 'books in abundance' vs ирацәааны аҕьычцәа 'thieves in abundance' This modified adjective can stand immediately after its hcad-noun, in which case it loses its prefix, but, it can also 'float' around the sentence and stand away from the item it qualifies, in which ease the prefix is restored, e.g. ашәкәқәа рацәаны 'books in abundance' vs аҕьычцәа рацәааны 'thieves in abundance' The quantifier маҷк/маҷаык '(a) little, few' behaves in more or less the same way, cxccpt that its basic position can be deemed prc-nominal, but note that in the adverbial transform the primary cardinal suffix drops, e.g. маҷк ааы / (а)а-маҷк / имаҷны ааы / ааы маҷны 'а little wine' vs маҷеык ауаа / ауаа маҷаык / имаҷыаны ауав / ауаа маҷыаны 'few people' The quantifier ҧыҭк/ҧыҭеык 'a few' seems not lo undergo the adverbial transformation, e.g. п,ыҭк ацлақәа / ацлақәа ҧыҭк / (а)цла-ҧыҭк 'а few trees' vs ҧыҭаык ахәыҷқәа / ахәыҷқәа ҧыҭаык 'а few children' When referring to one o f a natural pair, in addition lo the suffix -к 'Г , the element a-, which in fact is the old Common North West Caucasian numeral for 'Г , is inserted immediately before the nominal root (e.g. сызлымҳак 'one o f my cars'; бызнапык 'one o f your-FEM hands'). Another instance where the old numeral for '1' survives is in the word for 'full'. But азна is not the normal adjcclive one might expect. Consider (he phrases аадәак азна ашыла 'a sack ([а|аадәа) full o f flour (ашыла)' and аҳаҧшьақәа рызна ааы 'storage-vessels (аҳаҧшьа) full o f wine (aau)'. The material which does the fillin g is the head o f the NP, whilst the entity filled is linked to the word for 'full' by means o f the appropriate possessive prefix . 11 To conjoin (pro)nouns either the suffix -и or the suffix -гь(ы) is attached to both/all o f the conjuncls; when conjoined, only the long form o f the personal pronouns (minus -a when the suffix is -гьы) is permitted, e.g.
'3 |t is d ifficult lo capturc in English whal might have been the original force o f these expressions. Perhaps the nearest one can come is by thinking o f the phrases here as equating to 'flour being one with a sack' and 'wine being one with the slorage-vessels (sunk in the ground)'.
47
уареи сареи14 / у а р гш саргьы 'you-MASC and I/me’; лани лаби / лангьы лабгьы 'her mother and father'. Note that, whilst Abkhaz can translate directly such phrases as 'Adgur and his friends', viz. Адгәыри иеызцәеи a common (perhaps commoner) synonym would be translatable by the decidedly odd English sequence 'Adgur's friends and he/him', viz. Адгәыр иаызцәеи иареи The words for 'both' are аабагьы (for non-humans) and асшџьагьы (for humans). By prefixing the aricle a- and (optionally but usually) suffixing -гьы one produces forms meaning 'all N U M E R A L' (e.g. ахп,а(гьы) 'all 3 (non-humans)' vs ахаык(гьы) 'all 3 (humans)'; ааышәк(гьы) 'all 200 (non-human)' vs авышәаык(гьы) 'all 200 (human)', where we note the obligatory presence o f the indefinite article/primary numeral in the
1 0 0 s).
The days o f the week (амчыбжь амшқәа) arc: Sunday
амҽыша
Thursday
аҧшьаша
Monday
ашәахьа
Friday
ахәаша
Tuesday
aeauia
Saturday
асабша
Wednesday
ахаша
To convcy the meaning 'on _D AY', either (a) use the citation-form without alteration or, and perhaps preferably, (b) make it dependent on the postposition -зы or (c) suffix -ҽны 'on the day' to the day-name in question (e.g. ахәаша / ахәашазы / ахәашаҽны 'on Friday'). For the notion '(regularly) on _DAYs' use the instrumental postposition, which, it w ill be recalled, causes loss o f the article (e.g. шәахьала 'on Mondays' = есшзахьа 'every Monday'). Some other useful temporal expressions are the following: а(б)ри амчыбжьа(зы) 'this week'; ес(ы)мчыбжьа 'every week'; мчыбжьык 'a week'; мчыбжьнакьак / мчыбжьынаӡак 'the whole week'; ашықәс ҿыц 'the New Year'; фы-шықәса '6 years'; ашықәсан 'that year'; шықәсыбжьах шықәсык 'every olher/sccond year'; алшықәсанык 'the whole year'; шықәсынаӡак / шықәснакьак 'the whole year; иуанашьҭахь / унашьҭахь 'three days hence'; иахь(а) шәны 'a week from today'; иахьантәарак 'the whole o f today'; иацынтәарак 'the whole o f yesterday'; уацә(ы)уха 'tomorrow night'; уацәы ахәылбыеха'tomorrow (in the) evening'; иаха ахәылбыҽха 'last (night in the) evening'; l4 Nolc that Ihe open vowel assimilates to ihe immediately following suffix -и by shifting lo -e-. This docs nol happen, i f Ihe open vowel is immediately preceded by the pharyngal fricativc ҳ-, e.g. аҳаи аҷышьеи 'wurp (аҳа) and wefl (аҷышьа)'.
48
иахьантәарак 'Ihc whole o f today'; |а|ааҧын / |а|аап>ынра '(in 1-*') spring'; ааҧынра зегь(ы) 'ihc whole spring'; аҧхын / аҧхынра '(in 16) summer'; алҧхынрак 'ihe whole summer'; п>хны мшык азы 'one summer's day'; аӡын / аӡынра '(in 17) winter'; алӡынрак 'Ihe whole winter'; ҭагалан 18 '(in) autumn'; ҭагалара зегь(ы) or ҭагалан зегьы 'the whole autumn'; амза 'moon'19; амзаҿа 'New Moon'; амзаҿа-цәырцра 'the waxing o f ihe New Moon'; амзаҭәы 'full moon'; амзаӡымҭа 'time before the New Moon'; амзаҭәымҭа ’(time o f the) full moon'; амзаҭахамҭа '(lime o f the) waning moon'; амзатә 'menstruation'. Exercises Translate into English___________________Translate into Abkhaz 1 . Сан
лыхьтәы мацәази баҳәшьа
1. The 4th road on the right
лы цкы каҧшьи
2. Tomorrow evening at 6 o'clock
2. Ашәкәыаацәа ҳзы
3. In these new rooms
3. Шәа(ра) шәҿы амҽыша(зы)
4. A little white cheese
4. Уаби уани ркынтә
5. In front o f these small houses
S. Аҧсышәалагьы Аурысшәалагьы
6
6.
7. Her 2nd husband
Ирацәааны Агырцәеи Ақырҵ^әа
. Before 11 o'clock in the morning
ҧыҭоыки
8.
7. Зама лашьцәа аыџьеи лареи
9. M y father's older sisters
8 . Асааҭ
10. By the rays o f the morning sun
аказы иахьа шәны
Thai (yonder) tree's large leaves
9. Жәымыз рышьҭахь 10. Баызцәа ^ыццәа рзы(ҳәа(н))
'^Though these two words are attested in Ihe sense o f 'in spring', this meaning is perhaps more naturally expressed as: [а]аап>ын азы / |а|аап,ынраз(ы). ,6Though these two words are attested in the sense o f 'in summer', this meaning is perhaps more naturally expressed as: аҧхын азы / аҧхынраз(ы). l7Though these two words are altcsted in the sense o f 'in winter', this meaning is perhaps more naturally expressed as: ajbiH азы / азынраз(ы). i 8 N.B. both the absence o f any article and ihe impossibility o f using the postpositional phrase) азы Tor it' with ihis noun to express ihe idea 'in aulumn'. l 9Cf. амз '(the) inonlh'.
49
Lesson 3
In this lesson you will learn about: • The markers for the subject o f intransitive verbs • Monovalent Stative verbs in the Present tense • The markers for the indirect object o f verbs • Bivalent Stative verbs in the Present tense • The negative form o f Stative verbs in the Present tense »The Present tense (affirmative and negative) o f the identity-copula______________
The verb is structurally the most complex and thus the most challenging part o f Abkhaz grammar. In order lo be able lo hold the simplest o f conversations, one needs lo be able to control a considerable amount o f morphology. But we shall do our besl lo introduce items as slowly as possible to enable learners to feel comfortable and confident about the forms they are being asked lo manipulate. There are two fundamental categories o f verb in Abkhaz. These arc the Slalive verbs and the Dynamic verbs. In this lesson the former w ill be introduced. Stative verbs, as their name suggests, indicate an ongoing state o f affairs (as opposed to actions, signalled by those in the Dynamic class). A ll Stative verbs are intransitive, but they may take two arguments: their subject and anolher argument. Sometimes this second argument seems to behave more like the subject, as we shall see below. As already mentioned, a verb’s arguments have their functions revealed by the system o f pronominal cross-referencing affixes attached lo the verb itself. How, then, is the subject o f intransitive (and, thus, all Stative) verbs marked? The initial slot in the verbal complex is the one that accommodates the relevant affix, and the affixes that cross-refcrcnce an intransitive verb's subject are these: Pronominal Markers o f Intransitive Subjects within the Verb SINGULAR 1 si
person
PLURAL
с(ы)-
Ҳ(а)-
2 nd
person (human male; indefinite)
y-
шә(ы)-
2 nd
person (human female)
б(ы)-
шә(ы)-
3rd person (human)
Д(ы)-
и-
3rd person (non-human)
и-
и-
I f ihc bracketed vowel is articulated (and, thus, written) with the 1st person singular consonant c-, il also emerges from its brackets alongside the other consonants in the above-table; otherwise the vowel is not written, even if one has the 3rd person human 50
singular аГПх д- immediately preceding a verbal root beginning with a dental plosive, where the limitations ol'the human vocal tract necessitate the articulation o f an anaptyctic vowel. I f a Stative verb is making an affirmative statement in the Present tense, the verb ends in a sequence o f two elements: -(ы)у-, the marker o f stativity, and -n, which indicates finileness (for Stative verbs in the Present tense). Verb-roots (like all roots in Abkhaz) end in either the open vowel -a or a consonant ± the close vowel -ы. The sequence 'open vowel + stative marker' is realised as |o:J and written -oy-1, whilst the addition o f the Stative marker lo a root ending in consonant ± the close vowel -ы is realised as [u :]2 and written -(ы)у-. We can now examine two illustrative conjugations which demonstrate these two patterns (the third column in the table shews the morphological composition o f the relevant forms). Both verbs have only the one (subject) argument, -хәыч(ы)- l-xw^ r ( sH here functions as the root '(be) little' and ends in a consonant + the close vowel -ы, whilst -ka- [-q'a-] ends in the open vowel and is one o f the language's copular roots meaning 'be (somewhere)': Paradigms for Affirm ative Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
схәыҷ(ы)уп
s.)twatJ’o.w.p’
I am
сыкоуп
S9.q’
you.Fcm are бхәыҷ(ы)уп
b».xws lj,e.w.p'
you.Fcm are
быкоуп
be.q'aw.p’
you.Masc
укоуп
wo.q’a.w.p’
дыкоуп
do.q’aw.p1
I am little
little you.Masc
ухәыч(ы)уп w3.xwatj'a.w.p'
are little
are
(s)he is little дхәыч(ы)уп
ds.xw*t/'9wP’
(s)he is
it is little
ихәыҷ(ы)уп
ja.Xw3 tJ’a.w.p'
it is
икоуп
jd.q’a.w.p'
we arc little
ҳхәыҷ(ы)уп
Kxwa l/’a.w.p'
we are
ҳакоуп
haq'aw p’
you.PI are
шәхәыҷ-
JW-XW3'J’®-W-P’
you.PI are
шәыкоуп
Jwo.q'a.w.p’
little
(Ы)уп
they arc
ихәыч(ы)уп
JaXw3tro.w.p’
they are
икоуп
ja.q’a.w p’
little
English has the copular verb ’be', and sequences o f 'be ADJECTIVE' (e.g. 'be little') or 'be NOUN(-PHRASE)' (e.g. be a child') retain the independent verb and associate it with the relevant adjective or noun-phrase, the second element in such sequences * Unless, o f coursc, the open vowel immediately follows Ihe pharyngal fricative Ҳ-, in which cose il docs not allcr, yielding the ending А(б)ри ҳауп 'This is a pear (аҳа)’, pronounced [tawp']. Sometimes a root ends in -аа, and in such eases no special sound-change occurs. 2This long vowel is the realisation o f the sequence /а/ + /w/; in other words, even i f the root in question normally ends in a consonant, ihc close vowel is added when il functions as a Stative verbal root.
51
being known as an adjcclivc-complcmenl or noun-complemcnl, respectively. Abkhaz, however, turns these complements into the root/stem o f a Stative verb, thereby eliminating (he need for the independent copula o f English. The (able above exemplifies an adjective in the role o f Stative root, though, since ахәыҷы also functions as the noun '(the) child', as noted when the item was introduced in Lesson I, where the subject o f the verb is human, the first meaning to spring to a native speaker's mind w ill be 'I (etc.) am a child', which means that one and the same Abkhaz paradigm here serves to illustrate both adjective- and noun-complementation. We can demonstrate a full noun-phrasc in the same role in the next example: Уаҳәшьа дысоызоуп 'Your-MASC sister is my friend', which, to take its constituent elements one by one, would be something like: your.sisler she.my.friend.is. For a sequence o f noun + adjective as Stative stem consider this: Башьа дхацабзиоуп 3 'Your-FEM brother is a good man', which, again to take its constituent elements, would be akin to: your.brother he.man.good.is. In the first o f these examples the verb-form contains two pronominal prefixes, one from the list presented above to correlate with the intransitive subject, the other being the possessive marker on the noun, introduced in Lesson 2. Apart from the д-variant for the 3rd person plural (which readers can ignore for the time-being) and the zeromarker for the 3rd person non-human singular (the occurrence o f which with certain preverbs is explained below in this lesson), these possessive markers are identical lo the affixes which mark a Stative verb's second argument, as can be seen by comparing the list below with that presented in Lesson 2: Pronominal Markers o f a Stalive Verb's Second Argument SINGULAR
PLURAL
I st person
с(ы)-
ҳ(а)-/(а)ҳ - 4
2 nd
person (human male, indefinite)
y-
шә(ы)-
2 nd
person (human female)
б(ы)-
шә(ы)-
3rd person (human male)
и-
р (ы )-/д (ы ) - 5
3rd person (human female)
л(ы)-
р(ы )-/д(ы )-
^This, somewhat counler-intuitively but in reflection o f the usual spclling-convcnlion for noun adjective sequences, can be spelled as two separate words: дхаца бзиоуп. 4The vowel in both variants is underlying the close vowel, bul, by regular phonological change (as explained in the Introduction), this shifts to the open vowel in ihe immediate vicinity o f the plain voicelcss pharyngal fricative. In this latter variant, the vowel more accuralcly belongs to the preceding morphological element. -‘’ This a-vorianl is rare; Ihe explanation o f its use (in Causative forms) is given in Lesson 11.
52
a -/e -
3rd person (non-human)
р (ы )-/д(ы )-
Since ihc linear ordering o f these affixes is rigid, lei us refer to those indicating the intransitive subject as Column I affixes, so that those indicating the second argument w ill represent the Column 11 afiixal set. There follows a table presenting two more Stative verbs, one o f which has a root ending in the open vowel, whilst the other does not. Both are bipersonal, taking a subject and a second argument prefix, and the conjugation changes the person o f the second argument in order to illustrate the list o f affixes set out immediately above, whilsl keeping the subject constant. Both verbs are translated into English as 'I (etc.) am wearing X', which might suggest that they are transitive, but they are not; they should rather be thought o f as equaling lo such cumbersome English structures as: 'article o f clothing X 6 is on my (etc.) upper torso' (for the root -шә(ы)-) vs 'article of clothing X 7 is on my (etc.) lower body' (for the root -шьа-)8. Consider the following: Paradigms for Affirm ative Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
I am
исшә(ы)уп
ибшә(ы)уп
ja.b.Jwa.w.p'
you.Masc
и(ы)ушә-
are wearing
(ы)уп
you.Fem are
Ja.w.Jwe.w.p'
you.Masc
ишз(ы)уп
he is
ja.j.Jwa.w.p'
илшә(ы)уп
she is
ja.LJwa.w.p'
|a.we.Ja.w.p'
ишьоуп
js.je.Ja.wp'
илышьоуп
ja.la. Jaw.p'
иашьоуп
[a ja w .p '
иҳашьоуп
jahaja.w.p'
wearing X иашә(ы)уп
j.a.Jwa.w.p’
it is wearing X
X we are
иушьоуп
wearing X
wearing X
wearing X
ja.be.Ja.w.p'
X
wearing X
il is wearing
ибышьоуп
are wearing
X
she is
js.sejaw.p'
wearing X
wearing X
he is
исышьоуп
wearing X
wearing X you.Fem are
I am
ja.s.fwa.w.p'
иаҳшә(ы)уп
we are
j.ah.Jwe.w.p’9
wearing X
6 For example: coal, shirt, skirt, elc. 7 For example: footwear, trousers, knickers, etc. 8This is not to say that these roots (today at least) have an independcnl existence, and so one might prefer lo think o f Ihc second argument in such verbs as representing an indirect object. For the rool -шьа- cf. ашьапы '(Ihe) foot, leg', so that Ihc structure for this verb for wearing would be in origin 'X is on my (etc.) fool/leg'. 9Or. in an even deeper analysis. /ja.fi Jwa.w.p'/.
53
you.PI arc
ИШӘШӘ-
wearing X
(Ы)уп
they are
иршз(ы)уп
ia.Jw.Jwaw.p'
you.Pl are
ишоышьоуп
|8./ws.Jaw.p'
ирышьоуп
js.ra.Jawp'
wearing X jar. (ws.w.p-
they are
wearing X
wearing X
The forms with 3rd person human male as ihe 'wearer' in this table indicate that, where one notionally has two и-affixcs side by side (the former here belonging to the Column I affixal set, the latter to the Column II affixal set), only one is written and pronounced. The word-initial affix и- drops, if its referent (viz. the argument with which it correlates) immediately precedes il, e.g. (Ба(ра)) аимаа ҧшӡақәа бышьоуп 'You-FEM arc wearing beautiful shoes ([а]аимаа)' (cf. the less usual (Ба(ра)) ибышьоуп аимаа ҧшӡақәа, with the same meaning) I f such a word-initial и- carries the stress, then il is not entirely lost but reduces lo ы-, egАцгәы ыкоуп a(6 )pa The cal (ацгәы) is here' (cf. the more normal Ацгәы a(6 )pa икоуп) Slalivc roots can also consist o f postpositions: conversely, some such 'postpositional' Stative roots have no independent existence as postpositions. We have already encountered the postpositions -ҿы 'in' and -еиҧш 'like'; consider, then, their role in these sentences: (Ca(pa)) аус(ы)ура саҿ(ы)уп 'I am busy working = engaged in work(ing)' Уҧшәма сан длеиҧш(ы)уп 'Your wife (аҧшәма10) is like/resembles my mother' On the olher hand, the following Slalivc roots, which seem to pattern in ihe same way, do nol exist independently: (Ca(pa)) (ба(ра)) сбыц(ы)уп 'I am with you-FEM' (root = -ц(ы)- '(be) with') Ала асаркьа-ҧыҽха алоуп 'The dog has a sliver (аҧыҽха) o f glass (асаркьа) (stuck) in it' (root = -ла- '(be) in') Саҳәшьап>ҳа лҿы акы ҭоуп 'My niece (= sister's daughter) has something in her mouth' Ҳаҧсы ҭоуп 'We are alive' (literally: 'Our soul is in it (sc. its container = ?the body)' A consideration o f these examples reveals that, just as the English notion of 'wcar(ing)' is rendered in more than one way, depending on distinctions that are irrelevant in English, three ways o f rendering the notion 'bc(ing) in' exist — in fact, there are even more translalion-equivalenls for bolh ’wearing)' and 'be(ing) in'. The ,(>This word should perhaps be translated 'spouse', as it can refer to either a male or female partner.
54
element -ла- is usually associated with being inside a mass (such as ihc human body) and lakes (he Column II affix a- when governing a non-human object, whilst -ҭаsignil'ics being inside a de lined space (such as a container) and takes the zero-affix when governing a non-human entity, as do a number o f other preverbs (such as the one immediately following). The notion 'be(ing) inside a dwelling' is illustrated in: Аҳамҭа/аҳамҭақәа ҳааны ивноуп 11 The present (аҳамҭа) is/presents are inside our house' For 'be(ing) in a book' we have: Ари, Платон Бебиа ишәкәы “ Аныҳәақәа” иа(гәы)лоуп ажәабжь ссирқәа 'In this book "Festivals" (аныҳәа) by P’ lat'on Bebia are lovely (ассир) stories (вжәабжь)' (cf. агәы '(the) heart') For 'be(ing) in a cave' we have a choice o f postpositional Stative roots, viz. Ланд(ы)уи лабд(ы)уи аҳаҧы иҭоуп/ицоуп 'Her grandmother and grandfather are in the cave (аҳаҧы)' The usual force o f the latter root is 'be(ing) under/beneath', as can be seen in: (Ба(ра)) аидара бацоуп 'You-FEM are carrying a load ([а]аидара)' (literally: 'You are under a/the load'), where a comparison o f the last two examples reveals that the agreement-affix for аҳаҧы 'cave' is zero, whilst for аидара 'load' it is a-. For ’be(ing out) in the sun' we have: Рыҧҳа амра дцә(ы)уп T heir daughter is (out) in the sun' Since one normally describes the object o f a postposition (preposition in English) as an oblique object, we can think o f these postpositional objects when the postposition is functioning as the verbal root as oblique objects o f the verb. This means that, in terms o f English categories, the Column II affixes indicate possession, indirect objects, and oblique objects, English distinctions which are perhaps irrelevant in Abkhaz. The root in the last example -цә(ы)- should not be confused with -цәа-, which means 'be(ing) asleep', as in: Бысаби дыцәоуп 'Your-FEM baby (асаби) is asleep' Some olher useful Stative forms are the following: (Ca(pa)) сан слышьҭоуп 'I am on my mother's trail/following after my mother' (root -шьҭа-) Бтәоуп 'You-FEM are sitting/seated' (root -тәа-) Угылоуп 'You-MASC are standing' (root -гыла-)
11 Note both that the verbal root ends in ihc open vowel and that the non-human 'house' is marked by the zero-affix within the verb. I f the meaning were They are in our houses' with plural 'houses', then we would have: қаанқәа ирыаноуп.
Ачымазаа аиарҭаҿы дышьҭоуп 'The sick person (ачымазаа) is lying (pronc/proslrate) in bed (аиарҭа)' (root -шьҭа-) Ииашоуп 'It is true' (root -иаша-) Арахә адәы иқә(ы)уп The cattle (арахә) arc upon the meadow (адәы) = out lo grass' (rool -қә(ы)-) (Ҳа(ра)) аҧара рацәаны иҳамоуп 12 'We have money (аҧара) in abundance' (root -ма-) This last verb-form should be thought o f as meaning 'money is in our hand(s)', with the root -ма- 'have' being linked to the initial formant o f анапы '(the) hand’. For a colloquialism involving this Stative rool, consider the following: Ранд(ы)у аиарҭа дамоуп 'Their grandmother lies sick in bed' (literally 'The bed has their grandmother') Кәтыки ф-кәтақьки сҭах(ы)уп 'I want one chicken (акәты) and 6 eggs (акәтаҕь)' (root -ҭах(ы)-) У(ба)рҭ ayaa сырцәым5 (ы)уп 'Those people hale (rool -цзымб(ы)-) me' А ( 6 )ри аҧараҭра шәа(ра) ишәтә(ы)уп T his wallel/purse (ацараҭра) belongs to you-PL' [As a noun this last rool -тә(ы)- means 'slave' — cf. Дта(ы)уп '(S)he is a slave'] Адәыҕбақәа ҭә(ы)уп The trains (адәы^ба) are full' (root -ҭа(ы)-) (И)ҭаб(ы)уп Thanks' (root -ҭаб(ы)-) Даара иҭаб(ы)уп 'Thanks a lot' (Jla(pa)) Зама лыхьӡ(ы)уп 'Her name is Zama/She's called Zama' (root -хьӡ(ы)-) Хьиба сыжәлоуп 'Khiba is my surname' (root -жәла-) Хьиаа срыжәлоуп 'I'm o f the Khiba clan' Ибзиоуп 'It is good; OK; Fine' (root -бзиа-) Изаманоуп 'ОК; Fine' (root -замана-) А(ба)с/у(ба)с еиҕь(ы)уп 'It's better like this/like that' 13 (root -еиҕь(ы)-) Иҧхашьароуп 'It is shameful' (a frequent castigation) (root -ҧхашьара-) Ҳакоуп 'So so' (a possible answer to 'How are you?'; literally 'We are') Ахәшҭааракны амца еиқә(ы)уп 'The fire is lit in the hearth (ахәшҭаара)' (root -еиқә(ы)-) Two further specific expressions for conveying the notion 'wear' are:
' 2Nole that the verb begins wilh Ihc Column I affix that correlates with an,apa I f the intervening word (рацәаны) were a normal, postposcd adjective, it would be part o f the NP, and the Column I affix would drop. This supports the analysis o f рацәаны suggested in Lesson 2. '-'Note thal, though a(6 a)c 'like this' and y( 6 a)c 'like that' are adverbs, they behave as though they are Ihe verb's subject and thus cause the pronominal agreemcnl-affix и- lo drop when standing immediately before the verb.
56
Схылҧа ч;ыц схоуп 14 'I am wearing my new hal (ахылҧа)' (literally 'II is on me') (wilh root -xa-; cf. ахы '((he) head' and |qa| 'head' in Aba/a) Абысҭа ачанах иан(ы)уп 'The grits (абысҭа = ihe Abkhazians' staple food, along wi(h акәыд 'bean paste') is on (rool -н(ы)- Tor 'being on a flat surface15') (he plate (ачанах)' Анапҭарҧа/амака/асаш/азыгмацәаз/амацәаз/алымҳарыа лымқоуп 'She is wearing gloves (анагп;арҧа)/а belt (амака)/а watch (acam;)/a thimble (аӡыгмацәаз)/а ring (aMau.aa3)/car-rings (алымҳарыа)' (root -Mi;a-) BUT 'She has a ring on her finger' would be: Амацәаз лнапы иахоуп (literally 'А ring is on her finger') Афатә аишәа иқә(ы)уп 'The food is on (he (able ([а]аишәа)' Ауҭраанапы аг(ы)уп 'The vegelablc-plo( (ауҭра) lacks a hand = needs adention' (rool -г(ы)-) A ll Sta(ives so far illustrated have been affirmative Present tense forms. Should we wish lo negate them, then the final two morphological elements (Stative marker -y, and finite Present tense ending -n) yield their place to the marker o f negation - m, so that the negative equivalents for the verbs presented in the two tables above would be as follows: Paradigms for Negative Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
I am not
СХӘЫҶЫМ
s.xwalj'e.m
I am nol
сыкам
sa.q’am
бхәыҷым
bs.xw3tf’a>n
you.Fem are
быкам
DQ.q’Q.m
укам
wa.q'a.m
дыкам
da.q’a.m
little you.Fem arc not little you.Masc
not ухәы ҷы м
W3.Xwal/'s.m
you.Masc
arc not little (s)he is not
are not дхәыҷым
d3.xw3lj’9.m
(s)hc is not
il is not little
ихәыҷым
)a.Xw3i;'s.m
il is not
икам
jg.q'a.m
we are not
ҳхәыҷым
hXwsl/’e.m
we are not
ҳакам
haq’am
шәхәыҷым
Jw.XwatJ’e.m
you.PI are
шәыкам
Jwe.q’a.m
ихәыҷым
i3.Xw»lJ'e.fn
they are no(
икам
jd.q'Q.m
liulc
little you.PI arc nol little they arc not
not
little ' ‘'The rool -xa- is used for headgear. '-‘’This is used for material on a page (адакьа) or in a newspaper (агазеҭ).
57
Paradigms for Negative Bipersonal SlaLive Present Verbs
I am not
ИСШӘЫМ
ps Jwsm
[ am not
wearing X you.Fem arc
ибшәым
ja.6.Jwa,m
you.Fem are not wearing
X
X и(ы)ушәым
jaw.Jws.m
you.Masc
are not
arc not
wearing X
wearing X
he is not
ишәым
js.nwa.m
илшәым
|a.l.Jwa.m
he is not
wearing X she is not
she is not
иашәым
j.a.Jwa.m
it is not
иаҳшәым
j.ahjwam
we are not
ja.wa.Jam
ишьам
ja.ja.Jam
илышьам
jala.Ja.rn
иашьам
j.a.Ja.m
иҳашьам
ia.ha.Ja.rn
ишәышьам
ja.Jwe.Ja.m
ирышьам
ja.re.Jo.m
wearing X ишәшәым
ja.Jw.Jwa.m
you.PI arc
not wearing
not wearing
X
X
they are not
иушьам
wearing X
wearing X you.PI are
ja.ba.Jam
wearing X
wearing X we are not
ибышьам
wearing X
wearing X it is not
js.sa.Jam
wearing X
not wearing
you.Masc
исышьам
иршәым
ja.r.Jwa.m
wearing X
they are not wearing X
Though not an obligatory component o f negation, negated verbs as often as not contain the suffix -ӡа-, such that the 1st person singular forms from the last two tables with this suffix would be: схәыҷӡам, сыкаӡам, исшәӡам, исышьаӡам, and any other Stative verb in the Present tense w ill pattern just as regularly. Note the standard reply to the question 'How are you?': Xap сыма(ӡа)м/ ҳама(ӡа)м 'I am/we are fine'. I f we take the two forms o f the primary cardinal акы 'one (non-human); something' and аӡәы 'one (human); someone', add the clitic -гьы 'and, also, even', and associate the resulting pronouns with a negated verb, then we have the Iranslationequivalents for 'nothing' and ’no-one', e.g. Аӡәгьы а(б)ра дыка(ӡа)м 'There is nobody here' (literally 'Not even one person is here')
58
Акгьы сҿы иҭа(ӡа)м ‘I have nothing in my mouth' (literally 'Not even one thing is in my mouth’) У(бр)и ап,ҳәыс лцза/лыбаа лтәым/лтәӡам That woman is pregnant' (literally 'That woman's skin (ацәа)/Ьопе (абаа) does not belong to her') Another copular root, which is used to identify the subject, is peculiar in more ways than one. Consider first its conjugation in the Present affirmative: Present Tense (Affirmative) for the Identity Copula
It's me
ca(pa) coyn
sa(.ra) s.a.w.p'
It's you-FEM
ба(ра) боуп
ba(.ra) b.aw.p’
It's you-MASC
ya(pa) yoyn
wa(.ra) w.aw.p’
It's him
иа(ра) иоуп
ja(.ra) j.a.w.p’
It’s her
ла(ра) лоуп
la(.ra) l.aw.p’
It's it
иа(ра) ауп
ja(.ra) aaw.p ’ 16
It's us
ҳа(ра) ҳауп
fra(.ra) ha.w.p’ 17
It's you-PL
шәа(ра) шәоуп
Jwa(.ra) f w.a.w.p’
It's them
да(ра) роуп
da(.ra) r.aw.p’
Quite contrary to expectations, the agrecment-affixes for this seemingly monopersonal copular root are those not o f Column I but o f Column II. Under negation the root alters from -a- to -акә(ы)-, but the agreement-pattern is the same, egPresent Tense (Negative) for the Identity Copula
It's not me
са(ра) сакәым
sa(.ra) s.a(.)kw’a.m18
It's not you-FEM
ба(ра) бакәым
ba(.ra) b.a(.)kw’e.m
It's not you-MASC
уа(ра) уакәым
wa(.ra) w.a(.)kw's.m
It's not him
иа(ра) иакәым
ja(.ra) j.a(.)kw’a.m
It's not her
ла(ра) лакәым
la(.ra) l.a(.)kw' 3.m
It's not it
иа(ра) акәым
ja(.ra) a.a(.)kw’a.m
It's not us
ҳа(ра) ҳакоым
fia(.ra) h.a(.)kw’a.m
It's not you-PL
шәа(ра) шәакәым
Jwa(.ra) Jw.a(.)kw's.m
It's not them
да(ра) ракәым
da(.ra) r.a(.)kw’3 .m
l6The two open vowels in succession prevent the raising and rounding to [o:] under the influence o f (he follow ing bilabial semi-vowel. l7Thc open vowel again fails to undergo raising and rounding, bccausc it is preserved in the immediate vicinity o f ҳ. l8The bracketed full stop is there to indicate that we are possibly dealing with a compound root.
59
Examples: (Ca(pa)) лашьеиҳаб сакәым/сакәзам, лашьеидб соуп
'1
am not her older
(|а|аиҳабы) brother; I'm her younger (|а|аиҵбы) brolher' А(б)ри сеыза бзиа иоуп = А(б)ри дысаызабзиоуп 'This is my good friend’ А(ба)рҭ соызцәа бзиақәа роуп These are my good friends' BUT А(ба)рҭ саызцәа бзиоуп/блақәоуп These friends o f mine are good (people)' The latler variant demonstrates that it is possible to underline the plurality o f an intransitive subject by placing the non-human pluraliser -қәа after the verbal root; this procedure is more common in relative expressions, as wc shall see in due course. Exercises Translate into English___________________ Translate into Abkhaz 1. Ҳашьцәа хә-класск рыкны итәоуп
1. The Abkhazian hunter is wearing a red hat
2 . Сышәкәқәа
шәкәардәқәа ирыҵоуп
2. We have a few trees in our garden
3. Сан ланд(ы)уцәеи лабд(ы)уцәеи
3. Your-MASC daughter is wearing a
рыҧсы ҭа(ӡа)м
beautiful dress
4. Амшын Еиқәа нырцә Ҭырқзтәыла
4. Those dogs do not have black eyes
ыкоуп 5. Уажәтәи аамҭазы аҧсыӡ радәа
5. T ’ aif and his wife are asleep in bed
амшын иҭа(ӡа)м 6.
У(бр)и аҧҳәыс сыҧшәма лоуп.
Уа(ра) уҧшәма леиҧш уигьы
6.
My (male) friend's daughter is wearing
a beautiful gold watch
дап>сыуа(ӡа)м 7. Ҳара Аҧсуаа атаым уаа ҧыҭаык
7. Those boys and girls are not my pupils
ҳалоуп 8 . Ахьшьцәа
ҧшьаык ашьха ашьапаҿы
8.
Their daughters want nothing
игылоуп 9. У(бр)и аҭакәажә ҷкәынаки ӡ^абки
9. Your-FEM mother and father do not
лымоуп. Иагырқәоуп/Иагырцәоуп
have many friends
10. Арҭ ахәыҷқәа ацкы кьашьқәа
10. Your-PL guests are sitting under that
рҭахым/р^ахӡам
big tree
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Lesson 4
In this lesson you will learn about: • The formation o f Yes-No questions lor Stative verbs in the Present • The formation WH-questions for Stative verbs in the Present • The formation o f tag-qucstions for Stative verbs in the Present • The formation o f alternative questions for Stative verbs in the Present • The formation o f relative expressions______________________________________
So far all we have learned is how to make statements incorporating an affirmative or negated Stative verb in the Present tense. Let us now start to see how questions are produced. We have to distinguish between questions designed to elicit the answer 'yes' or 'no' and those requiring some specific information, these latter being usually termed WHquestions or Content-questions. Firstly, then, to form a Yes/No-qucstion on the Present tense o f a Stative verb, simply replace the finite ending -n with cither -ма or -y, and apply rising pilch to the verb's stressed syllable. The former of the two possible suffixes is the commoner, and only this variant w ill be used in simple Yes/No-qucstions in this book; a specific context requiring the second variant w ill be introduced later. In order to demonstrate (he pattern, the conjugations presented in Lesson 3 for the verbs 'bc(ing) little, a child', 'be(ing) (somewhere)', and two Iranslation-equivalenls for 'wear' arc transformed below into their corresponding interrogative forms. This fulsome treatment is probably unnecessary in view o f the regularity o f the patterning, but, given the complexity o f Abkhaz verbs, it w ill do no harm to have the complete conjugations available for quick reference. Paradigms for Yes/No-interrogative Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
Am I little?
схәыҷ(ы)у-
S.xwatJ’8w.ma/
м а/
s.xw3t/’e wa.w
сы коум а/
sa.q’a.w.ma/
сыкоу(у)
so.q’a.wd.w
Are
быкоума/
bd.q'aw.ma/
you.Fem?
быкоу(у)
ba.q'a.wa.w
A m i?
схәыҷ(ы)у((ы)у)' Are
бхәыч(ы )у- bs.x^at/’d.w.ma
you.Fem
ма/
/bs.xw3tj’e.
little?
бхәыҷ-
W9.W
(ы)у((ы)у)
*Though morphologically two bilabial glides must be present in such forms, as only one is articulated, only one is written in the standard orthography; the pronunciation o f this form is: [sxwatj'u:].
61
Arc
ухәыҷ-
w9.xw9tj’a.w.
Arc
уко ум а/
wo.q'aw.ma/
you.Masc
(ы )ум а/
ma/we.xWal/‘®
you.Masc?
ykoy(y)
W0.q*Q.W9.W
little?
ухәыч-
W9.W
Is (s)he?
ды коум а/
do.q'a.w.ma/
дыкоу(у)
do.q’a.wd.w
икоум а/
p.q’aw.ma/
икоу(у)
jo.q'a.waw
ҳакоума/
haq’a.w.ma/
ҳакоу(у)
ho.q'a.waw
(ы)у((ы)у) Is (s)he
дхәыҷ-
cte.xwetj'e.w.ma
little?
(ы )ум а/
/daxw9tj’e.
дхәыҷ-
we.w
(ы)у((ы)у) Is it little?
ихәыч-
j8.xwatj'e.w.ma/
(ы )ум а/
j9.xwetJ’o.w9.w
Is it?
ихәыч(ы)у((ы)у) Are we
ҳхзыч-
little?
(ы )ум а/
ha.Xw®tJ’e.
ҳхәыҷ-
W9.W
Arc we?
fiXw®U’9
(ы)у((ы)у) Are you.Pl
ШӘХЗЫЧ-
Jw.Xw9tJ>w.
little?
(ы )ум а/
mo/;wXw3tJ*e
шәхәыҷ-
W3.W
Are you.Pl? шәыкоума/
/^ .q ’aw.ma/
шәыкоу(у)
Jwe.q’aw9,w
икоум а/
jd.q’a.w.ma/
икоу(у)
j9.q'aw9.w
(ы)у((ы)у) Are they
ихәыч-
jsxw3tj'ewma/
little?
(ы )ум а/
js.xwslj’awaw
Are they?
ихәыч(ы)у((ы)у)
Paradigms for Yes/No-intcrrogative Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
Am I wearing X?
ИСШӘ-
)3SjwS.w.mo/
Am I
исышьоума
j9.s9./aw.ma/
(ы )ум а/
js.s./ws.ws.w
wearing X?
/исышьо-
J9.SQ./aW9.W
иешә(ы)у-
у(у)
((ы)у) Are
ибшә(ы)ума
jab.Jwe.w.ma/
Are
ибышьоума
j9.bo.Jaw.ma/
you.Fem
/
js.b.Jwe.waw
you.Fem
/ибышьо-
)9.ba.jQ.W9.W
wearing X?
ибшә(ы)у-
wearing X?
У(У)
((ы)у)
62
Are
иушә(ы)у-
Js.w./wa.w.mo/
Are
иушьоума/
ja.wo.ja.w.ma/
you.Masc
ма/
ja.w.Jwe.ws.w
you.Masc
иушьоу(у)
js.wd./a.wa.w
wearing X?
иушә(ы)у-
Is he
ишә(ы)ума
j9.j.Jwe.w.ma/
Is he
ишьоума/
js.ja./o.w.ma/
/
js.j.Jw8.ws.w
wearing X?
ишьоу(у)
j3.p/a.w».w
илшә(ы)у-
ja.LJws.w.ma/
Is she
илышьоума
|ә.1ә /Q.w.ma
ма/
ja.l./ws.w3.w
wearing X?
/илышьоу(у)
/ |3.li.ja.w3.w
wearing X?
((ы)у) wearing X?
ишә(ы)у((ы)у) Is she wearing X?
илшә(ы)у((Ы)у) Is it wearing иашә(ы)ума X?
/
|.a.Jwaw ma/
Is it wearing
иашьоума/
j.a.Jawrna/
jaJwawaw
X?
иашьоу(у)
j.a.Ja.waw
иашз(ы)у((ы)у) Are we
иаҳшә(ы)у-
(.ah/we.w.mo/
Are we
иҳашьоума
|з. ha/a.w.mo/
wearing X?
ма/
jah.Jwa.wa.w
wearing X?
/иҳашьо-
|3.ha(a.w3.w
иаҳшә(ы)у-
у(у)
((ы)у) Are you.Pl wearing X?
ишәшә(ы)у- |a.fw.Jw9.w.ma/ ма/
jsJw.Jwa.ws.w
js./ws.Jaw.ma
Are you.Pl
ишәышьоу-
wearing X?
ма/ишәы-
/
шьоу(у)
j».jw8.fa.w3.w
ишәшә(ы)у((ы)у) Are they wearing X?
иршә(ы)ума
js.r.Jwe.w.ma/
Are they
ирышьоума
ja.ra.Jaw.ma/
/
jar. Jws.w3.w
wearing X?
/ирышьо-
|3.rs. Ja.ws.w
иршә(ы)у-
у(у)
((ы)у)
Should the verb be negated, then the parallel interrogatives result from simply suffixing -и (or again -(ы)у), to the negated Present tense o f the relevant Stative verb, as in:
Paradigms for Negated Interrogatives o f Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
Am I not
схәыҷыми/
s.xw3l/'anis.i/
little?
СХӘЫҶЫМ-
sxw3tj'3m3w
Am 1 not?
(ы)у
63
сыками/
sd.q'a.rna.j/
сыкам(ы)у
sa.q’anw.w
Are you.
бхәыҷыми/ b3.xwatj'a.ma.j/
Fern not
бхәыҷым-
ba.xwalj'a-
little?
(Ы)У
ma.w
Are you.
ухәычыми/ W3.xw3lJ’a.m3.j/
Masc not
ухәыҷым-
wa.xwatj'a-
little?
(Ы)у
тз w
Is (s)he not little?
Are you.
быками/
be.q’a.ms.j/
Fern not?
быкам(ы)у
ba.q'a.m9.w
Are you.
уками/
wd.q'ama j/
Masc not?
укам(ы)у
wo.q'ama.w
дыками/
da.q'a.md.j/
дыкам(ы)у
cto.q'aimw
иками/
je.q’ams.j/
икам(ы)у
jd.q’a.m».w
ҳаками/
hq.q'ama.j/
ҳакам(ы)у
ha.q'ams.w
дхәыҷыми/ daxw3lj’a ma.)/ Is (s)he not? дхәыҷым-
da.xwalj'ama.w
(Ы)у Is it not
ихәыҷыми/
ja.xwalj'a.ma.j/
little?
ихәыҷым-
ja.XwalJ'a.ma.w
Is it not?
(Ы)у Are we not
ҲХӘЫҶЫМИ/
hXwalJ’a.ma.j/
little?
ҲХӘЫҶЫМ-
hxwa(ra.rra.w
Are we not?
(ы)у Are you.Pl
шәхәыҷы-
Jw.XwalJ'e.ma.j/
Are you.Pl
шәыками/
/we,q’a.me.i/
not little?
ми/шәхәы-
;w.Xwat/,s.ma.w
not?
шәыкам-
Jwe.q’a.ma.w
ja.XwatJ'e.ma.j/
Are they
иками/
]d.q’ama.j/
ja.Xwal/'ama.w
not?
икам(ы)у
jo.q'o.rre.w
ҷым(ы)у Are they not ихәыҷыми/ little?
ихәыҷым-
(ы)у
(ы)у Paradigms for Negated Interrogatives o f Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
Am I not
исшәыми/
ja.s./we.TO.l/
Am I not
исышьами/
J9.sd.ja.m3.j/
wearing X?
ИСШӘЫМ-
ja.s.Jwa.ma.w
wearing X?
/исышьам-
)3.s9.Jama.w
(Ы)У
(ы)у
Are you.
ибшәыми/
ja.b.Jwa.ma.|/
Fern not
ибшәым-
ja.b.Jwa.ma.w
wearing X?
(Ы)у
Are you.
ибышьами/
jabQ./ama.j/
Fem not
/ибышьам-
)ә.Ьә.|а.тә.ж
wearing X?
(Ы)у
Are you.
и(ы)ушәы-
ja.w.Jwa.ma.j/
Are you.
иушьами/
ja.WQ.Ja.ma.i/
Masc not
ми/
ja.w.Jwa.ma.w
Masc not
иушьам(ы)у
j9.w9.Jam9.w
wearing X?
и(ы)ушәы-
Is he not
ишәыми/
ja.j.Jwamaj/
Is he not
ишьами/
j9.j9./a.ma.j/
wearing X?
ишәым(ы)у
ja.).Jwa.ma.w
wearing X?
ишьам(ы)у
ja.pja.ma.w
wearing X?
М(ы)у
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Is she not
илшзыми/
|ә1/wamj[/
Is she nol
илышьами/
jd.ld./a.ma.j/
wearing X?
ИЛШӘЫМ-
ja IJwa тә w
wearing X?
/илышьам-
js.b./ams.w
(ы)у
(ы)У Is it nol
иашәыми/
|.a./wa.ma.j/
Is it nol
иашьами/
wearing X?
иашәым-
j.a.Jwa.ma.w2
wearing X?
иашьам(ы)у
pajamsw
(ы)у Are we not
иаҳшәыми/
jari/wa.ma.j/
Are we not
иҳашьами/
ja.ha/ama.j/
wearing X?
иаҳшәым-
j.ah.Jwa.ma.w
wearing X?
/иҳашьам-
ja. ha.Jama, w
(ы)у
(ы)у
Are you.Pl
ишәшәыми
ja.fw.Jwe.ma.j/
Are you.Pl
ишәышьами
ja.Jwe.Jama.j/
nol wearing
/ишәшәы-
ja.Jw.Jwe.ma.w
not wearing
/ишәышьа-
ja./wa.Jama.w
X?
М(ы)у
X?
м(ы)у
Are they not
иршәыми/
ja.r. /wa.ma,j/
Are they nol ирышьами/
wearing X?
иршәым-
ja.r Jwa.ma.w
wearing X?
(ы)у
ирышьам-
ja.ra.Ja.maj/ ja.ra.Jamaw
(ы)у
The forms in -(ы)у are used in the same context as their non-negalive counterparts, as explained below. The force o f the remaining negative questions is such that they rather expect the answer 'yes' and perhaps thus equate more to an English tag-question o f the structure '1 am little/a child, aren't I?'. When negated verbs were introduced in Lesson 3, it was slated that the suffix - 3 a- often accompanies the true negative marker without any significant change o f meaning. And so, it might be anticipated that this suffix could be added to these negated interrogatives in the same way. This is not, however, the case. I f one inserts this suffix, the meaning shifts to a question rather expecting the answer 'no', thus equating to an English tag-question o f the type 'I am not little/a child, am I?' or perhaps 'So, I'm not little/a child then?', which in Abkhaz would be: схәычӡами? In order to be able to answer such questions one needs to know that 'yes' in Abkhaz is either ааи огаиеи, whilst 'no' is either мап or мамоу — one also hears for 'no' [?ai], where the initial glottal slop cannot be represented in wriiing, as the alphabet has no sign for this sound. This no doubt explains why the word is rarely encounlered in the written form o f ihe language; аи (without glollal stop) is rather an inlerjcclion, corresponding to 'eh'. Examples: Шәоызцәа а(б)ра икоума? М ап/мамоу, ааны икоуп 'Are your-PL friends here? No, they are al home'
2Or/|a.fiJwa тә.у1and /ja, h.Jwa.ma.W.
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Гәында боума? Мап/мамоу, Амра соуп 'Arc you/is that (when talking by phone, for example) Gunda? No, I am/lhis is Amra' Бан ацкы иацәа лымами? Ааи/Аиеи, аха икьашь(ы)уп. А(б)ри акынтә аамҭала илшәым/илшәӡам 'Your mother has a green dress (ацкы), doesn't she? Yes, but (axa) it's dirty. For this reason she's not wearing it for the timebeing (аамҭала)' Ҳасасцәа адәахьы игылоума? Мап/мамоу, ааныцка ахәшҭаара нырцә-аарцә итәоуп 'Are our guests standing outside (адәахьы)? No, they are sitting inside (аоныцка) on this side and that o f the hearth' У(бр)и ашә бзиами? Ааи/А иви, даара ибзиоуп That cheese is good, isn’t it? Yes, it's very good' Ҳашәцәымҕӡами? М ап/мамоу, шәаҳцәымҕым/шәаҳцәымҕӡам3 'So, you-PL don't hate us then? No, we don't hate you' Беимаақәа кьашьума? М ап/М ом оу, ицқьоуп 'Are your-FEM shoes dirty? No, they are clean (ацқьа)' I f one wishes to ask an alternative question (viz. o f the type 'Do you VERB, or don't you VERB?'), one uses the forms in -y presented in the tables above, firstly nonnegated and then negated, with high-falling pilch on the stressed syllabic, e.g. А(б)ри аҭыҧ ҭацә(ы)у((ы)у) иҭацәым(ы)у 'Is this place (аҭыҧ,) free (аҭацәы) or nol? У(бр)и ацәца ҭә(ы)у((ы)у) иҭәым(ы)у 'Is that glass (ацәца) fu ll or not? The second verb need nol be the same as the first, in which case it w ill nol o f course be negated, e.g. Иҧхар(р)оу, ихьшәашәароу аӡын? 'Is (the) winter (аӡын) a warm time (аҧхар(р)а) or a cold lime (ахьшәашәара)?' We now have to examine the further changes to the verb's morphology when the question asked is o f the type 'who, whom, whose?' or 'what?'. I f the question seeks to identify a human participant, the suffix -да replaces both ihc Stative marker -y and the Finite Present tense suffix -n. I f the question pertains to the argument which is taken up in the verb by the Column I pronominal prefix, then Ihis prefixal slol is occupied by И-; i f the question pertains to the argument which is taken up in the verb by the Column II pronominal prefix, ihcn з- appears in this slot. High-falling pitch again characterises the stressed syllable. We can illustrate this by taking the roots employed so far to demonstrate the relevant verbal morphology. Consider:
■'Note the expected close vowel after the initial consonant shifts lo the open vowel in the immediate vicinity o f v
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Patterning o f Who-lypc Questions on Ihe Column I Argument in Monopcrsonal Slalive Present Verbs
Who is
ихәыҷыда
Who is?
p.XwstJ-a.da
икапа
js.q'a.da
littlc/a child?
Patterning o f Who-lypc Questions on the Column II Arguments in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
Who is
изшәыда
)3z_/woda
wearing X?
Who is
изшьада
Js.z./oda
wearing X?
The negated equivalents o f these questions are produced by inserting the negative marker - m immediately before the interrogative suffix, e.g. Negated Who-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
Who is not
ихәыҷымда
|а.хмә1Гв.пк1а
Who is nol?
нкамда
jo.q'a.mda
little/a child?
Negated Who-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
Who is not
изшәымда
wearing X?
js.z.fwo.mda
Who is nol
изшьамда
]az.Jamda
wearing X?
I f the question is o f the Whal-lype, then one o f the suffixes -и, -зи, or -зеи replaces the Slalive Finite Present suffix -n, though the Stative marker -y itself is not in this case dropped, e.g. Patterning o f Whal-lype Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
67
Whal is
ихәыч(ы)уи
jaxw3lj'e.waj/
little?
/
|axw»t/'e.w.za]
ихәыҷ(ы)у-
/ j3.Xw3t/'a.w.za)
з(е)и
What is?
икои4/
je.q'aws.j/
икоуз(е)и
jo.q'a.w.zs.j/ Ja.q'aw.zo.j
Patlerning o f What-type Questions on the Column II Argument in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
What is
изшә(ы)уи/
jaz.Jws.waj/
What is
изшьои/
jaz.fa.waj/
wearing X?
изшә(ы)у>
jaz.Jws.wazaj/
wearing X?
изшьоузи/
jaz.Jaw.zaj/
(е)и
j3.z./wa.W3.za.J
изшьоузеи
j3.z.faw.zQ.]
When such interrogatives arc negated, only the suffix -и is used, and it is immediately preceded by the negative marker - m without the presence o f the Stative marker -y. A moment's thought w ill be sufficient for readers to realise that this produces the same suffixal patterning as attested in negated Yes/No-questions. There is, however, an inlonalional difference: whereas negated Yes/No-questions cany rising pitch on the stressed syllable, negated What-type questions seem to incorporate two stressed syllables, the normal one (now secondarily stressed and marked in the tables below by underlining) plus the final syllabic, which also carries the questioning intonation. The reason for this may be that morphologically there are two homophonous elements following the negative marker, namely one marking a negated question, the other indicating that the question concerns a non-human actor (as suggested by the morphological breakdown in the tables below). Consider: Patterning o f Negated What-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
What is not
ИХӘҶЫМИ
jaxwtj’ams.ja| What is not?
иками
Ig.q'ama.jaj
little?
^Though the bilabial glide is nol (normally) written, it is clear lhat this Slalive marker must be present at some level, as it causes the rounding o f the open vowel; were il not present, we would have *икеи One o f the texts in Lesson 20 contains the conjoined NP зықәра назахьоуи ахәыҷқзеи 'both persons o f full age and children', where the second word ends in the bilabial glide, being the marker оГ the nonfin ite Perfect, followed by -и, which here is the coordinating clitic. I f Ihis clitic is added to the nonrinite Stative Present, what happens? Consider this example: а(б)ра икоуииками 'both the onc/lhosc who is/are present here and the onc/lhosc who is/are not': here we sec lhat the bilabial glide is not dropped. However, il sometimes fails lo be wrillen even before the consonant-initial suffixes -зи and -зеи.
68
Patterning o f Negated What-type Questions on the Column II Argument in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
What is nol
ИЗШӘЫМИ
p l Jws m3 j3 j
Whal is nol
изшьами
pz.Jamaja.j
wearing X?
wearing X?
Since the Column II affix yields its place to 3 - when Wlio/Whal-lype questions arc formed, and since we also find affixes identical to those o f Column II external to verb-forms (viz. when they mark possession or the object o f postpositions), some readers might be wondering how questions are formed on possessors and postpositional objects. The answer is that the relevant prefix yields to 3 -, and the verbform patterns suffixally like the examples given above, e.g. Ашҭаҿы зца дыкада''? "Whose son is in the yard ([ajaur^a)?' Зыкны укада7 ’A t whose place are you-MASC?' I f one takes a question like: Быҧшәма дызмилаҭда? 'What is your husband's nationality (амилаҭ)?', it might seem more logical to say Бып>шәма дызмилаҭ(ы)уи?, since the question strictly pertains to the husband's (non-human) nationality rather than to the husband himself, and yet il is the first form quoted thal (oddly) comes to Ihe lips o f native speakers, cf. Уҧшәма дзыжалада? 'What is your wife's surname?', an entirely parallel structure, for which, however, the logical alternative is also common, namely: Уҧшәма илыжәлои/илыжәлоуз(е)и? Question-formation might seem to be complicated enough already, but we have not exhausted the possibilities. Questions o f the Who/What-type are actually built on the relative non-finile form o f the verb. The substitute-affix и- for Column I, which is not susceptible to deletion in the same way as its homophonous Column I counterpart, and the substitute-affix 3 - lor Column II are affixes which indicate that one is dealing with a relative structure, and they are inserted into non-finite verb-forms. The nonfinile form o f a Present tense Stative verb is produced by dropping the finite suffix -n. When the human question-forming suffix -да is added, the Stative marker drops; the negated Present non-finite Stative form ends in -m, which itself causes the Stative marker to drop, and the interrogative suffixes -да and -и are added after this negative suffix. The relative forms lor Stative verbs in the Present tense take the following shape:
5Li(crally: whoscj-sonj hej.is.who-is-hej?
69
Relative Farms Produced on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Slutive Prcscn Verbs
the one
ихәыҷ(ы)у
je.xwatj's,w
the one
who/that
who/that
which is
which is
икоу
jaq’Q.w
little/a child
Relative Forms Produced on the Column II Arguments in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
the one
изшә(ы)у
the one
ja.z.Jwe.w
who/that
who/that
which is
which is
wearing X
wearing X
изшьоу
|a.z_Jaw
Negated Relative Forms Produced on the Column 1 Argument in Monopersonal Stative Present Verbs
the one
ИХӘЫҶЫМ
ja.Xwatf’e.m
the one
who/that
who/that
which is nol
which is not
икам
je.q’am
little
Negated Relative Forms Produced on the Column II Argument in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
the one
ИЗШӘЫМ
|a.z.Jwo.m
the one
who/that
who/that
which is not
which is not
wearing X
wearing X
изшьам
ja.z.Jam
A ll these forms may refer to pluralities and be translated accordingly (viz. 'those who are little' etc...), but, as already observed in passing, the plurality o f the relativised entity may be underlined by inserting the non-human pluraliser (even for human entities) after the root in such forms to produce: ихәыҷқәоу 'those which/who arc little/children' а(б)ра икақәоу 'those which/who arc here'
70
изшәқәоу 'ihosc which/who arc wearing X' изшьақәоу 'those which/who arc wearing X' ихәыҷқәам 'those which/who are not little/children' а(б)ра икақәам 'those which/who arc nol here' изшәқәам 'those which/who arc not wearing X ' изшьақәам 'those which/who are nol wearing X' Now that we know how lo form the relative non-finite correlates o f Slalive verbs in the Present tense, we can note that an alternative method o f producing questions o f the Who/Whal-variely couplcs ihesc non-finite structures with independent interrogative pronouns, which carry the high-falling pitch. They arc based on -арбан(у), where the hyphen is replaced by the appropriate Column I prefix to produce variants such as the following: А(б)ра икоу дарбан((ы)у) / Дарбан((ы)у) а(б)ра икоу? 'Who is here = Who is/Which is the one who is here?’ У(бр)и зшәым дарбан((ы)у) / Дарбан((ы)у) у(бр)и зшәым? 'Who is not wearing that = Who is /Which is the one who is not wearing that?' А(б)ра икоу арбан((ы)у) / Иарбан((ы)у) а(б)ра икоу? 'Whal is here = What is/Which is the one which is here?' У(бр)и зшәым арбан((ы)у) / Иарбан((ы)у) у(бр)и зшәым? 'Who is not wearing that = Whal is/Which is the one which is nol wearing lhai?' To emphasise the plurality o f a non-human entity one can employ -арбақәан((ы)у), as in: A(6)pa ика(қәа)м арба(қәа)н((ы)у) / Иарба(қәа)н((ы)у) а(б)ра ика(қәа)м? 'Whal are not here = Which are the ones that are not here?' These examples demonstrate that, in addition to asking for simple identification o f an entity (human or non-human, viz. 'Who?' or 'Whal?'), Ihe sequences can request selective identification ('Which one?'), i f from the conlext it is clear lhat more than one entity could be in the enquirer's mind. One final variant for asking a Who/What-type question couples the appropriate relativised verb-form with (a) дызусҭа(да)6 'Who is il?' (plural (и)зусҭцәада/(и)зусҭқәада 'Who are they?') for a Who-type question, and (b) (и)закәи/(и)закәыз(е)и7 'What is il?', e.g. A(6)pa икоу закәи/закәыз(е)и / Изакәи/Изакәыз(е)и а(б)ра икоу? 'What is here = Whal is lhat which is here?'
6The variant дызусҭда is also heard. 7The underlying analysis o f these forms would includc the Slalive marker -y, which is regularly nol pronounced (and thus not written) under the influence o f the immediately preceding labialiscd velar plosive, viz. /ja.z.a(.)kw'a.wa./ or /ja.z.a(.)kw-a.w.za/a.j/.
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The rool o f this Iasi interrogative pronoun is the form o f the idenlity-copula (introduced in Lesson 3) which appears under negation; as we sec here, il is also used for What-lype questions. This copular rool is peculiar in that it takes not the expected Column 1 sel o f affixes but rather those o f Column II, and so it is natural that the substitute-relative affix should be 3-. However, this interrogative pronominal form can incorporate a Column I affix also, which probably gives a clue as to the original structure o f this particular copula. A literal translation o f (и)закәи/ (и)закәыз(е)и would, thus, be something like: it.which.is.what-is-it?8 The interrogative pronominal stems -зусҭа(да)/-зусҭда, -зусҭцәада and -арбан((ы)у) can lake any Column I affix and form the appropriate question, e.g. Ба(ра) барбан((ы)у) 'Who/Which one are you-FEM?’ Шәа(ра) шәызусҭцәада 'Who are you-PL?' Since we have had lo introduce relative structures in order to appreciate the full range and nature o f interrogatives in Abkhaz, we are now in a position to use them as epithets o f nouns. Relative clauses function like complex adjectivcs in languages, such as English, where the clause contains a finite verb and, o f course, merits its categorisation as a 'clause' by the very presence within it o f a finite verb-form. In Abkhaz there is no finite verb, and the resulting relative structures behave like adjectives, standing either in front o f or after their head-noun, e.g. А ц кы каҧшь зшә(ы)у а(бр)и аҧҳәыс санхәа лоуп / А(бр)и аҧҳәыс ацкы каҧшь зшә(ы)у санхәа лоуп 'This woman (who is) wearing the/a red dress is my mother-in-law ([а]анхәа)‘ Examples: Аишәа иқә(ы)у ашәкәы хьанҭа зтәыда? Сабхәа итә(ы)уп 'To whom does the heavy (ахьанҭа) book (which is) on the table belong? It belongs to my father-inlaw' Ca(pa) скынтә ишәҭах(ы)уи9? Ба(ра) бкынтә акгьы ҳҭахым/ҳҭахӡам 'What do you-PL want from me? From you-FEM we want nothing' Ацла амцан игыл(ақә)оу зусҭ(цә)ада? У(ба)рҭ сҧаҧсацәа роуп 'Who are the ones (who are) standing beneath10 the tree? They are my stepsons (аҧаҧса)' Шәанаӡӡеи илыхьӡ(ы)у(з(е))и? Ҳанаӡӡеи Арда лыхьӡ(ы)уп 'What is your-PL foster-mother (|а]анаӡӡеи) called? Our foster-mother's name is Arda' Уаншьа ахьтәы мацәаз имами? Ааи/Аиеи, хҧа имоуп 'Your-MASC uncle (|а]аншьа = mother's brother) does have a gold ring, doesn't he? Yes, he has three1 ^For comparison, the analysis дызусҭа(да) is: ds.z.W3s.ta(.da) = (s)hc.whosc.job(-il-is).who-is-it?(.whois-it?), from which it is dear lhat the clement -ҭа comes from -да with voicing assimilation o f the initial voiced dental plosive under the influence o f ihe preceding voiceless sibilant. 9Also heaid is ишәҭахи. l0 U ierally 'at the base o f il' (а.мцан).
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Ҳаб иашьа ииҭах(ы)у амашьына арбан((ы)у)7 А(б)ри оума/аума 7 М ап/М амоу, у(б)ри ииҭах(ы)у а(б)ри оуп/ауп 'Which is ihc car which our uncle (= father's brother) wants? Is il this one? No, the one he wants is this one' А(б)ни асаыга зыҧсои/зып>соуз(е)и? А(б)ри жәа-мааҭк иаҧсоуп 'How much (= o f whal price an>ca) is lhat pen (ааыга) by you? This pen costs 10 roubles (амааҭ)' Рмоҭа Қарҭ дыкоума? М ап/М амоу, Акәа дыкоуп 'Is iheir grandchild (амоҭа) in Tbilisi (Қарҭ)? No, (s)he is in Sukhum (Акәа)' Axpa ила шәа(ра) шәҿы икаӡами? М ап/М амоу, а(б)ра ика(ӡа)м 'Axra's dog isn't with you-PL, by any chance, I suppose? No, it's nol here' Сыкьануьа зцоу акәардә шәа(ра) ишәтә(ы)ума? М ап/М амоу, саыза итә(ы)уп 'Is the chair under which my doll (акьанџьа) is lying yours-PL? No, it belongs to my friend' Exercises It m iglil be useful to begin by turning back to Lesson 3 and practising how to form a range o f questions o f the kind already explained on the Stative verbs introduced there. Translate into Enclish I . А(б)ри агазеҭ иан(ы)у иашоума?
Translate inlo Abkhaz 1. Do my neighbours hate me or nol?
М ап/М амоу, у(бр)и иаша(ӡа)м 2. Саыгақәа змада? Уа(ра) уоума
2. Who is Ihe man (who is) standing
у(ба)рҭ змоу? М ап/М амоу, са(ра)
behind you-FEM? He is my father. Who
иеыма(ӡа)м
are YOU-MASC?
3. Сыҵәца иҭои? У(бр)и аӡ оуп/ауп vs
3. Is your-MASC only son nol wearing
У(бр)и аӡы оуп/ауп
his new hat, then?
4. Аҧсны ҧшӡоума? Ааи/Аиеи, даара
4. Whal is on your-FEM plales? Grits
иҧшӡоуп. Ашьха д(ы)уқәа рацәаны
and beans are on them.
иҳамоуп 5. Аҧсны зегь радкьыс ид(ы)у(ы)у
5. Who wants these dogs? WE don't want
ақалақь арбан((ы)у)?/Иарбан((ы)у)
them
Аҧсны зегь раҵкьыс ид(ы)у(ы)у ақалақь? Ҳа(ра) ҳ(а)кны зегь радкьыс ид(ы)у(ы)у ақалақь Акәа11 ауп/оуп 6. У(бр)а игылоу аҷкәын дызусҭа(да)?
6. Whal is in ihc river? Are fish in it?
У(бр)и сп,а иоуп
No, nothing is in it
1'The word for 'capital' is |а]аҳҭнықапақь
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7. У(бр)а игылада? У(бр)а игылоу
7. Are those (who are) sitting inside
сыҧшәмеи сареи ҳмоҭа иоуп
your-MASC teachers? No, they are my pupils
8. А(б)ра икамда? А(б)ра ика(қәа)м
8. What are you-PL busy with? We are
рацзаауп
not busy with anything
9. А(6а)рҭ аанқәа зтәыда/А(ба)рҭ
9. Does your-MASC mother have the
аенқәа зтә(ы)у дарбан((ы)у)? А(ба)нт;
book containing those lovely stories?
аӡәгьы итәым/итәӡам
Yes, she has it at home
10. Са(ра) исҭах(ы)у ашәкәы
10. Who is that (out) in the sun? Thai's
шәымоу(у) ишәымам(ы)у. Иҳама(ӡа)м. my molher-in-law Баҳәшьа илымоуп
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Lesson 5
In this lesson you will learn about: • The formation o f other WH-questions with Stative verbs in the Present • The formation o f subordinate expressions o f Time, Place, Manner, Reason • Telling the lime • The use o f Ihe Adverbial case in qucslion-formalion • The formation o f the Past tense (Unite and non-finile, affirmative and ncgalivc) of Stative verbs • The formation o f relative expressions and questions in the Past tense o f Stative verbs
We shall now tackle Ihe remaining types o f question by illustrating them with Stative verbs in the Present tense. There are four interrogative elements which are inserted into the preradical structure o f the verbal complex. These are: шҧа- 'how?', з(ы)- 'why?', анба- 'when?', and аба- 'where?' (variants used in appropriate contexts arc: анбанӡа- 'till when?', абантә- 'from where, whence?', and абанӡа- 'to where, whither?'). They stand after the Column I affix in a verb-form that ends either in its simple non-finite form, though for questions in з(ы)- 'why?' one o f the What-type question-suffixes introduced in Lesson 4 is obligatory —
the How-type questions can also function as exclamations. One
conjugation is given in full below for each o f these four types: Conjugations Illustrating Questions o f Manner and Reason for Affirm ative Stative Verbs in the Present Tense
How little
сышҧахәы-
sa.&po.xwa-
am I? !1
ч(ы)у
t/’s.w
Why am I?
сзы кои /
S9.z9.q’aw9.i/
сзыкоуз-
S9.zd.q'Q.w.zd.j/
(е)и
sa.zd.q’Q.w.za.j
How little
бышҧахәы-
bag.pa.xw9-
Why are
бзы кои/
b.z9.q*aw9.j/
are
Ч(ы)у
tj’aw
you.Fem?
бзыкоуз-
b.z9.q’a.w.Z9.j/
(е)и
b.z9.q’a.w.zaj
you.Fem?! How little
ушҧахәы-
wa.g.pa.xw3-
Why are
уз ы к о и /
W9.z9.q’a.W9.j/
arc
Ч(ы)у
IJ's.w
you.Masc?
узыкоуз-
w9.z9.q’a.w.z9.j/
(е)и
wd.zd.q’a.w.zaj
you.Masc?!
1These forms can also express surprise that anyone should ihink Ihe subject to be small (e.g. 'How can 1 be thought to be small?').
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How little is ДЫШПАХӘЫ(s)he?!
Ч(ы)у
d3.g.po.xw3
Why is
дзы кои/
dzs.q'awa.l/
IJ'a.w
(s)he?
дзыкоуз-
dza.q'a.wza. |/
(е)и
dza.q'aw.za.i
How little is
ишҧахәы-
js.g.paxwa-
it?!
ч(ы)у
IJ'a.w
How little are we?!
Why is il?
изы кои/
ja.za.q'o.wa.j/
изыкоуз-
ja.zs.q'a.w.za.)/
(е)и
ja.za.q’a.w.za.|
ҳашҧахәы-
ha.g.paxws-
Why are
ҳзы кои/
haza.q'a.wa.j/
м(ы)у
IJ'a.w
we?
ҳзыкоуз-
haza.q'a.w.zsi/
(е)и
ha.zo.q'a.w.za.j
How little
шәышҧа-
JW3.g.pQ.-
Why are
шәзыкои/
Jwazaq'awa.|/
are you.Pl
хәыҷ(ы)у
XwatJ’a.w
you.Pl?
шәзыкоуз-
Jwa.za.q'a.w.za.j
(е)и
/ Jwa.za.q’a.w.za |
How little
ишҧахәы-
js.g.pa.xws-
Why are
изы кои/
ja.ze.q'a.wa.j/
are they?!
Ч(ы)у
t/'s.w
they?
изыкоуз-
ja.za.q’aw.za.)/
(е)и
ja.za.q'aw.za.j
Conjugalions Illustrating Questions o f Time and Place for Affirm ative Stative Verbs in the Present Tense
When do I
ианбасшә-
wear X?
(ы)у
When do
ианбабшә-
you.Fem
j.aabas Jwa.w
Where do I
иабасышьо-
la.ba.s^Jaw
wear X? Where do
У иабабышьо-
j.a.bab9.Jaw
you.Fem
У
j.aaba.b.Jwa.w
(ы)у
wear X?
wear X?
When do
ианбоушә-
you.Masc
(ы)у
|.an.ba.w./wa.w
Where do
j.a.bawa Ja.w
иабаишьоу3
j.abaj9.Jaw
j.abaisja.w
you.Masc wear X?
wear X? When does
иабаушьоу2
ианбеишә-
he wear X?
(ы)у
When does
ианбалшә-
she wear X?
(ы)у
When does
ианбашә-
il wear X?
(ы)у
j.an.bo.j,Jwa.w
Where does he wear X?
l.oabe.l.Jwa.w
j.an.ba.a.Jwa.w
Where does
иабалы-
she wear X?
шьоу
Where does
иабашьоу
fa.baa.Ja.w
il wear X?
2Note (hat ihc open vowel here resists rounding in front o f the bilabial glide, the pronunciation being [ja'bawa/o:J. 1Again note the resistance o f the open vowel to raising in front o f the palatal glide, Ihe pronunciation being [ja'bajajo:].
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When do we
ианбаҳшә-
wear X?
(ы)у
When do
ианбашә-
you.Pl wear
шз(ы)у
Where do
иабаҳашьо-
ia.ba hajaw
we wear X? Where do
У иабашәы-
j.o.ba/wa./a.w
you.Pl wear
шьоу
J.anba. h.Jwaw |.oaba./w/ws.w
X?
X? When do they wear
ианбаршә-
|.nribarjws w
(ы)у
Where do
иабарышьо-
they wear
У
j.a.barQ.jaw
X?
X?
The equivalent negative interrogatives pattern quite regularly, and so they are illustrated below only for the 1st person singular: Patterning for Questions o f Manner and Reason for Negative Stative Verbs in the Present Tense
How little
сышҧахәы-
ss.§.po.xw3-
Why am I
am I not?!
ҶЫМ
tj’a.m
not?
сзыками
ss.zo.q'a.maj
Patterning for Questions o f Time and Place for Negative Stative Verbs in the Present Tense
When do I
ианбасшәы-
not wear X?
M
|.an.ba.s.Jws.m
Where do I
иабасышьа-
not wear X?
M
j.aba.S9.|a.m
To form a complete sentence with a single word for this type o f question, the following words are used: избан 'why?' (and a typical answer to such a question would begin with избанзар or избан акәзар 'for the reason that'), ишҧа 'how; what did you say?', ианбв 'when?', and иаба 'where?', e.g. Римма а(б)ра дыка(ӡа)м. Избан? Избанзар/Избан акәзар Лӡаа дыкоуп. 'Rimma is not here. Why? Because she's in Pitsunda' Three o f the four interrogatives just introduced consist o f two elements, the second o f which -6a, which (almost) always carries stress, is the actual interrogative component — in шҧа- the -6- is devoiced to -ҧ- under the influence o f the preceding in-; in аба- the underlying form is ахьба-, from which the -хь- has been dropped. The fourth o f the above-interrogatives, despite its appearance, also in origin consisted o f two elements, namely зз(ы)-, where the first fricative is the relative-substitute for Column II affixes, and the second is the postposition зы- 'for', one o f the homophonous fricatives being dropped to simplify the sequence. The structural
77
difference between this last and ihe preceding three items explains why the non human interrogative suffix is obligatory with зы-. If one omits the question-forming -6a from the three interrogatives where il is used, one is left with the elements ш(ы)-, ан(ы)-, and ахь(ы)-, which, when placed inside the non-finite form o f the appropriate tense, build structures meaning, respectively: '(the way) how', '(the time) when', and '(the place) where' — the first and third o f these structures are widely used to form Abkhaz's equivalents to complemcnt-clauscs and thus equate to English 'that', as we shall see in due course. The fourth element з(ы)-, standing inside a simple non-finite structure, can also build a form meaning '(the reason) why'. Verb-forms constructed by such means are extremely common in Abkhaz, which has a love o f such defied sentence-types as the following: А(ба)с оуп/ауп ишыкоу 'Such = Like this (a(6a)c) is how it is' = 'li's like this' Аҳәаа нырцә оуп/ауп ap ахьгылоу 'On the other side o f the border (аҳәаа) is where ihe army (ap) is standing' Аибашьра аз(ы) акәым/акәӡам ҳаруаа аҳәаа аарцә изгылоу '(Because of) the war ([а]аибашьра) is nol the reason why our soldiers (аруааы) are standing on this side o f the border' Иахь(а) о уп/а уп аныҳәа анҳамоу Today is when we have the/a festival' In order to form a question meaning 'how much/many', either rnaka (шакааы for humans) or зака (закааы for humans) stands either alone or alongside the noun it qualifies, and the verb-form follows the pattern expected (in lerms o f its ending) for either a Whal-lype or a Who-type question, e.g. А е ы шака/зака ҭои аҧаҭлыка? or Ш ака/Зака а®ы ҭои ап,аҭлыка? 'How much wine (а®ы) is in the bottle (ап,аҭлыка)?‘ U Iaka/3aka шәҭах(ы)уи? 'How much do you-PL want?' Ааызцәа шака<а(ы)/заква(ы) бымада? or Ш акааы /З акааы ааызцәа бымада? 'How many friends do you-FEM have?' Ш акааы /З акааы ааныҵка итәада? 'How many are silling inside? Амш шака/зака ибзиои/ибзиоуз(е)и! 'How good the weather (амш) is!' (cf. for the same meaning Амш шҧабзиоу!) This interrogative is used for asking the lime, e.g. Асааҭ шака/зака (ы)кои? 'What lime is it?' I f ihe answer requires a specific hour, the appropriate cardinal is given, with or without the noun for 'hour', e.g. (Асааҭ) акы (ы)коуп/жәаба ыкоуп 'It's one (o'clock)/len (o'clock)' For 'half past' the hour Abkhaz, like German, says 'half o f the coming hour, e.g. (Асааҭ) фба рыбжаыкоуп 'It is half past five (o'clock)' For between one and twenty-nine minutes past the hour Abkhaz says 'X minutes toward' ihe coming hour, e.g.
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(Асааҭ) ҧшьба рахь жәохә минуҭ ыкоуп 'It is fifteen minutcs/a quarter past .1 (o'clock)' To indicate twenty-nine minutes uplo one minute lo the hour Abkhaz has a logical method and an illogical method: the logical method is lo say '(hour) X is lacking Y minutes', e.g. (Асааҭ) хзба аажәи хәба минуҭ аг(ы)уп — шьыжь(ы)уп 'It is 25 minutes lo 5 (o'clock) — in (lilcrally: il is) the morning'; the illogical method, which, however, is colloquial and Ihus frequent, combines the verb o f lacking with ihe posiposition -зы 'for', which governs the hour approached. This is illogical, because it effectively leaves the Column II affix within ihe verb for lacking without any referent, e.g. ©ажәи хәба минуҭ аг(ы)уп (acasO хәба рзы — шьыбжьышьҭахь(ы)уп It is 25 minutes to 5 (o'clock) -- in (literally: it is) the afternoon' One final type o f queslion-formation remains to be described. It was slated at the start o f this grammar thal learners do nol need to worry about case-marking o f nouns, as cases do not exist lo indicate such major roles within the sentence as verbal subject, direct object, indirect object or oblique object. This does nol, however, mean that cases are entirely absent from Abkhaz. There is an Adverbial case marked by -c (sometimes by -ны), which is usually attached lo nouns carrying no article, and one o f its functions is seen in such queslion-typcs as the following: Ҭакс ҳа(ра) ҳзы ишәымои? or Ҳа(ра) ҳазы ҭакс ишәымои? 'What answer (аҭак) do you-PL have for us' (lilcrally 'By way o f answer, what do you-PL have for us?') (Ьызцәас шака<г(ы)/закаа(ы) умада? or Ш акаа(ы )/3акаа(ы ) аызцәас иумада? 'How many friends do you-MASC have?' (literally 'By way o f friends, how many do you-MASC have?') Ҳәсақәас зыбжьара утәада? 'Between which women are you-MASC sitting?' (literally 'By way o f women, between whom are you-MASC silling?') Having illustrated all these statements and questions, both affirmative and negative, on the basis o f Slalive verbs in ihe Present tense, let us expand our horizons and investigate another tense. Stative verbs are only rarely atlcslcd outside the Prcseni and Past tenses. And so, we now need to look at the Past tense equivalents for such statements and questions. The Past o f Stative verbs involves the finite suffix - h replacing not only the Present tense's finite ending -n but also the Stative formant -y. Since the conjugations arc entirely regular in terms o f their preradical structure, only the 1st person singular forms are given below, and readers can refer back to the fuller tables presented in earlier lessons lo check what shifts accompany the change o f the argumenl(s). In the part-lables below only the most normal English translation-equivalent is given, but,
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when accompanying an appropriate lype o f conditional sentence, the iranslalioncquivalcnt can be either 'I would be...' or 'I would have been...'. Pattern lor Affirm ative Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
I was little/a
СХӘЫҶЫН
s.xwatj'e.n
1 was
сыкан
sa.q'an
child
Pattern for Affirm ative Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
I was
ИСШӘЫН
ja.s.Jw8.n
I was
исышьан
jasaja.n
wearing X
wearing X
The negative equivalents replace the suffix - h with what is clearly a compound suffix -мызт, e.g. Pattern for Negative Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
I was not
СХӘЫҶЫМЫ- s.xwatj’a.ma.z.t’
little/a child
I was not
сыкамызт
se.q’ama.z.t'
3T
Pattern for Negative Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
I was not
ИСШӘЫМЫЗТ
wearing X
I was nol
исышьамы-
wearing X
3T
ja.s.Jw8.ma.z.t’
p.S9jama.z.t’
For the idenlity-copula the Past tense agains employs the root -акә(ы)-, e.g. Past Tense (Affirm ative) for the Identity Copula
It was me
ca(pa) сакәын
sa(.ra) s.a(.)kw’a.n
This same root also appears in the corresponding negative, e.g. Past Tense (Negative) for the Identity Copula
Il was not me
ca(pa) сакәмызт
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sa(.ra) s.a(.)kw\rrra.z.t’
Since questions, as we have seen, are built on the non-llnile stem, lei us first introduce the relativised Past tense formation for Stative verbs. The non-finile suffix -3 replaces the Past finite suffix - h , e.g. Relative Forms Produced on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
the one
ИХӘЫҶЫЗ
jaxw3lj’s.z
the one
who/that
who/that
which was
which was
иказ
ja.q'az
little/a child
Relative Forms Produced on the Column II Arguments in Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
the one
И ЗШ Ә Ы З
|3.Z./WS.Z
the one
who/that
who/that
which was
which was
wearing X
wearing X
изшьаз
js z . ja z
Negated Relative Forms Produced on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
the one
ИХӘЫҶЫМЫЗ j3.Xw3tJ'a.maz
the one
who/that
who/that
which was
which was
not little/a
not
икамыз
is.q'arm.z
child
Negated Relative Forms Produced on the Column II Argument in Bipersonal Stative Present Verbs
the one
ИЗШӘЫМЫЗ
j3.z.Jwe.m3.z
the one
who/that
who/that
which was
which was
not wearing
nol wearing
X
X
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изшьамыз
js.z.Jamaz
Turning now lo Ihe respective interrogative forms, let us begin with the Yes/Noquestions. The interrogative suffixes arc attached to the non-finile stem conlaining its normal complement o f Column 1 (and Column II) affixes, e.g. Pattern for Yes/No-inlerrogalivc Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
Was I
схәычызма
s.xwalf'a.z.ma/
little/a
/схәыҷыз-
S.XW3tJ'3.Z3.W
child?
(ы)у
Was I?
сыказма/
se.q'az.ma/
сыказ(ы)у
sa.q'aza.w
Pattern for Yes/No-interrogative Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
Was I
исшәызма/
ja.s.Jwa.z.ma/
Was I
исышьазма
j9.so.Ja.z.ma/
wearing X?
исшәыз(ы)у
jS.S./W8.Z3.W
wearing X?
/исышьаз-
Ja.sQ.Ja.zs.w
(ы)у Paradigms for Negated Interrogatives o f Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
Was I not
СХӘЫҶЫМЗИ s.xwalj’an*zs.y
little/a
/схәыҷым-
child?
з(ы)у
Was I not?
s.x^'al/'amza.w
сыкамзи/
se.q’Q.mzai/
сыкамз(ы)у
SQ.q’amza.w
Paradigms for Negated Interrogatives o f Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
Was I not
исшәымзи/
)s.s.Jwa.m.zaj/
Was I nol
исышьамзи
j9.S9./a.m.z9.j/
wearing X?
исшәымз-
|ss.Jwsmz3,w
wearing X?
/исышьам-
jd.sa.Ja.mz9.w
з(ы)у
(ы)у
For Who-type questions the interrogative suffix -да is this time inserted before the non-finite Stative Past tense-ending -з, and the verb-stem carries the relativised substitute for the pronominal affix correlating with the argument questioned, e.g.
Patterning o f Who-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
Who was
ихәыҷыдаз
)s.xwslj’a.da.z
Who was?
lillle/a child?
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икадаз
ja.q'ada.z
Patterning o f Who-lypc Questions on the Column II Arguments in Bipersonal Slalive Past Verbs
Who was
изшәыдаз
ja.z.fwa.daz
Who was
изшьадаз
ja.z.Jadaz
wearing X?
wearing X?
The negated equivalents o f these questions are produced by inserting the negative marker -m immediately before the interrogative suffix, e.g. Negated Who-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
Who was
ИХӘЫҶЫМ-
not litllc/a
даз
jaxwatj'e.nida.z
Who was
икам(ы)даз
ia.q'am(a).daz
nol?
child?
Negated Who-lypc Questions on the Column I Argument in Bipersonal Slalive Past Verbs
Who was
изшәымдаз
ja.z./wa.mdaz
Who was
nol wearing
not wearing
X?
X?
изшьамдаз
j9.z.Ja.mda.z
I f one chooses to use the independenl interrogative pronouns alongside a relativised verb-form, then ihe past equivalents o f дарбан((ы)у) and дызусҭа(да)/ дызусҭда, (и)зусҭцәада are respectively: дарбаныз and дызусҭа(да)з/дызусҭдаз, (и)зусҭцәадаз 'Who was it/were they?'. I f the question is o f the Whal-lype, four variants are possible, though the last two are distinctly less common: (i) the form in question looks as though il is just the relativised non-finite Past, but il is not, for the vowel preceding ihe non-finite suffix -з is lengthened, being pronounced so that it consists o f two beats (morae), and it carries high-falling intonation; (ii) simple relativised Pasi but with an additional interrogative suffix -и; (iii) simple relativised Past bul with additional interrogative suffix -зи; (iv) simple relativised Past but with additional interrogative suffix -зеи. Occasionally one comes across yet another formation, whereby the interrogative element -и is placed before the non-finile ending -з. Il is possible that this is the source o f variant (i)
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through loss o f the interrogative element and compensatory lengthening o f the vowel preceding it. Patterning o f What-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
и ка з/
What was?
js.q'a az/
Whal was
ихәыҷыз/
js.Xwalfare.z/
liltle/a
ихәыҷызи/
ja.Xw3tJ,o.z3.j/
икази/ика-
ja.q’cLza.j/
child?
ихәыҷыз-
js.XW3tJ’8.Z.Z3,j/
зз(е)и
ja.q'a.z.za.j/
з(е)и
js.xw3 ir*zzal
la.q'a.z.za.j
Palteming o f What-type Questions on the Column II Argument in Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
What was
изшәыз/
|3.z.Jwsaz/
What was
изшьаз/
ja.z.Jcraz/
wearing X?
изшәызи/
|a.z.Jws.za.j/
wearing X?
изшьази/
ja.z.Ja.za.J/
изшәыз-
ja.z.fws.z.za.j/
изшьазз(е)и
ja.z.Jaz.za.j/
з(е)и
ja.z.Jwa.z.zaj
ja.z.Jo.z.za.j
The negated equivalents employ only the first two o f the above-variants, with the negative suffix occupying its expected slot:
Patterning o f Negated What-type Questions on the Column I Argument in Monopersonal Stative Past Verbs
What was not little/a
ихәҷымзи/ ИХӘҶЫМЫЗ
Ja.xwlJ’s.(nza.j/ ja.Xwt/'e.ma a.z
What was
икамзи/
j9.q'a.m.za.j/
not?
икамыз
jd.q'am9a.z
child?
Patterning o f Negated What-type Questions on the Column II Argument in Bipersonal Stative Past Verbs
What was
изшәымзи/
ja.z./vve.m.za.j/
What was
изшьамзи/
j9.Z.jQ.m.Z9.j/
not wearing
изшәымыз
ja.z./wa.ma a.z
nol wearing
изшьамыз
jd.2jam9 9.2
X?
X?
I f one chooses to use the independent interrogative pronoun alongside a relativised vcrb-form, then the past tense equivalents o f (и)арбан((ы)у) (plural =
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(и)арбақәан((ы)у)) and arc respectively: (и)закоыз4 (pronounced with lengthened final vowel as |(ja.)z.a(.)kw’e'e.z|) and (и)ар6аныз 'Who was it?' (plural = (и)арбақоаиыз). Patterning for Questions o f Manner and Reason for Negative Stative Verbs in the Past Tense
How little
сышҧахәы-
S3g.pa.Xwa-
Why was I
was 1
чымыз
tj'a.ma.z
nol?
сзыкамзи
sd.za.q’amzs.j
not?!/How was I not a child?!
Patterning for Questions o f Time and Place for Negative Stative Verbs in the Past Tense
When was I
ианбасшәы-
j.anba.s.Jwa.-
not wearing
МЫЗ
ma.z
Where was I иабасышьаnol wearing
X?
МЫЗ
ia. ba.Saja ma,z
X?
Exercises 1. Look back to Lessons 3 and 4, and convert all verb-forms in the exercises into their Past tense equivalents.
2. Translate into English 1. Классыс иарбан((ы)у)/иарбаныз
Translate into Abkhaz 1. How beautiful your-PL daughter is!
шәаҳәшьцәа цыҧх иахьтәаз? 2. Саызцәа раби рани а(б)ра ианыказ,
2. Why do your-FEM tcachcrs nol want
акгьы рҭахӡамзи?
this book?
3. (Са(ра)) Жәыргьыҭ саныказ, уаргьы
3. How many shepherds were (standing)
уа указма?
among the lambs?
4. (Ба(ра)) Бзыҧҳада? Қьаазым
4. Were your-MASC mother and father
еиҧҳауп
alive last year? What's that (= How)? They are alive even today!
‘'This seems to be the only variant. One might logically have expected (и)закәызи, bul (his is used in Ihc Present lense in place o f ihe form (и)закә(ы)узи, which il seems to have effaced.
85
5. Алаҳацла амдан игылада (= игылоу 5. What was in yesterday's newspapers? дарбан((ы)у)/дызусҭа(да))? У(бр)и саб Nothing was in them иоуп 6. Ҳгәылацәа ранд(ы)у аиарҭа
6. Some hawks were silting there where
дзамази?
our chicks were sleeping
7. Изакәыз/Иарбаныз шәысасцәа
7. How many brothers did your-FEM
рмашьынақәа рҿы ирымаз?
mother have?
8. Атеатр аҿы шәабатәаз? Шәа(ра)
8. Is this why the soldier's son was not
шәышьҭахь ҳтәан
sleeping in that bed?
9. Шәышҧакоу? Хар ҳамам.
9. The person who had 100 roubles was
Иҭаб(ы)уп. Асааҭ шака (ы)кои? Ак(ы )
nol me
абжа ыкоуп. 10. Ҳхаҭарнакцәа ашә аҧхьа
10. Where were you-FEM last night? I
изгыламзи?
was at my brother-in-law's place. He has a big house
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Lesson 6
In this lesson you will learn about: • Present tense o f Dynamic verbs (finite and non-finite, affirmative and negative) • The formation o f relative forms based on the Present o f Dynamic verbs • How to stale the lime 'at which' • Agent-marking with iransilive verbs (and ihc marking o f their direct objects) • Detransitivisation-processes • The formation o f reflexives • How to form questions on reflexives • The formation o f the verbal noun (Masdar) and o f abstract nouns « How to express the notion 'manner o f VERB mg'_____________________________
It is time to move on to the Dynamic verbs. As with Stative verbs, roots cither end in the open vowel or they do not. The Presenl tense ends in the finite marker -ит, and Ihis is preceded by the Dynamic marker -ya. I f the element that precedes this Dynamic suffix (usually, but not necessarily, Ihe verbal rool) ends in ihc open vowel, then ihe sequence -aya- is pronounced [ d] 1; when preceded by this vowel, the finite ending may drop the element -и-. Note that this is a morphophonological rule and not a phonological rule, for no such shift occurs, i f the Dynamic marker is not involved, e.g. aya '(the) relative; friend'. As to meaning, the Present corresponds to the general Present or Presenl Continuous in English, and, like English's Present Continuous, it can be (and regularly is) used as a Future. We can illustrate the formations for the roots -ца- 'go' and -ҧс(ы)- 'die'. Both are intransitive and lake just ihe one obligatory personal prefix, which belongs, naturally, to Column I. Since the paradigms are entirely regular, only the 1st person singular is given below: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Present Tense o f Dynamic Verbs
I go/am
сцо(и)т
s.tsa.wa(j)t'
I die/am
сыҧеуеит
sa.ps.wa.jt'
dying
going
The equivalent negalives are produced by replacing the finite suffix with
-m ,
e.g.
Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negative Presenl Tense o f Dynamic Verbs
1Unless the open vowel is immediately preceded by ihe phrayngal fricative v , >n which case Ihere is no shift to [з|.
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I am nol
сцом /
s.tsa.(dza.)-
I am not
сыҧсуам/
sa.pa(dza)-
going
сцаӡом
wam
dying
сыҧсӡом
wam
The affirmative non-finile Presenl is produced by simply dropping the finite suffix -ит, and lo turn il into its relative guise the appropriate relative affix (и-, if relalivisalion is on the Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its due slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Presenl Tense o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ИЦО
ja.tsa.wa
goes/is
who/which
иҧсуа
ja.p&wa
dies/is dying
going The negative relativised non-finile equivalent is produced by inserting the negative marker - m- inio the verb-complex so that it stands immediately before the rool, and with these particular rools there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix. egPatterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Negative Presenl Tense o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which docs not go/is nol
имц(аӡ)о
je.mtsa-
who/which
имҧсуа/
jo.mps.-
(dza)wa
does not die/
имҧсӡо
(dza.)wa
is not dying
going In general, the whole gamut o f question-types already examined with Stative verbs arc formed in parallel ways with Dynamics. But il needs lo be emphasised that, since questions are formed on the non-finite stem, all negated questions in the Presenl tense for Dynamic verbs w ill contain Ihe negative marker immediately before the verbal root. In addition, i f ihe emphatic suffix -ӡа- is used in a negated Ycs/Noqucslion, one need not attach the queslion-suffix -и, so (hat both Шәымцазои and Шәымцаӡо convey the meaning 'Aren't you-PL going, then?' — ihe interrogative suffix is obligatory, if the emphatic suffix is absent (e.g. Шәымцои 'You-PL are going, aren't you?'). Questions asking 'Where?', 'How?' and ’When?' on a Dynamic verb-form can optionally lake ihe и-suffix used for questions o f the What-type, so lhal 'Where is (s)he going?' can be either дабацо or аабацои.
88
Some rools exist in bolh Slalive and Dynamic format.s. Consider ihe following pairs: Some Slalive vs Dynamic Pairs Slalive____________________________ Dynamic дыцәоуп
(s)he is asleep
дыцәо(и)т
(s)he goes lo sleep
дгылоуп
(s)hc is standing
дгыло(и)т
(s)he gels up
дтәоуп
(s)hc is sitting
дтәо(и)т
(s)he sits down
игылоу
who/which is
игыло
who/which is
standing игыла(ӡа)м
getting up
who/which is nol
имгыл(аӡ)о
standing
who/which is not getting up
Further examples o f monopersonal intransitive Dynamic formations in the Present tense are: Идыдуеит 'It is thundering' (root -дыд(ы)-) Имацәысуеит 'It is lightning' (root -мацәыс(ы)-) Идыд(ы)-мацәысуеит 'It is thundering and lightning' Соыза дкәашо(и)т 'My friend is dancing' (root -кәаша-) Ахәыҷқәа хәмаруеит The children are playing' (root -хәмар(ы)-) Асаби/Ацшқа дҵә(ы)уо(и)т The baby (аҧшқа) is crying' (root -цә(ы)уа-) Бабацо(и)? Ааныка сцо(и)т 'Where are you-FEM going? I'm going home' (-ka 'lo') Аҳәарақәа зыҧ>ои? Избанзар, адәы иқә(ы)уп 'Why are the calves (аҳәыс 'calf) jumping/frolicking (root -ҧа-)? Because they are in (on) the Field' Уанду дыҧсуама? Ааи, axa макьана лыҧсы ҭоуп 'Is your-MASC grandmother dying? Yes, but for (he lime-being (макьана) she is alive' Шәхәыҷқәа акино ахь ицоу имцоу? 'Are your-PL children going to the cinema (акино) or not?' Ачарахь ҳцо(и)т. Иаауада? Зегьы аауеит 'We're going to the wedding (ачара). Who’s coming (root -aa-)? Everybody's coming' Ҳгәыла лыкны снеиуеит, axa хә-минуҭк рыла/уажзьгцәкьа сааиуеит 'I'm going/popping round (rool -неи-) to our (female) neighbour's, but I'll come (back) (rool -ааи-) in (-ла) 5 minutes/right (-цәкьа) now' Ҳашәҭқәа рҿы итәои? У(бр)и сыҷкәын иласба ауп 'Whal is silting (down) in our flowers (ашәҭ)? That's my son's puppy (аласба)' [Nole that the first verb in the Iasi example is ambiguous: il could be Stative or Dynamic. To clarify matters one could rephrase as follows: Итәоу зақәи? 'What is
89
that which is sitling?' (Slalive) vs Итзо зақәи? 'Whal is lhal which is silling down?' (Dynamic) | In order lo slate Ihe lime at which something happens, the postposition 'for; at' is used in all cases except where the staled time is between 29 minutes and one minute to ihe hour, in which case the verb lor 'lack' is placed in its temporal non-finite form, c-g. Уаҳәшьа данбацәо(и)? (Асааҭ) жәаба рзы дыцәо(и)т 'When is your-MASC sisler going to sleep? She's going to sleep at 10 o'clock' Жәохә минуҭ (асааҭ) ааба рахь рзы акино ахь ҳамцои? М ап/М амоу, (асааҭ) ааба рыбжазы ҳцо(и)т 'We're going to the cinema at a quarter past seven, aren't we? No, we're going al half past seven' Акәа данбацо(и)? (Асааҭ) жәба аажәа мин(ы)уҭ анагу (= Фажәа мин(ы)уҭ анаг(ы)у (асааҭ) жәба рзы2) дцо(и)т 'When is (s)he going to Sukhum? (S)he's going al 20 minutes to nine' Intransitive Dynamic verbs can be bipersonal, just like Stativcs. The rool meaning 'hil' (-с(ы)-), though typically Iransilive in Indo-European languages, is one such verb in Abkhaz; the entity receiving the blow is the verb's indirect object, and, as one might predict, the relevant argument is marked in the verb by a Column II affix, as shewn by the following paradigms, firstly with constant 1st person singular subject, and then with a variety o f combinations o f subject and indirect object. Present Tense Conjugation o f the Bivalent Intransitive Verb 'hit'
сусуеит
s.we.s.wajt’
you-MASC
сбысуеит
s.ba.s.wajt'
I hit you-PL
сшәысуеит
I hit him
сисуеит
I hit you-
усысуеит
w.so.s.wajt’
(s)hc hits us
дҳасуеит
dhas.wa.jt’
s.Jwas.wajt'
you-FEM
брысуеит
b.ra.s.wa.jt’
S.je.S.WQ.jt'
it hits/they
ишәысуеит
|3.Jwa.s.wajt’
ҳшәысуеит
h.jwe.s.wajt’
ирысуеит
jara.s.wa.jt’
MASC I hit you-
hit me
FEM
hit them
hit you-PL 1 hit her
слысуеет
s.lo.s.wajt’
we hil you-
I hit il
сасуеит1
s.as.wa.jt’
it hits/they
PL
hil them
2Thc -зы here is because il is pari o f ihe 'illogical' method For expressing the time when il is X minules lo the hour and nol because Ihe time at which ihe event is happening is being stated. 3W ith Ihc indirect object ателефон 'the telephone' the meaning is '1 phone'.
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1 hit them
срысуеит
s.re.s.wajt’
you-PL hil
шәҳасуеит
Jw.has.wa.jt’
us
Two olher bivalent inlransilives are ihe verbs for 'reading' (rool -ҧхьа-) and ’hurting/causing pain lo' (-хь(ы)-), e.g. Ҳаҷкәын ашәкәқәа рацәаны дрыҧхьо(и)т 'Our son reads books in abundance' Ишәыхьуеи/Ишәыхьуаз(е)и? 'Whal's ihe matter w ilh you-PL/Where are you in pain?' Схы/Сымгәа/СыбБа/Схап,ыц/Сгәы/Сгәацәа/Счача/Сывара сыхьуеит 'M y head (axbi)/stomach (амгәа)/Ьаск (a6ija)/tooth (ахап,ыц)/ЬсаП (агәы)/ liver (araanaa)/kidney (a^a^ayside (авара) is causing me pain/hurts' Bui now we have to look al a category nol found with Stative verbs, and this is transitivity. Transitive verbs can be bipersonal, w ilh transitive subject (agent) and direct object, or tripersonal, with additionally an indirect object. As slated al the start o f these lessons, word-order is typically: Subjecl-(Indirect Object)-Direct ObjectVerb, but how does the verb accommodate the relevant personal affixes? The Column I affixes mark the direct object, the Column II affixes mark the indirect object, and a new set o f affixes (viz. those o f Column III) is employed to mark the transitive subject (agent). These Column 1П affixes are as follows: Column III Pronominal Markers for the Transitive Subject (Agent) o f Dynamic Verbs SING ULAR
PLURAL
1st person
с(ы )-/з-
(а)ҳ-/ҳ(а)-/аа-
2nd person (human male, indefinite)
y-
шз(ы)-/жә-
2nd person (human female)
б(ьг)-
шә(ы)-/жә-
3rd person (human male)
и-
р(ы )-/д (ы )
3rd person (human female)
л(ы)-
р(ы )-/д(ы )
3rd person (non-human)
(н)а-
р(ы )-/д (ы )
As can be seen al a glance, this set is very close to that o f Column II. Readers can continue lo ignore the д-varianl for the 3rd person plural bul need lo know about the two features that differentiate this set from Column II. Column III affixes stand immediately before the verbal root (or the infixed negative), and, i f the rool begins wilh a voiced consonant, the voiced variant is usually (bul nol always!) selected; the aa- for the 1st person plural derives via [4a] or [a4], the voiced pharyngal fricative (preserved in the divergent Abaza dialect) having been lost in standard Abkhaz. The variant with the nasal for the 3rd person non-human singular is employed i f the verb is tripersonal or contains a preverb (lo be discussed later). Let us look at the
conjugations for two bipersonal roots, one (-фа- 'eat') beginning wilh a voiceless consonant, Ihe other (-6a- 'see') beginning with a voiced consonanl, wilh constant 3rd person non-human singular or the homophonously marked 3rd person plural as direct object for 'eat' but w ilh varying direct objects for 'sec': Present Tense Conjugation o f the Bivalent Transitive Verbs 'eat' and 'see'
I cat it/them
исфо(и)т
you-MASC
иуфо(и)т
je.s.fa.wa(j)t’ I sec il/lhem
избо(и)т
js.s.ba.wa.-
субо(и)т
ss.w.ba.wa-
(Df eal it/them you-FEM
ибфо(и)т
js.w.lawa-
you-MASC
(i)t’
see me
ja.b.fawa(j)t’
eat it/them
you-FEM
(j)t’ дыббо(и)т
sec him/her ифо(и)т
he eats
jaj.fa.wa(j)t’
he sees us
(i)t’ ҳаибо(и)т
it/them
илфо(и)т
ja.l.ta.wa.(j)l'
she secs
иафо(и)т
it cats
j.a.ta.wa.(i)t’
it sees you-
(j)t’ уабо(и)т
MASC
ii/them иаҳфо(и)т
il/lhem ишәфо(и)т
il/lhem Ihcy eal
шәылбо(и)т Jwal.ba.wa.-
you-PL
it/ them
you-PL eat
haj.ba.wa(i)r
she eats
we eat
da.b.bawa-
ирфо(и)т
j.ahfa.wa-
we see you-
(j)t*4
wa.ba.wa(i)t’
баабо(и)т
b.ahba.wa-
FEM
(j)f5
ja jw.fa w a -
you-PL see
ижәбо(и)т
ja./w.bawa.-
(j)f
it/them
ja.r.fa.wa.(j)t'
they see us
it/them
(j)f ҳарбо(и)т
har.ba.wa(i)t'
Where the negative intervenes between Ihe Column III affix and a root wilh initial voiced consonanl, the voicing assimilation o f those Columnn III affixes susceptible to il is optional (e.g. ижәымбо = ишәымбо 'whom/what you-PL do not see'). Under relalivisation, з(ы)- is the rcplacemcnl-prefix for Column III affixes (e.g. изфода 'who is eating it/them?'). Coupling the verb 'see' with ihe root o f the adjective meaning 'good' (viz. -бзиа) produces the expression for 'love', e.g. Бзиа бызбо(и)т 'I love you-FEM' Бзиа узбо(и)т 'I love you-MASC' ^ O r/|a .M a .'w a .( j)t'/. 5 O r /bs. h b a 'w a .( j)t'/.
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Бзиа ҳаббома 'Do you-FEM love us?' Бзиа шәырб(аӡ)ом, шәырцзымқуп 'They don't love you-PL, they hate you-PL’ Note on stress: typically. Column I affixes are non-strcss-hearing (the patterning o f дыкоуп '(s)hc is' or o f дып>о(и)т '(s)he jumps' is unusual); typically. Column II affixes are potentially stress-bearing; typically, Column III affixes in non-causative verbs are non-stress-bearing (the 3rd person non-human singular a- is the exception); typically the Column I relative-subslilule prefix и- is stress-bearing; typically, the Column II and III relalive-subslitule prefix з(ы)- is non-stress-bearing — cf. the difference between: избода 'whom do I see? vs избода 'who sees it/them?'. Some transitive verbs, when their direct object is unspecified, have (а)кр(ы)'something' stand in the slot normally occupied by the Column I affix, e.g. Кранысфо/Кранызжәуа, ецәажә(аӡ)ом 'When I am eating/drinking (-жә(ы)-) (something), I don't speak (-цәажәа-)' However, an alternative strategy is simply lo dctransilivise the verb. Compare: У(бр)и ашәкәыааы ааымҭа бзиақәа иауеит 'That writer (ашәкәыааы) writes fine works/oevres/written materials (ааымҭа)' with: Есымша дыауеит 'Everyday (есымша) (s)he writes (-а(ы)-)'6, Two other pairs o f this sort are: Сан (ca(pa)) езы амаҭәақәа лӡахуеит 'M y mother is sewing (-ӡах(ы)-) clothes (амаҭәа) for me' vs Сан луадаҿы дӡахуеит 'Mother is sewing in her room (ауада)' Анхааы амхы ицәаҕәо(и)т 'The peasant is ploughing (-цәаҕәа-) the field (амхы)' vs Анхааы дцәаҕәо(и)т The peasant is (doing some) ploughing' Sometimes it is the entity undergoing the verbal activity (rather than the performer o f it) which remains constant in the process o f detransitivisation, e.g. Сыҧҳа ама/акәты лӡуеит 'M y daughter is baking (-ӡ(ы)-) bread (aMa)/frying the chicken' vs Афрынакны ача/Адырганакны акәты ӡуеит The bread is baking/chicken is frying in the oven (афрына)/рап (адырган)' Саҳәшьа акәац лжәуеит 'M y sister is boiling (-жә(ы)-) the meal (акәац)’ vs Акәац жәуеит 'The meat is boiling' Ахаҵа ианы иблит 'The man burnt (-был- or -блы-) his house down' vs Ианы блит 'His house burnt down' The prefix (а)кр(ы)- 'something' is not the only element which may replace a transitive verb's Column I affix. The reflexive marker -ҽ(ы)-, to which the appropriate
6 W illi Ihis example compare: Есымша дыауеит 'Kvcryday (s)he runs (-о(ы)-)'.
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possessive (i.e. Column II) prefix needs to he altachcd, cun also sland in (his position for some verbs, e.g. Ахаҵа иҽишьуеит The man is killing (-шь(ы)-) himself Аӡқаб лҽылкәабо(и)т The girl is bathing = washing (-кәаба-) herself This reflexive prefix cannot sland independently o f its verb. Those verbs which do not accommodate this marker use the noun fo r 'head' (-хы) wilh, o f course, the appropriate possessive (Column II) prefix. This method o f indicating reflexivily is obligatory i f the reflexive functions as anything other than Ihe verb's direct object, e.g. Аҧҳәыс асаркьаҿы лхы лбо(и)т = Аҧҳәыс лхы асаркьаҿы илбо(и)т 'The woman secs herself in the m irror (асаркьа)' Ахәыҷқәа рхы ивсуеит The children are hitting themselves'7 Should one wish lo ask a Whal- or Who-lypc question, which involves substituting the relative affix for the normal pronominal affix that correlates with the argument questioned, how does one cope wilh such examples as these, where the questioned argument has two affixes correlating with il (within and/or outside the vcrb-form)? In facl, both (or all) relevant affixes yield to their relative counterparts, e.g. Зҽызкәабода?8 'Who is bathing?' Асаркьаҿы зхы збоаа? 'Who sees himself/herself in the mirror?' Зцәа/Збаа зтәымда? 'Who is pregnant?' The verb 'give' (root -ҭа-) is, clearly, ihe prototypical iripersonal example. Presented below is its Present tense conjugation, firstly conjugating for changes to the transitive subject, keeping the direct objccl constant with 3rd person non-human singular or 3rd person plural affix, bul varying the indirect object, and secondly by mixing the references o f all three types o f affix: Present Tense Conjugation o f the Trivalent Transitive Verb 'give'
1 give
ибысҭо(и)т
it/them to
ja.be.s.ta-
we give
wa.(j)t’
him/her to
you-FEM
дбаҳҭо(и)т
d.b.ah.ta.wa(Dt*
you-FEM
you-MASC
ир(ы)уҭо-
ja.re.w.ta.-
give it/them
(и)т
wa.(j)f
he gives you-Fem lo
lo ihem
бсиҭо(и)т
b.sa.j.ta.wa.(j)t'
me
7This verb-phrasc is perhaps more usual in Ihe comcxt o f male mourners banging (heir heads in ritualistic sorrow at a funeral, in which case, o f course, ihe indirect object is functioning in its normal (and nol reflexive) sense. 8Note that (wo slress-pallerns are possible. 9One can analyse the form more deeply as /d.ba.fita.wa.(j)r/, with Ihc close vowel opening under the influence o f Ihe following pharyngal fricative.
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you-FEM
исыбҭо(и)т
give it/them
ja.sa.b.ta.-
she gives
СШӘЫЛҬО-
s./we.l.ta. -
wa.(j)t'
me lo you-
(и)т
wa(j)t'
lo me he gives
PL ишәиҭо(и)т
it/them lo
je./we.j.ta-
we give
шәраҳҭо-
Jw.r.ahtQ.-
wa.(j)t'
you-PL to
(и)т
w a (j)t'10
ҳрырҭо(и)т
Hre.r.tawa.-
you-PL
them
she gives
ишәылҭо-
ja.Jw8.l.la. -
il/lhem lo
(и)т
w a(j)t’
иаҳнаҭо(и)т
j.ahnata.-
il gives
waOJt’11
it/them lo it
they give us to them
(i)i'
you-PL it gives il/thcm to us
ианаҭо(и)т
j-anata.w a (j)f
you-PL give
иҳашәҭо-
js.fia.Jw.ta -
he gives
il/them to us
(и)т
wa.(j)t'12
il/them to
they give
иарҭо(и)т
j.a.r.ta.wa-
you-PL give
дҳашзҭо-
d.ha/w.ta.-
(i)f
him/her to
(и)т
w a(j)t'14
ииҭо(и)т
J.je.J.tawa(j)t’13
him
il/lhem lo il
us
Further examples o f bipersonal intransitive and either bipersonal or tripersonal transitive Dynamic verbs in the Present tense are: Ателефон бабасуа/бабасуеи? Сан лахь сасуеит 'Where are you-FEM ringing? I'm ringing (lo) my mother' Бзиа и(ы)убода/Бзиа и(ы)убо дарбан((ы)у)/дызусҭа(да)? Ҳариааы ип,ҳа бзиа дызбо(и)т 'Whom do you-MASC love? I love our teacher's daughter' Уани уаби акәац рфома? Ааи, ирацәаны ирфО(и)т 'Do your-MASC parents eal meat? Yes, ihey eal it in abundance' Ахәшә анбажәжәуа/анбажәжәуеи? Аҳақьым иансиҭо, изжәуеит 'When do youPL take (literally: drink) medicine (ахәшә)? I take il when the doctor (аҳақьым) gives il lo me' Ацаацәа ацәақәа зырҭ(ақә)ода? Рырцаацәа ирырҭо(и)т — (и)жә/шәымбо(и)? ’To whom are the pupils giving (the) apples? They are giving them lo their teachers — don't you-PL sec (it/them)?'
lO o r /jw гә.h.ta.wa.(ptV. 1'O r /|ә.fi'natawa.(j)t'/. wilh opening o f theclose vowel. ' 2Or /|a.’h3./w.ta.wa.(j)r/. ' ■'Note lhat only two оГ ihc underlying sequence o f three hoinophonous palatal glide prefixes are pronounced and written. ' 4Or /d ' ha. f w.ta.wa.(|)t’/.
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Ақәа (а)уеит 'It is raining' (lilcrally 'U is making/doing (rool -у(ы )-1’’) rain (ақәа)', where the referent o f the Column III agcnl-affix is unclear; presumably in origin il was 'sky, cloud, heaven, nalure' or some such inanimate entity) (cf. Асы ауеит 'It is snowing'; Акырцх ауеит 'Il is hailing') АП)Ш(а) асуеит 'The wind (аҧша) is blowing' (literally 'The wind is hilling il', where ihe referenl o f the Column II indirect object affix is unclear; presumably in origin it would have been something like адунеи 'the world') Аҭӡамц зшәуада? Ca(pa) исшәуеит/Са(ра) соуп изшәуа 'Who is painting (-шә(ы)-) the wall (аҭӡамц)? I'm painting il' Сахьгылоу жәбома? 'Do you-PL sec where I am standing?' Ҳазцо рдыруама? 'Do they know why we are going?' Ахә мариала ирҭиуеи? 'What are they selling cheaply? (lilerally 'sell (-ҭи-) al (-ла) a low/easy (амариа) price (ахә)') Ҳҳзыҳәқәа зшьуеи/зшьуаз(е)и? Абга-хәыҷқәа иршьуеит — у(ба)рҭ ирхароуп 'Whal is killing our pigeons (аҳәыҳә)? Foxes (абга-хәыҷы16) are killing them; il is their faull (axapa)' Ам ла/А ӡба/А хьҭа/А ш оура сакувит 'Hunger (амла)/ТЫге1 (аӡба)/А feeling o f cold (ахьҭа)/А feeling o f heat (atuoypa) is taking hold o f (-к(ы-)) me' = 'I'm feeling hungry/thirsly/cold/hot' [Note that by changing the verb lo the monopersonal intransitive 'die' we produce expressions for dying o f such causes, where the cause is neither an argument o f the verb nor governed by any postposition, such as the Instrumental, viz. А м л а /А ӡб а / Ахьҭа/Аш оура сыҧсуеит 'I am dying o f hunger/thirst/cold/heat'. Also note lhat '1 have a temperature' is Ашоура сымоуп] The verbal noun (otherwise called the infinitive or, in caucasology, the masdar) is formed for Dynamic verbs by placing the suffix -pa after the root, and, since nouns are typically accompanied by the article a-, this prefix completes the formation; this article can be replaced by a Column II possessive ргеПх in appropriate conlcxis. The masdar for Stalives requires an extra element, namely -заа-, placed between root and suffix, bul Stative masdars are ralher artificial and not commonly used in the language. Hereafter all verbs w ill be presented in ihe masdar ralher than just as a root. The masdar-forming suffix (or possibly a homonymous suffix) is used with adjectival roots to produce the associated abstract-noun. I f the masdar is negated, the negative formanl is infixed before ihe root for Dynamics bul placed between root and ihe additional clement -заа- in Stalives. Examples: атәара 'to sit down, silting down' vs амтәара 'not to sit down, nol sitting down' '-‘’ From ihc underlying morphological structure (viz. /;□.w.wajt'/) only one o f ihc conliguous bilabial semi-vowels is pronounccd and wrillcn. |6Абга-д(ы)у or ақалџьма is the word tor 'w o lf.
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атәазаара 'to hc/hcing seated' vs атоамзаара 'not to be/being seated' адырра 'to know, knowing, knowledge’ (cf. адыррақәа '(the) news', адырра >ҕыцқза '(the) latest news') аказаара 'to be, being' (сГ. A(6)pa аказаара сҭахӡам 'I don't want to be here') абара 'to see, seeing' (cf. Шәбара даара(ӡа) исҭах(ы)уп ‘I very much want to see you-PL') абзиара 'goodness, kindness' (cf. агәабзиара 'good health') абааҧсра 'evil, wretchedness, rottenness' (cf. абааҧсы 'evil, bad, rotten'; (А)бааҧ,сра злоу уааым 'He is not a man in whom there is anything rotten' = 'He's not a bad man') (Note in the last example lhat there is no place for a Column I affix, sincc we have more than a simple adjective qualifying the noun. If we add the anticipated д- lo give дуасшм, the meaning alters radically lo 'One in whom there is evil is nol a humanbeing', where the first two words form ihe subject ralher than serve as a complex epithet lo the head-noun, as they do in ihe quoted example] абзиабара 'love' (cf. бзиабарала wilh love') амазаара 'lo have, having1(cf. амазара 'wealth'; Аҧара рацәа амазаара бзиа илбоит 'She loves having a lot o f money (аҧара)') акрыфара 'to eat, eating in general' (cf. афара 'to cat, eating something specific') ауадаара 'difficulty' aapa 'to run/running' aapa 'quality o f wine' OR, more usually, 'lo write/writing' (cf. Ашәкәқәа рыара уадаа(ы)уп/мариа(ӡа)м The wriling o f books is difficult/not easy') аҧхьаӡара 'to count, counting' аҧхьара 'to read, reading' With the last three masdars compare their derivatives in -шьа, which, when added to a verbal root, produces a noun meaning 'method o f VERBing1: Шәкы ркынӡа аҧхьаӡашьа жәдыруама? М ап/М ам оу, axa ашкол аҿы аҧхьашьагьы, аеышьагьы, аҧхьаӡашьагьы уажәы иаҳцо(и)т 'Do you-PL know how lo count (аҧхьаӡашьа) up lo (-кынӡа) 100? No, but we are learning (anapa) how lo read (аҧхьашьа), write (ааышьа) and count al school (ашкол)' Exercises Translate into English___________________Translate into Abkhaz 1. Ишәцәаҕәои/Ишәцәа 1>әоз(е)и
1. Whom does your-FEM sister love?
шәара? Ҳамхқәа ҳцәаҕәо(и)т
She loves no-one
2. Акрыфара с а н а ^ ы ^ , алақәа рбара
2. What is your-MASC father giving lo
сҭахым/сҭахӡам
lhat woman? He's giving her some fish
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3. Адаацоа рырцаацәа абарбо(и)?
3. Who gives your-MASC mother
Ашкол аҿы ирбо(и)т
medicine? The doctor gives it to her,
4. Зыцкы лӡахуада бан?
4. Whal do your-PL children paint, when
when she has a temperature
il is snowing? 5. Уаб у(бр)и аҧҳәыс аҧара злиҭои?
5 .1 don't see where my friends are going
6. У(ба)рҭаҳәсақәа ирзуеи/ирӡуаз(е)и? 6. In spring ihe peasants plough their Ача рӡуеит
fields
7. Шәысасцәа Аҧсышәала ацәажәашьа 7. On Sundays we don't drink wine рдыруама? 8. Банд(ы)у дызҽ(ы)уи? Дызҽ(ы)у
8. What is baking in the oven? Bread is
здыруада? Анцәа идыруеит!
baking there; mother is baking it
9. Акәац афара бзиа ижәбома?
9. How many chickens does that w olf
М ап/М амоу, иаҳф(аӡ)ом
kill everyday?
10. А(бр)а аӡзгьы дахьыкам зхарада?
10. We'll see you-PL a week from today
Са(ра) исхароуп
in Sukhum
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Lesson 7
In this lesson you will learn about: • How lo form ihc Simple Pasl (or Aorisl) o f Dynamic verbs (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finile) • Relative forms based on the Aorist • How to form the Pasl Indefinite o f Dynamic verbs (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) • How to form questions on both the Aorist and Past Indefinite • How to form the Past Absolute (affirmative and negative) o f Dynamic verbs • How to form the Absolute (affirmative and negative) o f Stative verbs • Expressions for 'alone'; 'by oneself; 'oneself as Emphatic; 'by oneself; 'in person'; 'each separately' • The morphology and syntax o f the comparative and superlative grades o f adjectives • Equative expressions • Adverb-formation
Having learnt all about the Presenl tense forms o f Dynamic verbs, we now have to consider how Ihey form their Simple Pasl (or Aorisl) Indicative tense. The affirmative finite Aorist is formed quite simply by taking the Present tense and removing the Dynamic suffix -ya, as in; Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Past Tense o f Dynamic Verbs
I went
s.tsa.jt’
сцеит
I died
СЫҦСИТ
se.ps9.jt’
But expectations perhaps founder when il comes lo negating Ihe Aorist, for the regular negative marker
-m -
is placed immediately before the root (and, Ihus, after any
Column III prefix present in a transitive verb-form), as in: Patterns for ihe Formation o f the Finite Negative Past Tense o f Dynamic Verbs
I did nol go
сымц(аӡ)-
samtsa.-
еит
(dza)jt'
I did nol die
сымҧсит/
sampsajt'/
сымҧсӡеит
sa.m.ps.dza.jf
Examples:
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Бзиала шзаабеит! 'Welcome!' (literally 'We saw you-PL well') Иацы абазар аҿы саыза иан дызбеит, аха иаб дс/зымб(аӡ)еит 'Yesterday I saw my (male) friend's mother at the market (абазар), bul I did not sec his father' Ак(ы)римфеит 'He didn't cat (anything)' The affirmative non-finite Aorisl is produced by simply dropping the finite suffix -ит, and lo turn it into its relative guise the appropriate relative affix (и-, if rclativisation is on the Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its appointed slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Pasl Tense o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ица
jatsa
who/which
went
ИП.СЫ
ja.pss
died
Expectations are now nol frustrated when it comes lo forming the negative relativised non-finile equivalent, lor the negative marker - m - is inserted immediately before the rool, and with these particular rools there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix, e.g.
Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finile Negative Past Tense o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which did nol go
имца(за)
jo.m.tsa(.dza)
who/which
имҧсы/
ja.mpsa/
did nol die
имҧсӡа
js.mps.dza
Before outlining queslion-formation, we need lo consider another pasl tense, the Pasl Indefinite. This has both finite and non-finite forms produced, as we shall see, in the normal way, but the finite forms behave ralher like non-finilcs insofar as they arc mostly used only when ultimately followed by a finite Aorist, which itself serves lo 'make the sentence', as Past Indefinites cannot do this in their own right. In other words, the meaning o f the Pasl Indefinite can be thought o f as incorporating the conjunction 'and' to make il a translation-equivalent o f 'X VERBcd and'. The subjects o f Ihe verbs in such sequences tend lo be identical, but this is not an absolute requirement. When it comes to the meaning o f ihe Pasl Indefinite's non-finile form, however, Ihcre is essentially no difference between the non-finile Past Indefinite and the non-finile Aorisl o f any given verb; sometimes one construction seems to favour the employment o f the one, whereas another construction might more often employ the other.
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The affirmative finite forms o f the Past Indefinite are produced hy replacing Ihe Aorist's finite ending -ит wilh the parallel finite ending -h, to give: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Pasl Indefinite Tense оГ Dynamic Verbs s.tsa.n
сцан
1 went and..
sapso.n
сып,сын
I died and..
Examples: Аҧҳәыс аҳәызба лган акәата/акыз лшьит The woman look (arapa) the knife (аҳәызба) and killed the duck (aKaaTa)/goose (акыз)' Саб дтәан асаламшәкәы даҧхьеит 'My father sal down and read ihc letter (асалам-шәкәы)' Аҭакәажә дыҧсын, лыуацәа дыржит The old woman died, and her relatives (aya) buried (ажра) her' Ахәыҷкәа акәараҿы пыҭк ихәмарын ааныка ицеит/ран ааныка илгеит The children played a little on the shore (акәара) and went home/..., and iheir mother took them home' As for negating the Past Indefinite, ihe regular negative marker - m- is placed, as for the Aorist, immediately before the root, and then the finite ending, consisting o f ihe (compound) formant -зт, replaces the affirmative form's final - h, as in: Patterns for ihe Formation o f the Finite Negative Pasl Tense o f Dynamic Verbs
I did not go and..
сымца(ӡа)-
sa.mtsa.-
I did not die
3T
(dza)z(.)t’
and..
сымҧсызт/ sam.psa.z(.)сымҧсӡазт
t’/samps.dzaz(.)t’
To illustrate natural examples o f a negated finite Past Indefinite we really need to introduce another verbal category first, and so we shall refrain from exemplifying this (admittedly rare) form for the time-being. The affirmalive non-finite Pasl Indefinite is produced by simply replacing the finite suffix
-h
with the non-finile marker -з, and to turn it into its relative guise the
appropriate relative affix (и-, if relativisation is on Ihe Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its designated slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Past Indefinite o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
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who/which
ja.tsaz
ицаз
who/which
ja.psa.z
ИЦСЫЗ
died
wenl
When il comes Lo forming Ihe negative relativised non-finite equivalent, the negative marker - m - occupies its normal non-finite slot (i.e. immediately before the root), and, again, wilh these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix, e.g. Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Negative Past Indefinite o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
имца(за)з
jo.mtsa.-
who/which
имҧсыз/
jo.mpsaz/
(dza.)z
did nol die
имгьс^аз
jo.mps.dzaz
did not go
When il comes to forming a relative expression in the simple past for a Dynamic verb, it is more usual lo use the Past Indefinite (ralher than the Aorist) as base, e.g. Иацы абазар аҿы и(ы)убазаҧҳәыс саыза иан лоуп The woman you-MASC saw yesterday al the market is my male friend's mother' Акәац зымфақәаз мӡәеит Those we did not eal the meat did nol vomit (аӡәара)' We can now proceed to examine queslion-formation based on the Aorisl and Pasl Indefinite forms. For a synthetic Who-type question the да-suffix is either added al the end o f the (relativised) non-finile Aorisl base or inserted before the non-finite ending -3 in the equivalent Pasl Indefinite; since the analytic variant relies on a free standing relativised verb-form, this latter w ill preferably be the Past Indefinite, e.g. Абазар ахь ицаца(з)? (= Абазар ахь ицаз дарбан((ы)у)/дызусҭа(да)?) 'Who (is the one who) went lo the market?' Аҳа бызҭада(з)? (= Аҳа бызҭаз дарбан((ы)у)/дызусҭа(да)?) 'Who (is the one who) gave you-FEM the pear (а ҳ а )?' Аҳа зыбҭада(з)? (= Аҳа зыбҭаз дарбан((ы)у)/дызусҭа(да)?) 'To whom did you-FEM give the pear?VWho is the one to whom you gave the pear?' Зеызкәабада(з)? (= Зҽызкәабаз дарбан((ы)у)/дызусҭа(да)?) 'Who (is the one who) look a bath/shower?' One variant for a synthetic What-type question in the pasl places the interrogative suffix -и on the end o f Ihe relativised non-finile Aorisl, e.g. Иҧ,си? (= Иҧсызарбан((ы)у)/закә(ыз(е))и?) W hat (is il that) died?'
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Арцавцоа ирырҭеи? (= Ардаацза ирырҭаз арбан((ы)у)/зака(ыз(е))и?) Whal did they givc(/is il ihcy gave) lo the leathers?' or 'Whal did ihe Icachers give lo them?' Allcrnalively, we can express Ihesc questions as follows: Иҧсыз(е)и? 'Whal died?' Ардавцза ирырҭаз(е)и? 'Whal did ihey give to the teachers?' or 'Whal did Ihc teachers give lo them?’ What is the analysis o f these variants? Either -зи or -зеи is here being added to the relativised non-finite Aorisl base. Parallel questions based on the non-finite Pasl Indefinite produce: Иҧсыззи/Иҧсызыз? 'Whal died?', where either -зи is suffixed lo the relativised non-finile form or -зы- is inserted before the non-finite ending -з. There is also another variant, perhaps more restricted to the spoken language because, when written, orthographically we would appear lo be facing nothing more than the relativised non-finite Past Indefinite, but il is pronounced with lengthening o f (and secondary stress, i f normal stress falls elsewhere, on) the final syllable, which marks il out as the What-type interrogative based clearly on the Past Indefinite base, e-gИҧсыз? (pronounced [Jipso az|) 'Whal died?' (cf. Иҧсыз [jipsoz] арбан((ы)у)?) Арҵаьцәа ирырҭаз? (pronounccd | jirartaaz]) 'What did they give lo ihe teachers?' or 'What did the teachers give to them?' (cf. Арцаацәа ирырҭаз |jirertaz] арбан((ы)у)?) Yes/No-questions are produced in the normal way, which is lo say lhat -ма is suffixed to the non-finite Aorist or Pasl Indefinite for affirmative questions (e.g. дца(з)ма? 'Did (s)he go?'). For questions based on the negated non-finile forms, if the stem is lhat o f the Aorisl, the choice o f suffixes is between -и or -з(е)и, whereas, if the slem is that o f Ihe Past Indefinite, one can (i) one can use the simple non-finile form (with appropriate, high-falling pilch), (ii) insert -зы- before the non-finite ending -3, or (iii) add the suffix -ззи lo the non-finile ending, e.g. Амхы шәцәаҕәа(з)ма? 'Did you-PL plough the field?' Ибасымҳәеи/Ибасымҳәаз(е)и/Ибвсымҳәаз/ИбасымҳәазызИбасымҳәаззи? 'I told you-FEM, didn't I?' У(бр)и ашәкәы рылымҭазеи/рылымҭаӡаз(е)и/рылымҭаӡаз/рылымҭазазыз / рылымҭаӡаззи? 'She didn't give them that book, did she?' How-/Where-/When-type questions are formed by inserting respectively шп>а-, аба-, оганба- in iheir regular preradical slots into either the non-finile Past Indefinite ( without further change) or, perhaps preferably, ihe non-finite Aorist (with addition o f the Whal-type queslion-suffix -и); for Why-type questions з(ы)- stands in its appointed pre-radical slot within either (a) the non-finite Past Indefinite (with
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lengthening o f the final vowel), o r(h ) the non-finile Aorist accompanied by A N Y o f the What-type interrogative suffixes -и, or -зи, or -зеи. Examples: Шзышҧарбеи/Шәышҧарбаз? 'How did they see you-PL?' Дабацеи/Дабацаз? 'Where did (s)hc go?' Данбацси/Данбаҧсыз? 'When did (s)hc die?' Бызгылеи/Бызгылаз(е)и/Бызгылаз [bazgala az] 'Why did you-FEM get up?' The equivalent non-interrogatives simply place the prefixes ш(ы)-, ахь(ы)-, ан(ы)-, or з(ы)- in cither the non-finite Aorist (perhaps preferred for temporal expressions o f the When-type) or non-finite Pasl Indefinite (perhaps preferred for the three olher types o f expression). Examples: Шәшырба(з) аадыруеит 'Wc know how/thai they saw you-PL' Дахьца(з) рдыруеит 'They know where (s)he went' Ран данп>сы(з), зе гш цә(ы)уеит 'When their mother died, everyone cried' Апрезидент дахьааи(з) аума/оума бызгыла(з)? 'Is the reason why you gol up that (-ахь-) the president camc?' There is another verb-form which is extremely common and which is close in meaning (and, indeed, in appearance) to the Pasl Indefinite. This is the Pasl Absolule. Il ends in -ны, suffixed lo the non-finite Aorist stem. It equates in meaning to ihe English Past Participle 'having VERBed', from which il w ill be clear lhat it needs lo be followed by some finite verb-form to complete Ihe sentence, but, unlike the Past Indefinite, the final finite verb can be in any lense. A peculiarity o f the Past Absolute is lhat, i f the verb in question is iransilivc. its Column III agenl-affix is omitted. This is because in almost all cases in which ihc Past Absolute is used its subject w ill be the same as lhat o f the following verb. Examples: Аӡҕаб дгәааны ааныка дцеит The girl, having grown angry (агәаара), wenl home/weni home’ Зегьы џьашьатәыс иҧхьаӡаны аҧҳәызба дирҭан, ааныка дигеит 'Everyone having deemed (Past Absolule o f агьхьазара] it (sc. the deed done by the hero o f this talc) lo be a miracle (аџьашьатә), they gave [Past Indefinite] him the maiden (аҧҳәызба), and he look | Aorisl] her home.' Аӡқаб лсшзцәа ахьтәаз днеин(ы) дрыҳәеит 'The girl wenl to where her friends were silling and made appeal (аҳәара) to them' (wilh Ihe bracketed close vowel we have the Past Absolute for the meaning 'having gone lo...') Ашәарыца(а)цәа ачақәа шьны/ршьын рыҧсы ршьеит 'The hunters, having killed the quails (ача), sat down/Thc hunters killed the quails and rested (literally: rested (ашьара) their soul' The negated Pasl Absolute inserts the negative marker -m before ihe verbal rool and replaces the suffix -ны with -кәа(н); the meaning equates lo 'not having VERBed' or 'without having VERBed' or even 'wilhoul VERBing'; because o f the last meaning,
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Ihe verb-form can he used alongside a non-past verb-form. The Column III agentprcfix is nol always omitted with negated Absolutes. Examples: Акгьы мҳәакәа(н) дгылеит 'Without saying (аҳәара) anything, (s)he got up' Ипдәыс дымгакәа(н)/димгакәа(н), (иа(ра)) дцеит 'Without taking his wife, he left’ Исмыхькәа(н) — ишҧасмыхьуеи? Даараза исыхьуеит '(It) Not hurt(ing) me — how does il not hurt me? Il hurts me very much indeed (- 3 a)' Иуаҳамҭакәа(н) — ишҧауаҳамҭои? 1 '(Us) Nol giving il/lhem to you-MASC — how are we not going to give il/lhem Lo you-MASC?' Уа(ра) ҳабхәында заҵәы(к), амал умҭакәа(н), уахь уҳашьҭуама? 'Are we going lo send (ашьҭра) you-MASC, our only (зацәы(к)) brother-in-law ([а]абхәында2), thither (уахь) withoul giving you (some) wealth (амал)?' [N.B. абхәында is cither 'husband's brother' or 'wife's brother'] Stative verbs, which lack both the Aorisl and Pasl Indefinite o f Ihe Dynamic class, nevertheless also possess an Absolule. Their affirmative Absolule is formed by replacing the Presenl non-finite's suffix -y with -ны; the equivalent negative then suffixes -кәа(н) lo the negated (non-finite3) Presenl, which, il w ill be recalled, ends in -M .
Examples: Аҧҳәыс лп,а длыманы ахәшәтәырҭахь днеит The woman wenl (анеира) to the hospital (ахәшатәырҭа), having her son with her (= wilh her son)' Уахи-ҽни лымамкәа(н) aye луеит 'She works withoul disliguishing night and day (уахи-ҽни)’ (literally 'She does work (aye), not having night and day') Азәгьы длыцымкәа(н) дааит 'She camc w ilh no-one accompanying her' Акгьы сымамкәа(н) сааит 'I came w ilh nothing' Лцәа/Лыба<а лтәымкәа(н) дыҧсит 'She died pregnant = She was pregnant when she died' (literally '...her skin not belonging lo her') There are two methods o f expressing the notion 'only, alone'. The first is the word
-мацара, the meaning o f which in the 2-volumcl986 dictionary from the Abkhazian Research Institute, named after Dmitry Gulia, is given as: Уаҳа даҽак аламкәа(н) 'Nothing else ((д)аҽа(к)) (more (уаҳа)) being in it' Il is linked to the noun it qualifies by ihc Column II possessive prefix appropriate to Ihe noun in question; if the noun is non-human, the relevant prefix (a-) may be omitted, e.g.
1Note that the open vowel o f the interrogative prefix sometimes, as here, resists rounding before the bilabial glide; and Ih c sequence can even be written as two words: ишп,а уаҳамҭои? 2ln the sense o f 'husband's brother' (in Georgian З Л ^ о ) or 'wife’s brother' (in Georgian
H9»). Cf.
[а]анхәып,ҳа 'husband's sister' (in Georgian З ^со) or 'wife's sister' (in Georgian ymjmob сол). •’ Both the finite and non-finite Stative Present end in the negative - m , but Absolutes are generally formed on the non-finite stem, and so there is no reason to assume any different process is al work here.
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(Са(ра)) аӡы (а)мацара сҭах(ы)уп '1 wanl only water' Уи акзац (а)мацара ауп/оуп иифо 'Meat alone is whai lhat (male) person eats' Аҧацха ааныдка иказ иа(ра) имацвра иакәын 'He alone was the one inside the Abkhazian wicker-dwelling (аҧацха)' Сымацара сцо(и)т 'I am going alone' Ацаблыкь (а)мацара (и)ҧрит4 'The woodcock (ацаблыкь) look o ff alone in flight (аҧырра)' A virtual synonym is -мала, which likewise requires (and cannot drop) the Column II prefix appropriate to the noun in question. The definition in the above-mentioned 2volume dictionary is: Аӡә дацымкәа(н) 'No-one being with it' or А кы ацымкәа(н) 'Nothing being wilh it' Examples: Сымала соуп, умала уоуп 'I am alone; you-MASC are alone' Ахәыҷы имала дааит The (male) child came alone' Resembling this last is -хала, which is the noun ахы 'head: self governed by the Instrumental postposition -ла 'by', and means 'by oneself, o f one's own accord', correlating with the noun in question once again by taking the appropriate Column II possessive prefix, e.g. Агара агәыдыҳәа5 ахала иҵысит 'The cradle (arapa) rocked (ицысра) clicketyclack (агәыдыҳәа) o f its own accord' Аҽы ахала иааит 'The horse came o f its own accord/by itself Лхала6 дааит 'She came by herself Resembling this last is -хаҭа, which is the emphatic 'oneself, again linked lo its noun by means o f the appropriate Column II prefix, e.g. Ca(pa) схаҭа соуп изхароу 'I myself am the one whose fault it is' А(б)ри саб ихаҭа иоуп изҳәо 'M y father himself is the one who says this' Аиҳаб(а)цәа рхат;а(қәа7) роуп ицәажәо The bosses themselves are the ones who are speaking’ One can even add to this the Instrumental postposition without any significant change o f meaning, e.g. Ca(pa) схаҭа(ла) избеит '1 saw it/them myself
4 N o ic that -мацара can be taken as part o f the NP. in which case the Column I affix drops, or be
interpreted as .something apart from the NP, in which case that affix remains. ^ Abkhaz has many onomatopoeic adverbs lhat end in -ҳәа, the root o f the verb аҳоара 'say(ing)'. Adverbs so formed often indicate some type o f movement. 6By attaching the Instrumental postposition directly (i.e. without Column II prefix) to Ihe bare rool o f the noun for 'head', one produces Ihe adverb meaning 'head-first' = хыла. 7Note the possibility o f adding the (non-human) pluraliscr.
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W illm ul uny Column II prefix this last Ibrm means 'in person', and reduplicated il means 'each separately', e.g. Хаҭала дызбеит 'I saw him/her in person' Зегьы хаҭа-хаҭала ашәкәқәа рысҭеит 'I gave books to all o f them, each separately' How is the comparative grade o f adjectives formed? There is the free-standing adverb иаҳа ’more’, e.g. А(б)ри иаҳа дҳаракуп This one is taller' иаҳа иҳараку 'the taller one = the one who is taller' I f the entity wilh which Ihe comparison is being made is present, then it is dependent on one o f the three comparative postpositions introduced in Lesson 2: -аасҭа, -ацкьыс, or -еиҳа 'than', and usually the comparative adverb w ill then be omitted, e.g. У(бр)и аӡҕаб лан лаасҭа/лаҵкьыс/леиҳа (иаҳа) дыҧшӡоуп 'That girl is prettier than her mother' To create the superlative grade simply make зегь(ы) 'all' dependent on one o f the comparative postpositions, e.g. А(б)ри зегь раасҭа/рацкьыс/реиҳа (иаҳа) дҳарак(ы)уп T his one is the tallest' зегь равсҭа/рацкьыс/реиҳа (иаҳа) иҳарак(ы)у 'the tallest one = the one who is tallest' An equalive is formed by using -akapa 'as much as' as the postposition, e.g. Axana аҧҳәыс лакара дкәыш(ы)уп The man is as intelligent as the woman' I f the parameter for equation is size alone, then the postposition can become the root of a Stative verb and the standard for the equation bccomes that verb's indirect object, egАҧҳәыс ахаца диакароуп 'The woman is as big as the man' The commonest formant for an adverb is the suffix -ны, which attaches to the adjcctival root, and the 3rd person non-human singular Column I prefix stands at the start o f the sequence, e.g. (Ca(pa)) иласны сныкәо(и)т 'I walk (аныкәара) quickly (иласны)' (cf. алас 'quick; light') (Ла(ра)) дыҧшӡаны/иҧшзаны аиәа лҳәо(и)т 'She sings (= says) a/the song (|а]ашәа) beautifully' (Ҳа(ра)) у(бр)и аҧҳәыс ибзиа(ӡа)ны даадыруеит 'We know lhat woman (very) well' I f the verb is intransitive (and even in some cases transitive), the Column I prefix иmay be substituted by the one appropriate lo the verb's subject, e.g. (Ca(pa)) сласны сныкәо(и)т 'I walk quickly ' (Ла(ра)) дыҧшзаны ашәа лҳәо(и)т 'She sings beautifully'
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If the Column I prefix is и- and is coreferential wilh Ihe verb's subject and that subject immediately precedes the adverb, then the prefix drops, e.g. Ахәыҷқәа гәырҕьаны ашкол ахь ицо(и)т The children go joyfully ((и)гәыр^ьаны) lo school' vs Игәыррьаны8 ашкол ахь ицо(и)т They go joyfully lo school' A variant (for some adverbs only) adds the elemenl p-, whose function is explained later, immediately before the adjcctival root; in such cases, the stress falls on the Column I prefix, and in such formations only the prefix и- is permitted, e.g. (Ca(pa)) ирласны сныкәо(и)т 'I walk quickly' (Ла(ра)) ирҧшӡаны ашәа лҳәо(и)т 'She sings beautifully' There also exist some peripheral formations for adverbs. One method is by reduplication o f the adjcctival root, e.g. хәыҷ(ы)-хәыҷы 'little by little, gradually' лас(с)ы-лас(с)ы 'often' Adverb-roots can also be reduplicated, as in: Уажәы-уажәы дцзажәо(и)т '(S)he talks non-stop' (cf. уажәы 'now') нак-нак 'in the future' (cf. нак 'thither') The copular root -xa- 'become' is found with some adjectives in expressions like: Аҳәызба ццышәха ихит 'He sharpened (axpa) the knife (аҳәызба) to a real blade (literally: till il became sharp (аццышә))' This formant can be added lo some nouns, as in: ганха 'apart' (cf. аган 'side') The Instrumental postposition added to nominal roots produces some adverbs, e.g. маӡала 'secretly' (cf. амаӡа 'secret') Il can be added to an adjectival root as well, e.g. Бааҧсыла сааҧсеит 'I am (have grown) extremely tired ([a]aan,capa)' We have already met -ҳәа as adverbial formant, cf. Ашьха пыввыҳәа иааит 'The bee (ашьха) came w ilh a buzz' Аҕәапаҳәа ижаҳәо(и)т They are ruminating (ажаҳәара) with a deliberate, rhythmic munching motion9’ The nominal root from ацас 'manner, character', when suffixed to a nominal root, produces an expression meaning 'after the manner o f NOUN' and is common wilh the noun ауааы 'human being', e.g. Уаоҵас дыкан '(S)he behaved like a human being, decently' The suffix -шақә added Lo a verbal root gives a form meaning 'in the manner o f VERB’, e.g. 8One can intensify ihe force o f Ihe adverb in these two examples by replacing ihc suffix -ны wilh -дәа to give: гәырдоцәа and игәырҕьацза respectively. 9 A ll o f these nuances are inherent in Ihe adverb in this particular context.
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ҧагьашақә 'in a boastful manner' (сГ. аҧагьара 'boasi(ing)') хомаршақо 'in a playful manner' Sometimes there is no clear indication o f adverbial status, e.g. Амра каххаа ип,хо(и)т 'The sun shines (аҧхара) brightly (каххаа)' Exercises Translate into English___________________Translate into Abkhaz 1.
Ахәыҷқәа рымала иаама?
1. Whom did your-MASC sister see? She
М ап/М амоу, ранацәа рыцны иааит
saw no-one
2. Ҳгәылацәа рла ҳкыз запәы(к)
2. Whal did your-FEM mother give lo
шьны, абаҳчаҿы итәаны ицәеит
thal woman? She gave her a little bread
3. Саб Уачамчыра сганы/сиган (ихат,в)
3. Who gave your-MASC father
Жәыргьыҭ хшеит
medicine? The doctor gave il to him, when he had a temperature
4. Ҳа(ра) ҳаруаа раасҭа иҳаракыда?
4. Whal did your-FEM children do
Аӡәгьы у(ба)рҭ раасҭа дҳаракым
yesterday, when il snowed?
S. Саызцәа а(б)ра изыкам жәдыруама? 5 . 1 didn't sec where my friends went ihe day before yesterday, bul I well know why ihcy arc here now 6. Абазар аҿы шәанааба, шәаадырит
6. Last year the peasants didn't plough their Fields
7. Ацаацәа ибырҭаз10? Цәа каҧшьк
7. On Sunday we got up at 20 minutes lo
сырҭеит. Избан?
11 and didn't drink anything
8. Зҽызкәабода? У(бр)и смоҭа лоуп.
8. When your-FEM daughter sat down,
Дааҧсаны дааит
did she write the letter? Having eaten, she sal down and wrote three letters
9. У(бр)и аҧҳәыс дзакароузеи!
9. How many ducks did lhal w o lf k ill when you-PL went to Tbilisi? Il killed 10
10. Ибыхьи бара? Аӡәы дбысма?
10. M y friend wenl wilhout seeing his sister
l0To be understood as [ j a . b a r . t Q az]. Alternatively: нбырҭаз арбан((ы)у)7
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Lesson 8
In this lesson you will learn about: • The Impcrlccl lense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finile) o f Dynamic verbs • Relative forms based on the Imperfect • How to form questions on the Imperfect • Preverbs • The function o f the a-grade vs the zero/reduced grade • Root-cxlcnsions ■ The morphology and associated syntax o f the verbs meaning 'begin' and 'finish'
There are still a number o f Indicative tense-forms (plus the Subjunctive, Optative and Imperative moods) to leam, but the most important one o f those remaining, namely the Imperfect Indicative, w ill be dealt with in this lesson. The meaning o f this tense ranges from 'X was VERBing' or 'X used lo VERB', through 'X began lo VERB', lo 'X would have VERBed' or 'X would VERB', ihe last iwo alternatives being mosl common when ihe tense is used in the main clause accompanying a condition, a type o f main clause lhat is technically called an apodosis. The affirmative finite Imperfect is formed by taking the Present Indicative and replacing the finite ending -ит wilh - h, as in: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Imperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
I was going
СЦОН
s.tsa.wan
I was dying
сыҧсуан
sa.ps.wa.n
To negate the Imperfect, the affirmative finite ending - h is replaced by the negative marker -мы, which is then followed by the compound finite suffix -зт, as in: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negative Impcrfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
I was nol going
сц(аӡ)омы-
s.tsa.(dza.)-
I was not
3T
wamaz(.)t’
dying
сыҧсуамы-
saps.(dza.)-
зт/
wamaz(.)t'
сыҧсӡомызт
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The affirmative non-finite Impcrfect Indicative is produced by simply replacing the finite suffix - h with the non-finite marker -з, and lo turn il into its relative guise Ihe appropriate relative affix (и-, i f relalivisalion is oil the Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its designated slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Imperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ИЦ03
ja.tsa.wa.z
who/which
иҧсуаз
ja.ps.waz
was dying
was going
In forming the negative relativised non-finite equivalent, the negative marker - m occupies its normal non-finite slot (i.e. immediately before the root), and, again, with these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix, e.g.
Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Negative Imperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which was not
имц(аз)оз
je.mtsa-
who/which
имҧсуаз/
je.mps.-
(dza)waz
was not
имҧсӡоз
(dza.)wa.z
going
dying
Compare the follow ing examples o f Imperfects w ilh their Presenl equivalents in Lesson 6: Кранысфоз/Кранызжәуаз, сцәажә(аӡ)омызт 'When I was eating/drinking (something), I was nol speaking' У(бр)и ашәкәыеаы ааымҭа бзиақәа иауан 'That writer used lo write fine works/oevres/writlen materials' Есымша дыауан 'Everyday (s)he used to write' Сан (ca(pa)) сзы амаҭәақәа лӡахуан 'M y mother was sewing clothes for me' Сан луадаҿы дӡахуан 'Mother was sewing in her room' Анхааы амхы ицәақәон 'The peasant was ploughing the field' Аихааы дцәаҕәон 'The peasant was (doing some) ploughing' Сабшала акино ахь (асааҭ) ааба рыбжазы ҳцон 'We used to go to the cinema al half pasl seven on Saturdays' Affirm ative Yes/No-questions place the suffix -ма (o r-y ) after the non-finite suffix -3, e.g. Акино ахь шәцозма? 'Were you-PL going to the cinema?'
Ill
Ибысуаз(ы)у ибмысуаз(ы)у? 'Were they hitting you-FEM or not?' A Who-type question places the interrogative element -да before the non-finite ending
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o f the relativised form; there is a tendency for stress to move onto the
syllabic preceding the question-formant, if it is nol already Ihe carrier o f stress, e.g. Иҧсуадаз? 'Who was dying?' vs Имҧсуадаз?1 'Who was not dying?' Аҧара зыбҭодаз? 'To whom were you-FEM giving the money?' A What-type question is formed in one o f the three ways: (i) the final vowel o f the relativised form is lengthened; (ii) the relativised non-finite form ends not in -з but in -зыз (presumably where the first fricative is the interrogative and the second the nonfinite Imperfect ending); (iii) the suffix -зи is added to the relativised non-finite form; again stress moves onto the syllable preceding the question-formant, i f il is not already Ihe carrier o f stress, e.g. И(м)цоз? [ji(m)tsJ3zJ = И(м)цозыз? = И(м)цоззи? 'Whal was (not) going?' Дзысуаз? [dzaswa az] = Дзысуазыз? = Дзысуаззи? 'Whal was (s)he hitting?' Шәзыҧхьоз? [Jwzapxb'az] = Шәзыҧхьозыз? = Шәзыпльоззи? 'What were youPL reading?' Now that we have established how What-type questions are structured, we can examine the formation o f leading questions. As wilh the case o f parallel questions formed on the non-finite Past Indefinite, as explained in Lesson 7, those expecting ihe answer 'yes’ can be produced in one o f three ways: (i) the negative non-finile Imperfect alone (without any lengthening o f the final vowel) can serve this function; (ii) the negated non-finile Imperfect ends in the sequence -зыз; (iii) the suffix -зи is added to the negated non-finite Imperfect; the addition o f the suffix -ӡа to such questions alters the expectation o f the answer to 'no', e.g. Имцоз? = Имцозыз? = Имцоззи? 'They were going, weren't they?' Имцаӡоз? = Имцаӡозыз? = Имцаӡоззи? They weren't going, were they?' The same range o f suffixal options as those just illustrated for leading questions characterises questions o f the How/When/Where-type, e.g. Бзиа дышҧалбоз? = Бзиа дышҧалбозыз? = Бзиа дышпдлбоззи? 'How did she used to love him/her?' Ҳанбацоз? = Ҳанбацозыз? = Ҳанбацоззи? 'When were we going? Ателефон/Аҭвл2 уабасуаз = уабасуазыз = уабасуаззи? 'Where were you -MASC ringing?' When il comes lo questions o f the Why-type, the range o f suffixal oplions is the same as for Whal-typc questions, which is to say that the final vowel o f the verb-form
1Имҧсуадаз?, w ilh initial stress, as one would have expected, is also possible. 2Note the difference between the glotlaliscd denial in the full form vs the aspirated denial in ihe short form.
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is lengthened, and, additionally, one may add lo (he non-finite Imperfect Ihe ending -зеи, e.g. Узсысуаз7 [wazsaswo ozl = Узсысуазыз? = Узсысуазз(е)и? 'Why did you-MASC used lo hil me?' У(ба)рҭ бызрыҧхьоз [ЬәггарҳЬзг! = бызрыҧхьозыз = бызрып,хьозз(е)и? 'Why were you-FEM reading those?' Readers w ill be aware thal all ihe verbs illustrated so far have been 'simple' insofar as the lexical meaning is a function solely o f an unanalysable root, but many ( if not most of) the language's verbs are complex insofar as the lexical meaning is a function o f the combination o f the root and a preverb. Consider the example: Икалеи?3 'What (has) happened?' We have here the root -ла-, which indicates 'moving into/towards', and the location into/towards which thal motion takes place is specified by the preverb, which here is -ka-. We have already mel ihis element, though it was functioning as a verbal rool in its own right, and the verb in question was аказаара 'to be, exist'. And so, in origin, the last example w ill have meant 'What has moved into existence?', a neat way o f expressing the concept o f 'happening' in terms o f semantic primes. Clearly, some formants can switch roles, functioning now as preverb and now as Stative root, and indeed the root -ла- is possibly related to the homonymous preverb signifying 'inside (a mass)'. But a question might have occurred to some readers, namely: 'How do we know thal the sequence -кала- is analysable into Ihe staled two components o f preverb -ka- vs rool -ла-?' It w ill be recalled lhat we have a rule whereby in certain formations, such as the Aorisl Indicative, the negative marker stands immediately before the rool, and, if we negate Ihis verb in the Aorisl, what we find is this: Акгьы камл(аӡ)еит 'Nothing happened' where the negative - m- splits the preverb from the rool. Another formant we have described as standing immediately before the root (or, i f presenl, the preradical negative) is the Column III subject marker in a transitive verb. Now the root illustrated in the last two examples is intransitive, bul it has a transitive counterpart; this is -ҵа-, meaning 'convey into/towards'. I f we keep the preverb constant and switch roots here, we end up with an example like: А(б)ри казцада? Ca(pa) икасцеит/икасымц(аӡ)еит 'Who did this? I did/did not do it' which gives us one the language's verbs meaning 'do. make', and this meaning is derived from the semantic primal structure 'moving X into existence' => 'making/doing X'. Here, then, the Column III affix for the 1st person singular (along
■'Note that either thu syllabic immediately preceding the question-suffix is stressed (the preferred pattern) or the initial relativc-affix keeps its stress and also carries high-falling pitch.
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with the relative substitute in the question-form) can clearly be seen splitting preverb from root, thereby identifying the latter. I f a transitive verb contains a preverb, then the variant -на- is selected from the Column III affixal set lo denote a 3rd person singular non-human agent, e.g. Амаҭ иканацеит/иканамц(аӡ)еит 'The snake (амаҭ) did/did nol do it' The pair o f roots just introduced play an absolutely ccnlral role in Abkhaz, as the language possesses a huge number o f preverbs (well over 100), many o f which combinc w ilh these roots, and, since the concepts 'moving/conveying into/lowards' naturally pair w ilh those o f 'moving/conveying out of/away from', we need now lo look al the latter pair o f roots and examine al the same lime another grammatical feature lhat often (bul nol always) comes into play as one shifts from the first to the second pair o f roots. We have already met as a Slalive root the element -ҭа- meaning 'being inside (a delimited space)', as in: Ашкол сҭоуп 'I am in school’ The word for 'school' here is the oblique object o f the bipersonal Stative verb, and il correlates with the zero-option for marking 3rd person singular non-human entities in the set o f Column II pronominal affixes. Using this same element in ils preverbal function w ilh the pair o f roots discussed above, we obtain sequences like: Ашкол сҭалеит '1 entered school' Сан ашкол сҭалцеит 'M y mother placed me in the school' where again the word for 'school' is ihe oblique object firstly o f a bipersonal intransitive Dynamic verb and latterly o f a Iripersonal transitive Dynamic verb. Whal happens, when we employ the roots -ҵ(ы)- 'moving out of/away from' and -х(ы)'conveying out of/away from'? Consider Ihe following: Ашкол сҭыцит 'I emerged from school/I left = abandoned school' Сан ашкол сҭылхит 'M y mother removed me from the school' We note thal, in addition lo ihe change o f root, ihe preverb has lost its open vowel. This alteration o f vocalic grade for the preverb is very common, bul not all preverbs possess an a-grade, and, naturally, those which do not cannot change their grade, when the root shifts after the pattern o f the pairings jusi examined. Consider the following: Preverb -шә(ы)-: Ахарҧ сшә(ы)уп 'I am wearing a shirt' Ахарҧ сшәысцо(и)т 'I am putting on a shirt'4 Ахарп, сшәысхуеит 'I am taking o ff a shirt'
4l f one were expecting here Ihc presence o f a reflexive element, recalling the original semantics should be enough to dispel the expectation, for the literal meaning w ill have been something akin lo i am putting a shirt on my torso' rather than 'on myself.
I 14
The Slalive rool/Dynainic preverb for ihis particular conccpl o f wearing docs nol admil the a-grade, which contrasts w ilh three other associated roots, as shewn below: Preverb -ха-/-х(ы )-: Ахылҧа cxoyn 'I am wearing a hat' Ахылца схасцо(и)т '1 am donning a hat' Ахылҧа схысхуеит 1 am removing my hat' Preverb -шьа-/-шь(ы)-: Ақалҧад сышьоуп '1 am wearing a sock (ақалҧад)' Ақалҧад сышьасҵо(и)т '1 am putting on a sock' Ақалҧад сышьысхуеит 'I am taking o ff a sock' Preverb -мҕа-/-м 5(ы)-: Амака сымроуп 'I am wearing a bell' Амака сымқасдо(и)т 'I am putting on a belt' Амака сымҕысхуеит 'I am taking o ff my bell' One reason why the sort o f couplings we have been examining are so widespread is lhat the meanings can be metaphorical as well as literal. For example, the notion o f 'coming out' can be used, as indeed in English, to mean 'publishing', e.g. Ашәкәы анбаҭыҵуеи? Уаҵәы иҭыҵуеит 'When is ihe book coming out/being published? It is coming out/being published tomorrow' In a parallel metaphorical fashion, the combinalion meaning 'conveying out оГ is used in the sense o f 'taking a photo', e.g. Спатреҭ ҭыбхуазма? Аиеи, иҭысхуан 'Were you-FEM taking my pholo (апатреҭ)? Yes, I was' Some further examples o f preverbal usage are now presented. Preverb -ла-/-л(ы)-: Ишьапы амаҕалалеит 'А thorn (амаҕ) wenl into his fool/He got a thorn in his loot' Ацәымҕ аҕәы иалал(аӡ)ом The nail (аҵәымҕ) won't go into the plank (а^әы )' Санд(ы)у амад(ы)ура даламл(аӡ)еит 'M y grandmother didn't enter service (амацура)' Аӡиас Кәыдры Амшын Еиқәа иалало(и)т 'The river K ’odor joins/flows into the Black Sea' where we note that a 3rd person singular non-human oblique object is marked by the Column II affix -a-, but consider the next examples: Ахәыҷы аҳәынцәа дылалеит The child wenl into the mud (аҳәынцәа)' Сашьа абна дылало(и)т 'My brother is going into the forest (абна)' In the next example we have not only the preverb just illustrated but also the root o f the noun for 'water' (-ӡы) fused with it inside the verb, even though this noun is also present as part o f a postpositional phrase:
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Аџьықәреи/Аҧш ажәла аӡакны излачит 'The maize (аџьықәреи/аҧш) seed (ажәла) swelled up (аӡлачра) in ihe water' Note the parallel interplay o f marking o f the oblique non-human objccl when Ihc root
changes: Акамбашь абна илдит The water-buffalo (акамбашь) emerged from the foresl' Ахәыҷы аҳәындәа дылымц(ӡе)ит 'The child didn't come out o f the mud' Сгәы иалсит 'It upset me (literally: it struck from inside my heart)'; the expression is also used to express condolences to the bereaved А(б)ри ацәа а-еимаак алдуеит T w o shoes/boots w ill come out of/be made from this (lcathcr-)skin (ацәа)' Санд(ы)у амац(ы)ура далдит 'M y grandmother left service' Ацзымқ ақәы иалцуам/инлдӡом The nail won't come out o f the plank' Адәымҕ аҕәы иалеидеит’Не fixed a/the nail in the plank' Снацәа агәыр аласдеит 'I stuck a/the needle (агәыр) in my finger (анацәа)/1 pricked my finger with a/the needle' Ахәыҷы аҳәындәа дыларымд (аӡ)еит They didn't let the child go into the mud' А м хы лардеит5 They sowed the field (амхы)' Аџьықәреи = Ап,ш/Аџьымшьы лардеит They sowed maize/onion(s) (аџьымшьы)' Арыҭәала адәым^ аҕәы иалихит He removed the nail from the plank wilh the pincers (арыҭәа)' У(бр)и ацәа а-еимаа бзиак алихит 'He made two fine shoes/bools from thal (leather-)skin' Деп(ы)утатс далырхит They elected him/her as6 a deputy (адеп(ы)утат)' А вгуст = Нанҳәа аажәа алырхит аҿар рымшс/ирымшны7 They selected the 20lh August lo be Youth (аҿар) Day’ Имаа ылихит 'He carved out a path (амаа) for himself Preverb -да-/-д(ы )-: Аҳаҧ ы/Абаҳча/Ахыза сыдалеит'1 went into (literally 'under' = -да-) ihe cave/garden (абаҳчаУиЫег the blanket (ахыза)' Abkhaz sometimes views events differently from our (western European) perspective. For example, the notion o f 'taking up a load' is treated in English as a transitive activity w ilh an agent and direct object, whereas Abkhaz employs the compound-vcrb
-
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just exemplified, as (he phenomenon is viewed as an intransitive subject moving beneath the load in question, viz. Аидара дадалет* '(S)hc took up the load (|а)аидара)' Similarly, in the description o f a Hood (аӡхыдра <= аӡы 'water', -х(ы)- 'over the lop o f, -д(ы)- 'moving from') ihe water is described as moving under the victims (presumably because, after bursting its banks, the water rises from below them), rather than vice-versa, e.g. Аӡхыцраан инхоз ayaa аӡы рыцалеит 'The people living (анхара) al the lime o f (-аан) the Flood were submerged beneath the water' Аҵла дыддит '(S)he came out from under the tree' BUT, if a giant is carrying a tree as his load, then we get: Адла даццит 'He laid down (literally: came out from under) the tree' Аҧҳәыс лхада диддит The woman left her husband' Аӡыхь ыддуеит The spring (аӡыхь) rises up (sc. from under the earth)' Ацәгьарақәа ииуз зегьы иддит 'A ll the misdeeds (ацәгьара) lhat he commilted (aypa) came lo light (literally: came out from under him)' Preverb -ҿа-/-ҿ(ы)-: Ан ахәыҷы акарпыжә/акыка иҿалдеит 'The mother gave the male-child walermelon (акарпыжә) to eat/the breast (акыка) to suck' (where the preverb is related lo the noun аҿы '(the) mouth, face' and postposition -ҿы 'in') Аҽы ақәра аҿеидеит 'He put the bridle (аҕәра) on the horse' Агзашә/Ашәқәа (а)ҿеидеит 'He hung the gate (arsani3)/doors (ашә)' Аҳәындәрақәа (а)ҿалдеит 'She put/sewed the buttons (аҳәындәра) on' Иижәыз зегьы иҿихит 'He spewed out everything that he had drunk' Ажәа лҿырхуан 'They were taking her evidence (literally: word = |а]ажәа)' Ашәқәа (а)ҿихит 'He took down the doors' Ажьымжәа ҿысхит'1 plucked the bunch o f grapes (ажьымжәа)' Preverb -ха-/-х(ы )-: Аҧарҧалыкь агәлада иахалдеит 'She put the butterfly (аҧарҧалыкь) on (he pin (агәлада) = pinned the butterfly as an exhibit' Акәты адәы иахалдеит 'She pul the chicken on the skewer (адәы) = skewered the chicken' Ачамгәыр арахәыц ахеидеит 'He put a string (арахәыц) on the 4-stringed viollike instrument (ачамгәыр9) = strung the instrument' Ихасд(аз)ом 'I do not believe it' Снапы ацәа ахыдит The skin has come o ff my hand = I've grazed my hand' ^Note thal the 3rd person singular non-human oblique objcct is now marked by -a-. 9 A local folk-instrumenl (in Georgian /chonguri/); c l ', the 2-stringed variant called аҧхьарца (in Georgian /panduri/).
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Ашьхақәа дырхыцит '(S)hc passed over the mountains' Axui хыҵит The milk (axtu) boiled over' Ш ака (шықәса) бхыцуеи? Хәба (схыҵуеит) 'How old are you-FEM (literally: How many years are passing over you)? (I am) Five' Ayaca ацәа ахылхит 'She skinned the sheep (ayaca)' Акәарҭ акәҷарақәа хнахит 'The brood-hen (акәарҭ) hatched the chicks (акәҷышь)' Сҧарақәа шә-мааҭк рхысхит 'I look from my cash/savings 100 roubles' Аҧҳәызба дхихит 'He enticed the maiden (аҧҳәызба)' Аҧхынра шҧоух(ы)угеи10? 'How did you-MASC spend (literally: carry it over you) the summer?' Preverb -м(ы)-: М чыла исымылхит 'She took it away from me by force (амч)' Preverb -н(ы)-: Абысҭа анырцеит (ачанах ианырцеит) They served up (literally: placed it on it) (анцара) the grits (абысҭа) (on the plate (ачанах))' Preverb -шьҭа-/-шьҭ(ы)-, clearly related to the nominal root in ашьҭа '(the) track': Ахәыҷы дышьҭалеит The child went to bed' Лан ахәыҷы дышьҭалцеит 'Her mother pul the child to bed' Алаба шьҭихит 'He picked up the stick (алаба)' Preverb -цә(ы)-, which designates being in certain wcather-condilions: Амра амра дцәылеит 'Amra wenl oul in ihe sun' Аҭыҭын амра ицәырдеит They laid oul the tobacco (аҭыҭын/аҭаҭын) in ihe sun' The preverbs introduced so far have all been unanalysable, but by no means all fall inlo this simplex category. Consider: Preverb -дәықә(ы)-: Уаха идәықәло(и)т 'They are setting off/out tonight' Here the preverb is made up o f адәы '(the) meadow, field' and the simplex preverb -қә(ы)- 'on'. The same combination occurs in: Сыҷкәын Акәака ддәықәысцеит 'I despatched my son to Sukhum' The same nominal element combines with preverb -л(ы)- in the following example, whose semantics do not quite meet expectations: Preverb -дәыл(ы)-: Руадақәа ирдәылцит 'They left their rooms' Sometimes one suspects that a preverb might be analysable, though this cannot be conclusively demonstrated, e.g.
10Ог Аҧхынра шҧа ух(ы)угеи7.
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Preverb -п,ыр(ы)- (cf. -кза-): Бысҧырымц(ӡе)ит = Быскәамц(ӡе)ит 'You-FEM didn't leave me alone (аҧырҵра = акоацра1•)' Preverb -цәыр(ы)-: Амза цәырцит The moon came out (sc. from hiding) (ацәырцра)' It is also important to stress that preverbs combine with many roots, not just the four illustrated so far. Consider the following: Preverb -ҭа-/-т;(ы)-: Абҕьы аҵеиць иҭашәеит The leaf (абҕьы) fell (аҭашәара) into the well (аҵеиуь)' Аацәа ашыла ҭалҧ,сеит 'She poured (аҭаҧсара) the flour (ашыла) into the sack ([а]аацәа)' Иџьыба ачақы ҭшәеит 'А pocket-knife (ачақы) fell oul o f (аҭшәара) his pocket (аџьыба)' Preverb -гәала-: Бысгәалашәеит 'I remembered (агәалашәара) you-FEM' (where the compound preverb seems to consist o f -гә(ы)- 'heart', -a- 'it', -ла- 'into', so that the meaning in terms o f semantic primes is 'You fe ll12 into my heart') Preverb -гәцара-: Дыгәцарарымк(ӡе)ит They did not lake care o f (агәцаракра) him/her' Preverb -ныкә(ы)-: Дныкәызгеит 'I took care o f (аныкәгара) him/her' Preverb -хҭа-: Иан дыхҭалкуан 'His mother was pestering (ахҭакра) him' Preverb -хы н-/-хны -: Лыҷкәын дхынҳәит/дыхнымҳә(зе)ит 'Her son relumed/did not return (ахынҳәра)' Preverb -ҽҳәа-: Аҭакәажә дыҽҳәатәеит/дыҽҳәатәоуп The old woman sal down/is sitting in front o f the fire(place) (аҽҳәатәара/аҽҳәатәазаара)' Preverb -қә(ы)-: Акәардә дықәгылеит '(S)he stood on (ақәгылара) the chair (акәардә)' Асценаҿы дықәгылеит '(S)he appeared on (the) stage (асцена)' Суқәымгәыҕит 1 didn’t entertain any hope o f (ақагәықра) you-MASC' Ашәақьиқәикит 'He aimed the rifle (ашәақь) at him (lilcrally: held it on (ақәкра) him)' Ацара иақәимкит 'He didn't aim/intend (ақәкра) lo go' 1 'акәьгцра also exists. 12The root -шәа- is used prololypically for the falling o f light, small items and contrasts with -ҳа- for larger, heavier ones.
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Preverb -мца-/-мц(ы)-: Аҧара сымцаҳаит 'A large sum o f money fell inlo my lap (амдаҳара)' Ачанахқәа рымҵыргеит They look the plates from in front o f (амҵгара) Ihem' Preverb -raa-: Сылгәамҧхеит = Лгәы еамыхәеит 'She did not like (агәаҧхара13 = агәахәара) me' Агьама гәасҭо(и)т 'I am testing (агәаҭара) its lasle (агьама) = I'm lasting it' Preverb -кы л а-/-кы л -/-кл ы -: Абаа сыхәда икыламх(аз)еит The bone (аба®) did not get stuck (акылахара) in my throat (ахәда)' Агәыр арахәыц кыллымд(аӡ)еит 'She did not thread (акылдара) the (thread (арахәыц) through the) needle' Preverb -кна-/-кн(ы )-: Апалта кнеиҳаит 'He hung up (акнаҳара) the coat (апалта)' Ачуан/Ақәаб кнылхит 'She look down/off the hook (акныхра) the cooking-pol (ачуан)/саиМгоп (ақзаб)' Preverb -п>(ы)-: Ақьаад ҧызжәеит 'I ripped (агукәара) the paper (ақьаад) in two' vs Ақьаад ҧызыжәжәеит 'I ripped the paper into many bits', where the notion 'many bits' is signalled by reduplication o f the consonant in the verbal root Сгәы п>жәо(и)т 'M y heart is tearing/being tom (in anger/annoyance)' Preverb -мааҧ(ы)-: Мықә ашҭакны аҿар рныҳәа мааҧыргеит 'They conducted (амаадгара) the youth-festival (аҿар рныҳәа) in M ykw Yard' Preverb -ҽп>ын-/-ҽп,ны-: Зиаск дыҽҧынгылеит '(S)he reached (= came to a stand) at ihe edge o f (аҽҧынгылара) a river' Preverb -хәа-: Ахәыҷы ap инеиуа дрыхәал>шуеит14 The child is looking at (ахәаҧшра) the army (ap) (which is) moving forward (анеира)' Ca(pa) ателевизор сахзаҧшуеит 'I am watching ihe TV' Preverb -кыд(ы)-: Аҭӡамц дкыдгылеит '(S)he stood alongside/up against (акыдгылара) the wall (аҭӡамц)'
1-C f. аҧхара 'warm up; give out heat' (e.g. Аҳауа п,хо(и)т 'The air (аҳауа) is wanning up'; Амра ҧхо(и)т 'The sun is wanning up'). l4Note the 3rd person plural Column II prefix agreeing with the singular (but semantically collective) noun ap 'army'.
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Ашышкамс аҭӡамц икыдлеит The ant (ашышкамс) went up (акыдлара) the wall' Preverb -ва-/-в(ы)-: Дсыватәеит '(S)hc sal (аватәара) alongside me' Дсывсит '(S)he passed beside (авера) me' Preverb -д(ы)-: Ацла ааны иадгылоуп The tree stands up against the house' Preverb -кә(ы)-: Ааны сакәшеит 'I passed around the outside o f (акәшара) the house' Preverb -(ана-/-<ан(ы)-: Аацәақәа ашьҭаиарҭа ианарыжьит They tossed into (аснажьра) the slore-room (ашьҭаҵарҭа) the (heavy) sacks’ Ала асаны ианицеит 'He ejected (аанцара) the dog from the house' Preverb -лбаа-: Аладәра акакан лбаазгеит 'I fetched the walnul(s) (акакан) down (албаагара) from the attic (ала^әра)' (cf. the same element as a full verbal root in: Амардуан ала дылбааит '(S)he came down (албаара) by Ihe stairs (амардуан)') The majority o f the preverbs are o f the locational variety, as they specify the place where/whilher/whence the verbal action takes place. But there are a small number which rather indicate orientation. The commonest are -aa- 'hither' (which is to be interpreted as marking motion towards the speaker), and -н(а)- 'thither'. We have already encountered the root -ra-, which by itself indicates the act o f 'taking', e.g. А(б)ри aye аамҭа рацәаны иаго(и)т This business is taking (arapa) a long time' Ахәыҷы ааныка дызго(и)т 'I am taking the child home' I f we associate the orientational preverb -aa- with it, we produce the translationequivalent to 'bring', viz. Баыза ааныка даабгома? 'Are you-FEM bringing ([ajaarapa) your friend home? Ақды аӡы иаанагеит The water/river brought the tree-stump (ақды)' Use o f -на- with the root emphasises the 'thilhemess' o f the action or, in other words, the reaching o f the destination, e.g. Иҷкәын хәыҷы ашкол ахь днеигеит 'Нс took (анагара) his little son to school' Two other orientational preverbs that need to be introduced alongside the commoner two just illustrated are -a(a)- ’up (cf. ааада '(the) north'15) and -л(а)- 'down' (cf. алада '(the) south'16). For one thing all four are found in association with -и- and in this ' -’ Dzhanashia notes in his dictionary o f 1954 (hat the meaning might also be '(the) east', for which the more normal expression is амрагылар(ҭ)а, literally ‘sun-rising (place)'. ,6Dzhanashia notes that this is found in the meaning '(the) west', for which the more normal expression is амра1;ашәар(ҭ)а, literally 'sun-falling into (place)'. Into what does the sun fall? As Abkhazia runs along a strip o f the Black Sea's eastern littoral, the natural answer is the sea (specifically, the Black
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combination produce compound-roots o f molion for Ihe spccilled orientations: |а|ааира 'coming' (|a]aapa is also found in this sense), анеира 'going' (used in the relativised non-finite Present o f an army on the march in un earlier example in this lesson), аоеира 'moving up', алеира 'moving down'. As examples o f these last two we have: Уацәы шәышка савиуеит 'I'll pop up to your-PL place tomorrow' Иацы асы леиуан The snow was coming down/falling yesterday' A ll four o f these orientational proverbs have another subtler function, o f which readers should be aware without necessarily trying to emulate it. They are found, possibly preceding a locational preverb (in which case their open vowel is dropped, if no personal prefix stands in between them), in a modal or adverbial function, whose precise nuance is determined by the context; the preverb often emphasises the suddenness or slowness o f the event, possibly while preserving its inherent orientational force, e.g. Зиаск дааҽҧынгылеит '(S)he suddenly came up alongside a river' Зиаск дныҽҧынгылеит '(S)he suddenly reached the edge o f a river' Дылкажьцәеит '(S)he suddenly spat (downwards = -ка-) (акажьцәара)’ Хабжьын апкааҳәа даақәтәеит 'Xabzhyn mounted up/sat upon it (ақәтәара) with the speed o f a whiplash (апкааҳәа)' The last but one example contains another orientational preverb, namely -ка'down(wards)’, and a further one is -хьа- 'back(wards)', e.g. Дхьаҧшит vs даахьаҧшит vs днахьаҧшит '(S)he looked backwards (ахьаҧшра)' vs '(S)he looked back this way’ vs '(S)he looked back that way' Скамҳа(ӡе)ит 'I did not fall down (акаҳара)' One more peculiarity often associated with preverbs emerges when a root not basically requiring a preverb finds itself used with one. In such cases the root sometimes (but not always) acquires an extension, which w ill be -ла- to reinforce the illalivc/allative force o f the preverb, but -aa- to reinforce an elalive/ablative force, e.g. Стәеит 'I sal down' (атәара) vs Саыза слыдтәалеит 'I sal up against (адтәалара) my (female) friend' Аҕьыч дыркит 'They arrested (акра) the th ief vs Асасцәа рыдыркылеит They received/welcomed (адкылара) the guests' vs (И)еилыскааит 'I understood (it/them) ((а]аилкаара)' vs Ан лхәыҷқәа гәыдылкылеит 'The mother kissed her children (literally: held them to the breast (агәыдкылара))' Sea), an observation brought to my attention by Dr. V. Chirikba. This means that this basic item оГ vocabulary is alone a clear rebuttal оГ the groundless chargc often encountered in Georgian sourccs that Abkhaz has no marine vocabulary, from which ridiculous assumption the patently false conclusion is drawn that Abkhaz cannot have developed in a topography close to the sea and thus the Abkhazians cannol have lived from ancient times in such a coastal region as Abkhazia!
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Ажьа атдәрааит The rabbit (ажьа) suddenly scrambled oul (аҭцәраара) (sc. from inside the stomach o f a deer)' Дахьықәгылаз дыахаҵәрылеит '(S)he shot up (ахацзрылара) to the spot where (s)hc was standing' А(б)ра дтәоуп '(S)hc is sitting here1vs Ақәа/Аҭакар дыцәтәалоуп '(S)he is sitting in the rain/heat (аҭакар)' One fascinating alternation to complete this lesson involves the root -ra- used with preverb -ла-, on the one hand, and with preverb -л(ы)-, on the other. The combinations producc verbs meaning 'begin (something)' and 'finish (something)' respectively, e.g. Cyc салагеит 'I began (алагара) my work' vs Cyc салгеит 'I finished (алгара) my work' Note that in Abkhaz both these verbs are intransitive, just like the following pair: Акино алагеит 'The film started' vs Акино алгеит The film ended' I f the complement to the 'transitive' (sc. in anglocenlric terms) usage o f these verbs is a verbal action rather than a simple noun, how is it expressed? Two alternatives (the only ones with which we need be concerned for the moment) are (a) the verbal noun (masdar) or (b) die non-finile Present as complement to 'begin' vs the Past Absolute (less commonly the non-finite Present) to complement 'finish', e.g. Рус(ы)ура = Pyc pya17 иалаго(и)т 'They arc starting their work1vs Рус(ы)ура = Pyc ун ы 18 (= Pyc ya) иалго(и)т They are Finishing their work' Examples o f these verbs with the two commonest o f the modal proverbs discussed above would be: Дгәырҕьаҵәа иажәа даапгеит Axpa Амба. Hac дналагеит Саид 'Ахга Achba suddenly brought his spcech to an end with a great feeling o f joy. Then (нас) Said suddenly began' Exercises Translate into English 1. Бан Москвантә даныхынҳә, ба(ра) икабҵоз/икабдоз? Абаҳчаҿы аус зуан. 2. Адеп(ы)утатцәа ирҳәоз еилышәкаауазма? Аиеи, зе гш еилаҳкаауан, аха акгьы ҳгәаҧхомызт. 3. Амхқәа рыцәаҕәара шәанбалгеи? Жәацы ҳалгеит. 4. Уани уаби и(ы)угаз ап,ара зумрымхи? У(бр)и аҧара са(ра) истәын; исымгект. У(бр)и азыҳәан исымрымхит. l7 Recall (hat the verbal root is -y-, and. when it is followed by Ihe Dynamic suffix, only one bilabial glide is pronounced and written. 18Without the Column III transitive subject a ffix, o f course!
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5. А(ба)рҭ ашәкәқәа аазгада? Изаыз ашәкәыааы иоуп иааганы исызҭаз. 6. Ҳабд(ы)у ааны даааналаны, илаба шьҭацаны, аишәа дадтәалан акрыфара далагеит. 7. У(бр)и ашоура зхызгодаз/зхызгодаз? Ашоурагьы ахьҭагьы ддара ибзианы исхызгон. 8. Ачымазааы дныкәызгодаз/дныкәызгодаз? Иҷкәын дныкәигон.
9. Аҭыҭын абажәгоз? Амра ицәаҳдон. 10. Ачара аналагоз, асасцәа здызкылодаз? Саб идикылон. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Where does ihe River Bzyp join the Black Sea? 2. Why was your molher-FEM leaving your father? 3. M y friend put on her hat and set o ff lor Sukhum. 4. My sister Finished sewing my socks and went to bed at half past ten. 5. Having put her child to bed, the mother came down by the stairs and started watching the TV. 6. How old were you-FEM when your-FEM brother died? 7 . 1 hated her going to Turkey, but it didn't break/pierce my heart. 8. Where were the guests hanging their coats? They were hanging them in their rooms. 9. How did your-MASC friends spend the summer this year? Like last year, they spent it with their grandmother and grandfather in M ykw . 10. How were you-PL conducting the festival. We were conducting it very well.
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Lesson 9
In this lesson you will learn about: • The incorporation within the verb-form o f the Instrumental and Bcncfaclive postpositions • Other Relational Particles within vcrb-forms • Adjective and nouns amalgamated with the verb-roots: -шьа-, -тә(ы)-, -xa• Pseudo-passives • Stative passives • Potential verb-forms • How to express involuntary, accidental actions » How to form Imperatives and Prohibitions__________________________________
In Lesson 2 the Instrumental and Bcncfactivc postpositions (-ла and -зы, respectively) were introduced. So far we have only encountered them standing with the (pro)nouns they govern (i.e. outside the verbal complex). However, these postpositions may be divorced from their (pro)nouns and placed as 'relational particles' within the preradical structure of the verbal complex without any change o f meaning; the (pro)nouns they leave stranded outside the verbal complex are taken up within the complex by the appropriate Column II prefix, which stands immediately before the incorporated postposition. Such sequences o f Column II prefix with postpositional element stand in front o f any preverb (with its own Column II prefix, if there is one) also present within the complex. Examples: Сан рахәыц каҧшьла амаҭәақәа лӡахит = Сан арахәыц каҧшь амаҭәақәа алалӡахит 'My mother sewed the clothes with red thread' Шәаб ca(pa) сзы а(б)ри кеицеит = Шәаб са(ра) а(б)ри сзыкеицеит 'Your-PL father did this for me' If the NP governed by either postposition is relativised (as in a WH-question formed on it), then the postpositions obligatorily stand within the verbal complex. In replying to such a WH-question, however, the postposition can either be incorporated within the verb or stand alongside its governed (pro)noun, e.g. Бан амаҭәақәа злалӡахи? Арахәыц кагуиь иалалӡахит/Рахәыц каҧшьла (илӡахит) 'With what did you-FEM mother sew the clothes? (She sewed them) with red thread' Шәаб а(б)ри ззыкеицада? Ca(pa) исзыкеицеит/Са(ра) сзы (икеицеит) 'For whom did your-PL father do this? (He did it) for me' When 'ask' is used without any indication o f there being a person asked, we have ацаара, as in Ицаауада? 'Who is asking?'. But when the person asked is present, -зbecomes an integral part o f (he verb, giving азцаара 'ask' (also used as the noun 125
'question', albeit with stress then on the second syllable1). Either the person asked is made dependent on the postpositional element incorporated within the verb, or there is an intervening a-vowel between the two, as in: Сырзымцааит = Сразымҵааит2 'I didn't ask them' When the person listened to is added to the verb 'listen' (аӡырара), -з- becomes an integral part o f the verb, giving азыӡырара 'listen to', e.g. Бзырзыӡырауеи? 'Why are you-FEM listening to them?' Within the verbal complex these sequences follow the WH-intenogalive elements meaning 'where?', 'when?', 'how?' and 'why?', e.g. Уан арахәыц каҧшь амаҭәақәа абалалӡахи? Луадаҿы 'Where (аба-) did yourМ ASC mother sew the clothes with (the) red thread? In her room (ауада)' Сашьа ба(ра) а(б)ри аҧара зыбзааигеи? 'Why (зы-) did my brother bring (aarapa) this money for you-FEM?' Three other 'relational particles' are a- 'to', ц(ы)- 'with' and цә(ы)- 'from, to the disadvantage o f, but, unlike the pair with which we began this lesson, these three may only stand within a verbal complex, and indeed for -з(ы)- there are cases when intraverbal placement is obligatory too, e.g. Ишәҳаеи? 'What did you-PL say?' vs Илашәҳәеи? 'What did you-PL say to her?' Ааныка сцеит '1 went home' vs Сан ааныка слыццеит'1 went home with my mother' (N.B. how Abkhaz conveys the notion o f marriage from the bride's perspective: Хьфаф Адгәыр ҧҳәысс диццеит 'K hjfa f went with Adgur as wife = K hjfaf married Adgur'; i f one speaks o f a woman getting married without specifying to whom, the expression required is Хьфаф хаҵа дцеит 'K hjfaf got married', which is literally 'K hjfa f man went'3) Аџьма абаӡи? 'Where did the goal (аџьма) get lost (аӡра)?' vs Џьмак сцәыӡит 'One goat was lost to me = I lost a goat'; cf. А(б)ри ишәцәалаӡуеи? 'What are you-PL losing by this?' (where the particle o f disadvantage and the instrumental particle stand side by side in the same complex and in this order) Man скуам = скӡом Tm not refusing/l'll not refuse (= hold "no")' vs Man шәцәыскуам = шәцәыскӡом 'I'm not refusing/l'll not refuse you-PL' Дшәаны дзыӡо(и)т '(S)he is quaking (аӡыӡара) in fear (literally: having become afraid) (ашәара)' vs Аҳәынаҧд(ы)уқәа дрыцәшәаны дзыӡо(и)т '(S)he is quaking in fear o f the rats (аҳәынап>д(ы)у)' Akauapa уадаеуп 'Doing it is difficult (ауадаа)1=> Ацәажәара лыцәуадаауп 'She finds speaking difficult'
1 And further note that Ihe verbal noun (Masdar) may be stressed on the final syllable: азцаара. 2An unexpected, but seemingly possible, variant is: Сырмазцааит. 3Kor a man gelling married we have Ахаца аҧҳәыс цааигеит 'The man got married' (literally 'The man brought a woman').
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Ауалафахәы иазҳаит 'Wage(s) (ауалафахәы ) increased (азҳара)', where ihe root o f ihe verb can be compared wilh ihe adverb for 'more' seen in А(б)ри аӡқаб еиҳа-еиҳа (иаҳа-иаҳа) дып,шӡахо(и)т T his girl grows more and more (еиҳа-еиҳа (иаҳа-иаҳа)) beautiful' The first relational particle in the above-group o f three is most commonly associated wilh the root chosen to illuslratc il (namely -ҳәа- 'say (to)'), but it is occasionally met elsewhere, e.g. Исабжьыбгои? 'What do you-FEM advise (абжьгара4) me?'; Ирабжьызгада7 'Who advised them?' Саыза сиақәҧан скаижьит 'I wrestled (ақәҧара5) my friend, and he threw me down (акажьра)' Саҳәшьа ya(pa) улаҭәалшьом 'M y sister docs not deem you worthy o f (аҭәашьара) her' Since verbal roots do not normally begin with vowels in Abkhaz, could il be that what today appears to be the root -ay- meaning 'gel, receive' (masdar [ajaypa) originally consisted o f this same relational prefix plus actual root -y-? Cf. Саҳәшьа п,а длоуит 'My sister got/was delivered of/gave birth to a son' vs Исҭахыз ашәкәы смоуит '1 did not gel the book that 1 wanted' The root o f the verb in the lasl-bul-onc example is -шьа-, and this is the element which means 'deem'. As such, it may combine wilh a number o f adjcclival roots, which are incorporated within the verbal complex, to form a transitive verb meaning 'deem X to be ADJECTIVE'. The adjectival root for 'unfortunate' is -рыцҳа-, and the resulting combination produces the following: Арҵаоы срыцҳаишьеит The (male) teacher took pity on me' The adjectival root for 'belter' is -еиҕь(ы)-, and so ihe combinalion o f this wilh the root in question produces the verb for 'prefer' (and note that the adjectival root may take the slightly different form -еи?ьа-): А(б)ри еи^ьы/асшьо(и)т 'I prefer this' I f one wishes to indicate the entity to which the object here is preferred, il is made to depend on one o f the comparative postpositions introduced in Lesson 7 (namely, -ацкьыс, -аасҭа, or -еиҳа 'than'), e.g. Акино ахь ацара ацкьыс/аасҭа/еиҳа атеатр ахь ацара еиҕьы/асшьеит 'I preferred to go to the thealre than to go/to going lo the cinema' I f one incorporates the benefaclive postposition discussed above within this verbform, one obtains the verb for 'wishing X lo Y', e.g.
4 From the varianl-tnasdar абжьагара would be formed the follow ing equivalents for the two examples given here: Исабжьабгои? 'What do you-FF.M advise me?', and Ирабжьазгада? 'Who advised them?' ■‘’ Where -қә- is (presumably) the preverb meaning ’on' and -n>a- the root meaning 'jump'.
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Ҳа(ра) и(ы)узеи;ьаҳшьо(и)т идегь ақзҿиарақәа 'Wc wish you-MASC further (ицегь) successes (ақәҿиара)' One mighl suppose thal we have Ihe same rool in ihe adjectival stem -ҧхамшьа, 'shameless', blit the verb w ilh the relevant sequence o f preverb and rool only exists as an intransitive, viz. Аӡҕаб дыҧхашьеит vs дыҧхамшьеит The girl felt vs did not feel shame (аҧхашьара)'; N.B. the powerful societal censure Иҧхашьароуп 'It is shameful' Another rool which crcatcs transitive verbs wilh incorporated adjective (or noun) in the prcverbal slot is -тә(ы)-, the resulting compound meaning 'render X ADJECTIVE/NOUN', e.g. Ачымазаеы деиҕьа/ыстәит 'I made the sick person (ачымазааы) better' Арҵаоы ацааы дрыцҳаитәит 'The (male) teacher made the pupil wretched' У(бр)и ахаца aye зегьы ҧхасҭеитәит 'That man ruined (аҧхасҭатәра) the whole work', cf. аҧхасҭа 'damage' The root -xa- 'become' similarly combines with adjectives or nouns in preverbal position lo produce intransitive verbs with the obvious meaning 'become ADJECTIVE/NOUN’, e.g. Aye зегьы ҧхасҭахеит 'The whole work became ruined' Ачымазааы деиқьхеит/дыбзиахеит 'The sick person got better/became well' Саыза дычмазаохеит 'M y friend became sick' Ирзымариахеи? 'What became easy (амариа) for them?’ Whilst there is no fully-fledged passive voice in the Abkhaz verbal system, the association o f this root w ilh a verbal rool (or slem) occupying the preverbal position provides an artificial means o f turning a transitive verb into an inlransilive pseudo passive, e.g. Aye кацахеит 'The work got done' (<= акаҵара 'do') However, the more natural way o f transposing this last example from English into Abkhaz would be lo use the simple past (Aorist) o f the aclive voice with non-specific 3rd person plural subject, as in: Aye карцеит 'They did ihe work' = The work was done' Because o f Ihe unnatural nature o f verbal formations combining verb root (or stem) with the root -xa- 'become', no attempt should be made lo produce them. But a kind o f passive lhal is perfectly normal is to make the root (or stem) o f a transitive verb the rool o f a Stalive verb (omitting the agent), thereby producing a resultative (stalive) passive o f the following kind, e.g. Aye katioyn 'The business is (in a state o f having been) done' Ам хы цәаҕәан The field was (in a stale o f having been) ploughed' (И)еилкаауп '(It is) understood’ (cf. (И)еилыскааит 'I understood (it/them)')
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Though il no doubl derives from Ihe henefactivc force o f -з(ы)- examined above, we have now lo describe a different function o f this element, a function which requires the element to stand inside (he verbal complex. This is the potential function or, in other words, the mark o f the subjccl's ability to carry oul the verbal activity concerned. Although it is not an absolute restriction, this usage is normally confined to negated or interrogative vcrb-forms. I f the verb is intransitive, the clcmenl in question is simply inserted after the Column I subject-affix, e.g. Дцом '(S)he is not going' vs Дызцом '(S)he can't go' I f a conjunctional particle is present in the verbal complex, then this potential marker follows that particle, e.g. дахьымцо 'where (s)he is not going' vs дахьзымцо 'where (s)hc cannot go' But what happens when the verb in question is transitive? Consider the following example: Слымбеит 'She did not see me' vs Сылзымбеит 'She could not see me' On the basis o f this contrasting pair one might conclude that the potential particle is simply once again placed after the relevant subject/agent-affix. But this would be a mistake, as is seen in the following pair: Исылымҭеит 'She did not give it/them lo me' vs Илызсымҭеит 'She could not give it/them to me' In fact, when containing the potential particle, a transitive verb cannot accommodate a Column III affix, for the anticipated Column III affix is substituted by the corresponding affix from Column П, which is 'governed' by the potential particle itself. Il is this that explains the positioning o f the sequence -лыз- BEFORE the indirect object affix -сы- in the last example. And the following three pairs o f examples confirm this by demonstrating what happens when the transitive verb conlains a preverb: Иҧырцәеит They snapped (аҧцәара) it/them' vs Ирызҧымҵәеит They could nol snap it/lhcm' Игәабҭеит 'You-FEM tested (агәаҭара) it/them' vs Ибызгәамҭеит 'You-FEM couldn't lest it/them' Иқәышәхит 'You-PL destroyed (ақәхра) it/them’ vs Ишәзықәымхит 'You-PL could nol dcslroy il/ihem' These examples clearly shew that, in contrast to a normal transitive verb with its Column III agent-affix standing between preverb and root, when the potential particle is present, the subjecl/agent is marked by a Column U affix in association with the potential particle standing together in front o f the preverb. Now let us take some examples which illustrate potentiality in interrogativcs: Дцома? 'Is (s)he going?' vs Дызцома? 'Can (s)he go?'
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Дцоу дымцоу? 'Is (s)he going or nol? vs Дызцоу дзымцоу? 'Can (s)he go or nol? Дабацо? 'Where is (s)he going?' vs Дабазцо? 'Where can (s)he go?' Данбацо? 'When is (s)he going?' vs Данбазцо? 'When can (s)hc go?' Ателефон сасуама? 'Shall I phone?' vs Ателефон сзасуама? 'Can I phone?' Ателефон сыбзасуама? 'Shall I ring you-FEM' vs Ателефон сзыбзасуама? 'Can I ring you-FEM?' Икауҵои? 'What are you-MASC doing?' vs И(ы)узыкацои? 'What can youMASC do?' А(б)ри шҧакарцои? 'How arc they doing this?' vs А(б)ри шҧарзыкацои? 'How can they do lhis7' Изықәрымхи? 'Why did they not destroy it/them?' vs Изырзықәымхи? 'Why could they not destroy it/them?' These inierrogalives shew that the potential particle with any accompanying personal affix (viz. in transitive verbs the Column II affix marking the underlying agent o f the action) stands after the interrogative panicles -з(ы)- 'why?', -шҧа- 'how?', -анба'when?', -аба- 'where?'. The following example, taken from a text, indicates that the potential particle is not absolutely restricted to negative or interrogative forms: Иазыфоз афон 'It used to eat what il could (eat)' Interestingly, when the verb адырра 'know' is negated, the potential particle is obligatory, e.g. Издыруеит'1 know (it/lhcm)' vs Исыздыруам6 'I don't know (it/them)' Another common form based on this same rool is Иалыздыраауеи? ’What do I know about it/How should 1 know? (with preverb -л(ы)- and root-suffix -aa-). There is another panicle in Abkhaz which behaves like the potential-marker in terms o f both its placement within the verbal complex and the structural changes il causes in transitive verbs, but il is nol limited lo negative or interrogative forms. This is -амха-, and il indicates that the action is carried out by the notional agent involuntarily, accidentally, unwittingly, by mistake, despite him/herself. Examples: Ауҭракадааы акыркырҳәа дамхаччеит 'The gardener (ауҭракаҵааы) laughed (аччара) raucously (акыркырҳәа) despite him self vs дыччеит '(S)he burst oul laughing' Сан дамхацә(ы)уеит 'M y mother involuntarily burst into tears (ацә(ы)уара)' vs дҵә(ы)уеит '(S)he burst inlo tears' Ахәыҷы бҳәақәак ааныхны иамхафеит 'The child couldn't resist snatching some plums (абҳәа) [sc. o ff the surface o f the dish] (аныхра) and scoffing them'
6 A Iso possible arc: Исыздырзом, Исыздырам, und ihe colloquial Cenpo.
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зхәыҷы дызхәаҽыз аҧҳәыс 'the woman who smothered (ахәаҽра) her child' vs зхәыҷы дзамхахәаҽыз аҧҳәыс 'the woman who inadvertently smothered her child' Ахьы зӡеит 'I stole (аӡара) the gold (ахьы)' vs Ахьы самха;еит'1 couldn't resist stealing the gold' Саб аҧара нихит 'M y father spent (аныхра) the money' vs Саб аҧара иамханыхит'My father spent the money despite him self Pay particular attention to the following pair o f examples: Аҷкәын дыҧсит 'The boy died (аҧсра)' vs Аҷкәын иан длвмхаҧсит 'The boy died at the unwitting hands o f his mother = His mother accidentally killed the boy', where one can also use the normal verb for 'k ill' (ашьра) lo give дламхашьит. Also used on occasions in a seemingly synonymous way is -цә(ы)-, the particle o f disadvantage, introduced earlier in this lesson. Consider the following: Бан асаанқәа анбаҧылҽи? 'When did your-FEM mother break (аҧҽра) the plates (асаан)?' vs Ианбаламхаҧҽи vs Ианбалцәып/еи? 'When did she accidentally break it/them?' Now, are these last Iwo variants fully synonymous? The answer seems lo be 'No', and the difference (in this context, at least) is said to be that with -амха- the intention was to break something, but accidentally something different was broken, whereas with -цә(ы)- there was no intention to break anything — there was simply an accidental breakage.
Imperatives and Prohibitions Giving an instruction lo one's addressee is done by placing the verb in its Imperative form. In Abkhaz there arc differences in formation o f the Imperative depending on whether the verb is Dynamic or Stative. Let us begin w ilh a consideration o f Dynamic intransitives. The verb's root, without additional suffixal marking, is employed lo form ihe Imperative; any preverb or personal prefixes, including the one appropriate to the addressee who is being asked to carry out the verbal activity, are present, as normal. The verbs атәара 'sit down' (verbal root = -тәа-) and ахәаҧшра 'look at' (verbal root = - Ҧ Ш -)
are used for illustration: А(б)ра утәа! *Sil down here (to a man)' А(б)ра бтәа! 'Sit down here (to a woman)' А(б)ра шәтәа! 'Sit down here (lo a plurality)' А(б)ри уахәаҧш! 'Look at this (lo a man)' А(б)ри бахәаҧш! 'Look at this (to a woman)' А(б)ри шәахәаҧш! 'Look at this (to a plurality)' 131
Sometimes (but not always!) when the verb's root ends in an unstressed open vowel (namely, -a), (his vowel is deleted. For this we illustrate with the verbs ацәара 'go lo sleep' (root = -цәа-) and ашьҭалара 'lie down, go to bed' (root = -ла-): Уажәыцәкьа уцә! 'Go to sleep right (-цәкьа) now (уажәы) (lo a man)' Уажәыцәкьа быцә! 'Go lo sleep right now (lo a woman)' Уажаыцәкьа шәыцә! 'Go to sleep right now (to a plurality)' Уажәыҵәкьаушьҭал! 'Go to bed right now (to a man)' Уажәыцәкьа бышьҭал! 'Go to bed right now (to a woman)' Уажәыцәкьа шәышьҭал! 'Go to bed right now (to a plurality)' BUT for ацәажәара 'speak' we have: Уцәажәа! 'Speak (to a man)' Бцәажәа! 'Speak (to a woman)' Шәцәажәа! 'Speak (lo a plurality)' To negate these forms and thus produce a prohibition, place the negative marker in its internal slot and add a word-final - h to the full form o f the root (i.e. without dropping any root-final open vowel), e.g. А(б)ра умтәан! 'Don’t sit down here (to a man)' А(б)ра бымтәан! 'Don't sit down here (to a woman)' А(б)ра шәымтәан! 'Don't sit down here (to a plurality)' А(б)ри уахәамҧшын! 'Don't look at this (to a man)' А(б)ри бахәамҧшын! 'Don't look at this (lo a woman)' А(б)ри шзахәамҧшын! 'Don't look at this (to a plurality)' Уажәы умыцәан! 'Don't go to sleep now (lo a man)' Уажәы бмыцәан! 'Don't go to sleep now (lo a woman)' Уажәы шәмыцәан! 'Don't go to sleep now (to a plurality)' Уажәы ушьҭамлан! 'Don't go to bed now (to a man)' Уажәы бышьҭамлан! 'Don't go to bed now (to a woman)' Уажәы шәышьҭамлан! 'Don't go lo bed now (to a plurality)' Умцәажәан! 'Don't speak (to a man)' Бымцәажәан! 'Don't speak (to a woman)' Шәымцәажәан! 'Don't speak (to a plurality)' These formations are quite straightforward, but a complication is introduced, when we consider the parallel patterns for transitive verbs. The complication is that, when issuing an instruction to a man or woman (bul not to a plurality), ihe personal 132
prefix appropriate lo such an agent is absent from (he Imperative. To illustrate transitive Imperatives we take the verbs arapa 'take' and акацара 'do, make': Ига! 'Take it/them (to a man)' Ига! Take it/them (lo a woman)' Ижәга! 'Take it/them (lo a plurality)' Икаца! 'Do it/them (lo a man)' Икаца! 'Do il/them (lo a woman)' Икашәҵа! 'Do it/them (lo a plurality)' To illustrate Ihe loss o f root-final open vowel in transitive Imperatives we lake ihe verbs aarapa 'bring' and аҭара 'give': Иааг! 'Bring it/them (lo a man)' Иааг! 'Bring il/lhcm (to a woman)' Иаажәг! 'Bring it/lhem (lo a plurality)' Исыҭ! 'Give it/lhem lo me (to a man)' Исыҭ! 'Give it/lhem to me (to a woman)' Исышәҭ! 'Give it/lhem to me (to a plurality)' When transitives arc negated, the negative sits in its internal slot, the nasal is suffixed lo ihe full form o f ihe root, and the agenl-prefix is present in A L L cases, e.g. Иумган! 'Don't take it/lhem (to a man)' Ибымган! 'Dont' lake it/lhem (to a woman)' Ижәымган! 'Don't lake it/them (to a plurality)' Икаумпан! 'Don’l do it/them (to a man)' Икабымцан! 'Don't do it/them (to a woman)' Икашәымцан! 'Don't do it/them (to a plurality)'
Иааумган! 'Don'l bring it/them (to a man)' Иаабымган! 'Don'l bring il/lhcm (lo a woman)' Иаажәымган! 'Don't bring it/lhem (to a plurality)'
Ис(ы)умҭан! 'Don't give it/lhem to me (to a man)' Исыбымҭан! 'Don't give it/lhem to me (to a woman)' Исышәымҭан! 'Don't give it/lhem lo me (to a plurality)' N.B. Саҭоумцан!, Саҭабымцан! or Саҭашәымцан! 'Don'l blame me', which is one way o f saying 'Excuse me!'. Шәылзымӡыраын 'Don'l listen (lo a plurality) lo her!' Бан улазымҵаакәа(н) умцан! 'Don'l go (to a man) without asking your mother!' 133
Before wc move
011
lo examine Ihe Imperative and Prohibitive forms in Slativc
verbs, we can note lhat one can alter Ihe nuance o f a Dynamic verb's Imperative or Prohibilional forms by adding Ihe suffix -и. This suffix is added lo the reduced form o f the root for those verbs which lose their root-final open vowel, e.g. А(б)ра утәеи! 'Just sit down here (to a man)' А(б)ри бахәаҧши! 'Just look ai this (to a woman)' Уажәыцәкьа шәыцәи! 'Just go to sleep right now (to a plurality)' Уажәыцәкьа ушьҭали! 'Just go lo bed right now (to a man)' Бцәажәеи! 'Just speak (lo a woman)' Ижәгеи! 'Just lake it/them (lo a plurality)' Икацеи! 'Just do it/them (to a man/woman)' Иаажәги! 'Just bring il/lhcm (to a plurality)' Исыҭи! 'Just give it/them to me (to a man/woman)' А(б)ра умтәани! 'Just don'l sit down here (to a man)' А(б)ри бахәамҧшыни! 'Just don'l look at this (lo a woman)' Макьана шәмыцәани! 'Just don't go lo sleep yel (макьана) (to a plurality)' Макьана ушьҭамлани! 'Just don't go lo bed yet (lo a man)' Бымцәажәани! 'Just don't speak (to a woman)' Ижәымгани! 'Just don'l take it/them (to a plurality)' Икаумҵани! 'Just do il/them (lo a man)' Иаабымгани! 'Just don't bring it/them (to a woman)' Исышәымҭани! 'Just don'l give it/lhem to me (to a plurality)' Уӡыраи ’Just listen (to a man)!' Stalive verbs are all intransitive, and so the personal prefix appropriate to the addressee w ill always be present in their Imperative form, just as this affix is always present with intransitive Dynamics. Differently from a Dynamic Imperative, a suffix is required with Slalivcs, and this suffix is -з, which is added to the verbal root. The suffix -и can be added for Ihe appropriate nuance. We illusirale with the verbs аказаара 'be' and атәазаара 'be seated': Уахьыкоу указ(и)! '(Just) Stay where you are (to a man)' Бахьыкоу быказ(и)! '(Just) Slay where you are (to a woman)' Шәахьыкоу шәыказ(и)! '(Just) Slay where you arc (to a plurality)' Уахьтзоу утәаз(и)! (Just) Remain sealed where you are silling (lo a mun)' Бахьтәоу бтәаз(и)! '(Just) Remain seated where you are silting (lo a woman)' Шәахьтәоу шәтәаз(и)! '(Just) Remain seated where you arc silting (to a plurality)' To negate these Stativc Imperatives place the negative marker between the root and the suffix, to give for the above-verbs the following Prohibitions: Уахьыкоу укамыз! 'Don'l stay where you are (to a man)' 134
Бахьыкоу быкамыз! 'Don't slay where you arc (lo a woman)' Шәахьыкоу шәыкамыз! 'Don't stay where you arc (lo a plurality)' Уахьтәоу утәамыз! 'Don't remain seated where you are sitting (lo a man)' Бахьтәоу бтәамыз! 'Don'l remain seated where you are silling (to a woman)' Шәахьтәоу шәтәамыз! 'Don't remain seated where you arc sitling (to a plurality)' The suffix -и is nol used wilh Stalive Prohibitions. Il
w ill be recalled that some verbs exist in both Dynamic and Stalive forms, and so
below are presented some minimal pairs lo contrast the formations o f their Imperatives and Prohibitions: Угыл(и)! '(Just) Stand up (lo a man)' vs Угылаз(и)! '(Just) Remain standing (lo a man)' Бтәа (Бтзеи)! '(Just) Sit down (to a woman)' vs Бтәаз(и)! '(Just) Remain sealed (lo a woman)' Шәыцә(и)! '(Just) Go lo sleep (to a plurality)' vs Шәыцәаз(и)! '(Just) Go on sleeping (to a plurality)' Bui Ушьҭал(и)! '(Just) Go to bed (to a man)’ (from ашьҭалара) vs Ушьҭаз(и)! '(Just) Stay prostrate (to a man)' (from ашьҭазаара) Умгылан(и)! '(Jusl) Don'l stand up (to a man)' vs Угыламыз! 'Don't remain standing (lo a man)' Бымтәан(и)! '(Just) Don't sit down (to a woman)' vs Бтәамыз! 'Don't remain seated (to a woman)' Шәмыцәан(и)! '(Just) Don'l go lo sleep (to a plurality)' vs Шәыцәамыз! 'Don't go on sleeping (lo a plurality)' But Ушьҭамлан(и)! '(Just) Don't go to bed (to a man)' (from ашьҭалара) 135
vs Ушьҭамыз! 'Don't slay prosiraic (lo a man)' (from ашьҭазаара) Exercises Translate into English 1. А(б)ри ззыкабцодаз? Саҳәшьа илзыкасдон. 2. Шәани шәаби ирҳәаз еилышәкаама? Man, зегьы ҳзеилымкааит. Уара и(ы)узеилкаама? Саргьы исзеилымкааит. 3. Ухарҧ з(ы)уз(ы)ушәымхуеи? Смахзар (амахәар 'arm') сыхьуеит, мамзар (otherwise) уажәыцәкьа исшәысхуан. 4. Аидара злажәгеи? Ҳаыза имашьынала иаҳгеит/иаагеит. Шәхатә машьына изалажәымгеи? (Избанзар/Избан акәзар,) Ҳмашьына аус ауӡом. 5. Ацәажәара бакәыцны (акәыҵра 'leave off, abandon') бысҧырҵ! Ацәажәара бакәыцны заа (early/earlier) бзысҧырымци? 6. Ааны шәыаналаны, шәлабақәа шьҭацаны, аишәа шәадтәаланы, а к гш мҳәакәа(н), акрыфара шәалага! 7. Амхқәа рыцәаҕәара ианаҿыз, сашьцәа цәкы/цәык рцаыӡын ирзымҧшааит (аҧшаара 'find; search'). Иҳаҧшаауеит. Уҳацхраа! Man ҳцә(ы)умкын! 8. Ачымазааы ахьаа (pain) лзылхымгазт дамхаҵә(ы)уан дзакәымҵит. 9. Аҭыҭын шәамыхан, мамзар шәычмазаахо(и)т. 10. А(ба)рҭ ашәкәқәа умган! У(ба)рҭ ганы уҷкәын иҭ! Translate into Abkhaz 1. The child accidentally got into the mud and couldn't get oul o f it. 2. M y friends couldn't gel the nail oul o f the plank. Why was it difficult for them? 3. Put your-FEM hat on and set o ff for Sukhum! 4. Gel up (lo a man) and plough ihe field! 5. Pul (lo a plurality) your children to bed and come down quickly! 6. Sew (to a woman) the buttons on this shirt — don'l sew them on that one! 7. Who can't put the bridles on the horses? 8. W ilh what were they serving up the grils/pollenla? W ilh the wooden ladle (= амҳабысҭа). 9. Why were your-MASC friends unable lo spend Ihe summer with their grandmother and grandfather? How should I know? 10. Just sit down beside me and tell us everything that happened (talking to a woman)! I can't tell you anything. Those people w ill k ill me.
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Lesson 10
In this lesson you will learn about: • The Future I lense (affirmalive and negalive, fin it and non-finite) o f Dynamic verbs • Relative forms based on the Future I • The Future Absolute • Questions (including Deliberative Questions) based on the Future I • The Future 1 lense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) o f Stalive verbs • Exhortations • The Iterative suffix • Protasis-formalion and future conditions • Present conditions for both Stalive and Dynamic verbs • Other functions o f protasis-forms: interrogative; debitive; complement lo 'want'; possibility; permission; colloquialism for 'why not?'___________________________
Although, as we have seen, the Present Indicative is regularly used to refer to a future event, Abkhaz does have a distinct Future Indicative. In fact, it has two, and we shall see below how ihe Future I is formed for Dynamic verbs.
Future I The finite Future I is produced by adding the suffix -n after the verb's rool (or after any o f an array o f suffixes that might be present in ils/their own right), as in: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Future I Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
I shall go
сцап
s.tsap'
I shall die
then
СЫҦСЫП
sa.psa.p’
then
To negate ihe Future I, two possibilities exist: (a) ihe affirmative finile ending -n is replaced by the negative marker - m , preceded by the tcnsc-marker -ры-, or (b) the negalive marker is inserted in its preradical slot in an otherwise unaltered affirmalive form (sc. apart from the optional insertion o f the emphatic suffix -ӡа-), as in: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finile Negative Future 1 Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
137
1 shall not
сца(за)рым
s.tsa.(dza.)-
1 shall nol
сып,с(ӡа)-
s3.ps.(dza.)-
go then
/
ro.m
die then
рым
гә.т
сымца(ӡа)п
/sam .lsa(dza)p'
/
/
сымҧсып/
sa.m.pss.p'/
сымҧсӡап
ss.mps.dza.p'
The affirmative non-finite Fulure I is produced by simply replacing the finite suffix -n with the non-finite marker -pa or -ры; for the relative forms the appropriate relative affix (и-, if relativisation is on the Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its designated slot, and the suffixal variant -ры is selected: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirmative Future I Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ицара
Jo.tsa.ra
who/which
иП)Сра
js.psxa
w ill die then
w ill go then
In forming the negalive relativised non-finile equivalent, ihe negative marker - m occupics its normal non-finite slot (i.e. immediately before the root), and, again, wilh these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto ihe relative prefix, e.g. Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Negative Future I Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which w ill nol go
имца(ӡа)ра
|ә. m.tsa.-
who/which
(dza)ra
w ill not die
then
имп,с(за)ра
je.raps.(dza.)ra
(hen
A form based on the non-finile Fulure I variant in -pa is the Fulure Absolute, to which the Absolute formant -ны is suffixed. This form is frequently encountered in conjunction wilh the copula to indicate that which is due, destined, faled lo happen, e-g. Сыҷкәын уацәы даараны дыкоуп 'M y son is due to come tomorrow' Асаби ианаамҭамыздины ирласны дыҧсраны дыкан 'The baby was born (аира) when it was nol time and was destined lo die quickly' Сасрыкәа уацәы дираны yaxa еиҧш 'On the eve o f Sasryqw ’ a's birth'1 'This quote from the national Nan epic literally reads: 'Sasryqw 'a due to be born tomorrow like tonight'.
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II' the Fulure I is required Tor expressions involving (he conjunctional particles -ш(ы)’how; that’, -ан(ы)- 'when', -ахь(ы)- 'where; that' or -з(ы)- 'why', then the variant in -pa is used. Examples w ill be provided in a later Lesson. Questions based on the Future I select the suffixal variant -ры and have a deliberative character, e.g. Ишәасҳәари? 'What should I tell you-PL?' Ишҧаҳҳәари? ’How should we say/put it?' Асҭапда ҧҳәысс даазгнрыма? 'Should I marry Astanda?' Асҭанда ҧҳәысс даазгар(ы)у даазымгар(ы)у? 'Should I marry Astanda or not?' А(б)ри казцарыда? 'Who should do (his?' А(ба)рҭ аҷкәынцәа абацари? 'Where should (hese children go?' Aycypa ҳанбалагари? 'When should we begin work?' Икалымҵари? 'Should she not do il/lhem?' Statives are rarely found referring to a tense other than the present or past. If necessary, a Fulure I can be formed by adding the formants that mark the Present Indicative o f Dynamic verbs (viz. -ya- plus -(и)т) lo the elemcnl -заа-, itself suffixed to Ihe Stativc root, as in: Patlems for the Formation o f the Finite A ffirm alive Fulure I Indicative o f Stalive Verbs
I shall be
сыказаауе-
sa.q’a.zaa.-
I shall be
исшәызаа-
jas.Jwe.za:.-
ИТ
w ajt’
wearing X
уеит
w ajl'
To negate such a form, the affirmative finite ending -ит is replaced by the negative marker - m 2 , as in; Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negative Future I Indicative o f Stalive Verbs
1 shall nol be
сыказаауам
sa.q'azaa.-
I shall not
исшәызаа-
jas.Jwaza:-
wam
be wearing
уам
wa.m
X
The affirmalive non-finite Future 1 is produced by dropping the finite suffix -ит, and to turn it into its relative guise the appropriate relative affix (и-, if relativisalion is on the Column I argument, otherwise 3 -) stands in its designated slot:
2Thc cmphatic suffix -3a- seems nol to be permissible in these Slalive Future I forms, which, in any case, are rather rarely used.
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Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Fulure I Indicative o f Stalive Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
икалаауа1
ja.q'a.za:.wa
who/which
изшәызаа-
jaz.Jwo.za:.-
w ill be
ya
WQ
w ill be
wearing X
These non-finile forms are then negated by placing the negative marker -inbetween rool and ihe заа-suffix, as in: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finile Negalive Fulure I Indicative o f Stalive Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
икамзаауа
je.q’arazQL -
who/which
изшәымзаа-
j3.zjwe.m -
wa
w ill nol be
ya
za:.wa
w ill not be
wearing X [N.B. It might seem (Kid that il is the suffixes marking the Present Indicative o f Dynamic verbs which are used to produce these Stalive Futures. In Tael, ihe suffixes that form the Future I for Dynamic verbs can, in theory, also function in this role, but the affirmative finite sequence o f 'Stalive Root + -заа- + п' is associated with a rather different meaning, which we shall examine lalcr in Ihis course, and is thus extremely uncommon in this function, which is why nothing further w ill be said o f it here.]
I f the Present Indicative is commonly used in the sense o f a general future tense, when is the Future I encountered? It seems to be the natural lense for the main clause (or apodosis) accompanying a fulure condition (or protasis), as in the pattern 'If X happens, then Y w ill VERB', which is why the Future I is translaled above as 'then X w ill VERB’ (i.e. it seems to indicate a future action thai is itself dependent on something else happening). When the subject o f a Future I is 1st person plural, the meaning is often that o f an exhortation 'Let's VERB!', e.g. Акино ахь ҳцап! 'Let's go to the cinema!' Икаҳцап! 'Lei's do it/them!' Иаабап! 'Lei's see (it/them)!' Краҳфап! 'Let's eat!' Sometimes the suffix -ла- appears between root and tense-markcr in such exhortations, as in:
3|n presenting a parallel formation in U ngiui 115 (2005, p. 111) I placed the stress on the initial syllable o f игылазаауа 'who/which w ill be standing' (and o f the three forms beneath it), whereas the stress would for this verb not move away from the first syllabic o f ihe root (as indicated in the form jusl quoted).
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Ҳцалап! 'Let's he away, Ihen!'4 Краҳфалап! 'Let's gel stuck in lo the lood, Ihcn!' Is this the same sul'flx as is elsewhere employed lo mark iteralivity? An example o f the latter usage would be: (Есымша) дызбало(и)т 'I regularly see him/her (every day)' vs дызбо(и)т 'I see/shall see him/her' Also, the exhortative suffix -и, seen earlier with the Imperative, is not unknown with 1st person plural exhortations formed by the Fulure 1, as in: Иаабапи у(бр)а икоу! 'Let's just see whal’s there!' In order to illustrate the apodosis-forming function o f Ihe Fulure I Indicative lense, we need to know how protases are constructed, and it is to this aspect o f verbal morphology that we now lurn.
Future Conditions A condition in ihe fulure (= future protasis) is produced by adding the suffix -p after a Dynamic verb's root (or after any o f an array o f suffixes lhat might be present in its/their own right); when negated, the negative marker is placed in its preradical slot. Examples: Уацәы ақәа ayp, амшын ахь ҳцарым/ҳамцап 'I f it rains tomorrow, we shan't go to Ihe sea' Адара сыбҭар, ашәкәқәа бзаасхәап 'I f you-FEM give me the money, I'll buy the books for you' А(б)ри каумҵар, уани уаби иацы икауцақәоз расҳәап 'If you-MASC don'l do this, I'll icll your parents what (things) you were doing yesterday' У(бр)и карцаргьы, акгьы сҳәарым/сымҳәап 'Even (-гьы) i f they do that, I'll say nothing' Уаб ayaca ацәа ахнхыр, сан абазар ахь иганы илҭип 'I f your-MASC father skins the sheep, my mother w ill take il lo the market and sell (аҭира) il' Асасцәа льгватәар, ашәа лҳәо далагап 'I f ihe guests sit down beside her, she'll start singing' Асасцәа лывамтәар, ашәа лҳәо далагарым/даламгап 'I f the guests don't sit down beside her, she won't start singing' &ынаажәи жәаха зеижә ацаҳцар, икалоит/иалцуеит хынаажәи жәааа 'I f wc add (аццара) 19 to 53, it is/there results from il (алҵра) 72' Фба аантәы ишьҭаҳхыр, икалоит/иалцуеит саынеажәи ааба 'If we multiply (ашьҭыхра) 6 by (-нтә(ы)5) 8, it is/lhere results from il 48'
‘'This is a general exhortation to set off; i f the destination is specified, as in the earlier example 'Let's go to the cinema!', then the extra suffix would not be inserted. ■‘’ The longer form -нтзы (wilh final stress) is used for the digits '7', '8' and '9'.
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Шәи-аажәа жәаџьара иаҳшар, икалоит/иалҵуеит жзаеа 'II' wc divide (ашара) 120 by (-џьара) 10, il is/lhcre results from il 12' | Wc need lo examine another morphological feature before we can introduce Ihe verb for 'subtract'. An alternative for 'm ultiply' is given in Lesson 111
When it comcs lo Slalivcs, the suffix added lo the root is Ihe compound -зар, and the temporal reference is lo ihe present; when negated, the negalive marker stands between root and suffix, e.g. Лаҳәшьа ааны дыказар, уахь снеип 'If her sister is at home, I'll go there' Сыҧҳа дышьҭамзар, дахьыкоу сыздырӡом 'If my daughter is not in bed, I don'l know where she is’ Ацара уҭахызар, уца: и(ы)ут;ахымзар, умцан! 'I f you-MASC want lo go, go; if you don't want to (go), don'l (go)!' Аҧара рацәаны ишәымазар, ҧыҭк рышәҭ! Ирацәаны ишәымамзар, акгьы рышәымҭан! 'I f you-PL have a lot o f money, give them some! I f you don't have a lot, don't give them anything!' This same compound suffix -зар can follow the Dynamic suffix -ya o f Dynamic verbs to produce a protasis with reference lo either ihe present or fulure (sc. in the sense o f 'if X is going to VERB'); when negated, the negalive marker stands in its preradical slot, e.g. Аиашара жәдыруазар, изҳашәымҳәои? 'I f you-PL know the truth (аиашара), why don'l you tell us?' Ибдыруазар, ибзиоуп: ибзымдыруазар, уигьы бзиоуп 'If you-FEM know (it/them), fine; i f you don't know (it/them), lhal too is fine' Икарымдозар, ca(pa) схаҭа икасцап 'I f they are not doing/going to do it/lhem. I'll do il/lhem myself А(б)ри камлозар, икаҳцари?6 'I f this is not going lo happen = I f this is nol possible, what should we do?' У(бр)и аӡҕаб ацеиџь/азыхь ахь дымцозар, аӡы аазгарыда? 'If that girl is not going (lo go) lo ihe well (ацеиџь)/1Ье spring, who is lo bring waler?' Forms in -(за)р arc by no means limited to the production o f protases, as we shall now see. In fact, those in -зар can stand alone and form a question with appropriate nuance, as in: А(б)ри шәҭахызар? 'Do you-PL perhaps warn this? Уацәы Хәап, ҳцозар? 'Are we by any chance going lo Khwap tomorrow?' Protasis-forms have a role in the formation o f expressions o f obligation. To indicate an obligation lo сагту out an action in ihe future, a Dynamic verb-form in -p 6Givcn that the relative form икаҳцо 'that which we are doing' has stress on the initial syllable and that a what-lypc question is based on the relative form, one might have expected initial stress here. But, as wc see, it is attracted to Ihe final syllable.
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is used alongside Ihe Present tense o f the copular root -a- 'be', giving ayn, but in speech the two verb-forms are regularly fused, which leads to the copular components being pronounced -oyn, and il is this fused variant which is presented below; i f one o f the sequences described above wilh the sufllx -sap is fused w ilh this copular root, then the sense is that the action concerned should be being earned out at the moment o f speaking. Examples: Асааҭ фба ыкоуп. Ҳачкәын шьҭа а(б)ра дыказароуп 'It is 6 o’clock. Our son should be here already (шьҭа)' Атеатр ахь сцо(и)т. Сееиласҳәароуп 'Г т going to the theatre. I have to dress (аҽеилаҳәара)’ Бымаҭәа бааӡоуп. Ибшәыбхыроуп 'Your-FEM clothes arc wet (абааӡа). You should take ihcm o ff Арцаацәа аҭак зырзымдыруеи7? Хымҧада ирдыруазароуп 'Why don't the teachers know the answer? They should certainly (хымҧада) know it' Ҳаб ашә (а)^еидозароуп. Дабакоу? 'Our father should be hanging the door. Where is he?' I f one wishes to negate the obligation, then there is a preference to negate ihe lexical verb rather than the main copular verb, as in: Рпатреҭ т>1бымхуазароуп 'You-FEM should not be taking their photo' Ахәыҷқәа аҳаҧы иҵамлароуп The children should not go into the cave' У(бр)и akapa рымфароуп They should not eat so much' Аца аӡәгьы давагыламзароуп 'No-one should be standing beside the maize-store (аца)' А(б)ра шәтәамзароуп 'You-PL should not be silting here' Parallel obligations in the pasL are expressed by the simple device o f shifting the tense o f the main copular verb from Present (-oyn) lo Past (акәын), which is written as a separate word, as in: Жәацы улбар акзын 'She should have seen you-MASC two days ago' У(бр)и ахаҳә ажәытә аырақәак анызар акәын 'There should have been some (-қәак) ancient (ажәьггә) inscriptions (ааыра) on that stone (ахаҳә)' У(бр)и аамҭазы aye зуар акәын 'A t that time I should have been working' Ашәҭқәа лзааихәар акәын 'He should have bought flowers for her' To negate a past obligation one can cither place the negative marker in its appropriate slot within the lexical verb or move it lo the main copular verb (giving the ending акә(ӡа)мызт), as in: А(б)рахь баазымгар акәын/баазгар акә(ӡа)мызт 'I should nol have brought youFEM here'
7Noie the choice o f strcss-palteming.
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Асааҭ жаеиза ыкан. Ҳаҷкәын у(бр)иаамҭазы у(бр)а дыкамзар акәы н/ дыказар акә(ӡа)мызт'11 was 11 o'clock. Our son should nol have been there al lhal lime' Ҳлықәымгәыҕыр акәын/Ҳлықәгәы^ыр акә(ӡа)мызт 'We should nol have placcd our hopes on her' А(ба)с лассы шәыхнымҳәыр акәын/шәхынҳәыр акә(ӡа)мызт 'You-PL should nol have returned so soon (лассы) as this (a(6a)c)' Ахәыҷы ашәақь икын. Икымзар акәын/икызар акә(ӡа)мызт. Ишҧакалеи? 'The (male) child was holding8 the gun. He should nol have been holding il. How did it happen?' The prolasis-forms examined above can also fu lfil the role o f complement lo ihe verb аҭахызаара 'want' in either the present or past; where the main and subordinate verbs share a subject and the subordinate verb has no more than two arguments, the masdar can be used in the role o f complement, but, where ihe subjects differ or the subordinate verb is more complex in terms o f its arguments, one has to resort to an alternative, such as the prolasis-form, as in: Ацара сҭах(ы)уп/сҭахын = сцар сҭах(ы)уп/сҭахын 'I want/wanted lo go' А(б)ра аказаара бҭах(ы)ума/бҭахызма? = А(б)ра быказар бҭах(ы)ума/бҭахызма? 'Do/Did you-FEM want to be here?' Абацә афара лҭах(ы)уп/лҭахын = Абацә лфар лҭах(ы)уп/лҭахын 'She wants/wanted to eat a medlar (абацә)' А(б)ри амаца шәырҭар рҭах(ы)уп/рҭахын They want/wanied lo give you-PL this pack o f cards (амаца)' Уани уаби ашәага умысхыр рҭах(ы)уп/рҭахын 'Your-MASC parents want/wanted me to take the measure (ашәага) o ff you' А д о б хәыҷы акьанџьа далахәмаруазар9 лҭах(ы)уп/лҭахын The lillle girl wants/wanted lo be playing with (алахәмарра) the doll (акьанџьа)' These same prolasis-forms can also stand alongside the verb акалара 'happen' lo indicate that the aclion described by the lexical verb is a possibility, e.g. А(б)ри акаб згар калома? Икалоит 'Is it possible for me to lake this pumpkin (акаб)? It is (possible)' Уҧшәма арахь амаа дықәзар калоит 'Your-MASC wife may be on her way here’ Быҧшәма цмааит. Ҳамшә дацәшәозар калома? Дацәымшәозароуп 'YourFEM husband hasn't come. Is it possible that he's afraid o f (ацәшәара) our bear (амшә)? He shouldn't be afraid o f il'
8Slalivc form (ик(ы)уп 'He is holding it/lhem') o f акра 'take hold o f; cf. the Dynamic Aorisl икит 'He look hold o f il/thcin'. ^Despite (he complexity o f the verb, the musdar алахзмарра 'play with it' is also possible.
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А(б)ри ахәыҷы ихаҧыц ихьуеит. У(6р)и акынтә ахаа ицоцәар кал(аӡ)ом 'This child has loolhachc. And
no,
it's not possible lor him to suck (ацәцәара)
anything sweet (axaa)' Putting the main verb in the Imperfect Indicative produces the construction 'X could have VERBcd/been VERBing', as in: Apyaa Жәыргьыҭынӡа ишымцаз здыруеит, axa ицар калон 'I know that (= -ш(ы)-) the soldiers didn't go as far as Zugdidi, but they could have (gone)' Уахынла ателевизор сахәаҧшуазар кал(аӡ)омызт — сыцәазар акәын 'I could not have been watching the T V at night (уахынла) — I had lo have been sleeping' An alternative lo the Present Indicative for the main verb is the Future I, as in: Адца насыгӡар/назыгӡар калап ‘It may be thal I shall fu lfil (анагзара) the obligation (адца)' У(ба)с икалар калап 'It may turn oul lo be so' The main verb indicating thal something is possible for someone is алшара, as in исылшо(и)т 'X is possible for me', where the root is -tua- and -л- is the preverb. Both the masdar and prolasis-lorm can be used (under the same conditions as explained above for the verb 'want') lo convey the action that is possible, e.g. А(б)ри ацаҧха бысҭар сылш(аӡ)ом 'I can't give you-FEM this key (ацаҧха)' Агылара улшома? 'Can you-MASC stand/gel up?' У(бр)и акацара зларылшои? 'How (literally: W ilh what) can they do that?' I f the oblique object o f this verb (i.e. the entity governed by the preverb) is shifted from -сы- to -a- (viz. the 3rd person singular Column II non-human affix), then we produce a verb, namely (и)алшо(и)т, which is equivalent to (и)кало(и)т in ihe sense o f 'it is possible' (though the referent o f the a-affix in (и)алшо(и)т is no longer transparent), e.g. Акгьы ҳарымҳәар алшо(и)т 'It's possible they won't icll us anything' Исашәҳәар алымшои? 'It's not possible for you-PL to tell (it/them lo) me, is il?' Ахәыҷқәа ашкол а*ҕы иказар алш(аӡ)ом 'The children can'l be in school' Аҕьычцәа ахьы ахьырцәахыз ҳарҳәар алшон, аха шьҭа ирылш(аӡ)ом — рып,сы ҭам 'The thieves (аҕьыч) might have told us where they hid (адәахра) the gold (ахьы), but they can'l now (already) — they are dead' The verb aypa 'do. make' can be used in the sense o f 'permit, allow'; the action permitted is the verb's direct object and is represented by a protasis-form, e.g. Инацәа ӡы хьшәашәак нақәҭәаргьы иан илуамызт 'His mother used nol to let even one drop o f cold (ахьшәашәа) water spill on (ақәҭәара) his finger (анацәа)'
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А к сышәымҭар шәымуазар/жоымуазар, у(6р)и шәҽы сышәҭ '1Г you-PL must give me somelhing (literally: are nol going to be able lo allow yourselves nol to give me something), give me that horse o f yours' I f the agent o f the main verb in (his construction is represented by the 3rd person singular non-human Column III prefix a- (again wilh non-(ransparenl reference), then wc obtain yet another expression o f possibility, as in: Ирымҭар амуит 'It was not possible for them not to give (= They had to give) il lo him' [The Iasi three examples are taken from folk-texls) Ҳаргьы Акәа ҳцар ам(ы)уӡои? 'It is possible for us loo to go lo Sukhum, isn't it?' This last collocation is the basis for a colloquialism which in terms o f meaning has elements o f a question, a statement o f possibility, and an Imperative. I f one forms the question 'Whal does it do/allow?' on the main verb here, one gels Иауеи/Иауаз(е)и? (in the Imperfect Иауаз? [jawa az]). These inlerrogatives, minus the initial и-prefix, fuse with a protasis-form to produce the relevant colloquialism. Consider the following examples: Бтәарауеи/Бтәарауаз(е)и?! 'Why don't you-FEM sit down?' (the context possibly being thal the addressee is tired and no-one else is about to occupy the seat(s) available) Зегьы a(6)pa ианыказ, ишәҳәарауаз у(бр)и?! 'You-PL might have said lhal/Why didn't you-PL say thal, when everybody was here?' (the context being that the addressees have said something after the departure o f those who would have been interested to hear it, and there was nothing to prevent the addressees speaking when thal potential audience was present) One final construction involving a protasis-form finds it in collocation wilh a main verb made up o f two roots which we have already met: -акә- 'be' and -xa- 'become'. This compound root is then placed in the Fulure I, and the meaning o f the resulting construction is 'probably X is/w ill be VERBing', as in: Саыза даауазар акәхап 'Probably my friend is/will be coming' Саыза амаа дықәзар акәхап 'My friend is probably en route' Exercises Translate into English 1. Иӡҕаб дрыцҳашәшьар, ишәҭах(ы)у шәзыкеицап. 2. Сеыза лыҧҳәыс аҧарақәа ламхафан зегь ҧхасҭалтәит. 3. Уан дыбзиамхар, илыхьыз лызуаҳәарым. 4. Баҳәшьа дзымцар, ба(ра) бсыццар калома? Икало(и)т/Икалап. 5. Ҳаы гәашәымҭар, ибзиоу ибзиам(ы)у шәзеилкаарым. 6. Утәарауеи?! Уааҧсеит. Уҧсы шьа! 7. А(ба)рҭ аацәақәа абазгари? Ашьҭаҵарҭа ианажь! 146
8. Аҧсны уажоы асы леиуазар алшома? Седро. 9. Сус сзаламгеит. А(б)ри акынтз сус уны сзалымгеит. 10. Арцааы ақьаад ҧылыжәжәар акәмызт. Trans laic into Abkha/. 1. I f we multiply three by seventeen, the answer is fifty-one. 2. The children should not have eaten all the apples. 3. Where are we to take the dog? I don't know, but don't lake il lo work! 4. I f you-FEM don't return from Moscow, you won't be able to see our new house. 5 . 1 have to stand up and pour the flour into the sack. 6. I f you-MASC don'l leave me alone, it's possible you'll accidentally perish at my hands! 7. Lei’s sit down! Let's say nothing! Let's do as your-FEM mother advised us! 8. Is it possible they believe everything wc told them? Who knows? 9. Pregnant women should not drink a lot o f wine. 10. I f sick people don't lake (= drink) their medicine, how are they going to get belter?
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Lesson 11
In this lesson you will learn about: • The Perfect tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finite) o f Dynamic verbs • The non-finite Perfect form o f Stalive verbs • Relatives formed on the Perfect • Conjoining verbs for the meanings: 'both...and1; 'cither...or'; 'neither...nor' • The formation o f Causative verb-forms and the associated syntax • The Stalive passive o f Causative verbs • The Resultative converb • The formation o f Reciprocals in intransitive and transitive verbs_________________
The Perfect Although Abkhaz is likely to use its Aorist (Simple Past) Indicative to translate the Perfect tense o f English, the language docs have a distinct Perfect Indicative o f its own. This is used to underline the fact thal the action has already taken place. The finile form for Dynamic verbs is produced by using the finite suffix -ит preceded by the Perfect marker -хьа-: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Perfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
(s)he has
дцахьеит
datsa.xiajf
already
(s)he has
дыҧсхьеит
da.ps.xJa.jt'
already died
gone
To negate the finile Perfect Indicative, the negative marker occupies its preradical slot, and the compound ending -хьеит is replaced by -ц(т): Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negative Perfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
(s)he has not
дымца-
damtsa.-
(s)he has not
дымгьсы-
da.mpsa-
already
(ӡа)ц(т)
(dza)ts(.t’)
already died
ц (т )/
ts(.t')/
gone
дымҧсӡа-
damps. -
u (t )
dzats(.1')
When it comes to forming the affirmalive non-finite Perfect Indicative, there are four variants: the finile ending -ит is replaced by -y, giving the suffixal sequence
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-хьоу; the finite ending is replaced by -ц, giving the sulTixal sequence -хьац; the finite ending is simply dropped to leave -хьа as the form's ending; the sequence -хьеит is replaced by -ц. Forms in -ц tend lo convey a nuance o f iterativity or repeated action. For the relative form the appropriate relative affix (и-, if relativisation is on the Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its designated slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Perfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
ицахьоу
who/which
ja .ts a .x ta -w
who/which
иҧсхьоу
ja .p s . x ia w
has already
/
/
has already
/
/
gone
ицахьа(ц)
j3 .t s a .x la ( .t s )
died
иҧсхьа(ц)
je .p s .x la ( .ts )
/
/
ицац
ja ts a ts
/
/
ИП)СЫ Ц
ja .p s a .ls
In forming the four variants for the negative relativised non-finite equivalent, the negative marker
-m -
occupies its normal non-finite slot (i.e. immediately before the
root), and, again, with these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix: Patterns lor the Formation o f the Non-finite Negalive Perfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
имца(ӡа)хь-
je.m.tsa.-
who/which
имп>с-
ja.rn.ps.-
has not
оу/
(dza)xia.w
has nol
(ӡа)хьоу/
(dza)xjaw
already
имца(ӡа)-
имп,с(ӡа)-
/
хьа(ц)/
/ ja.mtsa.-
already died
gone
хьа(ц)/
ja.rn.ps.-
имца(ӡа)ц
(dza)xia(.ts)
имҧсыц/
(dza.)xja(.ts)
/
имҧсӡац
/
ja . m t s a . -
ja.mpsa.ts/
(dza.)ts
ja.mps.dza.ts
Stative verbs do not have finite forms in the Perfcct, but they do have a non-finite affirmative form (the equivalent negative being very rare), wilh the suffix -ц attached directly to the rool. And so wc have such relative forms as: Pattern for the Formation o f the Non-finile Affirm ative and Negalive Perfect Indicative o f Stalive Verbs (Relativised)
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who has
икац
ja.q'a.ts
already been
who has nol
икамыц
je.q'a.ma.ts
already been
Ycs-No questions arc preferably formed on stems ending in -хьоу (for affirmatives) and -ц (for negatives), lo produce forms like: дцахьоума? 'Has (s)he already gone'?'; дыҧсхьоума? 'Has (s)hc already died?'; дымцаци? '(S)Hc has already gone, hasn't (s)he?'; дымцаӡаци? '(S)He hasn't already gone, has (s)hc?'; дымцсыци? '(S)He has already died, hasn't (s)hc?‘; дымҧсӡаци? '(S)He hasn't already died, has (s)he?\ Examples. А(ба)рҭ арцагатә цхыраагӡақәа шәрыҧхьахьоума? Аиеи, ҳрыҧхьахьеит 'Have you-PL already read these leaching (ардагатә) handbooks/aids (ацхыраагӡа)? Yes, we have (read ihem)' А(6)ри ашьабысҭа ҭыбхыр бҭах(ы)ума? Man, иҭысххьеит 'Do you-FEM want 10 photograph this fawn-deer (ашьабысҭа)? No, I've already taken its photo' Аҳақьым сан илзылиеааз ахәшә абакоу? Хьаас/Усс икабымдан! илжәхьеит 'Where is the medicine which the doctor (аҳақш м) prescribed (алоаара) for my mother? Don't (to a woman) worry about it (literally: don'l make it a cause o f pain = ахьаа or work = aye)! — she has already drunk it' Аизараҿы ика(қәа)да? Ика(қәа)ц ыкоуп 'Who are al the meeting? They are those who have been there as a rule already1 Аст(ы)удентцәа а(бр)и акамыршша амыдаҕьцәа рбар рҭахызар? Мамоу, ирбахьеит 'M ight the students want lo see the shell (амыдаҕьцәа) o f this snail (акамыршша)? No, they have already seen it' Макьана ҳахьымцац ҳцароуп 'We should go where we have not as yet already been' Макьана излымгац иалгароуп. Алгара акәым, макьана иагьаламгац(т)/(и)егьаламгац(т) They should finish what they have not yet finished. It is nol (a question of) finishing, they have not yet even (-агь(ы)-) started (it)!' We have already encountered the element -гь(ы) in the sense of'and, also, even’. Wc see in this Iasi example that in the slightly changed form -агь(ы)- (the open vowel being regularly raised and thus writlen as -e- under the influence o f the following palatalised consonant) il can stand within a verbal complex (alter the Column I personal prefix) with the same meaning. Placed within two conjoined verbal complexes, il equates to English 'both...and', as in: Ашәкәы егьааихәахьеит дегьаҧхьахьеит 'He has boih bought the book and read 11already'
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If Lhe conjoined verbs are negated, then the forms obviously equate in meaning to 'neither...nor', as in: А(б)ри ааыза ашәкоы егьааимхоац(т) дегьамып,хьац(т) 'He has neither bought nor read such a book as this (а(б)ри асьыза)' To complete the presentation o f such pairings, '(either)...or' in Abkhaz w ill be (ма)...ма, as in: Ҳаыза дабакоу? Ma дышьҭалахьеит, ма дмааӡац(т) 'Where is our friend? Either (s)hc has already gone to bed or (s)he has not come’ У(бр)и дандәықәла, аӡлагарахь дцар акәын ма ддәықәымлар акәын 'When (s)he went off, (s)he should/must have gone lo the (water-)mill (аӡлагара), or (s)he should nol have gone o ff Causatives How does Abkhaz construct causative sentences o f the type 'X makes Y VERB' or 'X causes/forces/compels/hclps Y lo VERB'? There is a special causative prefix -p-, which is added immediately before the root (or, in some cases where the lexical meaning is a function o f the combination o f a preverb with the root, before ihe preverb). Firstly, let us note that transitive verbs are formed this way from adjectives, e.g. ацқьа 'clean' (as in ашәцатәы цқьа 'clean clothing (ашәҵатәы)') => арыцқьара 'clean' (as in Арцааы аклассдоы лрыцқьо(и)т The female teacher cleans the blackboard (аклассҕәы)') алашьца 'dark' (as in ацых лашьца 'dark night (аҵых)') => арлашьцара 'darken' (as in Апдрда ауаҭах арлашьцо(и)т The curtain (аҧарда) darkens the room (ауаҭах)') абеиа 'rich' => арбеиара 'enrich' When il comes to verbs, i f the verb to which the causative prefix is added is intransitive, its basic arguments remain unaltered; the causalivised form simply lakes an extra Column III prefix to correlate with the causer, e.g. Аҭакаажә дтәеит The old woman sat down' vs Аҭакәажә дсыртәеит 'I sat the old woman down' Аҭакәажә ауаџьак дыҽҳәатәеит The old woman sal down at the hearth (ауаџьак)' vs Лыҧҳа аҭакәажә ауаџьак дыҽҳәалыртәеит 'Her daughter sal Ihe old woman down at the hearth' Итәа(қәа)з гылеит 'Those who were silting stood up' vs Аб итәа(қәа)з ахәыҷқәа зегьы иргылеит The father made all the children who were silting get lo their feel' Амагә ацаршьы хеит 'The sole (аҵаршьы) o f the boot (амагә) wore oul (axapa)' vs Сашьасшьацатәы ирхеит 'My brother caused my footgear (ашьацатаы) to wear out' 151
Аҳәынаҧқоа нцәеит The mice (аҳәынап,) were wiped out (анцоара)1vs Ацгзы аҳәынаҧқәа ннарҵәеит The cat wiped oul the mice' Ажәабжь ҿыцқәа срыхәаҧшуан '1 was watching ihe news (ажәабжь ҿыцқәа)' vs Сан ажәабжь ҿыцқәа срыхоалырҧшит 'Mother made me watch the news' Рани раби рыгхеит They lost/were deprived o f (arxapa) iheir parents (literally: their parents became lacking lo them)' vs Жәеиза шәкы иагҳархар, икало(и)т ҧшьынаажәи жәба 'I f wc subtract eleven from hundred (literally: if wc make 11 lacking to 100), ihe answer is eighty-nine' Дызлыси? ’Why did (s)he hit her?' vs Дылсырсит 'I made him/her hit her’, cf. Аҵәаан аирсит 'He planted ihe slake (адәаан) in il (= the ground)'; Анхааы ацә ажә иаирсит 'The peasant/farmer (анхааы) had the bull (аца) cover Ihe cow (ажә)' Аҳәса(қәа) ашәаҳәара иалагеит The women began to sing' vs Раыза аҳәса(қәа) ашәаҳәара иалалыргеит T heir female friend got ihe women lo start singing' Дсыхәеит '(S)he helped (ахәара) me' vs А(б)ри адырра џьаракыр бхы иабырхәома? Аиеи, ашкол аҿы схы иасырхәо(и)т 'Are you-FEM going lo make use o f (ахархәара) this knowledge (адырра) anywhere (џьаракыр)? Yes, I am going to use il in school' (N.B. thal 'use X' in Abkhaz is literally 'make X aid one's head/oneself) Зегьы илшо(и)т 'He can do everything/Everything is possible for him' vs У(бр)и илимыршо (= ихы иалимыршо) акгьы ыка(ӡа)м There is nothing which he cannot manage (= which he cannot render possible for himself)' Ататара сышәҭ! 'Give me the soft bit (ататара) (to a plurality)!' vs Аамҭа иамыртато хьаа1кал(аӡ)ом 'There is no pain which lime does nol soflen' What then happens, if the verb to be causativised is transitive, in which case, o f course, there w ill already be an agent-prefix occupying the Column III slot? What happens is that this causee is demoted lo ihe role o f indirect object o f the causalivised verb and is Ihus marked by the appropriate Column II affix; ihe causer naturally takes over the role o f the agent and is marked by the appropriate Column III affix. I f the causer is 3rd person plural, its affix w ill nol be -р(ы)- but the variant -д(ы)- presented as something lo be explained later in the affixal list in Lesson 6 — this substitution occurs whether the basic verb is transitive or intransitive; in fact, i f in a causalivised verb the indirect object is 3rd person plural, il too w ill be indicated by -д(ы)- rather than -р(ы)- (hence the presence o f this alternative in the corresponding affixal list in Lesson 3), e.g.
' Note the lack o f the articic on a noun when used in conjunction wilh a negated verb for Ihe meaning 'nol any'.
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Ацаацәа ирцои? 'What do pupils learn?' vs Арцаацәа2 апаацәа аҧхьареи аареи аҳасабреи ддырио(и)т Tcachcrs teach pupils reading, writing and maths (аҳасабра)' Ацаацәа ашьхақәа рбеит The pupils saw the mountains (ашьха)' vs Арцаацәа аҵаацәа ашьхақәа ддырбеит The teachers shewed the mountains to the pupils (literally: got the pupils to see the mountains)'; сГ. А(б)ни аӡәгьы и(ы)умырбан! 'Don't (to a man) shew that lo anyone!' From (his last verb il is possible lo produce a Stativc passive by dropping the Column III agent-prefix, and the resulting form is: А(б)ри аизгаҿы иарбоуп... 'In this collection ([а]аизга) it is (in a stale оГ having been) shewn (that...)', where the a-vowel is ihe 3rd person non-human Column II affix marking the (obligatory but here non-specific) indirect object Идырбоуп 'It is (in a slate o f having been) shewn to them' Ахацәа гылеит 'The men stood up' vs Аргылаацәа а(б)ри аан(ы )ҿыц дыргылеит 'The builders (аргылаа) built (= made stand) this new house' Ашә аатуеит 'The door opens ([а]аатра)' vs Ашә аадыртувит 'They are opening the door'; Ашә аарт(ы)уп The door is open' Ала ажьа акит The dog caught the rabbit (ажьа)' vs Унапы сыркы! 'Give me your-MASC hand (to hold)!'; cf. Ашә акуеит 'The door is shutting' (where the reference o f the 3rd person non-human agent-prefix is opaque) vs Агәашә аркы! 'Shut the gate (агәашә)!', Аденџьыр аумыркын! 'Don't (to a man) close the window (аҧенџьыр)!'; Ашә арк(ы)уп 'The door is shut'; Ааны амца акиг 'The house caught fire (амца)' vs Аҭыҭын амца аиркит 'He lit the tobacco', Алампа алыркит 'She lit Ihe lamp'; Сқьаадқәа зегьы сшәыра иасыркит 'I found room for all my papers in my salchel (ашәыра)' А(б)ри ацла абааррақәа рҿоуп (рҿы ауп) иахьазҳауа ’Il is in marshlands (абаарра) where/that this tree grows' vs Аҳәынҭқарра амал есышықәса иаҳаиаҳа иаздырҳауеит They increase ihe weallh (амал) o f the state (аҳәынҭқарра) more and more each year'; cf. this alternative way o f expressing multiplication with the one offered in Lesson 10: Хәба фынтә иаз(ы)урҳар, икало(и)т оажәи-жәаба 'I f one multiplies (you-MASC multiply) five by six, it w ill be/the result is thirty' Аӡы зжәит 'I drank some water' vs Аӡы сыржә! 'Give (to a (wo)man) me a drink o f waler!'
2 As w ill now be obvious, the Abkhazian words for 'pupil' and 'teacher' differ by virtue o f the presence in Ihe latter o f the causative marker, both being derived from the root -aa- 'Icam' plus agent-forming derivational suffix -в(ы).
1S3
Аҳақьымцоа ачымазаа дҧыркеит 'The doctors operated on (= cut) (аҧкара) the sick person' = Аҳақьымцәа ачымазаа дыдҧсыркеит '1 got the doctors to operate on the sick person' Ахәыҷқәа рыдда карцеит The children did their homework (адца)’ vs Ран ахәыҷқәа рыдҵа длыркаҵеит T heir mother got the children to do their homework' (where wc note that the causative prefix now precedes the preverb, as indeed would the infixed negative, as seen in the next example); cf. Исҭахым с(ы)умыркацан! 'Don't (to a man) make me do what I don't want!' Лыбжьы смаҳаит 'I didn't hear her voice' vs Быбжьы сыбмырҳан! 'Don't let me hear your-FEM voice!' (the verb is placed here even though il is unclear whether il should be analysed as a transitive or bivalent intransitive verb, as discussed in an earlier lesson) I f one lakes the diclionary-entry арашәара 'weed' and considers the examples: Жәацы дбаҳауан, иацы драшәон 'Two days ago (s)hc was digging (абаҳара); yesterday (s)hc was weeding' vs Аџьықәреи/Аҧш ирашәо(и)т 'He is weeding the maize' one would probably suspect that the rool is -рашәа- and think no more about it. other than thal it exists in both an intransitive and a transitive guise. However, one has also lo consider ihe following: Ауҭракацаацәа руҭрақәа драшәон The vegetable-gardeners (ауҭракацаа) were weeding their vcgelable-plols (ауҭра)' where the д-variani for the 3rd person plural Column III agent-prefix proves thal ihe -p- is the causative formant rather than the initial consonant o f the root. The -p- to -д- transformation illustrated above does not happen i f the pronominal prefix in question precedes a preverb in the causalivised verbal complex. In иргәаладыршәеит 'They reminded (агәаларшәара) them o f it/them (= made it/lhem fall into their heart)', Ihe Column III agent prefix undergoes the shift, as it stands alter the preverb, whereas the Column II oblique objcct prefix does not, as it precedes the preverb. In ирзыргәаламыршәеит 'They could nol remind them o f it/them', neither prefix undergoes the shift, as both precede the preverb. We have been examining causative forms o f basic intransitive and transitive verbs. These basic verbs have so far been mono- or bivalent. What happens i f the basic verb is trivalent (for example, a dilransilive)? Though Abkhaz has no absolute ban on quadrivalent verbs, as exemplified by: Acac аҳкәажә асалам ҳазлиҭеит 'The guest gave greetings (асалам) lo the princess (аҳкәажә) on our behalf it docs not permit causatives lo be formed from ditransitives in the way described above. Instead the language resorts to a construction similar lo that o f English. The verb 'make, do' in either its non-causative or causative guise is used as main verb. 154
whilst ihe verb conveying the activity being caused stands in what is known as its Resullative form; if the causalivised option is selected for the main verb, then Ihe agent o f the embedded verb w ill also figure as indirect object o f ihis causative main verb. The Resullative probably developed from the non-finile Future I in its pa-variant through the suffixation o f -тәы. Added lo a verbal rool (or slcm), this suffix produces the equivalent to 'that which is to VERB/be VERBed', e.g. агьстәы 'creature (literally: that which is destined to die)' <= аҧсра 'die; dealh11 А(б)ри дышьтә(ы)уп This person is to be killed' <= ашьра 'k ill' ашьацатаы 'footgear' (encountered earlier in ihis lesson) <= ашьацара 'put on the lower body' ашәцатәы 'clothing' (encountered earlier in ihis lesson) <= ашәцара 'pul on (general) clothing' Икаҵатә(ы)уи? Акгьы кацатәым/кадатәзам 'What's to be done? There's nothing to be done' <= акаҵара 'do, make' Ажәабжьқәа шатә(ы)уп хәт^-хзҭала 'The stories (ажәабжь) are to he divided (ашара) into their parts (ахзҭа)' У(6р)и akapa зпазымкуа аҳәоуқәа бжьажьтз(ы)уп The sentences (аҳәоу) which are nol so important (literally: which do not hold so much beneath themselves) are to be omitted (абжьажьра)' (cf. Ф-ажзак бжьоужьит 'You-MASC left out 2 words ([а]ажәа)') To return to ihe Resullative, we can note that a non-standard, dialectal form ends in -ратзы, but the literary form is today reduced lo -ртә, as in: Ацааы лырцааы аҵәа штҭеит The female pupil gave an apple to her male teacher' vs Аҵааы лани лаби лырцааы ацәа илҭартә (и)карцеит/(и)лдыркацеит’ТЬе female pupil's parents got her to give an apple lo her male teacher' Сеиҳабы ақьаад сымпыдижәеит 'M y boss ([а]аиҳабы) snatched the paper oul o f my hand (ампыджәара)' vs Сеиҳабы ил>ҳәыс ақьаад сымпыдижәартә (и)калцеит/илыркаҵеит 'My boss' wife made him snatch the paper oul o f my hand'
v rhe words lor 'Abkhazian', namely An>cya, and for 'Abkhazia, namely Адсны, have in folketymology been connected wilh the noun ап>сы 'soul', which would make 'Abkhazian' literally 'soulperson' and 'Abkhazia' literally 'soul-land'. However, as noted in Footnote 6 o f Lesson I , Vjacheslav Chirikba has pointed oul lhal in the northern Bzyp dialect 'Abkhazian' is in phonctic transcription [opcwa] and 'Abkhazia' is [opens], whereas Ihe word for 'soul' is [apss], i.e. Ihe sibilants are different. Bzyp then provides the clue as to Ihe Irue etymology, which Chirikba links to the verb аҧсра 'die', phonetically laptsra] in Bzyp, and concludes thal the actual etymology o f the Abkhazians' selfdesignalion is 'mortal', whilst ihe name o f their country w ill originally have meant 'land o f the mortals'.
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Иусура цамырхит 'They deprived him o f his job (= sackcd him4)' vs Аиҳабыра иусура дамрымхыртә (и)карпеит/(и)ддыркацеит 'The government (|а]аиҳабыра) caused them nol lo sack him/prevented them Irom sacking him' Reciprocals Where an English senlencc contains the words 'each other' or 'one another', we are dealing with a category called reciprocality, holding between two o f the verb's arguments, one o f them usually (but nol obligatorily) being the subject/agent, and we shall now sec how Abkhaz adapls its verb-forms to accommodate this category. I f the iwo relevant arguments are indicated only by pronouns, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person personal pronouns, if present, are reduplicated to give: ҳара-ҳара, шәарашәара, дара-дара5, respectively. But, as might by now be anticipated, the verb-form loo is affected, and regarding the verb's internal structure, as with some other features, wc have lo distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. Let us start with the intransitive class. In bivalent intransitives the reciprocal relationship w ill hold between the verb's subject and indirect (or, if dependent on a preverb, oblique) object. The normal column II affix representing the latter argument w ill be replaced by the reciprocal marker -аи- (usually pronounced [e:], unless preceded by ҳ-, in which case the open vowel is retained), as in: Ҳрыхәаҧшуан 'We were looking at them' vs (Ҳара-ҳара) ҳаихәап>шуан 'We were looking at each other/one another' Шәысзыӡырауама? 'Are you-PL listening lo me?' vs (Шәара-шәара) шәеизыӡырауама? 'Are you-PL listening to each olher/one another?’ Избысуазыз? 'Why were they hitting you-FEM?' vs Дара-Дара зеисуазыз?/Изеисуазыз? 'Why were they hitting each other/one another?' In the last verb exemplified the intransitive reciprocal affix retains its original function with the intransitive root -c- 'hit', replacing the verb's indirect object-prcfix. However, assuming we are not dealing wilh a homonymous affix, il has also taken on the role with this root o f a preverb, such that this preverb-root combination means 'quarrel (with)', as in: А(б)ри аҷкәын есқьынагьы деисуеит This boy is forever (есқьынагьы) quarrelling'; Амшын еисуеит The sea is surging'; Игәы еисуеит 'His heart is racing; he's agitated’; Узсеисуеи? 'Why are you-MASC quarrelling wilh me?’; Шәмеисын! 'Don't quarrel (w ilh one another/each other)!', where we see fusion between preverb/reciprocal formant and the root
4 Also possible for this is: Аусурантәихы цақәиҭыргзит (ахақәиҭтәра). “’ I f humans arc the participants, an alternative is азәи-азәи; for non-hunians the alternative is вки-аки.
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This preverb is also found in (а|аигәырҕьара 'look w ilh pleasure on, lake pleasure from, rejoice in', (а)аихырхәара 'bow down before', [а|аип>хыӡра 'dream o f, |а]аихсра 'shoot at', [а]аихара 'strain', and [а1аигӡара 'spare', as in: (Уа(ра)) yaapa ҳаигзырҕьо(и)т 'We lake great pleasure in your-MASC coming’ Иувихырхәада? 'Who bowed down before you-MASC?' Сбеиҧхыӡит 'I dreamt o f you-FEM' Шәақьла дхысуеит 'X shoots (ахысра) wilh a rifle (ашәақь)' vs Ажьақәа уреих(ы)с! 'Shool (to a man) at the rabbits!' Зны нак дахо(и)т, зны арахь дахо(и)т 'Now (зны) (s)he heads (axapa) thither (нак), now hither (арахь)'; Ахәыҷы акыка дахо(и)т The child sucks (axapa) the breast (акыка)'; Аҭыҭын сах(аӡ)ом 'I don'l smoke (axapa)'; аҭыҭын иах(ак,ә)о рзы авагон 'carriage for smokers' vs Аҽыз еихо(и)т axa изгыл(аӡ)ом 'The chestnui-coloured (аз) horse strains but cannot gel up'; Шәеиха ҧхьака 'Press forward (ҧхьака) (lo a plurality)!'; Ахәыҷы иан лахь деихо(и)т The child strains towards his mother'; Бмеихан! 'Don'l (lo a woman) strain6!', where again we see fusion o f preverb and rool Аҽқәа дреигӡом 'He doesn't spare the horses'; Умариа ибар, дуеигӡарым 'If he sees something easy/weak aboul you-MASC. he won't spare you1; Ухы уамеигӡан! 'Don't (lo a man) spare yourself!', where again there is fusion o f preverb with rool We know lhat the Causative formant (along wilh its associated Column III agentprefix) as well as the preradical negalive marker should split preverb from root, but, if we take the second verb from the six just illustrated and negate it in the Aorist, (he fact lhat the negative formant precedes the element -еи- suggests again (as noted for some examples presented above) thal the preverb has fused w ilh an already compound stem lo form one o f even greater complexity, e.g. Аҧҳәыс анцәа димеихырхәеит The woman did nol bow down before God' In some cases one can delect a clear semantic shift from literal to metaphorical meaning in verbs incorporating the reciprocal element -аи-. Consider [а]аиқәшәара, literally Tall upon one another/each other': Лассы-лассы ҳаиқәшәо(и)т 'We often meet (one another/each other)' Казшьала (и)еиқәшәом 'They don't suit one anolher/each other in temperament (аказшьа)' Ахә азы/Хаыла иеиқәымшәеит (= иеиламӡеит from | а|аилаӡара) They did nol come to an agreement on (-зы /-ла) the price (ахә)' Аҧсуа-аурыстә Жәар -- еиқәиршәеит A. Н. Генко 'Abkhaz-Russian Dictionary (ажзар) — A. N. Genko compiled it = compiled by A. N. Genko'
6Or, in the conlcxl o f a woman in labour. 'Don’l push!'.
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аизгаҿы иеиқәыршзоу атекстқәа 'ihe texts (атекст) brought together in the collection' У(бр)и ааныргылара иаҭах(ы)у амаҭәахә зегьы еиқздыршзеит 'They prepared/ organised/got ready all the material (амаҭзахәы) neccssary lor Lhat house building (ааныргылара)' Хшыала, дыррала деиқәшәоуп '(S)hc is equipped/endowed with intelligence (ахшыа) (and) learning (адырра)' Ацаразы шәеиқәшәоума? 'Are you-PL ready for going?' Apyaa аарлаҳәа иҧсы ҭаиы деиқзхеит The soldier (apyaa) only just (аарлаҳәа) survived ([а]аиқәхара) alive' vs Аҳақьым аҧсразы иказ деиқәирхеит 'The doctor saved the person who was set for/on the point o f death' The reciprocal affix in the last set o f examples appears in conjunction with the preverb -қә(ы)- 'on', and we are already familiar with it appearing alongside-л(ы)Trom inside' with the rool - k - 'grasp, hold' plus its rool-suffix -aa- in [а]аилкаара 'understand, find out', and we see it with same preverb in |а|аилыргара 'sort out, make sense of, pick out', e.g. Иарҳәаз изеилмыргеит 'He could not make sense o f what they told him' but il is used more widely. Consider its presence alongside two other preverbs -ҿ(ы)'from w ithin’ and -д(ы )- 'from under1in: Арзамаҭ дуаа-еилкьоуп - инапы иан(ы)уҵо зе гш бзианы (и)еиҿикаауеит 'Arzamat is a nimble-minded (|а]аилкьа) chap — everything you place in (андара) his hand(s) he organises well'; Аизара даара иеиҿкаан The meeting was (in a slate o f having been) very organised' Ишьапҳәа еидихит 'He stretched (|а]аидыхра) his legs'; Аты амдзыжзаақза еиднахит The owl (аты) stretched its wings (амдәыжәаа)'; Убҕаеидых! 'Slraighten your-MASC back (абқа)!' Readers w ill have noticed lhat some o f the examples adduced to illustrate the formant -аи- have been transitive, but the essentially INlransitive reciprocal marker is natural bccause the reciprocal relationship (whether literal or metaphorical) docs not involve the transitive subject (agent), holding rather between direct and indirccl/oblique objects. It is now lime, however, lo examine how reciprocalily is handled when the relationship is contracted between the transitive-subject (agent) and either the direct or indirect/oblique object o f the verb. Let us begin with bivalent transitives where reciprocalily has to hold between agent and direct object. Counter-intuitively, it is the agent-affix which yields its slot to the formant -аиба-, in most cases pronounced [e:ba], e.g. Бзиа ҳаибабо(и)т 'We love each other/one another'; Бзиа шәеибабо(и)т 'You love each other/one another'; Бзиа (и)еибабо(и)т They love each other/one another'
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Ҳаибадыруеит 'We know cach olhcr/onc anoihcr'; Шәеибадыруеит 'You know each olher/one another’; (И)еибадыруеит 'They know cach olhcr/one another'; Шоеибадыр! 'Get lo know cach other/one anoihcr! = A llow me to introduce you to each olhcr/one anoihcr!'; cf. Ҳзеибамдыр(и)т 'We could nol gel to know/rccognise cach other/one another', where the potential affix stands after the Column I affix, being the one lo identify the persons involved Ашәарыцацәа машәырла (машәыршақә) (и)еибашьит The hunters killed each olhcr/onc another by accident (амашәыр)'; |а]аибашьра, apart from mcaing 'kill each olher/onc another', is used as the noun 'war' (аџьынџьылатә аибашьра 'the Patriotic War') and as the verb lor 'fight', in which case it is intransitive, as in: Ҳаибашьцәа хьӡырҳзагақәа агьсадгьыл ахақәиҭреи ахьыҧшымреи рзы (и)еибашьуан 'Our renowned (ахьӡырҳәага) Fighters ((а)аибашыьы) were fighting for Ihe liberation (ахақәиҭра) and independence (ахьыҧшымра) o f the motherland (аҧсадгьыл)' — the verb can be used with an indirect object in the sense o f 'fight against’, as in: Среибашьуан (variant Срабашьуан) 'I was fighting (against) them'7 Take now the dilransilive verb аҭара 'give' with reciprocalily holding between agent and indirect object: Аҧара ҳаибаҭо(и)т 'We give (the) money to each other/one another' where it is still the agent-affix which yields lo the reciprocal formant. For another ditransitive 'say lo, tell' we have an option: eilher replace the agent-affix according lo the norm just described or replace the Column Г1 indirect object affix, and in this instance the reciprocal marker is preferably modified, as shewn in: Иреибаҳәо(и)т/(И)еибырҳәо(и)т They tell (il to) each other/one another' One might ask whether substitution o f the indirect object affix is also possible wilh the rool 'give'. The answer is thal il IS possible, but preferably only when reciprocalily holds between direct and indirect object, as in: (И)еибаҳҭеит 'We gave them; to each other/one anoiherj' This is something o f an anomaly, as the formant -аиба- usually only replaces cither the actual agent-affix (of Column III) or a Column II affix thal represents an agent at some level o f derivation, as when a transitive verb is causalivised. Consider ihe following: Ҳаибап>шәыркеит 'You-PL made us cut each other/one another' vs Ҳашәҧибаркеит 'You-PL made each olher/one another cut us', where the reciprocal prefix is modified lo -иба- when following a preverb (cf. Иҳақәибахмт 'Wej lifted it/them o ff (ақәхра) cach olher/one anoiherj' vs
7Givcn the different meanings that this verb can convey, an unambiguous way o f translating 'they killed each olher/one another', as in the llrst example o f this p a rtic u la r group, would be: (и)еибарп,с1!т, literally 'they caused each other/one another to die'.
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(И)еиқоаҳхит 'We lilted themj o ff each other/one anoiherj', though at a push this Iasi example could also have the meaning o f the immediately preceding one) Аҳзындзрақәа еибасыркит 'I fastened the buttons (literally: made them grip one another)' There is one last observation to be made about reciprocals in -аиба-, often (but nol necessarily) in conjunction with the causative marker. Consider the following: Акәҷарақәа еибархь(ы)ус(ы)ууа иалагеит 'The chicks (акзҷышь) all started whimpering (ахь(ы)ус(ы)ура)' Аҽқәа зегьы аыдибаркьеит/аадибаркьеит 'The horses all suddenly (a(a)-) shot o ff (адкьара) together' Ахәыҷқәа еибараит 'The children all ran (aapa)' Аҧстәқәа еибарс(ны) ицеит 'The animals went o ff in a mad dash (literally: making one another hit one another)' Егьырҭ аддыҳәа иналхибаҳәеит 'The others hauled one another onwards in sudden mass-movemenl (аддыҳәа) over (ахҳәара) her = They all surged in a mass over her' Though it is possible to translate these examples as reciprocals (e.g. 'The chicks started making one another whimper', etc..), the meaning is essentially merely that all the actanis acted together. Exercises Translate into English 1. Шәанбеибадыри? Баҳәшьа жәацы ҳаибалырдырит. 2. Ахьа (chestnut) бзиа изымбо уаа дҳамбац. Ииашоума? Саб ахьа адкьыс акакан еш>ьеишьо(и)т. 3. Кадатоыс иҳамои? Акгьы. Хьаас икашәымцан! Шәа(ра) каҵатәыс ишәымаз шзаызцәа икарцахьеит. 4. Аҳәыҳәқәа аҧш рҿабдартә (и)казцада/(и)бзыркаҵада? 5. Шәеиқәзыршоада? Ҵ ы пл Уадҳара ҳаҧсы анаҳшьоз, уашьа ҳаиқзиршәеит. 6. Аибашьра шҧалгеи? Исхашҭит. Исгзалашәыршәеи! 7. У(бр)и аҧҳәызба дзырыччои? У(бр)и дыччом. Ип>сыз лашьа дылдә(ы)уо(и)т. 8. Быӡқаб лнапы слыркыр, амашьына дҭартәаны ақалаҳь ахь дызгап. 9. Уоыза ақырҭцәа дырҿагыланы дреибашьуан. Уажәы дшәаны дӡыӡуеит. У(бр)и акара дзырӡызи? 10. Ажзаҧка ҳамоуп: ‘Зҧа дымҧсыц, уҧа диумырцз(ы)уан.’ Ижздыруазар (= Ижздыруама)? Translate into Abkhaz 1. I f one takes thiriy-sevcn from cighty-six, the answer is forty-nine.
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2. Is il possible for you-PL to shew me Ihe book you bought for your parents? 3. Why huvc the builders not already settled on a price lor building this new house? 4. Our son and our daughter have already clcancd their rooms. They have already washed (themselves). And so, they should be ready for going lo the cinema. 5. Let's listen lo these beautiful songs! No, I've already listened to them. Lei's wash our hands and eat! I've already washed mine. M y mother made me wash them. 6 . 1 would have organised everything for you-PL, but at lhat lime I became ill and was confined to bed. 7. The pupils have already forgotten everything that their teachers taught them. Can you-PL remind them (of il)? 8. Why didn't you-PL use the material which was in the yard? We didn’t see it. 9. Is the door open? Who opened it? M y son opened it. Why didn't YOU-M ASC open it. 10. Remain seated (to a plurality) without saying anything! Straighten your backs! Don't stretch your legs! There's no room here.
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Lesson 12
In this lesson you will learn about: • The Pluperfect lense (affirmalive and negalive, finile and non-finile) • Relatives based on the Pluperfect • The Future II lense (affirmative and negative, finile and non-finite) • Relatives based on the Future II • The Conditional I lense (affirmative and negalive, finite and non-finite) • Relatives based on ihe Conditional I • The Conditional II tense (affirmative and negative, finite and non-finile) • Relatives based on ihe Conditional II • The formation o f past and unreal conditions • Some other combinations with prolasis-forms • Interrogative and subordinate formations for ihe four lenses introduced in this lesson
This lesson w ill complete the description o f the lense-system.
The Pluperfect The finite form o f Ihe Pluperfect Indicative for Dynamic verbs, which translates the English 'had already VERBed', is produced by replacing ihe finite suffix o f the Perfect -ит w ilh - h : Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm alive Pluperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
(s)he had
дцахьан
da.tsa.xb-n
already
(s)he had
дыҧсхьан
da.ps.xkin
already died
gone
To negate the finite Pluperfect Indicative, the negative marker occupies its prcradical slot, and ihe compound ending -зт is placed after the ending -u o f the corresponding negated Perfect: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finile Negative Pluperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
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(s )h c had
дымца-
d s .m .ts a -
(s )h c h ad
ДЫМҦ СЫ-
d s .m p s o -
n o l a lr e a d y
(ӡа)цызт
(d z a )ts a .-
n o t a lr e a d y
цызт/дым-
ts a . z ( . ) t ’/ d a . -
z (.)f
d ie d
ҧсӡацызт
m p s .d z a -
gone
ts a . z ( . ) t ‘
There are iwo variants for the affirmative non-finile Pluperfect. The relevant suffixal sequences are either -хьаз or -цыз. For the relative form the appropriate relative affix
(И -,
if relativisation is on the Column I argument, otherwise з-) stands in
its designated slot:
Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Pluperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ицахьаз
ja.tsa.xta-z
who/which
иҧсхьаз
ja.ps.xiaz
had already
/
/
had already
/
/
gone
ицацыз
ja.tsatsa.z
died
ИЦСЫЦЫЗ
ja.psa.tsa.z
To produce the negative relativised non-finite equivalent, the negative marker - m occupies its normal non-finite slot (i.e. immediately before the root), and, again, with these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix, but in addition to the two suffixal sequences seen above in the affirmative non-finite Pluperfect one can now also select the sequence -хьацыз, e.g.
Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Negalive Pluperfect Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
имца(ӡа)хь-
jamtsa.-
who/which
имп,с-
ja.rn.ps.-
had not
аз/имца-
(dza.)xjaz/
had not
(ӡа)хьаз/
(dza.)xia.z
already
(ӡа)хьацыз
je.rn.tsa.-
already died
имҧс(ӡа)-
/ja.mps.-
/имца(ӡа)-
(dza)xia.-
хьацыз/
(dza)xJa-
цыз
tsaz/ja.m-
имҧс(за)-
tsa.z/ja.m.-
tsa.(dza.)-
цыз
ps.(dza)tsa.z
gone
tsa.z
Examples (for both finite and non-finite forms): Иасон аимцакьача дасхьан, Алиас уажәада дамысцызт 'Jason had already played (literally: hit) aymts’akl’acha (a type o f ball-game); Alias had not played il apart from (-да) now (уажәы)' 163
Асҭамыр иҽирхион/иҽеибиҭон, аха ашкол дагхахьан 'Aslainyr was gelling himself ready (аҽырхиара/аҽеибыҭара), bul he was (= had already become) lale for school' Данакеи ижәлар бзиа дырбон, ашәагьы ихырҳәаахьан 'His people loved Danaq’ej and had already composed aboul (ахҳәаара) him a song' Ашьхақәа ҭагаланшьҭахьтәи рымаҭәа-раыҭәа пшӡақоа рышәхыӡаахьан 'The mountains had been stripped o f (ашәхыӡаара1) their beautiful post-autumnal (ҭагаланшьҭахьтәи) apparcl/lrappings (амаҭәа-аыҭәа)’ Амра ашьхаиаавцын аҽыакыднахалахьан 'The sun had come up skirling (авҵра plus aa-) ihe mounlain(s) and fixed ilself alongside it (аҽкыдхалара) up there (a(a)-)' Цқьа имшацызт. Ааны аӡәгьы ҳамгылацызт 'Dawn had nol yet broken (ашара) properly (цқьа). A l home none o f us2 had yci risen' У(ба)скан ачанах закәыз рыздыруамызт, ацәцагьы рымбаӡацызт 'A l thal time (у(ба)скан) they (the ancienls] did not know whal a plate was, and they had not yel seen a glass (ацәца)' Абгахәыҷы аақәгьежьааит, axa излаҭалаз агәашә ыдҳалахьан The fox (абгахәыҷы) quickly (aa-) spun around on the spot (ақәгьежьаара), but the gate (агәашә) through which it (had) entered had slammed shut (адҳалара1*)' Заа иеилдыргахьаз арахәқәа ажәгәарақәа ирҭатәан The cattle (арахә) which they had early (заа) quartered ([а]аилыргара) were sealed in the cowpens (ажәгәара)' Амаамын зымбацызгьы рацәааны икан There were many folk who had nol yel even (-гьы) seen a monkey (амаамын)' Уаанӡа иабажәхьаз ахш, иабафахьаз аконфеҭ? 'Before then (уаанӡа) where had il drunk m ilk (axui) [andj where had it eaten sweets (аконфеҭ)?' Даара акыр инаскьахьаз Сасрыкәа иҽы аҵыхәа ааиҧыхьашәеит 'His horse's tail (ацыхәа) suddenly (aa-) fell into the hands (аҧыхьашәара4) o f Sasrykw'a [hero o f the national Nart epic], who had moved away (анаскьара) a considerable distance (даара акыр)'
The Future II
*Here -Ш О Х Ы - is Ihe preverb, -3- ihe rool, -aa- the root-suffix. 2The meaning 'none o f us' derives from Ihe combination o f Ihe free-standing азәгьы 'no-one1 wilh the subjecl-prefix ҳа- 'we'. •*Hcre -д- is the preverb, -ҳа- the root, -ла- Ihe rool-suffix. 4 Here -ҧыхьа- is ihe preverb, -шәа- the root.
164
The Fulure II is not especially common, conveying nuances o f obligation, likelihood, or probability. Its affirmative finite form is produced by adding the finite ending
-T
lo Ihe tense-marking suffix -hi:
Patterns for the Formation o f the Finile Affirm alive Future II Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
(s)hc w ill
datsag.t’
дцашт
(s)he w ill
surely go
дыҧсышт
d3.psa.g.t’
surely die
To negate the finite Fulure II Indicative, the negalive marker simply replaces the affirmative finite suffix
-t ,
and the tense-marker lakes on its full form o f - ш а :
Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negalive Fulure II Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
(s)he w ill
дца(за)шам
d a .ts a (d z a )-
(s)he w ill
дыҧсышам
d a .p s o .g a .m /
g a .m
surely not
/
d 3 . p s .d z a -
die
дыҧсӡашам
g a .m
surely nol go
The affirmative non-finite Future II Indicative simply loses Ihe finite suffix
-t ,
whilst the lense-suffix lakes on its full form o f -uia. For the relative form Ihe appropriale relative affix (и-, if relalivisation is on the Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its designated slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Future II Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ицаша
who/which
иҧсыша
js .p s a .g a
w ill surely
w ill surely 8?
ja . t s a g a
die
-
To produce the negative relativised non-finite equivalent, ihe negalive marker
-m -
slots into its normal preradical position, and, again, with these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix. With these non-finite forms (and with all other finite and non-finile forms lo be presented below) the intensifying suffix -ӡа- seems infelicitous:
165
PaUcrns fo r the Formation o f the N on-finite Negative Future II Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
имцаша
jo.m.tsa.ga
who/which
w ill surely
w ill surely
nol go
not die
имҧсыша
J9.mps(s).§a
Examples (for both finite and non-finite forms): Man бцәыркышт They w ill surely say 'no' to you-FEM (= refuse you)'; cf. the Fulure I, which occurs in the same talc: Азныказы мап икып 'A t first (азныказы) he w ill refuse' Ажәа бааҧсқәа рҳәара далагашт '(S)he is bound to start uttering foul (абааҧсы) words' Аӡә дышәиааишам 'No-one surely w ill defeat/gain victory over (аиааира) youPL’ ' Уани уаби реиҧш еыза дуоушам 'You-MASC w ill surely not acquire/find anyone (ааыза) like (-еиҧш) your parents' Уа(ра) и(ы)уфаша ауп узышьҭоу 'What you-MASC are seeking (ашьҭазаара) is what you w ill probably/surely eat' А(б)ри аизгаҿы иарбоуп иҧиоу ажәаҳәақәа иҧиам ажәаҳәақәа рыла и(ы)уп>сахша 'In this collection are shewn direct (аҧиа6) sialcmenls ([а]ажәаҳәа) which you-MASC are (= one is)
10
replace (аҧсахра) with indirect
statements' Ацаацәа ирдыруазароуп иаҳа ҳасаб ззыр(ы)уша апринцип 'Students should know the principle(s) o f which they should lake more (иаҳа) account (аҳасаб)7’ Аабатәи, ахҧатәи акәшақәа рҿы иарбоуп ацаацәа аани акласси рҿы хыҭҳәаала ираыша 'In the 2nd [and] 3rd sections (акәша) is shewn what the students should write at home and in class using their imagination (ахыҭҳәаа)' Арцаеы аграмматиказы изхысуа ахәҭа иақәнагахаша атекстқәа алихуеит The teacher selects (алхра) the texts which should be(come) suitable (ақәнага = 'just desserts') to ihe pari (ахәҭа) which they are covering (literally: crossing over) (ахысра) in (= for) the grammar (аграмматика)' The C onditional 1
5The verb is a bivalent intransitive. 6Thc adjective is twice used in Ihis example in the form ol' a relativised Slative verb, firstly positive and then negated. 7Note lhat in the colloquialism ҳасаб аз(ы)ура 'take account o f (literally: make account for)' the noun lacks ihe article; cf. ҳасаб азджәуы! 'Take account o f il (to a plurality)!'.
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This tense might be thought o f as a past equivalent to the Future I. Il sometimes equates lo the English 'would VERB; would have VERBed', but, as the Impcrfecl also is translalcablc in this way, the Imperfect is more commonly used. It is also sometimes found as a Fulure Perfect wilh the meaning 'w ill have VERBed' or even as a kind o f Future wilh the meaning 'w ill just VERB'. The affirmalive form o f the lense is produced by suffixing the finile ending the cnd-sequcncc
-h
lo the Future tense-marker - р ы lo give
-р ы н :
Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Affirm ative Conditional I Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
(s )h e w o u ld
дцары н
d a .ls c L rs .n
(s ) h c w o u ld
g o / w o u ld
d ic /w o u ld
have gone
h a v e d ie d
ды ҧ сры н
To negate the finile Conditional I, ihe affirmalive finile suffix
-h
d a .p s .r s .n
is replaced by the
composite ending -зт, and the negative marker stands between this ending and the Future tense-marker to give the end-sequence -рымызт: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negalive Conditional I o f Dynamic Verbs
(s )h e w o u ld
дцарымызт
nol
da. t s a r s , т ә -
(s )h e w o u ld
дыҧсры-
d a . p s .r a .m a -
• z (.)f
nol
М Ы ЗТ
z (.)f
g o / w o u ld
d ie /w o u ld
not have
n ot have
gone
d ie d
The affirmalive non-finite Conditional I simply replaces the finite suffix
-h
with
its non-finite equivalent, namely -з. For the relative form the appropriate relative affix (и-, i f relalivisalion is on ihe Column I argument, otherwise 3-) stands in its designated slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm alive Conditional I o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
167
who/which
ицарыз
ja.tsa.ra.z
who/which
would
would
go/would
die/would
have gone
have died
иҧсрыз
js.ps.ra.z
To produce the negative relativised non-finite equivalent, the negative marker - m slot.s into its normal preradical position, and. again, w ilh these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix: Paltems for the Formation o f the Non-finile Negative Conditional I o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
имцарыз
ja.mtsa.ra.z
who/which
would nol
would not
go/would
die/would
nol have
not have
gone
died
имҧсрыз
js.mps.ra.z
Examples: Ашҭа сҭаларын 'I'll just go into (аҭалара) the yard (ашҭа)' Зны схы сыхьуеит иҳәаларын, зны сгәы сыхьуеит иҳәаларын 'Now (зны) he'd be in the habil (-ла-) o f saying "M y head aches"; now he'd be in the habil o f saying "M y heart's giving me pain"!'8 Икалаз уеизгьы уажәраанӡа ишәаҳарын 'A ll the same (уеизгьы) you-PL w ill have heard by now (уажәраанӡа) what happened1 Икарцарыз у(бр)и ихәыцит 'He thought oul (ахәыцра) what they would do' Ирхәыцрыз рзымоырит They didn't know what to think' The C onditional II This lense can be thought o f as a past equivalent lo the Future I. Its usage parallels thal o f ihe Conditional I to such an extent thal the iwo seem to be largely interchangeable wilh virtually no discernible difference in meaning. Thus, il sometimes equates lo the English 'would VERB; would have VERBed', but, as the Imperfect also is translaleable in this way, the Imperfect is more commonly used. It is also sometimes found as a Future Perfect wilh the meaning ‘w ill have VERBed' or even as a kind o f Fulure with the meaning 'w ill just VERB'. The affirmative form o f
8Fordirccl spccch (Oralio Recla) see Lesson 15.
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Ihe lense is produced by suffixing the finile ending - h lo ihe Future lensc-marker -ша to give the end-sequence -шан: Patterns lor the Formation o f the Finile Affirm ative Conditional II Indicative o f Dynamic Verbs
дцашан
(s)he would
da Isa. go. n
(s)he would
go/would
die/would
have gone
have died
дыҧсышан
To negate the finite Conditional II, the affirmative finite suffix
-h
dapso.gan
is replaced by
the composite ending -зт, and the negative marker stands between this ending and the Future tense-marker lo give the end-sequence -шамызт: Patterns for the Formation o f the Finite Negative Conditional II o f Dynamic Verbs
(s )h e w o u ld
дцашамызт
nol
d a ts a .g a -
(s )h e w o u ld
дыҧсыша-
d a psa. g a
m a z (.)t’
nol
М Ы ЗТ
m s. z ( . ) t ’
g o / w o u ld
d ie /w o u ld
n ot have
n o t have
gone
d ie d
The affirmative non-finile Conditional II simply replaces the finite suffix -h with its non-finite equivalent, namely -з. For the relative form the appropriate relative affix (И -,
i f rclalivisalion is on the Column I argument, otherwise
3 -)
stands in its
designated slot: Patterns for the Formation o f the Non-finite Affirm ative Conditional II o f Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
ицашаз
jatsaga.z
who/which
would
would
go/would
die/would
have gone
have died
иҧсышаз
japsa.ga.z
To produce the negative relativised non-finite equivalent, the negalive marker - m slots into its normal preradical position, and, again, with these particular roots there is a shift o f stress onto the relative prefix:
169
Patterns fo r the Formation o f the N on-finite Negative Conditional II ol' Dynamic Verbs (Relativised)
who/which
имцашаз
jemtsa.gQ.z
who/which
would not
would not
go/would
die/would
not have
not have
gone
died
имҧсшаз
jam.ps(3).ga.z
Examples (o f both finite and non-finite forms): Сцашан Ҭемыр иахь 'I'll just go lo Temur's' А(б)ри ииҳәашаз ҳәаны даналга,... 'When ihis person finished saying what he had lo say,...' Иа(ра) дызҭадыртәашаз ак(ы) абаказ? 'Where was ihere something in which they might seal him?' The instantiations o f the Conditional II in these last three examples could be substituted by the Conditional I, just as those instantialions o f the Conditional I given in the preceding sub-section could be substituted by the Conditional П.
Past and Unreal Conditions The conditions examined so far have been o f the real (vivid, immediate) type relating to the future or present. Wc can now consider those relating to the past and also survey unreal (vague, remote) conditions. The protasis-forming -зар has so far been encountered when suffixed lo the nonfinite Present tense o f Dynamic verbs or to the non-finile Present tense (minus final -y) o f Stalive verbs. It can also be attached to the non-finile Aorist to produce a real past condition and to the non-finile Perfect in -хьа (but minus the final -y) to produce a real Perfect condition, as in: Абҳәа-гәаҕьқоа уамхафазар, уажәыҵәкьа иҳауҳәароуп 'If you-MASC ate the plum stones (агәаҕь) accidentally, you must tell us right (-иәкьа) now' Ҳаҷкәын уахь днеихьазар, ирласны ателефон даҳзасуеит 'I f our son has already gone/reached (анеира) there, he w ill soon ring us' The combination o f -зар wilh the non-finite Aorist can even be used to create an unreal past condition, just as when attached lo the non-finite Slative Present it can produce an unreal past condition; both such formations arc seen in the next extended example: Ca(pa) сакәымзар, шәыҧҳа дышәзыҧшаауамызт, дшәыҧшаазаргьы, агәылшьап дышәзамхуамызт 'I f it had not been for me, you-PL would have
170
been unable Lo find your daughter, and, if you had found (Vdid find) her, you would have been unable lo remove her from the dragon (агәылшьап)' In fact, even Ihe simple -p in association with the non-finite Aorist can form an unreal pasl condition, as in another example from the same lale thal furnished the preceding one: Агәылшьап сымшьыр, шәыҧҳа дышәзацыркьомызт 'Had I not slain the dragon, you-PL would have been unable lo wrench (ацыркьара1 -*) your daughter from its grasp' Conversely, in association with the non-finite Stative Present il can form a real pasl condilion, the choice o f verb in the apodosis clarifying the nature o f Ihe condition itself, e.g. Амра иацы а(б)ра дыказар, саргьы дызбон 'I f Amra had been here yesterday, I loo would have seen her' = UNREAL vs Амра иацы а(б)ра дыказар(гьы), са(ра) дзымбеит/дсымбеит '(Even) i f Amra was here yesterday, I didn't see her’ = REAL And, in association w ilh Ihe non-finite Aorist the formant -зар can even equate to a real perfect condilion, as in: Гәында-ҧшӡа адауажо даҳцәигазар, ca(pa) соуп ахьымӡҕ зд(ы)у 'I f the old ([а]ажә) ogre (адауы) has taken the Beautiful Gunda from us, I am the one on whom the shame (ахьымӡҕ) rests (адзаара)' As for the simple -p, in association with the non-finite Aorist, the protasis can even represent an unreal fulure condition, as in: Уаҵәы ҳаиҧылар, ап>ара бысҭон 'I f we were to meet (each other) (аҧылара10) tomorrow, I'd give you-FEM the money' But there is anoihcr protasis-forming suffix. This is the compound -зҭгьы, which is the most usual formant for producing an unreal condition. In association with the non-finile Present o f Dynamic verbs, the resulting protasis can be either unreal present o f progressive aspect (which means lhat the envisaged action would be ongoing) or real past progressive, e.g. У(бр)и адыс а(б)ра иалатәаны ашәа аҳәозҭгьы, зынӡа иџьашьахәхон 'If that bird were silling in il here and singing, il would be(come) an absolutely (зынӡа) amazing thing (аџьашьахәы)' Амаҭәақәа лыӡәӡәозҭгьы, хымҧада шәахьан 'I f she was washing clothes, it was surely (хымҧада) Monday' In association wilh the non-finile Aorisl, the sense produced is lhat o f either a real or unreal pasl condilion, e.g. y ln this verb ihe preverb is -цыр-, the root -кьа-. '«In Ihis verb Ihe preverb is -ҧ>ы-, the root -ла-.
171
Дзаралхазҭгьы, игәы иазымычҳазт, иваныза ткәацзар акәхап 'II' lie became financially damaged (азаралхара), his heart could nol bear (ачҳара) it, and his spleen (аваныза) probably exploded (аткәацра)' Цьпьхтәи схәыл убазҭгьы (/убар), иагьа/егьа иџьоушьарын 'II'you-MASC hat seen my kohlrabi-cabbage (ахәыл) o f last year (ҵыҧхтәи), you'd have been really (иагьа/егьа) surprised (аџьашьара) al il' Suffixed to the non-finile Perfect (minus ihe final -y), the formanl provides a variant for an unreal pasl condition, as in: Жәацы ҳаиҧылахьазҭгьы (/ҳаигьылазҭгьы), аҧара бысҭон 'I f wc had met (each olher) the day before yesterday, I'd have given you-FEM the money' Suffixed lo Ihe non-finite Present o f Stalive verbs (minus the final -y), the formant can produce unreal present-future, unreal past, or real pasl conditions, as in: Ҧшьба аиазҭгьы, еиҳагьы иҕәҕәахон 'If it (sc. a 3-legged horse) had11 four (sc. legs), il would become even more powerful (аҕәҕәа)' Саида иацы а(б)ра дыказҭгьы, аҧсыӡ лҳарбон 'I f Saida had been here yesterday, we'd have shewn her the fish (ап>сыз)' А(б)ри уҭахызҭгьы, исоуҳәар акәын 'If you-MASC wanted this, you should have told me' The formations and possible meanings o f the various protasis-iypes are now summarised: -p + Aorist stem: V ivid Future, Vague Future, Vague Pasl; -зар + Present stem: V ivid Fulure, Vivid Present Progressive; -зар + Aorist stem: V ivid Pasl, V ivid Perfect; -зар + Perfect stem: Vivid Perfect; -зар + Stalive stem: V ivid Present, Vague Present-Future, Vivid Past, Vague Past; -зҭгьы + Present stem: Vague Present Progressive, Vivid Past Progressive; -зҭгьы + Aorist stem: V ivid Pasl, Vague Past; -зҭгьы + Perfect stem: Vague Past; -зҭгьы + Stalive stem: Vague Present-Future, Vague Past, V ivid Past. There are, in fact, two other combinations involving -зар, but these w ill be explained once the Subjunctive mood has been introduced in the next Lesson.
Combinations involving prolasis-forms In Lesson 10 we saw that protasis-forms are used in conjunction wilh a variety of verbs to create the means o f expressing such notions as obligation, possibility and probability. We have now encountered a wider range o f protasis-forms, and, naturally, 1 'The verb here translated as 'have' is literally ацазаара 'be underneath', so that the literal translation would be: i f four (legs) were beneath it,...'.
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more such combinations than it was possible to discuss in Lesson 10 exist. One such occurred a lew lines above, viz. Иваныза ткәацзар акәхап 'His spleen probably burst' where we have -зар attached lo the Aorist stem for an expression o f probability: attaching Lhc same suffix lo the Perfect stem (minus final -y) would give us: Иваныза ткәацхьазар акәхап 'His spleen has probably already burst' An expression o f obligation can be produced by coupling the copula wilh a protasisform in -зар added lo the Perfect slem (minus final -y), as in: Ҳаҧ,ҳа дцахьазар акәым/акәымызт 'Our daughter should nol already be/have been gone' The same suffix wilh cither an Aorist or Perfcct stem can be conjoined with (и)кало(и)т 'it is possible', e.g. Ҳаҧҳа дцазар/дцахьазар кало(и)т 'It may be lhat our daughter went/has already gone' I f we wish to state lhat an ongoing (imperfcctivc) action was probably taking place in (he pasl, then the prolasis-marker -зҭгьы is attached to the Present stem o f either a Stalive (minus final -y) or a Dynamic verb, whilst the main verb is either Ihe Fulure I акәхап or its Condilional I equivalent акәхарын, as in: И ус даҿызҭгьы/аус иуазҭгьы акәхап/акәхарын 'He was probably engaged in his work/working’
Interrogative and subordinate formations for the Pluperfect, Future II, Conditional I and Conditional 11 The forms, some o f which are nol especially common, are formed on the relevant non-finile slem in ways that should by now be entirely predicable, though the case o f the Pluperfect is complicated by the variety o f negated non-finite stems. A selection for each o f the four tenses is presented below, all formed on the root -ца- 'go': Pluperfect Дцахьазма? 'Had (s)he already gone?' Дымцахьаз/Дымцахьазыз/Дымцахьаззи/Дымцахшцыз/Дымцахьац(ы)зыз/ Дымцахьац(ы)ззи/Дымцацыз/Дымидц(ы)зыз/Дымцац(ы)ззи '(S)He had already gone, hadn't (s)he?' Дымцаӡахьаз (etc...) '(S)He hadn't already gone, had (s)lie?1 Ицахьадаз/Ицацыдаз? 'Who had already gone?' Ицахьаз?|2/Ицахьазыз?/Ицахьаззи/Ицшыз? (etc...) 'What had already gone?' Ианбацахьаз/Ианбацацыз? 'When had il/they already gone?' ианцахьаз/ианцацыз... 'when it/they had already gone...’
*-W ilh lengthened final vowel to indicate that il is a question.
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Future II Дцашама? 'Should (s)hc go?' Дымцашеи/Дымцашаз(е)и? '(S)he should go, shouldn't (s)hc?' Дымцазашеи/Дымцазашаз(е)и? '(S)he shouldn't go, should (s)he?' Ицашада? 'Who should go?' Ицашеи?/Ицашаз(е)и? 'What should go?' Дызцашеи? 'Why should (s)he go?' дышцаша... 'how/that (s)hc should go...' Conditional 1 Дцарызма? 'Should (s)he have gone?' Дымцарыз/Дымцарызыз/Дымцарыззи? '(S)He should have gone, shouldn't (s)he?' Дымцаӡарыз/Дымцаӡарызыз/Дымцазарыззи? '(S)He shouldn't have gone, should (s)he?' Ицарыдаз? 'Who should have gone?' Ицарыз?/Ицарызыз?/Ицарыззи? 'What should have gone?' Дабацарыз? 'Where should (s)he have gone?' дахьцарыз... 'where (s)he should have gone...' Conditional II Дцашазма? 'Should (s)he have gone?' Дымцашаз/Дымцашазыз/Дымцашаззи? '(S)He should have gone, shouldn't (s)he?' Дымцазашаз/Дымцаӡашазьгз/Дымцаӡашаззи? '(S)He shouldn't have gone, should (s)he?' Ицашадаз? 'Who should have gone?' Ицашаз?/Ицашазыз?/Ицашаззи? 'What should have gone?1 Дышҧацашаз? 'How should (s)he have gone?' дышцашаз... 'how/that (s)he should have gone...' Exercises Translate into English 1. Иӡкаб дрыцҳаршьазҭгьы, ирҭахыз рзыкалцон/рзыкалцарын/рзыкалҵашан. 2. У(бр)иаамҭазы икашәдоз? Ҳҽеибаҳҭозҭгьы акәхап/акәхарын. 3. Сан дыбзиаха(хьа)зар, аӡәгьы акгьы зсеимҳәахьаци? 4. Баҳәшьа а(б)ра дыказҭгьы, ба(ра) дбыццозма/дбыццарызма? 5. Шәышә ҿыц гәаеҭахьазҭгьы, ибзиоу ибзиам(ы)у еилыскаауан/еилыскаарын/ еилыскаашан.
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6. Сыҧшәма аҧешьара зынӡа илыздырӡом. Луадаҿы уажоы лыҧсы лшьозҭгьы, даара ибзиан. 7. Быҷкәынцәа икарымдақзашаз кард(ал)он. 8. Саызцәа бзианы издыруеит. Аӡәы ацхыраара иҭахызар, у(бр)и ицхраашт. 9. Бус (аура) балагахьазҭгьы, уажәраанӡа балгон/балгарын/балгашан. 10. Иуаыз арцааы даҧхьахьазар кало(и)т.
Translate into Abkhaz 1. Why didn't you-PL take the books which you should have read? 2. I f the children had not eaten all the apples, they would not have become ill. 3. They didn't know where they should take/have taken the fox. I f they had not taken it lo school, nobody would have seen il. 4. I f you-FEM had nol returned from Moscow, you would not have been able to see our new house. 5. I f wc had known lhat, wc wouldn't have shewn the papers to anyone. 6. I f you-MASC had not told us whai your friends were wearing, we should nol have been able to recognise (know) one anoihcr. 7. Thai was not ihe monkey which ate the apples I had bought in the market. 8. I f your-FEM stomach was aching, you should have told your parents. 9. Our grandmother was very ill the day before yesterday. She has probably already died. 10. About whom had the Abkhazians already composed some songs?
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Lesson 13
In this lesson you will learn about: * The Cormulion and f'unclion o f the Subjunctive mood * The construction for the remaining conditions • The formation and function o f the Optative mood • The formation and function o f the Evidential mood
Subjunctive The Subjunctive is marked by the suffix -аа(и)т. It can be added lo four Dynamic forms and one Slative. These arc the non-finite bases o f (i) the Aorisl, (ii) the Pasl Indefinite, (iii) the Imperfect, and (iv) the Pluperfect (all o f whose negative forms take the negalive marker infixed before the root), as well as (v) the Stative Pasl (where Ihe negative marker follows the rool). Apart from those based on ihe Aorisl slem, all ihe remaining Subjunclivcs have the suffix -аа(и)т attached to a sequence ending in -з; in such cases il is actually possible to omit the Subjunctive suffix itself. Should the Aorist stem end in -a or in -aa, this ending simply merges with the Subjunctive ending itself1. Patterns for the Formation o f the Subjunctive Mood (for the a-final roots -ца- 'go' and -ka- 'be')
Aorisl-based
дцаа(и)т
Affirm ative Past Indefinite-
дцаз(аа(и)т)
based Affirm ative Imperfect-based
дцоз(аа(и)т)
Affirm ative
Past Indefinite-
дымцаз(аа(и)т)
Imperfect-based
дымцоз(аа(и)т)
Negalive дцахьаз(аа(и)т)
Affirm ative Stative Past-based
дымцаа(и)т
based Negative
Affirm alive Pluperfect-based
Aorisl-based Negative
Pluperfect-based
дымцахьаз(аа(и)т)
Negative дыказ(аа(и)т)
Stalive Past-based
дыкамзаа(и)т/
Negative
дыкамыз
Patterns for the Formation o f the Subjunctive Mood (for Ihe consonant-final roots -П)С(ы)- 'die' and -шә(ы)- 'be wearing')
* Though in даиаа(и)т 'Let him/her come!' Ihe palatal glide seems lo substitute for the second open vowel o f the root -aa-.
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Aorisl-based
дыП)Саа(и)т
Past Indefinile-
дып,сыз(аа(и)т)
based Affirm alive Impcrfccl-based
Past Indefinilc-
дымҧсыз(аа(и)т)
Imperfect-based
дымп>суаз(аа(и)т)
Negative ды ҧ,схьаз(аа(и)т)
Pluperfect-based
ишәыз(аа(и)т)2
Stalive Past-based
дымҧсхьаз(аа(и)т)
ишәымзаа(и)т/
Negative
ишәымыз
Negative
Affirm ative Stative Past-based
дымп>саа(и)т
based Negative дып,суаз(аа(и)т)
Affirm ative Pluperfect-based
Aorisl-based Negative
Affirmative
Affirm ative
Far and away ihe commonest couplings are those w ilh the Dynamic Aorist and the Slative Past for the respective meanings 'Lei X VERB' (with reference to future lime) and 'Let X be the case' (with reference to a present, ongoing stale), e.g. Шәымаҳә ихьӡ ала иаирсаа(и)т иаӡоу аҵәамахә 'Let your-PL brother-in-law (амаҳә1) plant (арсра4) in his name (ахьз) the branch (амахә) o f an apple which is full o f sap (аза)!' А(б)ри нахые уанаҭа 6арақьаҭрахаа(и)т, у(ба)рҭ уашьцәа уаҳа рмоуаа(и)т! 'Hereafter (а(б)ри нахыс) let your-MASC family (аанаҭа) be(come) blessed wilh bountifulness (абарақьаҭрахара); let those brothers o f yours nol get anything more (уаҳа)!' Ианыҧсуа рзымдыраа(и)т! 'Let them nol know/find out when they will/are going to die!' Ҧшӡала и(ы)урхаа(и)т! 'Enjoy wearing it!' (said lo someone upon purchase o f a new article o f clothing, il literally means 'Let il be lhat you-MASC cause il to wear out (apxapa) in peace (п,шӡала)!'5) vs И(ы)умырхаа(и)т! 'God granl that you-MASC don’l live long enough to wear it oul!’ Уахьцо с(ы)увызаз(аа(и)т)! 'Lei me be your-MASC companion on your travels (literally: where you go)!'
2The wearer is assumed to be male for the purpose o f presentation. ■*The word also means 'son-in-law', an ambiguity also found with Georgian Umly. 4The verb is (he causative o f the root -c- 'strike', and so Ihe literal meaning is 'Lei him make the branch strike it (sc. the ground)'. 5 In Georgian ЗТ^гцопДзЗп! 'In peace (sc. wear it)!'.
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PaibXba ara ицаны(’ иаауа димаз(аа(и)т)! Иацахо цимамзаа(и)т/цимамыз! 'Let him among them (р-) who first (-аҧхьа) goes to the coast (ara) and comes hack have him/her7! Let the one who loses (auaxapa8) not have him/her!' Анцәа агәыраа шәақәимыршәаа(и)т! 'Let God not cause you-PL to meet (= fall upon) (ақәыршәара) sorrow (агәыраа)!' Нагӡара ақәзаа(и)т/ақәыз аҭынчра ад(ы)унеи зегь|ы| аҿы! 'Long live (literally: fulfilm ent (анагӡара9) be upon (ақәзаара)) peace (аҭынчра) throughout the whole world!' Ахашҭра рықәымзаа(и)т/рықамыз аибашьра иҭахаз! 'Let those who fell in (he war not be forgotten!' (literally: 'Let oblivion (ахашҭра10) not be upon those who perished (аҭахара1') in the war!') Хьӡи-цшеи рыгымзаа(и)т/рыгмыз ацеицәа! 'Let the young folk (аҵеи) not lack fame (ахьӡ) and renown (ап>ша)!' Аиааира амш шәыдныҳәалаз(аа(и)т)! 'Congratulations be (адныҳәалара12) yours-PL on victory (аиааира) day!’ When the suffix is used positively in combination with other stems, the meaning is 'Let X be happening!' or 'X is happening — so be it/let it be!" (with the Imperfect as base),' X happened — so be it/let it be!' (with the Past Indefinite as base), or 'X has already happened — so be it/let it be!' (with the Pluperfect as base), e.g. Исызҿылҭуаз(аа(и)т)! — У(бр)и лаха сыма(ӡа)м 'Let her be shouting lor (азҿыҭра) me! — I don't have lime for (axa) that one-FEM. Илгаз(аа(и)т)! — Уеизгьы игатәын 'She took it/them — so be it! It was/They were to be taken anyway (уеизгьы)' Дылгахьаз(аа(и)т)!— ca(pa) срыхьӡо(и)т 'She's taken him/her already — never mind/so be it! I'll catch up (ахьӡара11) with them' But, i f the suffix is attached to such stems when negated, the meanings are more straightforward, as seen in: У(бр)ахь дымцаз(аа(и)т)! 'Let him/her not be gone there!' ftSince reference is lo a single male, readers may be wondering why we do not have here ццаны as I he Past Absolute. This form is perfectly possible, bul, as the Absolute stands inside a relativised expression and as Abkhaz likes 10 rclativisc all affixes referring lo the head-noun o f the relative expression, the Column I affix д- has yielded to ils relative counterpart И-. 7 ln the tale from which this example is laken (Dzhamxwuxw, Son o f the Hind) a maiden is Ihc prize. 8The literal meaning o f 'become (-xa-) under (-na-) [it (a-))' is reminiscent o f the colloquial English 'go down = lose’. 1JWhere -на- is ihc preverb and -rja - the root. *®Wilh preverb -xa- and rool -шҭ-. 11With preverb -ҭа- and rool -xa-. 1-This verb consists o f preverb -Д-, rool -ныҳәа-, and rool-extension -ла-; in its Dynamic form one could say: Бымш-ира быдысныҳәало(и)т 'I congratulate you-FHM on your birthday (амш-ира)'. In the example above we have it in ils Stalivc transform; the meaning is something like 'Viclory-day be an objcct o f congratulation lo you-PL!'. 1^Thc rool is -3a-. whilst -хь- is ihe preverb.
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У(бр)ахь дымцоз(аа(и)т)! 'Let him/her nol be going llicrc (yet)!' У(бр)ахь дымцахьаз(аа(и)т)! 'Let him/her nol already have gone ihcre!' Bearing in mind a Staiivc example such as У(бр)а дтәаз(аа(и)т)! 'Let him/licr remain sealed ihcrc!', readers may be wondering what the relationship is between Ihc Stalive Subjunctive and the Staiivc Imperative. The question becomes even more pertinent, when one additionally considers that the ending -аа(и)т may optionally be added to the Slativc Imperatives in -з introduced in Lesson 9, so lhai an imperative such as Шәтәаз! 'Remain sealed (to a plurality)!' could also be expressed as Шәтәазаа(и)т! The conclusion lo be drawn from this is lhal in Abkhaz there is no essential dislinction for Stalives between the Subjunctive and Imperative moods. Remaining Conditions We left two proiasis-formations unexplained in Lesson 12, as we first had to introduce ihc Subjunctive mood. That done, we can now complete our survey o f conditions. The protasis-formant -зар can be added lo ihe non-finite Future I in -ры, which is then regularly accompanied by an apodosis formed by the Subjunctive. The context o f usage is when one is making an urgent plea to ihe addressee, as in: А(ба)рҭ зегьы ҳаҧсааит, а(б)ри бымфарызар! 'Lei all o f (this lot » 0 us perish, if you-FEM don't eal this! = You'll be the dealh o f us all, if you don't eat this! = PLEASE eal this (for all our sakes)!' The final type o f condition is perhaps the rarest — hence its introduction at this point. The protasis-formant -зар, usually accompanied by -гьы 'even', is suffixed to the non-finite Future II (in -ша). and the meaning is ’(even) i f X wanls/(had) wanted to VERB'. Only one example is quoted from literature by L. Ch’ k’ adua in her survey o f the usage o f lenses and moods in Abkhaz (from which ihe previous example too is taken). Thai example is taken from a folk-lale called Ҳаиҭ илакә 'Hajt's Tale (алакә)'. Haji is a sea-monster, and the relevant utterance arises when Hajt emerges from Ihe sea after the common expression o f frustration Ҳаиҭ, абааҧсы!, which equates to something like 'Oh, for goodness'/heaven's sake!' in English, falls from the lips o f a character in the story. Here is the example in its context: Дызусҭа сыхьӡ ҳәаны ҿызҭыз? - иҳәан, раҧхьа даагылт14. Уара аӡәгьы д(ы)умып>хьазеит, ухьӡ уасш имҳәаӡеит, иаҳҳәашазаргьы и ҳ а з д ы р ӡ о м иухьӡ(ы)у, иҳәеит алыгажә "'Who is the one who cried out (аҿыҭра) uttering my name?" he (Hajt) said, suddenly standing in front o f them. "No-one
,4Nole the reduced form for ihc Aorisl. The full form would be даагылеит, from which bolh ihc palatal glide o f Ihe finite ending and Ihe open vowel preceding il (here Ihe final element o f ihe root) have been dropped.
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summoned (аҧхьара) you; nn-onc spoke your name; even if wc wanl(ed) to say it, wc don't know what your name is," said the old man (алыгажә)' Even i f the verb in the apodosis here is pul into (he past (иҳаздырӡомызт 'wc did not know it'), the form o f the protasis would remain unchanged but would be then translated into English as 'even i f wc had wanted lo say it'.
Optative The Optative is the mood employed to express a wish. The relevant suffix is -нда(з), and it may attach lo the non-finite forms o f (i) the Aorist (for future or past reference), (ii) the Dynamic Present (for present or future reference), (iii) the Perfect (minus the element -y, for perfect reference), all o f whose negative forms take the negative marker infixed before the root, as well as (iv) the Stalive Present (minus the element -y, for present or pasl reference). Patterns for the Formation o f the Optative Mood (for the a-final roots -ца- 'go' and -ka- 'be')
Aorisl-based
дцанда(з)
Affirmative Present-based
дцонда(з)
Present-based
дымцонда(з)
Negative дцахьанда(з)
Affirm ative Stative Present-
дымцанда(з)
Negative
Affirm ative Perfect-based
Aorisl-based
Perfect-based
дымцахьанда(з)
Negative дыканда(з)
based Affirm ative
Stative Present-
дыкамында(з)
based Negative
Patterns for the Formation o f the Optative Mood (for the consonant-final roots -ҧс(ы)- 'die' and -шә(ы)- 'be wearing')
Aorist-based
дыҧсында^)
Affirm ative Present-based
дыҧсуанда(з)
based Affirm ative
Present-based
дымҧсуанда(з)
Negative дыҦ)Схьанда(з)
Affirmative Stative Present-
дымп,сында(з)
Negative
Affirm ative Perfect-based
Aorist-based
Perfect-bascd
дымп,схьанда(з)
Negative ишәында(з)
Stalive Presentbased Negative
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ишәымында(з)
Examples: Ҳасас амла даҳцәагеит. Цьара акы ҳабырцҳанда(з)! Бысҭак бунда(з)! 'Hunger (амла) has carricd o ff from us our gucsl = Our guest is dying o f hunger. Would lhal/I w ish/If only you’d give us a bile lo eal (арцҳара15) somewhere (џьара)! Would lhat/I w ish/If only you'd ruslle up (literally: make) some (a serving of) grits (абысҭа16)!' У(ба)рҭ ахьцоз а(б)ри ала рганда(з)! 'Would thal/I w ish/If only they had lakcn this dog where they were going!' Ҿыцк аасхәан исшә(ы)уп. Уажәы бызбонда(з) нас, шьири! '[Caller on phone| I've bought something new and am wearing it. [Inlerlocuior on phone] Oo (шьири), would lhat/I w ish/If only I were seeing you-FEM now, then!' Ҳрыламшәонда(з) агыгшәыг! 'Would lhal/I wisl>/If only we aren't going lo fall among (алашәара) w ild beasts17 (агыгшәыг)!' Саргьы срылагыланда(з)! 'Would that/1 w ish/If only 1 too were/had been standing among them!' Дсыватәанда(з)! 'Would that/1 w ish/If only (s)he were seated/would sil down 18 beside me!' Ахәшә лыжәхьанда(з)! 'Would that/1 w ish/If only she had already taken (literally: drunk) the medicine (ахәшә)!' What happens, when the wish relates lo a progressive action in the past? One uses ihc Optative o f the Siative verb аҿызаара 'to be engaged in' in conjunction with the masdar o f the lexical verb concerned, e.g. А(б)ри аиыхәтәантәи ахсааҭк19 иск(ы)у ашәкәы аҧхьара са^ымында(з)! 'Would lhat/I w ish/If only I hadn't been reading the book I'm holding for these last (ацыхәтәантәи) three hours!' N.B. In his grammar o f Abkhaz, written in the late 1940s or early 1950s but published posthumously only in 2006, the distinguished caucasologist Nikolaj Jakovlev cites an Optative form combined with exhortative suffix -и, namely Уцәонда(з)и 'Would lhat/I w ish/If only you were going to sleep!' (p. 43), but such a coupling, assuming it is not a typological slip, is not really in recognised usage. Even further back one finds interesting examples o f the Optative in the very first grammar o f Abkhaz, written by the soldicr-linguisl Baron Petr Uslar before the great oulward migration from Abkhazia o f the bulk o f the native Abkhazian population in
,5The verb is the causative form o f ацҳара 'bile; lake a bile o f. which is a bivalent intransitive. l(rThis mush made o f maize (historically m illet) is the Abkhazians' staple food. l7Nolc lhal ihe noun for ‘wild beast' in the Abkhaz stands in the singular, whereas the affix corcfcrenlial with it in the verb is plural, which clearly illustrates how Abkhaz can employ Ihe singular for plural. ,8The context must decide whether the verb-form is to be treated as a Dynamic or Stative verb. l9Note the presence o f Ihe article before the cardinal.
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1864. The expression o f a wish olten carries the implication (hat something would follow from the fulfilment o f the wish. That makes a wish very close semantically lo a protasis, which states the circumstance in which the verbal action o f the apodosis becomes realisable. It is. thus, hardly surprising if a language should choosc a mechanism lo express a wish which is reminiscent o f ils means o f marking a protasis. So in Ancient Greek one o f two conjunctions used in protases is d 'if, and two markers o f a wish are: fide and tiyap', and in English, as we have seen, a wish may be introduced by the words 'if only!'. Now, one o f Ihc examples given by Uslar, who was working with Bzyp-spcaking informants, was the following (slightly adapted lo 111 Abzhywa morphology): Ca(pa) ҭарџьманс скалонда(з), умац з(ы)урын 'II' only I were (lo become) an interpreter (аҭарџьман), 1 would be at your-MASC service (literally: perform (aypa) your service (амац))!' (p. 32 o f Ihe 1887 publication) But this use o f the Optative in protasis-function is no longer deemed normal. The Optative would be replaced by the unreal prolasis-form скалозҭгьы 'if I were lo be(come)' or сыказҭгьы 'if I were', or even сҭарџьманызҭгьы 'if I were an interpreter'.
Evidential (Apparential/lnferential) To indicate lhal one is drawing an inference or that a statement is based not on the evidence o f one's own eyes but rather on hearsay, the Evidential (also known as Apparential or Inferential) mood is employed. Two compound-suffixes serve to mark this mood: -заап and -заарын (somelimes -зарын). From a formal point o f view, it is simplest to think in terms o f both these suffixes attaching to the following non-finite base-forms: the Present (minus final -y for Statives), the Aorist, Ihe Future II (albeit very infrequently), and the Perfect, giving the following set o f paradigms, where we sec lhal for the Dynamic formations the negative marker is infixed before the rool, whereas for the Stative it follows the root: Patterns for the Formation o f the Evidential Mood in -заап (for the a-final roots -ца- 'go' and -ka- 'be')
Negative
Affirm ative Present
дцозаап
X is evidently going (to go)
дымцозаап
X evidently isn't going (lo go)
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Aorist
X evidently
дцазаап
дымцазаап
X evidently didn't go/hasn't
went/has gone
gone Future II
Perfect
дцашазаап
X evidently
дцахьазаап
дымцашазаап
X evidently
w ill probably
w ill probably
go
nol go
X has evidently дымцахьазаап
X evidently has
gone already
not already gone
Stative
дыказаап
X evidently is
дыкамзаап
X evidently is nol
Patterns for the Formation o f the Evidential Mood in -заап (for the consonant-final roots -п>с(ы)- 'die' and -шә(ы)- 'be wearing')
Negative
Affirmative Present
Aorist
дыҧсуазаап
дыҧсызаап
X is evidently
дымҧсуазаап
X evidently
dying/going lo
isn't dying/
die
going lo die
X evidently
дымҧсызаап
X evidently didn't die/hasn't
died/has died
died Future II
дыҧсышазаап
X evidently
дымҧсыша-
X evidently
w ill probably
заап
w ill probably nol die
die Perfect
дыҧсхьазаап
X has evidently дымҧсхьазаап X evidently has nol already
died already
died Stative
ишәызаап
He evidently is ишәымзаап
He evidently is
wearing X
nol wearing X
Patterns for the Formation o f the Evidential Mood in -заарын (for the a-final roots -ца- 'go' and -ka- 'be')
Negative
Affirmative
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Present
Aorist
дцозаарын
дцазаарын
X evidently
дымцозаарын
wasn't going
go)
(lo go)
X evidently
дымцазаарын
дцашазаарын
X evidently
дымцашазаа-
X evidently
would go/have
рын
would not go/ have gone
gone Perfect
дцахьазаарын
X evidently
дымцахьазаа-
X evidently
had gone
рын
had not already gone
already Slative
дыказаарын
X evidently hadn'l gone
had gone Future 11
X evidently
was going (to
X evidently
дыкамзаарын
X evidently was not
was
Palterns for ihe Formation o f the Evidential Mood in -заарын (for the consonant-final roots -П)С(ы)- 'die' and -шә(ы)- 'be wearing')
Present
Affirm ative
Negative
дыҧсуазаарын X evidently
дымп,суазаа-
X evidently
рын
wasn't dying/
was dying/ going to die Aorist
Future II
дыҧсызаарын
дыцсышазаарын
Perfect
дыҧсхьазаарын
going to die
X evidently
дымҧсызаа-
X evidently
had died
рын
hadn'l died
X evidently
цымҧсыша-
X evidently
would die/have заарын
would nol die/
died
have died
X evidently
дымҧсхьазаа-
had already
рын
died Stalive
ишәызаарын
He evidently was wearing X
X evidently had not already died
ишәымзаарын
He evidently was not wearing X
Examples: Аҽцыс ан квҳан иҧсызаап 'It seems lhal (he mother o f the foal (аҽцыс20) collapsed and died'
20The plural is аецара(қәа).
Збаазтоымыз ҧҳәыск дрылазаарын, амоан па длоузаап 'А pregnani (literally: whose bone (абаа) did nol belong lo whom) woman was apparently amongst them, [and| she apparently gave birth to (aypa) a son on (- h) the road (амаа)' Шәара шәаыџьагьы мыцхәы шәқьиазаап 'You both are, it seems, exceptionally (мыцхәы) honourable (ақьиа)' Уа(ра) ayaapa здыруа уакәзаап 'You-MASC seem to be Ihe one who knows what it means lo be human (ayaapa)' Аасҭаа дмаалықьзаарын The devil (аасҭаа) apparently used lo be an angel (амаалықь)' Уаанӡаауааианыҧсуаз рдыруазаарын T ill then (уаанӡа) people apparently knew when they would/were going lo die' Ускан ашьха асы, ақәа, акырцх амуазаарын 'In ihosc days (ускан) it apparently used nol lo snow, rain or hail in the mountains' Аџь д(ы)у агәааараҿы амаҭ рыҭра карцазаарын The snakes (амаҭ) had evidently made their nesl (аҭра) in Ihe hollow (агәаоара) o f a large oak (аџь)' Ауааы иакара зылшо, ауаоы иакара злаӡо ад(ы)унеи аҿы даҽакы ыкамзаап 'Apparently there is not anything else ((д)аҽакы) in Ihe world with the capacity or endurance o f man (literally: which is capable o f (doing) as much as (akapa) man, which endures (алаӡара21) as much as man)' Аҽы абжьара ибжьыҧахьазаап 'The horse has apparently already jumped through (абжьыҧара22) the gap (абжьара) [sc. between clashing rocks]' Мацәазк иман, Гәында-ҧшӡа илҭахьазаарын 'He had a ring (амацәаз) — Gunda the Beautiful had apparently already given it lo him' Strange as it might seem, it is even possible to form a question on an Evidential. In the folktale The story o f ihe prince's son and the three sisters', recorded by Shota Salaq'aia in 1960 and published by him in 1975, we find this: Уара ушҧашазаари?! — лҳәеит. Уара узы сара сшазаап! — лҳәан, длеин лмабра ааихьылшьын, дшыказ даакалцеит "'How is il that you-MASC have come lo be created, i f created you were?!" she said. "I have apparently been created for you-MASC!" she said, went over (алеира), quickly drew over (ахьшьра) him her handkerchief (ачабра) and in a flash made him as he used to be' (p. 146) The finite ending -n o f the Evidential ending -заап behaves like the homonymous ending o f the Future I when transformed into the non-finilc base required for a conlcnt-queslion, which is lo say lhat the -n turns into -ры, on which the question
21 W ilh prevcrb -ла- and rool -ӡа-. 22W ilh preverb -бжь(ы)- and rool -n>a-.
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'how?' is Ihcn built in the normal way. Whal aboul 'ycs-по' questions? One can lake what is essentially a iwo-senlence sequence such as: Уаҧхьазаап — акә(ы)у? 'You-MASC (have) apparently read it. Is that so?' and then combine the question-forming suffix -y with the non-finite variant o f the Evidential lo give: Уаҧхьазаар(ы)у? 'Am I right in thinking lhal you-MASC (have) read it?' Readers w ill by now have realised that finite forms ending in - h arc turned into Iheir non-finite guise by replacing this - h with -3. The Evidential in -заарын is no different, and so a 'yes-по' question formed on a verb with this modal suffix ends in the sequence -заарыз(ы)у, as in: Уап>хьазаарыз(ы)у? 'Am I right in thinking that you-MASC had read it?' One can even lake a shorter cut to asking such questions by attaching the interrogative suffix direct to the finite forms, so thal alternatives lo Ihc lasl two examples would be: Уаҧхьазаап(ы)у? / / Уаҧхьазаары н(ы )y ? 21
Text for translation with associated questions Абнаҿы Ахәыҷқәа абнахь ицеит. У(ба)рҭ абна^ы акәыкәбаа рыкәшәозаарын. ©сааҭк рышьҭахь (и)еибарыаны ааныка ихынҳәит. Амаан ақәаршаы рыхьӡазаап. Ахәыҷқәа иршәыз рымаҭәақәа бааӡеит. Икарҵарыз? Рееилыхны ибааӡаз рымаҭәақәа дырбан рыҽдырбеит. Азцаарақәа: Ахәыҷқәа абацеи? Абнаҿы ирыкәшәозыз? Ианбахынҳәи? Амаан ирыхьӡазеи? Ирыхьзеи дара? Ааны икардази? Vocabulary абна
wood, forest
ахьӡара24
to overtake
акәыкәбаа
mushroom
амаҭәа
clothing
21Thc two-scnlencc question which began this particular discussion has the variant: Уаҧхьазаап - аума7 where the interrogative suffix is -ма attached to ihe copular rool -a- (as opposed to (he copular root -акә-, used with (he interrogative suffix -y). It seems thal fused variants with the ма-suffix are for some reason less acceptable. 24Preverb -ль-. root -3a-.
186
акошәара
lo gather
абааӡара
lo get wcl
ахынҳара2-1’
to return
аҽеилыхра26
to undress oneself
ақәаршаы
downpour
арбара
lo (cause lo) dry; lo cause to see = shew
Exercises Translate into English 1.
Цыҧх ҳаибадырында(з)!
2. Ахацәа рыҧсы ршьозаарын. 3. Ахәыҷқәа а(б)рантә акгьы рымгаа(и)т! 4. Ашәкәқәа ргахьеит. Ибзиоуп, иргахьаз(аа(и)т)! 5. Есымша ақәа (а)уеит. Аӡхыцра камлаа(и)т! 6 . Лыҷкәынцәа
икарцақәаша кард&заап.
7. Саыза лан дычмазаахеит. У(бр)и аҳәаа нырцә уажәы дыкамында(з)! 8.
Уаыза лан дыбзиаханы у(бр)игьы лыҷкәынгьы акгьы рыгымхаа(и)т!
9. Рус (уны) иалгахьанда(з)! 10.
Ҳасасцәа руадақәа рҿы рҽеиларҳәозаарын.
Translate into Abkhaz 1. Would lhat/I w ish/If only the war had already ended! 2. Let the teachers not take the books away from the children! 3. Would that/I w ish/If only we knew when wc arc going to die! 4. You-FEM have apparently forgotten my birthday. 5 .1 seem to forget it every year. Would that/I w ish/lf only 1 had remembered it yesterday! 6.
Let no-one go out! (= No-one is lo go out!)
7. You-FEM w ill be the death o f your parents, i f you don't drink this medicine! 8.
She had apparently already undressed. For this reason she did nol come down.
9. Would lhat/I w ish/If only her mother had seen her al that time! 10. Let your-PL friends say nothing about this!
2sPreverb -хын-, rool -ҳә-. 26The rool is -x-. Also present is the reflexive prevcrb -л(ы)-. Cf. аҽеилаҳәара 'to get dressed'.
and the reciprocal -аи-, which combines with ihc
187
Lesson 14
In this lesson you will learn about: • Subordinale expressions for the meanings: 'when'; 'aller'; 'where/whilhcr/whence'; 'how/as/like'; 'as soon as'; 'while'; 'until'; 'before'; 'since ihe time'; 'ihe reason why' • Questions and exclamations o f the type 'what kind of?!’ • How to say 'el cetera' In Lesson 5 we investigated the formation o f questions o f the type 'How?' (= -шҧа-), 'When?' (= -анба-), 'Where?' (= -аба-) and 'Why?' (= -з(ы)-). We noted further that, i f one omits the question-forming -6 a from the three interrogativcs where it is used, one is left with the elements ш(ы)-, ан(ы)-, and ахь(ы)-, which, when placed inside the non-finite form o f the appropriate tense, build structures meaning, respectively: '(the way) how', '(the time) when', and '(the place) where'; the fourth element з(ы)-, standing inside a simple non-ftnite structure, can also build a form meaning '(the reason) why'. Wc shall now look more closcly at such non-interrogative sequences, though complement-structures (viz. those equating to clauses in English introduced by the conjunction 'that') w ill be left until Lesson 15.
Temporal expressions equating to 'when' The prefix ан(ы)- 'when' is most commonly found with the non-finite Present, Imperfect, or Aorist (as well as the Stative Past). Examples: Сан(ы)хәыҷыз, абнаҿы сыхәмаруан 'When I was small/a child, I used to play in the wood' Насыҧла, paapa лхаца даныкамыз (аамҭа1) иақәшәеит 'Fortunately (насыцла), their arrival here coincided with (ақәшәара2) (the time) when her husband was absent' Лаби асасцәеи анеицәажәоз-\ илаҳаит асасцәа зышьҭаз 'When her father and (he guests were talking to one another, she heard what the guests were after (ашьҭазаара)' У(ба)скан ауп рџьықәреиқәа есымша(аира) изеикарахоз анырдыр 'It's ihcn when they learnt the reason why their quantities o f maize kept becoming equal ([а]аикарахара) every day (есымша(аира))'
1I f the noun for 'time' (|а|аамҭа) is used, then the suffix -тәи 'belonging/pertaining to' may be added lo the temporal expression to give даныкамызтәи. 2Litcrally: ’It fell (-шәа-) upon (-қә(ы)-) it’. ■’ The second argument w ilh this verb normally has its pronominal prefix within the verbal complex governed by the vowel -a- 'lo', bul, when Ihe reciprocal affix -аи- occupies Ihe relevant slot, this is either dropped or absorbed within the vocal formants o f the reciprocal affix.
188
This last example is an additional illustration o f Abkhaz's fondness for clefting. II' one wishes to form a simple question using the clefling technique, the copular root employed is -кә(ы)-, without the a-vowel usually prefixed lo it and also wiihout ihe avowcl usually integral lo the interrogative element -6 a, as in: Ианбыкз(ы)у данцо? 'When is it (that/when) (s)he is going?' (nol *Ианбакә(ы)у) A variant for ihis sequence, if and only if the lexical verb is intransitive, copics the affix appropriate lo the lexical verb's subject into the copula, where it rcplaccs the 3rd person singular non-human affix и- referring to the temporal expression. And so, Ihe alternative for the preceding example is: Данбыкә(ы)у данцо? 'When is it (that/when) (s)he is going?’ To add an element o f indcfinileness or non-specificness lo the temporal reference, the suffix -лак (some speakers preferring -лакь) can optionally be added to the (Dynamic) Aorist stem, and in such instances the temporal reference is no longer necessarily lo the past, e.g. Амла ианакы, аҳәыҳәқәа аца иадҧрылон 'When hunger look hold o f them, the pigeons (аҳәыҳә) would fly up beside (адҧрылара) the maizc-siore (aua)' vs (for the same temporal expression in an exactly parallel context): Амла ианаклак(ь), акәатақәа ааныка идәықәлон 'When hunger took hold o f them, the ducks (акәата) would set o ff (адәықәлара) homewards' Бани баби анааилак(ь), а(б)ри ацаҧха рыҭ! 'When your-FEM mother and father arrive, give them this key (ацап,ха)!' Оеы ca(pa) санақәтәоз, абҕа ҭынчын, атәым данақәтәалак(ь), аҽазеиқәыкуамызт 'When I used to sit on my horse, its back (абҕа) was calm (аҭынч); whenever a stranger (атәым) sat on it, it could not contain itself (аҽеиҳәыкра4)' Ажәытә а(ба)с икамызт: џьара сасык данааилак(ь), иҵарцон ма аҭырас ма аҧҳә ма аҭәа. Уажәы зегьы ирымоуп акҿыара, абамбалых цәарҭа 'In ancient times (ажәытә) it used not lo be like this (a(6 a)c): whenever a guesl came somewhere (џьара), they used lo place beneath (ацацара) him eilher reeds (аҭырас) or straw (аҧҳә) or hay (аҭәа). Now(adays) everybody has a bed-linenstore (акҿысара) [and] somewhere to sleep (ацәарҭа) made out o f (-лых) cotton (абамба)' For expressions o f the type ai the time o f VERBing', аан 'at the lime o f ii' is used as a frcc-slanding poslposition(al element) with the masdar, e.g. Аҭацаагара5 аан ирҳәо ашәа ‘ Уа Радеда’ ахьӡ(ы)уп The song they sing at the time o f bringing ([a|aarapa) the bride (аҭаца) is called "Wa Radeda'" 4ln lemis o f semantic primes, Ihis is quite elose lo English 'hold oneself together', as -к(ы )- = 'hold'. аҽ(ы)- = 'ilselP, -қә(ы>- = 'on', -аи- = 'one another'. 5N.B. аҭацаагарашәа '(ihc) bridal/wedding song'.
189
Note in ihc previous example how ihe direct objcct (here, аҭаца) is fused with Ihe masdar (here, aarapa) lo indicate the generality of, in this instance, 'bride-bringing'. The fetching o f a specific bride would not be so expressed, being rendered as у(бр)и аҭаца лаагара 'ihc fetching o f that bride'. Cf. аҧсыӡкра 'catching fish = fishing'. The postposition -аан is nol restricted to accompanying masdars. The following example has it in association w ilh a simple noun (where -хаан is perhaps more usual, however): Сабд(ы)у иаан икалаз ус(ы)уп а(б)ри This is a mailer which occurred in my grandfather's lime' Another way o f expressing 'at the time o f VERBing' is lo use the Present Absolute (formed by suffixing -ны to the non-finite Present o f Dynamic verbs) with or without the postpositional support o f еип,ш 'as, like (il)'; i f the postposition is employed, Ihere is a tendency for ihe Present Absolute to lose its final close vowel, which gives ihe impression thal the postposition is actually governing the Imperfccl Indicative, e.g. Адҳәызба лҭәымҭа дынҭагылоны = Аҧҳәызба лҭәымҭа дынҭагылон(ы) еиҧш = Апдәызба лҭәымҭа данынҭагылоз (аамҭазы), хаца дцеит 'As Ihe maiden (ацҳәызба) was entering (аҭагылара) her prime (аҭәымҭа), she got married (literally: she man went)' Амра аӡы инӡаалоны = Амра аӡы инӡаалон(ы) еип>ш = Амра аӡы ианынӡаалоз (аамҭазы), аҕба абаҕәаза иаадгыл(еи)т 'As ihe sun was slowly (-H -) selling in (аӡаалара) ihe ocean, the boal came (-aa-) in to dock (адгылара) al the port (аба^әаза)’
Temporal expressions equating to 'after' The postpositional phrase) ашьҭахь 'after it' stands after a temporal expression for 'when' formed by Ihe prefix -ан(ы)-, e.g. Уаҳәшьцәа аиыӡ ашьҭахь икауцеи? 'After your-MASC sisters went missing (аӡра), whal did you do?' Уаҳәшьцәа аныӡлак(ь) ашьҭахь урышьҭамлан! 'After your-MASC sisters go missing, do nol go after (ашьҭалара) them!'
Locative expressions equating to 'where', 'whither', 'whence' The prefix -ахь(ы)- basically means 'where' but can be used as equivalent to 'whither'. It stands in a non-finite verb o f the appropriate lense, though for a simple past action the Past Indefinite is more commonly found than ihe Aorist, e.g. Бахьынхо(з)/Дахы 1>сыз здыруеит 'I know where you-FEM livc(d)/where (s)he died' To render the notion 'whither' quite specifically ihe relevant prefix is -ахьынӡа-, e.g. Бахьцо = Бахьынӡацо здыруеит 'I know where = whither you are going’ 190
Хкилак ицоз абырлаш ахьча иҭыҧ ахьынӡанаӡоз ҽынла еип>ш уахынлагьы иарлашон The pearl (абырлаш), which weighed (literally: was going) 3 kilos, lit up (= made shine) (арлашара6) ihe shepherd's place as far as il extended (внаӡара7) even by night (уахынла) just as by day (ҽынла)' For 'whcncc' the relevant prefix is -ахьынтә-, e.g. Бахьынтәаауа здыруеит 'I know whence you are coming' Иарбан бызшзоу/бызшәоуи/бызшәоуз(е)и а(б)ри ашәкәы ахьынтәеиҭабгаз? 'Which is the language from which (= whence) you-FEM translated ([а]аиҭагара8) this book?' Occasionally, the locative prefix -ахь(ы)- appears where the meaning is more temporal than locative (and, thus, -ан(ы)- might have been expected), but perhaps the reason why the locative prefix is selected is that the relevant verbs are verbs o f motion, e.g. Дыскит, axa амца сыкәшан сбылуа салагеит - иҳәеит ааны дахьааиз "’I caught hold o f him/her, but fin: spread all round (акәшара9) me, and I began to bum (абылра)," he said on his return home' Зыкәри Манчеи ааны иахьнеиз, Манча иаб раыџьагьы драцәажзо далагеит 'When Dzykw ,yr and Mancha arrived home, Mancha's father began speaking to them both' A defied question with the interrogative formant for 'where?' in the copula and the conjunctional formant for 'where' in the non-finite form follows the same pattern as explained above for a clefted question meaning 'when?' with the same absence o f the expected open vowel in the copular component, as in: Иабыкә(ы)у дахьцо? OR Дабьпсә(ы)у дахьцо? 'Where is it (s)he is going?' where again we note the possibility o f copying the intransitive subject affix into the copular component.
Expressions equating to 'how', 'as', 'like' In straight comparisons, where one action or stale o f affairs is compared to another, the action or stale with which ihe comparison is being made is formed by placing the manner-prefix -ш(ы)- 'as, like, how' in ils regular slot inside the non-finile form o f the relevant verb, which is followed by the postpositional phrase) еиҧш 'like, as it', as in:
^W hcrc -p- is the causative formant. 7 Where the rool is -ja-. 8 Where the rool is -ra- ’convey'. 4Where -ша(ы)- is Ihe rool.
Аҧсыӡ аӡы шакәыршоу еип>ш, аагьыл аҳауа акәыршоуп 'As water surrounds (literally: is in a slate o f having been made lo surround = акәыршара) fish, (so) air (аҳауа) surrounds (he world (адгьыл )' Аҧсабараҿы aye иамыхзаӡо аҕьҕьа зыргақәо рышьҭахь акгьы нхаӡом, имаасны ицаз адзыҕба а к гш шыннамыжьуа еиҧш 'Nothing lives on (анхара) in nature (аҧсабара) after those who, contributing (ахәара) nothing lo work (= do nothing useful), cause a (= give rise lo the sound o f (aprapa)) claller (аҕьҕьа), just as a train (адәыҕба) thal has passed (амеасра) and gone leaves behind (аныжьра) nothing' For a simple past action the non-finite Past Indefinite is preferred, e.g. Ишшәасҳәаз виҧш(дзкьа) икашәца! 'Do it/lhem (exactly) as I told you-PL!' Where a manner-clause is nol part o f a comparison but simply sets the context in which something else happens (and thus corresponds to English 'as', rather than 'like'), the appropriate non-finile verb-form (i.e. one containing the prefix -ui(bi)- 'as') can stand alone, allhough it may be optionally reinforced by акәымкәа(н) (literally 'it not being', for it is the negated Absolute o f the copular root -акә(ы)- 'be'), e.g. У(ба)с ишыказ (акәымкәа(н)), ҽнак ҧсҭҳәак аахылеит This is how things were when (literally: as ihings were so), one day (ҽнак) a cloud (аҧсҭҳәа) suddenly descended (ахылара10)' А(ба)с акыр дныкәахьан, дышнеиуаз (акәымкәа(н)), даацсеит 'In ihis fashion he had already journeyed (аныкәара) a considerable distance (акыр), [when], as he was travelling forward, he became tired ([a]aan>capa)' А(ба)с дыштәаз (акәымкәа(н)), а(б)ни аҽыхәа ааҧшын инаихәаҧшит 'As he was sitting like this, that grey(-horse) (аҽыхәа1') awoke ([а]ааҧшра12) and looked over (-на-) at (ахәаҧшра1*) him' Ишагзыдырцо (акәымкәа(н)) ауп аӡз даарылхны дама(ны) ишцо 'W ith them shooting at it (агәыдцара) is how il quickly (-aa-) selects (алхра) one from amongst them and goes o ff with him/her (sc. o f a monster snatching ils victim)' In the following example an Absolute is used in place o f one o f the manner-clauses. The verb in question (ақәиа(а)ра 'lie upon', root -иа-) is used both Dynamically and Statively. And so, in the example, which describes how a race-horse is running in a race, one could interpret il as either a Dynamic Past Absolute ('having lain very close upon Ihe ground') or a Stative Absolute ('lying very close upon the ground'): Адгьыл иқзиааӡаны акәын ишцоз 'Sticking absolutely (- 3 a-) close to the ground was how it was going' 10Where the root is -ла-. 11Where аҽы = 'horse' and ахәа = 'ash(-coloured)'. l2The root is -аап>ш(ы)-. ^W here the rool is -ҧш(ы)-.
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Clcl'lcd questions meaning 'how?' follow Ihe same patlem as already illustrated above for defied questions o f time and place, viz. Ihe expected open vowel is missing from both the usual interrogative formant for 'how?' and the start o f the copula, and, if the verb is intransitive, ils subjecl-alTix may replace the impersonal subjecl-marker и- "il’ al ihc start o f the copular component, as in: Ишп>ыкз(ы)у ҳашзымцо? OR Ҳашҧыкә(ы)у ҳашзымцо? 'How is it (how/lhat) we can't go?' A point lo note in these last examples is lhal in terms o f linear ordering within the preradical verbal complex the potenlial affix follows ihe conjunctional element 'how' (jusl, o f course, as il would wilh an interrogative like Ҳашҧазымцо? 'How can we not go?')
Temporal expressions equating to 'as soon as' In order to produce an expression meaning 'as soon as' ihe intensifying particle -цәкьа 'just, precisely, right', encountered in an earlier example (cf. уажәыдәкьа 'right now'), is used in association with the expression described above meaning 'how, as, like'. I f the temporal reference is lo the pasL, the non-finite Pasi Indefinite is used; if reference is to ihe future, Ihe non-specific suffix -лак(ь) is combined with the nonfinite Aorist; the postpositional phrase) еип>ш 'like, as il' is oplional. The intensifer can be placed in one o f three spots: (a) al the end o f the non-finite verb-form, (b) immediately before the Pasl Indefinite's non-finite ending -з, (c) at Ihe end o f ihe postpositional phrase), as in: Дышцазцәкьа (еиҧш) = Дышцаҵәкьаз (еип>ш) = Дышцаз еидшцәкьа, иаыза дааит 'As soon as (s)he went, his friend came' Ишааилакцәкьа14 (еиҧш) = Ишааилак(ь) еиҧигцәкьа, ацаҧха рышәҭ! 'As soon as they gel here, give them the key (to a plurality)!' The intensifies perhaps unsurprisingly, may attach lo parallel non-finite forms containing the temporal prefix -ан(ы)- in place o f the manner-prefix -ш(ы)-; when reference is lo ihe pasl, il is ihe non-finite Aorist which is, o f course, employed. In these cases the postpositional phrase) еигьш 'like, as it' may be used, and, if it is, the inlcnsifer may attach itself to il, as in: Данцаиәкьа (еип>ш) = Данца еиҧцгцәкьа, иаыза дааит 'As soon as (s)hc went, his friend came' Ианааилакдәкьа (еиҧш) = Ишааилак(ь) еиҧшиәкьа, ацаҧха рышәҭ! 'As soon as they get here, give them the key (to a plurality)!' There are iwo alternative ways o f forming an expression equaling to 'as soon as', though neither is common, being rather restricted to the kind o f expressive conicxt l4When the non-specific suffix has adjoined to il a consonant-initial element, ils voiceless velar ejectivc has lo be plain and cannot be palatalised.
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where in English one would find the interjection 'lo!' (vi/.. story-telling). Both variants make use o f 'yes-по' qucslion-lbrmulion. Either the interrogative suffix -ма is used or, when temporal reference is lo the pasl, Ihe protasis-formant -зар (in the interrogative function which, as we saw earlier, il can carry) may also be employed, as in: У(ба)рҭ цама, аҽцза ашҭа иааҭал(еи)т 'As soon as they went, lo! the horsemen came into the yard!’ У(бр)и Акәака днеизар, ақалақь агәҭа ауаа рацәа ибеит 'As soon as he reached Sukhum, lo! he saw many people in the cenlrc (агәҭа) o f town! When either o f these last two strategies is employed, il is essential lhal the fundamentally inlerrogalive sequences prcccdc Ihe main clause (i.e. the one containing ihe finite verb).
Expressions equating to the temporal notion 'while' The suffix -нацы 15 'while' is attached lo the non-finile Present o f either Dynamic or Stalive verbs to produce the relevant expressions, e.g. А(б)рабтәанацы, быбжьы бмырган! 'While you-FEM are sitting here, don't raise a sound (literally: cause your voice lo resound)!' Уан слацәажәонацы, аӡәгьы дыанамлеит 'While I was speaking to your-MASC molher, no-onc entered (ааналара)'
Expressions equating to the temporal notion 'until' The suffix -аанӡа 'until' is attached lo the non-finile Aorist stem to produce Ihe relevant expression, as in: У(ба)с есыуаха икарцон а(ба)рҭ аишьцәа, уахык дара ааыџьагьы ааи^аҳаанӡа 'Every night (есыуаха) these brothers continued doing so until one night they both (ааыџьагьы) suddenly (aa-) came face to face with (аҿаҳара16) each other' As is to be cxpected, even if the suffix is preceded by -aa, merging still takes place, as il did in the preceding example where the rool ended in just the open vowel, e.g. Раб даанӡа, дара а(б)ра иказ(аа(и)т)! 'Let them/They are to remain here until their father comes ([a|aapa)!
Expressions equating to the temporal notion 'before' As in many languages, there is no formal difference between expressions translated into English as 'until' and those translated as 'before', as is exemplified in ihe following:
l5Th e root is -ii(bi)-. as in the verb lime)' below. 16Where the root is -ҳа-.
anpa 'pass (of time)’; cf. temporal expressions meaning 'since (of
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У(бр)и дызбаанӡа, ахәышәтәырҭа дҭыргеит 'Before I saw him/her, they took him/her out o f the hospital (ахәышәтәырҭа) 1 Акрыбфаанӡа, бнапы ӡәӡәа! 'Before you-FEM eal (anything/something = акры-), wash your hand(s)!' Sometimes where English combines the preposition 'before' with a simple noun, Abkhaz w ill literally say 'before NOUN happened', as in: Адыдра калаанӡа, аҧсҭҳәақәа еиқәаҵәахеит 'Before the storm (literally: Before thunder (адыдра) happened)', the clouds (аҧсҭҳәа) turned (-xa-) black ( 1а]аиқәацәа)' Аибашьра калаанӡа, аҭынчра ҳаман 'Before the war. we had peacc (аҭынчра)'
Expressions equating to the temporal notion 'since (the time)' The suffix lo construct such expressions is the compound -ижьҭеи17, which is attached to the non-finite form o f the appropriate tense, e.g. А(б)ра дыкоижьҭеи 18 аҧхьара даҿ(ы)уп 'Since (s)he has been here, (s)hc has been busy reading (lilerally: is in reading)', attached here to the non-finite Stalive Present У(бр)и лҳзоижьҭеи аымчыбжьа пуеит 'She's been saying lhat for two weeks (literally: two weeks are passing (аҵра) since she is saying that)', attached here to the non-finite Dynamic Present У(бр)а дтәеижьҭеи (?дтәазижьҭеи) лыбжьы лыргаӡом 'Since she sat down there, she hasn't uttered (literally: isn'l uttering) a sound', attached here preferably lo the non-finite Aorist Indicative, though the Past Indefinite seems also to be feasible А(б)ра шәынхозижьҭеи (а)кыр ҵуеит 'Quite a time has passed (literally: is passing) since you-PL used to live here', attached here lo ihe non-finite Imperfect Indicative If the activity in temporal expressions o f this type is one that might have reoccurred, the non-finite verb-form can optionally be negated, as in: Дызбахьеижьҭеи/Дзымбахьеижьҭеи, аышықәса дхьан T w o years had passed since I had seen him/her', attached here to the non-finite Perfect Ҳаибабеижьҭеи(?Ҳаибабазижьҭеи) (а)кыр цуам 'Not a long lime has passed (literally: is not passing) since we saw each other'
*7ll is likely thal the analysis would set up an original sequence of: -и.шьҭа.и, being two instantiations o f ihe co-ordinating clitic -и 'and' surrounding шьҭа 'now', the first instantiation o f Ihe co-ordinating clitic properly attaching to Ihe non-finite (nominalised) verb-phrase equating to whal in English is Ihe actual temporal clause. I 8 A s in some other sequences the expected -y- (дыкоуижьҭеи) is not writlen.
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Ҳаибабеижьҭеи/Ҳаибамбеижьҭеи (?Ҳаибабазижьҭеи/Ҳаибамбазижьҭеи) (а)кыр ҵуеит 'Quite a lime has passed (literally: is passing) since wc saw each olher' Ибзызаижьҭеи/Ибзызмыоижьҭеи (?Ибзызаызижьҭеи/Ибзызмыаызижьҭеи) п,ыҭк цуеит 'А litlle while has passed (literally: is passing) since I wrole lo youFEM’ The compound suffix here may be replaced by ihe free-standing аахыс, which is Ihe short form o f ihe Past Absolute o f the verb ахысра 'pass (-c-) over (-х(ы)-)' (wilh the hilher-orientation preverb aa-), and in fact the full form o f Ihe Past Absolute (аахысны19) is not totally excluded from standing in this construction, e.g. Дхәыҷыз аахыс(ны) дыхьчоуп 'Since childhood (s)he has been (literally: is) a shepherd', here associated wilh the non-finite Stalive Pasl У(бр)и дыздыр(ыз) аахыс(ны) акгьы ҵуам 'No time has passed since I got lo know him/her', here associated wilh either the non-finile Aorist Indicative or the Pasl Indefinite The non-finile verb-form can be marked by the protasis-formant in -зар attaching lo an appropriate non-finite base, e.g. A ( 6 )pa инхозар аахыс(ны) шьарда цуеит They have been living here for a long time (шьарда)'; here the protasis-form allaches lo the non-finile Present Indicative base У(бр)и аҷкәын а(б)ра дтзазар аахыс(ны) <а-сааҭк ҵуеит 'Thai boy has been sitting here for two hours’ (on the Stative reading) or T w o hours have passed since thal boy sal down here' (on the Dynamic reading); here two readings are possible depending on whether the base is assumed to be the non-finile Present o f the Staiivc form or whether it is the non-finile Aorist Indicative o f the Dynamic variant I f the suggestion is thal the actions being described are removed from the present context o f speech, then this can be indicated by replacing the hilher-orientation preverb aa- wilh ihe thilher-orienlation equivalent, namely на-, as in: Дхәыҷыз нахыс(ны) дыхьчан 'From childhood (s)he was a shepherd' У(бр)и дызбахьазар нахыс(ны) аышықәеа ҵхьан 'Two years had passed since I had seen him/her' As long as the action described in the temporal expression is nol ongoing at the lime o f speech, yel another suffixal marker is possible. This is инаркны, which is formally the Pasl Absolute o f ihc causative form o f the verb акра 'hold', giving a literal meaning 'having made it hold il', e.g.
'^There is no и-prefix. as the vcrb-forin's Column I prefix correlates with the nominaliscd, non-finite expression, which immediately prcccdcs il and thereby causes it to drop.
19ft
У(бр)и дызбахьаз/дызбахьазар инаркны аышықәса дхьан 'Two years had passed sincc I had seen him/her', where either the non-finite Pluperfect or a protasis-form based on the non-finite Perfect arc used У(бр)и аҷкәын а(б)ра дтәа(з)/дтәазар инаркны а-сааҭк ҵуеит T w o hours have passed since thal boy sat down 20 here' (O N LY the Dynamic reading is possible), where Ihc non-finile Aorisl Indicative or Past Indefinite or a protasis-form based on the non-finite Aorisl is used
Expressions equating to '(the reason) why' The preradical affix -з(ы)- 'why' stands in its appoinled slot within ihe non-finile form o f the appropriate tense, e.g. У(ба)рҭ зцо здыруада? 'Who knows why they are going?', where it attaches to the non-finile Present Indicative У(ба)рҭ a(6 )pa изыкоу здыруада? 'Who knows why they are here?', where it attaches lo Ihe non-finite Stalive Present У(ба)рҭ зцоз здыруада? 'Who knows why they were going?', where it attaches to the non-finile Imperfect Indicative У(ба)рҭ a(6 )pa изыказ здыруада? 'Who knows why they were here?’, where it attaches to the non-finite Stalive Pasl У(ба)рҭ зца(з) здыруада? 'Who knows why ihey went?', where it attaches lo either the non-finile Aorisl Indicative or the non-finite Pasl Indefinite У(ба)рҭ зцахьоу здыруада? 'Who knows why they have already gone?', where il attaches lo ihe non-finite Perfect У(бр)и ауп хышә-шықәса знаҳцуа 'Thai is (ihe reason) why we last/survive/live on (анцыра21) for 300 years' Иахьазоуп22 узысҭах(ы)у 'It is for loday why/that I want you-MASC' Актәи акласс аҿы азҵаарақәа врала рҭаккадара23 ауп/акә(ы)уп изызк(ы)у 'In the first class the provision o f wrillen (literally: by writing = apana) answers (аҭак) to questions (азҵаара) is what il's about’ (cf. А(б)ри иазк(ы)уп 'It's about this (literally: it is held for il)') In a clefted question meaning 'why?' Ihe copular component behaves as one would expect o f a WH-queslion on a non-human entity; there are two instantiations o f the fricative - 3 -, as the literal meaning is 'For what is it?', e.g. Иззакә(ы)уи дызцо? 'What is the reason why/that (s)he is going?'
20Though ihe slate o f being seated continues, the act o f sitting down was completed two hours ago. 2 'Where the root is again -ц(ы)-, but this time the verb is transitive. 22O r in a fuller form: Иахьазы ayn. 2,The notion 'answering' is here a compound literally meaning 'answer-making'. IQ 7
Questions or exclamations equating to 'What kind of? What a!' The interrogative (or exclamatory) adjectival element consists o f the sequence -закз(ытә); the appropriate Column 1 affix is prefixed, but, if that prefix is И-, il can be omitted, e.g. А(б)ри закә(ытә) ан(ы)уи/ан(ы)уз(е)и? 'What sort o f house is this?’ (И)закә(ытә) ҵк(ы)у ббанда(з) иаасхәаз! 'Would lhal you-FEM could see whal a dress il is that I've bought!' (И)закә(ытә) аны д(ы)уи/д(ы)ууз(е)и идыргылаз! 'What a large house they have built!' (И)закә(ытә) хшыадарои/хшыадароуз(е)н икауцаз! 'What stupidity (ахшыадара) you-MASC have commilled !1 Дзакә(ытә) уаа(ы) хзымгои/хзымгоуз(е)и! 'Whal an execrable (ахәымга) person (s)he is!' (И)закә(ытә) хәыҷ(ы) ҧшзақәои/ҧшзақзоуз(е)и ишзымоу! 'Whal beautiful children you-PL have!' Being based on inlcrrogatives o f Ihe 'what?'-lype, if transferred lo ihe pasl, the verb w ill have the expected variants, as seen in: Цзакә(ытә) уаа(ы) хәымгаз24/хаымгазыз/хәымгаззи! 'What an execrable person (s)he was!' (И)закә(ытә) хәыҷ(ы) ҧшзақәаз^/ҧшӡақәазыз/ҧшзақәаззи ишзымаз! 'Whal beautiful children you-PL had!'
How to say 'et cetera' The expression consists o f three elements, to wit: уҳәа убас егьырҭгьы, which, logic would demand, must be mean 'you-MASC-say like-thal Ihe-others-too!', the only peculiarity o f this being lhal, i f we have the Imperative wilh 2nd person masculine addressee, no affix for thal addressee should appear in the verb, as it is transitive. The second o f the ihree elements can be omitted, and, indeed, there are cases where Ihe first component is found standing alone in this sense. Here is an example: Аизара рхы аладырхәит апрезидент, аминистр хада, атәым усқәа ирхылапшуа аминистр уҳәа (убас)егьырҭгьы The President, the Prime (ахада) Minister, the Minister o f (literally: the one looking after (ахылаҧшра26)) Foreign (атәым) Affairs, etc... participated in (literally: made themselves participate in (алархәра)) the assembly (|а]аизара)'
24W ilh lengthened final vowel. 2-’ W ilh lengthened final vowel. 26Where ihe rool is -ҧш(ы)-.
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Akin lo ihe nolion o f 'clc...' is when Ihe speaker jusl cannot be bothered lo specify oilier actions in a scqucncc o f events, in which case English might say something akin lo 'and whal have you; and such like; and what not'. To convey this notion Abkhaz takes егьи 'other', treats it as a verbal root and suffixes to it whatever ending is appropriate lo the sequence o f actions in which il stands as final element, e.g. Раб дыҧсит. Иқәнага каданы дыржит, егьит T heir father died. Having done whal befitted him, they buried (ажра) him, and what have you', where the ending is that o f the Aorisl Indicalivc Даҽа ҧҳәыск даазгар, схәыҷқәа лмааӡар, егьир, ҳауацәа ирҳәои? 'If I marry another ((д)аҽа) woman, if she doesn't rear (|а|ааӡара27) my children, and whal have you, whal w ill our relatives (aya) say?', where the ending is thal o f a protasis in -p Аҭаацәараҿы аҭыӡшәақәа калцо, егьиуа далагеит 'She began creating squabbles (аҭызшәа) in ihe family (аҭаацәара), and what not', where the ending is lhal o f the non-finite Present Indicative Саныҧ,слак(ь), сыҧсхәы аныжә(ы)улак(ь), егьилак(ь) ашьҭахь, сыжәжыр28 кало(и)т 'After I die, you-PL conduct my wake (аҧсхәы), and whal not, you can bury me', where the ending is that o f an indefinite attached to the bare stem (= non-finile Aorist Indicative) Агәылшьап аҭыврит, ахы рҕьаны, асыс шкәакәа акьамашәышә афан, егьин The serpent (агәылшьап) suddenly (a-) emerged (sc. from ihe sea) (аҭыарра29), its head healed (lilerally; made whole = арҕьара), having eaten the rump (акьамашәышә) o f a white (ашкәакәа) lamb (асыс), and whal have you', (where, somewhat unusually, we have a Pasl Absolute and then two Past Indefinites placed after the main verb), and where ihe ending on the element of interest lo us is that o f ihc Past Indefinite Аҭып, бзырыҧшаауеит, егьиуеит They are going lo find (аҧшаара) you-FEM a place, and what have you', where ihe ending is that o f the Finite Present Indicative Text for translation w ilh associated questions Ҧхны мшык азы Шьыбжьонын. Амра иканарццеиуан. Дамшә абз ҭҳәаны, иҳаш-ҧышуа, аааршьҭра иҭаиан. Ҧсы зхоу акы ашҭа иқә(ы)убаауамызт. Ад(ы)унеи шабон. Алцхынрак қәа цәыкәбарк камшәацызт. Амхқәа еикәжәжәа ишьҭан. 27Where ihe root is -ааза-. 28Slrangely, also possible would be сьпиәжыр, wilh no voing o f the Column III agcnl-prcfix. 2<JWhere the rool is -с(ы)-.
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Адыроаҽны ианцзылаша, акармацыс бжьы хаапа ашәа аҳәо иалагеит. Ацгоы аены абарцаҿы иахьықәтәаз, ихырсысуан. Акармацыс иаҳәоз ашәа иара агәы иахәон. Азҵаарақәа: Амра иканацазеи? Ианбыкәыз амра ианканарццеиуаз? Дамшә абаказ? Ад(ы)унеи шҧаказ? Избан? Амхқәа ирыхьи? Акармаҵыс ашәаҳәара ианбалагеи? Ашәа шҧаҳәоз иара? Иабыкә(ы)у ацгәы ахьықәтәаз? Ацгәы ахьықәтәаз иканадозыз? Акармадыс иаҳәоз ашәа згәы иахәоз? Vocabulary ҧхны мшык
one summer's day
ацәыкәбар
drop
шьыбжьои
midday
акашәара
fall
make (the earth)
амхы
Held
акарццеира
heat up; give out blistering heat Дамшә
Fido
еикәжәжәа
all split and
аҭҳәара
shove out
ацәылашара
dawn
аҳаш-ҧышра
pant
акармаҵыс
nightingale
аааршьҭра
ditch, gutter
ацгәы
cat
аҭаиара
lie in
абарца
verandah
fractured
ақәбаара
see on
ахырсысра
snooze, doze
ашабара
dry up
агәахәара (сгәы
pleasure (il gives
иахәоит)
me pleasure)
Exercises Translate into English 1. Лаб а(б)ра дыканады, у(бр)и аӡҕаб акгьы дацәшәаӡом. 2 . Рани
раби Гагранто ихынҳәаанӡа, уаызцәа ирҭах(ы)у амашьына
зырзаамхәои/зырзаамхәоз(е)и? 3. Аибашьра аан дҭахеит иҷкәын зацә.
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4. Уаб иашьа дибахьазар нахыс, шакв/зака шықәса цхьазыз10? 5. Қәа цәыкобарк ҳамбеит/ҳамбаӡац а(б)ра ҳааижьҭеи. 6 . Уаҳәшьеи
сареи абазар аҿы ҳашеибабазцәкьа (еиҧш), ҳаибадырит.
7. Арцааы дан(ын)дәылцлакцәкьа (еиҧш), ацаацәа ацәажәара иалагон. 8.
Раб руада дыаналаанӡа, ахәыҷқәа ацәажәара иакәыцӡомызт.
9. Ш ака/Зака аамҭа цуеи Акәа шәаа(з) инаркны? 10. Аамҭа ҳамаӡам. А(б)ри акынтә ауп лассы-лассы ҳзеибамбо.
Translate into Abkhaz 1. Was it last year when you-FEM and I met (each other)? 2. After (my) mother finished sewing my dress, we went to Vova's (place). 3.1 can't understand why your-MASC parents do nol love the nightingale's sweet voice. 4. What tall sons my sister had! 5. The shepherds, having selected a sheep, killed it, skinned it, and whal have you, and rested. 6.
M y (male) friend's daughter cannot go to sleep unlil she sees her father every night.
7. While the guests are (engaged in) eating, it is impossible for the children to speak. 8.
As soon as they finish eating, you-PL must wash ihe plates.
9. After you-PL wash (have washed) the plates, you can play in the yard. 10.
I've forgotten where we used to eat before Ihe war.
-10Also possible is ихьдз. with interrogative lengthening o f the vowel.
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Lesson 15 In this lesson you will learn about: • Expressions o f Cause • Remaining Absolutes • How to say ‘as if, as though' • The construction for Direct Speech • How to make Indirect Statements • Noun-complemenl ( ‘that’-type) expressions
Expressions of Cause We have already examined expressions o f location involving the insertion o f the preradical affix -ахь(ы)- ‘where’ into a non-finite vcrb-form. This a ffix’s functions are nol, however, limited to such expressions. The equivalent o f an English causal clause is produced by optionally combining a nonfinite verb-form containing the above-mentioned preradical affix and standing in the appropriate tense wilh one o f the postpositional phrasc)s азы ‘ for (the reason of) il ’ or акынтә (variant акнытә) ‘ from it’ , e.g. Уахьсыц(ы)у (азы/акынтә) акгьы сацәшәом ‘Because you-MASC are with me, I fear nothing’ Ашәыр ахьҳамамыз (азы/акынтә) абазар ахь (/аџьармыкьахь) хдар акәын ‘Since we didn’ t have any fruit (ашәыр), we had lo go lo the market (абазар/аџьармыкьа)’ Ахьӡ ахьамамыз (азы/акынтә) алаф алзхуази иахыччози иара хьаасгьы иамамызт ‘It was not even troubled by those who were making fun o f (алаф алхра1) it and laughing at (ахыччара2) it because it had no name’ Аҵара бзианы иахьицоз (азы/акынтә) ауниверситет дҭалеит ‘Since he studied (literally: was studying) well, he got in to university’
1 СГ Алаф сылырхуеит ‘They are puking fun at me’. Where -хы- is the preverb.
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Лыхцәы еиқәапәаны иахьылшәхьоу (азы/акынтә) ҳара уажәы икақҵари?! ‘Sincc she has already paintcd/dycd (ашәра) her hair (ахцәы) black (аиқәа(ҵәа)), what should/can wc do now?!’ Sincc Abkhaz (and, indeed, North West Caucasian) equivalents to English subordinate clauses arc basically formed by means o f non-finite verbs, the examples just adduced no doubt reflect the original method o f expressing causation in the language. However, il is also possible to use simple finite verb-forms (minus the preradical affix signifying causation), bul, when this option is selected, one o f the two postpositional phrase)s must be used after the finite verb. And so, the above-examples can be alternatively expressed as follows: Усыц(ы)уп азы/акынтә акгьы сацәшәом ‘ Because you-MASC are wilh me, I fear nothing’ Ашәыр ҳамамызт азы/акынтә абазар ахь (/аџьармыкьахь) ҳцар акәын ‘ Since we didn’t have any fruit, wc had to go lo the market' Ахьз амамызт азы/акынтә алаф алзхуази иахыччози иара хьаасгьы иамамызт ‘Il was not even troubled by those who were making fun o f il and laughing at it' Аҵара бзианы иҵон азы/акынтә ауниверситет дҭалеит ‘ Since he studied (literally: was studying/used to study) well, he got in to university’ Лыхцәы еикәаиәаны илшәхьеит азы/акынтә хара уажәы икахиари?! ‘Since she has already painted/dyed her hair black, whal should/can wc do now?!’ I f the result o f a cause is beneficial, this can be indicated in a way parallel lo the English ‘ thanks to X /X ’s VERBing’ . The relevant indicator in Abkhaz is derived from абзоура ‘ initiative, service’, which can be analysed as абза ‘alive’ + aypa ‘do, make’ . For the first component, cf. Дыҧс(ы)у дыбзоу? ‘ Is (s)he dead or alive?’ To mark a beneficial cause, the compound in question either stands in the Instrumental case -бзоурала, or it is verbalised and stands in the Absolute o f the Stalive verb-form иабзоуроуп ‘ it is thanks lo it’ , namely иабзоураны ‘ thanks to it’ ; either o f the two relevant forms can then optionally replace the regular causal postpositional phrase)s when coupled wilh a non-finite verb-form containing the causal preradical affix, e.g.
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А(б)ри зыбзоурада? А(б)ри шәарт зегьы шәыбзоурала/ишәыбзоураны икалеит ‘Whom do wc have lo thank for this? This happened lhanks to/courlcsy of you all’ Apyaa фырхацарала иахьеибашьыз (абзоурала/иабзоураны) аиааира аагеит ‘Thanks lo Ihe soldiers having foughl/Because Ihe soldiers fought with heroism (афырхапара), we gained victory (аиааира)’ But ihc consequenccs o f a cause can be non-beneficial loo. This type o f causation can be indicated by use o f a derivative o f the verb ахкьара ‘ suffer from’ (literally -кьа - ‘ fall’ + -x- ‘ from the lop оГ), the basic verb being seen in such examples as: Дзыхкьазеи? Дзыхкьаз иаргьы издырӡом/издыруам'1 ‘What was the cause o f his(/her) suffering? Even he does not know the cause’ Capa исзеилкаауам изыхкьо...Азәи-азәи зеихыччарызеи ма изшьыцеибагарызеи? ‘ I can’ t understand the reason for it...W hy should they laugh at one another (азәи-азәи.. -еи-) or why should they envy (ашьыцгара4) one another (азәи-аӡәи.. -еиба-)?’ The relevant derivative is the Absolute иахкьаны, as in: Anapa бзианы иахьимҵоз (иахкьаны) ауниверситет дызҭамлеит ‘Since he did nol study (literally: was nol studying) well, he could nol get in to university’ An answer lo the question избан ‘ why?’ is likely to begin wilh избанзар or избанда or избан акәзар ‘ I f (the question is) why’ , e.g. Сан ддәыуо(и)т. Избан? Избанзар/Избанда/Избан акәзар, лашьа дыҧсит ‘ My mother is crying. Why? Because her brother has died’ Any one o f ihe expressions избанзар or избанда or избан акәзар can be used in a sequence as the equivalent of English ‘for the reason that...’ or ‘and the reason is/was...’, even where there is no specific question ‘why?’ , e.g. А(б)ри ашәарах хьӡыс иаман Хьӡыда, избанзар/избанда/избан акәзар, Анцәа хьыӡ амҭазакәа(н) адәы иқәидеит ‘This creature (ашәарах) had as a 3 A common alternative is издырам. 4 Where -шьыц- is the preverb o f Ihe transitive verb ашьыцгара. The preverb in Ihe preceding verb by itself can funclion us the root o f an intransitive verb meaning ‘ be envious’ (e.g. дшьыцуеит ‘ (s)he is envious’ ). An alternative then for ‘to be envious o f X ’ is to add lo this ihe prcverb -na- ‘ under’ lo give the bivalent intransitive verb апашьыцра in an example like: Уииамшьыцын ‘ Don’t be envious o f him (lo a male)!’ .
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name Nameless (Хьӡыда), for ihc reason thal God scl il upon ihc earth (адәы) without giving it any name’ In answer to a question where the interrogative verbs contains the preradical affix -3(bi)-‘ why?’ , jusl a normal expression o f cause (as described above) is likely lo form ihe answer, e.g. Дызцеи? Аамта имазамызт азы/акынтә = Аамҭа ахьимазамыз (азы/акынтә) ‘Why did (s)he go? Because he had no lime’
Remaining Absolutes The commonest o f the Absolutes are those already introduced, namely the Pasl Absolute o f Dynamic verbs and the single Absolute available to Stative verbs. However, Absolutes (formed wilh the suffix -ны) can be built on the non-finite Present Indicative (ending in -ya), the non-finile Future I (ending in -pa), and the non-finite Perfect (ending in -хьа), e.g. Саыза амшын ахь дцоны дызбеит ‘I saw my friend going lo the sea (амшын)’ , with Present Absolute Саыза амшын ахь дцахьаны дыказаап = дцахьазаап ‘ M y friend is apparently already gone = has apparently already gone to the sea’ , with Perfect Absolute Саыза ирласны даараны/дааираны дыкоуп ‘ My friend is due to come soon', with Future Absolute (N.B. lhal даараны implies arrival from some distance, whereas дааираны implies arrival from somewhere close by) The only one o f these three contexts which happily allows the Absolute to be negated is the second; the negated Perfect Absolute has the negative marker preceding the rool (as is normal for non-finite Dynamic forms), whilst the Perfect suffix -хьа- is replaced by the variant -Ц-, and the Absolute suffix -кәа(н) is attached, to give here: Саыза амшын ахь дымцацкәа(н) дыказаап = дымцацзаап/дымцахьазаап ‘My friend is apparently nol already gone = has apparently not already gone to the sea’ For those contexts where it is possible lo use them, the Present Absolute would have the form дымцоны, whilst thal o f ihe Future Absolute would be дмаараны/дмааираны.
Equivalent for clauses introduced by ‘as if, as though’ in English
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The suffix -шәа is added lo the non-finite form o f ihe appropriate tense, e.g. Бычмазао(ы)ушәа бышьҭал ‘ Lie down as if you-FEM are sick!’ Абжьааҧны ҽабаак акәызшәа иҟан ‘Al other limes (абжьааҧны), il was as if il was an old nag (аҽабаа)’ (from a folk-lalc where a horse can change shape) Лнапы акәыршаны илкит бзиа илбозшәа, дацәнымхошәа ‘ Having wrapped her arm around (акәыршара) it, she held on, as though she loved it [and] isn’t going to live (анхара) without (-цә-) it’ This suffix also figures in the expression for ‘pretend to VERB’ , e.g. Бычмазао(ы)ушәа бҽыкаҵа!’ ‘ Pretend lo be ill (to a woman) (literally: make yourself as though you are ill) !’ Дцәыуошәа, дыхәмаруашәа, дыҧсызшәа каҵаны ахәыцра далагеит ‘(S)hc, having pretended to be crying, to be playing, to have died, started to think (ахәыцра)’ Sometimes it is not easy to explain why this suffix is employed. Consider the next two examples: Дааласшәа днеит ‘(S)he went (there) with some speed’ , where the adjective at ihe root o f the (?adverbialised) verb-form is алас ‘light, nimble, speedy’ Даазшәа дыканда(з) = Даанда(з) ‘Would that (s)he would come!’, where Ihe suffix is attached lo Ihe non-finite Past Indefinite, which in tum is couplcd with the Optative o f the copula (literally: ‘would thal (s)he were as if (s)he had come’ ) Note the following alternative expression for ‘be as if/though’ , Сҽы дасит икамчала. Уи сара дсысыр иааызан ‘ He hit my horse wilh his whip (акамчы)6. It was as though he’d hit me’ , where the main verb in the second clause is the Stalive Past based on the noun ааыза ‘friend’, which can be used lo mean ‘like’ , as in а(б)ри ааыза сҭах(ы)уп ‘ I want one like this'
Direct Speech (Oratio recta) The original words spoken (or thought) are followed by ҳәа, which could be thought o f as the rool o f the verb ‘lo say’ (аҳәара), but from a functional perspective il is better
5 Also possible Tor this meaning are: Чмазасаыс бҽыҟаиа! (literally: ‘ make yourself as an ill person') = Ҽырчмазаа kana! (literally: ‘do a making yourself sick'). A I f there were no possessive prefix, Ihc Instrumental form would be камчыла ‘ with the/a whip'.
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to think o f Ihis spccch-particle as a reduced form o f ihc Pasl Absolute o f this verb, and thus meaning ‘having said (il)’ ; being transitive, it takes no ugcnt-affix; being preceded by its direct object (viz. the original words spoken or thought), it loses the affix иcorrclating with this object; and then the Absolute suffix is omitted, which occasionally happens with ordinary Absolute usage too, e.g. Илаба има(ны) дцеит ‘ He went with (having) his stick (алаба)’ It is normal for the quote to precede the introductory main verb, and, i f this main verb contains only a subjecl-affix, the specch-particlc is likely to be omitted, e.g. Аӡҕаб ацәа сакуеит (ҳәа) лхәеит ‘The girl said: “ I am feeling tired’” Азҕаб ацәа сакит ҳәа ҳалхәеит ‘The girl told us: “ I am tired’” I f the quote follows the introductory verb, then the speech-particle cannot be omitted, e.g. Аӡҕаб илҳәеит ацәа сакит хәа ‘The girl said: “ I am tired’” The specch-particle is also used with names of people as an equivalent to English ‘called’ , e.g. Дыкан Хьфаф Лашәриа ҳәа шәи аажәи жәааа шықәса з х ы ц у а з ҧсыуа ҧхәыск ‘There was a 132 year-old Abkhazian woman called Khjfaf Lasuria' In the nexl example the meaning is closer lo ‘so-called’ , because the brolhcrs-in-law in question are monsters (sc. in the folk-lalc concerned): Сымаҳәцәа ҳәа бызҿ(ы)у сырбар, сыршьраны иҟоуп ‘I f my so-called brothersin-law thal you-FEM are talking about (literally: in whom you are) see me, they are sure to k ill me’ In the next example, which is the original version o f one quoted above, the particle is an integral part o f the expression for ‘naming, calling’ : А(б)ри ашәарах здыруаз зегьы Хьӡыда қәа иашьҭан, избанзар/избанда/избан акәзар, Анцәа хьыӡ амҭазакәа(н) адәы иқәиҵеит ‘ Everyone who knew this creature (ашәарах) called it7 Nameless (Хьӡыда), for the reason that God set it upon the earth without giving it any name’ In the next example the speech-particle seems to be functioning as an equivalent to ‘as’ in English; in other words, il seems lo have here taken on predicative functions:
1 The Staiivc verb ашьҭазаара literally means ‘to be on the track of, to pursue’ , and so this expression for ‘calling X Y ’ is one o f Abkhaz's many colloquialisms.
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Аҧсуаа рпара-арлашаацәа р(ы)уазәк хоа ирыҧхьаӡоз уааын Ҷоҷуа ‘Ch'och’ ua was a man whom the Abkhazians considered (o be one o f their educalorcnlightcncrs (ацара-арлашао)’ In the next example ihe presence o f ihc specch-particle is associated wilh the price o f an object for sale: Зегь иреицәаз асыс азы зқьы маатк каа иеилаӡеит ‘They agreed (аилазара)" a price o f 1 ,0 0 0 roubles for the worst (аицәа) lamb (асыс)’ In the next example il is difficult lo decide exactly whal contribution the presence o f the spcech-parlicle makes: А(б)ри агазет иаҧхьашаз (ҳәа) аӡә дкамлеит ‘No-one appeared who could read this newspaper’ Илылшозар, изылм(ы)урыз/изылм(ы)ушаз (ҳәа) акгьы ыкамызт‘I f she was able, there was nothing which (?so to say) she would nol have done lo him’ As we shall sec, the speech-particle is encountered much more frequently lhan one might expect, because Abkhaz makes wide use o f the construction o f direct speech.
Indirect Statements (Oratio Obliqua) Though the construction for direct speech, examined above, is generally the preferred option, Abkhaz does have the possibility o f reporting speech indirectly. I f we transform into indirect speech the examples given above, wc shall see thal the preradical manneraffix is inserted into a non-finile complex with appropriate shift o f person and possibly tense, e.g. А^ҕаб ацәа дшакуаз лқәеит ‘The girl said lhal she was feeling lired’ (with a change o f finite Present to non-finile Imperfect) Азҕаб ацәа дшакыз ҳалқәеит ‘The girl told us thal she was tired’ (with a change o f finite Aorist lo non-finite Past Indefinite) Аӡҕаб илхәеит ацәа дшакыз ‘The girl said that she was tired’ (wilh a change of finite Aorisl to non-finile Past Indefinite)
K Where -3a- ix the root. Note, however, thal the speech-particle is nol always present when the price o f an object is given. СГ. жоамаатк иаҧсоу = зыҧсоу ашокәы ‘а 10-rouble book’, where аҧса = ‘ price’ .
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I f wc further note that this pattern is also found when the introductory verb is ‘ know’ , as in: Амла бшакуа здыруеит ‘ I know lhal you are feeling hungry', wc might be tempted to think thal all noun-clauses beginning with (he conjunction ‘that’ in English w ill be rendered into Abkhaz in this same way. But this is far from being the case, as wc shall now see.
Expressions equivalent to ‘that’-type complement-clauses (noun-clauses) in English Abkhaz has a number o f constructions equaling lo ‘that'-clauses in English: 1.
The construction o f direct speech is used with verbs where one would not
necessarily predict its presence, e.g. Аҧхәыс дцахьеит ҳәа схаҿы иааит ‘I recalled (literally: It came into my head) lhal the woman had gone (literally: has gone)' The next two examples illustrate two very common colloquialisms meaning ‘think’ . If one thinks o f the speech-particle as the equivalent to ‘ lhal’, Ihe first is literally ‘be (of the opinion) that...’, whilst the second is literally ‘X ’s heart brings (?lhe thought) that...’, egУ(ба)е заа иаауеит ҳәа сыкамызт ‘ I did nol think that they would come so early (заа)’ У(ба)с заа иаауеит х.әа сгәы иаанагомызт ‘ I did not think thal they would come so early’ where in both examples we have the tense (Present as Future) o f the original thought. Note, however, that we can swilch to the Imperfect (used in the sense o f the Conditional) (иаауан), which suggests that the speech-particle is being interpreted as an IndoEuropean-type conjunction, with which, o f course, one would expect a change o f tense after a pasl-lense verb. Cf. Ihe following example: Асасцәа ирласны иаауеит/иаауан хәа агәра дсы ргеит‘ I convinced (агәра аргара = literally: make X bring the hcartncss/belicf) them that ihe guests would come quickly’ Иоыза ааны дыҟамызт ҳәа мап икуеит ‘ He denies (literally: grips/holds/seizes ‘ no’ , saying his friend was not at home) that his friend was at home’
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Лкласс аҿы даакәымпзакәа(н) дцәажәоит хәа сашшуент ‘ I am complaining (ашшра) aboul (-a-) Ihc Tact lhal in class (s)hc talks inccssanlly (literally: without cessation)’ Иказҵарыда ҳәа сазхәыцуеит ‘ I am ihinking aboul (literally: for il) (азхәыцра) who should do il’ Some other verbs or expressions thal accommodate this construction as equivalence to an English ‘ thaf-clause are: агәы алазаара ‘regret (= X is in Y's heart)’ ; интересс амазаара ‘be inlercsled in (= have X as interest)’ ; аџьашьара ‘be amazed at (= find X amazing)4’ ; аилкаара ‘ understand’ ; арбара ‘shew (literally: make see)'; ашьак,әырҕә5 әара 'confirm (literally: cause -p- X to be firm -ҕәҕәа- on -қәы- ihe fool -шьа-)’ ; ашьақәыргылара ‘decide, affirm ’ ; азхьаҧшра ‘pay attention to’ 1"; ацәа алашәара Teel (literally: fall into the skin’); axapa ‘hear’ ; агьаҵамкра ‘be irrelevant, unimportant’ " ; axauapa ‘believe’ 12; аанагара ‘ mean’ 13; арҵара ‘leach’; аҧхьара ‘ read’ ; агәыҕра амазаара ‘(have the) hope’ ; ахаҿы аамгара ‘not to imagine X '. 2.
The second strategy for rendering English ‘ that’-complements into Abkhaz is
perhaps the commonest. Il places the preradical affix o f place ‘where’ -ахь(ы)- into the non-finite form o f the appropriate lense. Sometimes either the meaning ‘ where’ or ‘ that’ is possible, e.g. Ахьи аразни ирацәаны иахькаҧсаз ибе ит‘ He saw where/that the gold (ахьы) and silver (аразын) lay scaliered (акаҧсара) 14 in abundance’ Sometimes il is the meanings ‘that’ and ‘ because’ which arc difficult lo distinguish, as in: Акласс аҿы даакәымцӡакәа(н) дахьцәажәо (азы) сашшуеит ‘1 am complaining aboul the fact thai/because in class (s)he talks inccssanlly’ cf.
9 Where -шьа- is Ihe root o f this transitive verb. Where the root is -гьш-. Ihe preverb is -хьа-. and -з- is Ihe benclaclivc marker ‘ for’ . 11 Where Ihc root is - k- ‘ hold1, Ihe preverb is -na- ‘ under'. Ihe negative marker is -M-, and -агь- an element 10 be explained in a later lesson. 12 Where the rool is -ҵа-. This is essentially the verb ‘ fetch’ . As Ihc ‘Ihal'-clause equivalent is the subject, il is always represented in Ihc verb by Ihe agentivc affix -на-, which has thereby found ils way into the masdar. 14 Where the root is -ҧса-.
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Акласс аҿы даакәымизакәа(н) дахьцәажәо сазашшуеит ‘ I am complaining aboul ihc Tact that/because in class (s)he talks inccssanlly’ And similarly: А(ба)с дахьцәажәо (азы) сыҧхашьоит ‘ I feel ashamed (аҧхашьара) lhal/bccausc (s)he is talking like this' cf. A( 6 a)c дахьцәажәо сацәыҧхашьоит ‘ I feel ashamed thai/because (s)he is talking like this’ А(б)ра бахьыкоу а(б)ра анхара бзиа иббоит ҳәа аанагоит ‘That you-FEM are here means that you love living here’ (where we note lhal strategy 2 functions as the subject o f ihe verb, whilst strategy I functions to mark its direct object) Ахьыҧшымра ахьшәоуз шәыдысныхәалоит ‘I congratulate (адныхәалара) 15 you-PL that you have obtained/on obtaining independence (ахьыҧшымра)!’ У(бр)и у(ба)с ахьиҳәаз иашам ‘That he spoke like thal is not true/right (аиаша)’ Other verbs or verbal expressions which arc associated wilh Ihis type o f ‘lhat’-clause equivalent are: азхьаҧшра ‘ pay attention to’ ; акраҵакра ‘be important (literally: hold much under it)’ ; уамашәа аказаара ‘ be a surprise (ауама)’ ; азхара ‘ be enough (-xa-) for (-3-)’ ; аргәакра ‘(cause lo be) upset’ ; агәаҧхара ‘be pleasing to; like’ 16; аргәырҕьара ‘ make jo y fu l'17; агәра aprapa ‘convince X ’ ; аршанхара ‘cause X to be suфгised’ ; арӡәара ‘cause X to vomil’ ; интересс амазаара ‘ be interested in ’; агәы аҧжәара ‘anger (literally: tear (аҧжәара) 18 the heart)’ ; ахаразаара ‘ be the fault (-xapa-) o f ; аҧырхагара ‘hinder’ 19; ахәара ‘be helpful to’ ; иҭаб(ы)уп ‘ thanks for’ ; аџьашьара ‘ find amazing’20; аҵашьыцра ‘be envious o f the fact that’21; мап ацәкра ‘deny (literally: hold ‘no’ from)’ , as in: Дахьиҧоу мап ацәикуеит 'He denies lhal he is his son' 15 Where Ihe root is -ныҳәа-, -д(ы)- Ihe proverb, and -ла- the rool suffix. h Where the rool is -ҧха- ‘ warm’ . 17 Where ihe compound rool is -raupgba-. le Where ihe root is -жәа-. 19 Where the compound root o f this bivalent intransitive verb is -гҕырхага-. 20 Where the root o f this transitive verb is -шьа-. 21 Where Ihe compound root o f Ihis bivalent intransitive verb is -шьыц-, e.g. Ахцәы бзиа ахьлымоу саҵашьыцуеит ‘ I am envious оГ the fact lhat she has lovely hair (ахцәы)’ or Ахцаы бзиа ахьлымоу слыиашьыцусит ‘ I envy her for having lovely hair’ .
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3.
The Ihird strategy is Ihc construction introduced above to illustrate indirect speech.
A few more examples follow: Ҵыҧх а(б)ра шәшыказ схашҭит ‘ I forgot/It slipped my mind (ахашҭра )22 that you-PL were/had been here last year’ Ихымааҧгашьа дзыҧхьо шеиликаауа қнарбоит ‘His behaviour (ахымааҧгашьа) shews us that he understands what he reads' Свыза ажәлар дышрылагылаз гәасҭеит ‘ I noticed (агәатара) that my friend was standing among the people’ The expression for ‘convince’, already encountered, allows this construction lo mark ils object but only with the mediation o f the Instrumental postpositional phrase) ала ‘by it’ , as in: Асасцәа лассы ишаауаз ала агәра дсыргеит ‘ I convinced them that the guests would come soon’, cf. Capa ишызбо ала, Урыстәыла аамшьҭахь, ад(ы)унеи атәыла д(ы)уқәа Аҧсны хәыҷы рҭахзам ‘ According to how/As 1 see it/things, apart from (аамшьҭахь) Russia, the world’s large countries do not want little Abkhazia’ I f this construction is used to mark the object o f ‘read’, the mediation is achieved by means o f атәы, which can be thought o f as equating lo ‘about it’, though it more literally perhaps means ‘ that which relates to it’ , e.g. Асасцәа ирласны ишаауаз атәы саҧхьон ‘ I was reading that (?about how) the guests would comc quickly’ Other verbs or verbal expressions found in assocation with this third strategy include: ахаҿы ааира ‘recall X = X come’s into Y ’s head’ ; агәалашәара ‘remember X = X falls into Y ’ s heart’ ; аҳара ‘ hear’ ; абара ‘see’ ; ашьақәырҕәҕәара ‘confirm’ ; ацәа алашәара ‘ feel X = X falls into Y ’s skin’ ; ацәа анызаара ‘sense X = X is on Y ’s skin’ ; ахаҵара ‘believe’ ; aa pa ‘write’; ашьақәыргылара ‘dccidc’ ; apnapa ‘teach’; агәы аанагара ‘ think’ ; мап ацәкра ‘deny’ ; акәшәара ‘ realise = fall upon’11; and three further expressions requiring the mediation o f the postpositional phrase) ала ‘ by il’ :
22 Where Ihe rool o f Ihis bivalent intransitive verb is -шт(ы)-. 11 Where Ihc rool o f Ihis intransitive verb is -шаа-.
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агәыҕра амазаара ‘ have ihe hope’: ажәа атара ‘promise X lhal Y = give the word lo X thal Y '; мап акра ‘deny’ . 4. The fourth stralegy is a conflation o f I and 3 and consists o f a non-finite verb-form containing -ш(ы)- followed by the speech-particle ҳәа. This construction is possible in those contexts where constructions I and 3 are free-variants. However, x.aa seems only to accompany -ш(ы)- when the tense o f the embedded non-finite verb is that o f the (possibly putative) original statement/thought, e.g. Akaaka хшырышьҭуа (ҳәа) здыруан ‘I knew thal they would send (ашьҭра) us to Sukhum’ =Акәака ҳшырышьтуаз здыруан = Акәака ҳрышьҭуеит ҳәа здыруан The verb ‘threaten’ is another one we can illustrate here, viz. Уадәы ауал шәылахлуеит ҳәа иҳақәмакарит ‘They threatened (ақәмақарра)24 us that they would collect (алхра) the debt (ауал) from us the next day’ = Уаиәы ауал шшәылах.хуа ҳәа иҳақәмақарит 5. The fifth lype o f complement attaches the suffix -шәа 'as i f to the non-finite form o f the appropriate tense, and this is used to indicate the speaker's view o f the falsehood (or uncertainly) o f the relevant proposition, e.g. Шәжьара сҭах(ы)ушәа шәхаҿы иаажәымган ‘Don't gel (literally: bring) it into your-PL head = imagine25 that I want to deceive (ажьара) you’ Дцо(з)шәа анырба, дара илышьҭалеит ‘When they saw thal (s)he looked as if (s)he was aboul lo leave, they followed her’ 6 . There
are at least six verbs (predicates) with which another construction can be
used. The verbs arc: адырра 'know', аҳара 'hear1, абара 'see', агәалашәара 'remember', аҧхьара 'read', and афаы акра 'smell (=calch the smell (афаы))'. This 6 '" strategy employs the appropriate Absolute for the verb in question: the Present Absolute of Dynamic verbs can drop the ending -ны, leaving the Non-finite Present in its place26.
24 Where Ihe rool o f Ihis bivalent intransitive verb is -макар-. u Perhaps a belter expression would be шәгәы иаанамгаа(и)т, which is litcrully ‘ Lei your-PL heart nol bring il', with the Subjunctive. And, despite Ihc fact thal the subject o f this expression is the 3"1person singular ‘ heart’, the verb-form can even take the form o f u Prohibition (= negative Imperative), viz. иаанамган. 26 Sincc the Iwo forms I call Ihc Present Absolute and the Non-finile Present are regularly interchangeable, one might wonder whether il is nccessary to set up two different grammatical categories as opposed to operating with allomorphs o f just a single entily. However, the Present Absolute seems questionable as
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Wilh a non-pasl introductory verb, the Present Absolute can have present, future or impcrfective pasl reference, whilst the Pasl Absolute refers lo Ihe simple past, and the Perfect Absolute parallels the English Perfect: Ахаскьын ҧикон(ы) саҳауеит ‘ I hear that he is cutting/will cul/was culling (аҧкара) the grass (аҳаскьын)’ Аҳаскьын ҧиканы сахауеит ‘ I hear that he (has) cut27 the grass’ Аҳаскьын ҧикахьаны саҳауеит ‘I hear thal he has already cut the grass’ Аҳаскьын ҧикон(ы) саҳаит ‘ I heard that he was cutting/would cut the grass’ Аҳаскьын ҧиканы сахаит ‘ I heard that he had cut the grass’ Аҳаскьын ҧикахьаны сахаит ‘ I heard that he had already cut the grass’ Саыза дхацабзианы здыруеит ‘ I know thal2" my friend is a good man’ The non-finite form o f the appropriate tense is the only construction found wilh the verb 'suppose', e.g. Адауцәа ин(ы)урҵәаз рыфоы макьана ианыцхьоу џь(ы)ушьома? ‘Do you suppose (аџьшьара) that the stench o f the ogres (адауы) you slew (анҵәара) has as yet (макьана) left the house (ааныҵра)?’
Exercises Translate into English 1.X-аык абаандаацәа (prisoners) шеицәажәоз ибеит. 2. Ирласны ҳаибабо(и)т ҳәа агәыҕра сымоуп. 3. Лани лаби аӡҕаб адара бзианы иахьылымпо иазхьаҧшуам. 4. Ашьха зхы ыҵыҵуа аӡкәа ашьхаӡқәа хәа ирышьҭоуп. 5. Аҵара шыбзиаз анеилыркаа, шыкәысқәак рышьҭахь егьырҭ акыҭақәа рҿгьы ашколкәа аадыртит (=хы ртит). 6.
Шәара, уи аҽҵыс (foal) зы(б)лала изымбаз, ишәҳәар калоит, уара бзиа
иахь(ы)убаз акынтә ауп ус у(б)ла изабаз ҳәа.
complement Гог 'begin' and impossible in contcxls where Ihc non-finite Present indicates that one action is in progress at Ihc same lime as another: Акалгьадкәа (л)гьо у(бр)а дтәоуп 'She is silling there, knitting (аҧара) socks (акалгьад)’ 27 Note that there are iwo variants For Ihe negative Pasl Absolule here: (и)ҧимканы and (н)1ьимкакәа(н). 2B Note lhal one may optionally insert ihe speech-particle after Ihc Absolute here.
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7. У(бр)и азоуп сгәы изалсыз (pain ihc heart2’ ) слабашьа (slick) ахь(ы)уҿакәаз (nolch = аҿакәара). 8 . Ҿатахьас
(аҿатахьа ‘vow’ ) икалдеит хаҵа сшымцара ҳәа
9. Уинахыс-аахыс (ever sincc then) Сасран дсыцымхраац/дысмыцхраац. Аха сара даара сгәы налоуп қахьзеилибамкааз. 10. Сгәыроа (sorrow) уахьаго акәзам уахь узсыҧхьо (invite'").
Translate into Abkhaz 1. Because ihe girl did not know the answer, she did nol stand up. 2. Thank you-FEM for ringing. Because I don’t have time today, I hope I shall see you in Sukhum on Monday al 6 o’clock. 3. I f you-MASC p r e te n d to be F e a d in g this book when your parents come home, they w ill not send you to Sukhum. 4. Whal does this mean? I don’ t know, but I think the world w ill soon understand what has happened this year in Abkhazia. 5. Your-FEM mother is interested in why we did not eat anything last night. 6.
Do you-MASC suppose lhat your (male) teacher did everything for you?
7. Why did they deny that they had eaten the apples before Ihc guests arrived? 8 . The
reason why they did nol go lo Ihe sea was because they bccame sick.
9. Our guest was sitting in the yard as if she couldn’ t understand anything. 10. Thanks to the fact that our country now has independence, it should soon bccome rich.
Translate into English
Ацгәи Аҳәынаҧкәеи Ацгәы аҳәынаҧқәа ыкәнахуа иалагеит. Есымша аки-абеи анамфо ыкамызт. Ҽнак ахәынаҧқәа еизан, ацгәы ҳазлацәынхарызеи х,әа еидашшыло иалагеит.
59 The expression сгәы иалсит ‘ it has pained my heart' is Ihc standard way o f giving one's condolenccs upon meeting a relative o f a deceased. 30 Bivalent intransitive, just like ils homonym meaning 'read'.
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-И с х ә о шәаҳауоу - ахәан, ҳәынаҧ хәычык аҳәынаҧқәа рыгәҭаны иаақәҧал(еи)т. - Ацгәы анаҳзааиуа ахьаҳзымдыруа азоуп хзықәнахуа. Ацгәы ахәда аҵәҵәа ахахпап. Ҳара ҳахь аҿанаанахалакь, апәдәа абжьы хахалап31, нас ҳааны ҳцалап. Аҳәынаҧ хәыҷы иахәаз зегьы ақәшаҳаҭхеит. Амала, ацгәы ахәда адәдәа ахаҵара уара иудахҵоит ҳәа анархәа зегьы, ақәынаҧ хәыҷы иацәымыҕхеит.
Vocabulary ақәхра
destroy, annihilate
адәҵәа
bell
[а]аизара
come together
акәшаҳаҭхара
agree on
ацәынхара
survive X, be rid o f
амала
except that
адцара
assign a duty lo
ацәымыҕхара
come lo hate or
X, live free from X адашшылара
express condolence or sorrow to
ақәҧалара
jump forward
dislike ахәда
neck
31 Where the suffix -ла- here and in the following verb indicates iterative aspect (viz. repetition o f the verbal action).
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Lesson 16
In this lesson you will learn about: • Expressions o f Fear • The formation o f the Purposive converb • The Purposive converb (in the role o f Complement) • The Purposive converb (to express an Indirect Command) • The Purposive converb (to express a Purpose) • Other expression o f Purpose • How to say ‘almost’ • How to express Results • The temporal expression ‘ being on the point of...’
Expressions of Fear One type o f ‘lhal'-clause in English was not examined in Lesson IS. This was the type o f ‘lhat’-clause which in English expresses the object o f the verb ‘ fear’ . There are live corresponding constructions in Abkhaz, all o f them characterised by the presence o f the speech-particle ҳәа. The five variants are: (i) appropriate protasis-form; (ii) appropriate Finite tense; (iii) the 'agitated' interrogative o f the relevant tense (this being the Future I for a fear relating to future time), which is formed by adding the suffix -шь to either o f the interrogative suffixes (-ма or -y)1; (iv) the negated Optative; (v) the negated Subjunctive. To illustrate these respective possibilities let us take the sentences ‘I am/was afraid that (s)he will/would fall’ : Дкаҳар хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон Дкаҳауеит хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон Дкахарымашь/Дкахар(ы)ушь хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон Дкамҳанда(з) хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон
1 For an example ol the agitated question-formanl outside ihis construction (albeit following an example o f a fearing expression) cf. Уифар хәа сшаоит...сифа'пәкьар(ы)ушь = сифаизкьарымашь?! T m afraid he’ ll eat youM ASC ...W ill he R EALLY (-шь-) indeed (-ҵәкьа-) |eat me|?!’ Иахзарызсишь?!’ ‘What on earth is it lo say?!’
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Дкамхааит қәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон СГ. some icxl-bascd examples: Кәакәыра ашьаанӡа амч алшәшәар хәа ахы иацәшәо иалагеит ‘Il began lo Гсаг Гог ilself (thinking) lhal its strength might fail (алшәшәара)? it before il killed [the crcalurcl K w ’akw’yra’ Аҧслымӡра ҿыхар ҳәа ишәозшәа акәын ацәқәырҧақәа акәара ишнылатәоз ‘The waves (ацәқәырҧа) were settling on (алатәара) the beach (акәара) as if they feared thal ihe sandy area (аҧслымзра) would wake up (аҿыхара)’ У(ба)рҭ, ахәыҷы дшәар ҳәа ишәаны, лымаа дырлашон ‘They, fearing that the child would be frightened, lit up (literally: made light = арлашара) her path' If what is feared is negated, then only the first three options seem to be permitted. So thal for the meaning ‘ I am/was afraid thal (s)he will/would not come’ we have the three variants: Дмаар хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон Даауам хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон Дмаарымашь/Дмаар(ы)ушь хәа сшәо(и)т/сшәон An example taken from a text is the following: Илызҧымҽыр ҳәа дшәон ‘She (or He) was afraid that she would nol be able lo break (аҧҽра) it/them’ On the reading wilh ‘She' as subject o f the verb o f fearing and agent o f the lower verb, whal the subject actually thought here was ‘(What?) if I can’t break it/them’ , and yet the protasis-form here contains no 1“ person pronominal affix. The change o f person from Г to 3"1 person demonstrates that at some level o f analysis the speech-particle has changed its function to that o f an Indo-European-type subordinating conjunction. However, the Г' person o f the original thought is perfectly acceptable, as shewn by: Исызҧымҽыр ҳәа дшәон ‘She/He was afraid that (s)he would not be able to break il/lhem’ With the above-variants for the object o f ‘ fear’ compare the construction wilh the expression for 'have (it as) a suspicion/suspect' (гәыаарас амазаара): Амц ихәар хәа гәыаарас исымоуп ‘ I suspect that he w ill (tell a) lie (амц)’ 2 Where -шәшәа- is Ihe root and -л(ы)- Ihe preverb.
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Амц иҳәозар ҳәа гәыаарас исымоуп 'I suspcct lhal he is lying/was lying/is going lo lie' Амц иҳәазар х.әа гәыаарас исымоуп ‘I suspcct that he lied’
Purposives as Complements Abkhaz has two forms which, given their functions, may be styled Purposives. For Dynamic verbs, one ends in -рц (dialcclal variant -рацы), whilst the other ends in разы; for Statives the endings are -за(а)рц and -за(а)разы, respectively. One can analyse these forms as being produced by the addition o f the suffixes -ц and -азы (clearly the postpositional phrase meaning ‘ for it’ ) to the non-finite Future I forms respectively in their full variants o f -p(a) and -за(а)р(а), recalling that Statives can form the full range o f lenses available to Dynamic verbs once the suffix -заа has been added to Iheir roots. The long vowel in the Stative suffixes is more normally reduced lo a short open vowel, whilst the standard form in -рц w ill be a later development from the now dialcclal variant in
-рацы.
As the complement o f the verb ‘try’ represents the aim, goal or purpose o f the subject o f the verb, il is, thus, natural to find these forms representing this complement, e.g. Capa зегьы (и)бзианы икасҵарц сҽазыскуеит ‘ I try (аҽазкра) lo do everything w ell’ Хьзыда иагьараан уи амаҭ иажәыларц аҽазнакхьан, аха акгьы шалымшо адыруан азы аҽааннакылон ‘Nameless [a creature! 1 had already tried several limes (иагьараан)3 to attack (ажәылара )4 that snake, but he kept restraining (аанкылара )5 himself because he knew he could do nothing (= nothing was possible for him)’ Since the verb for ‘try’ аҽазкра (literally: ‘hold oneself for it’) contains the sequence азы ‘ for it’ as part o f its essential makeup, use o f the alternative form o f the Purposive to mark ils complement is judged to infelicitous. But, as in English, the verbal noun is perfectly possible (and here, indeed, preferable), e.g.
1 Also written егьараан. 4 Also possible lor this bivalent intransitive verb is the masdar ажәлара, which would lead to the form in ihc example reading иажәларц. 5 Where -кы- is the root, -аан- Ihe preverb, and -ла- the root-extension.
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Capa зегьы ибзианы акадара сҽазыскуеит ‘ I iry/sct oul to do everything well’ For this verb, however, there is a difference in comparison wilh English usage. In English the subjccls o f the main verb ‘try’ and o f ils complement must be identical, but this docs nol apply in Abkhaz, as illustrated by the following: Capa сақәшьа зегьы (и)бзианы икалҵарц сҽазыскуеит ‘I try [to see to il] that my sister does everything w ell’ Another verbal expression where the Purposive in -рц fulfils the role o f complement is -гәы аҭазаара ‘ intend’ (literally: ‘be in X ’s heart’), e.g. Ашәыр аасхәарц сгәы иҭоуп/иҭан ‘ I intend/intended (literally: it is/was in my heart) lo buy fruit ’6 Another verbal expression where the Purposive in -рц fulfils the role o f complement is -гәы аҭакра ‘make up one’ s mind to’ (literally: hold il in X ’s heart), e.g. Лгәы иҭалкит у(бр)и аӡҕаб хиамаа дақәылмыршәарц ‘She [a witch) made up her mind not to let thal girl light upon (ақәыршәара) any ready path (ахиамаа) [sc. through life ] ’7 Another verb where the Purposive (especially the variant in -рц) fulfils the role of complement is азб(а)ра ‘decide’ , as in: Илызб(е)ит а(б)ра днышьтаҵаны акәыбырқәа дырҿалҵарц/дырҿалҵаразы ‘She decided to lay him/her [the child] down here and feed him/her to the mosquitoes (акәыбры)’ Исыцхраарц (/?Исыцхрааразы) рызб(е)ит ‘They decided to help me’" Сасран дсыцхрааҵәҟьарц (/?дсыцхраацәкьаразы) иӡбызаап ‘Sasran evidently decided really to help me’ An alternative to the Purposive with the verb ‘decide’ is the Future Absolute, as in: Исыцхраараны рызб(е)ит ‘They decided lo help me’
* Also possible lo mark Ihc complement is the masdar |а|аахәара ‘to buy (it)'. Also possible is Ihc masdar лакәмыршәара, where we nolc Ihc presence o f two Column II pronominal prefixes. 8 Although il is not recommended, the postpositional phrase ‘ lor it’ may added after Ihe first variant o f the Purposive, but nolc Ihc subtle change in Ihc main verb: Исыцхраарц азы ирызб(е)ит.
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Now that ihc Purposive has been introduced, it is possible to nolc thal Ihc variant in -pu can also serve lo mark the complement o f ihe verbs meaning ‘ want’ , whose other complemcnl-types were discussed in an earlier lesson, e.g. Сиса иашьа иахь дцарц иҭаххеит ‘Sisa conceived a desire (аҭаххара) lo visit (= go lo) his brother’1' Икалаз еилнакаарц аҭахын ашәарах ҟәыбҷа хәыҷы ‘The little, punctilious (акәыбҷа) creature warned to understand what happened’ And the Purposive in -рц can also appear as complement wilh the main verbs акалара ‘become’ and aypa ‘do’ used impersonally in the sense o f ‘ it is possible, e.g. Амшын аҵан акәзааит, абаа ааныҵка акәзааит, сара исымбарц, исымҧшаарц зыкала^ом ‘Be it/lhey at (-н) the bottom (ana) o f the sea, be it/they within (-аныцка) a fortress (абаа), il is impossible for me not to see it/them, for me nol to find il/them’ Since it is one’s goal to carry out a verbal action when one begins it, il is perhaps nol surprising thal the Purposives can function lo mark the complement o f the verb ‘begin’ , as in: Аҷын аидҳәала ҧырҵәарц/ҧырҵәаразы иалагеит ‘They began to snap (аҧшәара) the osier (ачын) bunch(es) (аидхәала)’ Аҽҵыс зтәыз аҧшәма изсырхынҳәырц/изсырхынҳәразы салагеит, аха имгеит i started/set out to return (literally: make it return10 to him) the foal to the owner lo whom il belonged, but he did not lake il’ And to complete the picture for constructions allowed wilh the verb 'begin1, we have to note the following possibility o f employing oratio recta as a variant for the last bul one example: Аҷын аидҳәала ҧаҳҵәо(и)т хәа иалагеит (literally: ‘They began saying: “ We’ ll snap the osier-bunches’” )
9 ОГ coursc, also possible here as complcmcnt-conslructions arc ihc masdar (ацара) and protasis-form (дцар), just as the main transitive Dynumic verb can be replaced by ils intransitive Slative (more commonly used) Гогт итахын ‘ he wanted (il)'. 10 Causative o f ахынхәра ‘return', where the negated Aorist ‘ it/they did not return' demonstrates lhat the root is -xs-, whilst -хын-/-хны- is the preverb.
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Лзхара анафа, ашәындыкора сҭыҵусит хәа иалагеит, аха изҭымҵит ‘When il had ealen its fill (азхара)". il [Ihc mouse] started/set out to gel out o f Ihc trunk (ашәындыкәра), but il couldn'l (gel out o f it)’
Purposives as Equivalents to Indirect Commands The Purposives arc used wilh main verbs like аҳәара ‘ask, request' lo mark an indirect command, and, in Ihe case o f Ihc variant in -рц, il is possible to add the postpositional phrase азы ‘ for it’, e.g. Бсыцхраарц (азы) /Бсыцхрааразы сбыхәо(и)т ‘1 am asking you-FEM to help me’ Саанӡа а(б)ра бтәазарц (азы) /бтәазааразы сбыхәо(и)т ‘ I am asking you-FEM lo remain seated here till I come’ Ахьӡ уиҭарц (азы) / уитаразы сузиацәажәап ‘On your-MASC behalf ihen I’ ll talk lo him (requesting) that he give you a name' O f coursc, the option o f employing direct spccch is always available, as seen in: Шәы(б)лак,әа хышәт ҳәа р ы д н а ц е и т ‘ It commanded them lo open their eyes (lilcrally: Open (ахтра) your eyes, saying)’
Purposives as Equivalents to Adverbial Clauses of Purpose Naturally, both the Purposive allomorphs are used lo express what in English would be adverbial clauscs o f purpose, and they are seen standing alongside each other in the following example: Дух,әоит аӡбцәа ухшыа нарылаҵаны, аус урласырц (азы), акаба зықәнаго дыдурбаразы ‘(S)he urges you-MASC, having lent your intelligence (ахшыо) to Ihe judges (аӡбвы), to shew ihem who is deserving o f the shirt (акаба), in order lhal you hurry along (арласра) the case' Since both allomorphs o f the Purposive function to mark complements and expressions o f purpose, the variants can be switched and the meaning w ill remain the same, for the context determines thal the earlier Purposive must be the marker o f the actual purpose; if, however, the endings are switched in this way, no insertion o f the postpositional 11 The root o f ihis bivalent intransitive verb is -xa-. Cf. Исызхо(и)т ‘ It’s enough for me'.
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phrase ‘ for it’ is, o f coursc, permitted in the purposc-cxprcssion itself. Here is another example containing both an indirect command and an expression o f purpose: Азтас уалс иакәырҵеит рба зфаз аҧсыӡ иаҧшааразы, амгәа(кынтә) рба ҭнагарц (азы) ‘They placed it on the kingfisher (аӡҭас) as a debt (ауал) to find (аҧшаара) the fish Lhal had eaten their cloth (аба) in order that it might remove (аҭгара) their cloth from 12 its belly (амгәа)’ Идәықәлеит џьара иафаша акы аҧшаарц (азы )/ аҧшааразы ‘ It set out in order to find something somewhere (џьара) which it could eat’ Усфарц а(зо)уп узыскыз ‘The reason I caught you-MASC is in order that I might eat you!’ Уҧсра снапаҿы икалараз(ы )аума арака узысҧыла?‘ Is it in order that yourMASC death should happen in my hand why/that you met (аҧылара) me here?’ Аҧсгьы ааитанакырц/ааитанакразы, акгьы инацхари/инацҳаразы џьара илатәеит ‘They sat down (-ла-) somewhere both to take a short rest (аҧсы ааиҭакра) and lo grab a bite (анацҳара) 11 o f something’ 14
Other Ways of Expressing Purpose I f the goal o f the main verbal activity consists o f a simple action that can be captured by the masdar, then the masdar is used without any article. And, when the masdar serves to stale a purpose, the speech-particle may optionally be added after it, e.g. Аҧсны аҳауа заыдоуп. Есышыкәса ҧсшьара (ҳәа) иатаауа рхыҧхьазара рацәоуп ‘The air (аҳауа) o f Abkhazia is healthy (азаыда). Every year the number (ахыҧхьаӡара) o f those who come to visit (аҭаара)" il to rcsl (аҧсшьара) 16 is large’ Саб аӡиахь ҧсыӡкра (ҳәа) дцо(и)т ‘ My father is going to the lake (аӡиа) to fish (аҧсызкра)17’
12 Note thal the force o f the preverb -т(ы)- ‘ from within’ can be reinforced (however (autologous this might be) by the postposition -кынтз 'from '. 13 This is a bivalent intransitive verb with preverb -на-; without preverb the bivalent intransitive verb ацҳара means ‘bite'. 14 For stylistic reasons, the postpositional phrase ‘ for it’ seems to be unacceptable with the (irst variant o f the Purposive. 15 Where -aa- is Ihc root and -xa- the preverb. 16 For example ‘ I am resting’ would be: Сьиҕсы сшьо(и)т.
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Адәахьы дцеит хәмарра (ҳза) ‘ (S)hc wcnl oulsidc (адәахьы) lo piny’ Абнахь срышьҭиг ҵыцындра-кәшәара (хәа) ‘They sent me lo ihc forest to pick (акәшәара) strawberries (аҵыҵындра)’ Another conslruclion thal can appear in order lo express a purpose is lo combine a protasis-form wilh future meaning with the speech-particle. This is reminiscent o f the English ‘ i f by chance’ or ihe Lalin ‘ si forlc’ constructions, e.g. У(бр)и нахыс ауп амҕ адунеи ианықәла, рба зго ма изырхәазо аӡәыр дызбозар ҳәа ‘ It was after that thal thistles (амҕ) spread over (акәлара) Ihc globe in order that/if by chance I might see anyone taking or dragging (literally: causing to creep = арқәазара) their cloth’ Сзааз џьара цхыраарак кауҵозар ҳәа акәын ‘The reason I came was in order/in the hope ihai/if by chance you would somehow (иьара) offer a helping hand’ Note Ihe possibility o f employing this conslruclion to mark the complement o f ‘try’, as in: Ауниверситет дызталозар хәа иҽазикит ‘ He tried to see i f he could gel in to university’ We know thal the suffix -тәы when added to a verbal root produces a form meaning ‘ lhat which is to be VERBed’ . I f Ihis form is placed in the Adverbial case (in -c), it can function as indicator o f purpose, as in: (Ь-шәкәык а(б)ри ашықәс алгамтанза атәыс исымоуп ‘I have two books to write (= as something to be written) before the end (алгамҭа) o f this year' Aye рацәа катцатәыс ирымоуп ‘They have a lot o f work to do’
How to say ‘almost’ The verb arxapa ‘become lacking to’ , wilh ҧсык, clearly indicating something small or some small unit, as its subjccl, stands as main verb in combination wilh ihe Purposive o f the lexical verb; the indirect object o f the main verb is coreferenlial wilh the subject o f the Purposive, e.g. Ҧсык сыгҳеит сыҧсырц ‘I almost died’ Ҧсык лыгхеит дкахарц ‘She almost fell’ 17 Made up o f аҧсыз ‘ fish' + verbal rool -к(ы)- 'calch'.
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Result We have already met the morphological form 1call the Rcsultativc (marked by -ртә, or -ратәы dialectally) in our discussions o f the causative construction. It w ill come as no surprise that the form also has a role to play in marking Ihe Abkhaz equivalent to English clauses o f result. Positive results which actually take place arc conveyed by the Resullalivc, preferably followed by the postpositional phrase еиҧш ‘like it’ ; negative results may additionally be signalled by either the non-finite Present or, though perhaps less satisfactorily, the Present Absolute, optionally with the aforementioned postpositional phrase, e.g. Мышк ала амхы цәаҕәаны далгартә еиҧш (у(ба)с) иҕәҕәаны аус иуит ‘He worked (so) (у(ба)с) hard with Ihe result that he finished ploughing (ацәа5 әара) the field in one day’ Асаба излыхыз узымдыруа(ны)/узымдырыртә (еиҧш) иканадеит ‘The dust (асаба) made them such that you-MASC/one could nol know o f what they were made (= from what they derived)’ In the case o f potential (as opposed lo actual) results, all variants are possible (with occasional queries regarding the non-finite Present), as in: Ахьҭа изычхауа(ны)/изыч\артә/ичҳартә (еиҧш) дыкоуп ‘He is such as to be able lo bear (ачх.ара) the cold (ахьҭа)’ Иааџьоушьартә/Иааџьоушьо (еиҧш) иҟан иабо, иахауа рызҿлымхараҿы, рытиаараҿы ‘ In shewing interest in (азҿлымҳара)'\ and investigating (аҭҵаара), the things il sees [and] hears it was something al which you-MASC/one would marvel (аџьашьара)’ Just as the Resultative can fulfil the role o f complement to the copula, unsurprisingly il can also mark the complement to the related verb ‘ become’ , as indeed can the aforementioned variants, e.g. Сылбо(ны), слаҳауа(ны) (еиҧш) дкалозар збап ‘ I shall see whether she is going lo become the son lo look after (and) to listen to me (literally: see, hear me)’
IS As a verb, this is Stative. Consider the Imperative seen in: Ахәычқоа урызҿлымҳаз! ‘ Pay attention lo Ihc children (addressed to a man)!'.
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or Сылбартә, слақартә (еиҧш) дкалозар збап The expression for ‘ be prcgnanl’ contains a negative, being literally ‘X ’s skin/bone docs nol belong lo her’ , where ‘belong lo ’ is a Stalive verb. When this vcrb-phrasc is the complement o f ‘ become’ , it is the negative Absolute thal wc find alongside the optional postpositional phrase for ‘ like i l ’, as in: Лцәалтәымкәа(н) (= Л(ы)баалтәымкәа(н)) (еиҧш) дкалеит ‘She became pregnant’ СГ. (Ьажәа шықәса хшаа/хшара димазамкәа(н) (еиҧш) дыкан ‘For 20 years he was without offspring (ахшаа/ахшара)' The next example has a Dynamic verb as part o f the complement; the negated Past Absolute required here can take either Ihe normal Absolute ending -ны or the one more usually found when the such an Absolute is negated, namely -кәа(н): Уаа дбымбаны/дбымбакәа(н) (еиҧш) каларымызт ‘ It would have been impossible for you-FEM not lo sec/have seen anyone’ ” The Resullative, Present Absolute or Non-finite Present may stand with the postpositional phrase ак(н)ынӡа ‘as far as it’ lo convey Ihc meaning ‘upto such a point that...’, as in the next example, where the text has the Present Absolute in the first such expression, but the Resullative in the second; I have added the ending o f the Absolute lo indicate that this item is also possible, and, o f course, any combination o f the three possibilities is feasible: Ишҧамҵә(ы)уарыз, угәра рымго(ны) ак(н)ынӡа аҧсҭазаара неизар? Абарҭқәа зегьы иара ахаҭагьы ахы агәы ахшәартә ак(н)ынӡа инаргеит ‘ How should it not have cried, i f life (аҧсҭазаара) had reached such a point thal they don’t believe you-MASC? A ll o f these things took il lo the point lhal even ilself it felt disappointment in itself (literally: its heart fell o ff its head/self3")’
19 Note that the subject оГ Ihc Absolute can be ‘ raised’ to stand ajso as Ihe subject оГ the main verb, giving: бкаларымызт. 20 Схы сгәы ахшзо(и)т ‘ I feel disappointment in m yself, where the verb’s rool ‘ fall’ is -шәа-, and х(ы)- is Ihc prcverb meaning ’o ff the top’.
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From the same text comes the following: Агәы у(бр)иакара еилашуан, аҧсыҧ алага-аагарагьы ацәыхьантахо(ны)/ацәыхьанҭахартә ак(н)ынза ‘ Its heart was so seething (аилашра)21 to the point o f even breathing (аҧсыҧ алага-аагара)22 becoming laborious (ахьанҭахара) for (-цә(ы) - ) 21 it’ The verb 'hinder1 lakes just the Masdar as its objccl, i f the verbal action being prevented is o f simple structure, e.g. У(бр)ахь сцара еиҵаркьеит ‘They hindered/prevented (аиҵакьара)24 my going there’ whereas, for complements thal are more complex internally, one can use the negated Rcsultativc (plus ils usual partner, the postpositional phrase 'like it') or either form o f Ihc Purposive wilh an expanded predicate, such that, for example, 'He hindered their sending me there/prevented ihcm from sending me there' literally comes out as 'He hindered my business such thal they did NOT send me there', viz. У(бр)ахь сырмышьҭыртә еиҧш eye еиҵеикьеит = У(бр)ахь сырмышьҭырц сус еидеикьеит = У(бр)ахь сырмышьҭразы сус еидеикьеит Some further illustrations for the Resultative are the following: Аџьма иаӡбаз, икаҵатә(ы)у, ишыкаҵатә(ы)у зегьы ҽеишәа (и)еилыркаартә (енҧш) иранаҳәеит ‘The goat told them whal it had decided, what was (is) lo be done, how it was (is) to be done so lhal they understood it all right well (ҽеишәа)’ У(бр)и у(ба)с агәра днаргеит иақәшақаҭхартә (еиҧш) ‘ It so convinced them lhal they agreed (to it)25’
21 The rool is -ш(ы)- ‘ boil’, as in А3Ы шит ‘The water boiled' or Аиха ка^шьза ишит ‘The iron (аиха) got really (-3a) red-hot’ , and -аила- is a compound preverb. 2‘ Literally: taking-down-taking-up the breath (аҧсыгь). 21 Literally: ‘ to its disadvantage’ . 24 Where -кьа- is the root and -аица- the compound prevcrb. Cf. Иахьа аҧарадаразы уахь сцара енпакьеит ‘ My going there today Tell through becausc o f lack o f money (аҧарадара)'. 25 Where -xa- is the root ‘ become’ , - kd- the preverb meaning ‘on’ , and -шахат- an element meaning here ‘agreed’ , but as an independently standing noun ашахат means ‘ witness’.
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Ашахакәа ирыхеит акаҭа Лымхаџаца иақәхартә (еиҧш) ‘ Il/Thcy pulled the ropes (ашаха) so that the net (акаҭа) Cell on (ақәхара)2'’ (the crcaturc here called| Broad (аџаџа) Ears’ Ичкәын еихабы ҧҳәыс дааигартә/дааиго (еиҧш) дкалеит ‘ His older son came o f an age to take a w ife ’21 Саб сиеихсыртә/сиеихысуа (еиҧш) сенлагома?! ‘ Am I (so) crazy (аилагара) as to shoot al ([а|аихсра) my father?!’2" Хаҳә дук аҭыара аҭаларта иадианы изтымиуа (еиҧш)/ изтымцыртә (еиҧш) ашә аркны ицон ‘ Having placed a huge stone (ахахә) against the entrance (аҭаларҭа) to the lair (атыара), il would close (аркра) the door so that they could nol gel out and go o f r 2’ Роыза уаа деиликаартә (еиҧш) дыкамызт ‘Their friend was nol (in such a condition [being covered in dusl]) thal anyone recognised him/her’ Capa сыхәмарлартә еиҧш уажәы аамҭа сымам ‘ I don't have the time now to go o ff playing 00 O f course, a result need not be expressed by means o f a subordinate expression (in English terms, as a result-clause). Consider this example taken from Kaslandzia’s dictionary: Ашәарыца» ашьаб(ы)сҭа у(бр)иакара и(б)ла хнакит, дзамеихсит ‘The deer (ашьаб(ы)сҭа) so (у(бр)иакара) captivated (literally: blinded (а(б)лахкра )51 his eye) the hunter - he could nol shoot at it’ but this can easily be transformed into an expression o f result by writing: Ашәарыцаа ашьаб(ы)сҭа у(бр)иакара и(б)ла хнакит дзамеихсыртә/ дзамеихсуа/дзамеихсуаны (еиҧш)
2Л Where -xa- is the root ‘ become’ , -қо- the prcverb meaning ‘on’. 27 The Present Absolute seems more acceptable i f the main verb has Ihe whole result-expression as its subject, viz. Ичкоын еихабы ҧхәыс дааигоны (сиҧш) калеит ‘The time come for his older son lo take a wife’ 28 No variant wilh Ihc Present Absolute seems feasible here. 29 Again no variant wilh Ihe Present Absolute seems acceptable here. ™ Where the force o f the iterative suffix -ла- seems to be that Ihe game w ill last some time and involve a number o f individual movcx/shols etc... 51 Where -а(б)ла- is ‘eye’ , - k- the root ’ hold’ , and -x- the preverb ‘ from on top'.
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How to Express ‘ When being on the point оГ VERBing’ Wc have jusl seen ihc pairing o f ihc Present Absolute with the postpositional phrase сиҧш ‘ like it’ playing a role in the formation o f an expression o f result. The pairing also serves to indicate the time when someone is on the point o f carrying out a verbal activity, e.g. Исымаз ахәычы ала сҽааилаҳәаны аизарахь саарц сҿааехоны еиҧш, сасык сгәашә даалагылеит ‘Having hurriedly (-aa-) dressed myself wilh what lilllc 1 had, as I was on the point o f selling o ff lo come here for the meeting ([а]аизара), a guest suddenly (-aa-) appeared in my gateway (агәашә)’ Ашавы иажәақәа ҳәаны ажәаан ахь дыҧрырц иҽыназикуаны еиҧш, ҿааиҭит Аҧсуа ‘ As the Creator (ашаоы), having uttered his words, was on the point o f attempting lo fly up to heaven, the Abkhazian cried oul (аҿаатра)12’ In fact, the final elose vowel on the ending o f the Absolute in this construction can be dropped, which renders the verb-form homonymous with the Imperfect Indicative. So, the two examples jusl presented could also take the form: Исымаз ахәыҷы ала сҽааилаҳәаны аизарахь саарц сҿаасхон еиҧш, сасык сгәашә даалагылеит ‘ Having hurriedly dressed myself wilh what little I had, as I was on the poinl o f setting o ff lo come here for the meeting, a guest suddenly appeared in my gateway’ Ашааы иажәақәа хәаны ажәван ахь дыҧрырц иҽыназикуан еиҧш, ҿааиҭит Аҧсуа ‘As the Creator, having ullered his words, was on the point of attempting to fly up lo heaven, the Abkhazian cricd oul’ which is actually the one given in Ihe published text from which they were taken. An alternative way o f expressing the idea o f ‘when being on ihe point o f VERBing’ is to use the negated Absolute of ihe verb агзаара ‘be lacking lo’ wilh акгьы ‘ nothing’ as subject; the action aboul lo be realised is then expressed by cither form o f the Purposive, and the variant in -рц can be accompanied by the postpositional phrase азы ‘lor it’ , e.g.
32 The rool is -T - , -aa- the preverb, and ҿ - is the root For ‘ mouth’ , here standing in place o f any normal Column I direcl-objecl affix.
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Дҭысырц (азы)/Дҭысразы акгьы агымкәа(н), акәасҭха кәицк илымҳа инҭашәеит ‘Jusl as he was aboul lo emerge from ihe depths (атысра)” o f it, an ember (акәиц) o f the torch (акәасҭха) fell into (аҭашәара) his car’
Exercises Translate into English 1. (Ьынаажәа кила apaca (hazel nuts) рҭирц (азы) / рҭиразы Акәака иааргеит. 2. Баыза Москва дцахьазар, дсымбар ҳәа сшәо(и)т. 3. Ишәазхәада у(бр)и арҵааы шәизыӡыроырц? 4. А(б)рахь сааит англыз бызшәа шәсырҵарц (азы )/ шәсырҵаразы.м 5. Хымз хаанхарц хгәы иҭан, аха уаҵәы ҳцароуп. 6.
У(бр)ахь сцартә сыҟам. Избан? Избанзар, схы сыхьуеит.
7. Аӡҕаб акгьы лзыкамҵартә дкалеит. 8.
Бани баби а<ан ҿыц дыргыларц анбарӡб(е)и?
9. Сеиҳабы аизара сагымхарц дсыҳәеит. 10. Аиашара ауп ишәасҳәарц исҭах(ы)у.
Translate into Abkhaz 1. I wanted us to meet at 3 o’clock tomorrow, but I have to be in Gagra tonight. 2. As he was on the point o f starling work here, they rang him and instructed him to go to the cinema. 3. Where were you-FEM going? I was going to the market in order lo buy frail and maize, as guests were due to arrive that day. 4. As he suspected that no-one would come to Ihc meeting, he went fishing. 5. The girls stayed at home in order to read the newspapers. 6.
Who told them nol lo wash the apples? Their grandmother was the one who lold them.
She was afraid that the water might be dirty.
31 Where -с(ы)- is Ihe rool and -т(ы)- the preverb. 34 Note that one can say the exact equivalent o f ‘ for the Icaching o f English' (viz. англыз бызшәа арҵаразы) using Ihe Masdar. I f one now adds to Ihis Ihe recipient o f the teaching (viz. you-PL), the possessive prefix appropriate to Ihe recipient replaces that appropriate lo the logical direct object lo give: шәырҵаразы.
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7. Wc sent your-PL son lo fctch petrol (абылтәы), bul he has not yet relumed. 8.
Arc the Georgians so intelligent as lo do that?
9. Why docs Iheir father not intend lo visit Abkhazia to have a rest? 10. His teeth were aching such thal he couldn’t cal.
Translate into English
Агәаҕьра Ҽнак ахәыҷқәа зегьы ааибаргәыбзыҕын, амшын италеит. Руаӡәк иаразнак амшын даашьҭнахит. Уи амшын дашьуашәа анырба, егьырт иаызцәа аҳәҳәара иалагеит. Амшын дамхәаҽындаз хәа ишәеит. Урҭ рыбжьы иахаит дара иракараз ҷкәына хәыҷык. Дыаны дааит. Амшын иҽналаижьын, ачкәын хәычы амшын даалигеит. Уи амшын дашьцылан. Аӡсара бзиазаны идыруан. araagbpa
daring, courage
ахәаҽра
drown, suffocate
аргәыбзыҕра
egg on, encourage
-akapa
the size o f
-уазәк
one o f (of humans)
аҽалажьра
throw oneself into
ашьҭыхра
pick up, carry o ff
ашьцылара
get accustomed to19
ахәхәара
shout, yell
аӡсара
swim
Translate into English
Ардәына Мактина ааны ардәына лаазон. Убри ардәына Мактина илышьцылан. Лара данцәажәоз, иаргьы илҳәаз сҳәоит ҳәа иалагон. Мактина ацгәазы Ҵис лҳәон. Ардәынагьы, Ҵис ахәара аҽазкны, Сис ҳәа ҿнаҭуан. ардәына
blackbird
ааӡара
rear, bring up
аҿыҭра
shout out
15 The stress may also fall on the first syllable o f the masdar, and for those speakers who place it here it w ill fall on the Column II indirect/oblique object prefix within full vcrb-forms.
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Lesson 17
In this lesson you will learn about: • How lo say ‘ Every lime lhal’ • How to say ‘Coinciding w ilh’ • How to say ‘aboul/conccming’ • How lo form Conccssivc expressions • How to form the equivalent o f Clausal Comparatives • How lo form Equative expressions • How to say ‘ the more...the more’ • How to say ‘let alone/far from’ • The element Зада • Special uses o f the negated identity copula • How to compose a letter
Temporal Expression fo r ‘ Every time th a t...’ One type o f temporal expression nol so far examined is that meaning ‘every time lhat...’ . To produce a verb-form with this meaning the compound-suffix -цыҧхьаза is added (a) to the non-finite Aorist o f Dynamic verb or (b) to the non-finite Present (minus the element -y) o f Stalive verbs, e.g. Ҳаиҧылацыҧхьаза бгәыдыскыло(и)т ‘ Every time we meet (аҧылара) 1 (each other), I embrace (агәыдкылара )2 you-FEM’ And to demonstrate thal Ihe temporal expression does not alter, even when the tense of the main verb changes, wc can quote: Ҳаиҧылацыҧхьаза бгәыдыскылон ‘ Every time we met, I embraced/used lo embrace/would embracc you-FEM’ Ҳара ааны ҳакацыҧхьаӡа дтәазом ‘ Every time that we are al home, (s)he does not sit down (i.e. (s)he is always on his/her feel and never rests)’ cf. the same temporal expression when the main verb is in the past:
1 Where -ла- is the root and -ҧы- the preverb. 2 Where -кы- is the root, -гаыд(ы)- the compound-preverb, and -ла- the rool-suffix.
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Ҳара ааны х.акацыҧхьаза дтәазомызт ‘ Every time thal wc were at home, (s)hc did not/would not/used nol lo sit down’ Аҵарақәа рыбжьы гәа1< ааигәахацыҧхьаза, Хь^ыда амаҭ агәаҕ иамаз иаҳагьы ишьҭыҵуа иалагон ‘ Every lime thal the miserable (агәак) sound o f ihc birds camc (-xa-) near (-ааигәа-), Ihc loathing (агәаҕ) that Nameless had for ihc snake would begin lo rise (ашьҭы-цра) even more (иахагьы)’
Temporal Expression for ‘Coinciding w ith...’ After the pattern o f such forms already encountered as иахкьаны ‘because o f and инаркны ‘sincc (Ihe time o f)’ , which are essentially verbal Absolutes, we have the form иақәыршәаны, which is literally ‘cause -p- lo fall -шәа- on -қә(ы)-’, as in: Амаа сақәшәыршәар, схала сцо(и)т ‘1Гyou-PL put me on the road, I’ll go by m yself Ацәкьара иакәиршәеит (изакәмыршәеит) ‘He hit (could not hit) the target (ацәкьара)’ And so, the Absolute form can be used alongside a Masdar or non-finite form containing the temporal prefix -ан(ы)- ‘when’ (possibly accompanied by the noun [а|аамҭа ‘ time’) lo produce the meaning ‘coinciding with when...’ , e.g. Аџьнышцәа ран лыкамзаара иақәыршәаны, иҧҳәыс лцәа ахша(а)ра далашәеит ‘Coinciding wilh ihe absence o f the mother o f the evil spirits (аџьныш), his wife fell pregnant (literally: offspring fell into her skin)’ Cf. Аџьнышцәа ран даныкамыз (аамҭа) иақәыршәаны, иҧхәыс лцәа ахша(а)ра далашәеит ‘Coinciding with when the mother o f the evil spirits was absent, his wife fell pregnant’ I f one adds the preverb -н(а)- to this Absolute (or pscudo-postposilion), one obtains the
translation-equivalent
of
‘according
lo’ ,
as
in
ihe
phrase
аҧкарақәа
инарықәыршәаны ‘according to the laws (аҧкара)’ ; cf. Ахрестоматиа еиқәыршәоуп “ Аҧсуа фольклор апрограмма” инақәыршәаны ‘The chreslomalhy is compiled in accordance with “ The Abkhaz Folklore Programme’”
(also
possible
here
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would
be
инақәныкәаны
or
even
иныкәныкәаны. as actually written in the original text, which are Absolutes, or pseudo-postpositions, based on the root -ныкәа- ‘ walk’ and so could perhaps be more literally translated as ‘ in step/line with')
How to express ‘aboul, concerning’ From the verb акра ‘hold, grip, seize' one can form азкра ‘ hold for, set aside for, dedicate to', as in: А(ба)рт аҧарақәа аонҿыц аахәара иазыскит ‘ I set aside these monies for the purchase o f a new house’ And as an Absolute: Шәмааҭк ашәкәкәа раахәара иазкны исымоуп ‘ I have 100 roubles set aside for the purchase o f books' This is the Past Absolute o f the Dynamic form o f the verb, but the verb exists also in the Stative Masdar-form азкызаара, producing a finite form like: Аҽбыга атәархра иазк(ы)уп ‘The scythe (аҽбыга) is (designed) for hay-making (aTaapxpa)’ ’
The Absolute from this Stative form is then used as a virtual postposition for the meaning ‘ about, concerning’ , the Column 2 affix correlating with the entity concerning which one is speaking, so thal the two commonest forms are иазкны ‘about it’ and ирызкны ‘about them’, e.g.
Иуҳәаз иазкны здаатәык сымоуп ‘I have a question (азҵаатәы) aboul what youMASC said’ Аҭоурыхи абызшәаҭцаареи рызҵаатәқәа ирызкны астатиақәа рыара аамҭа атах(ы)уп ‘The writing o f articles about the questions/problems o f history (аҭоурых) and linguistics (абызшәатпаара) lakes time’ And based on the Stative form one also finds relativised non-finite forms in such constructions as the following: Актәи акласс акны азцаарақәа арала рҭаккаҵара, аиҭақәақәа рыара аҽазыкаҵара акәзар изызк(ы)у, аабатәи акласс аҟны аиҭаҳәақәа рыара ' Where атәа means ‘ hay’, and архра is ihc verb meaning ‘reap’ , in which -x- is Ihe root and -p- the causative marker.
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хыҭҳәаала аврақәа рышка ииасуеит *1Г in the Hrst class the provision o f written answers (literally: Ihc making o f answers (атаккаҵара) by writing) |and] preparing (аҽазыкаҵара) lo write expositions (|а|аиҭах.оа) is what it’s about, in Ihc second class the writing o f expositions moves over (аиасра) to (-шка) imaginative (literally: by imagination (ахытхәаа)) writings’
Concessives Concessives arc marked eilhcr by suffixing -гьы 'even' to the appropriate protasisform, giving the literal equivalent o f 'even if, or by attaching this same suffix to a nonfinite form containing the manner-prefix -ш(ы) 'how' as equivalent to 'although': Амра ҧхаргьы, ихьҭахо(и)т ‘ Even if the sun shines (аҧхара), il w ill get cold (ахьтахара)’ Амра ҧхозаргьы, ихьҭахо(и)т/ихьҭоуп ‘Even i f the sun is shining, il is gelling cold/il is cold’ Амра ҧхозаргьы, ихьҭан ‘ Even if the sun was shining, it was cold’ Иахләашазаргьы, иҳаздырзом иухьз(ы)у ‘Even i f wc (had) wanted to say it [sc. your-MASC namel, we don’ l know what your name is/what you are called’ У(бр)и ахәшә ахьыкоу здыруазар, амшын нырцә акәзаргьы, сцон ‘I f I knew where that medicine is, even i f it be over (нырцә) the sea, I would go!' Шәыуазә(ы) ишәтәызаргьы, еиашаны ишәфар акәын ‘Even i f it had belonged to one o f you-PL, you should have split ([а]аиашараУ il and eaten it’ Амра шыҧхогьы, ихьҭахо(и)т/ихьҭоуп ‘ Although the sun is shining, it is getting cold/is cold’ Иара yaxa наилымшо дшыказгьы, дцан, ӡыхьк ҧшааны, илзааигеит ‘ Although he was unable (literally: in such a stale as lo be unable) lo do any more (yaxa), he went, found a spring (аӡыхь), and brought il [spring-water] for her’ Иалҵуазароуп ажәабжь, ибжьажь(ы)у аҳәоукәа шыкоугьы ‘ A story (ажәабжь) should be emerging from (алира) it, although there arc sentences (ахәоу) which are missing (абжьажьра)5'
4 Where Ihe root is -ша- and -ana- Ihe compound prcverb. ' Where -жь(ы)- is Ihc root and -бжьа- the preverb.
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‘Clausal’ Comparatives Wc have discussed in an earlier lesson Ihe marking o f comparatives when one o f the postpositions -аасҭа, -аҵкьыс, or -еиха ‘than’ governs a noun or noun-phrasc. Wc now have lo examine how Abkhaz copes wilh expressions equivalent lo clausal comparatives. Take an example such as the following (and, for the sake o f brevity, only the first o f the three possible postpositions w ill be illustrated): Аслан Асҭанда лаасҭа иаҳа лассы-лассы дызбо(и)т ‘ I sec Aslan more often (лассы-лассы) than Aslanda’ This sentence is ambiguous between (a) ‘1 see Aslan more often than I see Astanda' and (b) ‘ I see Aslan more often than Aslanda secs him'. And just as English can disambiguate, so can Abkhaz, the unambiguous representations being respectively: (a)Аслан иақа лассы-лассы дызбо(и)т Астанда шака/зака дызбо аасҭа ( b) А слан иаха лассы-лассы дызбо(и)т Астанда у(бр)и шака/зака дылбо ааста This example is making a comparison based on the adverb ‘often’ , but the adverb only occurs once, as in English, but, unlike English, Abkhaz places the quantifier шака or зака ‘ how much’ within the sequence marking the comparison alongside a repetition of the verb in question (as here Ihe same lexical verb applies lo both parts), which also sets Abkhaz apart from English. In English the sequence o f words forming the comparison would be described as the lower clause, but, as Abkhaz employs the non-finite form of the appropriate tense for ihe verb in queslion (fully marked for its arguments in the normal way), this sequence is more accurately described as a nominal isation governed by (or dependent on) the postpositional phrase аасҭа, аҵкьыс, or аиха ‘than ГГ’ (the affix a- ‘it ’ , referring to the nominalised sequence that precedes the postposition, being merged with the first vowel o f each postposition). We find exactly the same structure where we have a comparison o f different adverbs or adjectives, except that in such instances both adverbs/adjectives have to appear, one in the finite clause, the other in the non-finite nominalisation, e.g. Acac иаҳа ирццакны дцәажәо(и)т шака/зака дкәышны дцәажәо аасҭа ‘The guest speaks more quickly (ирццакны <= аццак ‘quick’) than [(s)he speaks] intelligently’
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Асас иаха дкәыш(ы)уп шака/зака дыҧшзоу ааста ‘The guest is more inlclligcnl than [(s)hc is| handsome/pretty' We have to note that, whereas English can perfectly easily omit the verb in the compared sequence, Abkhaz cannot. СГ. Ачкәын сыдәқьан аҿы иаҳа акәтаҕь рацәа ааихәеит алахакәа удәқьаи аҿы шака/зака ааихәаз аасҭа ‘The boy bought more eggs (акәтаҕь/’ in my shop (адәқьан) than [he bought] figs (алаҳа) in your shop' Interestingly, the comparative postposition here may take the form раасҭа ‘than TH EM ’ , suggesting some confusion with the relative construction, even though there is no relative marker within the verb. Where the entities compared arc human the quantifier assumes cither the form шакаа(ы) or закаа(ы) ‘ how many’ , just as the human classifier is added to marker o f ‘ many' in the finite clause, when this classifier is used in its adverbial variant, e.g. Иаҳа ирацәааны икәашон акәакь аҿы шакааы/закааы тәаз аасҭа ‘ More (people) were dancing (акәашара) than7 were silling in Ihc comer (акәакь)’ Acac иаҳа ирацәааны аҳәса драцәажәо(и)т иара шакааы/закааы иацәажәо аасҭа ‘The guest speaks to more women than" speak to him ’ Иаҳа acac рацәа аауеит шакааы/закааы сызсыдкыло аасҭа ‘More guests are coming than9 1 can receive (literally: hold alongside me= адкылара)"1’ If one needs to say ‘ less’ , the adverbial form in question is имаҷны, as in: Capa Замира иаҳа имачны аҧара лысҭеит Заира у(бр)и шака/зака лылҭаз аасҭа ‘ I gave less money to Zamira than Zaira did’ The human form is имачыаны, as in: Сынтәа иаха имачыаны атуристцәа аҭааит Аҧсны шакааы/закааы а(бр)а ҵыҧх хара иаабаз аасҭа ‘Fewer tourists visited Abkhazia this year than" we saw here last year’ One can form comparatives in this way on quite complex structures, e.g. 6 An alternative way o f saying ‘ more eggs’ is to lum the adjective in the text above into its adverbial
equivalent, which then necessitates the noun being pluralised: иаҳа ирацзаны акзтаҕькза. 7 Here again the postposition may lake Ihc form раасҭа. “ Here again the postposition may take the form раасҭа. ’ Mere again the postposition may lake the form рааста. 10 The root is -кы- ‘hold’ , -д(ы)- the preverb, and -ла- the rool-suffix. " Here again the postposition may lake Ihe form рааста.
238
Омар иа,\а аҧш рацәа афара илшоит Заира шака/зака ажәра лылшо ааста ‘Omar can cat more mai/x: (аҧш) than Zaira can cook (ажәра)’ Иаҳа ayaa рацәа capa срацәажәеит ахәылҧаз аҿы абырскаоык аауеит ҳәа Зама лгәы иаанагоз аасҭа ‘ I spoke to more people than' 2 (as many as) Zama thought would come to the party (ахәылҧаз) (literally: her heart was bringing it, saying: “ So many people (абырскааык) are coming” )' Note in this last example that, because o f the specifics o f the construction for expressing the complement o f ‘think’ , the correlative абырскааык ‘so many’ appears instead o f the quantifier шаҟааы/закааы ‘as many'.
Equatives As with the comparatives described above, equatives placc a clause with a finite verb alongside a sequence containing a non-finite verb-form in the appropriate tense and marked for its own array o f arguments. Within the non-finite scqucnce either шака/зака or, for humans, шакао(ы)/закаа(ы) stands before the non-finite verb-form, which is usually followed by akapa ‘as much/many as’ , though this may be omitted i f either у(бр)и akapa or у(бы(р))скак/убаскак ‘ to that extent’ (or У(бы(р))скааык/ Убаскааык ‘as many’ in the case o f humans) stands alongside the finite verb in the main clause. And so, whilst the original text has the next example in the form now given: Актәи акласс аҿы азцаарақәа рҭаккәа рыара шака/зака рҽадыршьцыло, у(бр)и акара аабатәи акласс акны адаацәа азыкаиахоит инеиҧынкыланы аиҭаҳәакәа рыара ‘To the extent that in the first class they accustom themselves (аҽаршьцылара) to writing answers to questions, to the same extent in the second class students are prepared (азыкадахара) for writing connected (literally: connectedly (инеиҧынкыланы)) narratives’ , there are three variants, which are as follows: Актәи акласс аҿы азҵааракәа рҭакқәа рыара шака/зака рҽадыршьцыло. у(бы(р))скак аабатәи акласс акны аҵаацәа азыкадахоит инеиҧынкыланы аиҭаҳәакәа рыара
12 Here again the postposition may lake the form paacxa.
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Актәи акласс аҿы азпааракәа ртакқәа рыара шака/зака рҽадыршьцыло акара, у(бр)и акара аабатәи акласс акны аҵаацәа азыкаҵахоит инеиҧынкыланы аиҭаҳәақәа рыара Актәи акласс аҿы азҵааракәа рҭакқәа рыара шака/зака рҽадыршьцыло акара, у(бы(р))скак аабатәи акласс акны аҵаацәа азыкаиахоит инеиҧынкыланы аиҭақәақәа рыара A further example, cited as found in the original text from Dmitry Gulia, is: Акрацанакуеит ааымҭа аформа ацклаҧшра. Асахьаркыратә аымта аидеиа шака/зака акрапанакуа akapa, аформагьы иацклаҧшлатә(ы)уп 'Paying attention (ацклаҧшра) 13 to the form o f a written work (ааымҭа) is important (literally: it -на- holds - k - much -ак(ы)р- beneath -na- it -a-). To the extent that the idea o f a fictional (асахьаркыратә) piece o f writing is important, to the same extent attention is to be paid as a rule (-ла-) to its form also' And one example where the equation involves humans would be: У(бы(р))скааык/Убаскааык ааызцәа аресторан аҿы иеизеит шакаа/закаа ашкол ахь ицаз akapa ‘As many friends gathered (аизара) at the restaurant as went to the school’
How to express ‘ The m ore..., the m ore...’ As in English the word for ‘ more’ (иаха) can appear twice, once alongside a finite verb and once alongside a non-finite verb-form, marked appropriately for tense and its own internal arguments, though in this latter case the word is optional. Preceding the nonfinite verb-form w ill be either шака/зака or, in the case o f humans, шакаа(ы)/закаа(ы), whilst following it w ill be akapa, as in: Шакае/Закаа (иаҳа) ирацәааны (ayaa) иаауа akapa, иаҳа (и)еиҕь(ы)уп ‘The more (people) who come, the better (it is)’ Шака/Зака (иаҳа) ашәкәы рацәа роуа akapa, иаҳа ашәкәы рацәа рҭиуеит ‘The more books they acquire, the more books they sell’
Expressions fo r ‘ Let alone...; Far fro m ...’ " The root is -ҧш(ы)- ‘ look’ , -к(ы)ла- the proverb signifying a narrow space, and -ц(ы)- the element meaning 'w ith '.
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A rare suffix is -axa. II can attach lo a protasis marked by the suffixes -p or -зар, whilst the clilic -гьы ‘even’ appears with the finite verb in the main clause. The force of the construction is clear from the following: Акәац ифараха, акгьы даламкьысит ‘Far from caling the meat, he did not even touch (алакьысра) anything = He did not even touch anything, let alone cat the meat’ Ақыртцәа Аҧсны икарҵо деилиркаазараҳа, амдырра ахьеиҕьыршьо азы, Америкаагьы дзырмацәажәеит ‘ He could not even talk to 14 the Americans, let alone get them to understand what the Georgians are doing in Abkhazia, as they prefer (аиҕь(а)шьара) ignorance (амдырра) = Far from getting them to understand what the Georgians are doing in Abkhazia, he could not even talk to the Americans, as they prefer ignorance' У(бр)и ааигахьазараҳа, аагарагьы игәы иҭамызт ‘ Far from from having actually brought it, he did not even intend to fetch it = He did not even intend lo fetch it, let alone having brought il’
The element Заҵа Sometimes close in meaning to the suffix just presented is the free-slanding element заҵа, which is also somewhat rare. It is used in association with one o f four forms, all of which w ill be negated: the non-finite Future I , the non-finite Conditional 1, the non-finite Future 2, and the non-finile Conditional 2. There are two contexts where these combinations are found. In the first contexl, the temporal reference is established by the accompanying finite verb, which, if past (as in the two examples to hand), makes the use o f the Future 2 (and possibly the Conditional 2 as well), somewhat infelicitous (as indicated by the question-mark). Cf. Заҵа агылара игәаламшәара/игәаламшәарыз/?игәаламшәаша / ? ?игәаламшәашаз, иҽимырҵысит ‘Far from remembering to stand up, he didn’t budge (literally: cause himself lo move (аҽыриысра))’
14 Note how the indirect objcct marking prefix (rather than followed) by the negative prefix.
l- a - l
has here merged with the root and hence is preceded
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Заҵа дмаара/дмаарыз/?дмааша/?дмаашаз, салам-шокәыкгьы сзааимҭиит 'Far from coming, he didn't even send (|а|ааҭира) me one lellcr!’ In (he second context o f usage, (here is no accompanying finite verb lo establish ihc temporal reference. And here Ihc Futures I and 2 seem lo refer to presenl or future time, whereas the Conditionals 1 and 2 seem rather to refer lo ihc pasl. In terms o f meaning, the construction underlines the unlikelihood o f the verbal action being realised and so can be caplurcd by translating as 'D on’t imagine X ever happening!’ or ‘ X is hardly likely to VERB/HAVE VERBed, after a ll!’, as in: Уи амш ансгәаламшәо мышк заҵа имцара/имцаша?! 'Don’t imagine one day ever passes/will ever pass when that day doesn’t come into my mind!’ vs Уи амш ансгәаламшәо мышк заҵа имцарыз/имцашаз?! 'Don’t imagine one day ever having passed when that day didn’t come into my mind!’
Заҵа дымцара/дымцаша! ‘ Don’t imagine him/her going!’ vs Заҵа дымцарыз/дымцашаз?! ‘ Don’t imagine lhal (s)he would have gone!’
Дзыхшазгьы рыҧҳа аҿаҭахьа илықәылҵаз заҵа илҿадмырхьра/ илҿадмырхьыша! ‘Don’t imagine even those lo whom she was bom (ахшара ) 15 flinging back in the face (аҿархьра)1*' o f Iheir daughter the vow (аҿаҭахьа ) 17 she has taken upon herself (ақәҵара)!’ vs Дзыхшазгьы рыҧха аҿатахьа илықәылцаз заҵа илҿадмырхьрыз/ илҿадмырхьышаз! ‘ Don’t imagine that even those to whom she was bom would have flung back in the face o f Iheir daughter the vow she had taken upon herself!’
Specific usage o f the negated identity-copula
15 Where ihe rool is -ша- and -x- Ihc prcverb.
"’ Causative in -p-. 17 Two slress-paltems are possible.
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The negated idcnlity-copular root -акә- is used to reject or dismiss, as it were, one idea (possibly even a full clause) and thus lead into an assertion o f another. The construction, thus, roughly corresponds lo ‘ Never mind X ...’ in English. The first example illustrates the negated copula in the finite Presenl tense, rejecting a full clause, viz. Агылара игәалашәеит акәым, иҽимырцысит ‘Nevermind his remembering to stand up (literally: He remembered lo stand up - it is nol), he didn’t budge’ which is very close lo the First example offered in the preceding section. And, in fact, Iherc is another way o f expressing this idea, which is to use for the verbal action being rejected nol a finite form but the non-finite form o f the appropriate tense suffixed with -шәа ‘ as i f , as in: Агылара игәалашәа акәым, иҽимырцысит ‘ Never mind his remembering to stand up, he didn't budge’ The next example also has the finite form o f the Presenl tense, but this time it serves to negate the relevance o f the statement to mankind and thus has as its subjccl the single noun ауааы ‘ man', viz. Ауааы иакәым, аҧсаатәҵәЬьагьы акы еимаркыр, еинираалоит ҳәа изы рхәон
‘They would say o f him that, it’s not just men/never mind men - i f even
the very birds (аҧсаатә) quarrel over (аимакра) something, he w ill reconcile ihem with one another ([а^инраалара)1*’ The next example places the negated copula in its Absolute form, approximating lo English *il nol mattering whether Ihey say it’s light or heavy’ , viz. Ажәоанахьтәи иааиуа, икаҳауа, илас(ы)уп, ихьанҭоуп ҳәа акәымкәа(н), иааныскыло(и)т ‘ Regardless o f whether whal comes falling from the sky is said lo be light (алас) or heavy (ахьанҭа), I shall slop it ([а]аанкылара)|<>’ In the final example here we have the negated copula in its prolasis-form, viz. Иаызцәа рахаҭыр азы акәымзар, иахьа хәлаанӡа дныкәозаргьы, сааҧсеит ҳәа џьара длатәомызт ‘Even if he is on his feet (literally: walking) today unlil 18 The non-causalive is аинаалара ‘becomc reconcilcd’ , as in: a ga цәа еинаалеит 'The enemies became reconciled (lo one another)'. The non-reciprocal анаалара means ‘ suit', as in: Иушьоу аикаа унаало(и)т 'The trousers (аиқоа) you-MASC are wearing suil you’ ; cf. Иукәнаго(и)т, ала уцхазар. Узасуаз? ‘ It serves you-MASC right, if ihe dog bit you; why were you hitting it?’ . ” The root is -к(ы)-, -аан(ы)- is the compound preverb, and -ла- is the root-sufflx.
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evening (хәлаан^а)2", he would nol sit down iinywhere in exhaustion (literally: saying “ I ’ m tired" (|a|aart)Capa)), were it not out o f respect (ахаҭыр ) 31 Tor his friends’
How to w rite a letter The following is the text o f an invitation, but the formal is obviously the same as would be used for writing a letter, beginning with the formula Ҳатыр зқә(ы)у ‘On whom is respect' and closing with Ҳаҭырла ‘With rcspcct’ .
Ҳаҭыр зқә(ы)у АХЬЗ АЖ ӘЛА,
Шәааҳаҧхьоит есымзатәи алитературатә-уаажәларратә газет “ Еҵәаџьаа” шьаҭарк(ы)уижьҭеи 80 шықәсеи (и)еиҭашьақәыргылоижьҭеи 5 шықәсеи рыҵра иазк(ы)у агәырҕьаратә еилатәарахь. Уи мааҧгахоит Д.И. Гәлиа ихьӡ зх(ы)у Аҧсуаҭдааратә институт аконференц-зал акны, х.азн(ы)у ашықәс Цәыббра 25 аҽны. Иалагоит асааҭ 13 рзы. Ҳатырла, Аиҿкааратә гәыҧ. Ҳшәыҳәоит адырра ҳашәтарц аныҳәатә дкылара шәҽалашәырхәуазар. The translation o f this would be:
Dear NAM E SURNAME, We invite (ааҧхьара) you-PL 22 lo a joyous (агәырҕьаратә) gel-logether ([а|аилатәара)гз which is dedicated to the passing (anpa) o f both the 80 years since24
20 Strange as it may seem, no basic noun ахәыл 'evening' exists, despite the fact that we have the phrase
Хзылбзиа! ‘Good evening!'. Note ҽнак хзлаанза ‘all day'; ахәлара ‘darkness; the falling of the night*. 21 Sometimes the root is treated as beginning with the open vowel, as here, and sometimes, as in the first
word o f the sample-letter below, nol 22 Plural for politeness' sake.
3' Literally: sitting -тәа- among -ла- one another -аи-.
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the founding (ашьаҭаркра)2' o f Ihc monthly (есымзатәи) lilcrary-sociul (ауаажаларратә) newspaper “ Ursa Minor” (Еҵәаџьаа) and the 5 yean; since its restitution ([а]аиташьақәыргылара)“ . It takes place (амааҧгахара)27 in the confcrencc-hall o f the AbkhazologicaJ (Аҧсуаҭҵааратә) Institute named after D. I. Gulia (literally: on the top o f which is his name) on the 25th September (Цәыббра)2" this year (literally: (in) the year on which we are). It starts at 1 o’clock. With respect. The organising ([а]аиҿкааратә) group. We request you to let us know (literally: give us knowledge) if you are going lo altend (literally: cause yourself to be involved in = аҽалархәра) ihe festive (аныҳәатә) reception (адкылара).
Exercises Translate into English
24 The two verb-forms in this text bearing the suffix -ижьтеи ‘ since the time o f arc based on Ihe non-finite
Present tense o f the Stative form o f the Causative o f the verb-forms in question. The noun incorporated into this causative o f -к(ы>- ‘hold’ is ашьатз 'гооС, foundation’. “ The analysis o f this verb-form is: causative o f -гыла- ‘ stand’ with preverb -кә(ы)- ‘on 1 and -шьа-, being Ihe first element in ашьапы ‘ foot', plus ргеПх анта- 'again'. And so, the meaning is literally ‘causing (o stand on (its) feel again’ . 17 Intransitive (passive) form in -xa- o f амааҧгара ‘ organise, conduct', where the root is -га-, -ҧ(ы)- the prcverb, and -маа- the root o f ihe noun амаа ‘ road’. и Though the names o f Ihe months in common usage are mostly borrowed from Russian and closely resemble their international equivalents, native terms have been (?re)introduced since Abkhazia gained its independence from Georgia on SO"* September 1993. These terms are used for official purposes. Here is the list: Ҧхынгәы Ажьырныхаа July January Нанҳәа Жәабран August February Хоажокыра Цәыббра September March Мшаҧы Жьтаара October April Абиара Лаҵара November May Ҧхынчкәын Рашәара December June By way o f contrast, the terms with wider cunency are as follows: July January И(ы)ул = Кәыркәа Иан(в)ар August Август = Нанх,оа Ҧервал = Ҧеруал February Март September Сентиабр = Цәыббра March Апрел October April Октиабр = Абҵара Мес November Ноиабр = Гьаргәаба May December И(ы)ун = Иуаноба Декабр = Кьырса June
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1. Шәыбжьы сахацыҧхьаза, Ломдок ханаибадыр (у(бр)и) аҧхынра сгәалашәо(и)т. 2.
Аҽы аӡы акынӡа иугаргьы, иузаржәӡом.
3. Асессиа аибашьраҿы аиааиреи Аҧсны ахьыҧшымреи 15-шықәса ахыҵра иазк(ы)уп. 4. Иаҳа ирацәааны апәақәа рфо(и)т алахакәа шакаа/закаа ирфаз аасҭа/раасҭа. 5. Ҳаызцәа хара аџьармыкьаҿы ханыказ иақәыршәаны ҳа ҳ(а)кны иахьааз азы у(ба)рт хамбеит. 6.
Бара иаҳа акәац рацәа бжәызаап сара Аслан абырскак ифо(и)т хәа сгәы
иаанагоз аасҭа. 7. Вова иаха лассы-лассы асалам-шәкәықәа иоуан Марина шака/зака рыҧхьара лылшоз аасҭа 8.
Иани иаби ракәым, иуацәа зегьы Ҭырқәтәылака игеит рҧсы ршьарц азы.
9. Заҵа шәара ишәҭаз адиақәа зегьы наимгзара, аус(ы)урагьы даламгеит. 10 . Адгәыр
иаҳа аҳәса рацәа бзиа ибоит иара шакааы/закааы бзиа дырбо
аасҭа/раасҭа.
Translate into Abkhaz 1. Although I want to tell you-PL what happened, Fam afraid that you won’t like it. 2. Every lime we see each other, you-FEM ask/entreat me to send letters to you more often. 3. Even i f our son sits here until tomorrow, he thinks he w ill be unable lo finish reading the newspaper. 4. Although he's a good lad, he doesn’t clean his room. 5. Ruslan saw (= was seeing) his daughter more often this year than he saw (= was seeing) his son last year. 6.
You-FEM evidently cooked more meat than I thought that Selma can cat.
7. Fewer women came to the meeting than were speaking to us at the cinema. 8. Far from receiving his daughter’s guests, he did nol even go to her wedding. 9. The more letters she writes, the more beautifully she writes.
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10. Even though Ihcsc girls know the answer, they w ill not say anything.
Translate into English Аҳәынаҧ Аҳәынаҧ ааны иашьцыл(еи)т. Уахынла аҭаацәа аныцәалакь, иаакылсуан. Афатә зтаз ад(ы)улаҧ италон. Хаа-бзаа иказ ирхалон. Иазыфоз афон, иаанхаз ҕәаҧсаны иахыҵны ицон. Уахык аҧшәма-ҧҳәыс даалаган, ахәынаҧкыга лыргыл(еи)т. Аҳәынаҧ ашьшьыҳәа ишааиуазгьы, арыцҳара ианиан ацәкьа иаҿашәеит. Аҧшәмаҧх,әыс данааи, аҳәынаҧ алакәа кылпыҵза иҧсны ишьтан. Vocabulary аҭаацәа
family
аҳәынаҧкыга
mousetrap
акылсра
pass (-С-) through
ашьшьыҳәа
carefully, slowly
narrow opening (-КЫЛ-)
афатә
food
арыцҳара
misfortune
ад(ы)улаҧ
cupboard
аниара
fall (-иа-) upon (-H-)
ахаа-бзаа
sweet goodies
ацәкьа
trap
[а]аанхара
stay, be left over
аҿашәара
fall (-шәа-) into (-ҾЗ-)
аҕәаҧсара
scatter (-гҕса-) all
акылпы-ц(за)
around (-ҕәа-)
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(very) bulging
Lesson 18
In this lesson you w ill learn about: ■ Indefinite Pronouns • Indefinite Expressions • Indefinite Adverbs • How to say ‘ in case’ • How to say ‘ have no option but to’ ■ How to produce Echo Questions ■ The suffixes -шьа, -(р)та/ҭра, -xa
Indefinites The characteristic mark o f indefiniteness is the ending -лак(ь) or -лакгьы. The former was introduced in the discussion o f temporal expressions meaning ‘ when’ , but its usage is not limited to that construction, where we saw the ending suffixed to the non-finite Aorist o f Dynamic verbs. When it is attached to anything other than the non-finite Aorist of Dynamic verbs, the suffix takes an additional element. This is -заа-, and the result o f this addition is the formant -заалак(ь) or -заалакгьы. (a) Pronouns To produce indefinite pronouns, take the interrogative stem -арбан ‘which one?’, add the suffix -заалак(ь) or -заалакгьы, and as prefix add the appropriate Column I pronominal affix for the meanings ‘any(one) (of them)’ , as in the following: Иарбанзаалак(ь)/Иарбанзаалакгьы ак(ы )aara! ‘Bring whichever one/anything!’ Урт рахьтә иарбанзаалак(ь)/иарбанзаалакгьы ак(ы) усҭо(и)т ‘I ’ll give youMASC any one o f them’ Capa иарбанзаалак(ь)/иарбанзаалакгьы ак(гьы) сҭахӡам ‘ I want nothing at all’ Иарбанзаалак(ь)/Иарбанзаалакгьы ак(гьы) изымҳәеит ‘ He could say nothing at all’ Дарбанзаалак(ь)/Дарбанзаалакгьы аӡәы икеииароуп ‘Anyone should do it/them’
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Дарбанзаалак(ь)/Дарбанзаалакгьы аӡо(гьы) дсымбароуп а(б)ра ‘ I should nol see anyone al all here’ The above-forms can be used adjectivally by placing the relevant noun between the pronominal base and the indefinite ending to produce forms like: Иарбан бызшәазаалак(ь)/Иарбан бызшәазаалакгьы еиликаауеит ‘ He understands any language’ Дарбан ҧх,әысзаалак(ь)/Дарбан ҧҳәысзаалакгьы дааигааит! ‘ Let him bring (= marry) any woman!' I f a quantity is involved, then the base o f the indefinite can be -закара, as in: Изакаразаалак(ь)/Изакаразаалакгьы ак(ы) сымам ‘I have absolutely no amount/nothing1 al all' Изакаразаалак(ь)/Изакаразаалакгьы ак(ы) иҭ! ‘Given him any amounl/somethi ng! ’ I f the base o f the indefinite is the stem o f the interrogative -закә(ы)уи ‘who/what is it?’ (viz. -закәы-), then the meaning is ‘Whatever/Whoever X might be’ , as in: Изакәызаалак(ь)/Изакәызаалакгьы ак(ы) сыҭ! ‘Whatever it might be, give me something!’ Изакәызаалак(ь)/Изакәызаалакгьы зҵаарак аҭак изыкамҵеит ‘ Whatever it might be, he could not answer a single question’ Изакәызаалак(ь)/Изакәызаалакгьы ак(ы) с(ы)уҭар, изгоит ‘Whatever it might be, if you-MASC give me something, I ’ll lake it’ Изакәызаалак(ь)/Изакәызаалакгьы ак(ы) иҳәааит! ‘Whatever it might be, let him say something!’ Дзакәызаалак(ь)/Дзакәызаалакгьы, дҽеи(за)м ‘Whoever (s)he might be, (s)he is no good (аҽеи)2’ Сзакәызаалак(ь)/Сзакәызаалакгьы, сышәтә(ы)уп ‘Whoever I might be, I am yours-PL’
1 Also possible is Ишакаразаалак(ь)/Ишакаразаалакгьы. 1 This adjective is most commonly mel when negated, as in examples like: Атагылазаашьа ҽе«(за)м
‘The situation (аҭагылазаашьа) is not good', though note: Ayau сеи ажәа ҽеи иҿыҵуент ‘ Fine words come From Ihc moult) оГa fine person’ .
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Sometimes, however, il is difficult to sec any difference in meaning between indefinites based on -арбан and those based on -закәы-. Consider, for example, the following: Абжьара(к)/Ана<асан иарбанзаалак(ь)/иарбанзаалакгьы/изакәызаалак(ь)/ изакәызаалакгьы даҽакы стахзам ‘I want nothing else at all apart from il (абжьара/анавсан)’ Иарбанзаалак(ь)/Иарбанзаалакгьы/Изакәызаалак(ь)/Изакәызаалакгьы хьымӡҕык амгароуп ‘ Il must not lake any offence/feel any shame (ахьымӡҕ) at all’ (b) Clause-type sequences To produce the equivalent o f an English indefinite clause, what one essentially does is to take the equivalent relative expression and add the appropriate form o f the indefinite suffix (as explained above) to the relativised verb-form. When -лак(ь) or -лакгьы is attached lo the non-finite Dynamic Aorist, the result, as already seen in the case of temporal expressions meaning ‘when’, has a general temporal reference. However, when either -заалак(ь) or -заалакгьы, which are the only possible forms o f the suffix that may allach to the non-finite Present or Perfect (minus final -y, as also when il attaches to Ihe non-finite Slalive Present), is suffixed to the non-finite Dynamic Aorist, the form refers to the past. And so, from sentential relatives in -ахь- ‘where’, -ан- ‘ when’ and -ш- ‘how’ we can produce indefinites like Ihc following: Сахьцалак(ь)/Сахьцалакгьы, срыҧшаауеит ‘Wherever I go, they find me’ cf. Сахьцалак(ь)/Сахьцалакгьы, срыҧшаауан ‘Wherever I went, they used lo find me', where in both cases the indefinite is based on the Aorist stem but is nol limited in temporal reference to the past Сахьцазаалак(ь)/Сахьцазаалакгьы, феида смоуит ‘Wherever I went, no profit (афеида) accrued to me’ , where the indefinite is formed from the non-finite Aorist and has past temporal reference Уахьнеиуазаалак(ь)/Уахьнеиуазаалакгьы, аҳәса ухҭаркуеит ‘Wherever youMASC (w ill) go, women (w ill) pester (ахҭакра) you’ , where the indefinite is based on the non-finite Present and refers to the present or future lime
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Бахьнеихьазаалак(ь)/Бахьнеихьазаалакгш, ахьӡ бзиа нбыжьхьеит ‘Wherever you-FEM have gone/been, you have left behind (аныжьра) a Tine reputation’ , where the indefinite is bused on the non-finite Pcrfccl and equates lo the English Perfect Ҳанеибабалак(ь)/Ҳанеибабалакгьы, қаызцәа хрыхцәажәо(и)т ‘ Whenever we see each other, wc talk about (ахцәажәара) our friends’ Ҳанеибабалак(ь)/Ҳанеибабалакгьы, ҳаызцәа хрыхцәажәон ‘Whenever we saw each other, we used lo talk about our friends’ Данцазаалак(ь)/Данцазаалакгьы, икалҵаша уеизгьы икалҵо(и)т ‘Whenever (s)he went, she’ll still do what she has to do’ Данызбозаалак(ь)/Данызбозаалакгьы, сгәы кеиҵо(и)т ‘Whenever I sec him, he lifts/w ill lift my spirit (literally: makes my heart)’ Ахәыҷқәа а(б)ри аӡыргара анырбахьазаалак(ь)/анырбахьазаалакгьы, аҵә(ы)уара иалагахьеит ‘Whenever the children have seen this advert (аӡыргара), they have started crying’ Дышцәажәалак(ь)/Дышцәажәалакгьы, изеиҧш(ы)уп ‘ It’s all the same to/for him however he speaks’ Дышцәажәалак(ь)/Дышцәажәалакгьы, изеиҧшын ‘ It was all the same to/for him however he spoke’ Ишыкалазаалак(ь)/Ишыкалазаалакгьы, дмааит ‘However il happened (= For some reason or other), (s)he didn’t come' Дышцәажәозаалак(ь)/Дышцәажәозаалакгьы, ицәажәашьа сгәаҧхом ‘However he speaks, I don’ t/won’t like his way o f speaking (ацәажәашьа)' Уажәраанӡа шәышцәажәахьазаалак(ь)/шәышцәажәахьзаалакгьы, еиҭагьы у( 6 а)с шәымцәажәароуп ‘However you-PL have spoken before now, you must nol speak like that again’ I f the indefiniteness is linked to an argument o f the verb, then the appropriate substitute relative pronominal prefix w ill sland within Ihe verb, whilst, if Ihe argument concerned needs to be specified, it is placed in the Adverbial case (in -c or, perhaps less commonly, -ны), as in:
9.52
Бзиарас икеиҵалак(ь)/икеит1алакгьы, сгәы изц(аз)ом ‘ Whatever good deed (абзиара) he docs, I don't find him appealing (literally: my heart docs nol go for him)’ Бзиарас икеиҵалак(ь)/икеицалакгьы, егәы изц(аз)омызт ‘Whatever good deed he did, I didn't find him appealing ®ныс иргылазаалак(ь)/иргылазаалакгьы, ихыбгалеит ‘Whatever house he built, it collapsed (ахыбгалара)5’ Бзиарас икеиҵозаалак(ь)/икеиҵозаалакгьы, игәы ақәыкны икеицо(и)т ‘Whatever good work he does, he does it diligently (literally: having held his heart on (акәыкра) it)' Цәгьарас икеиҵахьазаалак(ь)/икеиҵахьазаалакгьы, д(ы)узкажьуам ‘ Whatever bad deed (ацәгьара) he has committed, you-MASC/one can’t cast him aside (акажьра)4’ By omitting the noun in the Adverbial case from the preceding examples, we obtain indefinites that are without any specification, viz. Икеиҵалак(ь)/Икеицалакгьы, сгәы изц(аз)ом ‘ Whatever he does, I don’t find him appealing' Икеиҵалак(ь)/Икеи-цалакгьы, сгәы изц(аз)омызт ‘Whatever he did, I didn’t find him appealing Иргылазаалак(ь)/Иргылазаалакгьы, ихыбгалеит ‘Whatever he built, it collapsed’ Икеицозаалак(ь)/Икеиҵозаалакгьы, игәы ақәыкны икеиҵо(и)т ‘Whatever he does, he docs it diligently' Икеиҵахьазаалак(ь)/Икеиҵахьазаалакгьы, д(ы)узкажьуам ‘Whatever he has done, you-MASC/one can’t cast him aside’ Абзиара казиозаалак(ь)/казҵозаалакгьы, игәы акәыкны икеидароуп ‘Whoever does a good deed, he should do it diligently’ Иаауазаалак(ь)/Иаауазаалакгьы дқадахкылароуп ‘We must welcome (адкылара) whoever comcs’ Иуҭахызаалак(ь)/Иутахызаалакгьы каҵа! ‘ Do whatever you-MASC want!'
' Where the root is -бга-, -хы- the prevcrb. and -ла- the rool-suffix. 4 Where Ihe mot is -жь- and -ка- the prevcrb.
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If a quantity is involved, шака (or зака) is associated with Ihc appropriately marked verb, e.g. Шака/Зака шәтахызаалак(ь)/шәтахызаалакгьы, ижәга/жәга!' ‘Take as much as you-PL want!’ An alternative way o f expressing indcfinitencss is to associate the Ггсс-slanding word егьа (alternatively spelled иагьа) with a protasis-form o f the verb suffixed with -гьы. Sometimes this construction is virtually synonymous with a simple non-specified indefinite, but sometimes il is closcr lo an indefinite expression o f quantity, e.g. Иагьа/Егьа иауҳәаргьы, иара итәы кеидо(и)т = Иаухәозаалак(ь)/ Иауҳәозаалакгьы, иара итәы кеиҵо(и)т ‘Whatever you-MASC say to him, he does/will do his own thing (атәы)’ Иагьа/Егьа шәҭахызаргьы ыкоуп/икоуп = Шака/Зака шәҭахызаалак(ь)/ шәҭахызаалакгьы ыкоуп/икоуп ‘There is as much as you-PL want’1’ (cf. И(ы)утахызаалак(ь)/И(ы)утахызаалакгьы ыкоуп/икоуп ‘There is whatever you want’ ) Иагьа/Егьа иҽишәаргьы, изыкаҵом ‘ However much he tries (аҽышәара), he can’t do it/them’ Аҵла иагьа/егьа иҳаракызаргьы, ашәшьыра ҳанаҭом ‘However tall the tree is, it affords us no shade (ашәшьыра)’ Иагьа/Егьа дыцәгьазаргьы, xapa даҳтә(ы)уп ‘ However bad (s)he is, (s)he belongs to us’ Иагьа/Егьа иҽишәа(за)ргьы, имбеит ‘ However much he tried, he didn’t see it/them’ Иагьа/Егьа иҽишәа(за)ргьы, уаанӡа дзымнеит ‘ However much he tried, he couldn’t get there’
' Note Ihe optional treatment o f the dirccl-objecl prefix in Ihe main verb. If il is present, then Ihe preceding sequence equates more to the English translation ‘ However much you want, take it!', whereas, if it is absent, the syntax in Abkhaz would more accurately be rendered in English as ‘Take as much as you want!’ . 6 In fact, Иагьа/Егьа could here replace Шака/Зака to give: Иагьа/Егьа шәҭахызаалак(ь)/ шатахызаалакгьм ыкоуп/икоуп ‘There is as much as you-PL want’ .
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Иагьа/Егьа аџьа ибазаргьы, амыдаҕьцәа ҧшааны, амшын ды ӡхьтит ‘ However grcal ihe toil (аџьа) he witnessed (= Despite all difficulties), he found the shell and passed over (азхыҵра)’ the sea' When reference is to the past, иагьа/егьа may be combined with the Optative, suffixed again with -гьы, as in: Иагьа/Егьа иҽишәанда(з)гьы, имбеит ‘ However much he tried, he didn’t/couldn’t see it/them' Иагьа/Егьа иҽишәанда(з)гьы, уаанза дзымнеит ‘ However much he tried, he couldn’t gel there’ Иагьа/Егьа аџьа ибанда(з)гьы, амыдаҕьцәа ҧшааны, амшын дыӡхыҵит ‘ However great the toil (аџьа) he witnessed (= Despite all difficulties), he found the shell and passed over the sea’ Иагьа/Егьа зу(за)ргьы/зунда(з)гьы, с(ы)умышьтит ‘No matter whai I did, you didn’t let me go’ Иагьа/Егьа иу(за)ргьы/иунда(з)гьы, изеитамгеит атекст ‘Try as he might, he could nol translate (]а]аиҭагара) ihe text’ The element иагьа/егьа is found in two compounds: иагьараан/егьараан and иагьаџьара/егьаџьара, where the clement -аан refers lo time and -џьара refers to place, as seen in: Иагьараан/Егьараан дызбахьан ‘ I had seen him/her many times’ Иагьаџьара/Егьаџьара дызбахьан ‘I had seen him/her in many places’ However, when coupled with a protasis-form suffixed with -гьы, these compounds also produce indefinite expressions, as in: Иагьараан/Егьараан унеиргьы, у(бр)и у(бр)а дыкоуп ‘Wheneveryou-MASC go/one goes, that person is there’ Иагьаџьара/Егьаџьара дцаргьы, дрыҧшаауеит ‘Wherever (s)he goes, they find him/her' (c) Adverbs The following indefinite adverbs exist: ианакәзаалак(ь)/ианакәзаалакгьы ‘at any time; always’ ; иахьабалак(ь) ‘everywhere’ ; иахьакәзаалак(ь)/иахьакәзаалакгьы ‘at 7 Where -п(ы)- is Ihe rool and - 3ХЫ- the compound prevcrb.
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any place, wherever i( mighl be’ ; ишакәзаалак(ь)/ишакәзаалакгьы 'somehow or other’"; ишабалак(ь) ‘any old how’ , as exemplified by: Ианакәзаалак(ь)/Ианакәзаалакгьы даҵамхацызт "(S)Hc had never been defeated (anaxapa)’ Ианакәзаалак(ь)/Ианакәзаалакгьы ибзианы иҵон ‘ He always studied w ell’ Иаха иахьабалак(ь) ақәа леит ‘Last night rain came down everywhere’ Иахьакәзаалак(ь)/Иахьакәзаалакгьы џьара и(ы)убахьоума а(бр)и ааыза? ‘Have you-MASC anywhere seen the like o f this, wherever il mighl be?’ Иахьакәзаалак(ь)/Иахьакәзаалакгьы џьара иҧшаатә(ы)уп ‘ It is/They are lo be found somewhere, wherever it might be’ Ишакәзаалак(ь)/Ишакәзаалакгьы иҧсы ҭаны дааит ‘Somehow or other he got here alive’ А(б)ри атекст ишабалак(ь) (и)еитаугар ауӡом ‘ You-MASC/One can’t translate this text any old how’ Cf. иабалак(ь)/иабалакгьы, which, despite seeming formally lo belong here, behaves more like an indefinite pronoun ‘any old thing’ , as in: Иабалак(ь)/Иабалакгьы иҳәо(и)т ‘He says any old thing = prattles/talks nonsense’
‘In case...’ Abkhaz expresses the notion ‘ in case...’ by optionally placing ма ‘or’ after the interrogative издыруада ‘who knows?’ ; this sequence is then followed by the appropriate protasis-form o f the verb in question plus the speech-particlc ҳәа, as in: У(бр)и акынтә, издыруада (ма) а(б)ри аҿы иаҧхьар хәа а(б)ра ианысцоит ‘Therefore I include (анцара) il here in case people read it in this (article)’ Издыруада (ма) шьҭыбжьык саҳауазар ҳәа дӡырауа днатәеит ‘(S)he sat down listening (аӡырара) in case (s)he might hear a sound (ашьҭыбжь) (literally: ...if I mighl hear a sound, saying)’
‘ Have no option but to ...’ * Cf. ишакәхалак(ь)/ишакәхалакгьы ‘ somehow or olher’, as in: Ишакәхалак(ь)/Ишакәхалакгьы деиқәхент ‘Somehow or olhcr (s)he survived (аиқәхара)’ , where -xa- is the rool and -аико- the compound-prevcrb.
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The notion ‘X has nol option but lo VER B.,.’ is expressed by saying ‘ X does not obtain any possibilily/means (аҧсыхәа) apart from (ада) if X does nol VERB’ , though (he postposition may be omitted, as in: Исымшьыр ада ҧсыхәа смоузт, исшьит ‘ I had no option but to kill il/lhcm, and I killed il/lhcm’ Арашәара сызҿыз салымгар ҧсыхәа сымамызт ‘ I had no option but lo complete the weeding in which I was engaged'
Echo-questions When one is not certain one has correctly heard something, one can question il, either by putting the verb into its interrogative form or by leaving it in the form thought to have been heard, and then adding Ihe free-standing element 6 a, which could be translated as ‘did you say?’9, e.g. Ҳаыза Ҭырқәтәылака иахьа дхынхәуеит. Иахьа дхынҳәуеит/дхынх.әуама ба? ‘Our friend returns to Turkey today. He retums/Does he return today, did you say?’ I f one needs to ask for confirmation that a particular referent has been correctly identified, then the suffix -(ы)у is attached to the queried item, which carries a fall-rising pitch, e.g. Ашәкәы сыҭ. А(б)ри(ы)у? ‘Give me the book. This one?’ Иахьа дцо(и)т. Иахьоу? ‘(S)He is going today. Today?’ If one wishes lo embed a question under the verb o f saying after ihe pattern o f ‘What IQUESTION] did X say?’ , then one asks the basic question in the normal way and places the prefix 3- before the agcnl-affix in the non-finite form o f the verb ‘say’ (in the appropriate tense), the speech-particle қәа being an optional extra, as in: Иеимаркз(е)и/Иеимарки (хла) зырҳәа(з)? ‘What did they say they argued about (аимакра)?’ Иарбан сааҭ(ы)у зыбхәа(з) амаа банықәло (хәа)? ‘ What time did you-FEM say (it is when) you arc setting o ff (амаа ақәлара)?’
“ Alternatively, the full equivalent оГ ‘ Did you say (then)?’ (viz. (и)б\оама (нас), (и(ы))ухоама (нас). (и)шәҳоама (нас), as appropriate) can be used. And a further alternative would be to placc акз(ы)у((ы)у) ‘ is il (the case)?' after repealing Ihc vcrb-phrase concerned.
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Noie lhal, as the verb of saying is involved here, the construction o f direct spcech can be employed lo represent the verbal aclion being queried. In this case the last example would read as follows: Иарбан сааҭ(ы)у амва сықәло(и)т (хәа) зыбҳәа(з)? where the subjcct o f the lower verb is now, naturally, I *1 rather than 2 ni1 person. N.B. The simple way o f asking 'A t what lime VERB-PHRASE?’ is lo combine the word зыҧшааны wilh the relevant verb taking on the form o f a WH-quesiion based on a non-human entity, e.g. Зыҧшааны угылеи? ‘(At) What time did you get up?’ How lo explain the form зыҧшааны? Il must be an abbreviated adverb in -ны, based on the sequcncc изеиҧш аамҭазы ‘at a time like which’ . Another question based on |а]аамта ‘time’ is шаҟа аамҭа ‘(for) how long?’, e.g. Шака аамҭа иаанхеи? ®мыз инареиханы иаанхеит ‘(For) How long did they slay (аанхара)? They stayed for over (ина-еиханы ) 10 two months’
Affixes There remain lo be introduced a number of affixes (prefixes or suffixes). Some o f these might have been encountered as part o f lexical items in previous lessons without any specific explanation being offered o f their function. Three suffixes w ill be explained below lo conclude this lesson; the rest w ill form the conlcnl o f Lesson 19. (i) -шьа Suffixing -шьа to the root o f a verb produces a deverbal noun meaning ‘ manner of VERBing’, as in: Ирымҭар амуит, мап ахәашьа рзыкамҵеит 'II was impossible for them nol to give il to him; they couldn’ t devise any way o f saying “ no” ’ (from ахәара ‘say’) Џьаргьы цашьа имаӡам ‘He has no way o f going anywhere’ (from ацара ‘go’) Ацыркь икәашашьа уҽанраал! ‘Conform to (literally: make -p- your-MASC ys e lf-ҽ- comc -aa- into -л (а )-" line - h - wilh it -a-) the way o f dancing o f a cripple (ацыркь) (lo a man)!' (from акәашара ‘dance’)
A pseudo-postposition, being the Stativc Absolute formed from еиха ‘ more than'.
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Уныкоашьала уздырит ‘ I rccogniscd you-MASC by ihc way you walk’ (from аныкәара ‘walk’) (ii) -(р)та/тра The suffix -xa is found allachcd lo some nouns lo indicalc Ihc placc they are loealed. From the river Bzyp in northern Abkhazia is formed the villagc-namc Бзыҧҭа, which stands by the river's oullcl into the Black Sea. Though the proto-North West Caucasian root for ‘ water; river’, namely
-Ҧ С-,
is no longer used to denote ‘ water; river’ in Abkhaz,
it survives in аҧсҭа ‘ valley’ (the place where river-beds arc commonly found). We also see the suffix in the toponym Гәдоуҭа ‘Gudaula' and the hydronym Мзымҭа ‘Mzymta’, which was ihe traditional northern border between Abkhazia and Ubykh territory in the north. However, the variani-forms arc more productive; -ҭра or -рҭа being added lo noun-rools, -рта to verbal roots, both indicating the place designated for the root in question, e.g. аҧараҭра ‘ wallet, purse’ (from аҧара ‘money’) ашәкәыҭра ‘bag for carrying books’ (from ашәкәы ‘book’ ) аҧшырта ‘maize-field’ (from аҧш ‘ maize’) аҧсырта ‘place o f death, fatal spot’ (from аҧсра ‘die’) амац(ы)урта ‘ kitchen = place o f service’ (from амаҵ(ы)ура ‘ serve’, cf. аҧсадгьыл амаҵ иуеит ‘ He serves the country (аҧсадгьыл) = does the country’s service’) аус(ы)урта ‘place o f work’ (from aye ‘work’ + aypa 'do’ ) акрыфарҭа ‘eatery’ (from акрыфара ‘eat’) аиҿцәажәарҭа ‘place for making irunk-phone-calls' (from аиҿцәажәара ‘talk face to face, negotiate’) адкыларта ‘reception’ (from адкылара ‘receivc’ ) (iii) -xa There is a verbal root -xa- which we have already met in the meaning ‘ become’ , which seems lo be the formant occasionally met in such formations as: Дааҧсаха дааит ‘(S)Hc came in an exhausted state’
" This element is actually a root-suffix, but in origin il w ill no doubl have been associated wilh Ihc prevcrb meaning ‘ in(U>)'.
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The vcrb-raot lo which il here allachcs is -ааҧса-, as in Дааҧсеиг ‘(S)Hc gol lircd (and thus is now lircd)1. Sincc il is possible lo add Ihe Absolulc ending -ны lo such formations, il is nol dear whether Ihcy arc lo be analysed as a kind o f adverb in -xa or as a shortened version o f ihc Absolute.
Exercises Translate into English 1. Ампыл шака/зака илас(ы)у ма ихьанҭазаалакгьы, азҕабцәа иркуеит = Ампыл шака/зака иласызаалакгьы ма ихьантазаалакгьы, аӡҕабцәа иркуеит. 2. У(ба)рҭ рзы, иагьа/егьа сымазаргьы, акы сеигӡарыма? (аигӡара = ‘be sparing оГ). 3. Амшын уанҭалалакгьы, аҧсыӡ хәычқәа ушьапқәа ирыцҳауа иалагоит. 4. Аҧсны хара ҳкынтә иагьа/егьа хара иказаргьы, қара иаҳзааигәоуп. 5. Уацәы иаараны икоу зусҭцәада зышәхәа? 6.
Амшын аҵан акәзаргьы, сара исымбарц, исымҧшаарц зыкалаӡом.
Иахьыказаалакь, ашәындыкәра (chcsl) итазаргьы, уааы имбаӡакәа(н), сара иаазго(и)т. 7. У(бр)и аҽны аус ахьырымуаз азы, сыҧшәма лаҳәшьа ааныка дыхнымҳәыр ада ҧсыхәа лмоуит. 8.
Иани иаби у(ба)с дырқьынцыцны (арқьынцыцра = ‘pamper, spoil', a causative
verb) драаӡон, инапы шьҭыхны изакаразаалакь ак кеиҵомызт у(бр)и. 9. Иани иаби иагьа/егьа рунда(з)гьы, аҷкәын аҳақьым икны дрызнамгеит. 10. Издыруада (ма) Аҧсны интересс измақәоу атәымуаа иаахәаны рхы иадырхәарц рҭаххозар хәа изауеит а(б)ри ашәкәы.
Translate into Abkhaz 1. At whal time did we say we have lo go lo the market? 2. Whenever your-PL guests decidc lo go home, I shall lake them by car. 3. Whoever he is, you-FEM can’ t leave him here. 4. Try as they might, the children could nol catch the mouse. 5. Whatever they did yesterday, whal happened here now is nol their fault.
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6.
1 was left with no option but to tell your-MASC father whal you did al school.
7. Wherever I go, the places are full o f people. 8.
Although students should nol dress any old way, that is how they dress in England.
9. I f you-MASC wash the car. I ’ll give you ten roubles. The red one? 10. Under whichever Iree they are sitting, we’ll find them.
Translate into English
Зуалҧшьа ламысла иназыгӡаз арҵааы “ Арҵаоы бзиа адабырг аҧшаашьа уирҭоит ”
12
(А. Дистверг)
Милатс дзеиуазаалакь, маҭәарс идирцозаалакь, ар-цааы дыриаоызароуп (и)еиҵаиаазо абиҧара рҿаҧхьа. Уи еснагь дҿырҧшыгазароуп, аҵабырг аҳәашьа дирцозароуп. Гәык-ҧсык ала арҵаора зҽазызкыз ауааы, егьа уадаоратә маа данысыргьы ицәыуадаа(ы)уп изанаат аҧсахра. Убас еиҧш аҭоурыхтә еилааасрақәа (= еила-аеиласрақәа) акырынтә изхызгахьоу дреиуоуп аҵара-аазараҿ акыр аџьабаа д(ы)у збахьоу Нуца Гьаргь-иҧха Аршба. Нуца дышқәыҧшзаз, 1949 ш., ардааратә дара даналга, Гал араион ашка ддәыкәҵан13. Нариџьевантәи алагарҭатә школ акноуп арцааратә казара нап(ы) ахьалыркыз. 1954 шыкәсазы аҭаацәара далалеит. Убри аҟнытә лус(ы)урта аҭыҧгьы лыҧсахит. Диасуеит Дихазургатәи бжь-шықәсатәи ашкол ахь. Аус луан иара убас Речхьтәи алагарҭатә школ аҿгьы. 1969 ш. раахыс аус луан Сабериатәи абжьаратә школ 2 акны. Ақыртуа-аҧсуа еибашьра калаан^а ақырҭуа школқәа рҿы аурыс бызшәа иалырҧхьон, аха аибашьра ашьҭахь аҧсуа бызшәа рырҵара14 далагоит.
12 A preferable verb here would be уақәиршао(и)т.
This is the past tense o f Ihe Slalive form o f ihe verb that means in its Dynamic guise ‘despatch’ . MThe original text has дырҵара, wilh shift o f -p- to -д- in the presence o f the causative-prefix, as though ihis Masdar were a finite form.
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2002 шықәсазы раҧхьаӡа дызбеит ари арцавы-аамсҭашәа Галтәи аиара акәшаҿы. Лцәажәашьа, лычқара, лырцааратә казара исхамыштуа, сызҿыҧшуа хаҿсахьаны егәаҿы иаанхеит. 60 шықәса инарзынаҧшуа даҽа милаҭк аус рыцызуаз, ирыцынхоз, адыхәтәантәи ашықәсқәа рзы аполитикатә ҭагылазаашьа бааҧсы аныказгьы Нуца Гьаргь-иҧха дахӡызаауа имааҧылгон л-Аҧсуара, дызлацәажәо лбызшәа ссир ахаҭыр шьҭылхуан. Уи аус лыцыз(ы)ухьоу лаызцәа излахархәаз ала, лара казшьас илымамызт лыбжьы харакны ацәажәара, ҭынч-ҭынч идеиллыркаауан дас(ы)у дахьиашамыз. Убри алагьы дызлаз рҿаҧхьа лмилат-хаҿра ҳаралкуан. Н. Гь. Аршба лдырреи лылшареи аҿар рааӡара иазылкит. Зныкымкәа Аҧсны Аихабыра, Аҵара Аминистрра, араион Ахадара лус(ы)ура ахә харакны иршьахьан. Иланаршьахьан (и)еиуеиҧшым аҳаҭыртә хамҭақәа, аха урт зегь реиҳа ахә харакны илшьоит анцәа илаҭәеишьаз хә-аык ахшара дахьран(ы)у азы аиҳабыра иланаршьаз амедал Анразы. Иахьа (и)еиҵаҭәы икоу лҭааиәара д(ы)у, лыхшареи лмоҭацәеи дрылагәырҕьо дрылоуп.
Аҧсуаа ирҳәоит Абырфын егьа ихаргьы, ишбырфын(ы)у иаанхоит хәа. Убас ауп Нуца Гьаргь-иҧхагьы лықәра ишақәнамго еиҧш дыҧшӡаза, дахкәажәха 15 дшыкоу. Араион Ахадара, аҵара акәша, арцаацәа
з е гь ы гә ы к- ҧ с ы к
ала
илыдаҳныҳәалоит лиубилеи. Илзеиҕьақшьоит агәабзиара ҕәҕәа зц(ы)у аҧсуа қәра д(ы)у, анаҭалатәи алахҿыхреи агәаҳәареи.
Џь. Чарқазиа-ҧха Гал араион аҵара акәша аиҳабы ихаҭыҧуааы. (Article from the Abkhaz-Mingrelian-Russian newspaper ‘Gal’ 3 (67), April 2008, p.2)
Vocabulary ауал_____________ debt, duty__________ ина-зынаҧшуа 15 The Absolute ending -ны may be added.
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approaching, getting
аҧшьа аламыс анагӡара
blessed, holy conscience fu lfil
ацыхәтәантәи атагылазаашьа ахӡызаара
аиабырг
truth 16
амааҧгара
амилат
nation
[а]Аҧсуара
амаҭәар [а)аиҵ(а)аазара |а|абиҧара -ҿаҧхьа еснагь аҿырҧшыга ауадааатә
аказшьа
анысра
subject nurture, raise generation before, in front of always, ever exemplary problematic, difficult travel along
азанааҭ аҧсахра
profession change
[а]аилааасра акырынтә аџьабаа
Ахадара ашьара анашьара17
ақәыҧш(за) алагарҭатә ариааратә
upheaval, turmoil several times toil, labour, difficulty (young) adolescent primary pedagogical
аказара аҭаацәара аиасра абжьаратә раҧхьаӡа
talent, gift family move over19 middlefor the first time
амота абырфын ахара ақәра
|а]аамсҭашәа акәша ачҳара
cultivated, noble department patience, tolerance
ахкәажә аанаҭалатәи алахҿыхра
(и)ҳаракны ТЫ НЧ-ҬЫНЧ
дас(ы)у/доус(ы)у ахаҿра аҳаракра аҿар зныкымкәа (аынтәымкәа) [а]аихабыра Адара Аминистрра
ахаҭыртә [а]анра [а)аидаҭә
аҧшӡа(за)
on for (o f lime) last, most recent situation worry over, look on with concern organise, conduct, lead Abkhazian codc o f living character high(ly), loud(ly) quietly, calmly each face, appearance hold high, elevate youth more than once government Ministry of Education headship, leadership assess, evaluate bestow upon respectful motherhood filled out and plentiful (and thus blessed) grandchild'" silk wear out age (extremely) beautiful noblewoman, lady domestic cheerfulness
'* Two dictionaries consulted place the stress in this word on the second syllable: two others placc il on the third syllable. My main informant prefers it on Ihe first syllabic! ,7This is a verb where the indircct/oblique object is governed in the verb-form by the prefix -a-. The word is a borrowing from Mingrelian. 14 The rool is -с(ы)-, whilst -иа- is the prevcrb.
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аҿыҧшра ахаҿсахьа
look on as an example*’ form, shape, face
агәаҳәара
ardour, inspiration
ахаҭыҧуааы
deputy
“ The root is -ҧш(ы)-, whilst -ҿ(ы)- is the preverb.
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Lesson 19
In this lesson you w ill learn about: • Remaining affixes: (a) Nominal; (b) Verbal; (c) Adverbial * A final colloquialism
Remaining Affixes (a) Nominal (i) -ra This suffix, added to the root o f a verb, indicates the instrument with which the verbal action is carried out, e.g. ааыга ‘writing implement' (from aapa ‘write’ , though аручка from Russian is more widely used) аҳәынаҧшьыга ‘ mouse-poison’ (from ахәынаҧ ‘ mouse’ + ашьра ‘ k ill’ ) (= аҵармақь) ажәга ‘drinking vessel’ (from ажәра ‘drink’) ажәыга ‘cooking vessel’ (from ажәра ‘cook’ ) ашьахага = ахнышьаҳага ‘halter’ (from ашьахара ‘ hobble’; cf. Аҽы ашьаҳага/ ахнышьаҳага ҧсыртлеит ‘ I untied (аҧыртлара)' the horse’s halter’) агҕырхага ‘obstacle’ (seemingly from аҧырахара ‘to become -xa- in front of/hindrance to -ҧыра-’ ; cf. аҧырхагазаара ‘ be obstacle to’) (ii) -аы This suffix, already met in ауааы ‘ man’ and in a number o f words (like cardinals) designating humans (cf. егьааы ‘many (people)’), when added to the root o f a verb, indicates the agent who carries out the verbal action, e.g. ателехәаҧшаы ‘TV-viewer’ (from ахәаҧшра ‘watch’ , plural ателехәаҧшцәа) азырааы ‘ listener’ (froma^bipopa ‘listen’ ) ашәкәыаоы ‘writer’ (from ашәкәы ‘book’ + aapa ‘ write’ , plural ашәкәыаацәа) ашәкәыҭыжьаы ‘publisher’ (from аҭыжьра ‘publish’ ; N.B. иҭсыжьит ‘ 1 published it/them’) 1 Where the root is -т(ы)-, -ҧы- the preverb, -p- ihc causative marker, and -ла- the root-suffix.
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аҧсы^квы ‘ fisherman’ (from аҧсыз ‘ fish' + акра ‘catch’ ) (iii) -pa We know that this suffix forms Ihc verbal noun (or Masdar) for vcrb-rools. The rool is also used lo form abstract nouns, e.g. абзиара ‘ goodness; good deed' (from абзиа ‘good’ ) ацәгьара ‘ badness; bad deed’ (from ацәгьа ‘bad’ ) алашьцара ‘darkness’ (from алашьца ‘dark’ , from алаша ‘ light’ + -да ‘without’ ) алашәра ‘ blindness’ (from алашә ‘ blind’ ) анасыҧдара ‘ unhappiness’ (from анасыҧда ‘ unhappy’ , from анасыҧ2 ‘ happiness’ + -да ‘without’) ацәаакыра ‘humidity, dampness, wetness' (from ацәаак ‘damp, humid, wet’ : cf. ацәаакра ‘get damp/wel") (iv) -мҭа This suffix is attached to a verb-root in order to form a noun signifying the product of the said verbal action, e.g. ааымҭа ‘ written work’ (from aapa ‘write’ , as in: ашәкәыааы иаымҭақәа реизга ‘collcction o f the writer’s works') аус(ы)умҭа ‘ work’ (from аус(ы)ура ‘work’, as in: кавказтәи абызшәақәа рыҭҵаара иазк(ы)у аус(ы)умҭақәа ‘ works dedicated to the study o f the Caucasian languages’ ) ахысымҭа ‘shot’ (from ахысра ‘shoot’, as in: Ихысымҭа ауааы дагеит ‘ His shot carried off/killed a man’ ) атыжьымҭа ‘publication, broadcast’ (from аҭыжьра ‘ publish, broadcast’) алагамҭа ‘ start, beginning’ (from алагара ‘start, begin’ ) алгамҭа ‘end, conclusion’ (from алгара ‘end’ ) (v) -тә(ы)
2 N.B. насыҧны ‘happily’.
' Another case where we see a different pattern o f stress between the Masdar and Ihc ordinary noun is illustrated by: ахшара ‘give birth lo' vs ахшара ‘offspring’ , and another would be азҵаара ‘question’ as noun vs азҵаара ‘question’ as verb.
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Wc have met this suffix as a formant o f adjcctivcs meaning ‘ pertaining to’ and of gerundives (i.e. verbal adjectives meaning ‘ that which is to VERB/be VERBcd’). The latter type o f adjcclive can easily be used as nouns, e.g. абылтәы ‘ that which is to be burned = fuel = petrol’ афатә ‘ food’ (from афара ‘cat’ ) арыжәтә ‘drink’ (seemingly from the causative a ржәра ‘ make drink’) ацәашәҵатәы/ацәашәҵатә ‘clothing’ (from ацәа ‘skin’ + ашәҵара ‘put on') аџьашьатә/аџьашьатәы ‘ that which causes surprise; surprising = miracle’ ) (vi) -хә The nominal root from ахәы ‘part, portion’ serves as a (?pseudo-)suffix in a few words, cf. аџьашьахә/аџьашьахәы ‘miracle’ (Is the element -хәа, seen in the variant аџьашьахәатә, the same suffix?) амаҭәахә ‘ material’ (from аматәа ‘clothing; thing’ , as in: аргыларатә маҭәахәы ‘building material’) ачысхә ‘part o f one’s diet’ (from ачыс ‘ food, cuisine’, as in: У(бр)и ҳара иахчысхәым ‘We don’t eat that = That is not part o f our food’) аҧсхәы ‘(either the 40lh-day or year’ s) commemoration o f a death’ (from аҧсы ‘the deceased’ , as in: Аҧсхәы руит ‘They performed/held the 40,h-day commemoration’) Угәырҕьахә ҳаҳааит! ‘Let il be that wc hear something joyful about you-MASC!’ (said o f someone setting o ff on a long journey; from агәырҕьара ‘ rejoice’), where Угәыр 5 ьаӡ хах.ааит! is also possible (N.B. the adjectival usage seen in ажәабжь гәырҕьахә ‘joyful news’) (vii) -x(a) Given that the root for ‘go’ is -ца-, that the verb ‘(go) hunting’ is ашәарацара or ашәарыцара, and that the noun for ‘prey, game’ is ашәарах, it is reasonable to conclude that wc have a suffix -x, whose function is to derive a noun from a verb. Is this the same suffix which appears as an addition sometimes to the root and sometimes to the ending forming the Masdar (-pa) either in the same form or with the addition o f the open
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vowel in association wilh Ihc prefix цы- (of uncertain meaning) in such dcvcrbal nouns as the following, all indicating some remnant o f the action indicated by the verbal rool? ацызәӡәарах (cf. азәӡәара ‘ wash') or аиырзәӡәах(а) ‘soapy water in which someone has washed’ (cf. У(ба)с дыҧшӡоуп, лцырзәӡәах ужәып ‘She is so beautiful, you-MASC/one would drink the water in which she’ s bathed’ ) ацыжәжәах(а) = ацыҧжәаха ‘ strip, tom o ff piece (of paper or cloth)' (cf. ажәжәара ‘ tear to pieces’ and аҧжәара ‘ tear’ , where -ҧ(ы)- is a preverb) ацыжәха ‘dregs, remains o f a drink left in the glass' (cf. ажәра ‘drink’ ) ацыфаха ‘left-over food’ (cf. афара ‘eat’) ацыҧцәаха ‘ fragment, brokcn/cut o ff piece’ (cf. аҧҵәара ‘break, snap’ , where -ҧ(ы)- is a prcverb) Ацынпәарах This is the title coined for perhaps his most widely known work, a novel about the last speaker of the Ubykh language, by the late Bagrat Shinkuba. The novel's standard rendition in English is ‘The Last of the Departed’ (cf. анцәара ‘end, perish, die out’, where -н(ы)- is a preverb) Is the цы-prefix here related lo the noun ацыра ‘one (unit of)’ ? Cf. the usage of this noun exemplified by the following: X-paca цырак сымоуп 'I have three nuts (apaca)' Ҧш-цырак ҧхасҭеимтәит ‘He didn’t damage (= let go to waste) a single grain of maize’ Цьыка цырак сымам ‘ I don’t have a grain o f salt (аџьыка)’ Note also the occasionally used suffix -ц meaning ‘a single X ', as in: ашьхац/ашьхыц ‘ individual bee’ (from ашьха ‘ bee’) абҕьыц ‘single leaf/sheet (o f paper)’ (from абҕьы ЧеаГ; бҕьыцк ‘one single sheet’) арасац ‘single nut' (from apaca ‘ nut’ ; cf. Ҷышәшәына лзы x-pacaцк ‘Three nuts for Cinderella') Note also in аҧҽха or аҧыҽха ‘ fragment, shard’ from аҧҽра ‘break, shatier’ (where the clement -ҧ(ы)- is the prevcrb), the suffix -xa is used by itself. (viii) -xaAttached to a verbal root, this suffix provides the noun signifying ‘time to VERB’ , as in:
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Иажәа/Иацәажәара алгаха имҭакәа(н), хдәылдит ‘Without giving him lime to complete his spccch, wc went out’ (from алгара ‘finish, complete’ ) Аҳәаха лымтакәа(н), ашә асыркит ‘Without giving her time lo speak, I shut the door’ (from ахәара ‘say’ ) In the ease o f the next two examples, both o f which have lo do with time (specifically old age), it is not clear thal wc are dealing with the same suffix as the one just exemplified. For one thing, the suffix below attaches respectively lo an adjective and a noun, and Ihe marker -мҭа is already there to signal the result o f the verb [а|ажәра ‘grow old’ , namely ‘old age’ , cf. Абас иажәымҭа шкәакәаха дымааргеит ‘Thus did they convey (амаагара) him into his while old age' Сажәымтыҽха ‘ in my old age’ (b) Verbal (ix) -гәышьаThis verbal suffix stands aflcr the rool and before any lense-marker thal might be present. It adds a comment o f pity about one o f the verbal arguments, and so il can either be translated along the lines o f ‘poor thing(s)’ (as in the first two examples below) or as an adverb on the whole verb-phrase along the lines o f ‘ sadly, tragically' (as in the third example, where one could have used the self-standing рыцҳарыла ‘sadly’ instead): Амаҭ акны уареи сареи их,амчгәышьоуз(е)и/их.амчгәышьои?‘ Against the snake what power do you-MASC and 1 have, wretches that we are?’ Акыр сымчзар, хеигзашьа касҵагәышьомызт ‘ I f I had sufficient strength, wretch thal I am, there’s no way I ’d spare myself (literally: 1 would nol commit any manner of self-preservation (ахы аигзара)'1)’ Аибашьра аан дҭахагәышьеит иҷкәын заҵә ‘Tragically, Ills only (азаҵә) son fell (axaxapa) 5 during the wat*” (x) -аиҭа-
' СГ. Ухы уамеигӡан! ‘ Don't spare yourself (to a man)!’ . Where -xa- is the root and -та- the proverb. 1111 is possible to run the two words together to produce Амбашьраан.
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This verbal prcllx, which is also found as a free-standing adverb, adds Ihc meaning ‘again'. It stands after ihe verb’s Column I prefix and before any Column 2 prefix thal may be present, e.g. Беиҭачмазаахазшәа бышьҭал ‘ Lie down as though you-FEM have become sick again! 1 It cun be reinforced by the suffix -x-, which stands before any lense-marker in the verbform, e.g. Зегьы еиҭагылах(и)т ‘Everybody stood up again1 (xi) -xThe suffix , which stands after the verbal root and before any tense-marker, has a number o f meanings. It can, as just seen, indicate ‘again, further’ , e.g. Иаргьы уаҳа наилымшахуа дшыказгьы, дцан, ӡыхьк ҧшааны илзааигеит ‘ Although he loo was in a slate whereby again he could do nothing further, he went, found a spring, and fetched it [the spring-wateri to her’ Ҳаибабахп ‘We shall meet (each olher) again, then’ And two further examples o f its combination with the prefix -аита-, which stands after Ihc Column 1 pronominal prefix, would be: Ҳаиҭеибабахп ‘ We shall meet (each other) again, then' Деиҭацах(и)т ‘ (S)He went again’ In questions it equates to the English intensifies ‘on earth; pray; really’ , as in: Аџьнышцәа ран дааизар, ахәычы дабакахыз?! ‘ As soon as the mother o f the evil spirits came, where, pray, was the child?! (sc. It was gone)’ Шака/Зака мшы уи цәырымҵкәа икази, шака/зака аамҭа еиҭа ақәҧара аҽазыканаҵози здырхуада? ‘Who on earth knows both how many days it had nol emerged (literally: been without emerging (ацәырҵра)) and how long it was preparing to attack (ақәҧара) again (еиҭа)? (sc. Nobody knows)’ Ayaa ччиа абрака даазгагәышьахуазеи? ‘ What, pray, would have brought a wretched (аччиа) mortal here, poor thing that he is?’ , where we see two o f the suffixes introduced in this lesson used side by side Уцаны уеибганы узаахуама? ‘ Having gone, w ill you-MASC really be able lo come back whole/unharmed (аибга)?’
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Икардахуеиз? ‘Whal on earth were Ihey lo do/have done?’ , which is an cxumple lhal preserves ihe interrogative suffix -и- before the non-finite ending; this element is normally lost, giving rise to the lengthening o f ihc preceding vowel, as explained in an earlier lesson, namely: Икарҵахуаз?, with ihe final syllabic pronounced |waaz| It is also combined in a supportive role wilh the verbal prefix to be described next. (xii) -а(ы)у The prefix -а(ы)у-, standing after the Column I pronominal ргеПх and before any Column 2 prefix thal may be present, is placed wilhin a non-finite complex lo form a rhetorical question. The prefix can fu lfil this function alone but may be supported by the suffix -X -, which stands in front o f any lense-suffix that may be present, e.g. Аџьмақәа, рхала абгад(ы)у изазымиааизаргьы, зынӡа иа(ы)угаӡакәаз, даҽа бзиаракгьы ацырҵарц рызбеит ‘The goats (аџьма), even i f they were unable themselves to gain a victory over (азиааира) the w o lf (абгад(ы)у) - after all, they weren’t complete(ly) (зынӡа) idiots (агаӡа), were they? - decided lo add to (ацҵра) il yel another good thing’ Ахәынткар кәыҕа иауимдырхуаз ан лгәыбылра шака амч амоу? ‘ Did the wise (акәыҕа) ruler (аҳәынткар) really not know 7 the power o f a mother's love (агәыбылра)? = O f course he understood it’ (xiii) -еи This suffix is added to a finite verb-form when the speaker is stressing that some aclion has already been carried out or some state o f affairs already exists, and therefore no further aclion is necessary in the speaker’s opinion, as in: У(бр)и ашәкәы сырраа. Избан? Ибымоупеи! ‘ Lend (арраара)8 me thal book. Why? You-FEM HAVE it’ Ахәыҷқәа yaxa акино ахь ицо(и)т. Axa у(бр)и афильм рбахьеитеи ‘The children arc going lo the cinema tonight. But they’ ve already SEEN that film ’ (xiv) -жь-
7 Nolc lhal, despile Ihc fact lhal Ihc verb ‘ know' is negated, as Ihc meaning is nol fundamentally negative
(for Ihc question is rhclorical and underlines lhal the ruler really did have the requisite knowledge), the subject is nol 'demoted' to he governed by the potential prefix -з(ы)-, as happens when this verb is truly negated. The same lack of the potential prefix, despite Ihc presence оГ the negative marker, occurs when the question is one that presumes a positive reply, viz. Ибымдыруеи? ‘ You-FEM know (it/them), don’l you?’ . " Also possible for Ihc Imperative in the example is исраа ‘ lend it/lhem lo me!’ from the Masdar ираара.
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This verbal suffix, which seems lo attach lo only one root, namely the Slativc root -ма- 'have', serves to underline the large quantity in which the possessed argument is present for the possessor, e.g. Амал рымажьуп ‘They have wealth (амал) in abundance' (x v )-қәаIn addition lo its role as the normal pluraliscr for non-human nouns, we have already met -қәа- as the verbal suffix whose function is lo pluralise Ihe relativised argument in a relative structure, as seen here again in: А(б)ри адауы Гәында-ҧшӡа илышьтақәаз дреиуазаап ‘This ogre (адауы) is apparently one o f those who was on Ihe heels o f Gunda the Beautiful’ It can also serve lo indicate lhat the verbal aclion is carried out more than once, as in: Ayaa днаразҵаа-ааразҵаақәеит ‘ (S)he asked a multitude o f folk about it all over the place (на...аа...)’ Знызынла саызцәа збақәо(и)т ‘ From lime lo lime (знызынла) I see my friends’ In this function il is close to the verbal suffix marking iterativily or habitual aspect, namely -ла- (see below), which may be used in the example just presented either as replacement for the affix illustrated there or indeed alongside il, e.g. Знызынла саызцәа збало(и)т/збақәало(и)т ‘ From time to time (знызынла) I sec my friends' (xvi) -цәаIn addition lo its role as the normal pluraliser for human nouns, the suffix -цәа- also serves as a verbal suffix; placed after the rool o f a Slativc verb, it indicates an excessive degree, e.g. Ацәқәырҧақәа ҕәҕәацәан амшын аҭаларазы/сҭаларц азы/сҭаларазы ‘The waves (ацәқәырҧа) were too strong lo go into the sea/for me lo go into the sea’ Ааны аӡәгьы ҳамгылацызт, макьана шьыжьцәан ‘None o f us at home had got up; it was slill loo early in the morning (ашьыжь)’
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Амацәаз смацәазнацәазы ид(ы)уцәан ‘The ring (амацәаз) was too big for my ring-finger (амацәазнацәа)4’ (xvii) -лаThe verbal suffix -ла-, which is nol to be confused wilh ihc homonymous rool-suffix used to underline the allative/illalive force o f some preverbs, can be placcd after the root and before any tense-marker thal may be present lo indicalc itcralivity or habiluality of the verbal action, e.g. Сшәыхәоит иасқьынгьы/есқьынгьы бзиа шәеибабаларц‘ 1 urge you-PL always (иаскьынгьы/есқьынгьы) lo love one another' Быфатә capa снапала ибзаазгало(и)т ‘I ’ ll be fetching you-FEM your food with my own hand’ Шәарыцара сцалап, шәарах жьыла бсырчалап ‘I ’ ll be going hunting (ашәарыцара) [and] feeding (арчара ) 10 you-FEM with game (ашәарах) flesh/meal (ажьы)’ Саб иакәын шаанза игылылоз, аҧацхаҿы амца хәажжаӡа иеикәызҵалоз ‘My father was the one who regularly rose before the sun rose (ашара) [and] lit (аиқәиара) the fire in the palsxa all in a blaze (хәажжаза)’ As explained in an earlier lesson, when this suffix is used in the Future I wilh Г' person plural subject, il produces an exhortation, e.g. Ҳцалап! ‘ Let’s be off/going, then!' (xviii) -агь/-(и)егь We know the conjunction -гьы ‘and’ , which, when used wilh (pro)nouns, is suffixed lo each conjunct. We have seen il atlachcd to protasis-forms o f verbs lo contribute the meaning ‘even’ lo the overall form meaning ‘even i f and also playing a role in indefinite structures. Abkhaz has no independent word corresponding to ihe English conjunction ‘ and’ for linking clauses. One reason for this is lhal Abkhaz uses either its Past Absolute or Past Indefinite to mark the non-final verbs in a sequence o f whal in English would be conjoined clauses. In those parts o f Abkhazia which were most susceptible lo Mingrelian ’ The other finger-names are: анацәкьыс ‘ little finger', агәыбжьынацәа ‘ middle linger', ахыснацәа ‘ index finger’ , анацзад(ы)у = анацәхыҧ = анацәхыб = анацәЬагоа ‘thumb’ ; анацзхыц 'fingernail'; cf. ашьапхыц ‘toenail' 10 The verb is a causative. The usual verb for feeding is аҿаиара, which is literally to be interpreted as ‘ put (-na-) in (-a-) the mouth (-Ҿ-)’.
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influence, one mighl hear the Mingrclian conjunction /do/ ‘and’ conjoining elauscs containing finite verbs, but this is not natural Abkhaz. The conjunction -гьы can, however, be used in this function, as seen in: У(бр)и даара иҧсадгьыл бзиа ибон, ихгьы ақәицеит ‘ He loved his homeland (аҧсадгьыл) very much, and laid down his life (literally: head) for (literally: upon) it’ Инақәы-ааҳәуа ихаббала аӡы ихын хкамбашьқәа. Зны-зынлагьы рыхқәа умбаӡо хзааркәрыла карцалон ‘Turning this way and lhal (анахә-аахәра), our water-buffalo (акамбашь) were above (ахызаара) the water, rolling with all their bulkiness (ихаббала). And (-гьы) from lime to lime (зны-зынла) they were performing dives (хзааркәрыла)" so thal you couldn’t see their heads’ Parallel in function to this (and probably etymologically related to ihe suffix) is the verbal prefix -агь/-(и)егь, which stands after the Column I pronominal prefix, as seen in: А(б)ри ахтыс даара иархәыцит, (и)егьаркәышит/иагьаркәышит аешқәа ‘The event (ахҭыс) made Ihe squirrels (аеш) think (архәыцра) seriously and brought them lo their senses (literally: made them wise (аркәышра))' Иахьа (р)нахыс yapa укны имчыдазааит, (и)егьучысхәзааит/иагьучысхәзааит амаҭқәа! ‘ From today let them be powerless against you-MASC, and let snakes be your food!’ Иҧҳәыс лцәа ахшаара далашәеит. Дагьлыхшеит аҧҳа ‘His wife fell pregnant. And she gave birth to a daughter’ I f the verb is negated, this prefix (or are we dealing with a homonym that stands in place of the Column I prefix?) serves nol to link the verb to anything preceding but ralher lo contribute the meaning ‘ anything’ , or, given its combination with ihe verb’s negative marker, ‘nothing’ , e.g. (И)Егьрзеилымкааит/Иагьрзеилымкааит ‘They understood nothing' = Акгьы рзеилымкааит А(б)ри калеижьтеи (и)егьцуам/иагьцуам ‘ No time has passed since Ihis happened’
" N.B. 'diver' - (а)хзааркзрылакаҵаа.
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(И)Егьаурым/Иагьаурым ‘ No mailer; never mind’ (literally: ‘ll w ill nol do anything') Placing side by side iwo negated finite verbs which both contain Ihis prefix produces Ihc equivalent o f ‘ neither...nor’, e.g. А(б)ри ала ҳ-Аҧсны иагьагхом/(и)егьагхом иагьацлом/(и)егьацлом ‘In this way our Abkhazia neilher loses nor gains (literally: ...neither reduces (arxapa) nor expands (ацлара))' (xix) -шь A question can be given a special nuance, which, when wc examined the construction for expressing a fear, was slyled ‘agitated’ . The suffix is added lo the qucslion-formant and can be captured either by adding ‘really’ or simply by changing the pitch on ihe relevant word to a high-fall, e.g. Уифар хәа сшәоит...сифаҵәкьар(ы)ушь = сифацәкьарымашь?! ‘ I'm afraid he'll eat you-MASC...W ill he REALLY indeed (-uakba)/W ILL he indeed?!’ Дзакәхарызеишь, анаџьалбеит?! ‘W HAT kind o f person is he likely lo turn out to be, for goodness' sake12?!’ (cf. the non-agilated version: Дзакәхарызеи а(б)ри ахәычы, даеидасыр (= даныаеидаслак(ь))?! ‘ What kind o f person is this lad going to become, when he grows up (ааеидасра)13?’) (xx) -ишь(т) Given that this suffix is normally found without the bracketed dental plosive, one mighl be templed to treat il as a variant o f the preceding suffix. Bui, since this suffix attaches lo finite or Imperative (rather than interrogative) verb-forms, and since the meaning is different (= ‘just’), it is perhaps preferable lo treat the two as distinct items. Examples: Сцапишь(т), а(бр)и аӡы ахьцо збапишь(т) ‘ I ’ll just go and see where this water goes’
11 The compound-inlerjcction, translated here as ‘ for goodness' sake’ , is to be analysed thus: ‘ Mother (ан-) loil (-аџьа-) she ( - J I - ) see (- 6 a-) FINITE-PAST (-ит)’ . n Where Ihe root is -с(ы)- and -аеида- the compound-preverb.
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Едгы. иацәзаны...иаагишь(т) ‘Edgy, having stolcn/sccrclcd (ацәзара)м it/lhcm fmm il, jusl I’clch it/lhcm here!’ (c) Adverbial (xxi) -пәкьа Wc have met Ihis suffix in verb-forms as part o f the indicator o f the meaning ‘as soon as'. Its intensifying role is not limited lo that construction, however. It can also be used wilh adjectives or adverbs, e.g. Ачкәын бзиаҵәкьа дрымоуп ‘They have a really fine son’ Уажә ааигәаиәкьа исахаит ‘Only (- 4 akba)just (ааигәа) now did I hear il’ Есымша ииашадәкьаны ихаау! ‘(That which is) Really and truly sweel/tasty (axaa) everyday!’ (taken from a yoghurt-adverl) (xxii) - 3 a We have met this suffix as an adjunct to negation (marked within the verb-form by - m(-), sometimes placed before the verbal root and sometimes after il). It also intensifies adjectivcs and adverbs. Examples: Ачкәын бзиаза дрыман ‘They had a very15 fine son’ Шьыжьымҭанк Дамшә атраҿы саннеи, аҧсы ахыдхьан. Сара у(бр)и даараӡа сгәы иалсит ‘One morning when I went to Fido’s basket (аҭра), he was already dead (literally: its soul had already passed over (ахыҵра) il). That very greatly upsel me ( l i t e r a l l y : ji struck into my heart)’ Аҳауа хьантаӡа икалеит ‘The air/atmosphere (axaya) became unbearably heavy (ахьанта)’ = Аҳауа хьанҭазахеит Амца хәажжаӡа (и)еикә(ы)уп ‘The fire is lit (|а)аиқәызаара/ [а|аиқәызаара) into a real glow (хәажжа) = is in full glow’ When the suffix is added lo the adjective ад(ы)у ‘big’ , the consonantal component is regularly reduplicated for even greater intensity, as in: Ac д(ы)узӡа ауит ‘There was a really huge snowfall' (И)Ҭаб(ы)уп ид(ы)уззаны ‘Thank you VERY much’
" I f ацәӡара means ‘ steal from’, removing the prefix o f disadvantage produces азара, which is simply ‘steal'. '' A near-synonym here would be бзиаиәкьа, as seen in Ihe preceding section.
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If one lakes Ihc adverbial form based on Ihe compound-rool o f the verb агәырҕьара ‘ rejoicc’, namely -гәырҕьаны ‘jo y fu lly ’ , and intensifies il, the form exhibits a different suffix, -ҵәа, as seen in: Аныкәааы дгәырҕьацәа дхынҳәит ‘The traveller (аныҟәааы) returned over joyed’ and not far removed in meaning is: Аныкәааы дгәырҕьахәха(ны)1" дхынхәит (xxiii) -хәа The specch-parlicle is widely used in the formation o f adverbs indicating either sound or movement or both; such adverbs usually begin with the article, but this is not universal, and reduplication o f the root is a common feature, e.g. Аҵәахқәа схы дагәӡит ‘She kissed (агәыӡра) my head smackingly = She planted a smacker o f a kiss on my head’ Агәыркьҳәа Абрыскьыл ишьҭалеит ‘They set out after Abrskj’yl (= Prometheus) wilh concerted determination' Ала ачыҕәчыҕәҳәа ишуа инагылеит ‘The dog came lo a standing halt, barking (ашра) in yelps’ Ала абзала иажәуеит кылткылтҳәа ‘The dog drinks with its tongue slurpingly’ Аӡы ааира иаҿын аҽырҽырҳәа ‘The water was coming in a swoosh’ Алаҳәақәа адр(ы)ухәа абгахәыҷы инакәҧалеит ‘The crows (алахәа) in a sudden mass-movement pounced on (ақәҧалара) ihe fox (абгахәычы)’ Ажәжәаҳәа лҽааилалҳәеит/лҽеилалҳәеит ‘She got dressed (аҽеилахәара) in a trice’ Ашьшьыхәа лҽааилалҳәеит/лҽеилалҳәеит ‘She got dressed slowly’ Иҧсы аарла(ҳәа) иҭакьакьоуп/итакьышәоуп ‘He’s barely/hardly alive17’ Аҭахмада аарла-аарла(хәа) аоны дааит ‘The old man came home wilh extreme difficulty’ An additional function o f хәа as a free-standing element is to serve as a translationequivalent o f English ‘about’ in sequences like:
16 Cf. Ihc final affix introduced in Lesson 18. 17 The Slativc verbs illustrated in this example seem only lo exist in this expression.
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Л(ба)рт ахьагаз \әа акгьы издырӡом ‘ He knows nothing uboul where il had taken ihcsc’ А(ба)рт рыӡбахә ҳәа акгьы иахауам ‘He hears nothing about the fate o f these (= Ihc business/matter o f these)' Раб ииҵәахыз мал хәа иарбанзаалакгьы акы рымбеит ‘They saw nothing whatsoever about/conccming/of the treasure their father had hidden’ (xxiv) -шақә This suffix attaches lo verb-roots (minus the article) to convey Ihc notion ‘ in a VERBing fashion’ , e.g. хәмаршақә ‘in a playful fashion' (from ахәмарра ‘play’) This suffix can also attach lo a nominal rool, e.g. лафшақә ‘jokingly’ (from алаф ‘joke’ ) (xxv) -ҵас This suffix serves a similar function to that o f Ihe preceding suffix, except that this one attaches to nominal roots (minus the article). Neither is especially common. E.g. Акрыф уаоҵас! ‘Eat properly (literally: like a human being)!’ (from ауааы ‘ man’ ) Гыгшәыгҵас рхы мааҧыргеит ‘They conducted themselves (behaved) like monsters’ (from агыгшәыг ‘ monster’)
And fin a lly... A colloquialism in the spoken language o f which readers should be aware involves the repetition o f a statement’s finite verb up lo but no further than the rool (i.e. minus any tense-marker and (non-)finitc suffix). English can capture this usage by repeating subjeclpronoun and Ihe appropriate tense-auxiliary alongside, both placed after ‘ so’ , as in these examples: Ҳаӡҕаб у(бр)а дыкоуп, дыка ‘Our daughter is there, so she is’ A x дыҧсхьеит, дыҧсы ‘The prince ([a|ax) has already died, so he has’ Аҳ дыҧсит, дыҧсы ‘The prince died, so he did’ Ax дыҧсуеит, дыҧсы ‘The prince is dying, so he is’
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Атша ашәыр ҿало(и)т, иҿала ‘The tree is putting/will put on (аҿалара) " 1 fruit, so il is/w ill’
Exercises Translate these proverbs into English 1. Зыбз хаацәоу иузиуа ашоуп 2. Аӡахышьа ззымдыруа лрахәыц ау(ы)уп ([а|ау ‘ long’) 3. A 3 ирызгәааны зцәырта зблыз (= A 3 дрызгәааны ицәырҭа иблит)1'* 4. Аҧсра ад(ы)унеи еиҧш иажә(ы)уп, аха иҧсуазаалакгьы рзын иҿыц(ы)уп 5. Аус бзианы изуа аҧсшьашьагьы идыруеит 6.
Зхатәы ззымзбо ӡбааыс дхәартам
7. Уҧҳәыс уагьхлырҵәоит уагьнлырхоит (ахыриәара ‘ ruin’) 8 . Аҧсуа
иҧсырта иламыс ауп (аламыс ‘conscience’ )
9. Аҧсызкаы дымбааӡакәа аҧсыӡ изкуам (абааӡара ‘get wet') 10. Иахьа иуҳәаз ажәабжь уапәгьы еитоухәар калом 11. Зызхара ыфацәаны икоуи имлашьуеи рыхшыа уақәымгәаҕцәан (амлашьра ‘die o f hunger = be hunger-killed’) 12 .
(Ьыџьа рыцәаҕәашьа еиҧшым
13. (Ь-сасык еибаҭахымызт, раыџьагьы аҧшәма итахымызт 14. Иуҧынгылаз aga иаҵкьыс ушьҭахьтәи уицәшәа ([alaga ‘enemy’ ) 15. Бзиа (и)еибамбо анеиҿыдуа акәџьал (акәџьал ‘earthenware pot') аҧҽыхагь (и)еимаркуеит
Translate into English Aflagb Адаҕь ҭагалан адгьыл ииало(и)т, азынра уака иахнаго(и)т. Ааҧын аҧсы ҭало(и)т. Ицәырҵны кәаҿкәаҿҳәа абаар(р)акәа рҿы иҭатәо(и)т. Адаҕь абахча " Where -ла- is ihc rool and -ҿа- the preverb. Also possible is the variant: Аҵла ашәыр аҿало(и)т, иаҿала. СГ. other usages оГ this verb: Амарда даҿалеит '(S)He went up ihc incline (амарда)’ ; Агьхәыс еимгәад(ы)у аоаза лҿалеит ‘ A blotch (аааза) appeared on the facc o f ihe pregnant (literally: bigbellied = |а|аимгәад(ы)у) woman’ . '* Relativised non-finite forms, as in Ihc first variant here, are frequent in proverbs.
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иаҧырхагоу ахәаҷа-маҷақәа, аӡы кәыбрқәа укәа (убас егьырҭгьы)3" кны иафо(и)т. У(бр)и акнытә адаҕь хәарҭара злоу акы акәны ирыҧхьазо(и)т, ишьтәым. Зны Есҳак амхы аҿы аус шиуаз иҽага ҧҽит. Рааигәара иказ ақыҭа аҿы днеин ҽагак ааихәеит. Иҽага кны ҧыҭк дахьааскьаз аӡмах акнытә даҕьык “ акәаҿ акәаҿ, Есҳак, акәаҿ акәаҿ, Есҳак,” хәа аҳәара иакәымҵит. Иауазеи акә(ы)уа ҳәа данахәаҧш, акә(ы) уа шьаны икан. Дхынҳәын ақыҭаҿы днеин, зкә(ы)уа шьаз ацынхәрас (и)еибгаз аҽага ирҭан, иманы аӡмах ааигәара данааи, адаҕь абжеихарак аӡы аҽааҭнархәҳәан “ усмыркь-кь-кьаҭеи Есҳак,” ахәон. А(бр)и ахәара акраамҭа ианакәымҵ, а(бр)и казҵо збап ихәан, Есхак хаҳәык аашьтихын, азмах инҭаижьит. Адаҕь “ оо” хәаны аҽааннакылан аӡмах аҽналанажьит. Адаҕь аниба, Есҳак (и)еиликааит абжьы у(бр)и ишатәыз.
У(ба)с адаҕь, аҧстәқәа, аҧсаатәқәа ухәа (убас егьырҭгьы) даараза уаарызхәыцыр, рыбжьы идырго ажәақәак алоушәа иуаҳауеит. Адаҕь шәымшьлан, абахча иаҧырхагоу ахәача-мачақәеи ашыӡ зырҿио акәыбрқәеи афо(и)т.
(Slighlly adapted from a piece by Dmitry Gulia [Дырмит Гәлиа], as published on p. 125 of the 2003 edition o f И<аымҭак.әа ‘His Works’) Vocabulary адаҕь
frog
ашьара
crack
кәаҿкәаҿхәа
rivel-rivet
абжеиҳарак
more than half
абахча
garden
аҽҭырхәҳәара
cause oneself to protrude out o f
ахәача-маҷа
bug
аркьаҭара
make happy
ахәарҭара
something
|а]аанкылара
restrain
31 The original text has only the llrst component o f the expression for ‘etc..'.
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bcncficial аҽага
hoc
аҧстәы
crealure
break
аҧсаатә
bird
[а]ааскьара
move one’s position
азхәыцра
think about
аӡмах (азааа)
ditch, swamp, marsh
ашыӡ
malaria
акә(ы)уа
fixing hoop on a hoc
арҿиара
cause lo develop,
аҧҽра
(or barrel)
spread
Аҧсны Аҧсны аҧсуаа ирыҧсадгьыл(ы)уп. А(б)ракоуп наџьнатә аахыс аҧсуаа ахьынхо. Аҧсны ахтны-қалакь Акәа, даара иҧшӡоуп. Избо зегьы иргәагҕхо(и)т. Аҧсынтәыла шьҭоуп Аҧснытәи ашьхақәеи Амшын Еиқәеи рыбжьара, ӡынгьы-ҧхынгьы аиапәара итаналаҳауа ацәахәаҿы.
Аҧсны ибеиоу тәылоуп (= Аҧсны тәыла беиоуп), аҳауагьы заыдоуп. А(б)ри акынтә шәы-шықәса зхыцқәо рацәааны а(б)ра инхо(и)т, ад(ы)унеи зегьы ишадыруа еиҧш. Есышықәса ҧсшьара хәа иатаауа рхыҧхьаӡара рацәахоит. Зк,ьи жәшәи ҧшьынаажәи жәаха шықәсазы Аҧсны аиааира агеит аџьынџьтәылатә еибашьраҿы Қыртәылатәи аҳәыынҭқарра Аҧсны ампыҵанахаларц ианақәла ашьҭахь. Аҧсны иахнагаз арыцхара д(ы)укәеи аџьабаа д(ы)уи рышьҭахь, аҵыхәтәаны Урыстәылатәи Афедерациатә ҳәынҭқарра ахьыҧшымра азханадеит. А(ба)с ала ироуит Аҧсныжәлар зқьышыкәсала иззықәҧоз ахақәиҭра. Азҵаарақәа 1. Изыҧсадгьылда Аҧсны?
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2. Изеиҧшроузеи Аҧсны аҳҭны-қалак.ь Акәа? 3. Аҧсынтәыла ҭыҧс иабашьҭоу? 4. Аҧсны аҳауа зеиҧшроузеи?
Vocabulary аҧсадгьыл
homeland
ахыҧхьаӡара
number
наџьнатә аахыс
from ancient times
аџьынџьтәылатә
patriotic
[а]аҳҭны-қалакь
capital
ампыҵахалара
gel into one’s grip, take control of21
аиацәара
greenery, greenness
аҵыхәтәаны
at last, in the end
аталаҳара
cover, take over
азхаҵара
recognise
strip
ақәҧара
Struggle, fight
ацәахәа
Proverb Зыҧсадгьыл зцәыӡыз дыҧсаанӡа дазҵә(ы)уо(и)т
21 Where -xa- is the root, -мпына- the preverb, and -ла- the root-suffix.
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Lesson 20 Texts1
Ашыкәс аамтакәа А а ҧ ы н м ы ш қәа рзы Ааҧынразы асы ӡыҭны ицоит. Адәахьы кәандароуп. Аӡиасқәа шәахха илеиуеит. Адгьыл татаӡа ишьҭоуп. Аҳәынҵәраҧшь гәырҕьаҵәа иҷырҷыруеит. Ажәцарақәагьы рашәа хаа цәырыргеит. Анхацәа анхара напы адыркит. Азҵаарақәа Ааҧын мзақәас ижәдыруазси? Ааҧынразы асы иахьуазеи? Адгьыл зеиҧшрахозеи? Аҧсаатә зеигәырҕьозеи? Анхацәа напы зларкуазеи?
А аҧ ы н Асы шьҭыҵит, амра ҧхоит, Аҵар гәырҕьан, ашәа рҳәоит. Ҳҵәаҵла быбышӡа ишәҭит. Ицырцыруа ажәаан хтит. А ҧ хы н Хәылҧазыла аӡаӡа шьҭалоит, Разын ӡыла зегь кәабоуп. Убла ргәырҕьо амза аеиуеит, Аҧсабара шәҭыла иқәцоуп. Азҵаарақәа Аҧ хын мзақәас ижәдыруазси? Аҧхынра злалаго амза иахьз(ы)узеи? Аҧхынра зланҵәо амза ишҧашьҭоу?
1 A ll lexis (apart from the last) in Ihis Lesson are taken (sometimes with minor alterations, including bringing the spelling into line with current conventions) from one or other o f the two works by T ’ ap’aglTywa named in the Introduction, and again I express my gratitude lo him for allowing me to make use o f them.
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Аҧхын Зынӡа иссир(ы)уп ҳара ҳаҧхын, Абах,ча шәырла ианзазо, Ашоура аныкоу \аибарыганы Зталара ҳара ҳанцо. Азҵаарақәа Ашықәс аамҭақәа рахьтә иаҳа ишоуроу амзақәа арбан(ы)у? Аҧҳын абаҳча зырҧшзозеи? Ашоура аныкоу ахәыҷкәа икарцозеи?
Аҧхынтәи ашьыжь Ш ьыжьӡан. Амра ахәы иаавцит. Иаакәалыкәаџьонт адәқәеи, ақәацақәеи абаҳчақәеи. Аҧша асуеит ахәхәаҳәа. Абаҳчаҿы аччаҳәа аҵарақәа ашәа рҳәоит, (и)силаҧыруеит, рыфатә рыҧшаауеит. Ашьхыцқәа ҷыввыҳәа ашәҭқәа ирхалоит, амати иашьҭоуп. Арахә гәарҵит. Џьара ауардынқәа рышьҭыбжь гоит. Аџьықәреи аҿалара аҽазнакуеит. Анхацәа аҭаҭын ҿырхуеит. Азҵаарақәа Ашьыжьтәи амреи аҧшеи шҧаарҧш(ы)у? Абаҳчаҿы ашьыжь ашәа зҳәода? Урҭ ирҧшаауазеи? Ашьхыцқәа зышьҭоузеи?
Ҭагалан Иааит ҽаараҭагалара аамҭа. Амшқәа кьаҿхо иалагеит. Аҧсаатәқәа адгьыл ҧхаррақәа рахь ицоит. Аҵлақәа рыбҕьқәа аежьхоит. Ҳара абахча ҳҭалеит. Уака аҵәеи, ахаи, амыҵмыџьи қҭаауеит. Абаҳча аандан ара гылоуп. Ҭамел рыҧхьла ара икәыбоит. Гачи Хьынеи акакан рыкәшәоит. Азҵаарақәа Ҭагалан амшқәа зеиҧшрахозеи? Ҭагалан аҧсаатәқәа абацои? Ирыхьуазеи аҵлақәа?
284
Ахәыҷқәа абаҳчаҿы иртаауазси? Араҵла абагылоу? Ҭамел ара злеикәыбозеи? Акакан зыкәшәода?
Ҭагалан Амра наскьан ихьшәашәеит, Амшгьы шнеиуаз икьаҿхеит. Аҵла-мыҵла зегь аежьхеит, Урҭ рымҵа зегь бҕьыжәхеит. Азҵааракәа Иарбан аамҭоу амш анкьаҿхо? Ускан аҧсабара аҽшҧаҧсахуеи? Ишҧакало аҳауа?
Аӡын Ҭагаланшьҭахь зынроуп. Аӡын хьҭоуп, асы леиуеит. Лассы-лассы аҧша асуеит. Аш ьыжь амра лассы игылаӡом. Ахәылбыҽха амра заа иҭашәоит. Аӡын амш кьаҿ(ы)уп, аҵх д(ы)у(ы)уп. Ахыбрақәеи аилақәеи асы рықәжь(ы)уп. Ахәыҷқәа адәныка идәылцуеит. Урҭ асы иеигәырҕьаны, асыркәымпыл кариоит, асы еигәыдырҵоит. Азцаарақәа Аӡын анбаауеи? Иҧхар(р)оу, ихьшәашәароу аӡын? Аӡын амра анбагылои? Ианбаҭашәои? Аӡын амш шҧакоу? Аҵх шҧакоу? Изеигәырҕьозеи ахәыҷқәа?
Аӡын Асы, асы, ҧала-ҧала. Mac иуапа нацеикит. Уапыжә, уапыжә, ҧала-ҧала, Икәашӡа ихыбны иаацихит. Ибыбышӡа, итатаза, 285
Адгьыл хооуп ишкәакәаӡа!
Асы, асы, ҧала-ҧала, Ҷынҷак ныцкәыр-аацкәырит. Баҕырк нықәҧал-аақәҧалеит, Ардәынакгьы нытиҕрит. Ибыбышӡа, итатаӡа, Адгьыл хаоуп ишкәакәаӡа!
Рҽеилаҳәа-рҽеилаца, Ахәыҷқәа асы инылаҧалт. Зегьы-зегьы ҧхеибацан, Ампыл шкәакәа дыркәымпылт. Ибыбышӡа, итатаӡа, Адгьыл хаоуп ишкәакәаза!
Азҵаарақәа Аӡын асы анышьҭоу, адгьыл шҧакоу? Аҧсаатә икариозеи? Ахәыҷқәа асаҿы икарҵозеи?
Vocabulary [а]ааҧын(ра)
spring(-time)
акьаҿ(хара)
short(en)
аӡыҭра
melt
аҧхар(р)а
warm; warmth
акәанда(ра)
warm(th)
амьгцмыџь
pomegranate
ашәах
spray
аҭаара
pick, harvest
атата
soft
[а]аанда(н)
(at the) fence
аҳәынҵәраҧшь
robin
ара
waJnut(-tree)
ачырҷырра
chirp
ары ҧхь
stick for harvesting walnuts
ажәҵыс
swallow
акәыбара
286
shake
ацыргара
produce
акәшәара
pick
анхара
farming
аиаскьара
move over2
аҵәаҵла
apple-tree
аҵла-мыцла
tree(s) and the like '1
абыбыш
blooming
-мда
beneath, at the foot of
ашәҭра
flower
абҕьыжә(хара)
(become) old leaf
ацырцырра
shine
асыҧсахра
change (oneself)
аҧхын(ра)
summer(-time)
аӡын(ра)
winter(-time)
аӡаӡа
dew
ахыб (ахыбра)
roof (roof; building)
аразын
silver
асыркәымпыл
snowball
акәабара
bathe
агәыдцара
throw at
аҧсабара
nature
ҧала-ҧала
gently falling
ашәҭ
flower
ауапа
shepherd’s heavy felt-cloak
ақәҵара
embroider
аҵакра
hold beneath
азазара
sway
уапыжә
in flurries
азталара
take a dip
акәаш
brilliant white
акәалыкәаџьара
shimmer
ацхра
bring out from under
ақәаца
Vine(s) trained up a ахаара
cover
tree or pole long and serenely
аҷынҷа
wren
аҷчаҳәа
twitteringly
аҵкәырра
pop out from under
амати
pollen
абаҕыр
sparrow
арахә
cattle
ақәҧалара
hop onto
агәарҵра
go out to pasture
[а]ардәына
blackbird
ауардын
cart (or ‘car’ for
аҵҧырра
fly out from under
ахәхәаҳәа
Abkhazians in Turkey)
1
W ith other orientational preverbs denoting a shift in Ihe appropriate direction.
5 This kind o f word-play with the bilabial nasal appearing first in the second component is quite
common (cf. акәац-мац 'meat and what not').
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а^алара
ripen
аҽеилахәа-
dress neatly and
■ееилацара
coordinated
аҽазкра
set oneself, aim to
аҧхаҵара
chase (out/away)
а^ыхра
pick
ампыл
ball
(а|аарҧшра
reveal
аркәымпылара
make round, roll up
(а)<сааратагалара
get the harvest in
Иухоумырштын, дад! Иааилашәшәхьан. Анхацәа зсгьы амх(ы)урсҭақәа рахьынтә ихынхәхьан. Ҷыка хәыҷы ахәылҧаз иани иаби арахә анеилдыргоз дрыцхрааит. Ажәқәа анырхьоз, бзиа иибоз аҳәарақәа ршьапкәа рзикит. Ишьапы, инапы ӡәӡәаны, акрыфа-акрыжә, иҵатәқәа рнаас, ашәкәыҧхьатә имаз даҧхьо дтәан. Ус, адәахьы алақәа ах(ы)у-х(ы)уҳәа иааилалт. Ҷыка иаб а(н)дәылцха имҭакәа, афырҳәа дындәылҧан, алақәа ахьшуаз агәашәаҿ даннеи, дара рыаны шыҟаз иааиуаз ҧхәыск дибеит. — Нан, ухаҵкы уцәгьа-мыцәгьа сара сцааит, уааскьеишь аранӡа!- лҳәеит лара, Ҷыка уахь дышнеиуаз анылба, дааҭгылан. — Ҷыка дыҧхашьа-ҧхаҵо дналҧылеит. — Хәылбзиа, нан! — анылҳәа, бзиа жәбааит! — иҳәан, аҭак ныкеиҵеит. - Нан, харантә саауеит, Ткәарчалка сцарц сҭах(ы)уп, амаа сақәшәом, уахь сызлакылсшна амаа сахымкьартә сықә(ы)уцондаз. -У а ж ә ы ҵ ә кьа амаа сара шәықәысдап, -и х ә а н , дналаҧызан иҿынеихеиг Ҷыка. Аҧҳәыс акыр днаскьеигеит, дахымкьартә еиҧш амаа данықәиҵа ашьҭахьгьы, лымацара дыкоуп иҳәан, амаа акынӡа дылбааигеит. --Уҧ сынҵры бзиахааит, нан, уҭаацәа уара ула игәырҕьо, жәлары урҵеины укалааит! — дныхәа-ныҧхьо длырхынхәит. Ҷыка дынкаҧа-аакаҧо, икеиҵаз абзиара игәы ақәбзианы, ихы иахагьы бзиа иамхабо, ааныка дааит. Иаб иеиқәсит икеиҵаз. Иабгьы уи игәы иахәан, ихы ааишьышьит, нас абасгьы наиаҭеикит: -И и а ш о у п , дад, уи икауцаз. Даара ибзиоуп, аха агәашә акны иааиз ауааы ааныка бааи ҳәа шҧалоумҳәси? Џьаргьы дзымцартә дыказаргьы, уаха бқалаҧхьа ҳәа умҳәозаргьы акәхарын, дад! - Ҷыка иаб иихәаз даараӡа дархәыцит...
288
Аздаарақәа Ахәылбыҽха изҿыз'1 Ҷыка иҭаацәа? Иара дызларыцхраауаз*? Ҷыка иаби иареи зыбжьы рахада? Дызусҭадаз уи аҧҳәыс? Илҧылада лара агәашә аҿы дангылаз? Изҿылтызеи, насгьы илтахыз лара?4 Ҷыка уи аҧҳәыс дызлалыцхраазеи? Ҷыка абзиара ииуз иаб ианиеиқәа, аб ичкәын дышҧаихцәажәи? Дахьгылаз дзызхәыцуаз Ҷыка?7
Vocabulary father, dad; respectful form o f address to a man or even a boy fall o f tw ilight
акылсра
pass through, find one’s way
ахкьара аҧызара анаскьагара
escort
албаагара аҧсынҵры аҭаацәа
convey down span o f life family
ах(ы)у-х(ы)уҳәа [а]аилалара
place where one works in the fields sort out, put in place m ilk ca lf study-material, lesson all barking together mingle, clash
fall off, lose one’ s way, go astray go in front o f (-a-)
аҵеи
scion bless(ing)
а(н)дәылцха афырҳәа
time to go out in a flash
адәылҧара ашра
bound out bark
нан
mother, mum; respectful form o f address to a woman or even a girl Expression o f
дад
[а]аилашәшәра амх(ы)урста [а]аилыргара ахьара аҳәыс аҵатәы
ухаҵкы уцәгьа* The 5 The 6 The 7 The
аныҳәаныҧхьара анкаҧа-аакаҧара агәы ақәбзиазаара ашьшьра аҭакра
hop and skip take delight in
алаҧхьара
stroke give answer to (-a) pass the night with
аҧылара
bump into
stressed syllabic has a lengthened vowel to mark its interrogative status. final syllable has a lengthened vowel to mark its interrogative status. stressed syllable has a lengthened vowel to mark its inteirogative status. final syllable has a lengthened vowel to mark its interrogative status.
289
мыцәгьа сцааит аҧхьашьаҧхаҵара
endearment bccomc embarrassed and flustered
А ш ш а ҕьы ч Зынран. Ааны аҧенџьыр иадҧрылон ашшаҕьыч. Агҕенцьыр аҿы ахәыҷқәа гыланы игҕшуан. Ашшаҕьыч рыцҳаршьсит. Ахәыҷқәа аҧенџьыр аадыртит. Ашшаҕьыч ауада илыанаҧрит. Иара даара амла иакуан. Аишәа иқәҧсаз ахәашақәа рыкәшәара иалагсит. Азҵаарақәа Ибаказ ашшаҕьыч? Избада иара? Ахәыҷқәа ашшаҕьыч иазырузеи? Ашшаҕьыч зыргәакуазеи? Абри аныкалаз иарбан аамҭоу?
Vocabulary ақәыҧсара ахәаша
scatter crumb
аргәакра
trouble, torment
Аџьынџьыхәа Ҳара иҳамоуп ара д(ы)у. Есышықәса ҭагалан иаҳкәыбоит. Сан акаканқәа иреиҕьыз аалылхын, аҕәы инықәҧсаны, амра инцәылҵеит. Амра иахьцәыз, акаканкәа бзианы иоеит. Хымшка рышьҭахь, акаканқәа ҧыҽҽны игәылылхит. Рахәыцла илрыҧхит. Нас ақалмышь калҵан, илрыҧхыз акаканқәа ӡаалшьит. Сан аџьынџьыхәақәа ахьыкалҵоз, хара, ахәычкәа, ҳгәырҕьаҵәа ҳакан. Ҳалҧырпуамызт, лааигәа ҳгылан, хлыцхраауан.
н Two colloquialisms are here run together. The first would be: ухатџш сцааит. The literal meaning would be ‘Let me go in your-M ASC stead!', but the sense is ‘1Г one o f us is to die, let it be me!'. The second would be: уцәгьа-мыцәгьа згааит. The literal meaning would be ‘Let me take what is bad and the like for you-M ASC!’ , the sense being 'Let me take away everything that is bad in your life !'. First, we can note (hat we have here another example o f the word-play mentioned in Footnote 3 above. Secondly, we can observe that the neighbouring languages o f Mingrelian and Georgian have similar expressions (e.g. Georgian /shen.i ch 'ir.i me/ = Mingrelian /skan.i ch 'ir.i ma/ 'your woe to me (let it come)!' equates to the former, whilst /she.mo.g.e.vl.e/ or /g.c.naisva.e/ 'I have taken your place' equates to the latter: cf. Mingrelian /skan.i go.lu.ap.ir.o/). These expressions are often translated as ‘ dear; darling'.
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Аџьынџьыхәақәагьы мчыбжьык akapa амраҿы илыраан илцәахит. Ҳаргьы аба-оба ҳалҭеит. Азҵаарақәа Ара д(ы)у анбаркәыбоз? Ан акаканқәа ишҧарзылуаз? Акаканкәа анаа икалҵазси? Акаканқәа ақалмышь ишҧаӡаалшьи? Ахәыҷқәа зеигәырҕьози? М чыбжьык ашьтахь аџьынџьыхәақәа ирзылузси?
Vocabulary аџьынџьыхәа
ацәызаара
aaapa аҧыҽҽра агәылхра
threaded (wal)nuts dipped into a mix o f grapejuice and flour and allowed to dry9 be in (some kind o f weather) dry out break into many pieces shell (o f nuts)
арыҧхра
thread
ақалмышь
boiled mixture o f grapejuice and flour10 dip into liquid near
азаашьра -ааигәа ацәахра
put away, hide, preserve
А ш ә ы р қә а р ы ц ә ахы ш ьа Ашәыр аӡын азгьы и(ы)уцәахыр калоит. А^ын уи мыцхәы ихаахоит. И(ы)уҵәахуа ашәыр зегьы еибгазароуп, рхәыцәқәа рымазароуп. Убри акынтә, аӡын азы и(ы)уцәахыр калоит: ажь, аҵәа, аха, абиа, амыҵмыџь. Аӡын азы и(ы)уҵәахуа ашәыр кәакәамзароуп. Рцәа-ржьы кьыс амамкәа иказароуп. Ицәах(ы)у ашәыр лассы-лассы игәаҭалатә(ы)уп. Ибааз ыказар ирылгатә(ы)уп, сгьырҭгьы дмырбаарц азы. Ашәыр ахьы,цәах(ы)у аҭыҧ цәаакымзароуп, аҳауа цқьазароуп.
5 This local delicacy is known in Georgian as /churchxela/. 10 In Georgian /pelamushi/.
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Азцаарақәа Ашәыр акалара ианбалагои? Ашәыр шҧадәахтә(ы)у? Ашәыр абаҵәахтә(ы)у? Шәырқәас ирҵәахуазеи?
Vocabulary амцхә
too much, overly
Га]аибга(заара) ахәыҵәы абиа акәакәа
(be) whole stalk quince bruised
ацәеижь (<= ацәа + ажьы) кьыс змам абаа ацәаак ацқьа
flesh (<= skin + meat) untouched rotten damp clean
Аҳаскьынраҿы аӡаӡа зеиҧшрахо Амра каххаа ианҧхо абна уныҵалар, адәкьашрақәа рҿы и(ы)убоит алмасқәа рацәазаны. Арҭ алмасқәа кәалыкәаџьо, (и)еилыҧхаауеит (и)еиуеиҧшым ҧштәыла. Арака и(ы)убап ааежьқәа, акаҧшьқәа, аиацәақәа. Рааигәа унеины игәаҭишь— урҭ ӡаӡа цәыкәбаркәоуп. Аҳаскьын быҕьқәа рҿы (и)еизыкәкәаны, икәеицеиусит амра ахьрықәҷҷо. Аҳаскьынбыҕь ааныцка ачоуҳа сиҧш ахәыҧшқа ҭассы икоуп. А у цәыкәбарқәа абҕьы иқәыкәраа ицоит, арахь иара дарбаазаӡом. Аӡаӡа зқәыҳәҳәы икоу абҕьы ааҿ(ы)уршәар, аз-цәыкәбар гьежь цырцыруа инаумпыҵабоит. Бҕьыцк ааҿыхны, убз инықәыршәшәаны, аӡаза цәыкәбарқәа лбааудар, урҭ даҽа бааӡатәык (и)еиҧшымкәа ихааушәа убоит. Азҵаарақәа Азаӡа абакалои? Аӡаза иаҧштә(ы)узеи? Ахаскьынраҿы аӡаза зеиҧшрахозеи?
Vocabulary аҳаскьын(ра) акаххаа адәкьашьра = ашьац
grass(land) bright broad meadow land
ахәыҧшқа -ҭассы ақәыкәраара
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fibre, down bushy, tousled roll down on
алмас [а]аилыҧхаара
diamond glimmer
арбааӡара азаӡа зқәықәҳәы
аҧштәы ацәыкәбар
colour drop
аҿыршәара ампыцабара
Га]аизыкәкәара акәсицеира ақәҷҷара ачоуқа
tricklc down twinkle shine on (broad)cloth
ақәыршәшәара албаадара абааӡатәы
wet dewy (on which dew stands out) pluck dry up on one’s hand, vanish shake lightly onto swallow liquid
Абгахәыҷы алаҳәа шакыз Дәык аҟны алаҳәақәа иҳаракны аилаҧырра иаҿын. Адәы агәҭаны бгахәыҷык каршәын, ашьапқәа еидыҧсалан, амгәа еидаалан, алацәа еихакәысуамызт, амла иаганы иҧсит ҳәа уааы игәы иаанагартә. Алақәақәа абгахәыҷы рбеижьҭеи акыр иуан, аха ишәаны ааигәа изнеиуамызт. Имлашьӡо ианалага, урҭ рҽыладыркәын, абгахәыҷы акәшамыкәша илатәеит. Алаҳәақәа абгахәыҷы ааигәа инеит. Лаҳәак ааызцәа инарылҵын, ашьшьыҳәа абгахәыҷы аҵыхәахь инеин, аҵыхәа ахаҧыц наларҧаны иахеит, абгахәыҷы ахьышьҭаз имқәацеит. Алахәақәа адр(ы)уҳәа абгахәыҷы инақәпапеит. Р(ы)уакы абгахәыҷы абла ҭысхуеит ҳәа иалагеит. Убаскан абгахәыҷы алаҳәа инамцасын иакит. Нас иаманы абна инылалт. Азҵаарақәа Алаҳәақәа абаҧыруаз? Адәы агәҭаны икаршәызи? Алахәақәа ргәы иаанагазеи? Абгахәыҷы шҧакаршәыз? Алаҳәақәа р(ы)уакы иаҭаххазеи? Иканацазеи алаҳәа? Абгахәыҷы алаҳәа иазнаузеи?
Vocabulary алаҳәа акаршәра [а]аидыҧсалара
crow throw down something light cast down on top o f one another
аҵыхәа ахаҧыц аларҧара
tail grab with the teeth
axapa
drag, pull
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акәацара
stir
алацәа
collapsc alongside one another eyelid
адр(ы)уҳәа
[а]аихакәысра
blink (together)
ақәпапара
асыларкәра
lower oneself, descend round and about (it)
амҵасра
in a mass movement fall upon in large numbers grab (at)
[а]аидаалара
(а)кәша-мыкәша
Аеҵыс Ҽык ҳаман. Уи иахьӡын Раҧка. Рагҕка акәадыр лакәҵаны соақәтәан, шьжьымҭанк ашҭа сылҭыцит. Раҧка сара санақәтәоз a6ga ҭынмын, атәым данақәтәалакь аҽазеиқәыкуамызт. Сҽыжәланы сышнеиуаз, ҽҵыск храа-ӡраауа, адәы иқәгьежьуа ишықәыз збеит. Иара аҽҵысгьы ҳара ҳгәанаҭан, ианы ҳара хахь аҿаанахеит. Аҽдыс шааиуаз, ан акәыз џьнашьазар акәхап, Раҧка илаҵагьсжьит. Раҧка аҭәыц зықәшәар зымуаз, акгьы канамҵеит. Уи сара даара иџьасшьент. Аҽцыс ҳамышьҭуа/ҳаунамышьҭуа, иҳакәшо иалагеит. Ус ҳашнеиуаз, акәадыр еилаҳәаны икны, хаҵак дааҳҧылт. Уи аҽдыс зтәыз иакәын. Аҽҵыс ан дшақәтәаз илкаҳан иҧсызаап. Аҽцыс зтәыз ицымцсит. Раҧка изаҧырымҵит. Аоныка иҳаццеит. Аҽтшс ааны иҳааӡеит. Иазҳаит иара. Снапала исыбжьеит. Изтәыз аҧшәма изсырхынҳәырц салагеит, аха имгеит. Сара исзынижьит. Уи сара даара сеигәырҕьеит. Азҵаарақәа Раҧка алеишәа зеиҧшраз"? Раҧка аҽцыс анаба иканаҵазеи? Уи аҽҵыс рыцхарас изыниазеи? Акәадыр еилаҳәаны икны иааиуаз ахаҵа дызусҭадаз? Иканаҵазеи аҽцыс, изтәыз данаба? Аҽпыс зтәыз аҧшәма иази(ы)узси?
Vocabulary акәадыр
saddle
Га1аушьҭра
" The stressed syllable has a lengthened vowel to mark its interrogative status.
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let go (send)
атәым [а]аиқәыкра аҽыжәлара ахраа-ӡраара ақәгьежьра аҵагьежьра аҭәыц аџьашьара
foreign(er) calm down mount up move about aimlessly turn round on the spot spin around beneath speck, mote (in the eye) find surprising
(ашьтра) акәшара [а|аилаҳәара (alaa^apa абжьара
encircle bind, tic up rear, bring up break (horse)
аҧшәма
patron, owner, host
аныжьра
leave
алеишәа
behaviour
аниара
happen upon
Аҳәынҵәраҧшь Зынран. Аҧсабара зехьынџьара икәашӡа сыла иҭаҳәҳәан. Ацлақәа зазо асы хьанҭа иаҵан. Архақәа рҿы иқәацә-қәацәӡа, рыхқәа аалыхәҳәо, акәынџьқәа асы илагылан. Аӡыҷҷақәа ирыхцаалан, рыбжьы ҳәа гомызт. Ааны идәылҵырц зҭахыз, аграпара камцакәа, адәы изцәыломызт. М актина ашьыжь зсгь раҧхьа дгылт. Ажәжәаҳәа лҽааилалҳәан, адәахьы дындәылкьеит. Иахьынтәааз лзымдырзо, дахьгылаз лаҧхьа ахәаҧҳәа хәынцәраҧшьк асы инылашәеит. Мактина дгәырҕьан иаашьҭылҧааит. Ақәынҵәраҧшь аҧсы ҭан. Ахьҭа иакызар акәхап, рыцҳа, ихәырҧыжәӡа, ахәҧсы хаххала икан. Мактина аҳәынҵәраҧшь аалган, агәгәаҳәа амца ахьеиқәыз ахәшҭаараҿы иҽҳәалыртәеит. Аҳәынҵәраҧшь анҧха, амҵәыжәаа хәыҷқәа ааицнахт. М актина аҳәынҵәраҧшь акраҿалҵеит. Ахәылбыҽха аҭра азыкалҵан илталыртәеит. Мчыбжьык, жәамш акраҿалцон, ааны илыман. Иара иҭәыиҧха ианыкала, иҧыр-ҧыруа аихац иҭагьежьуан. Аҭыцра аҭахын. Ҽнак М актина аихац ашә аалыртын, ахәыниәраҧшь адәахьы илырҧрит. Аха хара имцакәа иаагьежьит. Ааны иааанаҧрын, М актина лыжәаа инықәтәеит. Ахәыҷы деигәырҕьан, ахы днагәзит. Убри инаркны ааҧынра калаанӡа аҳәынцәраҧшь М актина лыаны инхон-инҵуан.
Vocabulary аҭаҳәҳәазаара apxa -қәацә-қәацәза алхәхәара акәынџь аӡычҷа
be wrapped up in valley tall and ungainly protrude from in stem stream
агәгәахәа Га1аиқәзаара аҧхара амҵәыжәаа [а1аиҵыхра аҭра
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roaring (o f fire) be lit warm up wing (fish-fin) stretch out nest
ахҵаалара аграпара ажәжәаҳәа ахәаҧҳәа ашьҭҧаара ахәырҧыжә
ахәҧсы -хаххала
ice over path in snow in a rush, haphazardly with a plop quickly snatch up with ruffled feathers; plump (o f babies) plumage pointing, sticking up
аҭәы аҧха [а]аихац
lull warm cage
атагьсжьра хара агьсжьра
flit around in far turn around
ажәаа
shoulder live and flourish
анхара-антфа
Аӡқәа Адгьыл аҿы ақәа илеиуа ҧыҭк хылаа-ҧсылоаханы хыхь ихалоит, даҽа ҧыҭкгьы, атаҳарақәа ирҭатәоит, измаххоит. Адгьыл аҿы аӡқәа, ма раашқәаны, ма ӡд(ы)уқәаны ииасуеит. Аӡыраашқәа анеилалалакь, аӡ д(ы)у рылцуеит. Аӡкәа, ма амшынқәа, ма азҭачқәа ирылалоит. Аӡы ахьыҵыҵуа иашьҭоуп азхыҵыцырҭа ҳәа. Аӡқәа, ашьха зхы ыдыҵуа, абахә илбааҟьаны илеиуеит. Убас аӡы ахьылбаакьо иашьҭоуп азылбааҽҽара ҳәа. Ашьха зхы ыцыҵуа аӡқәа, ашьхаӡқәа ҳәа ирышьҭоуп. Урҭ аҕба-ныкәаразы имаҭәам. Ҳара ҳ-Аҧсны ико у аӡқәа зегьы шьхаӡқәоуп. Урыстәылан еиҳарак шшара зкәоуп, иаҳҳәап Волга, Дон, Днспр. Урҭ ииасуеит ашьшьыҳәа, рыца -ца(ы)улоуп, аҕбақәа дырныкәоит. Арҕьарахьтәи армарахьтәи аӡиас иалалоит аӡкәа. Убарт ирышьҭоуп азкәыҵәақәа хәа. Аӡқәа амшын иахьалало аӡалаларҭа ҳәа иашьҭоуп. Акәыҵәақәси иареи еимазакны изқәысуа адгьыл иашьҭоуп аӡыҧшахәа хәа.
С. Ҷанба Vocabulary ахылаа-ҧсылоа аҭаҳара арааш аиасра азҭачы абахә албаакьара аӡылбааҽҽара
steam low-lying ground rivulet pass over, flow lake rock, c liff fall/splash down over waterfall
амаҭәазаара еиҳарак ашшара аҵа(ы)ула азкәыиәа аӡаларҭа [а]аи(ма)закра аз(ы)ҧшахәа
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be appropriate mostly flat deep tributary mouth, outflow gather up, bring together, unite river-valley
аҧба-ныкәара_____ passage by boat
А чы м а зар а ҿ ы кқәа Зықәра наӡахьоуи ахәмҷқәен лассы-лассы ичмазаахалоит убри сиҧш ачымазарала, иаармариазаны урҭ ачымазцәа ирыхкьаны абзабаацәагьы ирыхьыртә. Убри сиҧш икоу ачымазара иахьӡ(ы)уп иҿк(ы)у ачымазара хәа. Ҧ ыҭоык ахәычқәа ахьыкоу аанартаҿы аӡәы абҷы ихьыр, егьырҭ зегьы абҷы рмыхькәа ианаанымхо калоит. Абҷы иҿк(ы)у чмазароуп. Ҧаса (ажәытә) ачымазара ҿкқәа ирыхкьаны, ахәыҷқәеи абыргцәеи рацәааны иҧсуан. Убарҭ ачымазара ҿыкқәа иреиуоуп аимҳәаршәаа, ацәырҧшӡа, ацәыркчы, ахәдарчы. Ачымазарақәа шәҽырцәышәыхьчала! Ахақьым шәхы ишәырбала! А р ц а га ш ә кәы а кы н тә
Vocabulary ачымазара
disease
ҧаса = ажәытә
аҿкы ақәра
infectious age reach (o f fu ll age)
абырг
facilitate
ацәырҧшза = ацәарҧш^а ацәыркҷы = ацәаркҷы ахәдарчы ахьчара
анаӡара (зыкәра нач(ахь)оу) армариара абзабааы
healthy person
аанарҭа абчы
dwelling measles
[а]аимҳәаршәаа [а]аанхара
once upon a time, formerly elderly gentleman whooping-cough remain, stay smallpox chickcnpox mumps guard
The L o rd ’s Prayer (M atthew 6:9-13)12 9. Шәара абас шәныҳәа: Ажәаан аҿы икоу Ҳаб! Иҧшьахааит Уара ухьӡ. 10. Иаиааит Уара Уҧсҳара.11 Икалааит угәаҧхара хыхь ажәаан акны еиҧш, -цака адгьыл аҿгьы. 11. Зда ҳхәарҭам ача ҳаҭ қара иахьа. 13This is on extract from a translation o f the Gospels by Zaira Khiba. O f the four, only the Gospel According to St. John has been published (see Ҳара Ихакәит(ы)у Иисус Христос Иажәабжь Бзиа Иоанп Ишанииаз Еиҧш, Institute for Bible Translation, Stockholm, 1981). " The verb is this sentence is the Subjunctive from the root -aa-. Note that the form o f the root here has shifted to -an-, though it seems that иаа(н)т is not impossible, being thus ambiguous between ‘ it/they came' (Aorist Indicative) and ‘ let it/them come!' (Subjunctive).
297
12. Ҳуалқәагьы х,ара иханажь, ҳаргьы ҳтәы зықәқәоу ишранахажьуа еиҧш. 13. Ҳагьалаумгалан хара ацәыгьҧышәара, хагьацәнырха ҳара ацәгьара, избанзар Уара иутә(ы)уп на(ы)унагза Аҧсҳарси, амчреи, адаракырси. Амин.
Vocabulary аныҳәара
pray
анажьра
аҧшьара аҧсҳара
bless princedom, kingdom w ill be no good
ацәыгьҧышәара ацәнырхара
forgive something for (-a-) someone temptation save from
на(ы)унапа аҳаракыра
forever glory
агәаҧхара ахәарҭамзаара
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Appendix Supplement on Numerals In Lessons I and 2 we examined the cardinals, ordinals and completives (e.g. expressions o f the type ‘all four’ ). We now have to review formations o f simple fractions, decimals, multiplicalives, distributives and approximatives.
Fractions There is a distinct lexeme for ‘ half’ , namely абжа, though a colloquial variant for 'one h a lf (бжакы) is аыџьара ишаны хәҭак, which is analysable thus: one portion (хәҭак) divided (ашара ‘divide’ ) two times (-џьара). A sequence like хәба рыбжа ‘ half o f five’ is obviously the equivalent o f ебси бжаки ‘two and a h a lf, whilst хәбжакы or абжақәа хәба is ‘five halves'. One can also use the above colloquial technique with other numerals, and so to say ‘one quarter’ we can have: ҧшьыџьара ишаны хәҭак. An alternative expression takes the relevant cardinal, possibly with article, and combines this with рак ‘their one’ , e.g. (а)ҧшьбарак ‘one quarter’ , (а)жәбарак ‘one ninth’ , (а)аажәи хәбарак ‘one tw enty-fifth’ , шәк(ы)рак ‘one hundredth'. Alternatively, and this seems to be the preferred option o f specialists, one can use the postposition -ахьтә (with variants -ахьтәи or, perhaps less felicitously, the postposition -кынтә(и) ‘ from ’ , or even just -ахь ‘towards’ ) and then use the prime cardinal,
as
in:
ҧшьба
рахь(тә(и))/ркынтә(и)
акы
‘one
quarter’ ,
жәба
рахь(тә(и))/ркынтә(и) акы ‘one ninth’ , аажәи хәба рахь(тә(и))/ркынтә(и) акы ‘one tw enty-fifth’ , шәкы рахь(тә(и))/ркынтә(и) акы ‘one hundredth'; and the order
of
the
components
here
can
be
reversed
(e.g.
акы
ҧшьба
рахь(тә(и))/ркынтә(и) ‘one quarter’). I f more than one unit is required in the fraction, then two o f the above-patterns are possible, namely: жәаба рахьтә(и)/ркынтә(и) хҧа = хҧа жәаба рахьтә(и)/ ркынтә(и) ‘three tenths’ , аынаажәи хҧа рахьтә(и)/ркынтә(и) хәба ‘ five forty-thirds’ or: хәыџьара ишаны хҧа ‘three fifths’ or, as yet another alternative, the relevant cardinal (for the numerator) precedes the relevant ordinal (for the denominator), e.g. хҧа ажәабатәи ‘three tenths’ , хәба ааынаажәи хҧатәи ‘ five forty-thirds’
299
Combining a whole number wi(h a fraction involves, as already illustrated above, coordination, after the pattern of: фбеи бжаки ‘six and a half’, ҧшьбси хҧа раки =
ҧшьбси
хҧа
рахьто(и)/ркыито(и)
аки
=
ҧшьбси
акы
хҧа
рахьтәи(и)/ркынтәи(и) ‘ four and one third’ , бжьбси ааба рахьтә(и)/ркынтә(и) хәбси = бжьбси хәба ааба рахьтәи(и)/ркыитәи(и) = бжьбси хәба аабатәии ‘seven and Five eighths’ . However, the option seemingly preferred by specialists is calqued on Russian. The whole number cardinal is followed by the root o f the word for ‘whole’ (-еибга) in its non-finite Stative guise ((и)еибгоу ‘ which is whole'); for the fractional component one o f the above-variants w ill be used, e.g. ак (и)еибгоу хҧа хәба рахь(тә(и))/хҧа ахәбатәи/хәыџьара ишаны хҧа ‘one and three fifth s’ шәи хәба (и)еибгоу оба хәба рахь(тә(и))/аба ахәбатәи/хәыџьара ишаны оба ‘one hundred and five and two fifths’ Abkhaz can now add its coordinating suffix -и to these expressions, giving: ак
(и)еибго(у)н
хҧа
хәба
рахьи/рахьтәи(и)/хҧа
ахәбатәии/хәыџьара
ишаны хҧеи ‘one and three fifths’ шәи
хәба
(и)еибго(у)и
аба
хәба
рахьи/рахьтәи(и)/аба
ахәбатәии/
хәыџьара ишаны абеи ‘one hundred and five and two fifths' Note the expressions: афиналбжа ‘ semi-final’ ; аҧшбарактәи афинал ‘quarterfin al’ .
Decimals Abkhaz seems not to distinguish between fractions and decimals. And so, we have such (by now) familiar sequences as the following, though 1 only quote the preferred structure: ноль (и)еибгоу фба жәаба рахь(тә(и)) ‘0.6’ ноль (и)еибгоу фба шәкы рахь(тә(и)) ‘0.06’ ноль (и)еибгоу фба зқьы рахь(тә(и)) ‘0.06’ Abkhaz follows Russian in writing decimals not according to the English fashion but by substituting a comma for the decimal point. I f one were to read a decimal expression as a sequence o f numbers with the word аҿарҵәи or акьарда ‘comma’ in the appropriate position, Abkhazians would understand but say that it does not sound natural in the language.
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M ultiplicatives ‘Once’ is зпы(к), where the initial voiced fricative is a remnant o f the proto-North West Caucasian numeral for ‘ Г. For other multiplicatives the suffix -нтә is added to the cardinal root, e.g. аынтә ‘twice/two times’, хынтә ‘thrice/three times’ , фынтә ‘six times’ , оынаажәи жәахантә ‘ fifty-three times’. One rare formation consists o f article plus cardinal root plus suffix -на, as in: ааына ‘twice’ . D istributives These are produced by reduplicating the appropriate non-human or human form o f the cardinal, e.g. ак-ака ‘one (non-human) each’ , азә-аӡәа ‘one (human) each', абааба ‘two (non-human) each’ , аыӡәа-аыӡәа 'tw o (human) each’ , ҧшьба-ҧшьба ‘ four (non-human) each’ , ҧшьеы-ҧшьаы(к) ‘four (human) each’ . I f one suffixes to one o f these distributives the Instrumental marker -ла, the corresponding adverb is produced, e.g. ҧшьба-ҧшьбала or ҧшьаы-ҧшьаыла ‘ in fours’ . A p p ro x im a te s The word -akapa ‘ amount, quantity, size’ is placed after the appropriate human or non-human cardinal, functioning as a postposition in the sense o f ‘about’ , e.g. an akapa ‘about one (non-human)’ , аӡә иакара ‘one (male) or so’ , аӡә лакара ‘one (female) or so’ , ҧшьба pakapa ‘about four (non-human), ҧшьаык pakapa (or ҧшьыа pakapa) ‘about four (humans)’ . As long as the numeral is not ‘one’, alone can be suffixed directly to the relevant cardinal, e.g. хәбака ‘about five (non-humans)’ , хәаыкка ‘about five (humans)’ . Supplementary on Completives We have seen that sequences o f article plus cardinal plus -гьы ‘ and, also, even’ produced forms meaning ‘all N U M E R A L’, as in аабагьы ‘both (non-human)’ , ааыӡәагьы ‘both (human)', аҧшьбагьы ‘ all four (non-human)’ , аҧшьаыкгьы ‘ all four (human)’ . I f one replaces the article with the appropriate I", 2nd or 3rd person plural
possessive prefix,
one produces
forms
meaning
‘all
NUMERAL
of
us/you/them’, as in: ҳаызәагьы ‘ both o f us’ , шәыҧшьаыкгьы ‘ all four o f you", рыжәабагьы ‘all ten o f them (non-human)’ vs рыжәааыкгьы 'all ten o f them (human)’ .
301
Grammatical Summary In terms o f word-order, ihc language is basically SOV, Noun-Adjeclivc (though certain types o f adjcclivc precede their heads), Possessor-possessed, Postpositional. The cilalion-lbrm o f nouns and adjectives begins with the definite-generic article a-. Unless replaced by a possessive prefix or the noun is specifically marked for indefinitcncss, this arliclc is attached to most instantiations o f nouns. Case plays no role in marking the major arguments (subject, direct object, indirect object, oblique object) o f verbs or within the noun-phrasc to indicate possession. There is, however, an Adverbial case, marked by the suffix -c (less commonly -ны), which marks the predicate in such expressions as 'deem X to be NP1(e.g. аызас усыҧхьаӡо(и)т 'I consider you-MASC (to be) a friend’); it also has a role in WHquestions (e.g. Бызшәас шәызлеицәажәо(з(е))и? 'Bv wav o f language, by means o f what do you-PL speak with each other?' = 'What language do you speak together?'). Whilst possessors are unmarked (and, thus, there is no Genitive case), the possessed item begins with a pronominal prefix referring back to the possessor. The same set o f pronominal prefixes is used with postpositions to refer to the noun(phrase) governed by the postposition. The relevant pronominal prefixes are:
Pronominal Prefixes attached to possessed nouns and to postpositions SINGULAR
PLURAL
с(ы)-
Ҳ(а)-
2nd person (human male, indefinite)
y-
шә(ы)-
2nd person (human female)
б(ы)-
шә(ы)-
3rd person (human male)
И-
р(ы)-
3rd person (human female)
л(ы)-
р(ы)-
3rd person (non-human)
a-
р(ы)-
1st person
Nouns distinguish singular from plural. The plural suffixes are -цәа (for humans) and -қәа (for non-humans, though ахәыҷқәа = '(the) children'). There are, however, a few pluralisers, which are used for specific purposes: (i) -aa collectively pluraliscs nouns indicating clans, lown-populalions, and (sub-)ethnonyms (especially for the regional sub divisions o f the Abkhazian people, as historically constituted); (ii) -ap is used for (often the young of) animals, the -c or -шь o f the singular being replaced by the pluraliser; (iii) -pa indicates an agglomeration o f trees o f one-species and so equates to English 'plantation o f X'; (iv) -paa, which looks to be a union o f (iii) and (i), is found with proper-names and means 'X and friends'. The personal pronouns distinguish between male and female in the 2nd and 3rd person singular, the 3rd person singular masculine pronoun also marking non-human entities. The personal and demonstrative pronouns are these:
302
Personal pronouns SINGULAR
PLURAL
ҳа(ра) шәа(ра)
1st person
ca(pa)
2nd person (human male; indefinite)
ya(pa)
2nd person (human female)
6a(pa)
шәа(ра)
3rd person (human male; non-human)
иа(ра)
да(ра)
3rd person (human female)
ла(ра)
да(ра)
Sometimes ҳарҭ 'we/us' is used for ҳа(ра), as is шәарҭ for nraa(pa) 'you-PL', the former in cach pair originally being exclusive markers. The 2nd person plural pronoun is regularly used when addressing a single person for the sake o f politeness, possibly as a result o f Russian influence.
Demonstrative pronouns SINGULAR
PLURAL
1st person deixis
а(б)ри
а(ба)рҭ(қәа)
2nd person deixis
а(б)ни
а(ба)нҭ(қәа)
3rd person deixis
У(бр)и
у(ба)рҭ(қәа)
The arguments o f verbs are shewn within the preradical structure o f verb-forms by three sets (or Columns) o f pronominal prefixes. Column I prefixes correlate with intransitive subjects or transitive direct ohjccLs; Column II prefixes correlate with indirect/oblique objects; Column III prefixes correlate with transitive subjects (agents). This means that Abkhaz is a language o f the ergalive-absolutive type. The three sets o f prefixes are combined in the following table (minus the (usually close) vowel that sometimes accompanies them):
The Pronominal Prefixes marking verbal arguments within verb-forms Singular
PIm r I
I
II
III
I
11
III
1st
c-
c-
C- ( / 3 - )
Ҳ-
Ҳ-
Ҳ-
2nd Masc/N-Hum
y-
y-
y-
ШӘ-
Ш Ә-
ШӘ- ( / ЖӘ-)
2nd Fern
6-
6-
6-
ШӘ-
Ш Ә-
ШӘ- (/Ж Ә -)
3rd
Masc Hum
Д-
И-
И-
И-
P- (/Д -)
P-
3rd
Fem Hum
Д-
Л-
Л-
И-
p- (/д-)
p - (/Д -)
3rd
N-Hum
И -/0 -
3 -/0 -
(н )а -
И-
p- (/д -) P- (/Д -)
(/aa-)
(/Д -)
Verb-forms are either o f the Dynamic or Slalive variety. And all Indicative tenses (apart from the Stative Perfect) exist in finite and non-finite forms. Stalivcs arc hardly ever found outside the Present and Past. It is possible, structurally speaking, to categorise Indicative verb-forms in two groups, the non-finite forms o f Group II
303
ending in -3, which is absent from those o f Groups I. In order to illustrate the relevant endings o f the Indicative tenses, the f inite and non-l'inilc lense-forms lor the root -гыла- 'stand' are set out below (with 1st person singular subject in the Unite forms, and with relative forms representing the non-finite patterns):
Finite vs Non-finite Indicative tense-forms in Abkhaz Dynamic Group I Tenses 'stand up'
not stand up1
Finite
Non-finite
Finite
Non-finite
Pres
сгыло(и)т
игыло
сгылом
имгыло
Аог
сгыл(еи)т
игыла
сымгыл(еи)т
имгыла
F u tI
сгылап
игылара/ы
сгыларым
имгылара/ы
= сымгылап Ful II
сгылашт
игылаша
сгылашам
имгылаша
Perf
сгылахьеит
игылахьоу
сымгылац(т)
имгылахьоу
= игылахьа(ц)
= имгылахьа(ц)
= игылац
= имгылац
Dynamic Group II Tenses Finite
Non-finite
Finite
Non-finite
СГЫЛОН
игылоз
сгыломызт
имгылоз
Past Indcf сгылан
игылаз
сгылазт
имгылаз
Condi 1 1
сгыларын
игыларыз
сгыларымызт имгыларыз
Condit II
сгылашан
игылашаз
сгылашамызт имгылашаз
PI up
сгылахьан
игылахьаз
сгылацызт
Imperf
= игылацыз
304
= имгылахьа(цы)з = имгыладыз
Stutivc Pattern 'not be standing'
'be standing' Finite
Non-Unite
Finite
Pres
сгылоуп
игылоу
сгылам
Past
сгылан
игылаз
сгыламызт
| Pert'
—
игылац
—
Non-finite игылам игыламыз игыламыц1]
Derived Slative Pattern Def Fut
сгылазаауеит
игылазаауа
сгылазаауам
игыламзаауа
Fut 1
сгылазаап
игылазаары
сгылазаарым
игыламзаары
Ful II
сгылазааагг
игылазааша
сгылазаашам
игыламзааша
Condit I
сгылазаарын
игылазаарыз
сгылазаарымызт
игыламзаарыз
The language has (he following verbal moods: Imperative (ending in the bare stem); Prohibitional (ending in
-h );
Subjunctive (ending in -аа(и)т o r -з(аа(и)т));
Optative (ending -нда(з)); Evidential (ending in -заап or -заарын). There arc various converbs: the Absolutes end in -ны (often replaced by -кәа(н) when negated); the Purposive ends in -рц (sometimes -рацы) ог-разы; the Resultative ends in -ртә (sometimes -ратәы); Protasis-suffixes (-(за)р; -зҭгьы); A ll the North West Caucasian languages are characterised by extreme polysynihelicily in their verbal complexes. W hilst some roots convey the lexical meaning by themselves, sometimes it is rather a function o f the combination o f a root with a particular preverb. I f one thinks o f the root as standing at the centre o f the complex, a variety o f prefixes and suffixes can be added to this core. One might find it helpful to think o f there being prefixal and suffixal slots which determine where these affixes may stand, but, since not all combinations are feasible, it is difficult to be precise about the assignment to this or that slot o f some o f the elements concerned; some slots permit the presence o f more than one o f the relevant affixes. There follows a list o f these notional slots, starting with the one that stands first (and thus furthest away from the root), and, for the suffixes, moving away from the root, to end with the one standing at the end o f the complex — in the numbering system P stands for prefixal slot. S for suffixal slot: P I. Column I prefix (or such substitutes as: the relative marker И -; the reflexive marker -ҽ(ы)- + its possessive prefix; the non-specific object marker (а)кр(ы)-); P2. Connective (-агь-); 'This lorm is not common. Probably for this reason the equivalent Dynamic Perfect was quoted al this point in the table included on p. 111 o f my description o f the North West Caucasian languages in Lingua 115. 1-2, January-February 2005.
305
РЗ. Conjunctional particle (-ан(ы)- 'when'; -ахь(ы)- 'where'; -ш(ы)- 'how, as'; -з(ы)'why'); P4. Inlerrogalivc sulTix -6a- that allaches to the conjunctional particlcx, apart from the last (producing: -анба- 'when?'; -аба- 'where?'; -шп>а- 'how?'); P5. Orientational (sometimes modal) preverbs (such as -aa- 'hither'; -н(а)- 'thither'; -a(a)- 'upwards'; -л(а)- 'downwards'); P6. Relational particles, preceded by the pronominal affix correlating with the oblique objcct (hat they govern (e.g. -з(ы)- 'for; Potential'; -ц(ы)- 'with'; -ла- 'by'; -цә(ы)Trom'; -амха- 'Involuntary marker') — sometimes more than one o f these elements can appear in the same verbal complex; P7. Column II prefix (or such substitutes as: the relative marker -з(ы)-; the reciprocal marker -аи-, sometimes -иба-); P8. Preverb; P9. Column III prefix (or such substitutes as: the relative marker -з(ы)-; the reciprocal marker -(а)иба/аибы-); P10. Infixed negative -м(ы)-; PI 1. Causative prefix -p-; ROOT 51. Root-suffix (-aa- or -ла-); 52. Adverbial elements (e.g. -цәа- 'to too large a degree’; -ӡа- as emphatic and/or negative accompaniment); 53. Pluraliser (-қәа-, which most commonly pluralises the relativised noun in a relative expression); 54. Habitual/Iterative marker (-ла-); 55. Dynamic suffix (-ya-), tense-marker (such as: -хьа- for the (Plu-)Perfect; -ра/рыfor the Future/Conditional I; -ma- for the Future/Conditional П), Stalivc suffix (-y-); 56. Suffixal Negative
(-M -);
57. Interrogative (-да- 'who?'; occasionally -и- 'what?'); 58. Modal endings (Subjunctive -з а а п
or
-з а а р ы н ;
-а а (и )т о г-з (а а (и )т );
Prohibitional
-h)
Optative
-н д а ( з ) ;
Evidential
and ((Non-)Finitc) Tense-suffixes (-(и)т,
-н , - п
for finite Indicative tenses; -з for non-finite forms); 59. Interrogative suffixes (-и/-з(е)и 'what?'; -ма or -y for Yes-No questions) and Converb endings (-ны/-кәа(н) for Absolutes; -рц, sometimes -рацы, or -разы for the Purposive; -ртә, sometimes -ратәы, for the Rcsultative; -(за)р or -зҭгьы for marking protases); S10. Markers o f proposilional content (e.g. -еи for emphatic affirmation). I f the classical definition o f a clause is followed (namely, a sequence o f words containing a finite verb), then Abkhaz largely lacks subordinate 'clauses', as the iranslation-equivalents mostly contain a non-finite vcrb-form. The exceptions that
306
exist (as in sonic causal expressions or some complcmcnl-lypcs) are likely lo be neologisms.
307
An A lternative S crip t 2 Text I Abriy sowp' sara Xaranl'u yaaz sasra, Yik'aranda? k ’ ni dsazts’aayi’ sara: - Swihuoyt’ yisowhuarazi, wtzwislada wara?.. - Sara adiwney diw apa sowp', Yara wibny alagii sara sigxuajuiwp'. Ycylirgam yiwashuap’ : sara sapsiwowp’ ! Apswa jular rpa sowp’ sara, A ju it’ udza zm acam£ucy arabguey K ’avk’az yikutsani y ik ’ aztsaz yireywowp’ dara. Sara sapsiwowp’ , st’uila
X U 19’
ala siCxuoyl’ .
Sara biz$uala strzaayguowp’ , sra§owp' Ayedigikua, a^erkiezkua wihua. Sara sra§owp' ajularkua zegi — adiwney a?’ ytnxawa.1 Sara sirpowp’ abilra, atstsi§u yalts’ iz. Sara sirpowp’ pxiaq’a yitso ajularkua. Sara sapsiwowp'. Stownx — A ju it’ udza yalowp’ ... Sara — yisa?ow ya§a sowp’ ! Sara — sapsiwowp’ ! — Si§xa §lakua sirpowp’ , St’ uila sapowp’ . Sabdiw£uey w in rabdiw^ucy Ani?u yaxiamow sapowp’ !..
2The verses chosen lo illustrate my proposed roman-based script are by D yrm it’ Gw lia (1874-1960), more usually written as Gulia, and T ’ a if Adzhba (1939-92), who disappeared without trace following Georgia's invasion o f Abkhazia on I4lh August 1992. Both offer a glimpse o f Ihe Abkhazian character. Gulia's text appears on p. 19 o f volume I o f Apswa P ’oezia Anl'ologia: XX AshwySHykwmi [Anthology o f Abkhazan Poetry: X X Century], which was compiled by Mushni Lashw ria and published in two volumes in 2001. Adzhba's text is on p. 17 o f volume I o f ljwymltikwa (jw-t'omk'ny) [His Writings (in two volumcs)J, published in Sukhum in 1999-2000. Though my original suggestion included the marking o f stress by means o f an accent over Ihe relevant vowel, I have here followed the practice adopted in the rest o f this book by highlighting the stressed vowel in bold type. ^ln the literary language this form would be yinxo.
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Yisasow — sra$owp\ Akiiyagua zcgii — Sara siwa£ua rowp’ ! Text 2 Waay siyumq’a Lnap’ i rgicjwa san diwpila4, Aps?ua weyhuap’ sab di?<;o, Naq’ -aaq’ sa$gua aaiwvagilap’ , Sahu$a dguirts’ ip' dipxa$o. W irima yileyp’ ayumq’ a risas, Hatir wikuts’ an w idirt'uap'. Sab dizxaaniw, sab dizxisiz Ajuabj ssiyrkua wa yiwahap’ . Sa siyum yiq’ alom agug’igra. Yiwmbadzak’ ua wigui azhalap'. Sahu$a Ii§libj mirgadzak’ ua Asas w ifat’u lirxialap’ . Nas ast’ol5 axi — afara-ajura, §uguiigiap’ wa, sui^sap’ , $uk’ ua$ap’ , Ag’ ulsa §iixm sab danguajuo, Sa§£ua rgila§akua wibap’ .
Tskia stwdirp’ , siwbap', scyliwk'aap’ , Y its’egi, yils’egi siwguapxap’, Y iq ’alozar, waay siyuniq’a — Yits’egi bziya haybabap’ . Vocabulary sasra aara
comc as guesl
atownx
history
ak’ aranda?
pencil (Russian)
a?la
grey-haired
4This is whal is printed in (he text. As such, the form is the Past Absolute (minus the typical Absolute suffix). Given so many other examples o f the Future I tense here, should we perhaps read diwpilap'? 5The Russian word for 'table' (стол) is widely used in Abkhaz, especially in the sense of'feast'.
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agxuara
boasl
ani$u
earth
|a|aylirgara
sorl out (clearly)
akiiya
honourable
akulsara
drive oul from
ai^ara
laugh
ak'atsara
expel
naq’ -aaq’
all around
ayedigi
Adyghe
axaan
epoch (someone's
(yeyhrgam)
time) a9erkiez
Cherkess
axisra
pass through, experience
abilra
bum(ing)
agu$’ igra
boredom
alslsiju
ash
a§tibj
sound
pxiaq’ a
forward
ac’ ulsa
glass
Key lo Exercises Lesson 1
1. Translate into English 1. two sons 2. some trees 3. one fish 4. some hunters 5. the wide rivers 6. one dirty cart 7. the intelligent old men 8. the hot water (vs the hot (lea [N.B. this latter is quite artificial and would not be said]) 9. the lazy old women 10. one falcon 11.19 deep lakes 12. 97 good guests 13. 10 variegated eyes 14. 52 thick books 15. 5 soft cheeses 16. 8 good brothers 17. 9 red squirrels 18. 6 strong doors 19. 12 bad thieves 20. 101 black dogs vs 101 black eyes
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. ӡҕабцәақәак 2. аҧҳацәа ҧшьаы(к)/гҕшыаы(к) аҧҳацәа 3. зиас тбаак 4. ашә иаҵәақәа 5. шаха ҕәҕәакәак
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6. «ы шкәакәак 7. Аҧсуаа 8. ахәыҷы кьашьқәа 9. ҕьыч аашьацәақәак 10. џьмак(ы) П.азҕабцәа ҧшзакәа/ҧшӡацәа жәохаы(к)/жәохаы(к)аӡҕабцәа ҧшзакәа/жәохаы-ӡҕаб ҧшза(цәа)к/жәох<аы(к) азҕабцәа ҧшӡацәа 12. хәшә ашақәак 13. жәафаы(к) арҵаацәа кәышқәа/жәафоы(к) арҵаацәа кәышцәа/жәафаы-рҵаа кәыш(цәа)к/арцаацәа кәышқәа/кәышцәа жәафаы(к) 14. аҧсыз шкәакәақәа аажәи хәба/аажәи хәба-ҧсыӡ шкәакәак 15. ажәахааы(к) аҵаацәа ҿыцкәа/ҿыццәа/ажәахаа-цаа ҿыц(цәа)к/аҵаа ҿыцқәа/ҿыццәа ажәахааы(к) 16. аажәи жәаа аҽ хәычкәа/аҽ хәыҷкәа аажәи жәаа 17. аынаажәи жәааааы(к) аҭакәажәцәа ҕә5 әак.әа/ҕә5 әацәа/аҭакәажәцәа ҕәҕәакәа/ҕәҕәацәа аынаажәи жәааааы(к) 18. ҧшьынаажәи ааба ааны ҳарак(ык)/аны ҳаракык/ааны ҳаракқәа ҧшьынаажәи ааба 19. аышәи аыџьа-шәарыцаа бааҧсцәак/бааҧсык/бааҧсқәак/ашәарыца(а)цәа бааҧсцәа/бааҧсқәа аышәи аыџьа 20. ацла иаҵәа тбаақәа жәнызықьи аашәи/жәнызыкьи аашәи аҵла иацәа ҭбаакәа
Lesson 2 1. Translate into English 1. my mother’s golden ring and your-FEM sister’s red dress 2. for us writers 3. at your-PL pluce on Sunday 4. from your-MASC father and mother 5. in Abkhaz and Russian 6. many Mingrelians and some Georgians
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7. Zama and her iwo brothers 8. at one o’clock a week from today 9. after 9 months 10. for your-FEM new friends
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. аҧшьбатәи амаа ар&ьарахь 2. уацәы-уха асааҭ фба рзы 3. а(ба)рт ауада ҿыцқәа рҿы 4. ашә шкәакәа хәычык / мачк ашә шкәакәа / ашә шкәакәа мачк 5. а(ба)рҭ аан хәыҷкәа раҧхьа (рҿаҧхьа) 6. ашьыжь/шьыжьымтан асааҭ жәеизанӡа (жәеиза аҧхьа) 7. аабатәи лхаҵа 8. у(бр)и аҵла абҕь д(ы)уқәа 9. саб иаҳәшьа еихабацәа 10. шьыжьымҭантәи амра ашәахәакәа рыла
Lesson 3 (.Translate into English 1. Our brothers are in class 5. 2. My books are under your-PL chairs. 3. My mother’s grandmothers and grandfathers arc dead. 4. Over/Beyond the Black Sea is Turkey. 5. At the present time there are not many fish in the sea. 6. That woman is my wife. Like your-MASC wife she too is not Abkhazian. 7. There arc a few foreigners amongst us Abkhazians. 8. Four shepherds are standing at the foot o f the mountain. 9. That old woman has one son and one daughter. They are Mingrelians. 10. These children do not want dirty dresses.
2. Translate into Abkhaz
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1. Аҧсуа шәарыцаа(ы) ахылҧа каҧшь ихоуп. 2. Ҧыҭк ацпақәа ҳбаҳчаҿы иҳамоуп (игылоуп). 3. Уҧха адкы ҧшӡа лшә(ы)уп. 4. У(ба)рт алақәа ал(а) еиқәҵәакәа рыма(за)м. 5. Таиф иҧхәыси/иҧшәмеи иареи аиартаҿы ицәоуп. 6. Саыза иҧҳа ахьтәы мацәаз ҧшӡа лымҕоуп. 7. У(ба)рҭ аҷкәынцәеи азҕабцәеи сҵаацәа ракәым/ракәзам. 8. Рыҧхацәа акгьы рҭахым/рҭахзам 9. Бани баби ааызцәа рацәааны ирыма(за)м. 10. Шәысасцәа у(бр)и аила д(ы)у амдан итәоуп.
Lesson 4 1. Translate into English 1. Is what is in this newspaper correct? No, it is not correct. 2. Who has my pens? Arc you-MASC the one who has them? No, I don’t have them. 3. What is in my glass? That is a flea vs That is water. 4. Is Abkhazia beautiful? Yes, it is very beautiful. We have many large mountains. 5. Which is Abkhazia’s largest town? Our largest town is Sukhum. 6. Who is the boy standing there? That is my son. 7. Who is standing there? The person standing there is my and my spouse's grandchild. 8. Who is not here? There are many who are not here. 9. To whom do these houses belong? These do not belong to anyone. 10. Do you-PL have the book that I want or not? We do not have it. Your-FEM sister has it.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Сгәылацәа сырцәымҕ(ы)у((ы)у) сырцәымҕм(ы)у? 2. Бышьҭахь игылоу ахаҵа дызустада/дарбан(ы)у? Саб иоуп. Уара узустада/ уарбан(ы)у? 3. Уҧа заҵә ихылҧа ҿыц ихами? 4. Бчанахқәа (асаанқәа) ирн(ы)уи? Абыстеи акәыди рн(ы)уп.
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5. А(ба)рт алақәа зтахыда? Ҳара иах.тахым/иах.ҭахзам у(6а)рт. 6. Азиас иҭо(у)и? Аҧсыӡ ҭоума? Мап/Мамоу, акгьы там/ҭаӡам. 7. Ааныцка итә(ақә)оу урдаацәа роума? Мап/Мамоу, сцаацәа роуп/ исҵаацәоуп. 8. Шәызҿ(ы)уи/Шәызҿ(ы)уз(е)и? Акгьы ҳаҿым/ҳаҿзам. 9. Уан у(ба)рт ажәабжь ссиркәа зн(ы)у ашәкәы лымоума? Ааи/Аиеи, ааны илымоуп. 10. Амра ицә(ы)у у(бр)и дызустада/дарбан(ы)у? У(бр)и санхәа лоуп/дсанхәоуп.
Lesson 5 I. Translate into English/ 1. Which is/was the class your-PL sisters were in last year? 2. When my friends’ father and mother were here, didn’t they want anything? 3. When I was in Zugdidi, were you-MASC too there? 4. Whose daughter are-FEM? I am Kjaazym’ s daughter. 5. Who is standing beneath the fig-tree? That is my father. 6. Why was our neighbours’ grandmother confincd to bed? 7. What was it that your guests had in their hands? 8. Where were you-PL sitting in the theatre? We were sitting behind you-PL. 9. How are you-PL? We’re OK. Thanks. What time is it? It’s 12.30. 10. Why were our representatives not standing in front o f the door?
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1.Шәыҧха шака/зака дыҧшзо(у)и/дыҧшзоуз(е)и!? 2. Бырҵаацәа а(б)ри ашәкәы зырҭаҳыми/зырҭахымз(е)и/зырҭахзами/ зырҭахзамз(е)и? 3. Ахьшьцәа шакааы/закааы асарақәа ирылагылыдаз? = Асарақәа ахьшыдәа шакааы/закааы ирылагылыдаз? = Шакаа/Закаа ахьшьцәа асаракәа ирылагылыдаз? 4. Уани уаби рыҧсы ҭазма ҵыҧх? Ишҧа? Иахьагьы рыҧсы ҭоуп. 5. Иацтәи агазеҭқәа ирныз/ирнызыз/ирныззи ? Акгьы рнымызт/рынзамызт
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6. Хьшьқәак хкәчарақәа ахьыцәаз у(бр)а итәан. 7. Бан шакаа(ы)/закаа(ы) аишьцәа лымадаз? 8. А(б)ри азоума аруао иҧа у(бр)и аиартаҿы дзыцәамыз? 9. Шә-мааҭк змаз сара сакәмызт/сакәзамызт. 10. Иаха бабаказ? Сымаҳә икны сыкан. А<ан д(ы)у имоуп.
Lesson 6 I . Translate into English 1. What arc you-PL ploughing? We are ploughing our fields. 2. When I ’ m eating, I do not want lo sec the dogs. 3. Where do pupils sec their teachers? They see them at school. 4. Whose dress is your mother sewing? 5. Why is your-MASC father giving money to that woman? 6. What arc those women baking? They are baking bread. 7. Do your-PL guests know how lo speak Abkhaz? 8. Whal is your-FEM grandmother doing? Who knows whal she’s doing. God knows! 9. Do you-PL love eating meat? No, we don’t eat it. 10. Whose fault is it thal no-one is here7 It’s my fault.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Баҳәшьа бзиа илбода? Аӡәгьы бзиа дылб(аз)ом. 2. Уаб у(бр)и аҧҳәыс илиҭои/илитоз(е)и? Ҧсыӡ хәыҷык/ҧсыз маҷкУмаҷк аҧсыӡ' лито(и)т. 3. Уан ахәшә лызҭода? Ашоура анлымоу, аҳақьым илиҭо(и)т. 4. Асы анауа, шәхәычкәа зыҧхьо(у)и/зыҧхьоз(е)и? 5. Саызцәа ахьцо зб(аз)ом. 6. Ааҧынраз(ы) анха(а)цәа рымхқәа рцәаҕәо(и)т. 7. Мҽышала ааы аажәуам/аажәӡом. 8. Афрынакны изуеи/изуаз(е)и? У(бр)а ача зуеит. Сан илӡуеит. 9. У(бр)и ақәыџьма (абга (д(ы)у) есымша шака/зака кәты ашьуеи/ашьуаз(е)и? 1 The variants are given in decreasing order o f acceptability, fish in Abkhazia being bought by the kilo!
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10. Иахь(а) шәны Акәа шәаабо(и)т.
Lesson 7 I. Translate into English 1. Did the children come by ihemsclves? No, they camc accompanied by their mothers. 2. Our neighbours’ dog, having killed our only goose, sat down in the garden and went lo sleep. 3. My father, having taken me to Ochamchira, went (himself) to Zugdidi/..Лоок me to Ochamchira and (himself) went to Zugdidi. 4. Who is taller than our soldiers? No-one is taller than them. 5. Do you-PL know (the reason) why our friends are not here? 6. When we saw you-PL at the market, we recognised you. 7. Whal did the pupils give you-FEM? They gave me a red apple. Why? 8. Who is balhing/having a shower? That's my (female) grandchild. She was tired when she got here. 9. Whal a size that woman is! 10. What’s happened to you-FEM? Did someone hit you?
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Уаҳәшьа илбада? Аӡәгьы длымбеит. 2. Бан у(бр)и аҧҳәыс илылҭеи/илылҭаз(е)и? Ча хәыҷыкУМаҷк ача/Ча маҷк/Чак2 лылҭеит. 3. Уаб ахәшә изҭада(з)? Ашоура анимаз, ахақьым иитеит. 4. Иацы, асы анауаз/анауы, бхәыҷқәа икарцеи/икардаз(е)и? 5. Саызцәа жәацы иахьцаз сымбеит, аха а(б)ра уажәы изыкоу ибзианы издыруеит. 6. Ҵыҧх анха(о)цәа рымхқәа рымцәаҕәеит. 7. Амҽышаҽны, асаат жәеиза аажәа минуҭ анагыз, хгылан акгьы хамжәит.
1This last could also mean ‘ a lo a f. In order to make it clear that a loaf is whal is needed, one would say: чак шеибгоу ‘ a loaf as is whole'.
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8. Быҧха дантәа, асалам-шзкзы лоыма? Лкрыфан, дтәан(ы) х-салам-шокәык лаит. 9. Шәара Қарт шәанца, у(бр)и ақәыџьма (абга (л(ы)у) шака/зака кәата ашьи/ашьыз(е)и? Жәа-кәатак ашьит 10. Саыза дцеит иаҳәшьа дымба(ӡа)кәа(н).
Lesson 8 I. Translate into English 1. When your-FEM mother returned from Moscow, what were you doing? I was working in the garden. 2. Were you-PL underslanding/Did you understand whal the deputies were saying? Yes, we understood everything, but we didn’t like anything. 3. When did you-PL finish ploughing the fields? We finished (it) the day before yesterday. 4. Why didn't your-MASC mother and father take away from you the money you look? That money belonged lo me; I didn’t take it. For lhat reason they did not take it away from me. 5. Who brought these books? The writer who wrote them is the one who, having brought them, gave them to me. 6. Our grandfather camc into the house, pul down his slick, sat down at the table and began lo eat. 7. Who used to bear/would bear/would have borne that heal? 1 used lo bear/would bear/would have borne both heal and cold very well. 8. Who was looking after the sick person? His son was looking after him. 9. Where were you-PL taking the tobacco? We were putting them in the sun (sc. to dry). 10. When the wedding was starting, who was welcoming the guests? My father was welcoming them.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Аӡиас Бзыҧ Амшын Еиқәа иабалало(и)/иабалалоз(е)и?
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2. Уан уаб дзиҵҵу аз/дзитҭцуазыз/дзиҵҵуаззи7' 3. Саыза лхылҧа лхаҵаны Акәака лдәықәлеит. 4. Сахәшьа сқалҧадқәа ӡахны далган жәеиза рыбжазы дышьҭалеит. 5. Лхәыҷқәа шьҭаианы, ан амардуан ала/мардуанла дылбаан ателевизор дахәаҧшуа/ахәаҧшра далагеит. 6. Башьа данҧсы, шака/зака шықәса бхыҵуаз/бхыиуазыз/бхыҵуаззи? 7. Ҭырқәтәылака лцара сцәымҕын, аха сгәы иалымсит.'* 8. Асасцәа рпалтақәа абакнархауаз/абакнарҳауазыз/абакнарҳауаззи? Руадақәа рҿы икнарҳауан. 9. Уаызцәа сынтәа аҧхын(ра) шҧархыргеи/шҧархыргаз(е)и Ҵып^х еиҧш, Мыкә ранд(ы)уи рабд(ы)уи рыкны ирхыргеит. 10. Аныҳәа шҧамоаҧыжәгоз/шҧамааҧыжәгозыз/шҧамааҧыжәгоззи? Даара ибзианы имааҧаагон.
Lesson 9 I . Translate into English 1. For whom were you-FEM doing this? I was doing it for my sister. 2. Did you-PL understand what your mother and father said? No, we couldn't understand everything. Could you-MASC understand it/them? I too couldn’ t understand it/them. 3. Why can’t you-MASC lake o ff your shirt? My arm hurts, otherwise I would take it o ff rightaway. 4. With whal did you-PL lake the load? We took it with our friend's car. Why didn’ t you take it with your own car? (Because) Our car isn’ t working. 5. Stop talking and leave me alone (to a woman)! Why didn't you stop talking and leave me alone earlier? 6. Go into the house (to a plurality), put down your sticks, sit down at the table, and, without saying anything, start eating! 7. When they were (engaged in) ploughing their fields, my brothers losl a bull and couldn’ t find it. We’ll find it. Help us (to a male)! Don’ t refuse us! 8. The sick woman couldn’t endure the pain and couldn’ t stop crying involuntarily. ' The prevcrh -л(ы)- may substitute Гог-ҵ(ы)- with the same meaning.
' The more natural Abkhaz expression would be сгәы иалсмырсит. For Ihe verb-form, see Lesson 11.
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9. Don'l smoke (to a plurality), otherwise you’ll become ill. 10. Don’ t take these books (lo a male)! Take those and give them to your son!
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Ахәычы аҳәындәа дамхалалан дзылымҵ(зе)ит.5 2. Саызцәа ацәымҕ аҕәы ирзалымх(зе)ит. Изрыцәуадааыз/Изрыцәуадаазыз/ Изрыцәуадааыззи? 3. Бхылҧа бхаданы Акәака бдаықәла! 4. Угыланы амхы цәаҕәа! 5. Шәхәыҷқәа шьҭаданы шәласны/ирласны шәылбаа! 6. А(б)ри ахарҧ аҳәынҵәрақәа (а)ҿаца! У(бр)и и(а)ҿабымҵан! 7. А«ы аҕәра ззаҿамҵада(з)? 8. Абыста зланыртшз/зланырҵозыз/зланырҵоззи? Амҳабыста ала/Мҳабысҭалак 9. Уаызцәа рани раби ркны аҧхын(ра) изрызрыхымгеи/изрызрыхымгаз(е)и? Сара иалыздыраауеи/иалыздыраауаз(е)и? 10. Бсыватәаны икалаз зегьы ҳаҳәи! Акгьы сызшәаҳә(аз)ом. У(ба)рҭ сыршьуеит.
Lesson 10 I . Translate into English 1. I f you-PL take pity on his daughter, he w ill do for you whal you wanl. 2. My friend’s wife unwittingly squandered the monies and damaged everything. 3. I f your-MASC mother doesn’ t get betler, she won’ t be able to tell you what happened lo her. 4. I f your-FEM sister can’t go, is it possible for you to go with me? It is. 5. I f you-PL don’t taste our wine, you won’l be able to tell if it ’s good or not. 6. Why don'l you-MASC sil down?! You are tired. Have a rest! 7. Where should 1 take these sacks? Toss them into the storage-room. 5 Or ...машәырла ахәынҵәа лылалан... ‘ by accident got into the mud and...'. 6 Wc could, o f coursc, add Ihe verb и а н ы р ҵ о н ‘ they were serving/used lo serve il up (on it)'. Supposing reference were lo the past and we wanted lo say ‘ they used to serve it up (on il) with a wooden ladle and still do so now (viz. not jusl in former times)', the Abkhaz would be: нанырҵон егьаиырҵо(и)т уажзы. Por the initial element o f the second verbal complex see Lesson 19.
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8. Is il possible thal il’ s now snowing in Abkhazia? I don'l know. 9. I couldn’ l slarl my work. For this reason I couldn’ t finish (doing) my work. 10. The (female) tcachcr should nol have lorn the paper to shreds.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Хҧа жәибжьынтә ишыаҳхыр, икало(и)т/иалцуеит аынаажәи жәеиза. 2. Ахәыҷкәа апәакәа зегь(ы) рымфар акәын/рфар акә(за)мызт. 3. Ала абахгари/абаагари? Исыздыр(у)ам/Исыздырзом/Седро, аха аус(ы)урахь ишәымган/ижәымган! 4. Моеквантә быхнымхәыр, хаан ҿыц бызбарым/бызб(аз)ом.7 5. Сгыланы аатцәа ашыла ҭасыҧсароуп 6. Усҧырымҵыр, усамхаҧсыр/усамхашьыр кало(и)т. 7. Ҳтәап! Акгьы х,амҳәап! Бан ишхабжьылгаз (еиҧш) икахҵап! 8. Ираххәаз зегьы харҵар калома? Издыруада? 9. Зцәа/Зыбаа зтәым аҳәса(кәа) ааы рацәаны ирымжәыроуп (=ааы рацәа рымжәы роуп). 10. Ачымазцәа рыхәшә рымжәыр. ишҧабзиахо?
Lesson 11 I. Translate into English 1. When did you-PL get lo know each other? Your-FEM sister introduced us (to each other) two days ago. 2. We have not yet seen anyone who does not like chestnuts. Really? My father prefers walnuts to chestnuts. 3. Whal do we have to do? Nothing. Don’t worry about it (to a plurality). Your-PL friends have already done what you had to do. 4. Who got you-FEM to feed the maize lo the pigeons? 5. Who arranged for you-PL lo meet one another? Last year when we were on vacation (= taking a rest) in Wadhara, your-MASC arranged for us lo meet (one another). 6. How did the war end? I ’ ve forgotten. Remind me (to a plurality). 7The non-potcntially marked fi6(a^)OM would be perfectly possible here.
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7. Why is lhal young woman laughing (= Whal is making her laugh)? She isn'l laughing. She’s weeping for her brother who has died. 8. If your-FEM daughter gives me her hand. I'll put her in the car and take her lo town. 9. Your-MASC friend fought in opposition lo the Georgians. Now he is quaking in fear. What has made him quake so much? 10. We have the/a proverb: ‘Don’ t make someone whose son has not died weep for your son (to a male)’ . Are you-PL familiar with it?
2. Translate into Abkhaz. 1. Ҧшьынаажән фба иагурхар оажәи жәибжь, икало(и)т/иалҵуеит аынаажәи жәба. 2. Шәани шәаби ирзаашәхәаз ашәкәы сшәырбар калома? 3. А(б)ри аан ҿыц аргыларазы аргылаацәа хәыла/ахәазы изе иламӡахьо(у)и/изе иламзахьеи/изе иламӡахьаци/изе иламзаци? 4. Ҳачкәыни х.азбаби руадақәа дрыцқьахьеит. Рҽырызәзәахьеит. А(б)ри акынтә акино ахь ацаразы/ицарц азы ихиазароуп. 5. А(ба)рт ашәа ҧшӡакәа харзыӡыары!. Мамоу/Мап, сара у(ба)рт сырзызыархьеит. Ҳнапқәа ӡәзәаны (а)краҳфап! Са стәк.әа сызәзәахьеит. Сан ислырзәӡәеит. 6. Зегь(ы) шәзеиҿыскаауан, аха у(бр)и аамҭазы сычмазаахан аиарҭа саман. 7. Аҵаацәа рырҵаацәа иддырпдз зегьы рхашҭхьеит. Ишәзыргәаларшәома? 8. Ашҭа иҭаз амаҭәар шәхы изашәмырхәеи/изашәмырхәаз(е)и? У(бр)и хамбеит/аамбеит. 9. Ашә аарт(ы)ума? Иаазыртыда? Сыҷкәын иааиртит. Уара изааумырти/ изааумыртыз(е)и? 10. Акгьы (шәы)мҳәакәа(н) шәтәаз! Шәыбҕақәа еииышәх! Шәшьапқәа еиҵышәымхын! А(б)ра аҭыҧ ык(аӡ)ам.
Lesson 12 I . Translate into English
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1. If (hey had (akcn pity on his daughter, she would have done for them whal they wanted. 2. Whal were you-PL doing at that time? We were probably getting ready. 3. If my mother has (already) recovered, why has no-one told me anything? 4. If your-FEM sister were here, would she go with you? 5. I f I had tasted your-PL new checsc, I would have found out whether it’s good or not. 6. My wife has absolutely no idea how to rest. I f she were now resting in her room, il would be very good. 7. Your-FEM sons (regularly) used to do what they had to do. 8 .1 know my friends well. I f anyone wants help, they’re sure to help him. 9. I f you-FEM had already begun your work, you would have finished by now. 10. The teacher may already have read whal you-MASC wrote.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Шәзыҧхьашаз ашәкәқәа зыжәымгеи/зыжәымгаз(е)и? 2. Ахәычкәа аҵәақәа зегьы рымфазҭгьы, ичмазаох(аз)омызт. 3. Абгахәычы ахьыргашаз рыздыруамызт/рыздырӡомызт. Ашкол ахь ирымгазҭгьы, азәгьы иб(аӡ)омызт. 4. Москвантә быхнымҳәызтгьы, хаан ҿыц бызб(аз)омызт. 5. У(бр)и аадыруазҭгьы, ақьаадқәа аӡәгьы иҳарб(аз)омызт. 6. Уаызцәа иршәыз ҳаумҳәазҭгьы, дареи ҳареи хзеибадыруамызт/ ҳзе ибады рӡомызт. 7. Аџьармыкь аҿы иаасхәаз ацәақәа зфаз амаамын акә(за)мызт у(бр)и. 8. Бымгәа быхьуазҭгьы, бани баби ирабқәар акәын. 9. Ҳанд(ы)у жәацы даара дычмазааын. Дыҧсхьазар калап/кало(и)т. 10. Аҧсуаа ашәақәак зхырхәаахьадаз?
Lesson 13 I. Translate into English 1. Would that we had got to know each other last year! 2. The men were apparently rcsling/on vacation.
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3. Let ihe children no( take anything from here! 4. They have already taken the books. Fine, they’ ve taken them - so be il! 5. It rains every day. My wish is lhal there’ ll be no flooding! 6. Her sons apparently did what they were supposed to do. 7. My (female) friend’s mother has become ill. Would that she were not now overseas! 8. Let your-MASC (female) friend's mother gel better and let her and her sons lack for nothing! 9. My wish is that they’ ve already finished their work. 10. Our guests were apparently dressing in their rooms.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Аибашьра алгахьанда(з)! 2. Арҵаацәа ахәыҷқәа ашәкәқәа рымрымхаа(и)т! 3. Ҳаныҧсуа аадыруанда(з)/қадыруанда(з)! 4. Сымшира бхаштзаап. 5. Есышыкәса исхашҭуазаап. Иацы исгәалашәанда(з)! 6. Аӡәгьы ддәылымцаа(и)т! 7. Бани баби ҧсаа(и)т, а(б)ри ахәшә бымжәрызар! 8. Лҽеилылххьазаарын. А(б)ри акынтә дмылбааит. 9. У(бр)и аамҭазы лан лара дылбанда(з)! 10. Шәаызцәа а(б)ри акгьы ахырымхәаа(и)т!
Lesson 14 I . Translate into English 1. While her father is here, that girl fears nothing. 2. Before their mother and father return from Gagra, why can’ t your-MASC friends buy the car that they want? 3. During the war his only son perished. 4. Since your-MASC father had seen his brother how many years had passed? 5. We have not seen a drop o f rain since we came here.
6. As soon as your-MASC sisicr and 1 saw cacli other in the market, we recogniscd cach other. 7. As soon as (ever) the teacher went out, the students would start lo talk. 8. The children would not leave o ff talking until their father went into their room. 9. How much time has passed since you camc lo Aqw'a (Sukhum)? 10. We have no time. It is for this reason thal we don’t see each other often.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Ҵыҧх акәызма бареи сареи ханеиқәшәа/ханеибадыр? 2. Сан сыцкы азахра/ӡахны даналга ашьҭахь Вова иахь хдеит. 3. Уани уаби акармаҵыс абжьы хаа бзиа изырымбо сзеилкаауам/езеилкааӡом. 4. (И)закә(ытә) ҧа ҳаракцәаз/ҳаракцәаззи/харакцәазыз саҳәшьа илымаз! 5. Ахьшьцәа, ауаса рылхны, иршьын, ацәа хырхын, егьин, рыҧсы ршьеит. 6. Саыза иҧҳа есыуаха лаб дылбаанза дзыцә(аз)ом. 7. Асасцәа акрыфара иаҿнапы, ахәыҷқәа цәажәар кал(аӡ)ом. 8. У(ба)рт акрыфара ишалгалакцәкьа (еиҧш)/ишалгалак(ь) еиҧшцәкьа, ачанахқәа/асаанқәа шәызәӡәароуп. 9. Ачанахқәа/Асаанқәа анышәызәзәалак(ь) ашьҭахь, ашҭаҿы шәыхәмарыр кало(и)т. 10. Аибашьра калаанӡа (а)крахьа\ф(ал)оз схашҭит.
Lesson 15 I . Translate into English 1. He saw that three prisoners were talking to one another. 2 . 1 hope thal we’ ll see each other soon. 3. Her mother and father pay no attention lo the fact lhai the girl isn't studying well. 4. Waters whose source issues from the mountain(s) arc called mounlain-waters. 5. When they realised that studying was a good thing, they some years later opened schools in other villages loo.
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6. You-PL, who have not seen that foal with your (own) eyc(s), might say that it’s because you-MASC love (or: one loves) il that your-MASC (or: one's) eye saw it in thal way. 7. The reason why my heart was pained is that you-MASC notchcd my slick. 8. She vowed that she would not marry. 9. Ever since then Sasran has not helped me. But I very much regret lhal we failed to understand each other. 10. The reason you-MASC are inviting me there is not that you are concerned about my sorrow.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Аӡҕаб атак лыздыруамызт/лыздырзомызт/ахьылзымдыруаз/ахьылзымдырзоз азы дымгыл(аз)еит." 2. (И)ҭаб(ы)уп (ателефон) бахьасыз. Иахьа аамҭа сымам/ахьсымам азы, Акәа ашәахьа/ашәахьазы/ашәахьа аҽны асааҭ фбазы/фба рзы бызбап ҳәа агәыҕра сымоуп = агәыҕра сымоуп Акәа ашәахьа/ашәахьазы/ашәахьа аҽны асаат фбазы/фба рзы бызбап ҳәа. 3. Уаин уаби ааныка ианааилак(ь) а(б)ри ашәкәы уаҧхьошәа уҽыкаутшр/ кауиар, Акәак(а) урышьҭуам/урышьтзом. 4. Иаанагои а(б)ри/А(б)ри иаанагои? (И)сыздыруам/(И)сыздырзом/седро, аха ад(ы)унеи Аҧсны сынтәа икалаз лассы/ирласны (и)еилнакаауеит ҳәа сгәы иаанаго(и)т. 5. Бан интересс илымоуп иаха акгьы заҳамфеи/заҳамфаз(е)и ҳәа. 6. Урҵааы зегьы узыкеиҵаз џь(ы)ушьома? 7. Асасцәа аанӡа адәақәа ахьырфахьаз мап зацәырки/зацәыркз(е)и? 8. Амшын ахь изымцаз иахьчымазаахаз (азы/иахкьаны) акәын.” 9. Ҳасас акгьы лзеилымкаауазшәа/Акгьы лзеилымкаауазшәа хасас аштаҿы дтәан.
" The varianls without the intensifying suffix seem lo be preferred. v Also possible is the form иахьычмазаахаз. I f the pseudo-postposition indicating an unfortunate cause is used, then one could also say: рчымазара иахкьаиы.
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10. Ҳтәыла ахьыҧшымра уажәы иахьамоу (азы/абзоурала/иабзоураны) лассы/ ирласны ибеиахароуп.
Lesson 16 1. Translate into English 1. The brought 40 kilos o f hazel nuts to Sukhum to sell. 2. If your-FEM friend has already gone to Moscow, I ’ m afraid I won't sec him/her. 3. Who told you-PL to listen to that teacher? 4. I came here lo leach you-PL the English language. 5. Il was our intention to slay for three months, but we have lo go tomorrow. 6. I'm not in a position lo go Ihere. Why? Becausc my heart is giving me pain. 7. The girl became unable lo do anything. 8. When did your-FEM mother and father decide lo build a new house? 9. My boss urged me not to miss the meeting. 10. The truth is what I want lo tell you-PL.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Уаҵәы асааҭ хҧа рзы/хҧазы ҳаиҧылар(ц)/хаиқәшәар(ц) сҭахын, аха уаха Гагра сыказароуп. 2. А(б)ра аус(ы)ура далагон(ы) еиҧш (ателефон) изасын акино ахь дцарц иархәеит = акино ахь уца хәа иархәеит. 3. Бабацоз? У(бр)и аҽны асасцәа аараны иахьыказ/икан азы ашәыри аҧши аасхәарц (азы)/аасхәаразы/раахәаразы аџьармыкь ахь сцон. 4. Аӡәгьы аизарахь дмааир ҳәа/Аизарахь аӡәгьы дааиуам хәа гәыаарас иахьимаз/иман азы ҧсыӡкра дцеит. 5. Агазеткәа ирыҧхьарц (азы)/ирыҧхьаразы аӡҕабцәа а<аны иаанхеит/ иаагылеит. 6. Аҵәақәа шәмыӡәзәан қәа/рмыӡәзәарц разҳәада у(ба)рт? Ранд(ы)у лакәын иразҳәаз. Аӡы кьашьызар/ҟьашь(ы)уп ҳәа дшәон. 7. Шәычкәын абылтәы ааигарц (азы)/ааигаразы дҳашьҭит, аха макьана дыхнымхәит/дыхнымхәыц.
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8. Акырҭцәа у(ба)с икәыш(ы)ума у(бр)и карҵартә/карҵо (енҧш)? 9. Иҧсы ишьарц (азы)/ишьаразы раб Аҧсныка дцарц/ацара игәы изтами/изҭамз(е)и? 10. Акризымфартә (ешҧш) ихаҧыцқәа ихьуан.
Lesson 17 I . Translate into English 1. Every time I hear your-PL voice, 1 recall the summer when we got lo know each other in London. 2. Even if you-MASC take (or: one takes) a horse lo water, you can’t make it drink (it). 3. The session is about/dedicated lo ihe 15-year anniversary o f victory in the war and the independence o f Abkhazia. 4. More people cat apples than ate figs. 5. Since our friends’ visit to our place coincided with when we were al the market, we did not sec Ihem. 6. You-FEM cooked more meal than I thought Aslan eats. 7. Vova was writing letters more often than Marina was able to read. 8. Never mind his mother and father, he took all his relatives lo Turkey on vacation. 9. Far from completing all the instructions you-PL gave him, he didn’t even start work. 10. Adgur loves more women than love him.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1.Икалаз шәасхәар(ц) шысҭах(ы)угьы, ишәгәамҧхар/ишәгәаҧхарым х.әа сшәоит. 2. Ҳаибабацыҧҳьаза, асаламшәкәқәа иаҳа лассы-лассы исзаашьҭла хәа/ ибзынасышьтларц/ибзынасышьҭларцазы бсыҳәо(и)т.ш 3. Ҳаҷкәын а(б)ра уаҵәынӡа дтәазаргьы, агазеҭ аҧхьара сзалг(аӡ)ом ҳәа игәы иаанаго(и)т = А(б)ра уаҵәынӡа стәазаргьы, агазеҭ аҧхьара сзалг(а])ом ҳәа игәы иаанаго(и)т ҳаҷкәын." 10 Note the change o f orientational preverfa. In the first variant with Ihe Imperative, the action is directed towards the speaker, and so the preverb is -aa-. In the second variant, il is directed towards the addressee, and so the prcverb has to be -na-.
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4. Дшычкәын(а)бзиоугьы, иуада ирыцқь(аз)ом. 5. Руслан иҧҳа иақа лассы-лассы сынтәа дибон шака/зака лассы-лассы иҧа цыҧх дибоз аасҭа. 6. Бара иаҳа акәац рацәа/ирацәаны акәац бжәызаап Селма абырскак лзыфо(и)т/афара лылшо(и)т ҳәа сгәы иаанагоз аасҭа. 7. Иаҳа имачыаны аҳәса аизарахь иааит шакаоы/закаоы акино аҿы ихацәажәоз (р)аасҭа. 8. Иҧха лысасцәа идикылараҳа = аҧсшәа реихәараха, лчарахьгьы дымц(аз)еит/дымнеи(ӡеи)т. 9. Шака/Зака (иаха) асаламшәкәы рацәа = Шака/Зака (иаха) ирацәаны асаламшәкәы лыауа акара, иаҳа ирҧшзаны/иҧшӡаны дыауеит. 10. А(ба)рт азҕабцаа аҭак рдыруазаргьы/шырдыруагьы, акгьы рхә(аз)ом.
lesson 18 I . Translate into English 1. However light or heavy the ball, the girls w ill catch it. 2. Should I be sparing o f anything for them, whatever 1 have? 3. When(ever) you-MASC go/ones goes into the sea, little fish start lo nibble your/one’ s feet. 4. However far from us Abkhazia may be, it is close to us. 5. Who did you-PL say arc to come tomorrow? 6. Even if it’ s al the bottom o f the sea, il’ s impossible for me not lo see it, not to find il. Wherever it may be, even if il’s in a chest. I ’ll fetch without anyone seeing (it). 7. Since they weren’ t working that day, my w ife’ s sister had no option but to rclum home. 8. His mother and father were raising him lo be so spoiled that he would not lift a finger and do anylhing, however much. 9. Whatever his father and mother did, they were unable to take the boy to the doctor.
" Note in the first variant the subject o f the protasis-verb is 3"1person singular, whilst in the sccond variant il is I" person singular. This shift is explained by the fact in the first variant Ihe protasis is assigned to whal the parents are saying, whilst in Ihe second it is assigned to whal the son thinks about himself.
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10. I am writing this book in ease Foreigners with an interest in Abkhazia might wish to buy and use il.
2. Translate into Abkhaz 1. Иарбан саат(ы)у аџьармыкь ахь ҳцароуп/ҳанцаша/ҳанцара (ҳәа) заххәа?12 2. Шәысасцәа ааныка ҳцо(и)т хәа/ицарц/ацара анырзбалак(ь)/анырзбалакгьы, машьынала изго(и)т. 3. Иара дзакәызаалак(ь)/дзакәызаалакгьы, а(б)ра дыбз(аа)ныжьуам/ дыбз(аа)ныжьӡом. 4. Иагьа/Егьа ру(за)ргьы/рунда(з)гьы, ахәыҷқәа аҳәынаҧ рзымк(зе)ит. 5. Иацы икариазарлак(ь)/икарҵазарлакгьы, а(б)ра уажәы икалаз у(ба)рт ирхара(за)м. 6. Ашкол аҿы уара икаутдаз уаб иасымҳәар ада ҧсыхәа смоу(ӡе)ит. 7. Сахьцалак(ь)/Сахьцалакгьы, ауаа рыла/уаала иҭә(ы)уп аҭыҧқәа. 8. Астудентцәа ишабалак(ь) рҽеиларымҳәа(ла)роуп. У(ба)с рҽахьеилархәо Англиа ауп. 9. Амашьына узәзәар, жәа-маатк усҭап/усто(и)т. Акаҧшь(ы)у? 10. Ҵлас дара зҵатәазаалак(ь)/зҵатәазаалакгьы/Ҵлас дара зымҵан итәазаалак(ь)/итәазаалакгьы , иҳаҧшаауеит.
Lesson 19 Translate into English 1. What he whose tongue is overly sweet does for you-MASC is bitter. 2. The thread o f her who docs not know how lo sew is long. 3. Got angry with fleas and burnt his bed. 4. Death is as old as the world, but it’s new for anyone who’s dying. 5. He who works well knows how to rest loo. 6. One who can’t decide his/her own business is no good as a judge. 7. Your/One’s wife both ruins you/one and gives you/one the means o f life. 12 tl might have been expected thal Ihe non-finite form here would have been buill on Ihe finite чцароуп, producing xaiiuapoy. Bui Ihe non-finite Future 1 or Future II conveys the notion o f obligation, rendering the union o f protasis-form plus copula redundant.
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8. The placc o f an Abkhazian’s soul is his conscicncc. 9. A fisherman can’I catch a fish without getting wet. 10. The talc you-MASC/onc told today is impossible for you/one lo tell again tomorrow too. 11. Don’t placc too great hope on the intelligence o f both one who has overly eaten his/her fill and one who is dying o f hunger. 12. No two persons’ method o f ploughing is the same. 13. Two guests did not want (like) each other, and the host did not want (like) the two of them either. 14. Rather than the enemy standing before you-MASC fear the one behind you. 15. When those who do not love each other separate (from each other), they argue over even a shard o f an earthenware poL
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