A Special passage through Asia e-learning

Edited by Curtis J. Bonk Mimi Miyoung Lee Thomas H. Reynolds Edited by Curtis J. Bonk Mimi Miyoung Lee Thomas H. Reyno...

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Edited by Curtis J. Bonk Mimi Miyoung Lee Thomas H. Reynolds

Edited by Curtis J. Bonk Mimi Miyoung Lee Thomas H. Reynolds

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning Articles Preface: A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning Curtis J. Bonk, Mimi Miyoung Lee, and Thomas H. Reynolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Opening Comments on E-Learning in Asia Mimi Miyoung Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Digital Trends Among Japanese University Students: Podcasting and Wikis as Tools for Learning Yayoi Anzai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 From Competency List to Curriculum Implementation: A Case Study of Japan’s First Online Master's Program for E-Learning Specialists Training Katsuaki Suzuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 E-Learning in Supplemental Educational Systems in Taiwan: Present Status and Future Challenges Ke Zhang and Jui-Long Hung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 E-Learning in the Philippines: Trends, Directions, and Challenges Melinda M. Dela Pena-Bandalaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 University 2.0: A View From Singapore Daniel T. H. Tan, Chye Seng Lee, Lay Kock Chan, and Adrian Din How Lu . . . . . . .81 E-Learning in Malaysia: Moving Forward in Open Distance Learning Zoraini Wati Abas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 E-Learning Readiness in the Academic Sector of Thailand Thanomporn Laohajaratsang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 E-Learning in India Sanjaya Mishra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 Academic Social Networks Affecting the Adoption of E-Learning in Turkey Siew Mee Barton, Brian Corbitt, and Lemai Nguyen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 E-Learning in Asia: Just as Good Is Not Good Enough Thomas C. Reeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147

A Special Passage through Asia E-Learning (ISBN# 1-880094-75-4) is published by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), an international, educational, nonprofit organization. Published by: AACE, PO Box 1545, Chesapeake, VA 23327-1545, USA 757-366-5606; Fax: 703-997-8760; E-mail: [email protected] © Copyright 2009 by AACE. Website: http://www.aace.org© Copyright 2009 by AACE. Cover photo: © Pierre Yu/iStockphoto.com

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A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 9-15

PREFACE

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning CURTIS J. BONK Indiana University, USA [email protected]

MIMI MIYOUNG LEE University of Houston, USA [email protected] THOMAS H. REYNOLDS National University, USA [email protected]

As Internet access increases in Asia and the rest of the world, the use of e-learning has expanded to offer formal as well as informal educational opportunities that were previously not possible to hundreds of millions of learners. As access widens, unique educational modules, courses, and programs are being designed and evaluated throughout the Asia region. This book presents e-learning activities, primarily within higher education, taking place in eight countries from East, Southeast, South, and Western Asia. As is evident, each country has unique issues, challenges, opportunities, and initiatives related to e-learning and the use of technology in education.

Introduction Internet access is rapidly expanding. As it does, innovative educational uses of it are being made around the world. Learners are enrolling in courses, programs, and other types of learning experiences that can upgrade their skills and competencies. The mass migration of training and education to the Web has the potential to result in unique job opportunities and increased life satisfaction. When aggregated, personal increases in skills and competencies can dramatically impact the economic situation of every country and com-

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munity where people are taking advantage of such educational opportunities. Unfortunately, Internet access is still fairly paltry in many parts of the world. As of December 31, 2008, just 1.581 billion of the 6.7 billion people living on this planet, or roughly 23% of human inhabitants, have such access (Internet World Stats, 2009). Internet accessibility figures vary quite dramatically by country and region of the world. For instance, while nearly three out of four people in North America had access to the Internet at the start of 2009, such figures drop noticeably to fewer than one in five people in Asia and just one in 17 in Africa (Internet World Stats, 2009). Despite the low levels of connectivity in Asia, this region of the world represents more than 40% of those accessing the Internet. Such figures equate to 650 million people, most of whom did not have access just a decade ago. Imagine how many people are discovering learning opportunities in Asia today who perhaps had given up on an education or never dreamed one was possible. Also try to picture what happens when Internet access doubles or perhaps even triples to 60% or higher in Asia. It is conceivable that Asia will be home to some of the most innovative and valuable online learning activities on the planet. Perhaps it already is. Open and online universities in Malaysia, India, and the Philippines, as described here, are part of the reason for such newfound hopes and dreams. We are not the first to write about these educational changes and opportunities brought about by online learning and other forms of distance learning in Asia. In her introduction to a March, 2007 special issue of the International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning on e-learning in Asia, Dr. Insung Jung, from International Christian University in Japan, insightfully described the “changing faces of open and distance learning in Asia.” Jung noted that there are 70 universities within Asia dedicated to open access to education. Among these are 7 of the 11 largest universities in the world, each with over 100,000 students. Small wonder there is so much media and government attention being given to online learning throughout the world today. In the midst of all this e-learning interest, experimentation, and growth, some online programs and universities in Asia are experimenting with cross border relationships and other unique partnerships. Others are designing unique blended programs which combine self study with online and face-to-face experiences as needed by the learner or dictated by the content. As e-learning content access expands and greater interactivity is offered, customized and individualized learning modules, courses, and programs are increasingly possible. Still Internet access and overcoming the digital divide remain concerns. Also vital within this explosion of e-learning in Asia are issues related to quality control, plagiarism, and valid forms of learning assessment. In response to these concerns, a preconference symposium on e-learning in Asia was held at the E-Learn 2008: World Conference on E-Learn-

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ing in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (http://www.aace.org/conf/elearn/) in Las Vegas on November 17, 2008 (Bonk, Lee, & Reynolds, 2008). This symposium addressed a range of issues related to e-learning throughout Asia. During the event, there were a dozen individuals who presented their e-learning research and program innovations within 10 different Asian countries. Those countries were China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, India, and Turkey, with a presentation from an eleventh country, Indonesia, which unfortunately was canceled. We served as facilitators of the presentations and ensuing interactions among the participants as well as session discussants. The 12 symposium participants displayed case studies of individual countries as well as explorations of trends in different regions within Asia. They discussed their respective methods for delivering online education and provided insightful recommendations and suggestions for the future, both for their respective country as well as for Asia in general. While higher education was the major educational sector discussed, a few presentations reached into K-12 schools as well as corporate and government training environments in Asia. By the end of the day, this group of preconference symposium presenters and facilitators bonded and formed a unique learning community. As a result of the close interactions among the participants and the unique message each had to offer, it was decided to create this special book on e-learning in Asia based on their respective insights and experiences. Due to space limitations, only articles from Japan (two articles), Taiwan, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, India, and Turkey are included here. What makes this book especially unique is that the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), which hosted the conference and sponsors this volume, is making this entire publication its first printon-demand book. Such an approach makes perfect sense in the twenty-first century - some people will want digital resources whereas others will likely prefer print materials. In addition, those who lack a subscription to the EdITLib Digital Library (http://www.EdITLib.org/ebooks/) can still purchase the contents as a print-on-demand book in paper or in electronic format. Goals As with any book project, there are innumerable goals and intentions. The primary goal for the reader is to understand the range of e-learning trends and initiatives currently taking place in Asia. You will read about a wide array of interesting events and activities occurring today in India, Thailand, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, and other parts of Asia. In this special book, there are articles on creative online programs that provide access to learners who previously lacked it. These individuals have possibilities to interact and collaborate with learners in other parts of Asia as well as around the world. No longer are one’s learning partners limited geographically. Readers will also

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discover how various Web 2.0 technologies such as podcasts, wikis, blogs, and social networking tools such as Facebook are being employed for elearning in Asia. This book will lend insights into some of the key people and universities in Asia that are experimenting with different e-learning formats, courses, and ideas. The authors are well known researchers, educators, and university administrators. Even though this is a relatively new field, each of the authors has extensive experience researching, discussing, and reflecting on e-learning. Their books and papers are being read both within as well as outside their respective countries and institutions. After reading the articles, readers should begin to grasp some of the key challenges and barriers faced when organizations and institutions adopt e-learning as well as the possible benefits and successes of it. Overview

As indicated, a wide range of e-learning concerns and opportunities are outlined in the various articles. Areas discussed include the impact of elearning on students, the requirements for instructors, the frameworks and models for e-learning, and how technology tools and Web 2.0 are used within e-learning. Also addressed directly or indirectly in this book are e-learning issues related to assessment and evaluation, administration and management, student motivation and retention, cross-institutional partnerships, and institutionally-sponsored research. At the same time, some of the articles discuss blended learning, open educational resources, e-portfolios, and future trends. While our initial intent was to place the articles and ideas of the participants in a wiki that anyone could access and modify, we were admittedly unsuccessful in this regard.

Instead of the wiki, you will find many interesting articles to read. To start, Professor Mimi Miyoung Lee, originally from Seoul, Korea and now with the University of Houston, introduces the respective nine key articles based on e-learning in the eight Asian countries mentioned earlier. The nine articles she thoughtfully describes follow in a geographic journey through Asia starting with Japan and then moving south to Taiwan and then further south to the Philippines. Next, this unique passage through Asia moves in a southwest direction to Singapore. After that, we head directly north to Malaysia and then further north still to Thailand. Once complete, this e-learning road extends west to India and then farther west to Turkey. At the completion of this special passage through e-learning in Asia, Professor Thomas Reeves of the University of Georgia, who attended the preconference symposium, reflects on several key themes of this book and the associated journey as well as his personal experiences and insights related to e-learning in Asia. He accurately points out that while access to e-learning is definitely increasing in Asia, quality and accreditation must also be addressed. Given all the e-learning hype and the associated heavy investments in e-learning taking place in Asia today, those

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involved should set challenging goals. They should not be happy when e-learning is found to be as good as face-to-face or more traditional instruction. “Just as good” is definitely not good enough. And Reeves offers specific reasons why.

We realize that these are just a few of the dozens of Asian countries that we could have featured. Country selections were based on nominations and known project innovations as well as the availability of the participants for the preconference symposium at E-Learn 2008 in Las Vegas. As a result, it represents just one passage from thousands that are currently possible. A much different journey through the northern portions of Asia might have brought up vastly different issues, challenges, opportunities, and questions. At the same time, a more central route might have shown other forms of success and benefits that have yet to find their way into the countries or settings spotlighted here. And, without a doubt, volume written five or ten years from now of the same eight countries focused on here would describe vastly different points of interest and opportunities. We hope you enjoy this tour through e-learning in Asia and welcome your feedback on it. For those with specific comments or questions for a particular author or set of researchers, biographies of the authors, including relevant contact information, can be found at the end of each article. Finally, we should point out that the symposium we held at E-Learn in November of 2008 and this associated special book is just a start. There are plans for AACE to hold an annual conference in Asia and the Pacific Rim starting in May of 2010. This annual conference will be called Global Learn: Global Conference on Learning and Technology (http://www.aace.org/conf/glearn/). Perhaps you can contribute to it. We hope to see you at Global Learn where we can continue this conversation related to e-learning in Asia. It is in such a forum where we can reflect on as well as push ahead technology-based learning opportunities in Asia and other parts of the world. Such discussions should prove extremely interesting and important as Internet access accelerates in Asia. Let’s hope! References Bonk, C. J., Lee, M. M., & Reynolds, T. (2008, November). Organizing committee, facilitators, and discussants for “E-Learning Asia Day.” Preconference Symposium at E-Learn 2008: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, Las Vegas, Nevada. Internet World Stats (2009). Internet usage statistics: The Internet big picture (World Internet users and population stats). Miniwatts Marketing Group. Retrieved March 21, 2009, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Jung, I. (2007, March). Changing faces of open and distance learning in Asia. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 8(1), 1-6. Retrieved March 21, 2009, from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/418/773

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Acknowledgments We would like to thank Dr. Gary Marks, AACE Founder and Executive Director, for making this book and associated preconference symposium at the E-Learn 2008 conference in Las Vegas, Nevada possible. We also appreciate the prompt support received from Marianne Williams, AACE Publications Manager. And we are truly grateful to all the wonderful people who contributed to this book. It has been fantastic to meet and work with all of you! Curtis J. Bonk is Professor of Instructional Systems Technology in the School of Education at Indiana University and adjunct in the School of Informatics. Curt earned his master’s and doctoral degrees in educational psychology from the University of Wisconsin. He has received the CyberStar Award from the Indiana Information Technology Association, the Most Outstanding Achievement Award from the U.S. Distance Learning Association, and the Most Innovative Teaching in a Distance Education Program Award from the State of Indiana. Curt has given more than 900 talks around the globe related to online teaching and learning. He has over 225 publications including books such as the Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs (2006), Empowering Online Learning: 100+ Activities for Reading, Reflecting, Displaying, and Doing (2008), and The World is Open: How Web Technology is Revolutionizing Education (2009). Curt is President of CourseShare and SurveyShare. He can be reached through his homepage at http://mypage.iu.edu/~cjbonk/ or email at [email protected]. Mimi Miyoung Lee is Assistant Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at University of Houston. She received her Ph.D. in Instructional Systems Technology from Indiana University at Bloomington in 2004. Her research interests include theories of identity formation, sociological examination of online communities, issues of representation, and critical ethnography. Mimi is also interested in how interactive videoconferencing, mobile technology, and Web 2.0 technology such as wikis can foster global education and the exchange of diverse perspectives. She is currently working on a major grant project related to developing an online graduate program that integrates math and science education for teachers within Texas. She may be contacted at [email protected].

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Thomas H. Reynolds earned his Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction at the University of WisconsinMadison in 1989. During the 1990s he completed post-doctoral work at the Wisconsin Center for Educational Research and then served on faculty at Texas A&M University, where he also directed the Texas Education Collaborative. Since 2000, in his current position as Professor of Teacher Education at National University in La Jolla, California, he has designed e-learning courses, researched blended learning, open educational resources and standards-based online assessment, and taught extensively online. A two-time Fulbright scholarship recipient, he lectured on Web-based education in Peru in 1998, and he will lecture and conduct research on open educational resources in Colombia during 2010. Tom may be contacted at [email protected]

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 17-22

Opening Comments on E-Learning in Asia MIMI MIYOUNG LEE University of Houston, USA [email protected]

The Emergence of this Book The rise of online learning around the world is nothing new. In the center of this phenomenon are the countries of Asia, with their high level of broadband penetration and traditional emphasis on education. Reflecting this phenomenon, the E-Learn Conference 2008 hosted a special Asia Day symposium at its annual meeting in Las Vegas in November 2008. Many important issues regarding the current status of e-learning in Asian countries as well as future directions were presented and discussed during the symposium. The special session also provided networking opportunities for many key players in various sectors of education and training around the world. Out of this symposium came the need for a special edition book to facilitate continuous dialogue around the key issues that arose and to further disseminate the knowledge constructed and shared during that initial meeting in Las Vegas. This special topic book contains nine articles whose authors were among the presenters at the Asia Day Symposium, covering the cases of e-learning from the following Asian countries: India, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Turkey. The nine authors review and discuss the current status of e-learning in these respective countries. In their timely and insightful articles, they provide an overview of the field, trace the history of e-learning, discuss the specific cases of e-learning, and identify the challenges that lie ahead. They also provide recommendations and suggestions for the future. While information on the specific cases of the particular countries will prove to be valuable, the knowledge constructed from these cases is by no means confined to the region. General Themes and Issues Several key points that should be considered in implementing e-learning were identified in these papers. Such areas include: (1) efficiency and costeffectiveness, (2) policies supporting the implementation, (3) technical and

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administrative support from the institution, (4) effective instructional design, (5) appropriate digital technologies, and (6) building an environment conducive to social networking. All the contributors to this edition agree on the need for e-learning in various sectors of their country. With the advancement of technology, the learners demand more flexibility both in terms of time and place of their learning. In many cases, e-learning serves as the best way to reach a large number of audiences in a short amount of time and yet with powerful content and innovative delivery of such content. It is not surprising, then, that most of the examples presented in this book have received much attention from and support of the respective Asian governments. Plausible factors central to the success of e-learning are discussed in the articles, which include independent, self-motivated students where collaboration is encouraged across the participants’ diverse professional backgrounds. In order to provide a sense of presence in a community for the learners, projects requiring collaboration were frequently designed into the materials. Article Specifics Salient issues are discussed across several chapters as each institution and organization finds itself in a different stage of e-learning. In the case of Japan, for example, Suzuki talks about the design and implementation of elearning in his own program in Instructional Systems which, in 2006, became the first fully online master’s program in the country. On the other end of e-learning evolution, Daniel Tan and his colleagues in Singapore provide a picture of an institution at a later stage of e-learning implementation. Not only are the chapters interconnected under the theme of e-learning in Asia, but when viewed in total they help readers, whether from government agencies, schools, institutions of higher education, corporate training, or other settings, weave a larger story out of their individual cases and draw out common concerns and challenges behind the individual cases. The importance of quality management is mentioned by many authors. Dela Pena- Bandalaria from the Philippines talks about the quality assurance mechanism referred as quality circle approach. This system involves five parties: (1) a writer, (2) a subject matter specialist, (3) an instructional designer, (4) a media specialist, and (5) a language editor. Dela Pena-Bandalaria also points out the importance of assuming a global context in terms of course and program availability and personal relevance to the learners. Some of more immediate concerns, the author argues, include the high stakes challenge of meeting the standards of international accreditation bodies and organizations and then obtaining their accreditation. Mobile technologies, as many authors mention, promise extremely exciting possibilities for the future of e-learning. Mobile phones became affordable and accessible to many Filipinos with a continuously rapid proliferation

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across the country, providing educational opportunities that were unavailable when only landline telephone services were available. In this sense, mobile devices show a potential for bridging the digital divide within the country. The sense of excitement about the potential of mobile technology is also shared by Anzai whose discussion centers on digital technologies used at her university in Japan. As Anzai argues, when selecting digital technologies and platforms for e-learning, the focus should be on providing more authentic and natural settings for the learners. In the case of her foreign language students in Japan, using podcasting and wikis has been proven to be very effective and is likely something that other Japanese instructors, as well as those in other countries in Asia and beyond, need to experiment with. Of course, they must also share the results as quickly and effectively as Anzai has done. Social and cultural components are vital in understanding how people interact in online communities. As two examples, the case of University 2.0 (Tan, Lee, Chan, & Lu) and use of guanzi (Barton, Corbitt, & Nguyen) show interesting examples of how the social context plays a key role in how elearning is adopted and used. In the example of Turkey, Barton et al. focus on the concept guanzi as a crucial component in online interactions. While the authors are not the first ones to introduce the concept, understanding how guanzi is actually used in interactions sheds light on the ways people engage in social networking in online environments. Providing an environment that fosters social networking among the students is another important component in successful e-learning design. Such a point is closely connected to many authors in this edition who emphasize that we look at e-learning in various social contexts. As already alluded to, each country, each institution, and each implementation of e-learning is different. In their chapter, Tan et al. introduce the concept of University 2.0. The authors provide keen insight into how an effective support system for online instructors is crucial in achieving success in e-learning programs. Tan et al. also present interesting evidence regarding the rapid growth of e-learning in Singapore. In the case of their own institution, the number of page views per week of their online resources increased from 250,000 in July to nine million hits in July 2008. One of the essential components of University 2.0, the authors point out, is the “human touch.” The authors also show a close relationship between the policy issues and the implementation of e-learning. University 2.0 provides the technological supports for students to be more empowered in their learning. It is a participative environment that is humancentered not technology-worshipped. In their article, Tan and his colleagues explore the resources that a University 2.0 might put in place for fostering student-centered online learning such as portfolios, peer evaluation tools, Web logs, and virtual communities. In contrast to Tan, Barton and her colleagues are centered on the networks within which information is shared and people become connected.

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They focus what they term academic guanzi and the peer networks that provide support and shared resources for instructors to adapt and use e-learning. In contrast to the other articles of this special book, this is an ethnographic study which allows the reader to more personally understand the perspective of the instructor. These are just two of the thousands of different contexts for learning that exist in Asia. In effect, we are just getting a glimpse here of e-learning in Asia. Given the momentum for this field, however, it is an extremely valuable perspective. Needless to say, the success of each e-learning case depends on the adequate support of the institution and the government, which includes corresponding policies, funding sources, and guidelines. The authors all point to the importance of policies in successful implementation of e-learning in their country or respective organization. A clear vision of the administrators, translated into supportive policies, helps the design and the development of e-learning in various sectors of the society. The example of India, illustrated by Mishra, is a case in point. He notes that the most powerful impetus for e-learning came from the National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development constituted by the Prime Minister of India in 1998. These efforts provided a long term policy related to the development of an infrastructure for using ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) in education and other learning environments in India. In his chapter, Mishra gives a comprehensive overview of the current status of e-learning in India. India’s case is especially important because it has a potential to serve an enormous group of illiterate individuals in the country. The support from the government is directly targeted to reaching out to the underprivileged and illiterate population. Suzuki from Japan reminds us that a country’s advancement in overall technology does not always mean the equal advancement in e-learning in educational settings. Suzuki’s account of the design and the implementation of his institution is vital not only for its being the first completely online program but for the fact that the institution is far from the large cities. Japan is a country known for extensive broadband Internet access. Thailand is not. The article by Laohajaratsang offers insights into recent advances related to the Internet in Thailand. In addition to the current condition of Thailand, Laohajaratsang includes extensive data on the status of Internet penetration and e-learn implementation in Asian countries. In the case of Thailand Cyber University, the institution has an impressive record of assisting in the training and professional development of more than 10,000 faculty members, teachers, and students through ICT, especially in the remote, rural areas. Suffice to say, the numbers she cites are quite noteworthy and exciting. The chapter on Malaysia introduces the case of Open University of Malaysia (OUM), the country’s first open and distance learning university.

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Based on the Community of Inquiry Model by Garrison and Anderson (2003), Zoraini Wati Abas points out that the OUM emphasizes collaborative learning. In line with other authors of this edition, Abas reminds the readers again of the importance of policy’s role in supporting e-learning. Zhang and Hung’s chapter discusses the case of After School Programs (ASPs) in Taiwan, which make up for a significant part of students’ educational experiences. With the national focus on the highly competitive college entrance exams, ASPs in many cases serve as an important supplemental educational program preparing students for the exams. The ASP institutions and organizations provide short-term academic programs by subject area with flexible schedules to supplement regular in-school education. ASPs have traditionally enrolled students from the nearby geographic areas. Times are changing. As detailed by Zhang and Hung, the advancement of technology has made it possible for ASPs to reach many more students, including those from remote regions, through the use of e-learning. ASP institutions are set out not only to supplement formal K-12 education, but, as the authors point out, they also serve in areas such as continuing education, professional development, and informal learning. Additionally, they have more flexibility in terms of administration, operations, and management with fewer constraints from governmental regulations. These characteristics and conditions of ASPs provide opportunities for new methods and learning approaches. Final Thoughts This set of articles was a joy to read. Each gave me insights into how online technology is revolutionizing education in some part of Asia. As I read them, I wanted to know even more. What is happening in the dozens of other countries not included in this special book? What will e-learning be like in these eight countries a decade or two from now? Does e-learning have a different profile in the dozens of Asian countries not touched upon in the special symposium at E-Learn in Las Vegas or this resulting book on elearning in Asia? What forms will e-learning courses, programs, and other learning initiatives take a decade or two from now? Will the advancement and dominance of mobile technologies ultimately make leaning more accessible and equitable? As you read the articles of this book, you will likely have your own set of questions you want answered. No matter the questions and issues that arise, as impressively detailed by the authors of this book, there is little doubt that there are many interesting e-learning projects, programs, and initiatives currently taking place in Asia. Some are hugely successful and others are still in the development stage. The experimentations taking place in Japan will likely find their way to other countries such as Thailand, Turkey, and the Philippines. But experimentations in learning in the twenty-first century are unique as they can go

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the other direction just as quickly. It is likely that the Thai people as well as those in India, Turkey, Malaysia, and the Philippines will be influencing learning in places which currently have more access like Japan, Taiwan, and Korea. Such reciprocating influences will be interesting to watch as well as document. I have attempted to note some of the learning nuggets here. It is time for you to now proceed and find the ones in which you resonate and become excited about. Take the journey from Japan to Turkey that is laid out in the next nine articles. Or perhaps go in reverse from the western side of Asia to the east. Whatever passageway you decide to travel down, make it a memorable journey by taking notes, writing to the author, or sharing your learning with others. Mimi Miyoung Lee is Assistant Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at University of Houston. She received her Ph.D. in Instructional Systems Technology from Indiana University at Bloomington in 2004. Her research interests include theories of identity formation, sociological examination of online communities, issues of representation, and critical ethnography. Mimi is also interested in how interactive videoconferencing, mobile technology, and Web 2.0 technology such as wikis can foster global education and the exchange of diverse perspectives. She is currently working on a major grant project related to developing an online graduate program that integrates math and science education for teachers within Texas. She may be contacted at [email protected].

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 23-37

Digital Trends Among Japanese University Students: Podcasting and Wikis as Tools for Learning YAYOI ANZAI Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan [email protected] English education has entered a new era. Bonk (2008) boldly proclaims that “the World is Open” for learning. It is somewhat obvious that opportunities for learning have expanded with the emergence of Web 2.0 technologies. Now we can interact, participate, and collaborate on the Web in “a planetary community” attached to a traditional class. E-learning has become increasingly fruitful and lively. This study consists of two parts. First, it introduces the results of a survey investigating current technology trends among Japanese university students including their digital studying environment as well as their perceptions and experiences related to using podcasting and wikis. The survey was conducted in April, 2008 with 160 Japanese college students. Podcasting was studied since it provides a ubiquitous studying environment as well as authentic English listening and writing materials, while wikis can enhance students’ English writing ability through collaboration with peers, revising, and editing. The second part of this study introduces the survey results of students’ media consumption conducted in November, 2008 with forty-three Japanese college students. The findings can assist in the design and implementation of such technologies in language education.

INTRODUCTION

Traditional Classroom Expands to a Planetary Community English as a Foreign Language (EFL) has always paralleled the advancement of technology. Such technologies have included cassette tapes, video tapes, CDs, DVDs, radio, television, computers, and now the Internet. During the past few years, English education has entered a new era. The students do not necessarily have to buy books, newspapers, or CDs to listen to or read

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authentic English. In the twenty-first century, authentic English materials are abundant on the Web. The Internet provides a vast array of information for language learning including audio, video, and text materials. In the age of the Web 2.0, students not only access and use extensive information online, they can now participate, interact, and collaborate online using vital language skills. E-learning has truly become a more lively and interactive learning place. In this study, podcasting and wikis were viewed as key examples of Web 2.0 technologies that can impact student language learning in EFL classes. They are the focus on this research and resulting article. As Bonk (2008) noted in a keynote talk at a distance learning conference, “The World is Open.” By presenting a model, WE-ALL-LEARN, Bonk (2009) argues that emerging technologies have expanded educational opportunities for learners, and have been “opening up the world of learning” for any learner at any time desired. Immense waves of technological transformation have had an impact on EFL classes during the past decade. These twenty-first century technologies support the extension of a regular classroom so that it can become part of a planetary community where learning is taking place. In other words, a traditional classroom can be linked with and also contribute to a planetary community (see Figure 1). The planetary com-

Participate!!!

Figure 1. Planetary community in blended learning.

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munity is a learning community where learners can participate, interact, and collaborate in the global perspective using emerging technologies. Physical distance and time have been major constraints for the effective study of EFL learners (Anzai, 2006, 2007a). Many learners wish to study and learn the language directly in locations where that particular language is spoken. Others simply wonder if they will ever have a chance to use that language in an actual situation as a student or a business person in the future. However, by using Web 2.0 technologies, learning English will surely become a more authentic and engaging experience for EFL learners; not only can they easily access authentic English to read or to study, but they will also have a plethora of opportunities to use English as a communication tool in highly interactive communities. With emerging Web 2.0 technologies like social networking systems, blogs, podcasts, and wikis, individuals have more chances to learn and use English as well as other languages in authentic and natural settings. Anzai (2007a) argues that, with these educational transformations, the distance between the interactants can be changed through the use of each individual’s emerging technologies. As this occurs, each learning participant feels that the distance is significantly altered. Close physical distance or proximity in learning is no longer as important. Social networking sites such as Facebook, for example, can create and maintain cross-border communities and possibly reduce the perception of the physical distance between the participants. In this way, learning can be widened and deepened. In addressing this view, Jung (2008) states that technology extends teaching and learning spaces and, thus, the educational experiences of e-learners. In short, a traditional classroom can be empowered with effective use of emerging learning technologies. The transformation of education is also found in the definition of educational technology. The definitions used for educational technology have continually changed with the technologies available for different time periods. What to label the field is also complex and difficult. Januszewski and Molenda (2008) argue that “concepts of educational technology have been evolving as long as the field has, and they continue to evolve” (p. 1). Early definitions of educational technology focused on instructional media such as audio-visual instruction. In terms of more recent definitions, the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) committee noted that “educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources” (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008, p.1). According to this definition, teachers are facilitators who support and assist students’ learning. Participation in this planetary community will bring more interaction among students as well as students and facilitators than before.

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Anzai

Podcasting and Wikis Podcasts deliver effective learning materials especially for English listening classes. Podcasting is a means of publishing audio and video content on the Web as a series of episodes with a common theme (Deal, 2007). What makes podcasts different from simply posting files on the Web is the feed and subscription model of online content available through Really Simple Syndication (RSS). An RSS feed allows listeners to subscribe to a podcast series and, in effect, receive new episodes automatically. The advantages of using podcasts in EFL classes are: (1) the students can study in more ubiquitous ways; (2) archived podcasts are easy to access as an assignment; (3) there is a large selection of podcast programs and materials from which to select content; and (4) most podcasts are available for free. Given these advantages, podcasts have become vital EFL listening material for learners. Not too surprisingly, podcasts have been gaining attention in educational practice. In fact, the number of the podcasting studies has been dramatically increasing during the past few years (Anzai, 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2008a; Dias, 2007). Anzai (2006, 2007a, 2008a) conducted a series of studies using podcasting in EFL classes. Her studies found that such technologies significantly expand educational environments for learners. Regarding podcasts, Anzai (2006, 2007a) used them for three purposes. First, they were employed to enhance students’ listening ability. She claims that by using podcasts as assignments, the range of English learning materials became far more extensive, and students’ studying environments were significantly expanded. Second, podcasts were used as a model for speech writing and oral communication. By using Steve Jobs’ commencement speech at Stanford University in 2005, for example, her students could learn about various organizational properties within speeches made in English as well as how a world-famous speaker might deliver such content. And they can now do so asynchronously, or, in effect, over and over again just by accessing YouTube or other shared online video files. Third, students created podcasts as group projects (Anzai, 2008a). The results revealed that this activity helped enhance the students’ media literacy. As these examples illustrate, podcasts are extremely useful as educational resources for students to learn from. They are also valuable as a tool to publish contents on the Web, whether as an instructor, student, or content expert. Wikis, another prominent Web 2.0 technology, promote collaborative learning. Hall (2006) defines a wiki as “a collection of Web pages that can be easily viewed and modified by anyone, providing a means for sharing learning and collaboration” (p.13). By using a wiki, the students can access a document or page of that document from anywhere and at anytime. In addition, they can create a product collaboratively. A wiki also has the function of making it possible to revise and edit the page. This function is especially helpful for English learners. By studying the effects of blogs and wikis

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on EFL students’ English writing, Chao and Huang (2007) noted that a wiki is particularly useful for a peer editing task that requires students to read the text meaning, attend to linguistic forms, and correct the ungrammatical forms. Overall, studies of the use of wikis as a collaborative tool in EFL are scarce in spite of its potentiality. In fact, other than the work of Anzai, no studies have been conducted thus far in Japanese university EFL settings. This is an area rich in research opportunities! Anzai (2008b) incorporated a wiki in an advanced level EFL writing class at a university. The purpose of this class was to give the students a solid background in writing English reports and theses. As a part of the learning process, the students were told that they were going to create a “wikiwikiwikibook” on a closed or private community in Wikispaces. As an initial step, they were asked to upload their abstracts and to edit and revise each other’s papers on Wikispaces after each student completed a draft of the paper. Anzai reported that the students were likely to perceive that using a wiki would enhance collaborative learning, satisfaction, and motivation. In addition, they tend to think using wikis was interesting. Though her study was conducted solely with Japanese students, global participation on Wikispaces could be another powerful option to push such research in interesting ways. Instructor and peer scaffolding within wikis may help reduce time as well as physical distance constraints. The expanded planetary community is not only seen in formal classrooms. The Web 2.0 provides many informal tools for language learning today. ChinesePod, for instance, uses various technologies in their online language services. It provides Chinese lessons using podcasts as the primary tool for delivering language. The members can subscribe to services with paid transcripts, exercises, and other services. They can also receive daily tutoring from professional, native-speaking teachers using Skype, the Internet-based telephone service. In highlighting ChinesePod, the New York Times reported that people now can “learn language from a native speaker without leaving home” (Eisenberg, 2008). A sister site, EnglishPod, was launched in November, 2008, while SpanishPod, ItalianPod, and FrenchPod were made available earlier. All are finding extensive success online. By combining emerging technologies, learners can get closer to the experience of studying abroad. Thus, technology surely brings the EFL students more authentic experiences than before. These specific examples highlight how the learners and teachers can give life to their learning. In effect, traditional classrooms can be extended and linked with a planetary community where the participants might come from quite diverse corners of the world. Through such online technologies, the traditional classroom expands and has gained huge educational potential. To utilize podcasts and wikis effectively, the first study that needed to be undertaken was to better understand the EFL Japanese university students.

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Anzai

The survey consisted of two parts. The first was concerned with the students’ digital studying environments in general, including the students’ readiness to use podcasts and wikis in EFL classes in 2008. The second part addressed students’ media consumption. Similar studies were conducted in 2006 and 2007 related to students’ digital environment and podcasting. Comparing the 2008 data with results from the past studies, the changes and trends among Japanese university students are reported later in this document. METHOD

Digital Trend Among Japanese University Students: Focusing on Podcasting and Wikis An online survey was conducted on the Web using computer labs at three different private Japanese universities in Tokyo in April 2008. The questions asked about the students’ studying environment and their experiences related to podcasts and wikis. A short discussion followed the online survey. The total number of respondents was 160, which consisted of 37% freshmen, 31% sophomores, 16% juniors, and 16% seniors. Regarding the respondents’ gender, 67% were males, whereas 33% were females. After this survey, statistical analyses were conducted using the online survey tool.

Media Consumption Among Japanese University Students The second part of this study was conducted on November 13, 2008. The number of students who participated was forty three, all university freshmen. A question was posed concerning which tool, the television, computer, or cell phone, they spent the most time using when at home. These tools were selected among others because most of the students have these devices at home, and it was likely that they spend a lot of time with them. They were also asked to explain what they were actually doing when using the tool they selected. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Digital Trend Among Japanese University Students: Focusing on Podcasting and Wikis Digital trends among Japanese university students. In general, Japanese university students are well equipped with digital devices. Of interest, 95% of the students responded that they had a computer at home, 91% had a cell phone, 62% had an iPod, and 79% had MP3 players including iPods. In addition, 50% had gaming machines. iPods were categorized separately from other audio playing devices such as MP3 players since using an iPod is the easiest when the students listen to podcasts. It should be also noted, however, that 79% of the students have portable MP3 players for mobile

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learning. Thus, it can be concluded that most of the students have computers, cell phones, and some kind of MP3 players. Such findings could be interpreted to mean that they are ready to tackle learning using the digital devices and they are quite ready for mobile learning (see Table 1). Upon close examination of the data, there were four identical trends in the students’ digital environments in 2008 (see Table 2). First, as in the previous two years, a computer is a must-have item for students. Not too surprisingly, a laptop is more popular than a desktop, with 43% of the students owning a laptop computer. Second, a cell phone is a popular item. In fact, more than 90% of the university students surveyed in this study have a cell phone. Thus, the cell phone provides a lot of potential for mobile and ubiquitous learning. In other words, while there are various digital devices on the market, when education takes place outside classroom, it is likely employing a cell phone since it is the number one digital device that students have in their pockets or bags. Thirdly, portable players including the iPod have been gaining popularity, especially those with video function; 29% of the students have iPods with video function whereas 33% of the students have only audio. Thus, podcasting is becoming a more convenient educational resource that provides EFL students with listening material. In addition, video files are soon likely to gain more popularity for EFL learners. Lastly, it should be highlighted that gaming machines are popular tools for university students. In this study, 42% of the students had Nintendo DS, whereas 19% had PlayStation Portable. Those gaming machines may potentially become more familiar learning tools among students. Digital devices that Japanese university students use to study English. In addition to understanding the technologies that students own and use, it was important to find out what digital devices Japanese university students use to study English. Out of 160 students, 114 indicated that they used digital devices to study English. Among them, 62% of students used computers, 11% cell phones, 30% MP3 players (including iPods), and 17% gaming Table 1 General Digital Devices of Japanese Students Digital device

Frequency

Percentage

Computer

151

95%

Cell phone

144

91%

iPod

98

62%

Mp3 player including iPod

125

79%

Gaming machines

80

50%

N=159, Multiple answers allowed.

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Anzai Table 2 Specific Digital Devices of Japanese Students

Digital device

Frequency

Percentage

Desktop computer (unshared)

29

18%

Desktop computer (shared)

45

28%

Laptop (unshared)

69

43%

Laptop (shared)

36

23%

Cell phone

144

91%

iPod (with video function)

46

29%

iPod (only audio)

53

33%

Portable video player other than iPod

2

1%

MP3 player other than iPod

33

21%

MD player

59

37%

CD player

50

31%

PlayStation Portable

31

19%

Nintendo DS

66

42%

Others

8

5%

N=159, Multiple answers allowed.

machines. Such data indicate that the cell phone is not often used for EFL instruction, even though it is a common device that most possess. However, an MP3 player is a more used device than the cell phone for this purpose. Specifically, as Table 3 reveals, the most popular three digital devices for learning are: (1) laptop computers (41%), (2) desktop computers (25%), and (3) gaming machines such as PSP and Nintendo DS (17%). It should be noted that gaming machines have been used by the students for studying purposes. Digital devices that Japanese university students “want to use” to study English. Overall, out of 160 students, 144 responded that they want to use digital devices to study English. Among them, 55% overall chose the computer as a device that they want to use to study English. Following those who prefer to use computers for EFL instruction, MP3 players (37%), gaming machines (33%), and cell phones (32%) were selected by approximately one third of the students. Such data reveal that the students are interested in studying ubiquitously using mobile tools. Specifically, as Table 4 shows, 23% selected iPod with video functions, while 17% indicated that they preferred iPods with audio function only. Further interviews revealed that stu-

Digital Trends Among Japanese University Students: Podcasting and Wikis

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Table 3 Digital Devices Specifically Used for English Study Digital device

Frequency

Percentage

Desktop

28

25%

Laptop

47

41%

Cell phone

13

11%

iPod (with video function)

11

10%

iPod (only with audio)

16

14%

Portable video player other than iPod

0

0%

MPp3 player other than iPod

8

7%

MD player

5

4%

CD player

11

10%

Gaming machine (Nintendo DS etc)

19

17%

N= 114, Multiple answers allowed.

dents think studying English will be more fun if they can use game machines. “Fun” seems to be an important factor for the Japanese Net generation.

Podcasting. Four questions were asked regarding podcasting in EFL settings. The first question asked whether the students know about podcasts. Of the students polled, only 36% responded that they knew about them. The second question asked if they have listened to podcasts. Among the respondents, slightly more than one-fourth of the students (27%) pointed out that they have experienced listening to or viewing podcasts. These figures indicate that when podcasts are used in class, Japanese instructors should explain what a podcast is and how it is viewed since it may be a novelty for most of their students. The third question asked if they have created a podcast. Surprisingly, a mere 3% of them responded that they had such experiences. Thus, when creating a podcast as a class activity, the instructors should be well prepared for the technical aspects of creating podcasts. The fourth question asked if they are interested in using podcasts in their EFL learning. Approximately one-third of them were positive, one-third were neutral, and the other onethird were negative about using podcasting in EFL classes. Defining mobile devices, Lamy and Hampel (2007) included cell phones, personal media players, personal digital assistants (PDFs), and smartphones. However, they excluded laptops, because they considered the function of a laptop as more similar to a computer. Listening devices for podcasts are not

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Anzai Table 4 Devices that the Students Want to Use for English Study

Digital device

Frequency

Percentage

Desktop

32

22%

Laptop

53

37%

Cell phone

46

32%

iPod (with video function)

33

23%

iPod (with audio only)

24

17%

Portable video player other than iPod

1

1%

MP3 player other than iPod

11

8%

MD player

2

1%

CD player

4

3%

Gaming machine (PSP, Nintendo DS)

48

33%

N= 114, Multiple answers allowed.

limited to the iPod. Podcasts can be heard by using other kinds of MP3 players as well, including cell phones and hand-held gaming machines. However, using such devices for learning is still not as seamless as such instructors would hope. Another point teachers should keep in mind is that most schools have yet to install useful podcast support sites such as iTunes. When an instructor plans to use podcasts in EFL, he should be prepared to use podcasts without iTunes; for example, it is possible to open a podcast through a homepage or by using QuickTime instead. Wikis. Three questions were asked regarding wikis in connection with EFL. The first question asked if the students have used a wiki such as Wikipedia. Among the respondents, 90% of them indicated that they had experience with this new form of collaboration. Such results clearly signal that wikis, especially Wikipedia, are frequently used tools for Japanese university students. The second question asked if they have written on a wiki such as Wikipedia. Only 3% responded that they had such an experience. Thus, the low rate of student active or participatory learning is similar between podcasting and wikis. The third question asked if students are interested in using a wiki in English study. As was the case with podcasting, 35% of them were positive, while about the same proportion of them were negative. It will be very meaningful to find out how the students’ perceptions of podcasts and wikis change after using these tools in class in a future study. The low percentage of the students with participatory wiki experience

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suggests that students need some guidance and training before an instructor implements a wiki in an EFL classroom. Using wikis in a geography class, Engstrom and Jewett (2005) highlighted the importance of the teacher’s role in supporting students and in facilitating the critical inquiry process that was at the center of their project. They also noted the need for training and the associated need for technical support for teachers as well as students. These issues are basically in line with my earlier findings (Anzai, 2008b). As noted in that study, more practice time and experimentation is needed with wikis. Given the ease of use as well as the potential for powerful learning and collaboration every student should be comfortable using wikis for learning. With the power to collaborate, share, and negotiate ideas, a wiki should not be taken lightly. Another important factor that teachers should keep in mind is that in Wikispaces, all the instructions on the Web pages are written in English. Consequently, EFL students will most likely need at least some help and support from the teacher.

Media Consumption Among Japanese University Students A question in the second section targeted media consumption among Japanese university students. Anzai’s survey in 2008 focused on three technologies for learning: (1) television, (2) computers, and (3) cell phones. Her earlier survey results had indicated that the vast majority of Japanese college students had these devices at home. That survey also revealed that these three technologies had similar proportions of primary users or about one-third each with a slight favoring of cell phone use over that of television and computers. Student comments related to cell phone use in her earlier study displayed their increasing reliance on such technology. Some of their representative comments are below. 1. “I always use cell phone to exchange emails with my friends. In addition, I use it to watch TV. And I also use to play games.” (Chizuko, a first year university student.) 2. “I am always using my cell phone at home. First, I email my friends about tennis club, and call my friend about school tomorrow. Second, I play a game “Pocket Monster” with my cell phone. I like this game. Finally, I use it for “Yahoo! JAPAN.” I read today’s news: for example “World Baseball Classic.” I check the “Yahoo! Action.” I think Japanese cell phone has same functions as a computer.” (Yuta, a first year university student.) 3. “I use my cell phone mainly for calling and sending e-mails. By using it, I can communicate with my friends. And I look Mixi, SNS, with my cell phone. Recently, we can make own homepage easily. We keep a diary, make an album, and so on. And I use it as an alarm clock. I wake up every day with its melody. Thanks to it, I can wake

34

Anzai up happily, because I can listen to favorite music in the morning.” (Miku, a first year university student.) 4. “After I get my home, I use it to listen to music. Now we can download my favorite music any time on my cell phone. And with very high quality sound. And on cell phone, we can know other user’s review. So it is very easy to search new artists who are going to be my favorite. And it’s easy to know foreign artists, too. I like UK bands. In a CD shop in Japan, there is little news about foreign artists. But on the phone, I can know the new trend of international music.” (Hisao, a first year university student.) 5. “I use cell phone at home. I send e-mails to my friends. I create a plan, talk about love and peace, and surf the Web with my cell phone. I usually access Wikipedia. It is very fun! It helps me pass my time. The cell phone occupies an important position in my life.” (Emi, a first year university student.)

The students’ open-ended answers on the survey clearly show that a cell phone is not only for talking, nor for exchanging emails. The students are actually engaging in far more interesting and diverse activities using this small device. They watch television. They play games. They surf on the Internet. In effect, they get the all the needed or “hot” information that they want through their mobile devices. A myriad of things are possible today using cell phones for learning and socializing. There are not only a multitude of functions available, but they are actually using many of them. In effect, they are treating mobile devices like small computers. What these results suggest is that mobile learning using cell phones has more potential than indicated by many previous studies. In the past, especially in EFL settings, a cell phone was used to study English grammar to get a higher score from Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) or to study English words. Some educational researchers and scholars have argued that the size of the screen on mobile devices is too small for learning purposes. Others believe that cell phone fees are too expensive for the students. And such expenses increase when EFL contents are heavily loaded with extensive graphics and animation. Though not every student is subscribing to mobile device fees such packet fixed charges, it is important to note that the proportion of those subscribers has been increasing, which will serve as a better environment for mobile learning (Obari, Kimura, Anzai, Kogure, Shimoyama, Gouda, Handa, & Koyama, 2008). This study also shows that many students do not worry about the cell phone fees anymore. In addition, the students’ digital experience using cell phone has been surprisingly widening. Such trends will likely lead to additional possibilities for mobile learning in Japan and beyond.

Digital Trends Among Japanese University Students: Podcasting and Wikis

CONCLUSION

35

Every year, there are significant changes in the students’ digital studying environments. For instance, there were five noticeable trends in Japan in 2008 compared with the previous couple of years (Anzai, 2006, 2007b). These trends were as follows: (1) the iPod became more popular among Japanese university students, especially for using the video functions of iPods and MP3 players; (2) Gaming machines such as Nintendo DS gained popularity among Japanese university students; (3) Listening to podcasts became more popular among such students than the previous year while creating podcasts remained quite limited; (4) Wikipedia became an extremely popular tool among Japanese university students, yet very few of them had experience editing or making contributions to it; in effect, they are passive consumers of Wikipedia instead of participatory learners as predicted by Web 2.0 advocates; and (5) Cell phones were being used in increasingly diverse ways. These trends lead to the assumption that which device the students use for learning will be left in the students’ hands. As learning technologies expand, learners can find more options to choose their personalized study environments. Thus, more students have options to study ubiquitously, and have the options to choose the type of the content, though in general the content will shift from audio files to more information rich multi-media files. Wikis need to be extensively explored to see how they will help the students construct knowledge. After pioneering various Wikibook projects, Bonk, Lee, Kim, and Lin (in press) point to numerous cross-institutional collaboration opportunities and challenges. At the same time, Bonk and Zhang (2008) maintain that “wikis offer opportunities to extend student authorship and audience well beyond a single class and instructor” (p.193). Web 2.0 technologies will serve to expand the learning opportunities for the traditional classrooms. With the Web 2.0, “a planetary community” is there for the learners. It can be like a small village in rural Japan or on the scale of Tokyo or New York City. The size of the community depends on the purpose of the learning. The nature of the contents may vary from recycling and repurposing existing information to producing totally new content and learning formats. Whatever the size of the community and the nature of the contents, as the learners and teachers use their imaginations, this community will gain power for student interaction and collaboration. Such power should enhance learners’ motivation and satisfaction. Escaping time and physical distance issues strikes at the very core of elearning and any type of distance learning for that matter. Recently, education has been becoming increasingly flexible, participatory, interactive, and collaborative using available learning technologies. As technologies expand for university instructors around the planet, it is important to survey students

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about which ones they prefer. They should also be asked about why they prefer certain technologies and experiences prior to selecting and implementing any emerging technology tools and resources. Stated another way, teachers need to understand the students’ needs and expectations before making haphazard decisions about technology integration and use. It is hoped that data from this study will facilitate more effective instructional designs for EFL students in Japan and beyond. References Anzai, Y. (2006). Podcasting and Japanese university students. Proceedings of the World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, USA, pp. 9-13. Anzai, Y. (2007a). Empowering English learning utilizing podcasts. Proceedings of the World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, Canada, pp. 10-15. Anzai, Y. (2007b). Podcasting and Japanese millennials. Proceedings of the World Conference on E- Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, Canada, pp.16-23. Anzai, Y. (2008a). Web 2.0 and English Education: Students' created podcasts. Kanto Chapter of the Japan Association for Language Education and Technology. Anzai, Y. (2008b). Introducing Wikis in EFL writing class. Proceedings of the World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, USA, pp.547-552. Bonk, C. J. (2008, August). Technology trends opening access to education worldwide: Now, we all can learn! The 24th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Madison, Wisconsin. Retrieved on September, 24, 2008 from http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache: 9B3rDdNMiHAJ:www.uwex.edu/disted/conference/bonkkeynote.cfm+the+world+is+open+ curtis+bonk&hl=ja&ct=clnk&cd=3 Bonk, C. J. (2009). The world is open: How Web technology is revolutionizing education. JosseyBass, San Francisco, CA. Bonk, C. J., & K. Zhang (2008). Empowering online learning: 100+activities for reading, reflecting, displaying, and doing. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bonk, C. J., Lee, M.-M., Kim, N., & Lin, M.-F. (in press). Wikibook transformations and disruptions: Looking back twenty years to today. In H. H. Yang, & S. C-Y. Yuen (Eds.), Collective intelligence and e-learning 2.0: Implications of Web-based communities and networking. Hershey, PA: IGI Publishing. Chao, Y.-C. J., & Huang, C.-K. (2007). The effectiveness of computer-mediated communication on enhancing writing process and writing outcomes: The implementation of blog and wiki in the EFL writing class in Taiwan. Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications, Canada, pp. 3463-3468. Deal, A. (2007). Podcasting. In Teaching with technology papers. Carnegie Mellon University. Available from: http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/resources/PublicationsArchives/Studies Whitepapers/Podcasting_Jun07.pdf. Dias, J. V. (2007). Students & teacher-created podcasts. Aoyama Gakuin University CALL Workshop. Retrieved September 3, 2007, from http://www.chieru.co.jp/news/download/aoyama.pdf.

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Eisenberg, A. (2008). Learning from a native speaker, without leaving home, The New York Times. Retrieved Dec. 7, 2008, from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/17/business/17novel.html?_r =2&ref=business&oref=slogin Engstrom, M. E., & Jewett, D. (2005) Collaborative learning the wiki way. TechTrends: Linking research and practice to improve learning, 49(6), 12-16. Hall, B. (2006, July). Five innovation technologies. Chief Learning Officer, 5(7), 13, Retrieved February, 2, 2007, from http://www.clomedia.com/content/templates/clo_article.asp?articleid =1443&zoneid=190 Januszewski, A., & Molenda, M. (2008). Educational technology, N.Y: Lawrence Erbium Associates. Jung, I. (2008). Toward a theory of e-education, enhancing ICT in education for a global society. Proceedings of International Conference for Media in Education, Japan, pp. 14-20. Lamy, M. N., & Hampel, R. (2007). Online communication in language learning and teaching. Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics Series (eds. C. Candlin & D. Hall). Palgrave. Obari, H., Kimura, M., Anzai, Y., Kogure, Y. Shimoyama, Y., Gouda, Y., Handa, J., & Koyama, M. (2008). English education using mobile tools. Research Center for e-Learning Professional Competency, Research Institute of Aoyama Gakuin University.

Note Portions of this article were presented at the Asia Day Symposium, E-Learn 2008, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Curtis Bonk, professor at Indiana University, for having inspired me to use wikis in EFL settings. The part of this study involving wikis owes much to Professor Bonk and his colleagues’ interesting and challenging research efforts involving Wikibooks. Yayoi Anzai is Instructor for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in the School of International Politics, Economics and Communication at Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan. She specializes in using blended learning in EFL instruction. Her goal is to enhance EFL learners’ communication ability by expanding their studying experiences through integrating emerging technologies. Yayoi is particularly interested in mobile learning using podcasts and collaborative learning using wikis. She is author of Homestay wakuwaku eikaiwa [Heartfelt Conversation for Homestay] as well as Eikaiwa Kimari-monku 1000, [English Conversation 1000]. Yayoi can be contacted at: [email protected]

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 39-48

From Competency List to Curriculum Implementation: A Case Study of Japan’s First Online Master’s Program for E-Learning Specialists Training KATSUAKI SUZUKI Kumamoto University, Japan [email protected] This article describes the creation of a fully online master’s program for e-learning specialist training. This program is the first of its kind in Japan. As background information, Japan’s general trends in e-learning are described, including activities of the e-Learning Consortium Japan and National Institute of Multimedia in Education. Such features of the master’s program are then introduced as core and optional competencies for graduates, curriculum design, course design policy, and learning portal design. Since the core of the program is instructional design and the program deals with e-learning not only as the means of delivery but also as the content area of training, this online master’s program may be considered unusual. Nevertheless, the lessons learned in this case and associated implications for other program development are important to others building similar online programs.

Introduction For decades now, Japan has been known as an industrialized and information technology oriented country. Ironically, as far as e-learning is concerned, it has not been a world leader or even a leader within Asia alone. Using indexes in four categories (education, industry, government, and society) with four criteria (connectivity, capability, content, and culture), the Economist Intelligence Unit (2003) ranked Japan’s e-learning readiness 23rd among the world’s 60 largest economies. In the same report, South Korea was ranked 5th, Singapore 6th, Taiwan 16th, Hong Kong 19th, and Malaysia 26th among Asian countries. A more recent ranking of e-readiness (as opposed to e-learning readiness of mentioned above), positions Japan at 18th of the

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largest 70 economies (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2008). Although some reports have described e-learning and blended learning trends in Japan (Jung & Suzuki, 2006; Visser & Suzuki, 2007), much is still unknown in the professional literature as to why e-learning in Japan may have been delayed as well as what trends are currently underway. The E-Learning Consortium Japan (eLC: http://www.elc.or.jp/), which was established in 1996 as the Technology-Based Training Consortium, is Japan’s major non-profit organization among e-learning vendors and users (87 member firms as of Oct. 2008). eLC has monthly meetings among members, hosts an e-Learning World (Conference/Expo) every summer and an eLearning Conference every winter. In addition, it has translated much discussed SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) standards into Japanese and conducted associated SCORM validation tests. It also publishes e-learning related books, including a well known e-Learning White Paper in 2007. Finally, in 2008 it started e-Learning Professional (eLP) Certificates. While eLC has been leading e-learning business scenes in Japan, the National Institute for Multimedia in Education (NIME: http://www.nime.ac.jp/en/) has been the center of e-learning for Japanese higher education. Established as an MOE interuniversity research institute before becoming independent in 2004, it serves ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in higher education. NIME has been active in creating aggregated cross-website searches (130,000 cases) called NIME-glad (Gateway to learning for ability development), which added federated search with ARIADNE and MERLOT. In collaboration with Global Learning Object Brokered Exchange (GLOBE), it has been expanded with education.au.limited and LORNET. NIME has also published Annual Reports of ICT in Higher Education as well as the peer reviewed Journal of Media in Education. In addition, it has conducted international seminars, provided workshops for the training of teaching staff in ICT, and developed and offered e-learning courses in remedial education and various graduation competencies. It was recently announced that NIME will be merged with the Open University of Japan in March 2009. According to Annual Report of ICT in Higher Education published by NIME, the overall rate of e-learning introduction among Japanese universities was 51% in 2007 (NIME, 2008). However, only slightly more than 20% of the universities are conducting e-learning courses for credits. Even after adding those institutes that are planning on offering credit-based e-learning (4.4%), there is but a quarter of Japanese universities that are offering or planning to offer e-learning courses and programs. Compared to the penetration rates of universities in other countries, the penetration of e-learning in Japan is still very low. Online Master Program in Instructional Systems Japan’s first 100% online program for e-learning specialists focused in corporate and higher education, the Master of Science program in Instructional Sys-

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tems, started in April 2006 at Kumamoto University. As the first attempt to add a fully online program to an on-campus university with more than 100 years of history, there was a decision to train e-learning professionals emphasizing four areas of expertise. The four I’s, representing the main emphasis areas of the program, are as follows: (1) instructional design (ID), (2) information technology (IT), (3) instructional management (IM), and (4) intellectual property (IP). It is a regular on-campus equivalent master’s program that requires two years of study and a minimum of 30 credit hours of courses. Twelve courses are required to complete the master’s program, whereas 16 elective courses are offered from which four or more courses need to be taken to complete the degree. It was planned to be a fully online program for several reasons. First, the program is targeted for working professionals who require flexibility for them to enroll while working full-time. Second, Kumamoto University is located in the south-most island, whereas the demands for such a program are in major cities such as Tokyo or Osaka, not in Kumamoto. For an institute located far from major cities, online learning was the only choice to obtain enough students. Third, the Japanese government regulation had been changed to allow a 100% online graduate program, not as a correspondence program, but as a regular program that is equivalent of an on-campus program through use of advanced learning technologies which make interactions possible on a regular basis. And fourth, e-learning professionals should be able to be trained via using e-learning systems to show them how various e-learning components can be used. The program was launched in April of 2006 with 15 first year master’s students, after being selected through rigorous admission process that started with 37 candidates. All of the admitted students were professionals in their 30’s and 40’s, working full-time in various locations: ten living in Tokyo, two in Osaka, and the rest in Kyushu Island where Kumamoto University is located. As of April 2008, the enrollment in the program was 49 degree seeking (including 4 in the online doctorate program) and 34 non-degree seeking students. A quick learner analysis revealed that they are mature students, studying alone at home or offices, capable of conducting independent study via the Internet. Minimal faculty support would be required. In addition, encouraging collaboration and learning from each other would be an effective instructional strategy that allows them to utilize their diverse professional backgrounds. Since they are working fulltime, time management may be an issue; hence, the asynchronous mode of learning seemed to the most flexible learning environment for these busy professionals. Overall Design of the Program Figure 1 describes the overall design of the program created based on ID methodologies. Inputs are listed on the top of Figure 1, which included the 4 I’s concept, list of courses, and governmental requirements to be regarded as equivalent of on-campus program (15 interactive synchronous/asynchronous

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sessions). Case studies, indicated on the bottom of Figure 1, were conducted to locate and examine advanced online programs, including the instructional systems programs at Florida State University, the Open University of U.K., and Carnegie Mellon University’s West Campus. Also taken into consideration was a movement of eLC to establish eLP Certificate Program. An early draft version of eLP’s competencies for seven kinds of certificates were obtained so that our program could be aligned with what Japan’s prominent professional alliance in the field of e-learning had to offer to certify their professionals. When eLC started its eLP certificates in 2008, our program became one of the two authorized institutes to certify eLPs: except for the Tutor Certificate, all other six kinds of certificates could be obtained by taking specified courses in our programs: Learning Designer, Manager, Expert, Contents Creator, Consultant, and SCORM Engineer Certificates. Based on these inputs and consideration of future trends for our prospective graduates, a list of competencies was created and made public in January 2006. Course design policy was agreed upon among core members of the program, on which each of the course syllabi was drafted and coordinated through workshops among the core members. A learning portal was then designed and created to link the university’s single sign-on user identification to the learning management system (LMS; in particular, WebCT CE6), as well as to pro-

Figure 1. Overall design of GSIS program.

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vide learning assistance for the students. Each of the course contents was then created based on the course design policy, before the implementation of the program. Each of the outputs is to be described in the following sections. Core and Optional Competencies for Graduates Table 1 shows core competencies, whereas Table 2 shows optional competencies for graduates. The core competencies list 12 capabilities that would be developed by taking required courses of the program. They cover the basic capabilities in the field of ID, IT, IP, and IM – the four I’s emphasized in the program. All the assignments in the required courses are mapped with one of the 12 competencies, which represent basic knowledge and skills of e-learning professionals. When each of the assignments is accomplished by a student, a mark indicating the assignment will reverse the color, thereby showing accumulating status of a competency by completing the assignment. By explicitly showing the competencies, the students, current and prospective, will be notified with our expectations for the students. It shows the boundaries of our expectations: for example, for IT related competencies, all the graduates are expected to become able to design effective, efficient, and appealing learning contents by utilizing functions provided by an LMS (Core Table 1 Core Competencies for Graduates By completing this program, you will acquire a basic level of the following competencies: 1. To analyze the status quo of education and training practices, by referring to the fundamentals of instructional systems research. 2. To describe and interpret e-learning success and failure cases in various domains and areas. 3. To create a course development plan and conduct a persuasive proposal based on various viewpoints of stakeholders. 4. To design effective, efficient, and appealing learning contents by utilizing functions provided by an LMS. 5. To develop a prototype of active contents executable on a Web browser. 6. To implement a course development project as a team leader. 7. To evaluate and suggest improvements for an implemented project or a developed course. 8. To propose strategies for educational services and businesses based on HRD strategies or market needs. 9. To recognize and solve legal and ethical issues in networked environment. 10. To watch latest advancements in instructional systems field and apply them in professional activities. 11. To disseminate findings from own practices through professional activities thus contribute to society. 12. To contribute to improvements and advancements of the program as an alumnus. Note: Announced in Jan. 2006 at http://www.gsis.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/outline/

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By taking optional courses in this program, you will acquire a basic level of the following competencies: 1. To set up, manage and utilize a server for e-learning and to develop a prototype of active course contents by utilizing server-side applications. 2. To develop courses and manage systems that meet requirements of e-learning standardization and inter-operatability. 3. To create a safe e-learning environment in terms of network security. 4. To propose management resolutions from the viewpoints of knowledge, information, and learning. 5. To discuss with subject matter expert in a specific area based on its own instructional characteristics. 6. To propose and support implementation of educational services and products as a consultant. 7. To propose establishment, improvement, and change in e-learning policies for own organization and customers. Note: Announced in Jan. 2006 at http://www.gsis.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/outline/

Competency 4), and to develop a prototype of active contents executable on a Web browser (Core Competency 5). However, to become able to develop a prototype of active course contents by utilizing server-side applications, learners need to take one or more elective courses (Optional Competency 1). It was our thought that all of our graduates should have experiences of actually developing a course segment, so they would have acquired an ability to talk with developers of e-learning contents, although not many of our graduates would actually engage in the development of contents as programmers. The term prototype is thus used in the statement of the competency, representing the minimum requirement for the skill or competency. Course Design Policy Based on our audience analysis, governmental regulations, and general grading policy of the University, a set of course design policies were established as shown in Table 3. First of all, the asynchronous delivery mode was decided to be the main method of interaction through the use of WebCT’s quiz function, report submission function, and Bulletin Board System (BBS). Instead of having deadlines once a week, our policy states the 15 required interactions to be clustered to have two or more tasks due on the same date (Policy 4). This was introduced by taking into account the fact that each of the students would enroll in four or five courses each semester. If due dates are set for every week, then each student would need to handle tasks for four or five different courses simultaneously. By having them clustered, a student would

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Table 3 Course Design Policy 1. Fifteen (15) interactive sessions in each course with evidences, e.g., quiz, mini-report, answer to practice exercises. 2. Course grades based on multiple reports/products with the record from 15 sessions, each requiring the minimum of 60% for a passing grade. 3. Direct connection of course assignments to the competencies. 4. Due dates of 15 session tasks to be clustered into 3-5 blocks to enable learner’s intensive study. 5. Limited synchronous whole class activities (maximum of twice a semester per course). 6. Students commenting each other’s reports/products for improvements before final submissions. 7. Introductory video message in all courses or all blocks of a course as a motivator, not as a primary mode of information provision.

be allowed to finish several weeks’ worth of tasks of one course, before moving to the tasks of a different course. To encourage interactions among our students, Policy 6 was introduced (Table 3). By using BBS’s functionality for threaded discussions, a student would be asked to post a message with her draft proposal as an attachment. Other students, after posting their own drafts, are encouraged to review the classmates’ drafts, after which they could make any comments as a reply to the original messages. It is after such interactions among the students that their final proposal would be turned in by using WebCT’s report submission function. Points are allocated according to online contributions such as making comments to the drafts of peers. Such a grading tactic signals to students that interactions among peers are highly valued. Original Learning Portal Site A learning portal site was designed and developed to help our online students. It was designed to connect the University’s sign-on site to our LMS (WebCT) in such a way that the portal would serve for time management of our students, as well as a portal to various resources including University’s digital library and course registration service. Figure 2 shows a screen that provides a monitoring function for all the courses a student is concurrently taking in a semester. In particular, this student was taking five courses, after finishing an orientation shown on the bottom. Each course has direct links to 15 tasks in the upper portion, and several assignments in the lower portion of a horizontal scale. By moving the mouse over to each of the buttons, due dates and starting conditions are indicated in mouse pop-up windows. Each entry due date is marked by colors:

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Figure 2. Monitoring progress in all courses (GSIS portal). overdue in red, due within a week in pink, accepted in yellow, available tasks in green, and not yet available tasks in gray. Evaluation status is also shown as either passed (yellow), resubmission required (orange), or grading in progress (blue). It was our intention that by providing such an overview for each of the students, they would have better control in managing time for study without needing human assistance. Lessons Learned and Implications The initial design process and outputs for the program took much planning and deliberation. It was our intention to utilize what we know about instructional design to create our own learning environment for the fully online master’s course for the working professionals. The development of course contents were done according to the course design policy, while designing the next chunks of course contents, just ahead of our student progress. Minimum requirements for clearing assignments in every course were highly maintained. Although resubmissions were required when necessary, student reactions in course evaluation were positive. Despite these policies and procedures, the graduation rate of the first cohort in two years remained lower than 50% (7 out of 15). Those who did graduate, however, wrote high quality master theses. In addition, their self evaluations of core competencies were high. Among those who did not complete their degree in two years, one completed it in 2.5 years and another is expected to finish by the end of third year. At the same time, one student had to resign due

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to health reason, two lost contact, and the rest are moving ahead slowly, but steadily. In reflection, it was not realistic to expect that all of our students would finish in the minimum duration while working full-time. Given the population the program is serving, the more strict the competencies and passing criteria for assignments, the more difficult the program becomes to complete. We feel that we need to monitor closely how our students feel about our policy and what they are getting from our program. If our students regard their experience to be valuable and applicable to their professions, toughness may not be bad from the standpoint of quality assurance of our program. This online program may be considered more sensitive to certain design components since the core of the program is instructional design where the focus is on the effective design and delivery of instruction. In addition, it is unusual since the program deals with e-learning not only as the means but also as the content area of training. Nevertheless, similar processes may be applied when creating online programs in different disciplines and subject areas. We have taken great pains to practice what we teach in our curriculum. As a result, we may have produced courses which over applied instructional design principles compared to normal courses in higher education. At the same time, such strict adoption of instructional design principles and practices used here can be benchmarked by others. Hopefully, our practices can help simplify ways of adoption of e-learning for others. We hope that can not only follow in our footsteps, but can lead well beyond them. There have been many ID models proposed as of today, some of which have been considered in renovating our program toward the third cohort starting in April of 2008. MOE Japan’s Grant related to Innovative Educator Training Program for the IT Area has been awarded to us to reform our program to be a story-centered curriculum (Schank, 2007). Such a curriculum should be more interactive and relevant for working adults. Additionally, the Japan International Corporation Agency has agreed to support international students within our program by converting necessary course contents into English. In the midst of these changes, at the completion of the first master’s cohort, a doctoral program was approved. In order to maintain and improve what has been accomplished to date, continuous examination and additional reforms will be undertaken. With all these supports and new initiatives, this is quite exciting! References Economist Intelligence Unit (2003). The 2003 e-readiness rankings. A white paper from the Economist Intelligence Unit. [Available online] http://graphics.eiu.com/files/ad_pdfs/ eReady_2003.pdf. Economist Intelligence Unit (2008). E-readiness rankings 2008: Maintaining momentum. A white paper from the Economist Intelligence Unit. [Available online] http://graphics.eiu.com/ upload/ibm_ereadiness_2008.pdf.

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Jung, I. S., & Suzuki, K. (2006). Blended learning in Japan and its application in liberal arts education. In C. J. Bonk, & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. Pfeiffer, 267-280. NIME (2008). Report on education using ICT including e-Learning, 2007. National Institute for Multimedia in Education. [In Japanese]. Schank, R. C. (2007). The story-centered curriculum. eLearn Magazine, Feature Article 47-1, Association for Computing Machinery. Retrieved March 5, 2009, from http://www.elearnmag.org/ subpage.cfm?section=articles&article=47-1 Visser, J., & Suzuki, K. (2007). Designing for the world at large: A tale of two settings. In R. A. Reiser, & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd Ed.). Pearson Education, 234-244.

Notes Portions of earlier drafts have been presented at the 2007 Korean Society for Educational Technology (KSET) Conference, April 27-28, 2007, Seoul, South Korea (Suzuki, K., 2007. From competency list to curriculum implementation: An experience of Japan’s first online master program for eLearning specialists. An invited address) and E-Learning Asia Day, PreConference Symposium, E-Learn 2008, November 17, 2008, Las Vegas, Nevada (Suzuki, K., 2008. E-learning in Japan: A view from Kumamoto). Katsuaki Suzuki, Ph.D. is professor and chair, Instructional Systems Program, Graduate School of Social and Cultural Sciences, Kumamoto University, Japan. He serves on the board of directors for many organizations, including the International Board of Standards for Performance, Training, and Instruction (ibstpi), the Japan Society for Educational Technology, and the Japan Society for Educational Media Studies. He serves as co-editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Educational Media and Technology, and as a consulting editor of development section of Educational Technology Research and Development. He can be contacted at: [email protected]

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 49-64

E-Learning in Supplemental Educational Systems in Taiwan: Present Status and Future Challenges KE ZHANG Wayne State University, USA [email protected] JUI-LONG HUNG Boise State University, USA [email protected]

As Taiwan’s full-scale e-learning initiatives moved to the seventh year in 2009, the current status and challenges of e-learning development there are yet to be fully understood. Further extending Zhang and Hung’s (2006) investigation on e-learning in all universities and colleges in Taiwan, this study investigated the after-school programs (ASPs) in Taiwan. ASPs are an interesting social phenomenon in Asian culture. As influential supplemental educational systems (SES), they are popularly available at all educational levels (K-20) as well as in those highly in-demand training or continuing education areas. This article reviews the current status and trends of the SES in Taiwan while also analyzing related guiding policies, identifying challenges in e-learning implementation in these systems, and concluding with suggestions to address these issues. The findings are of particular value not only for policy makers in Taiwan and other countries or regions with similar problems, but also for e-learning vendors and developers aiming to better understand as well as extend the e-learning market within Taiwan and other areas with similar cultures.

Introduction In Taiwan, like in many other Asian areas, e-learning is strategically valued and positioned by the government as powerful leverage not only to promote education, training, and lifelong learning, but also to stimulate related high-tech research and development for full scale economic advancement (Chang, Wang, & Chen, 2009; Executive Yuan, 2002a, 2002b, 2005;

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Jung, in press; Latchem, Jung, Aoki, & Ozkul, 2008; Zhang, 2005, 2008; Zhang & Hung, 2006). As described in many recent reports, e-learning is being promoted as a star industry in Taiwan to build a knowledge society and support life-long learning (Chang et al., 2009; Executive Yuan, 2002a, 2002b, 2005; Taiwan e-learning and Digital Archives Program, 2008; Zhang & Hung, 2006). In a recent study, Zhang and Hung (2006) extensively investigated the elearning policies, practices, and problems in all of the 147 universities and colleges in Taiwan’s higher education system. To get a comprehensive overview of e-learning in Taiwan, this study further investigated the status of e-learning in its supplemental educational systems. The highly popular and in-demand after school programs (ASPs) are widely available at all educational levels (e.g., K-20), and in many training and development areas, as well as for lifelong learning. Unlike the typical ASPs in the United States K12 system, ASPs in Taiwan, and similarly in many other Asian areas, focus on academic improvements to prepare learners for various educational testing or professional certifications. The ASPs play an extremely important role and are often deemed as necessary supplements to formal, traditional educational systems. Since the e-learning initiatives in Taiwan started in 2002 (Executive Yuan, 2002b, 2005), there is little comprehensive data to provide a scientific overview on the status of its implementation in various settings. Zhang and Hung’s (2006) study scientifically collected data from all of the 147 four-year colleges and universities in Taiwan and analyzed the status quo of Taiwan’s e-learning in higher education as of 2005. The investigation covered the different types of e-learning offerings in higher education, the trends and shared characteristics of Taiwan’s e-learning, and impacts of related policies. As Zhang and Hung (2006) discovered, the target e-learning audiences in Taiwan’s higher education are traditional, full-time students who have been admitted to colleges and universities through annual entrance exam. Thus, e-learning in Taiwan did not necessarily serve those with significant needs for it, and did not benefit potential learners with non-traditional, anywhere, anytime access to education, which is a frequently claimed advantage of e-learning (e.g., Executive Yuan, 2005; Waterhouse, 2005). As most of the financial resources for e-learning development come from the government (Zhang & Hung, 2006), governmental policies are the determining force guiding and shaping the development and implementation of Taiwan’s e-learning. Education in Taiwan is highly competitive, starting from kindergarten and throughout all grade levels (Smith, 1997; Zhang & Hung, 2006). Thus, in addition to regular full-time public or private schools, there are consistently high demands for after-school tutoring or other academic programs (Liou & Ting, 2006; Su, 2001). The providers of such ASPs usually include private companies or organizations (either for-profit or not-

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for profit). Some programs, however, are affiliated with a formal private or public school. ASP institutions and organizations provide short-term academic programs focusing on different subject areas with flexible schedules to supplement regular in-school education. The goal is often quite clear and widely accepted: better academic performance, which is typically measured by standardized tests or by obtaining professional certification for learners beyond K-12. Traditionally, ASPs enroll students in nearby geographic areas. With the power of technology, these types of supplemental education providers can now reach many more students via e-learning. Japan and South Korea are quite successful in developing e-learning in ASPs (Lee, 2006; Nakayama, 2004). While similar in culture and geographic region, Taiwan’s ASPs are just beginning to unleash the potential of e-learning. This study investigated the current state of ASPs in Taiwan, including the status of information and communication technology (ICT), the current needs of human resources, and the status quo of e-learning in the highly indemand supplemental educational systems. METHOD

To understand the current status of ASPs, the researchers began their work with an extensive search in governmental databases, official reports, the Ministry of Education (MOE) databases, and reports and databases from educational agencies in each city and county in Taiwan. These efforts focused on the following areas: (a) current regulating policies related to Taiwan’s ASPs; (b) different types of ASPs in Taiwan; and (c) current e-learning status in ASPs. Given that the major delivery format of Taiwan’s e-learning is the Internet (Zhang & Hung, 2006), the readiness of information communication technology is crucial for e-learning development. Thus, the researchers analyzed different data and indicators to examine Taiwan’s ICT infrastructure readiness for e-learning. One of the ultimate goals of e-learning in Taiwan is to promote life-long learning and to transform Taiwan to a knowledge-based economy (Executive Yuan, 2002a, b; 2005; Zhang & Hung, 2006). Therefore, the researchers investigated human resource (HR) demands and the current HR structure in the society and analyzed the status quo and how it relates to the ASPs e-learning readiness. Substantial archived data, both quantitative and qualitative, were analyzed independently by the two researchers and then cross-checked and discussed to achieve agreement to ensure reliability and validity in the research process. Data from different resources were triangulated to achieve accuracy and trustworthiness in the data collection and analysis processes.

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FINDINGS

Regulating Policies The latest official government policies regarding ASPs were announced by MOE in 2002, with a series of 26 regulations particularly pertaining to ASPs in Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 2002a). As clearly stated in the government policies, the missions of ASP institutions are to raise the general public’s educational levels, disseminate practical skills, foster the development of vigorous and well-rounded citizens, and spur social progress. The mission of ASP institutions is not only to supplement formal K-12 education, but also to serve in areas such as continuing education, professional development, training and development, informal learning, and so on. More specifically, the providers of ASPs may be schools, government agencies, organizations, foundations, or private parties. The ASP institutions may be either academic or non-academic, with courses lasting from one month to 18 months. ASP institutions may offer daily weekday courses, non-daily weekday courses, or weekend courses. In addition to traditional face-to-face teaching and learning, supplementary and continuing education may also be provided via means such as correspondence, radio, television, and computer networks. The policy has also made it clear that ASP institutions may recruit and admit foreign students or students from outside of Taiwan. Unlike higher education, ASPs have more flexibility in terms of administration, operations, and management with fewer constraints from governmental regulations (Zhang & Hung, 2006). For example, there is no limit on the number of credits one may obtain via e-learning for any certificate from ASPs, while in higher education, no more than half of the total credits may be earned via e-learning for a degree as of 2006 (Ministry of Education, 2006a; Zhang & Hung, 2006). The credit limit has tremendously impeded the development and promotion of elearning in Taiwan’s higher education. While the lack of rigorous regulations may interfere with quality control in this extremely important supplemental educational system, the flexibility does, however, empower ASPs with the most resources, innovative management and leadership, and overall opportunities to pioneer new methods and approaches, including e-learning. The Types of ASPs The number of ASPs in Taiwan has doubled in the past five years from 8,599 in 2002 to 17,441 in April 2007 (Ministry of Education, 2007). According to the Bureau of Employment and Vocational Training (2006), ASPs are consistently among the top five hottest categories for small business. Table 1 summarizes the types of ASPs by target population in Taiwan, while Table 2 summarizes the number of ASPs by subject area in Taiwan from 2003 to 2007. From 2003 to 2007, the number of ASP institutions increased dramatically at the following grade levels: elementary, middle school, high school,

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and adult education. According to the regulations of ASPs, the institutions may be categorized into academic or non-academic types (Ministry of Education, 2007). The results revealed that the majority of ASPs in Taiwan were provided by academic institutions (N=15,863, 89.4%), while non-academic ASPs had a smaller share of the market (N=1,924, 10.6%). In Table 2, literature and science represented academic institutions, whereas foreign language ASPs may be either academic or non-academic. Additionally, ASPs focusing on areas such as information technology, music and dance, accounting, mental arithmetic and abacus, and miscellaneous were non-academic institutions. In subject areas like information technology and miscellaneous, there was a clear focus on adult learners, yet other ASPs targeted improving the academic grades of K-12 students in various tests.

Current E-Learning Status of ASPs In 2005, the Digital Education Institution (as cited in the National Science and Technology program office for e-learning, 2006) investigated ASPs in major metropolitan areas in Taiwan, and found that only 10.3% of them had adopted e-learning. Among those, the majority (65.2%) utilized e-learning to provide supplementary materials, and 42.9% provided completely online courses for online learners. In terms of e-learning material development, 68.6% of ASPs with e-learning reportedly designed materials on their own, and 28.6 % of them purchased packaged materials or software. Of note, ASP respondents reported the following as the major challenges in elearning implementation: (a) more than 30% of ASPs reported that their current and/or target students were not familiar with e-learning (this was identified as the number one issue facing APS e-learning initiatives); (b) nearly 23% reported that parents of K-12 target learners had limited understanding of e-learning, and thus there was a significant lack of support or buy-in from them; and (c) 20% of them clearly reflected that they would need a successful model to guide their e-learning development and implementation efforts. Among the ASPs with no e-learning offerings in the Digital Education Institution study, 40% of them echoed the concern that students were not ready with knowledge and skills required for e-learning, which was the main reason they had not initiated e-learning. In addition, more than one in three of them acknowledged that they had limited knowledge on how to assess students’ learning outcomes in e-learning, and, thus they did not pursue e-learning. Those ASPs planning to introduce e-learning, more than 37% reported that they would purchase packaged materials and commercial software and learning management systems, and 23% would rent an LMS from providers. At the same time, 51% would design materials by themselves. The major ASPs providing e-learning in Taiwan was investigated. As summarized in Table 3, academic areas, especially in K-12 populations, were the major foci of e-learning ASPs.

Elementary School

3,955

5,015

6,269

7,238

7,372

Target Learners

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Category

7,263

7,136

6,270

5,114

4,169

Middle School

960

920

712

583

498

High School

150

145

133

122

110

Four-year College

Academic

75

72

71

62

59

Four-year University

43

42

39

31

27

Graduate

1,239

1,217

1,075

764

638

Adult

56

54

52

48

44

Official Exam

586

570

525

460

385

Preschool

Non-academic

Table 1 After School Programs in Taiwan by Target Learners from 2003-2007 (as of 12/1/2008)

54 Zhang and Hung

Literature and Science

3,828

5,463

6,649

7,868

8,038

Subject Area

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Academic

5,300

5,217

4,709

4,118

3,105

Academic or non-academic Foreign Language

403

397

377

336

264

709

699

624

552

436

Category Academic or Non-academic non-academic Information Music Technology and Dance

914

898

833

756

669

Accounting, Mental arithmetic and Abacus

Non-academic

Table 2 After School Programs in Taiwan by Target Learners from 2003-2007 (as of 12/1/2008)

984

948

810

712

590

Misc

Non-academic

E-Learning in Supplemental Educational Systems in Taiwan 55

Course content

Academic

Academic

Academic

Academic & language learning

Academic & Official exam

Language learning

Language learning

Language learning

IT training

After school institution

HIKIDS

Good Kid

Study21

TSS Study

Learn Bank

My English Tutor

Live ABC

English DNA

Pcschool Inc.

All levels

Language learning

Language learning

Language learning

High school; Official exam

Elementary school; Language learning

K-12

Elementary school

Kindergarten & elementary school

Target population

Non-academic

Non-academic

Non-academic

Non-academic

Academic

Academic

Academic

Academic

Academic

Category

Table 3 Major After School E-Learning Programs in Taiwan

http://www.pcschool.com.tw/

http://www.englishdna.com.tw/engdna/ index.jsp?mm=1228970652865

http://www.liveabc.com/english/

http://www.myet.com/MyETWeb/ PersonalizedPage.aspx

http://347.learn.com.tw/

http://www.tsstudy.com.tw/

http://www.study21.com.tw/

http://goodkids.knsh.com.tw/index.asp

http://w3.hikids.com.tw/index.cfm

URL

56 Zhang and Hung

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ASPs Readiness for E-Learning Are ASPs in Taiwan ready for e-learning? To answer this question, it is essential to understand the current ICT infrastructure and the accessibility of the Internet in Taiwan in general, as well as for ASPs in particular. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) (EIU, 2007) defines E-readiness as the status of a country’s ICT infrastructure and the ability of its consumers, businesses, and governments to utilize ICT. According to EIU (2007), Taiwan’s E-readiness was consistently in the top 20 worldwide from 2004-2007, which indicates that Taiwan’s ICT infrastructure is mature and comparable to that of most developed countries. More specifically, broadband network penetration and the population of Internet users reflect the availability and popularity of Internet use and thus are also important indicators of e-learning readiness. According to a recent investigation (Point Topic, 2008), Taiwan’s broadband penetration ranked No. 12 globally in 2006 and 2008, with more than six in ten of Taiwan’s families having broadband connections at home. The Taiwan Network Information Center (2006) further investigated broadband user behaviors in Taiwan, and found that a small portion (less than 8 percent) of current broadband users had paid for online learning; however, more than 25% of potential broadband users would pay for elearning if they had such access. Thus, as technology becomes more widely available to the general public, e-learning in Taiwan is likely to increase in highly significant ways. The Current Needs for Human Resources An overview on Taiwan’s human resource structure and demands uncovers the potential of e-learning in ASPs to help achieve lifelong learning in Taiwan (Table 4). Reviewing the top three countries with the highest levels of educational attainment, the educational levels of 25-to-64-year-olds in those countries and the ratio of Taiwanese with university-or-higher-level degrees show that educational levels in Taiwan are significantly lower than those in the top three countries. As shown in Table 5, on average, fewer than 10 in every 1,000 people in Taiwan are research and development (R & D) technicians. This ratio is much lower compared to the top countries in the world, such as Finland, Sweden, Japan, Singapore, and the United States (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2008). Chang (2005) found that a high ratio of unemployment in Taiwan was due to the lack of specific skills and knowledge in the workforce, which were required for knowledgeintensive jobs. And thus, Chang suggested that Taiwan’s government should provide an infrastructure to offer the necessary training to prepare the workforce to meet market demands.

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Zhang and Hung Table 4 Trends in Educational Attainment of the 25 to 64-Year-Old Population in 2005 (OECD, 2008)

Country

Final Degree Preschool & Elementary School

Junior & senior High School

Undergraduate & Graduate School

Taiwan

18.9%

50.5%

30.7%

US

6.27%

50.18%

43.55%

Norway

7.69%

56.42%

35.63%

Denmark

13.33%

51.08%

35.59%

Table 5 Ratio of R&D Technicians Per 1,000 People in 2004 (OECE, 2008) Country

Research & Development Technicians Ratio of Researchers Nationwide

Ratio of Researchers in Business & Industry

Taiwan

7.1‰

5.9‰

Japan

10.2‰

11.3‰

Singapore

9.8‰

8.3‰

US

9.1‰

11.5‰

Sweden

10.6‰

10.9‰

Finland

15.7‰

15.0‰

All the data mentioned above indicate that individuals of age 35 or older are a major human resource in Taiwan, but they have relatively lower educational levels and professional R&D credentials as compared to the more advanced countries. Therefore, the huge population of adult learners in Taiwan should be better served in their efforts for lifetime learning; especially in the midst of such a knowledge economy transformation, which is highly promoted by the Taiwanese government in the recent years (Executive Yuen, 2005; Zhang & Hung, 2006). With the existing ASPs, their flexibility in administration and funding, there is great potential to leverage the powerful influence ASPs already have in Taiwan’s educational and training systems with e-learning.

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FURTHER DISCUSSIONS: CHALLENGES & OPPORTUNITIES

The results of e-readiness ranking and the percentage of broadband penetration revealed that Taiwan’s Information Communication Technology is ready for e-learning. Taiwan’s government has been consistent in its efforts to facilitate e-learning development through policy guidance, financial gifting, and tax deductions (Zhang & Hung, 2006). In addition, people are used to utilizing after-school programs as supplements to formal school education and professional development among adult learners. However, as discussed in the following section, ASP institutions are faced with both challenges and opportunities in providing services via e-learning.

Learners’ Openness to E-Learning As the Digital Education Institution’s (2005) recent survey research has found, ASP learners in Taiwan, adults or younger, are not experienced in elearning. Moreover, parents of students in grades K-12 are not confident in the quality of e-learning. Consistently, ASPs, including those offering elearning courses, have reported that students and parents are lacking in a general understanding of e-learning. In response, many ASPs have kept their e-learning courses and initiatives to a minimal level (Digital Education Institution, 2005). In fact, the number of e-learning ASPs and their popularity are currently far less than traditional ASPs. The quality of e-learning programs, therefore, is crucial to boost the acceptance rate of e-learning among general public, potential learners and parents of younger K-12 students. However, the majority of government funding for e-learning goes directly to hardware purchases, infrastructures, and general maintenance (Executive Yuan, 2002, 2005), with scant emphasis on quality control of e-learning (Zhang & Hung, 2006). The Ministry of Education (2002b) investigated 1,058 students and 57 instructors about their experiences in learning and teaching in an asynchronous format. The results indicated that more than 83% of students would take asynchronous online courses again, because of the flexibility and convenience in time and location. However, nearly 30% of students complained about poor course design and problems with course management systems. Another interesting finding was that 43% of instructors offered asynchronous courses due to curiosity. Both instructional design (24%) and the assessment of e-learning outcomes (24%) were identified as the biggest challenges facing instructors in e-learning initiatives. Seventy-five percent of the instructors had asked for support for online teaching and instructional design. Forty-two percent of the instructors reported that such support was provided by part-time staff or teaching assistants. In addition, nearly half of the instructors reported funding for such support came from government, while more than 4 in 10 reported that funding was obtained from within their

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universities. The results indicated that educational institutions need more guidance and expertise in e-learning, especially in instructional design and online tutoring. They also showed that educational institutions have to find more funding resources besides government funding to support e-learning development.

More for Adult Learners The annual output value of ASPs is estimated as approximately 50 billion U.S. dollars (National Science and Technology Program Office for e-learning, 2006). In 2005, Taiwan’s e-learning curriculum production was $1.97 billion U.S. dollars, with 75% from after school institutions. However, only roughly10% of ASPs have introduced e-learning (Digital Education Institution, 2005). As indicated in Table 3, the ASP e-learning institutions primarily focus on K-16 academic training. Yet only one ASP e-learning institution in Taiwan currently serves adult learners. As summarized in Tables 5 and 6, those aged 35-64 in Taiwan are lacking in undergraduate or graduate degrees, compared with those in more developed countries. And, given that they serve as the major workforce, it is critical to prepare them with quality training and education in the efforts to achieve a knowledge-based economy in Taiwan. These people would significantly benefit from convenient and flexible training and education through e-learning. They would probably be well served via e-learning in the ASP system, when the formal educational system does not address their unique needs for professional development and just-in-time training. E-Training, E-Professional Development at ASPs With the national attempts to transform from a labor-intense market to a knowledge-intense society, the needs for e-learning beyond traditional educational systems are apparently urgent for workforce development and lifelong learning. The current ratio of R&D technicians in overall human resource in Taiwan is roughly half of that in top countries in the world. In addition, unofficial statistics revealed that approximately 20% of the workforce in Taiwan actually work in mainland China (The Legislative Yuan, 2006), which clearly suggests that traditional, formal educational systems cannot reach all the workforce with much needed training requirements and development opportunities. To provide timely training and professional development opportunities to these employees, especially with a significant portion located outside of the island, e-learning or e-training would be a much more effective and efficient solution, compared to traditional face-to-face training. In 2006, the Digital Education Institution (as cited in National Science and Technology Program office for e-learning, 2006) investigated e-learning status in corporations with 1,000 or fewer employees. It found a significant growth in training via

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e-learning in these smaller organizations. For example, 9% of the corporations with 200 or fewer employees utilized e-learning for training in 2004; this quickly increased to 12% in 2005. Among corporations with 201-999 employees, 13% implemented e-training in 2004, and the next year, the number almost tripled, with 34% offering e-training in 2005. Evidently, small businesses are increasingly adopting e-learning for training and development. However, the reported shortage of e-learning design experts, in addition to paltry budgets for e-learning development, has limited the implementation of e-learning on a larger scale. Educational systems, including supplemental educational systems, like ASPs may establish collaborative partnerships with business, government, and non-profit sectors to share resources and expertise in the design, development, and delivery of elearning for workforce development and lifelong learning. Such cooperation may also help secure more external funding to further advance e-learning or e-training initiatives.

M-Learning Potential In terms of its mobile phone popularity, Taiwan is among the top three countries worldwide, with people each having one or more mobile phone on average (Industrial Technology Research Institution of Taiwan, 2008). In 2007, over a quarter (27.4%) of mobile phone users used their mobile phones for Internet surfing, which was a significant increase compared to 6.1% in 2005 and 14.7% in 2006 (National Communication Commission, 2007). With the high popularity of mobile phones in Taiwan, and successful examples in neighbor countries like Korea and Japan (Institution for Information Industry, 2008; Jung, in press; Latchem et al., 2008; Zhang, 2008), the potential of mobile learning, especially for adult learners in the supplemental educational systems is substantial and should be further explored for certification, professional development, training, and lifelong learning. CONCLUDING REMARKS

As Zhang and Hung (2006) found, Taiwan’s government is still at the initial piloting stage in terms of e-learning, with a special focus on higher education. While tremendous governmental financial support continues to go to higher education for e-learning, ASP institutions do not receive their fair share of resources, financial incentives, or investment opportunities from the Taiwanese government. This study also revealed that those aged 35-64 demand professional development and/or continuing education; and they may be better served via e-learning and mobile learning through the supplemental educational system like ASPs. In addition, ubiquitous technologies and their high availability in Taiwan bring more opportunities for ASP institutions to unleash the power of mobile learning.

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With similar educational systems and cultural norms and expectations, the findings of this study also shed light on the development of supplemental educational systems in other Asian countries or areas, such as mainland China, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Japan. The findings are of particular value not only for policy makers in Taiwan and other countries or regions with similar problems, but also for e-learning vendors and developers aiming to enter or extend the e-learning market in Asia. References Bureau of Employment and Vocational Training (2006). The industry of short-term after school institutions. Retrieved January 25, 2008, from http://www.ejob.gov.tw/app1_post.php? cat=app1_su&seqno=28 Chang, L. H. (2005). The effects of prosperity tides and industry structure on Taiwan’s unemployment rate. Journal of Economy and Comments, 11(1), 98-115. Chang, M., Wang, C. Y., & Chen, G. D. (2009). National program for e-Learning in Taiwan. Educational Technology & Society, 12(1), 5–17. Digital Education Institution (2005). E-learning status in Taiwan’s after school institutions. Retrieved December 10, 2008 from http://idp.teldap.tw/epaper/20081120/78 Economist Intelligence Unit (2007). The 2007 e-readiness rankings. Retrieved April 8, 2008, from http://graphics.eiu.com/files/ad_pdfs/2007Ereadiness_Ranking_WP.pdf Executive Yuan of the Republic of China (2002a). Challenge 2008: National development plan. Retrieved January 10, 2008, from http://www.cepd.gov.tw/2008/index.htm Executive Yuan of the Republic of China (2002b). National Science and Technology Program for e-learning. Retrieved January 10, 2008, from http://elnpweb.ncu.edu.tw/index.htm Executive Yuan of the Republic of China (2005). National Science and Technology Program for e-learning. Retrieved May 10, 2008, from http://elnpweb.ncu.edu.tw/old/english/english1.htm Institution for Information Industry (2008). Rate of Taiwan’s mobile internet penetration in 2007, Retrieved December 4, 2008, from http://www.communications.org.tw/getdetail.php?n_unit=21 Jung, I. (in press). The emergence of for-profit e-learning providers in Asia. TechTrends. Latchem, C., Jung, I., Aoki, K., & Ozkul, A. E. (2008). The tortoise and the hare enigma in e-transformation in Japanese and Korean higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(4), 610-630. Lee, H. (2006). International review: Creating a knowledge-based society through e-learning in Korea. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(5), 529-540. Liou, T. H., & Ting, H. Y. (2006, April). When kindergarteners enter first grade-school adjustment of children in the cultural context of Taiwan. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Ministry of Education in Taiwan. (2002a). Supplementary and continuing education law. Retrieved Jan 10, 2008, from http://www.tycg.gov.tw/cgi-bin/SM_theme?page=3e59e4d8 Ministry of Education in Taiwan. (2002b). Bridging the digital divide project. Retrieved Jan 10, 2008, from http://elnpweb.ncu.edu.tw/data/2002/93_02_ME_01.PDF Ministry of Education in Taiwan. (2006a). Regulations on distance education for higher education institutions. Retrieved Jan 10, 2008, from http://elearn.cc.nccu.edu.tw/data/law/law8.pdf

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Ministry of Education in Taiwan. (2006b). Regulations on on-the-job digital learning master program. Retrieved Jan 10, 2008, from http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MOECC/ EDU1849001/95point/index_point.htm?FILEID=144211&open Ministry of Education in Taiwan. (2007). Short-term after school institution management system. Retrieved April 8, 2008, from http://bsb.edu.tw Nakayama, M., & Santiago, R. (2004). International Reviews: Two categories of e-learning in Japan. Educational Technology Research and Development. 52(3) 100-111. National Communication Commission (2007). The number of users accessing Internet with mobile phone. Retrieved April 16, 2008 from http://www.ncc.gov.tw/chinese/show_ file.aspx?table_name=news&file_sn=6519 National Science and Technology Program office for e-learning. (2006). Digital White Paper 2006. Retrieved Jan 11, 2007, from http://www.digitalcontent.org.tw/dc_p5_2006.php Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2008). Global Educational Attainment in 2005. Retrieved April 8, 2008, from http://stats.oecd.org/wbos/Default.aspx?usercontext =sourceoecd Point-Topic.com (2008). Household broadband penetration by country penetration in 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008, from http://www.websiteoptimization.com/bw/0809/ Smith, D. C. (1997). Middle education in the Middle Kingdom: The Chinese junior high school in modern Taiwan. CT: Praeger Publishers. Su, H. C. (2001). After-school Programs in Taiwan: Program features and child adjustment. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison. Taiwan e-Learning & Digital Archives Program (2008). Taiwan Digital Archives Expansion Project. Retrieved December 3, 2008 from http://teldap.tw/en/ Taiwan Network Information Center (2006). Internet Broadband Usage in Taiwan: A Summary Report of 2006. Retrieved January 11, 2009 from http://www.twnic.net.tw/download/ 200307/07en.pdf The Legislative Yuan (2006). The monthly journal of the legislative Yuan of Taiwan. Retrieved December 3, 2008 from http://www.ly.gov.tw/ly/02_information/0203_pubser/monthly_ pub/monthly_pub_vi.jsp?f30_number=1188&ItemNO=02030201 Waterhouse, S. (2005). The power of e-learning: The essential guide for teaching in the digital age. MA: Pearson Education. Zhang, K. (2005). China’s online education: Rhetoric and realities. In A. A. Carr-Chellman (Ed.), Global perspectives on E-learning: Rhetoric and reality. 21-34. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Zhang, K. (2008). Ubiquitous technology for language learning: the u-Japan movement in higher education. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 20(2), 81-91. Zhang, K., & Hung, J. L. (2006). E-learning in Taiwan: Policies, practices, and problems. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education. 2(1), 37-52.

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Ke Zhang is Associate Professor in the Instructional Technology Program at Wayne State University. From 2003-2006, she was an assistant professor at Texas Tech University. She received her Ph.D. and Master’s of Science in Instructional Systems from the Pennsylvania State University with a minor in Business Administration. Dr. Zhang has consulted in areas such as elearning, instructional technology, organizational change, training, and workforce development with clients like Siemens, Proctor & Gamble, Pepsi, Otis, medical schools, government, and public school systems. Her extensive research activities have resulted in dozens of refereed journal articles, book chapters, and national, international conference presentations on online learning, collaborative technology, problem solving, and e-learning technologies. Dr. Zhang’s popular book, Empowering Online Learning: 100+ Activities for Online Reading, Reflecting, Displaying, and Doing, was published by Jossey-Bass in 2008. She may be reached by email at [email protected] or her Website at http://itlab.coe.wayne.edu/kzhang/. Jui-long Hung is Assistant Professor in the Department of Education Technology at Boise State University. His major research topics include education data mining and text mining, teaching and learning in virtual worlds, online collaborative learning, and webbased software training. Dr. Hung is also a researcher at Center for Advanced Analytics and Business Intelligence (CAABI) at Texas Tech University. He can be reached via email at [email protected] or his homepage at http://edtech2.boisestate.edu/hungj/ web/index.html.

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 65-80

E-Learning in the Philippines: Trends, Directions, and Challenges MELINDA M. DELA PENA-BANDALARIA University of the Philippines Open University, The Philippines [email protected] In the Philippines, the term e-learning is used synonymously with online learning and concerns the online delivery of instructional content as well as associated support services to students. This article is primarily based on experiences at the University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU). It showcases the development of e-learning in the country from just a supplement within once-a-month face-to-face (FTF) sessions in a university learning center to more extensive use of a learning management system (LMS) as a venue for academic discussions as well as learning assessments, sharing learning resources and content, and students submissions of course requirements. Also discussed is how the mobile phone is being used to bridge the digital divide and make the digitally excluded sectors of the Filipino society become part of the online learning program of the university. The mechanisms being used to ensure quality education in e-learning as well as the challenges faced by e-learning institutions are extensively detailed.

INTRODUCTION E-Learning Defined in the Philippine Context E-learning is broadly defined as the delivery of a learning or education program by electronic means and can involve the use of a computer or electronic device (e.g., mobile phone) to provide educational or learning material. Such a definition implies a wide range of technology that could be used in e-learning. In the Philippines, e-learning has been used interchangeably or synonymously with online learning. It is for this reason that e-learning in this country is considered as a relatively recent development in education, despite the

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fact that VHS, audio cassette tapes, CD-ROMs, and computer assisted instructions/lessons have been in use for quite a long time already (Metropolitan Computer Times, 2003). The use of radio, for instance, to deliver education in what was known as school on the air, was in place as early as the 1950s (Flor, 1995). In 2002, the First National e-Learning conference was convened by the Philippines Commission on Higher Education, a signal of the dawning of a new era of learning in what is known and understood in the Philippines to be e-learning. This article will adopt the definition of elearning in the context of delivering instructional content and student support services online in an open and distance learning setting. Specifically, this article describes the current trends in the practice of elearning in the Philippines mainly drawing from the experience of the University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU). Given that the UPOU is the government designated Center of Excellence for Open and Distance Learning, such experiences are vital for the Philippines as well as the greater world community. To date, there are about 20 universities and academic institutions in the Philippines accredited to offer academic/degree programs in the distance mode of instruction. However, only the UP Open University has fully online degree programs. As detailed in this article, there are important and interesting directions that e-learning in the Philippines is taking as well as many challenges that academic institutions face in doing e-learning in a digitally divided country. E-Learning Trends in the Philippines Universities in the Philippines embark on e-learning primarily because of pedagogical and practical reasons. A university has to make sure that instructional content is delivered to the students in a way that will promote learning, achieve course goals, and impart to its students the skills and competencies expected from those who complete its courses and programs. In a distance education setting, this necessitates continuous exploration of the use of various information and communication technologies to achieve learning even with the physical separation of the students and teachers from one another. Such technologies are meant to bridge not only the physical distance but also the transactional distance that could occur between the learners and their professors. Elearning ensures that academic discussions and interactions regularly take place among learners and between the learners and the professor(s) of the course. The practical reasons for the emergence of e-learning include the need to efficiently and cost effectively impact more areas of the country (and the potential students located there) without sacrificing the quality of the educational experience. When the UP Open University started operations in 1995, for instance, students were still required to attend once-a-month faceto-face (FTF) study sessions in a university learning center which supplemented the print course modules that they received upon enrollment. These

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FTF sessions were meant to provide students with a venue to ask questions about lessons that were not clear to them, interact with their tutor(s) and fellow learners, and perform administrative transactions in the university Learning Center where the FTF sessions were held. Under this model of distance education, two conditions must be fulfilled before a course can be offered in a University Learning Center: (1) there must be enough students enrolled in a course (e.g., 25 students for a cost efficient operations); and (2) there must be a qualified tutor available in the area to handle the study sessions. These tutors also undergo trainings at the university to ensure proper handling of the tutorial sessions and properly doing their share in assessing student’s learning and achievement of course goals. To date, other open universities in the Philippines still implement their distance education programs following this model. There came a point, however, when this scheme was no longer practical since this meant not admitting students in areas where the requirements could not be met. Such policies had the potential to significantly affect enrollment in a negative direction. Also, increasing numbers of students decided to forego the FTF study sessions and instead take full responsibility of their own learning in order to enroll in an advanced degree program. These students used the available ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) to communicate with their professors and with the university personnel while they were studying. In 2001, the UPOU started implementing e-learning programs for pedagogical and practical concerns as well. To date, of the more than 100 courses that UPOU offers every term, about 98% are offered fully online. Development of E-Learning in the Philippines Just like open and distance learning in general, e-learning in the Philippines evolved to its current state as a result of continuous introduction of innovations and improvements in the process and experimentations on the use of appropriate modern ICTs to achieve learning goals. Looking at the experience of the UP Open University, four stages or phases of e-learning emerge. The first phase of development involved e-learning as a supplement to the once-a-month FTF study sessions and also provide support to students who could not attend the FTF study sessions in a University Learning Center. This First Generation of e-learning in the Philippines was in the form of providing support services to distance education students. Most Filipino learners typically have not experienced distance learning and, and therefore, yearn for contacts and interactions with professors and fellow learners. In most cases, the once a month FTF meetings were not enough; hence, some learners and professors took it upon themselves to interact with each other between sessions via email exchanges. In those email exchanges, clarifications about assignments, consultations, arrangements for collaborative projects, and course activities transpired.

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This e-learning phase took the shape of the preparations for the FTF study sessions during which time assignments and reports on activities were submitted. In addition, exams were often administered. For students who could not attend the FTF study sessions, the email exchanges served as their venue to consult their professors and have limited interactions with their fellow learners. This e-learning phase was observed at the UPOU during the latter part of the 1990’s until about 2000. The second phase, which was first observed in 2001, entailed using elearning for tutorial support. This second generation of e-learning in the Philippines was similar to the once-a-month FTF tutorial sessions. It thus took the form of consultations where learners asked questions about the lessons and the tutor answered each question for the benefit of the whole class. The e-learning platform provided professors with a venue to upload announcements and additional course materials. It also served as venue for students submissions of course assignments. While an appropriate Learning Management System (LMS) had been identified for assignment uploading and course submissions, discussion boards in the online course sites were designed for the purpose of providing a venue for students to raise clarifications about lessons. Equally important, online course schedules still followed the schedules made for FTF tutorials. Under this phase, course materials were still in print and in various multimedia formats. Only the tutorial component of the course and other student support services were delivered online. This phase of e-learning officially signaled the start of e-learning in the Philippines. For the UPOU, the official implementation of e-learning opened new opportunities in terms of reaching potential students based outside the Philippines, developing more globally oriented academic programs and courses, and exploring international partnerships. Encouraged by various successes in the initial ventures into e-learning and with professors becoming more confident and familiar regarding the use of online and other technologies to teach, additional components of the course delivery process were integrated into the e-learning program. This transformation, consisting of online tutorials and Web integration to lessons, which began in 2003, can be considered the third phase of e-learning. In this phase, course materials developed by the university were reformatted to suit online delivery. Registered students were given enrollment keys to access the course materials. Professors became more creative in designing online discussion forums. Some professors began including topics that would make students do additional research, promote academic discussions and interactions among them and make them think critically about various issues and concerns that were related to the topics or lessons under discussion. Faculty members were encouraged to foster such online interactions in their courses, especially those at the post baccalaureate level where

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students are expected to engage in higher order thinking processes. In this phase of e-learning, other student support services were transformed into online delivery. In the fourth and most recent phase, which began sometime in 2007, elearning became a vehicle for full online course delivery. This generation of e-learning can be characterized by the following features: (1) course materials are delivered online; (2) online discussions focus on issues relevant to the lessons; (3) students are required to visit the online course sites regularly (just like attending classroom instructions) but on their own time; and (4) course content is enriched through Web links including online journals and videos. The university can also now have the luxury of offering courses while they are being developed under the resource-based course package (RBCP) model of course development. In this model, professors can upload instructional content when discussed in the course schedule, thereby shortening the time required for the course development process. Some might refer to this as just-in-time teaching. Under the earlier models of distance education (DE) and even e-learning, professors are required to prepare all instructional content at least a month prior to the start of the semester or term. Under the current e-learning scheme, provision of tutorial support to overcome learning difficulties is no longer the main focus. Instead, tutorials for the purpose of helping specific students understand lessons or become independent learners had been placed in another venue like email consultations. To facilitate academic consultations, some professors allocate one discussion forum so that answers to questions about the lessons can also be accessed or read by other students of the course. Such a procedure minimizes the need for professors to answer each student with similar questions, and, in the process, saves the professor’s time. It should also be noted that given the features of the various LMS’s that open universities can use, e-learning can fully simulate the conventional teaching and more with all the resources and interactions conducted online. Course requirements can be submitted online and even quizzes and exams can be completed online. In contrast to earlier phases, some professors now include in the learning assessment scheme student participation in the online discussions. Figure 1 is an example of the online course site at the UPOU using the open source course management system called Moodle. By 2009, approximately 98% of UPOU courses used Moodle to foster academic interactions. With instructional content delivery and course activities being conducted online, it is logical that support services to online learners be delivered online, too. It is in this context that e-learning should be viewed holistically to include the student support services essential for learning to happen and for students to successfully complete their online studies. Hence, in the Philippines, e-learning now includes the provision of other services to sup-

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Information about the Course News forum Course Guide Orientation about the Course Course Requirements

Introductions and Informal Discussions Introduction of the Members of the Class Virtual Kapehan

General References The P Process Social Mobilization and Social Marketing in Developing Communities: Lessons for Communicators Social marketing of micronutrients in developing countries Sustaining EPI. What can Communication do? Communication for EPI

Discussions about Modules Lesson Proper Commercial Ads on TV: Let's Watch

Figure 1. Example of online course at the UPOU utilizing Moodle.

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port learning and also administrative services that are integral to studying in a university. These student support services that are now part of the e-learning include: online library services; online guidance and counseling; online course registration; online payment; and online administrative services such as applications for dropping of courses and viewing course grades online. At the UPOU, new students are required to attend a general orientation session to the university. Given the diverse geographical locations of its students, it is not practical to require their physical presence to participate in this activity. Hence, an online orientation for new students was also put in place for this purpose. Some online course sites also include an online coffee shop (“kapehan”). The use of such a site implies that it is also being used as a venue for the socialization of online learners. The online coffee shop was introduced by the author in 2002 for the purpose of providing students with a venue to post announcements and discuss concerns that are not related to the lessons. Based on actual observations, the online socialization makes the online learners feel that they are not alone and that there are other students encountering the same types of experiences. Inspired by the results of the online coffee shop, a student-led and student-managed online coffee shop was also made available to all UPOU students in 2003. In effect, this online coffee shop provided students with a venue to discuss student-related concerns (http://www.upou.kapehan.net/). Through the online socialization scheme, a social support system for online learners was developed as a component of the virtual learning community. At present, a university sponsored community site is also being developed and will soon be launched for the same purpose. Learners Satisfaction in E-Learning As mentioned earlier, Filipinos do not have a long tradition of formal study through distance education, much less through e-learning or online learning. In research conducted by dela Pena-Bandalaria (2007), data revealed that Filipino learners’ satisfaction in an online learning system is a function of variables that are attributable to both the learner and the program provider or university. The learner variables included: (1) length/number of years of using the computer; (2) length/number of years of using the Internet; and (3) the number of hours/length of using the computer and the Internet per access. A direct relationship was uncovered between each of these variables and the level of the learner’s satisfaction in an online learning environment. The two key variables controllable by the university which contributed to learner satisfaction included: (1) the level of learner-tutor interaction, and (2) the extent to which features of the Learning Management System can simulate classroom instructions to include the socialization among students.

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The same study also revealed that learner satisfaction was directly related to the academic performance of the student as measured by the final grades of the student in online courses. It was also observed that satisfied students tended to complete online courses. In an earlier study that focused on the evaluation of e-learning during the initial year of its implementation at the UPOU, dela Pena-Bandalaria (2002) reported several learner concerns with important implications related to students learning process, and their completion of courses and programs in the e-learning mode. As detailed below, these concerns can be classified into two main categories: personal and technical. Concerns Due to the Personal Circumstances of the Students Some of the problems encountered could be traced to the personal circumstances of the students including their geographical location, ease of use, and associated level of skills regarding online technologies for learning. These issues are evidenced by the following three comments from the online learners from the UPOU. “It is not difficult to contact my professor. She always gives me useful answer. But for students based outside the Philippines, it’s quite difficult to interact with them synchronously online because of time difference[s]. This somehow limits the extent of interaction that can happen among us learners and the opportunity for us to do collaborative course projects.” (UPOU online learner #1)

“Distance learning is a new experience to me so I found it interesting, but you have to be able to manage your time and have responsibility of your work and always have time to check your course site. The problem is with communicating and keeping in touch when you have questions on your assignments.” (UPOU online learner #2) “It is little hard for me to study online. I have to learn and manage my time. Sometime[s] I do not understand the lesson and I do not know how to post my question in my course site. Feedback is very important. Some assignments are not clear and I don’t know what to do.” (UPOU online learner #3)

One student who admitted that online learning was a new experience for her listed several difficulties she encountered, including the following: • I have to make myself more responsible • I have to always get new information from the Internet

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• I have to use the computer and give time for it • I cannot ask the question and get answer immediately • I am too lazy to learn by myself She also noted that, “It’s quite interesting because this [is] my first time in distance learning. However, it is difficult to read from the PC’s monitor.” In addition, she said, “sometimes I have questions that I want to ask but I must understand the lesson by myself.” This type of feedback became the basis for the University to put in place appropriate support services to assist the students in getting used to e-learning. Technical Concerns Just like any technology-based endeavours, many of the problems associated with the technical aspect of online courses cannot be avoided as evidenced by the following comments given by the students: • “...the problem is when I encounter system errors. I don’t know how to proceed.” • “My PC was also infected with virus when I tried to download a file. The “air time” is rather short that I was always asked to log in again after leaving my computer for a few minutes.” • “Sometimes, [the] system is down.” • “...problems with accessing the course site and submitting my assignments.” While some of these problems can likely be traced to the lack of appropriate knowledge and skills of the students in using the online system, feedback from students also provides the university with insightful information on how things happen at the student end of the teaching-learning continuum. Such comments also provide information related to how technical aspects of e-learning should be handled by the University. While the overall results of these studies show that student’s entry level to an e-learning program is an important factor to consider, these findings also serve to guide the e-learning program provider about the design of support services for e-learners. Bridging the Digital Divide and Efforts to Promote Digital Inclusion Internet access and overcoming the digital divide remain major concerns among academic institutions who are into e-learning or who are planning to go into this mode of delivering instruction. Wikipedia (2009) defines and describes digital divide as: The gap between people with effective access to digital and information technology and those without. It includes the imbalances in physical access to technology as well as the imbalances in resources and skills needed to effectively participate as a digital citizen.

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Wikipedia further describes the digital divide to be a function of gender, income, race group, and geographical location. In the Philippines, Internet use in 2006 was recorded at only 16% of the population (Internet World Statistics, 2008). The forecast was that Internet usage in the country will record a growth of 23 percent annually and would reach 21.5 million by 2008 or about 24% of the population. The slow growth in the number of Internet users prior to 2006, at a time when e-learning was starting to be integrated into the Philippine educational system can probably be attributed to the very low fixed telephone line density and penetration in the country. While there was an improvement in the telephone system in the Philippines with the utilization of fiber optics, microwave transmission, and submarine cables, fixed telephone line density remained low. In fact, instead of increasing, a declining trend was even observed from 1997-2003 (dela Pena-Bandalaria, 2004). There is, however, a major and pivotal development or phenomenon which could be considered significant in bridging the digital divide in the Philippines – the mobile phone. This gadget has proven quite affordable and accessible (both in terms of physical access and skills needed to use the device) among the Filipinos. The Philippines registered a total of 55 million subscribers in 2007 and as of June 2008, there were already 60 million subscribers out of a population of 90 million. This trend is still increasing and is expected to reach more than 70% by 2010 (Montecillo & Villamor, 2008). With the rapid proliferation of cellular mobile phones in the country, service providers are now in areas where landline telephone companies would never even think of covering. The race for more subscribers and coverage by these mobile phone service providers also resulted in the penetration of broadband Internet access in many areas of the country and the mushrooming of Internet cafes in many areas within the Philippines. This broadband Internet access supplemented the access provided by the fixed telephone lines. Given the proliferation of cellular mobile telephone use in the Philippines across all sectors of the Philippine society, it is practical to use this technology to facilitate implementation of e-learning in the Philippines. Mobile technology can reach Filipinos from various sectors and walks of life, including those who are underprivileged and underserved. As indicated below, the use of mobile phone in e-learning within the Philippines comes in two forms. 1. Content Delivery: The use of mobile phones to deliver instructional content gave rise to m-learning or mobile learning format. The UPOU explored this possibility and developed contents for m-learning through the cellular mobile phone. These contents include among others:

• From Head to Toe: Body Idioms. This module is about common idiomatic expressions using the different parts of the body and their meaning. • Mental Math. The lesson is about performing simple mathematical operations involving large numbers without using a calculator or a pen and paper.

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• Eating Matters. This particular module gives lessons on proper nutrition. • Lifestyle Check. This gives tips on how to live a healthy lifestyle. • Let’s Get Physical. As implied, this module touches on exercise to stay fit and healthy. The mobile phone is also now being used to support content delivery and learning assessment through the sending of tidbits of lessons and quizzes through SMS. It has been observed that aside from reminding the students that they have to read more to better understand the lesson, receiving messages from the professor also provides students with the feeling of being part of a virtual learning community.

2. Provision of Learning Supports: Mobile devices are also used to complement the online student support services. Professors use mobile phones to make announcements related to lessons and course activities and monitor academic progress of students. Students, on the other hand, can consult with their professors using their mobile phones. In effect, the mobile phone is an immediate means of communication among students and between the students and their professors and other staff of the university. Internet access through individual Filipino homes still remains low and concentrated in urban areas as well as among those in the middle to upper economic echelon of the society. Yet, somehow, the cellular mobile telephone has bridged the once formidable digital divide that has challenged proponents and advocates of e-learning in the country for the past decade. The privately owned Internet cafés and the government-financed community e-centers, on the other hand, serve as main access points for many online learners. These Internet cafes and community e-centers make it possible for online learners to access their course sites, consult their professors, submit course requirements, and even take online exams without having to purchase Internet connections and associated computer hardware. Ensuring Quality of Education in E-Learning In the Philippines and specific to the UPOU, various mechanisms have been put in place to ensure quality of education in e-learning and maintain the integrity of the degrees conferred to its graduates. Such quality assurance mechanisms are found through course materials, guided and directed online academic discussions, and valid forms of learning assessment. 1. Course Materials. Course materials, in whatever format, are developed through the quality circle approach. The paradigm that the instructional content is a major determinant of the quality of education has always been pushed by UPOU. A quality circle consists of

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Dela Pena-Bandalaria the writer who is an expert on the subject matter as well as a subject matter specialist who will review the soundness of the content. In addition, there is an instructional designer who determines if the chunking of lessons is proper and appropriate. Such a person must also make decisions related to the alignment of the program or course goals, content, and assessments. There is a media specialist who will give recommendations related to the appropriate medium of course and module delivery as well as multimedia supplements. Finally, since materials are published in English, there is a language editor. Whether the material is for e-learning or m-learning, the quality circle approach to developing courses is the standard procedure. 2. Guided and Directed Online Academic Discussions for the Social Construction of Knowledge. Integral to the implementation of elearning is the online academic discussions to foster among the learners the critical thinking ability and communication skills. UPOU professors design the online course sites in such a way that relevant issues are discussed and dissected by students. Further research is also encouraged as students are required to post quality comments and reactions to the issues raised by the professors and also to react to the posts made by their classmates. Online discussions are guided to help achieve the course goals and objectives that were set at the start of the term. 3. Development of valid learning assessment mechanisms. Professors are required to develop valid assessment schemes to ascertain learning. If tests or exams are employed, they are administered in accredited university Learning and Testing Centers by qualified proctors. This procedure necessitates collaboration and coordination with different organizations and institutions that can provide such services and qualifications.

Direction of E-Learning in the Philippines E-learning is bound to increase in the Philippines during the coming decade. In fact, the Philippines is currently headed in a more global direction – not only in terms of where its students are based, but also in terms of where the various components of the e-learning are coming from. Professors can be based in various parts of the world. In addition, the host server of the course LMS can be located in another country or region of the world. With the emerging global education opportunities brought about by Web-based technologies, universities offering online courses and programs can collaborate in unique ways. To date, there have been over 200 students from 48 different countries outside the Philippines enrolled in UPOU programs. With the number of Filipinos working in different parts of the globe, the market

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base outside the Philippines for the UPOU programs is extensive and is expected to rapidly increase. Given this direction, e-learning in the Philippines should aspire to have the following features or characteristics: • Ubiquity. With the use of mobile technologies, e-learning should be ubiquitous to make possible the anywhere, anytime, any machine, and any connection access to instructional content and student support services. • Intensive Technology Integration. Intensive use of modern ICTs in various course components and processes. Professors are now starting to use other technologies such as iPods, MP4 players, and even YouTube to deliver instruction. • Global Skill Emphasis. Academic programs that will meet the needs of the global citizens. • Globally Designed Curricula and Programming. Cross border relationships to develop and offer relevant programs. • Global Learning Communities. Appropriate venues, procedures, and initiatives for the building of global learning communities. It should be noted, however, that with the global directions are efforts to continuously reach those that are underprivileged and currently digitally excluded – which remains a significant portion of the Filipino society. The search for appropriate technologies and combinations that are accessible and affordable to this sector of society should be integral to e-learning programs in the Philippines. Challenges In his book, Dance of Change, Peter Senge and his colleagues (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, Roth, & Smith, 1999) highlight three important challenges that institutions and organizations must face: (1) the challenge of initiating; (2) the challenge of sustaining momentum; and (3) the challenge of system wide redesign and rethinking. These challenges also sum up what elearning institutions such as UPOU faces. First, there is the challenge of initiating. E-learning is extremely technology-driven. With the rapid advancements in ICTs, e-learning advocates should always be challenged to introduce innovations to make e-learning more effective and efficient. The greater challenge, however, is not to fall into the trap of being too-technology-oriented and pushing to the background the key pedagogical concerns of e-learning. Innovations always encounter detractors; hence, the challenge of initiating carries with it a thorough study of options available and how each option can contribute to the goals of the academic institution.

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The challenge of initiating also carries with it cost implications, especially in e-learning where initiating almost always involves new technology. This was also implied by Bates (2000) when he stated that “institutions should understand the costs of using new technologies” which not only cover the purchase of the technology itself (hardware or software), but also the cost of manpower training so they can acquire the needed knowledge and skills to use the new technologies or to hire additional staff who possess such knowledge and skills. Access to new technologies by students as well as the cost of such access should also be considered when introducing changes within an organization or culture. While the university can always find ways to make available the needed technologies for e-learning to university personnel, the use of these new technologies will still be useless if the students will not be able to access them. The cost of use of technology (Internet time, cost of sending SMS, or the price of the mobile telephone itself), access to these technologies, and skills needed to use these technologies should always be considered when choosing technology for e-learning. In addition to these concerns, there are the challenges related to sustaining the momentum. E-learning has evolved over the years. Universities who ventured into this mode of delivering instruction met various forms of challenges. To sustain the transformation that was introduced, in this case the e-learning programs and initiatives, advocates should have an open mind to critically assess the innovation introduced and continue improving the process. Sustaining transformation requires that the necessary support systems also be put in place. Such supports include procedures, processes, and policy environments conducive and appropriate to e-learning as well as opportunities for enculturating the various stakeholders as to the nature of e-learning. The enculturation process in the Philippines during the coming years is expected to focus on the assurance of quality of education delivered through e-learning. In sustaining momentum, relevant partnerships and collaborations should also be forged not only to reduce the cost of developing and implementing relevant courses and programs but also to ensure the quality of education delivered through e-learning. Given that e-learning has begun to assume a global context in terms of courses and program availability and relevance, the challenge of meeting the standards of international accreditation bodies and organizations and then obtaining accreditation from them are immediate concerns for e-learning sustainability. Degrees conferred by e-learning institutions should be recognized elsewhere in the world and in most cases, the basic parameter is the accreditation given by credible organizations. The most daunting challenge facing e-learning within schools and universities in the Philippines and perhaps in most organizations around the world is that of system wide redesign and rethinking. Such efforts require continuous monitoring of the effectiveness and efficiency of the e-learning

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system vis-à-vis the goals set for the courses and programs as well as the redesign the whole system if and when necessary. The results of monitoring and evaluation should be translated into useful information to continuously improve the organization’s processes. References Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change: Strategies for college and university leaders. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, California. Dela Pena-Bandalaria, M. M. (2007). Learner satisfaction in an online learning environment. Unpublished Paper. University of the Philippines Open University: Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. Dela Pena-Bandalaria, M. M. (2004). E-learning in a third world country: The Philippine experience. Unpublished Paper. University of the Philippines Open University: Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. Dela Pena-Bandalaria, M. M. (2002). E-learning: Education opportunity and beyond for Filipino and non-Filipino offshore learners. Unpublished Paper. University of the Philippines Open University: Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. Flor, A. (1995). Broadcast-based distance learning systems. University of the Philippines Press, Diliman: Quezon City, Philippines. Internet World Statistics (2008). Philippines: Internet usage stats and marketing report. Retrieved March 4, 2009, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/ph.htm Metropolitan Times (31 December, 2003). e-Learning in the Philippines. Montecillo, P. L. G., & Villamor, M. S. (2008, September 10). Mobile phones key to universal ICT access - NTC official. GMANews.TV. Retrieved March 4, 2009, from http://www.gmanews. tv/story/119237/Mobile-phones-key-to-universal-ICT-access---NTC-official Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., Roth, G., & Smith, B. (1999). The dance of change: The challenges of sustaining momentum in learning organizations. Retrieved March 4, 2009, from http://www.fieldbook.com/DoC/DOCchallenge.html Wikipedia (2009). The digital divide. Retrieved March 4, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Digital_divide

Note Paper presented in the E-learning in Asia Pre-Conference Symposium of E-learn 2008: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, & Higher Education. November 17, 2008, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.

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Melinda M. dela Pena-Bandalaria is University Registrar and Associate Professor at the University of the Philippines Open University. She teaches courses under the Master of Development Communication and Master of Distance Education programs. Melinda is also actively involved in research in these fields. She has a PhD degree in development communication with sociology as cognate. She has also earned a Certificate in Distance Education from Indiana University. As a University Registrar, Melinda works for the effective and efficient delivery of student services to help them become successful distance education students.

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 81-96

University 2.0: A View From Singapore DANIEL T. H. TAN, CHYE SENG LEE, LAY KOCK CHAN, AND ADRIAN DIN HOW LU Nanyang Technological University, Singapore [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] This article highlights the processes and best practices adopted by Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore in implementing their mission-critical e-learning services for a population of 28,000 students and 1,100 faculty members. The various phases of this rapid growth in e-learning from the initial genesis in achieving mass buy-in by professors and students through change of content type by adding a human touch to e-learning are discussed. Also included in the discussion are the additional phases in this development effort which include re-using content to make learning more efficient, achieving engaged and interactive learning in e-learning 2.0, and, most recently, a University 2.0 phase where learning becomes more participative and immersive with student life.

Winds of Change The lecture as a tool for teaching has been around for millennia. The simple reason for the continued reliance on this oral tradition is that, despites the many disadvantages and associated complaints, it works. However, the profile of the participants of these lectures, namely our students, is fast changing, especially in their social behavior and learning style. At the same time, the pedagogy behind teaching remains, by and large, unchanged. These Net Generation students are still going to the lecture theater for a class, a laboratory for practical work, and the library for research. In reality, they can now complete these tasks through a single device – the computer. Devices for learning are getting smaller. New devices function like a collaborative space that extends and opens the workspace not to just one indi-

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vidual but to an entire community of learners. With the rapid proliferation of Internet access along with the emergence of Web 2.0 social networking and group collaboration tools, there are many ways to enhance teaching and learning, including upgrading course lectures, using online technologies. Planning for the Future The Centre for Educational Development (CED) in Nanyang Technological University (NTU) embarked upon the mission-critical role of spearheading e-learning within the university in May 2000 using the creative brand name of edveNTUre (see http://edventure.sg). CED is fully supported and guided by an e-learning committee called IT SEED (Instructional Technology Steering Executive on Electronic Education) which provides the directives and vision for new educational initiatives in NTU. The SEED committee members comprise senior appointment holders including vicedeans, directors, deputy directors, senior managers, and head of divisions who can expedite influential action plans efficiently on a campus level. These senior executives lead their school-based e-learning support team comprising technical staff given additional roles in helping CED to provide frontline technical support to faculty. In 2000, the then President of NTU, Dr. Cham Tao Soon, gave the university community a vision in which “our students will learn more and more via online delivery (for lectures) in a blended environment in which students are engaged face-to-face in smaller groups (for tutorial sessions).” Since that time, the support for online learning has been strong from NTU management. Coupled with good technology and a strategy for change, many quantifiable results have been achieved. Planning for edveNTUre commenced in February 2000. The initial concept of edveNTUre was that it should be an evolving e-learning environment using the Blackboard LMS as a framework. The initial target was to make available 100 active courses online by end 2000. The server hardware system and software were delivered in May 2000. Just two months later, some 200 courses were online, which was double the original target. By December 2000, over 800 courses had an active online presence. The number of weekly page views – a more accurate measurement of resource utilization than Web hits – is presented in the Table 1. Rather than strictly relying on timeframe to indicate outcomes, we have identified mile-stones of achievements. For the purpose of strategic planning, we defined Phase 1, Efficient Learning, as the period from conception up to June 2002, in which we achieved saturation levels for the number of courses adopting e-learning. Phase 2, HumaniZing e-learning, which began in July 2002, was the humaniZation of e-learning and the introduction of active content. As elearning became more pervasive, it was recognized that with increasing

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Table 1 Number of Page View Hits Per Week on edveNTUre Date

Number of page view per week

July 2000

250,000

July 2001

500,000

July 2002

1 million

July 2003

2.1 million

July 2004

2.5 million

July 2005

3 million

July 2006

3.5 million

July 2007

6 million

July 2008

9 million

usage by students for e-learning, it would be challenging for them to have a significant part of their learning online and remain engaged if content remained merely static web pages. As a result, there was an initiative to make e-learning content more engaging and interactive. Phase 2, therefore, emphasized the use of more human elements. This focus was reflected in the introduction of recorded lectures (or eLectures) and synchronous learning Web conferencing system. Phase 3, Effective Learning, which started in July 2004, highlighted content management and the re-use of content, whereas Phase 4 targeted elearning 2.0 with an emphasis on participative learning, collaboration, and learning by discovery through project work. We are currently in Phase 5, University 2.0, where more Web 2.0 participative tools are put in place to get the community connected with knowledge learning, sharing, and application. In the next section, we elaborate on what University 2.0 might look like. University 2.0 – The 21st CeNTUry Campus The vision of University 2.0 embodies the provision of e-learning and integrated eServices to the campus communities in a seamless manner. All the systems described below are currently operational and enjoyed by all NTU faculty and students. The Blackboard LMS provides the framework for the edveNTUre ecosystem. All eServices are provided and connected holistically so that the student learning experience as well as that felt by the faculty member teaching the course will appear to be consistent, and as a single environment. The benefits of such an approach include enhanced learn-

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ing, teaching, collaboration, knowledge sharing, and discovery productivities. Such benefits are possible since all such scholastic services are seamlessly connected and available at the click of a button. Teach Less, Learn More In 2002, NTU embarked on a video recording and digital archiving of eLectures project. The driver of the eLecture project was to humaniZe elearning. In effect, the goal was to introduce a strong human element to online learning so that as students interact with the content, they will see a human face, rather than read impersonal text on static web-pages. Additionally, it enables faculty members to have the flexibility to place recorded lecture links on edveNTUre for their students to view and review. With students increasingly using the edveNTUre e-learning portal to access their materials, there was the realization of the "failure of success" phenomenon where students looking at static Web pages as no better than reading a printed book or collection of Web pages! Thus, there was an internal push to look for elearning tools and systems that will embody the theme humaniZing e-learning, with the eLectures project being a key outcome. From the work by Dewey (1913), Rutter (1984), and Thanasingam and Soong (2007), computer-based lessons – which include social cues such as facial expressions or human voices – tend to be more favored by students as these recorded lessons communicate better with more substance, increase student interest in the lessons, and enable them to learn better. The use of more human elements in our “high tech – high touch” delivery approach helps to create a feeling of presence of the instructor and focus students’ attention on the content at a pace set by the instructor’s rate of presentation, but easily set by the students. HumaniZing e-learning (in the NTU context) introduces the element of human touch in media enriched content to enhance or replace traditional learning resources such as static web pages and slide presentations. The multimodal (e.g., audio, video, text) modes of learning cater to students with different learning styles as shown in Figure 1. As shown in students’ feedback gathered from surveys on the eLecture project in 2004, a great advantage of recorded lectures is the ability for students to view and review specific lecture material and presentations by their instructors. The use of such recorded lectures creates review opportunities that will remedy the students’ cognitive lapses during their attention spans. They also lend support to students weak in that subject or when they make up for missed lectures. Recorded lectures have the potential to reduce failure rates as weak students are provided with additional opportunities to re-learn. Such reductions of student failures have economic implications since more students will join the Singaporean employment market with additional skills and credentials. Our statistical analyses have revealed that, when aggregated, student viewing time of these recorded lectures was equivalent to 13 years in Year 2005,

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Figure 1. Screenshot of eLecture video recording. The multimodal (audio, video, text) contents cater to students with different learning styles. 40 years in Year 2006, and 55 years in Year 2007. Clearly, students are making us of this online learning option. While humaniZing e-learning acts as a reinforcement to improve students' learning, it provides limited opportunity for students to interact with the content (like review, play, jump, etc). Engaging e-learning, on the other hand, encourages interactivity between student-content, student-student, and student-professor. Such multi-modal engagement is made possible by the combined uses of video instructions completed with interactive online activities such as quizzes, discussion forums, and customized learning activities using LAMS (Learning Activities Management System). Arguments have been put forward that online collaborative tools such as discussion forums provide a platform for students to actively engage in constructing knowledge with their peers and instructors (Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin, Douglas & Means, 2000). Such systems also provide students with opportunities to construct questions. In such a scenario, the student would craft the question. He would then review it. After some revisions, he would then submit that question for response by his peers. This cognitive process develops student meta-cognition and questioning skills; in effect, for many of our students, the online discussion forum has become a platform for developing these skills. Findings from our previous studies have suggested that the use of online discussion forums is highly effective in encouraging student participation in

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the online learning community (e.g., Thanasingam & Soong, 2007). There is a high level of individual student involvement in discussion forum activities. The results also suggest that the online forum activity is able to motivate and engage students in learning. A high level of learner satisfaction can increase persistence in the discussion as students feel more involved. Hence, the pedagogy of well designed learning activities to supplement eLectures is likely to positively influence learning outcomes and student performance. This, in turn, will accelerate the pace in moving from traditional learning environment to the networked learning environment as shown in Figure 2. The need to make learning content and e-learning more engaging and interactive is imperative with the increased popularity and ownership of digital media players among our digital natives for listening to songs and podcasts as well as viewing of video clips – a phenomenon that will make learning personalized and portable. Hence, providing eLecture archives for review in the form of podcasts and vodcasts (i.e., video with podcasts) for students to download and view offline then became the next strategic move in the Engaging and HumaniZing E-Learning initiative at NTU. In 2008, eLecture videos became available for students to download. To date, we have not yet conducted formal evaluations to determine the impact and usefulness of this latest podcast/vodcast initiative on student learning outcomes. However, the use of such emerging technologies and products is consistent

Figure 2. Traditional learning and networked learning.

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with the growing needs and profile of students’ learning and lifestyle. NTU’s experience in the recording and distribution of eLecture archives for review, the delivery of supplemental video-enhanced instructional materials and content for online learning, and assignments requiring students to record and submit their own audio/video presentation mirrors the ideas in Carnegie Mellon University’s Teaching with Technology White Paper on Podcasting which summarised the potential educational use of podcasting technology (Deal, 2007). Our answer to the concluding statement in the White Paper – “Does podcasting (or humanized video eLectures in our context) enhance education?” is affirmative. According to Deal (2007), “It (podcasting) is only valuable inasmuch as it helps the instructor and students reach their educational goals, by facilitating thoughtful, engaging learning activities that are designed to work in support of those goals.” Interaction Engagement, Active Learning and Learning Feedback In the Effective e-learning phase, the emphasis is placed on empowering NTU students to take charge in shaping their own learning experiences. Students are involved and also consulted in a decision-making process about learning focus and assessment outcomes. Some learning activities where students actively participate are self/peer evaluation, project work management, and online portfolio creation. To encourage students to play a proactive role in assessment of their learning process, a Peer Evaluation Tool was introduced in August 2007 to help students become active, self-directed learners through engaging in self- and peer-evaluation. As proposed by Brown, Rust, and Gibbs (1994), peer evaluation greatly encourages students’ learning autonomy and provides opportunities for them to gain higher-order thinking skills. Such a technique also empowers students to take charge of their own learning, as well as build their self-confidence as they develop the ability to make judgments on their own work as well as on that of their peers. Peer collaboration, feedback, and critique are necessary life skills which will help students to excel in both their academic and professional lives. Through the use of self- and peer-evaluation, students are encouraged to monitor their academic progress and set their own learning goals. Online NTU students working on assignments can use the peer evaluation tool to gather feedback that helps them improve their performance and final grades. As a reviewer, the student will feel responsible for his classmate’s learning and will be motivated to give well-informed and constructive feedback on his peer’s work. Playing a duo role as both a learner working on assignments and as reviewer of his peer’s work, the student learns valuable peer evaluation skills needed by lifelong learners. These skills will not only be valued in their academic life in NTU but will also extend to their professional lives after graduation and join the workforce where teamwork and interpersonal skills are highly valued.

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An audience response system (also known as clickers) is a powerful teaching and learning tool for professors wishing to enhance interactions with students by capturing immediate feedback on what their students understand about what has been taught. It allows students to actively and anonymously participate in lectures and large group presentations by simply clicking on a credit-card-sized device to have their responses to questions automatically registered and displayed for all to see. This system encourages and develops on your feet thinking and problem solving skills. From the students’ perspective, it also develops and enhances students’ self-confidence. The use of audience response systems nurtures problem-solving skills through reasoning and discussion among peers, and makes teaching and learning more interactive and fun. Approximately 1,000 students and 17 professors from 4 schools took part in a pilot rollout of clickers in July 2008. Initial feedback from pilot users has been positive. Integrity and Reflection Instructors and students have university-wide access to SafeAssign, a Web-based plagiarism management tool implemented in the Blackboard LMS as part of the edveNTUre ecosystem. SafeAssign assists in the detection of plagiarism. This eService helps educators manage plagiarism by detecting suspect candidates of unoriginal content in student papers. In addition to acting as a plagiarism deterrent, it also has features designed to aid students in understanding what plagiarism is and the importance of proper attribution of any borrowed copyrighted content. When a student submits a paper through SafeAssign on edveNTUre, the paper is scanned by a remote system. Phrases in the submitted papers are compared with those in SafeAssign’s repository of Internet pages, documents, journal articles, electronic books, and previously submitted documents from NTU users. A report is then generated showing similarities and their sources. The report is also made accessible to students so that they learn to use proper citations and improve their scholarly writing skill. Deployed as a Blackboard building block in the edveNTUre ecosystem, ePortfolio allows both NTU faculty members and students to create an online portfolio to showcase their academic, professional, and personal achievements. The portfolio serves more than a personal home Web-page to showcase individual work as it also allows users to record their reflections. Thus, it also serves as a reflective or peer-reviewed collaborative tool. For example, students can record their reflections on issues such as their academic or career aspirations and invite their professors or peers to comment and offer advice. Reflection allows students to develop a deeper understanding of their undergraduate experience and to see that it is not just about their academic life but also includes their extra-curricular activities and community involvement. Prospective employers and graduate school supervisors can

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also learn more about the students’ relevant experiences from the students’ online portfolios. Another advantage of an online portfolio is that it is only a click away. In effect, students can work on their portfolios anytime as well as anywhere. They can also decide who to grant access to their ePortfolio to (locally or internationally). A Web-based portfolio also identifies the student creator as an IT savvy individual, comfortable and competent with the use of computer applications (Figure 3). The students also have the opportunity to learn valuable skills as a Web editor as well as various related software applications such as Photoshop, Flash, and Dreamweaver. Innovation and Research The eUreka system is an institutional Web-based project work management system introduced in September 2004 to facilitate knowledge creation, discovery, documentation, mentorship and management. It also facilitates learning through collaborative or individual experiential knowledge creation and knowledge sharing. The system interface is highly intuitive and consists of easy-touse tools for tasks and activities planning (in the form of the familiar auto-generated Gantt chart), project journal, and collaboration tools within a project group. This platform enables authentic self and real world discovery by students and group synergistic experiences beyond the boundaries of physical classrooms and laboratories. Learning by doing while discovering new ideas will facilitate opportunities for students to take personal learning to greater

Figure 3. Portfolio created by a student to showcase his experience in the Global Immersion Programme. This media rich ePortfolio features extensive use of photo galleries and video clips.

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depths in building life skills, people skills, higher-order thinking, and problemsolving capabilities. It also provides greater ownership in student-centered learning. The eUreka system is an early example of how blogs can be effectively used in an academic or learning context across an educational institution. The uniqueness in the eUreka system as compared with other commercially available tools for project (work) management (such as Microsoft Project, Project Manager, BaseCamp, or Teamspace) are the pedagogical considerations for instructional and learning processes incorporated into the system design during the system development. The scaffolding and coaching modules enhance the student-mentee learning processes in project work planning, knowledge creation, and discovery, while also providing participative and collaborative learning experiences for students during the project work duration. To increase the learning value for students, eUreka is integrated within the edveNTUre e-learning ecosystem. Currently, all NTU professors and students have access to the eUreka system, while external users and collaborators can be enrolled separately upon request. eUreka provides an integrated system for the documentation and sharing of knowledge assets, while, at the same time, creating opportunities for both professors and students to collaborate and develop useful strategies to better cope with project goals and expectations using Gantt charts. In the experiential learning processes, scaffolding and feedback mechanisms in online discussions, weblogs (Figure 4), and assessment rubrics provide the platform for knowledge presentations. Such knowledge presentations foster higher-order thinking as students are forced to reframe ideas, monitor perceptions, and rethink assumptions. In learning processes often found in project work, students sharpen their

Figure 4. A sample student weblog in eUreka. Weblogs or online journals allow users to document their reflections and learning experiences.

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competencies in selecting tools, resources, and structures to better facilitate their project work flow to achieve the intended goals. These competencies acquired by students will be valuable life skills that will serve them well for years to come in their careers and associated contributions to society. Since its maiden launch in September 2004, the eUreka system has been extensively used in academic projects such as Final Year Projects (or FYPs, similar to capstone projects), Industrial/Professional Attachment internship programs, and post-graduate projects (at the doctorate levels). In addition, it has also been used for non-academic purposes such as student club activities, committee work, and student study group collaborations. From the usage patterns since its maiden release in September 2004, students have found eUreka as a useful repository to organize their project resources. Feedback from students has also indicated that they find eUreka’s weblog tool an effective tool for reflection and collaborative learning. From the mentor-supervisors’ perspective, the eUreka system enhances their personal productivity by enabling them to supervise more students more effectively. For example, by reviewing their project weblogs online, projector supervisors have a clearer, more efficient, and more accurate picture of the status of their students’ projects, compared to previous face-to-face supervisorstudent meetings. Using eUreka as an online project work management tool also enables faculty members to obtain timely updates on student work. They can keep in touch with what their students are doing in between project meetings and check the project development anytime, anywhere. Responding by commenting on their students’ weblog entries more often, students have become more motivated. The outcome is better qualitative research outcomes. Instant Messaging and Virtual Communities With the proliferation of notebook computers and tablet PCs owned by students and faculty as well as increasing usage of the campus wireless network, edveNTUre is easily available to anyone on campus and elsewhere with Internet access. As part of edveNTUre services, aNTUna (pronounced like the “antenna” for wireless communication) is a mobile learning umbrella initiative to supplement the edveNTUre e-learning services. Currently, we have two mobile services under this initiative, namely aNTUna Connect and aNTUna BackPack. aNTUna Connect (based on HeuLab technology - seehttp://www.heulab.com/) is a presence and messaging application that supports the concept of virtual student communities in an educational institution. It has tools for classroom management (like screen monitoring by the teacher, screen sharing by students) and for Instant Messaging (IM) capability. This IM tool has presence management (PM) capability to determine the availability status of the student member (see Figure 5). Other features like file transfer, white board and screen sharing, group chatting, and live class sessions are also supported.

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aNTUna Connect aims to support enhanced virtual communities. Class List members are centrally created automatically and downloaded, so that a student using this tool will see his course-mates in his contact listings. Students and faculty will be able to connect to course-mates to discuss work, or for social reasons. Student photographs are included in the respective course rosters, thus making it easier for faculty and fellow course-mates to know each other. During live class sessions, professors can create comments and rate their students’ performance and participation within their course (Figure 6).

Figure 5. Instant Messaging Features.

Figure 6. Class photos and student assessment.

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Information, ideas, and resources can be shared instantaneously via the network. During self-study, students when having doubts to clarify in their work, can link up with other online course-mates. Faculty can elect to provide online consultation sessions in which their course students can confer without the need to go to their physical offices. aNTUna Connect also comes with built-in survey and quiz tools that facilitate student peer review, polling, and online surveys. Peer-to-peer assessments are useful for faculty to know the group dynamics among course-mates, and how well they work together as a team. Other classroom management features include attendance recording and sub-group chat rooms; the latter can be used within a live class session in a physical classroom to facilitate sub-group discussions. aNTUna Backpack (with technologies from Agilix – see http://backpack.agilix.com/) creates a portable and synchronized copy of the student’s course material for offline access. The original premise for its acquisition was that it provides an alternative to learning continuity and disaster recovery option in the event that the edveNTUre e-learning service has an unanticipated service outage. It also means that when offline, students can access their class learning materials duplicated using Backpack onto their notebook or personal computers. Backpack works like the traditional three-ring document binder which students use to organize their notes. Separator tabs are used to organize different sections in the binder. Course notes are downloaded into these respective sections. Additional tabs (like Check-lists, Homework, School Social Clubs, Interest Groups, Sports, etc.) can also be easily created. In addition, aNTUna Backpack also provides personal management tools like synchronized calendars, address book, and tasks with Microsoft Exchange services. With this system in place, students maintain only one calendar and address book. aNTUna Backpack also acts as an effective research assistant to help organize, annotate, and archive research documentation as well. With a simple click on a button, students and professors can download and synchronize course documents for offline viewing. For convenience, each course occupies separate sectional tabs. In addition, course documents are also converted into a series of image files; this facilitates annotations, highlights, and similar activities when used with a Tablet PC pen input (Figure 7). Such annotated notes can be shared digitally with other study group members without fear of loss (as with a physical file of personal notes). In addition, students can add supplementary material into the sectional tabs by printing the Web-page, and inserting it into the respective sectional tabs. CONCLUSIONS

Unique in the education industry is that it does not guarantee the quality of its product (that is, consistent student quality). Student outcomes vary a broad

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Figure 7. Annotations on slide images. spectrum represented by the bell course. However, with the maturity of educational technology, the ideal learning outcome may still be a bell curve shifted to right, but narrower and with a higher peak. Such a figure indicates higher consistency, with more students doing comparatively better with improved average student performance, improved performance by the top students, and most importantly, lower failure rates. In short, these more positive learning outcomes translate into higher graduation rates as well as higher performance grades. The concept of University 2.0 in NTU was designed to provide a holistic and seamless learning environment where faculty and students are better connected with technology to enhance their personal productivities. Students will have opportunities to relearn and review eLectures online. When they need to clarify, they can use the online discussion forum, or link up with their classmates instantly for consultations using the aNTUna Connect tool. With the eUreka project work system, research work, mentorship and project outcomes can be enhanced as both students and faculty supervisors are connected easily and can work more closely together. With clickers, faculty facilitates active learning opportunities as students provide feedback of their learning. Our hope is that the outcome will be a community of knowledge constituents skilled in managing self-directed learning and knowledge more effectively.

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References Deal, A. (2007). A teaching with technology white paper: Podcasting. Carnegie Mellon University. In EDUCAUSE CONNECT. Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://connect.educause .edu/Library/Abstract/ATeachingwithTechnologyWh/44693?time=1229998233. Brown, S., Rust, C., & Gibbs, G. (1994). Involving students in assessment. In Strategies for diversifying assessment in higher education. Oxford: The Oxford Centre for Staff Development. Dewey, J. (1913). Interest and effort in education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Roschelle, J. M., Pea, R. D., Hoadley, C. M. Gordin, Douglas N., & Means, B. M. (2000). Changing how and what children learn in school with computer-based technologies. Retrieved December 29, 2008, from http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/19/06/10/PDF/A103_ Roschelle_etal_01_Packard.pdf Rutter, D. R. (1984). Looking and seeing: The role of visual communication in social interaction. John Wiley & Sons. Thanasingam S., & Soong, S. K. A. (2007). Interaction patterns and knowledge construction using synchronous discussion forums and video to develop oral skills. In ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings Ascilite Singapore 2007. Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/thanasingam.pdf

Daniel Tan is the Director/Centre for Educational Development and Associate Professor/School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at the Nanyang Technological University. He obtained his BSc from University of Aston, Birmingham, England, a PhD from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and a post-graduate Diploma in Teaching in Higher Education from the Nanyang Technological University. As Director of the Centre for Educational Development at the Nanyang Technological University, he led a team to develop and implement an e-learning campus eco-system. This environment, comprising a holistic approach towards system design, learning platform, server architecture, together with edUtorium – the staff development program and pedagogical design; as well as eUreka – a Web-based project work management system that effectively manages the learning processes of knowledge creation, discovery, and sharing – has resulted in a high immersive and adoption rate, by both staff and students.

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Chye Seng Lee is the Deputy Director (Emerging Technologies), Centre for Educational Development, at the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore. He is responsible for the evaluation and implementation of educational technologies for the academic community, and he helps to spearhead the development of e-learning and distance learning in NTU. He also leads an IT team that manages the mission critical online services hosted at the University’s E-Learning Operation Centre. Chye Seng obtained his Bachelor of Applied Science (Computer Engineering) and Master of Science (Info Studies) from NTU, and a Graduate Diploma in Business Administration from Singapore Institute of Management. His research interests include emerging educational technologies, intelligent search agents, parallel computing, creative thinking and online content delivery. Lay Kock Chan is a Faculty Development staff member with the Centre for Educational Development and is part of the team providing learning support for faculty members and students at NTU. His areas of focus include administration of Blackboard Learning System, assessment, and assignment management in online courseware development and video recording of lectures.

Adrian Din How Lu is a Learning Designer with the Centre for Educational Development and is part of the team providing learning support for faculty members and students at NTU. His areas of interest include Web and graphic design, online courseware development, and the innovative use of technologies for teaching and learning.

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 97-107

E-Learning in Malaysia: Moving Forward in Open Distance Learning ZORAINI WATI ABAS Open University Malaysia, Malaysia [email protected] Many higher education institutions have embarked on e-learning as a means to support their learning and teaching activities. In distance learning institutions, e-learning has enabled them to reach out to students dispersed over a wide geographical area, locally and internationally. In some countries, e-learning has also given students the opportunity to pursue further education from wherever they are irrespective of time and place. Malaysian higher educational institutions have generally been keen on e-learning. However, it is in the distance learning institutions such as the Wawasan Open University and Open University Malaysia, where e-learning has thrived and has been utilized for both pedagogical and administrative support. For example, by early 2009, the latter had an enrollment of over 78,000 students. Growing from a mere 753 students in 2001, the university’s e-learning implementation, which is part of its blended learning pedagogy, is considered a huge success story. This article will outline Malaysia’s e-learning scenario in general and highlight the success of e-learning in the country’s first open and distance learning institution.

Introduction A major national initiative, the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), was launched in 1996, to attract world renowned Information and Communication Technology (ICT) companies to invest in Malaysia. Since that time, the developments of ICT use in Malaysia have been fairly rapid and widely supported by the government. Such support includes the development of infrastructure for broadband Internet and wide use of networked technologies through the formulation of a national broadband plan. The objective is to reach a critical mass of 1.2 million broadband subscribers by 2010.

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Based on the Internet World Statistics (2008), 14.9 million, or nearly 59 percent of Malaysia’s population of 25.3 million is on the Internet; which is similar to Internet penetration in Singapore (58.6 percent). Elsewhere in the region, Internet usage was reported to be 20.5 percent of Thailand’s population and 10.5 percent of Indonesia’s population. The number of Internet users among Malaysians grew by more than 300 percent between 2000 and 2008. Based on the statistics from the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) (2008), there were already 1,368,900 broadband subscribers at the end of the first quarter of 2008, supported by use of ADSL and wireless LAN technologies. At that time, there were nearly 1,500 wireless hotspots in places such as cafes, shopping centres, hotels, and college campuses. However, it is believed that many more hotspots have not been included in this total. In short, Internet access in Malaysia is among the highest in the Southeast Asian region. Internet use is expected to grow even more with the proliferation of mobile technologies coupled with the availability of increasingly affordable broadband Internet access. It should be noted that most, if not all, higher education institutions offer wireless Internet. E-Learning in Malaysia With about 70 government and private universities and university colleges in Malaysia, the role these institutions play in producing graduates who will be sought after by employers is key to the achievement of the country’s vision to be a fully developed nation by 2020. The development of a knowledge economy will require computer savvy workers. Given such needs, it is imperative that institutions equip their graduates with the necessary ICT skills. In addition, the way one acquires knowledge is another way of assuring the relevance of workers for the knowledge economy. It is expected that a constructivist learning environment will be best for the development of critical thinkers and analytical minds. This is where some of the social networking tools of the Web 2.0 are expected to be increasingly integrated into courses offered by Malaysian institutions. However, few institutions in Malaysia are implementing Web 2.0 tools on a large scale due to limited bandwidth on college and university campuses. One of the earliest widespread campus initiatives in eLearning was the development of an Online Learning Interactive System (OLIS) in 1999 for medical students at the International Medical University in Malaysia. Comprising 7,000 pages of textual descriptions of over 10,000 images, it was launched in 2000 with the incorporation of online forums. Ten years later, OLIS continues to be used with the exception of the discussion forums which were removed in 2003 due to insufficient use and instructor training. However, it should be noted that today the university has begun replacing their regular face-to-face problem-based learning sessions for the medical

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students by using online forums. The entire faculty will have been trained to be online facilitators by early 2009. According to a national e-readiness study conducted in 2004 among 4,625 students, 977 higher education academicians, 102 policy-makers, and 75 industrial players, Malaysians were moderately ready for e-Learning (Abas, Kuldip, & Harun, 2004). Among the students who responded, 31 percent expressed that they were very keen or ready for e-learning while another 59 percent felt they were moderately ready. Only about 10 percent of those who responded noted that they were not ready for e-learning. The survey, which was conducted in mid-2004, represented more than 50 educational institutions of higher learning. Should the study be replicated, a much higher level of readiness would be expected. Based on a recent study of 1,350 learners at the Open University Malaysia (OUM) (Ch’ng, Abas, & Mansor, 2008), roughly 83 percent of those surveyed indicated that they could imagine themselves being engaged in mobile learning. It is interesting to note that 99 percent of the respondents have a mobile phone and that more than 50 percent of these were purchased less than two years ago. It was found that nearly three in four of these phones are 3G phones. Such findings indicate that when OUM embarks on a mobile learning initiative in early 2009, the majority of students should be ready for it. When the same set of respondents were asked about the activities that they do on the Internet, the top five were: (1) searching (76.6 percent), (2) emailing (70.5 percent), (3) downloading files (67.2 percent), (4) uploading files (36.6 percent), and (5) online banking (30.8 percent). For learning purposes, 95 percent stated that they went into forum discussions and 39 percent accessed the OUM digital library. About 71 percent of students reported that they normally accessed the Internet from home. Almost all higher education institutions in Malaysia today have learning management systems that provide students with access to important information and materials. This includes the academic calendar, course schedules, course outlines, campus announcements, forms, and course materials. The implementation, however, varies from one institution to another. Not every course or every faculty member makes his materials available online. It is still not compulsory for OUM faculty members to do so. However, in some institutions, usually private ones, a majority of courses and associated materials, are made available online. In some institutions, discussion forums are part of some of their courses but student participation is not compulsory or awarded marks. Any other adoption of e-learning such as the use of Web 2.0 tools are usually left to the discretion of the lecturers. Only a minority have incorporated Web 2.0 tools in spite of having Generation Y learners on campus. One of the factors affecting the technology integration decisions of faculty members is the general lack of broadband penetration. It has been observed that

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in campuses with dual modes of instruction (full-time and part-time distance), learning management systems become an important delivery component for the distance offerings. Universities utilizing such dual modes include the Universiti Sains Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Mara. In addition, in two of Malaysia’s open and distance learning institutions, the Wawasan Open University (WOU) and OUM, e-learning plays a significant role. WOU is about two years old and offers blended learning opportunities which incorporates eLearning. E-Learning at the Open University of Malaysia (OUM) The OUM is the nation’s first open and distance learning university. It has achieved remarkable enrollment growth with the adoption of e-learning as part of its blended pedagogies. In 2001, the first year of the OUM, it had just 753 students enrolled (Figure 1). By January 2009, enrollment at the OUM had mushroomed to over 78,000 students. The OUM started with the objective of addressing the needs of its adult working population who wish to pursue a university degree. Hence, the pedagogical model must be one that will be suitable for adult learners and involve elements that will be supportive of adult learning needs as they learn from wherever they are such as the home, office, or anywhere else, irrespective of time. The “e” in the blend OUM’s pedagogical blend comprises three primary modes of learning: elearning, face-to-face tutorials, and self-managed learning. The core learning material for all courses is the print module. In addition, learners are provided with face-to-face tutorials fortnightly or every two weeks. It is com-

Figure 1. Student Enrollment at OUM.

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pulsory for all learners to go online for discussions with their tutors and classmates regularly. Discussions take place in the university’s learning management system called myLMS. Students are expected to respond to the issues posted by their tutors and should contribute to the richness of the interactions online. To help students succeed, the OUM has adopted the Community of Inquiry model of Garrison and Anderson (2003). This model is intended to help tutors ensure that deep learning is generated through the three types of presence: social, teaching, and cognitive. Students are awarded up to five percent of the course marks for their contributions. Through the myLMS, various learning resources produced in-house are made available. Such resources include multimedia courseware (on compact discs), iTutorials (audio and video streaming), iRadio (audio streaming), Web-based modules, and iWeblets (web-based multimedia). Similarly, timely announcements, administrative forms, and other resources and materials are available for learners to view or download. In addition, the OUM community has access to the library digital collection comprising more than 17 online databases. Through these databases, more than 1.3 million titles are available in the form of books, theses, articles, reports, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, and other documents and materials. As Figure 2 illustrates, at OUM, the print module is the primary learning material. It is supported by other modes of learning.

Figure 2. Blended learning at the Open University Malaysia (Note: adapted from Abas (2006a & 2006b)).

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The key objectives of OUM e-learning initiatives include: • To enhance learner access to learning materials; • To improve education efficiency by increasing opportunities for collaborative learning and by making course materials available in a timely manner, 24 hours a day, seven days a week; and • To improve learning effectiveness by encouraging learner interaction with tutors and classmates to support and promote collaborative learning. It should be noted that although the number of students has grown by more than 80 times, the number of full-time faculty grew by less than four times over the same number of years. From less than 20 faculty members at the start, the OUM has 72 full-time faculty members today. The university, however, engages about 3,500 part-time tutors at any one time to assist with the face-to-face tutorials. Tutorials are held in 61 learning centres throughout the country. Tutors are needed to help facilitate more than 500 courses taught in some 71 diploma, degree, and post-graduate degree programs. The Centre for Tutor Management and Development (CTMD) invites applications for part-time tutors from timeto-time by advertising in the major newspapers. Typically, the applicants are mostly lecturers from other public and private higher education institutions with a smaller number from the non-educational government or corporate sectors. Next, those who are shortlisted are screened through interviews and details of those who pass the screening are entered into the tutor database. Before the start of each semester, the names from the database are identified. If they are new, they are next trained on how to fulfil their roles as face-to-face tutors, online forum moderators as well as academic counselors. Training is provided by the CTMD. The training is usually conducted either regionally or on site either by a full-time faculty member or the lead tutors who are appointed on the basis of their seniority and past proven performance. The performance of tutors in the classroom and online are evaluated regularly. Learners are also invited to assess their tutors via online evaluation forms. Tutors who perform below expectation are removed from the system as part of OUM’s quality assurance. As an OUM tutor, benefits include reduced fees for post-graduate programmes and from time-to-time, tutors are invited to colloquiums held by the CTMD as a way to engage them in dialogues with the OUM management on learner issues. Lead tutors also received notebooks to help them in their tasks. Success Factors Not all innovations succeed upon implementation. In fact, there are various levels and forms of success. At OUM, we have identified six important factors that contribute to the successful implementation of eLearning (see Figure 3). Each factor is briefly explained below.

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Figure 3. Success factors in eLearning at OUM.

Pedagogical Model As suggested by Bates and Poole (2003), technology has an important place in university teaching, but it needs to be utilized with care and discrimination. It is no longer a question of whether we should use technology but in what contexts and for what purposes technology is appropriate for learning and teaching. At OUM, the blended learning pedagogies were formulated right at the start to cater to the adult learner learning patterns and styles and to optimize a variety of media in order to provide an environment conducive to learning. While the core learning material is the print module, other methods or media are used to support it (see Figure 2). Not all courses are exactly the same in terms of methods or media used. They vary depending on the optimal solution thought needed for a particular course.

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Policies Policies are important right from the start to support decisions made for elearning. Investments in e-learning are substantial and the absence of policies to support its successful implementation will lead to failure. Policies will foster the enculturation of e-learning, while also helping to ensure that the facilities and resources are available in order to produce a positive e-learning environment. For example, to help all faculty members and staff become acquainted with e-learning, they need to be provided with the necessary ICT facilities such as notebooks, printers, and LAN or wireless Internet connections. Today, the initial group of tutors and learners who did not think much about online discussions in the first few years when OUM started are able to do so quite comfortably. To indicate how serious OUM considers the online discussion component, five percent of the course marks are allocated for students’ active participation and positive contribution to the online forums. In the near future, the five percent may increase by up to 25 percent of the course. Funding (Budget) Sufficient funding is necessary to implement the policies effectively. The necessary purchase includes hardware, software, services, and the employment of relevant staff. The annual ICT budget allocated by the university comes to a significant amount, easily exceeding those in traditional universities in terms of percentage of the total capital and operating expenses. Humanware Having the right talent in adequate numbers is critical. They are critical in providing support to the development and maintenance of the ICT infrastructure as well as the development of e-learning solutions (materials, pedagogies, etc). Staffing includes not only technical staff to maintain equipment and systems but also programmers, graphic designers, animators, instructional designers, and Web developers to design and develop online learning materials. Several teams have been established within OUM and each is accountable for different aspects of ICT support. This work includes the design, development, and maintenance of various e-systems such as the OUM Web portal, learning management system, online marks entry system, multimedia courseware, iRadio, and learning objects. Infrastructure It is vital to ensure that the requisite facilities are available to create an effective e-learning environment for students. Such an environment includes computer laboratories, libraries, seminar rooms, tutorial rooms, and hotspots for wireless Internet access not only on the main campus but also in all the learning centres located throughout the country.

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Infostructure In our model, infostructure is defined as the organisation’s information assets comprising hardware, software, networks, infrastructure, information, and applications. In effect, it recognizes that how these components are organized, managed and maintained is critical to the success of e-learning. At the OUM, all online systems, content, hardware, software, and access to the Internet need to be fully-accessible at all times. The main platform used by students is the learning management system, myLMS. It is crucial that this platform be used to support the learners and not simply help administration account for enrollments. Moving Forward OUM is now at a crossroad. After seven years of operation, in 2008, it recently carried out a study to evaluate the success of the online forums. Findings from an evaluation of 137 forums within 20 courses revealed that not all tutors were able to support the online discussions. In fact, there were tutors who were rarely present in some of these classes. As a result, the benefit of going online was not clear to the students. In August 2008, OUM revised its training of tutors for both face-to-face and online courses. Tutors are now asked to change their methods of supporting the online forums. For instance, they are expected to provide the three types of online presence – social, cognitive, and teaching – as explicated by the Community of Inquiry model of Garrison and Anderson. In addition to those changes, with sophisticated mobile phones becoming increasingly affordable, the use of mobile learning to make learning more flexible and in a just-in-time fashion is increasingly possible as well as prudent. A mobile learning research group was established at the OUM in the third quarter of 2008 to investigate both pedagogical and technological implementation issues. A survey to determine how ready learners are was carried out. The results of this survey indicated that more than 8 in 10 students can see themselves engaged in mobile learning. While nearly half are expected to be ready for mobile learning within less than six months, another 17 percent believed they will be ready within six to 12 months. Of the 1,350 students surveyed, only about 6 percent felt they will be ready after 12 months. Interestingly, another 28 percent stated they would never be ready for mobile learning. Thirdly, OUM is re-visiting the use of print modules as the primary learning material. It is now considering the provision of the same content on the Web with hyperlinks to the necessary activities, readings, and references. This will include use of podcasts and multimedia learning objects.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

The article has highlighted the contributions made by e-learning to the success of the OUM. E-learning has certainly contributed to OUM’s exponential growth in terms of the number of learners enrolled. Hence, it appears that e-learning has permitted the university to live by its motto, “University for All.” In many respects, e-learning can be regarded as a democratizing tool, enabling the university to quickly reach out to more students at an affordable cost. OUM’s vision is to be the leading provider of flexible learning. Hence, OUM provides a range of learning materials and uses a variety of learning modes to create a learner-centered environment. E-learning is part of the blended learning pedagogies implemented since the university enrolled its first group of 753 students in August 2001. In early 2009, OUM piloted a mobile learning initiative for one of its compulsory courses to provide yet another mode of learning. Based on a preliminary study conducted in the last quarter of 2008, of 1,350 learners, 82.6 percent of OUM learners see themselves as being part of the mobile learning community. Hence, the OUM and universities like it will need to evolve and change to meet these more mobile types of learners. In addition to mobile learning initiatives, E-learning at OUM will continue to evolve to include various Web 2.0 tools. The OUM will soon be fine-tuning its blended learning pedagogical model to include improved ways of learning and to incorporate greater flexibility in line with its vision. As this occurs, thousands more Malaysians will likely find unique and rewarding online opportunities to improve their skills and competencies. References Abas, Z. W., Kuldip, K. & Harun, H. (2004). E-learning readiness in Malaysia 2004: A joint study by the Ministry of Energy, Water and Communications, Malaysia and Open University Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia. Abas, Z. W. (2006a). Producing significant learning and teaching at OUM: The way forward. Paper presented at OUM Academic Council, August 2. Unpublished. Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia. Abas, Z. W. (2006b). The OUM learning environment: Relationship between the print module and e-learning. Unpublished. Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia. Bates A. W., & Pool, G. (2003). Effective teaching with technology in higher education: Foundation for success. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ch’ng, L. P., Abas, Z. W., & Mansor, N. (2008). Mobile learning readiness among OUM learners: A preliminary study. Presented at the 2nd Asia Pacific Regional Mobile Learning and Edutainment Conference, 20-21 November, Putra World Trade Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

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Internet World Stats (2008). Asia Internet usage and population. Retrieved November 14, 2008, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Communication (2008). Internet penetration rate. Retrieved March 5, 2008 from http://www.skmm.gov.my/facts_figures/stats/index.asp

Zoraini Wati Abas is a professor at the Faculty of Education and Languages and Director of the Institute of Quality, Research, and Innovation (IQRI) at the Open University Malaysia (OUM). She was also Director of the Centre for Instructional Design and Technology at OUM, developing a variety of print and e-learning materials for OUM learners. Zoraini specialized in Instructional Technology during her master’s and doctoral study. She received her Ph.D. in 1985 from the Northern Illinois University. Prior to joining OUM, she was at the International Medical University as well as the University of Malaya. She has been involved at all levels of education, from pre-school to higher education, in both the government and private sectors. She has written several books and computer dictionaries and published in journals. She was also a weekly columnist in the national newspapers on computer education, Internet, and e-Learning and has written over 800 articles. Zoraini can be contacted at [email protected].

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 109-117

E-Learning Readiness in the Academic Sector of Thailand THANOMPORN LAOHAJARATSANG Chiang Mai University, Thailand [email protected] As e-learning in the academic sector serves as a crucial driving force in the development of e-learning in Thailand, this article looks at e-learning readiness in Thailand with a focus on the academic sector. The article is divided into four parts: (1) a brief history of e-learning in Thailand; (2) the infrastructure related to e-learning development; (3) the readiness of educational institutions, namely schools and universities; and (4) an example of the project promoting e-learning application in Thailand namely Thailand Cyber University.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF E-LEARNING IN THAILAND

In Thailand, e-learning has been used since the beginning of the 21st century as a means of offering foreign educational content to corporate users in the form of corporate training. At the same time, some local universities began using e-learning by introducing some local contents to their students. However, due to several constraints at the time (e.g., transmission quality, Internet access limited to the residential market, and the low number of Internet users), e-learning did not gain popularity nor was it widely recognized. Hence, the development of e-learning in both private and public sectors was slow and limited. Regarding e-learning content development, most of the content initially offered was English-based. Localized content was expensive and rare. In addition, the quality of the local content was questionable because most of it was plain, simple, unimpressive, and lacking in interaction. This was partly due to the speed and performance of the Internet connection which would not allow non-text content to be transmitted efficiently (Laohajaratsang, 2004a; Sirinaruemitr, 2004). Besides, it was found that fewer than 50 com-

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panies that were registered as software vendors had the intention of developing e-learning content. Finally, commercial and locally-made learning management systems (LMS) were pre-dominant, while open-source LMS were not very popular at the time. E-LEARNING READINESS IN THAILAND Information Technology and Communication Infrastructure Continuous development of information technology and communication infrastructure for the general public is deemed instrumental in the establishment of Thailand as a knowledge-based economy and society. Furthermore, having adequate infrastructure can be seen as one indicator of Thailand’s e-learning readiness, as electricity, telephones, computers, and the Internet provide the necessary elements for the public’s increased access to information technology. Access to electricity: Based on the National Statistical Office (NSO) under the ICT Department, in 2004 only about 1% of all households in Thailand lacked electricity, most of which were those situated in the southern part of the country. Access to telephone: Information gathered in 2006 showed that there were 141 telephone lines per 100 people. Data in 2007 revealed that 21.7 million people owned a mobile phone, with Bangkokians being the largest percentage at 59.3% of the 8 million people owning one. Access to computer: Data in 2005 showed that over 30% of the population in cities in all regions used a computer, with the highest percentage also in Bangkok (38.3%). The age group of the most frequent computer users was 15-24 years old and the activity for which they used a computer the most was education at nearly 60%. Access to the Internet: Bandwidth has expanded at a very high rate since 2003. Those residing in Thailand saw a bandwidth of 41,510 Mbps during 2008, which was a significant jump from the 8,579 Mbps they had in 2006. The traffic of information sent and received within the country has shown a steady and continuous increase every month. In November 2005, the volume was 42,154 GB per day, three times the volume at the same time only a year earlier. Number of Internet users nationwide: In 2007, more than 20% of the overall population or 13.4 million people were regular Internet users. Approximately 1.2 million were high speed Internet users (National Statistical Office, 2006). Of that number, 600,000 subscribed to broadband Internet. Although the percentage was lower than that of Malaysia (59%) or Vietnam (23.4%), the expansion has been fast and continuous (Internet Usage in Asia, 2008). This shows that access to Internet usage in Thailand has been steadily increasing and it is now readily available to a wider market that it was when it was first introduced.

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Internet user behaviors: most Internet users in Thailand use it at work and at home almost equally (44.9% and 44.8%, respectively), followed by use at educational institutions (NECTEC, 2008). The survey results are in contrast with the data gathered in 2005 which showed that people used the Internet at educational institutions most, followed by home and work. The use of the Internet in all three areas has accelerated with the increased desire to search for information, play on-line games, keep up-to-date with news, and send or receive emails. Internet connectivity: Results from a survey on Internet use in Thailand by NECTEC in 2008 shows that most respondents use ADSL or Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (43.5%), followed by the office or educational institution’s network/LAN (25.1%). It was also found that 63.1% stated that they had never used high speed Internet. Of those high speed Internet users, 82.9% used ADSL high speed Internet, followed by cable modem (8.6%), ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network (4.4%), and satellite (1.6%). It can, therefore, be concluded that Thailand’s information technology and communication infrastructure is growing at a steady pace. However, despite its wider popularity, it is not yet sufficient to serve the needs of the population of over 70 million. E-LEARNING READINESS OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

In Thailand, educational institutions have shown keen interest in the development of e-learning as can be seen from the efforts currently underway in both schools and universities. This part of the article will present the policy for further developing ICT for education in Thailand as well as the policies of the Thai Ministry of Education. It will also discuss the development of information technology and communication infrastructure needed to cater to this development. Finally, it will detail the present status of e-learning use in Thailand’s educational institutions at both school and university levels. The Thai Ministry of Education (MOE) developed the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for Education Master Plan (2004-2006) to promote ICT use in education. Its vision is to ensure that learners, educational institutions, and educational offices have equal access to and derive benefits from information and communication technology for life-long learning. Its mission emphasizes developing effective management, professional development in ICT, and the expansion of ICT infrastructure for education. The Thai MOE has already developed a draft of the ICT for Education Master Plan (2007-2011). However, this MOE action plan has not been approved because the Thai government is still in the process of revising its second National IT Masterplan or IT 2010 (Laohajratsan, Iwaki, Suwannathoachote, & Krawanchid, 2007). Despite this delay, based on the data by the MOE Office of the Permanent Secretary, in 2006 Internet connections had been set up in every school under

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the Office of Basic Education Commission or OBEC (100%) (see Table 1). This increased connectivity in Thai schools has resulted in more positive attitudes of the teachers toward ICT for teaching and learning. The ratio of the number of computers to the number of students in schools under the OBEC is 1:59 as compared to the ratio of 1:62 in 2004. It is clear that Internet use for educational and administrative purposes in Thailand is on the rise, albeit at a slow pace even though access to the ICT network has reached 100% and one-third of the teachers have already been trained on the use of ICT. Table 2 reveals the percentage of types of the Internet connections in schools under the OBEC. Based on the survey report by the MOE, half of Table 1 Data on the Status of ICT Readiness/Usage of Schools Under the OBEC in 2005 Status of ICT Readiness/Usage

2006

1. Number of Schools under OBEC

32,741

2. Number of Students under OBEC

8,830,000

3. Number of Computers

148,556

4. Internet Connection Status

32,741

5. Number of Computers: School

5 :1

6. Number of Computers: Students

1 :59

7. Internet Connection: School

1:1

8. Total Number of Teachers

499,697

- Have been trained on ICT skills

108,624

- No training on ICT skills

391,073

Table 2 Number and Percentage of Type of Internet Connection Classified by School Size Type of Internet Connection

Small Schools n=874 No.

%

Medium Schools Large Schools n=1,310, n= 1,144 No.

%

No.

Total n=3,328

%

No.

%

1.Telephone Lines

339

38.79

636

48.78

642

56.12

1,724

51.80

2. Leased Lines

219

25.06

284

21.68

394

34.44

897

26.95

3. Satellite Signal

316

36.16

419

31.98

255

22.29

990

29.75

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the schools connect using telephone lines, 30% connect via satellite signal, and the rest of them (26.95%) connect with the use of leased lines. However, it should be noted the author faced difficulties in obtaining more updated data for comparison due to a lack of current research and statistics on the status of ICT including overall readiness and usage in schools. The percentage of computers being used for teaching and learning in the schools under the OBEC is reported to be nearly 80%; while around 20% of the computers in schools are reported as being used for administrative work. E-Learning in Schools (primary and secondary schools) E-learning for schools in Thailand was officially started in 1995 by the National Electronics and Computer Technology Center (NECTEC). The NECTEC introduced an initial project named SchoolNet Thailand (http://www.school.net.th), with the aim of expanding teaching resources for public secondary schools nationwide. These schools can access the SchoolNet network at a low rate of charge (3 baht per minute). As of 2001, there were 4,718 schools that had joined this project. In 2003, the MOE was placed in charge, and it combined the SchoolNet project with the UniNet project and renamed it EdNet. The educational network (EdNet) was created in order to optimize network utilization and other resource allocations for both projects. Several of the e-learning development projects for K-12 have already been implemented. Some examples of these e-learning projects for schools in Thailand include: (a) the Distance Learning Foundation (DLF) Project (http://www.dlf.ac.th) which provides remote education via satellite; (b) the E-Learning Courseware development projects sponsored by the Bureau of Technology for Teaching and Learning, the OBEC, and the Department of Non-Formal Education, Ministry of Education (MOE); and (c) Online Curriculum Development on Science and Mathematics by the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST), Ministry of Education (MOE). In sum, Thailand now has four major implementation plans focusing on educational technology infrastructure, human resources development, provision of digital teaching and learning materials, and educational management. The current status of ICT for education has already seen progress as evidenced by the increasing level of readiness of infrastructure including electricity, telephones, Internet access, and computers. The recent plan to allocate 250,000 computers to schools nationwide, which will require a major investment by the government, will help make the ratio of computers to students not less than 1:20 in every school. Last but not least, a plan for implementing Internet connection speeds of 512kbps for each school is also underway.

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E-Learning Readiness in Thai Higher Educational Institutions E-learning development in Thailand’s higher educational institutions, especially those with distance-learning services (e.g., Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) (http://www.stou.ac.th) and Ramkhamhaeng University (http://www.ru.ac.th)), commenced approximately ten years ago (Laohajaratsang, 2004b). Since universities began preparing their infrastructure with the use of the LMS as an alternative, costeffective way of teaching, the number of e-learning development projects in universities in Thailand has gradually been on the rise. Based on the latest survey on e-learning development of higher educational institutions in Thailand, there are a total of 149 universities in the country (Laohajaratsang, 2008). Among them, 36 are national universities and 34 private. Moreover, 41 national regional universities (formerly known as Rajabhat Institutes) and 38 national industrial technical colleges (formerly known as Rajamangala Institutes) have been upgraded from teacher training schools and industrial technical colleges to universities. With a growing number of students continuing on to university, the number of universities in Thailand, particularly the private and regional universities, has increased. According to the same survey, most institutions (93%) that participated in this research project have started an e-learning program and have also established or assigned a department to oversee the e-learning services offered to the students and personnel. Almost 80% have stated that e-learning has become one of their missions. Furthermore, over three-quarters of the institutions have shown readiness to accommodate the intermediate or higher e-learning systems. Moreover, according to the research findings, most of the educational institutions have a plan to allocate a suitable amount of their budgets for the development of e-learning programs in the future. Regarding the diverse problems concerning the development of e-learning, most of the participating institutions indicated that they still have problems with instructors, students, and technical staffs. In effect, quite a number of instances were found in terms of instructors and students being reluctant to use e-Learning. Also, there were insufficient technical staffs to facilitate instructors when integrating e-Learning into their teaching. At the same time, a low number of instances were found regarding problems with infrastructure, hardware, and software related to e-learning development. In most of Thailand’s educational institutions, a leased line with 2 Mbps or higher is employed to provide services to different departments within the institutions. According to the survey results, some educational institutions use Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and ISDN technology for their network connection. Survey findings also indicated that computer network technology of participating educational institutions is readily available and suitable for servicing their faculty staff and students.

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With regard to the Learning Management System (LMS), the research findings showed that the most popular platform among the higher educational institutions is open source, followed by the use of commercial systems or an internally developed LMS. The most popular open source software programs among educational institutions in Thailand are the Moodle System and the A-tutor System. The trend toward these two open source systems might have resulted from lower expenses and production cost with open source software as well as the ease with which they can be adapted to a system infrastructure. In addition, open source adaption by one organization often results in success stories and the spreading of it to others. Communities often spring up to support such use and to share best practices. For instance, there are local communities for Moodle and A-tutor systems in Thailand which make installation manuals and user guides available. In addition, such communities have modified these systems for the Thai language. For this reason, system developers, in higher educational institutions, private universities, and high schools, often further develop the open source software for use in their own institutions. The most popular programming languages used in developing LMS are PHP, HTML, and ASP, respectively. Furthermore, the most frequently used databases and technologies are MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle and Java Script, Dynamic HTML, and XML Web Service. According to an earlier study, 66% of universities in Thailand have targeted the bachelor’s degree and college level students to have their supplementary classes conducted via e-learning, whereas the general public and the master’s degree students are typically their second and third targets, respectively (Prapinmongkolkarn, Nilubon, & Tangsangiumvisai, 2004). As is evident, the development of e-learning in Thai higher educational institutions has been on the rise. Most universities have responded at a moderate to good level to e-learning as a new alternative to traditional instructional methods. This is evidenced by data regarding technological readiness to support e-learning, operational data, and provision of services, as well as supporting data in terms of readiness of personnel and facilitating factors for future operation (Laohajaratsang, 2007, 2008). However, in order to ensure the continued development of e-learning, clearer policies at the undergraduate and college levels in terms of a certified and high quality online curriculum need to be established. In addition, IT laws (Regulatory and Legislative Framework) for proper modernization (e.g., Accreditation, Intellectual Property Law, Copyright Law, etc.) have to be enforced. THAILAND CYBER UNIVERSITY

There are several on-going projects that help support the development of e-learning in Thailand. One of the most prominent projects under the Commission on Higher Education, Ministry of Education is the Thailand Cyber

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University (TCU) project which was first established in 2005. The TCU has the role of acting as a central body to initiate, cooperate with, and support elearning management in higher educational institutions. Cooperating with local and international universities, TCU has attempted to implement high quality and standard e-learning to expand educational opportunities to all Thai people without the limit of time and place. Presently, there are 32 local educational member institutions. TCU now offers 16 bachelor’s degree programs and one certificate degree program. TCU also provides 430 self-learning courses (see http://www.thaicyberu.go.th). More than 50,000 students have registered for these courses, while over 800,000 people have utilized the contents retrieved from the TCU website (Sombuntham, 2008). In addition, as one of TCU’s major strategies is to help support faculty and teacher training and professional development using ICT in Thailand, more than 10,000 faculty members, teachers, and students so far, especially those living in the rural areas, have been trained on how to use ICT under the support of TCU. SUMMARY

Despite the fact that Thailand has been facing internal political turmoil since 2005, this article reflects the steadily growing readiness status of elearning development in Thailand, especially in the academic sector. The reviewed data reveal an increasing demand for e-learning, particularly among higher educational institutions. Still, data on related infrastructure show an insufficiency of budget allocation to improve technological readiness in accordance with the increasing demand. The limited financial resources for e-learning in Thailand may be a result of the shift of national budget allocation priorities to address and tackle corruption as well as support the necessary funding allocations and associated programs for the poor. It is hoped that as more successful e-learning projects in the Thai academic sector are observed, e-learning development in Thailand will receive increased government attention and consequently more funding. The country seems ready for explosive growth in e-learning across all sectors of education. If increased government support is offered as well as effective leadership, millions more people could be learning content in 5 or 10 years that today is currently out of reach for them. Let’s hope. References Internet Usage in Asia. (2008). Asia Internet usage stats and population statistics. Retrieved August 10, 2008, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm Laohajaratsang, T. (2004a). E-Learning: New alternative for Thai education in the digital age. Chiang Mai News: Chiang Mai Press. Laohajaratsang, T. (2004b). Status of e-learning in Thailand. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University Press.

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Laohajaratsang, T. (2007, March). E-Learning readiness for higher educational institutes of Thailand. Proceedings of the International Conference on E-Learning, e-Learning Strategies: Edutainment. Bangkok, Thailand. Laohajaratsang, T. (2008, November). E-learning development readiness of Thailand’s higher educational institutes. Proceeding of the International Conference on E-Learning, E-Learn 2008, Las Vegas, USA. Laohajaratsang, T., Iwaki, T., Suwannathachote, P., & Krawanchid, D.(2007). Capacity building on the development of information technology for education (ITEd). Research report presented to JICA, Japan. Bangkok: IC Net Asia. Ministry of Education (2005). Survey research report on the evaluation of computer for education in basic educational institutes. Bangkok: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (2006). Survey research report on the evaluation of ICT for education. Bangkok: Ministry of Education. National Statistical Office (2006). Indicators for Information and Communication Technology of Thailand 2006. Bangkok: Text and General Publication. NECTEC (2008). Internet User Profile 2008. Bangkok: Se-ed Ucation. Retrieved September 5, 2008, from http://internet.nectec.or.th/webstats Prapinmongkolkarn, P., Nilubon, C., & Tangsangiumvisai, N. (2004, March 11). Research Report on e-learning development project. Paper presented to the 2nd IPAIT Meeting, Bangkok, Thailand. Sombuntham, S. (2008, November). Establishing cyber university and reform of higher education: Thailand cyber university e-learning project. National Report Presented during the APEC Conference, Lima, Peru. Sirinaruemitr, P. (2004, August). Trends and forces for e-learning in Thailand. Proceedings of the International Conference on e-Learning, e-Learning for Knowledge-Based Society, Bangkok, Thailand.

Thanomporn (Toh) Laohajaratsang is Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Technology at Chiang Mai University (CMU) in Chiang Mai, Thailand. She currently serves as the Director of the Information Technology Service Center (ITSC) at CMU and is an international expert of the Centre for the Advancement of Research and Development in Educational Technology (CARDET). Dr. Thanomporn completed both her master’s and doctoral degrees in Technology Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1992 and 1995. Before joining CMU, she was an assistant professor at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand. For over 10 years, she has conducted projects and research activities related to the development of new media to support innovative pedagogies, the integration of ICT in educational system, and the design of future learning environments.

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 119-130

E-Learning in India SANJAYA MISHRA Indira Gandhi National Open University, India [email protected] This article presents an overview of the e-learning in India. It describes the historical developments of e-learning and identifies major stakeholders and institutions that have initiated elearning programs after the creation of the National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development constituted by the Prime Minister of India in 1998. National level initiatives of the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India to promote e-learning in the country are highlighted. Based on critical analysis and reflections on the existing practices, the author suggests the establishment of a statutory body for e-learning. Other recommendations include the development of a learning objects repository, a consortia approach to e-learning program delivery, and the training of teachers to improve the present situation.

Introduction Since the emergence of the Internet in 1969 and the World Wide Web a couple of decades later, the world of teaching and learning has increasingly embraced and adopted online learning as one of its main innovations and delivery mechanisms. However, in spite of extensive use of the Web in education, a variety of terminologies such as Web-based education, virtual learning, online learning, and e-learning are used to depict this new field of knowledge. This is especially true for those in emerging countries seeking best practices, benchmarks, and specific examples of success. E-learning has become popular among educationists because of the inherent strengths and advantages it provides to the instructional process. Some of the benefits include: • Access to educational resources from outside the institution on a global and instant basis;

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• Quick and easy ways to create, update, and revise course materials through low-cost off-the-shelf software; • Increased and flexible interaction with students through e-mail and discussion forums;

• Location and time independent delivery of course materials such as course notes, diagrams, and reading lists; • The ability to combine text, graphics, and a limited amount of multimedia, thereby enabling instructional designers to prepare quality learning materials;

• Interactive and dynamic learning experiences through online assessment tools, simulations, and animated learning objects; • Platform independent delivery, accessible through any computer with a simple browser interface;

• Increased learner control through hypertext-based presentation of information; • Opportunities for international, cross-cultural, and collaborative learning; and

• The ability to serve a large number of students at a potentially reduced cost (Bates, 2001; Goldberg, Salari, & Swoboda, 1996; McCormack & Jones, 1998; Starr, 1997; Weller, 2000).

The Web today is used in three different ways by educational institutions. First, the Web is integrated into classroom teaching as a supplement to faceto-face teaching. Second, the Web is used as a mixed mode approach to complement face-to-face teaching, normally called blended e-learning. And, third, the Web is used as the primary delivery mechanism for teaching and learning, often as a replacement for face-to-face teaching (Bates, 2001; Berg, Collins, & Dougherty, 2000; Mitra, 1999). This article traces the development of e-learning in India, and discusses how it can be strengthened as a tool for teaching and learning, especially in higher education.

Indian Context For a country with more than 400 million illiterate people struggling to cope with enormous school dropout issues, India has made tremendous strides to become one of the Information Technology (IT) superpowers. The Government of India has always considered the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as a means for mass education of its people. From the use of satellite technology in the early 1970s to the present interest in the launching of a dedicated satellite for education named EduSat, it has considered education as a primary force for the development of the

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nation. India has a strong educational infrastructure, particularly in higher education with over 18,500 colleges and more than 350 universities. The developments related to e-learning should be seen in the context of the socio-economic and ICT infrastructure of the country. In spite of its low PC penetration and Internet access, India has progressed well in the IT sector primarily due to the IT training by the private sector. The country’s first online educational enterprise also came with private initiative when the National Institute of Information Technology (NIIT Limited) started Netvarsity in 1996. Since that time, a large number of online “teaching shops” have been placed in operation primarily to support school level education and for preparing students for competitive examinations like the medical and engineering entrance tests. While many e-learning initiatives and programs are underway, the National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM)’s Market Intelligence Service reports that the e-learning market in India remains in an infant stage. In fact, in 2002, e-learning was just a US$4-5 million market with an expected 4 year cumulative annual growth rate of 2025% (NASSCOM, 2003). India exports software products to over 100 countries in the world with over 20 billion USD turnover. The world market share for software production is over 20% for India. It has the world’s fifth largest telephone network, with about 2 million telephone subscribers being added each year. As of September 2008, there were 233.6 million mobile subscribers in the country (20.3% of total population), and 42 million Internet users (3.7% of total population). E-Learning Developments The real impetus for e-learning came from the National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development constituted by the Prime Minister of India in 1998. The Task Force report presents India’s master plan and long term policy for capacity building of institutions, human resource development in IT related areas, and the use of ICTs in education. Some of the major recommendations in the policy (GOI, 1999) include the following: 43. ix. Government in association with IT HRD companies will aim to achieve 100% IT literacy at senior secondary level (10 + 2) in 5 years and at secondary level in 10 years.

x. All institutes offering engineering education, including Polytechnics and ITIs, will ensure that within 3 years all engineering students in the country will acquire IT knowledge to be able to serve in IT enabled Services sector besides serving in IT industry directly.

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The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) responded to the recommendations of the Task Force with its Virtual Campus Initiatives (VCI) in 1999. Since then, a number of such initiatives have been placed in operation within the country (see Table 1). Some of these are as discussed below.

Netvarsity Established in 1996 as the first online learning facility by the NIIT, Netvarsity became a separate subsidiary as NIIT Online Learning Limited (NOLL) in April 2000. By the end of 2002, NOLL had more than 100,000 students enrolled for different courses offered by NIIT. Though Netvarsity started as a fully online venture, at present it adopts a fusion mode where all the students admitted to NIIT’s four-year program are automatically enrolled for Netvarsity and are required to complete 20 hours of the course each semester on the Internet. The courses of Netvarsity are mostly based on the skillette concept, which is a short module of not more than 30 minutes that covers one specific unit of learning. In the beginning, the skillette presents issues related to the transfer of skills and then moves on to conceptual materials. This procedure is considered to be facilitative of just-in-time education (Mitra, 2003). Indira Gandhi National Open University In 1999 the IGNOU started VCI with two programs on information technology – the Bachelor of Information Technology (BIT) and Advanced Diploma in Information Technology (ADIT) – in collaboration with Edexcel, UK and the Government of India, Ministry of Information Technology, respectively. The VCI, apart from the Web delivery of content, uses: (1) livesatellite based teleconference lectures, (2) recorded video lectures, (3) practical laboratories, (4) computer-based training tutorials, and (5) online interactive chat (Sharma, 2001). In 2001, the School of Social Sciences started the Post Graduate Certificate in Participatory Management of Displacement, Resettlement, and Rehabilitation with the support of the World Bank as a fully online program. It is a first of its kind program, where participation in discussion forums (PDF) is used as a peer evaluation mechanism. Other program features include Web course units with interactive exercises, online computer marked assignments, online diary submissions, e-counseling (Chat), and an e-library (Mishra & Jain, 2002).

Yashwantrao Chavan Maharastra Open University Use e-learning as part of its distance learning Part of YCMOU established by the Maharastra http://www.ycmou.com strategy in technology courses State Government

Tamil Virtual University http://www.tamilvu.org

Punjab Technical University http://www.ptuonline.com

Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences http://vu.bits-pilani.ac.in

Institute of Management Technology http://www.imtonline.org

Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning http://www.scdl.net

Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/

Indian Institute of Technology http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Engineering courses

IT related courses at diploma and non-credit level

Courses in Management leading to PG Diploma

Courses in Management leading to eMBA

Engineering courses

Engineering and Technology related courses

Tamil language, literature, and culture

IT related areas and in Social Sciences, Health Sciences, Law, etc.

Indira Gandhi National Open University http://www.ignou.ac.in

2

Owned and managed by

Netvarsity http://www.netvarsity.com

1

Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India supported courses

Institute of national importance, and the programs are offered by the Kanwal Rekhi School of Information Technology

Managed by Symbiosis Society (NPO), part of Symbiosis International University, and approved by AICTE

Managed by NPO, and the courses approved by AICTE

Part of the BITS (Deemed University status accorded by the University grants Commission)

Established by the Government of Punjab, the online venture is a collaborative effort with a trust

Governed by the society established by the Government of Tamil Nadu

Part of the National Open University established by the Govt. of India

NIIT Online Learning Limited

Areas Covered IT related areas and soft skills

Sl.No. Name and URL

Table 1 Virtual Educational Institutions in India

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The IGNOU is in the process of launching online certificate program on Food Safety in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India (Thomas, Kapur, & Kumar, 2004). A Web-enhanced training package has been recently completed by the faculty of Library and Information Science for the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India on the Windows version of the UNESCO’s popular database management package, CDS/ISIS. This project has resulted in the development of a learning management system, which can be implemented in a large scale for the university (Kanjilal, Ghosh, & Kumar, 2004). Another online program under development is the Web-based Training Program for the mid-career diplomat of the Government of India. This program is being deployed by the Foreign Service Institute (Bhusan, 2004). In 2006, the IGNOU added eGyanKosh (http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/) and Sakshat (http://www.sakshat.ac.in/). The eGyanKosh is a national repository of learning resources developed by open and distance learning institutions in the country. Recently, through a partnership with Google’s YouTube (http://in.youtube.com/ignou), the university is making its video programs available to the world. The Sakshat is a portal planned to cater to the diverse learner group from K-L3 (Kindergarten to Lifelong learning). IGNOU’s education broadcasts have also been made available via webcasting through IGNOU Online (http://www.ignouonline.ac.in/). IGNOU Online has facilities for both video and audio streaming for regular TV channels, interactive TV, and the Gyan Vani (FM radio) on the net. The IGNOU online added some online courses in 2008 after the initial failure of the previous online ventures. This time the university developed its own learning management system including wiki-based course content, Flash-based presentations, Flash videos, online forums, online assignments and project submissions, Web-conferences (real-time), and tracking of student progress. All these components are integrated within a Performancebased Progressive Learning (PPL) method where learners are not allowed to take the second lesson unless they achieve a desired competence in the first lesson. At the time of this writing, there were five online programs: (1) Post Graduate Certificate in Cyber Law, (2) Master of Library and Information Sciences, (3) Post Graduate Diploma in Acupuncture, (4) Post Graduate Diploma in Food Safety and Quality Management, and (5) Appreciation Program in Sustainability Sciences. There is an additional program on Project Management offered in partnership with pmGURUonline. The author experimented with wiki-based online training in 2008 and offered an eight-week online training on self-learning material development through the WikiEducator (http://www.wikieducator.org/IGSLM_Background). The course was a huge success as can be seen from the outputs generated by the course participants as well as evaluation reports available online.

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Yashwantrao Chavan Maharastra Open University The Yashwantrao Chavan Maharastra Open University (YCMOU) employs e-learning as a learner support mechanism especially for its Electronics Engineering Diploma Program (EEDP). YCMOU students use a discussion forum to analyze concepts and clarify doubts. Deshmukh (2002) surveyed a group of students who utilized the online support system. Based on the survey results, she recommended that online learning may be more effective by providing expert counselors who will respond quickly to student queries. In addition, it offers detailed information about the course content on the website and enhanced support from the coordinators at the study center. Tamil Virtual University Established in 2000, the Tamil Virtual University (TVU) is charged with providing Internet-based resources and opportunities for the Tamil communities living in different parts of the globe as well as others interested in learning Tamil and acquiring knowledge of the history, art, literature, and culture of the Tamils. The TVU adopts a model through which its courses are available for free, unless one requires a certificate for which the learner has to complete the continuous assignments and the final written examination. Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore The Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore (IIMB) has been using elearning to supplement face-to-face teaching. It experimented with online distance learning for short-term courses using the eCollege Learning Management System. Madanmohan and Ganesh (2003) reported on the experiences of the IIMB in using e-learning. After experiencing poor student interaction both in terms of quantity and quality, they raised concern over the use of e-learning.

NPTEL The National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) started in 2007 is a joint venture of the Indian Institute of Technology and Indian Institute of Science under the patronage of the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. The main objective of the program is to improve the quality of engineering education in the country by developing curriculum based video and Web-courses. In the first phase of the project, 129 Web courses and 110 video courses have been developed. Each of these courses consists of contents equivalent to 40 lecture hours in text, graphics, animation, and video. The video programs developed are available through YouTube (http://in.youtube.com/iit). Consequently, they are available as an e-learning resource not just for the people of India, but for the world.

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A major international event was organized by the Government of India’s National Centre for Software Technology, Mumbai from December 17-19, 2002 on online learning called Vidyakash 2002. This conference provided a platform for academics, software developers, and vendors to come together and discuss issues related to the design of adaptive e-learning environments, instructional design, competencies of online tutors, assessment methods in elearning, and sustainability of e-learning. Realizing the importance of Web technologies, the UGC organized a dialogue on “Enhancing Higher Education through E-Learning” in collaboration with the Commonwealth of Learning (COL), Vancouver from November 17-19, 2003 at New Delhi. The dialogue was attended by Vice-Chancellors of select Indian universities, heads of UGC’s national centers, and experts from the COL and outside India from which several important recommendations were made (UGC, 2003). Of prime importance, the UGC should create a system to support the use of e-learning by all institutions of higher learning in India, and do so in an ambitious timeframe. Specifically the system should be learner-centered, cost-effective, affordable, inclusive, widely and easily accessible, scalable, and upgradable. The goals of the system should be to enhance the quality of higher education through e-learning; change the teaching-learning paradigm; provide increasing and more equitable access to higher education; and make education relevant to sustainable human development. A second recommendation is related to strategic planning for e-learning. For instance, the strategic plans should include policy guidelines on e-learning taking into account the goals of e-learning and bridging the digital divide. The report also advocated the development of a national infrastructure for e-learning, taking into account the present higher education infrastructure. At the same time, there should be recognitions and rewards for institutions and faculty for the development and use of e-learning, Implementation of e-learning was the third key area highlighted in this report. For instance, implementation plans should identify the stages in the development of e-learning materials. In addition to development and production issues, e-learning plans should address the delivery, evaluation, and revision of such content. The report also noted the importance of setting up national standards for e-learning materials. Finally, it argued for the initiation of pilot projects in the areas of job creation, income generation, and socially relevant issues such as environmental education. The dialogue identified six major areas, which require in depth review for e-learning development in India. These areas are: 1. Standards and Specifications: to review standards including instructional design, learning object metadata, object packaging, and digital rights management.

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2. Hardware and Software: to analyze the hardware and software requirements including learning management systems. 3. Connectivity: to review and analyze the connectivity options including bandwidth available to the institutions. 4. User Studies: to analyze the needs of learners and target groups and help in the design of a client-centered system. 5. Content Related Issues: to develop strategies in the development of e-content and integrate them to classroom teaching. 6. Private Public Partnership: to look into possible areas of collaboration among all stakeholders. E-Learning Strategies The development of e-learning in India is still in its infancy. Consequently, the discussions and establishment of policy guidelines by the UGC are vital to the continued growth of e-learning in India. Indian institutions currently follow all the strategies alluded to in this article – supplementary, complementary, and independent – to implement e-learning. The UGC has decided to enhance the quality of higher education through a supplementary path by integrating e-learning in the classroom. At the same time, a key part of the mission of Tamil Virtual University and Netvarsity is to develop a completely Web-based environment, though Netvarsity has adopted a blended approach. The IGNOU on the other hand adopts different approaches depending on the context and needs of the program. Using the strengths of Indian software developers and programs, most of the institutions develop their own platform for the delivery of e-learning. It has also been observed that e-learning is labeled as “elitist” because of the demand it places on access to computers and the Internet. With poor access and high digital divide, teachers tend to resist the adoption of e-learning. Parihar (2004) identified four bottlenecks in the introduction of ICT in academic settings. First, teachers have to make a move to new education, but lack time. Second, teachers fear that ICT will dislocate them. Third, teachers are unsure of the security provisions for their study materials. And, fourth, there is perceived unreliability of networking and local computing services. A critical examination of the e-learning developments in the country beyond the hype can indicate the next steps to be taken. For example, most of the programs do not adhere to any instructional design principles, and are technology-driven rather than need-based and contextual. Many of the elearning initiatives replicate the conventional distance learning system without realizing the potential of the e-learning and the additional or unique affordances it provides. Of great concern, the power of online interactivity is often used the least. In fact, the focus of most e-learning initiatives and programs in India are on content development in video format and uploading the often boring talking head video to an online website. To make mat-

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ters worse, courses and programs relying on such uploading of content spend minimal time planning for and designing that content to facilitate easy downloading and meaningful learning. Thus, anything and everything is passed on to the users as e-learning without specifying the contours of elearning in institutional contexts. In order to promote e-learning, it is important to develop teacher competencies in the use of Web-technologies; especially the use of e-learning platforms that are considered empowering tools for teachers. Reddi and Sinha (2003) emphasized the need for capacity building and training. They argue that: It needs to be understood that any new technology comes not merely with hardware and software, but with a learning and teaching style and grammar of its own, and that management practices need to be adapted in order to use the technologies effectively. (p. 252)

However, no strategic effort in this direction is seen, except for some sporadic training programs conducted by organizations like IGNOU and the COL’s regional center at New Delhi – The Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia (CEMCA). To boost the systematic development of e-learning in India, we recommend four essential steps. One of the key ones relates to the establishment of Indian Council for Online Learning (ICOL) as a statutory body. This body would be charged with developing a nationally distributed repository of learning objects; maintaining quality standards for online learning; coordinating and promoting online learning; accrediting online learning courses and programs; and developing and maintaining online learning portals for lifelong learning. A second step relates to the establishment of an e-Learning Consortium, including member educational institutions to offer e-learning programs without duplicating efforts. Third, we advocate for the development of facilities and programs for online instructor training. A final recommendation is to facilitate the development of small learning objects by teachers that they can use, share, and discuss. CONCLUSION

The development of a repository of learning objects will be useful in the creation of courses and programs to be delivered in supplemental, blended, or fully online ways. However, to promote flexible learning online, the Indian government should pay attention to the recommendations above. As the access to technology grows, an increasing number of educational institutions will likely jump on the e-learning bandwagon. This proliferation of e-learning will most likely lead to course duplications and a waste of national resources. At the same time, interest in e-learning could also lead to mass

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sharing, collaboration, knowledge exchange, and expanded educational opportunities for the citizens of India. During this stage of infancy, e-learning in India needs special care to improve its quality and effectiveness while extending educational access throughout the country and beyond. References Bates, T. (2001). National strategies for e-learning in post-secondary education and training. Paris: UNESCO, IIEP. Berg, Z., Collins, M., & Dougherty, K. (2000). Design guidelines for web-based courses, (pp. 3240), In B. Abby (Ed.), Instructional and cognitive impacts of web-based education, Hershey: IDEA Group. Bhusan, S. (2004). Online Learning of diplomacy. Indian Journal of Open Learning, 13(1), 113-117. Deshmukh, A. (2002). Student perceptions regarding online teaching and learning. In D. Murphy, N. Shin, and W. Zhang (Eds.), Advancing online learning in Asia (pp. 66-80), Hong Kong: Open University of Hong Kong Press. GOI (1999). National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development: IT Action Plan Part III – Long Term National IT Policy. New Delhi: Government of India. Retrieved on May 19, 2004, from http://it-taskforce.nic.in/actplan3/ Goldberg, M. W., Salari, S., & Swoboda, P. (1996). World Wide Web course tool: An environment for building WWW-based courses. Computer Network and ISDN System, 28. Retrieved on May 17, 1999 from http://www.webct.com/papers/p29/ Kanjilal, U., Ghosh, S. B., & Kumar, A. (2004). Web-enhanced training programme on WINISIS: IGNOU-DSIR initiative. Indian Journal of Open Learning, 13(1), 110-113. Madanmohan, T. R., & Ganesh, J. (2003). E-learning: The Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore Experience I. In S. P. Mudur, M. Sasikumar. and S. D. Dhamapurkar (Eds.), Online Learning: Selected Readings (pp. 67-77). (Proceedings of the International Conference Vidyakash 2002), New Delhi: Vikas. McCormack, C., & Jones, D. (1998). Building a Web-based education system. New York: Wiley Computer Publishing. Mishra, S., & Jain, S. (2002). Designing an online learning environment for participatory management of displacement, resettlement and rehabilitation. Paper presented in the 2nd Pan-Commonwealth Conference on Open Learning, Durban, South Africa, July 28 to August 3, 2002. Retrieved May 5, 2004, fromhttp://www.col.org/pcf2/papers/mishra.pdf Mitra, S. (1999). Virtual institutions in the Indian subcontinent. In Farell, G. (Ed). The Development of Virtual Education: A Global perspective (pp. 125-134). Vancouver: The Commonwealth of Learning Mitra, S. (2003). Netvarsity, India. In S. D’Antoni (Ed). The Virtual University, Paris: UNESCO, IIEP Retrieved May 19, 2004, from http://www.unesco.org/iiep/virtualuniversity/files/net_varsity.pdf NASSCOM (2003). Corporate e-learning. Market Intelligence Service, No. 45. Parihar, S. M. (2004). ICTs in higher education. Information for Development, 2(2), 25-28. Reddi, U. V., & Sinha, V. (2003). India: ICT use in education. In G. Farell and C. Wachholz (Eds). Meta-survey on the use of technologies in education in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.

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Sharma, R. (2001). Online delivery of programmes: A case study of IGNOU. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 1(2). Retrieved May 5, 2004, from http://www.irrodl.org/content/v1.2/ignou.html Starr, R. M. (1997). Delivery instruction on the World Wide Web: Overview and basic design principles. Educational Technology, 37(3), 7-15. Thomas, A. J., Kapur, D., & Kumar, A. (2004). Capacity building and training in the area of food safety through an online certificate programme. Indian Journal of Open Learning, 13(1), 107-109. University Grants Commission (2002). Tenth plan of University Grants Commission, New Delhi: UGC. University Grants Commission (2003). Report of the dialogue on “Enhancing Higher Education through E-learning.” November 17-19, 2003, India International Centre, New Delhi. Weller, M. J. (2000). Creating a large-scale, third generation distance education course, Open Learning, 15(3), 243-251.

Sanjaya Mishra holds a Ph.D. in Library and Information Science from the University of Delhi. He has been engaged in research and training on distance education at the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) since 1993. Dr. Mishra received the Indian Society for Training and Development-Vivekanand Award for Excellence in Training and Human Resource Development-2007, and University Silver Medal for Best Research paper in 2006. Currently he is Associate Professor of Distance Education at the Staff Training and Research Institute of Distance Education at IGNOU. He has published/presented over 65 research papers in national and international journals and conferences. He has authored or edited 14 books, including the Global Cases in E-Learning Practices: Successes and Pitfalls published by the IGI-Global, USA in 2007. Dr. Mishra is founder Co-Editor of Asian Journal of Distance Education, Editor of Indian Journal of Open Learning, and Regional Editor of International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning.

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 131-145

Academic Social Networks Affecting the Adoption of E-Learning in Turkey SIEW MEE BARTON Deakin University, Australia [email protected] BRIAN CORBITT RMIT University, Australia [email protected]

LEMAI NGUYEN Deakin University, Australia [email protected] This article reports findings from an ethnographic study of e-learning adopters in Turkey and examines ways in which cultural factors shape the adoption and use of information technology for online teaching. This research focuses on influential early adopters in the tertiary education sector in Turkey who have become change agents by inspiring small networks of their peers into e-learning. The study examines the operation of trust and inspiration in networking and teamwork in the Asian academic environment. A key finding of this research is that the early adopters of e-learning tend to become change agents in small groups and networks. This research sheds light on the mechanisms by which the process of e-learning adoption relies on social networks and connections.

The Growing Adoption of E-Learning by Universities BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION

E-learning (also often referred to as online learning) can be defined as the delivery of teaching programs using information and communication technologies related to the Internet (Chadha & Kumail, 2002). Online technologies for learning vary across educational institutions and regions of the

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world, but are often used from a management perspective. As such, they provide competitive advantages to the University, expand the student base as well as the international marketplace, and offer cost efficiency in providing distance education. Universities often point out that e-learning benefits to their learners include flexible learning time, pervasive access, and self control of the learning pace. While such benefits repeatedly appear in online learning books, journal articles, presentations, and news reports, the literature addressing the adoption of e-learning by another group of end users – the teachers – is rather limited. In response, this article describes and reports findings from an ethnographic study that attempted to gain a deep understanding of the cultural factors affecting the adoption of e-learning by academics in Turkey. E-Learning – An Innovation in the Community of Teachers and Learners According to the theory of diffusion of innovation by Rogers (1995), the adoption of an innovation is a process which occurs over time among the members of a social system. There are four main elements which influence the adoption process: (1) the innovation itself; (2) the social system within which the innovation is diffused among its members; (3) the communication channels through which messages about the innovation are communicated between the members; and (4) the awareness, persuasion, decision making, and adoption that takes place over time. In this study, the uptake of e-learning (i.e., the innovation) within any University (i.e., the social system) can be seen as a diffusion of innovation among a community of teachers and learners (i.e., members of the social system). We set out to explore the contextual factors (i.e., the culture) that shape and influence the communication channels and the adoption process of e-learning by teachers in higher education settings in Turkey. Based on Rogers’ theory (Rogers, 1995), the members involved in the innovation diffusion process can be categorized into different types of adopters: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Innovators are the members that introduce an innovation. This study focuses on the adoption of e-learning by early adopters; more specifically, the teachers who take leadership in exploring, influencing, and integrating elearning ideas and approaches within mainstream teaching and learning practices of their colleagues and students in a specific cultural context - Turkey. The adoption and diffusion theory of Rogers (1976, 1995) has found that adoption of new innovations is an active process that involves much reinvention. As such, adopters of this new approach, technology, product, or entity (especially the early adopters) must reinvent it and make the innovation their own if they are to continue using it. The introduction of online learning environments transforms the education practice by the teachers as well as the students. In all areas of technology, the cultural outlook, prefer-

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ences, and sensitivities of early adopters have been important factors shaping their approach to technological transition. Such factors also apply to IT and online teaching (Wilson, Sherry, Dobrovolny, Batty, & Ryder, 2000). Therefore, nurturing and harnessing the enthusiasm of early adopters can be the key to a successful adoption and pervasive use of e-learning. As the end-user of e-learning technologies, both the teacher and the learner are adopters of e-learning. However, the literature tends to focus on the identification of advantages and disadvantages in e-learning from the learner-adopter’s perspectives. Common advantages include the convenience in terms of time and place, self directedness, and controlling the learning pace (Lanham & Zhou, 2002; Singh, 2004). Common disadvantages include limited socialization and interactivity, lag of reading and typing, and prevailing Internet speed (see, for example, Chen & Wang, 2004). In addition, the empirical studies (Campbell, Goold, & Goward, 2004; Djojosaputro, Nguyen, & Peszynski, 2005) suggest a number of cultural factors which influence the learner’s style or approach to learning. These studies reflect views from the learner’s perspective. Limited research explores the e-learning experiences views from the teacher’s perspectives (e.g., see Barton, Corbitt, Nguyen, & Peszynski, 2006; Bates, 2000; Hyland, 2003). According to such research, although some teachers are willing to learn new technologies, many are reluctant and resistant to changing their teaching practices. One reason educators may resist is due to their cultural backgrounds, influences, and ideologies (Hyland, 2003). Some are fearful and anxious about their lack of technical experience resulting in low levels of technology confidence. Barton et al. (2006) suggested an understanding of how the development of professional guanxi in South Asian cultures might influence the adoption of academics in this region. These studies strongly postulate that one key area related to the adoption of e-learning technologies by the teacher-adopter is the area of human factors as experienced and viewed from the teacher’s perspectives. One of the pioneering theoreticians on the role of cultural factors in organizational behavior is Geert Hofstede from the Netherlands (Wikipedia, 2009a). Although his work has attracted a number of critical responses (e.g., Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill, & Thanasankit, 2004), it remains a seminal point of reference and a significant inspiration for other scholars. One of the virtues of Hofstede’s writing is its lucidity and its concrete expression, particularly in the area of culture. Our research applies the insights of Hofstede and others related to cultural influences on behavior as a means to understand both the individual as well as the group dynamics involved in the adoption and development of online learning information technology. It seeks to do this by examining the role of trust and inspiration in building and sustaining motivation among groups and networks of pioneers and early-adopters.

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Cultural Factors - In Online Learning and Teaching

Cultural Dimensions Hofstede (2001) has provided an in-depth discussion of culture and the multiple dimensions of culture that have been widely accepted and used in a variety of disciplines (Corbitt et al., 2004). One of the virtues of Hofstede’s writing is its lucidity and concrete expression. Hofstede’s (2001, p. 5) view of culture is that it is “learned, not inherited. It derives from one’s social environment, not from one’s genes.” Basically, Hofstede (2001) argues that from a cultural standpoint, everyone belongs simultaneously to several different kinds of groups and is variously influenced by different layers of mental programming within themselves. Hofstede (2001) identified five independent dimensions of national culture, each rooted in a basic problem with which all societies have to cope, but on which their answers vary. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2003) have conducted research that parallels that of Hofstede (2001) in several important respects. They discuss not so much stereotypes as the need to understand individuals. They draw their study sample from a business environment and arrive at a series of oppositional dimensions of culture, settling on six axial pairs (2003). While the above cultural factors have been found as important in understanding people’s attitudes and competencies in general business practice (see Hofstede, 2001; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 2003), what is much less well understood are the ways in which cultural background shapes their attitudes and competencies with respect to adopting and using technologies for online teaching. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2003) argue that communitarians see group-focus and assume joint responsibility. As revealed by a study by Djojosaputro et al. (2005), students often seek friends and relationships before they feel comfortable with each other. That particular research found that students not only feel at ease with the names provided online but they would feel much more comfortable when they first met face-to-face. According to Hofstede (2001), students from the power distance and collectivism culture tend to feel and find comfort in a communal and dependency environment. Hofstede (2001) argues that in the high power distance culture, students tend to have a dependant style of learning. The finding above supports this argument indicating that this dependency still can be seen among these students. Even though there is an indication that the power distance is reduced in online learning environments, students still expect that the knowledge comes from the lecturer rather than building the knowledge themselves through discussion and interaction. Essentially, the findings of Djojosaputro et al. (2005) point out that students from a collectivist and high power distance culture want to be guided by the lecturer in the online learning environment. Such students rely heavily on the lecturer’s information and answers while studying course content and subject matter during the semester.

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Utilizing Hofstede’s (2005) work, there is a distinction between members of an individualist society and members of a collectivist method in the way they operate. Members of the individualist society typically look after their own or his immediate family (Hofstede, 2005). However, in a collectivist society, members typically work in a communal sense, through networks and associations. In the Chinese culture, this is typically referred to as guanxi. The concept of guanxi draws together considerations of social linkages, group behavior, and social capital. The concept of guanxi is briefly translated as personal connections or relationships on which an individual can draw to secure resources or advantage when doing business as well as in the course of social life (Davies, 1995). Similarly, Corbitt and Thanasankit (2001) observe that guanxi is cultivated through a person’s network of connections. Using their studies, the researchers have begun to explore the role that guanxi dynamics play in individual motivation and change management behavior among academic faculty members involved in the pioneering of information technology for online learning. Guanxi is a specific Chinese term for networking. It is used to describe high-trust, long-term relationships that allow individuals to assist one another in a synergistic fashion. The pattern of guanxi, however, is endemic to academic environments around the world. Guru-disciple, supervisor-postgraduate student, or mentor-mentored--this is the warp and weft of academic life. When inspirational, visionary early adopters and innovation leaders find time to mentor groups and networks of willing learners profound change is possible. Academic guanxi are found all around the world but their characteristics, development, and dynamics are significantly influenced by culture. Guanxi networks entail reciprocity, obligation, and indebtedness among actors, as well as the aesthetic protocol that comes with cultivating these relationships (China Business Review, 2004). At its root, then, guanxi means connections. Background of Turkey (Research Setting) Turkey is a modern nation with an ancient past. Located between Asia and Europe but feeling itself more European than Asian, Turkey also sits between the developed world and developing world. By some measures, such as the sophistication and diversity of the economy, Turkey is a developed nation. It ranks as high as fifteenth in the world according to some economic indices (Wikipedia, 2009b). But in terms of the gross domestic product per capita, Turkey clearly belongs in the ranks of developing nations. The gross domestic product per capita for Turkey in 2007, for example, was $9,400. In terms of adult literacy, Turkey has respectable but not outstanding figures. While overall adult literacy is 87.4 percent, women have a literacy rate of only 79.6 percent. A recent study by Aydin and Tasci (2005) reported that

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universities are ready for the adoption of e-learning in terms of skills and expertise. However, the adoption of e-learning in Turkish universities by the instructors, academic staff, and students is still at an early stage. As a result, the online teaching and learning practices are still rather ad hoc and the level of integration between online teaching technologies and teaching and learning practice is still rather fragmented and low. This study takes place in early days of the ad-hoc adoption of e-commerce within Turkey. DATA COLLECTION

Participants were chosen from a selected sample of tertiary academics in Turkey, with as broadly varying cultural backgrounds as possible. In addition, the sample came specifically from academics involved in teams and networks pioneering the development of online learning. This article reports findings drawn from two Turkish online learning pioneers and academics, Naili and Basir, from a number of academic participants in this study. The research project was structured to maximize the aspects of longitudinal study by observing the same individuals over a period of two to three years. Contact with these academics commenced in late 2005. The ethnographic data was collected via participants’ interactions and regular dialogue, including semi-structured interviews, observations, and documentation (Fetterman, 1998). Notes taken during observations of their online teaching activities and interviews were digitally recorded. Each interview was then transcribed in full or in part, for later analyses. Naili’s Story: Making an Effort to Reach Out and Engage with Background Naili, in her late 30s, is a Thai academic who works at Turkey’s largest distance education university. She stands out among her colleagues as someone who is constantly making an effort to reach out and engage with people in her direct, face-to-face encounters. Her online style closely matches her face-to-face style of communication. Naili is a classic example of someone who has learned how to use technology to engage people and minimize distance. Naili has her undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications from America. Her mastery of English works to her advantage and she is generally perceived as a modern, western “American” lady. Naili makes good use of power distance in her relationship with her students. She has formed strong networks with peers and mentors from America, the UK, and all around the world. Adopting Technology in Teaching eMBA Program Naili developed and established the eMBA online program in which she teaches. She constantly initiates online discussions with her students and

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earnestly encourages her students to participate in online discussions and communication. She regularly seeks feedback from students and counterparts from the partner University in USA to improve her eMBA course. Naili has extensive online interaction, both professionally and personally, with her students. She uses this network to help her constantly refine and develop her eMBA program. She observes that, “...my students will email me 24/7 and because I’m often online, I reply to them. During semester breaks, [when] I go overseas for conferences, I still engage my students as long as there is internet connection.” She laughingly adds, “They don’t know whether I’m here in Turkey or Thailand.” Naili was happy to share plentiful anecdotes about her teaching experience and is quick to see the humor in situations that she finds herself in. For example, she related that: I am constantly involved in online discussion with my students. One day, a Turkish male student confided and shared about his problems with me regarding his problems and difficulties in studying as an adult. Being a professional teacher, I responded and thought that person was a female student. Low and behold, when we met face-toface during our one week seminar, we both were shocked to find out that I was not a male teacher and he was not a female student.

She added: “I have to be more careful in my assumption regarding my communication during online communication.” Naili’s comments demonstrate that online communication and the teacher’s personality and attitudes can support the social process in teaching and learning. Further, it becomes clear that because Naili herself feels comfortable with holding discussions online, she naturally elicits the trust and confidence of her students and close colleagues. Revealingly, Naili volunteered that: “good friends here are hard to come by. So I very often have a cup of coffee with my good trusted friend, Shabby who is from South America.” Naili uses her heritage to build her network and influence her students and colleagues to use online technology in teaching. Shabby is also a migrant from South America and married to a Turkish man who is also one of her colleagues. Naili often encourages and shows Shabby how to use online technology to improve her teaching. Naili shared that: “I am very willing to share and help her in using online technologies. I feel the more people using these tools, the better it is for us to influence other staff and students.” During their weekly informal chats, both Naili and Shabby often discuss their online experiences with students and ways of making incremental improvements to online course delivery. As Naili stated, “I’m a go-getter and willing to try everything to motivate students to study online.” She explained that, “I formed network and trust with peers and mentors from

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States, UK and all around the world.” Naili has great rapport with students studying online. She is also extremely opportunistic. As a result, she gets things done and finds way to motivate her students to be involved in online teaching and learning activities. Naili enthusiastically stated that: “I spend more than 50% of my time communicating with peers, colleagues and students overseas using electronic medium. The response is so fast & often instantly especially using MSN, IM or any other chat facilities.” Her external cultural experience was useful for her to define the approach to teaching and learning online where she interacts with international students from America and Turkey. Naili also communicates and builds her trust with external peers and collaborates with them in writing journal articles. For example, she explained that: “...most of my recent journal articles that I collaborate with my peers globally via MSN and emails. It is so easy these days.” In summary, Naili uses online technology such as online chat rooms and emails to gain a network of support from her colleagues as well as from students to share stories of her online teaching experiences with colleagues (to mentor them and to learn from them) and to encourage students to learn and communicate with the teacher online. Her professional experience sharing and personal influences (guanxi) become important factors in forming a network of other adopters and engaging them in the innovative practice. Drinking Cai – Establishing Good Friendship Even though she originally comes from Thailand (high in power-distance relationships), her regular mannerisms and ways of doing things are very much low power-distance relationship, suggesting that her extensive western education from an early age has shaped her instructional approach. Nevertheless, it is also evident that deep down she believes in building networks and relationships with her peers who share the same interest and values with her. She is extremely selective with whom she interacts on a deeper level. Naili notes that, “Drinking çai together is a good way of establishing friendship here.” She adds that drinking çai (tea) is very important in building good friendships and networks, a dynamic that parallels modes of interaction in Thai society. This also relates Arial’s case of bamboo networking and social networking revealed in Barton et al. (2006). Despite western influences and ways of doing things, Naili’s Asian outlook and upbringing continue to influence her. Certainly, it seemed clear to the researcher that she related extremely well with Naili because they were similar to each other – of similar age and background, an Asian woman married to a non-Asian, and a career minded person who enjoyed motherhood but did not wish to remain at home. Naili strongly believes that online technology is the way forward. Naili readily uses online and offline informal and formal communication mechanisms to encourage students and colleagues to learn. She teaches online and

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engages people in online communication rather than just simply following a top-down approach or traditional classroom lecture formats. While other colleagues are hesitant or reluctant to change, through informal and formal communication mechanisms, Naili builds a network of students and colleagues, an academic guanxi, to support her early adoption of online technologies in her teaching practice. Basir’s Story: Building Trust to Build Network of Support with Background Basir is Turkish mid 30s male academic teaching at the same mega distance university in Turkey as Naili. Like Naili, he teaches in the eMBA course and uses online technologies in all of his courses. Unlike Naili, he is entirely locally educated - he did his undergraduate and master’s program at his present university and is currently enrolled in a doctoral program at his university. Although he has never studied abroad nor lived outside Turkey for a prolonged period of time, Basir travels frequently to Europe and America for partnership course exchanges with his university. Using Technology and Building Trust in Teaching eMBA Basir is fluent in both Turkish and English but is, understandably, more comfortable in Turkish than English. Basir generally uses Turkish when communicating with his students in both online discussions and in face-toface teaching. Although many of his students have excellent English language skills and he himself is articulate and comfortable when speaking English, he seldom uses English to communicate with his students. He claims that he can reach out to a wider community by using Turkish. Basir feels that he gains sympathy and support from his locally-based network. Before he started using information technology to deliver his course content online, Basir was very actively involved in conventional distance education (his university has an enormous conventional, paper-based, distance education program). Basir stated that, “In Turkish culture, trust is very much my thing. My students trust me because I give them information and knowledge to learn.” He further explained that trust was highly individual and is generally not given easily. He builds his trust and network with his students. He has the “power” – power-distance online relationship with his students. He communicates and gives feedback frequently using discussion groups and instant messaging with his students. In terms of his colleagues or peers, Basir admitted that he did not feel that he could easily trust his colleagues with certain things. More specifically, he had a fear of losing his “intellectual property” if he were not careful and allowed people to steal his ideas. Basir explained that: “You know, it took me a long time to collaborate with my colleagues. I think I only have one or two colleagues whom I write papers together. But somehow, I feel I could trust and share writing with you.” Basir explained that he believes that informa-

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tion and knowledge are very powerful and that he felt the need for caution with many of his peers and colleagues. Basir explained that although Turkey is very much a male dominated patriarchal society this was not without positive attributes. Basir makes a point of mentoring younger colleagues and advanced students, continuously building what he describes as a “boys network” with his peers. He explained that even though he has this personal trust with his male colleagues, he still could not share his professional intellectual work or writings with them. Building Trust Through Leadership and Experience Sharing Together with Naili, Basir is one of his university’s pioneers in online teaching and learning. He first made use of IT deliver methods when he began emailing weekly PowerPoint notes to his students in 2003. Then, in 2005, he began to use Instant Messaging (IM) to conduct weekly discussion forums. Basir’s weekly IM forum discussions expanded to daily discussions and even 24/7 online discussions and chats with his students. By 2006, he was in near constant discussion with his students across Turkey and beyond and had initiated hundreds of discussion threads. After observing his extensive usage of this technology and the enthusiasm with which his students responded to the opportunity for free and open discussion online, Basir’s university began to call upon his expertise and seek his advice on adopting this technology more broadly. Beginning in late 2005, the university developed a localized Learning Management System (LMS). Basir became the leading contributor to the new LMS, which is now widely used. He continues to run workshop sessions wherein he helps market and explain the new LMS. Apart from the LMS itself, Basir has shared with his colleagues other ways of using IT tools for online learning. Unfortunately, due in part to a general lack of resources, his time spent in getting other staff members to use the system was not adequately compensated. Nevertheless, due to his strong belief that online technology delivery is the way forward, he continues to build groups of experts in different areas. Using his outgoing nature and personality, he persuaded many of his colleagues to use different online technologies. Also because they know him, his sharing of experiences and his seniority at the university has enabled him to gain trust among his colleagues. The eMBA at Basir’s university was initiated with a partner University in the United States. Basir and Naili together pioneered the program. He coordinates groups of Turkish students while his counterparts in the U.S. coordinate the American students involved in the same program. It is evident that Basir has helped his Turkish students overcome fears of using online technology by spending extensive time answering their queries and simplifying the online delivery process. He generates reports from the discussion threads and uses them to enhance his online teaching methods. At the

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same time, he has analyzed and researched ways to improve the course based on students feedback. Basir believes that establishing trust and building sound relationships with his students enhances online teaching and learning. The findings of Djojosaputro et al. (2005) indicate that students from a collectivist and high power distance culture want to be guided by the lecturer in the online learning environment. In that research, students relied heavily on the lecturer’s information and answers while studying during the semester. Such observation of the student’s reliance also applies to Basir’s online teaching delivery. Similar to Naili, Basir builds his guanxi with colleagues and students and engages them in his innovative online teaching practice. Naili builds her network of practice through informal çai drinking and personal and semi-formal communications. In contrast, Basir builds his network of practice through establishing trust and sound relationships with his students. Perhaps, this difference reflects the masculinity dimension in Turkish culture. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The vignettes show that Naili and Basir are undoubtedly capable of operating independently of top-down initiated programs. They play a significant role in the development and establishment of online teaching and learning in Turkey by making an effort to reach out and engage with people to win trust. It is clear that a proactive approach to supporting such academics could significantly increase their number and influence. By identifying and promoting champions, mentoring them, and helping them mentor others, a larger pool of technology pioneers can be more quickly built-up than without this proactive engagement. More importantly, a high priority needs to be given to fostering a collegial culture of trust and strong social relationships among academics if innovation and initiative is to be nurtured and broadly reproduced. This finding extends one of our previous studies (Barton et. al 2006), which showed that key early adopters become change-agents via their social networks as well as by inspiring small networks of their peers. That study also discovered that motivation is not simply an individual matter but is also bound up with groups and peer networks or communities of exchange and encouragement. These networks motivate individual teachers through the encouragement that they find in personal connections, friendship, and networking (Chen & Chen 2004; Corbitt & Thanasankit, 2001) enabling them to become effective and consistent change agents. Without such lower and middle level pioneers taking the initiative to develop online teaching programs in their areas, top-down attempts to push such developments are unlikely to succeed. The theme “academic guanxi” emerged in this study from the adoption perspective. The key concepts behind academic guanxi include: champions, mentoring and influencing, social networks or connections, long-term rela-

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tionships, and mutual trust. Guanxi (in Chinese) can be understood through the Turkish term bağlantı kurmak which refers to one’s friendships, relationships, social networks or connections. Like the metaphor of clumping bamboo in Asia, the local clusters of adopters tend to easily use the longer-range subterranean personal connections that are generally not nearly so immediately obvious to people around them. In Turkey, these connections are often the product of previous mentorship relationships, including the relationships between influential academics and their former postgraduate students. Such relationships tend to work like bamboo runners (Barton et al., 2006) – they run off in multiple directions below ground and remain unseen and surface after the early adopters are in a mature phase. The runners, or social groups of adopters, then throw up new clumps which grow up and then send out fresh runners of their own. The Turkish academics tend to rely on their network of support and learning from each other in small communities built on trust and reciprocal exchanges and mutual encouragement. These collegial communities and networks enable online learning pioneers to build on their long-term orientation (Hofstede, 2005) and strive to enrich the teaching-learning exchange with their students through the online environment. The findings from this article have led to a related study in the Malaysian context (Barton et al., 2006). Both studies revealed that top-down implementation of technology is necessary but it is not sufficient in itself. Instead, a more proactive approach to developing and nurturing peer mentoring networks, or guanxi, among academics is much needed. Stated another way, pioneers and ‘champions’ need to be identified and encouraged. In effect, middle-down team building initiatives need to be seeded and cultivated. And most importantly, a collegial culture of trust and strong social relationships among academics needs to be steadily established and developed. Sadly, this is rather challenging for the academic community as many universities tend to adopt an economics-driven view toward online teaching and learning (Corbitt, Holt, & Seagrave, 2006) rather than one rich with social networking, knowledge exchange and sharing, and friendly relationships. References Aydin, C. H., & Tasci, D. (2005). Measuring readiness for e-learning: Reflections from an emerging country. Educational Technology & Society, 8(4), 244-257. Barton, S. M., Corbitt, B., Nguyen, L., & Peszynski, K. (2006, December) Cultural factors behind the growth of e-learning in Malaysia: Academic Guanxi. Presented at the 17th Australasian Conference on Information Systems, Adelaide, Australia. Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change: Strategies for college and university leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Campbell, M., Goold, A., & Goward, P. (2004). Using online technologies: Does culture matter? In G. Richards (Ed.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2004 (pp. 2300-2307). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

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Chadha, G., & Kumail, S. M. N. (2002). e-Learning: An expression of the knowledge economy. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill. Chen, X., & Chen, C. (2004). On the intricacies of the Chinese Guanxi: A process model of guanxi development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21, 305-324. Chen, X., & Wang, Y. (2004). Use synchronous chat to improve online learning experience. Proceedings of the Tenth Americas Conference on Information Systems. China Business Review (2004). An in-depth look at Guanxi Source, Washington D.C. Retrieved July 29, 2006, from http://resources.alibaba.com/article/154/An_in_depth_look_at_ Guanxi.htm/ Corbitt, B., & Thanasankit, T. (2001). The challenge of trust and guanxi in Asian e-commerce. In M. Singh & T. Teo (Eds.), e-Commerce Diffusion: Strategies and Challenges (pp. 141-158). Heidelberg Press, Australia. Corbitt, B. J., Peszynski, K. J., Inthanond, S., Hill, B., & Thanasankit, T. (2004). Cultural differences, information and code systems. Journal of Global Information Management, 15(3), 65-85. Corbitt, B. J., Holt, D., & Seagrave, S. (2006, October). Strategic design for Web-based teaching and learning. International Journal of Web Based Teaching and Learning Technologies, 1(4), 15-35. Davies, H. (1995). China business: Context and issues. Longman Asia Ltd, Hong Kong. Djojosaputro, L., Nguyen, L., & Peszynski, K. (2005). Cultural dimensions in online learning. Proceedings of the 16th Australia Conference of Information Systems, Sydney, Australia. Fetterman, D. M. (1998). Ethnography: Step by step. USA: Sage Publications. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. London: Sage Publications. Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hyland, A. (2003). To teach online or not? The decision facing university teachers. Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia (HERDSA) Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand, 6-9 July. Lanham, E., & Zhou, W. (2002). e-Learning: Literature survey. Geelong: Deakin University. Rogers, E. M. (1976). New product adoption and diffusion. Journal of Consumer Research, 2, 290 -301. Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. New York, NY: The Free Press. Singh, H. (2004). Succeeding in an asynchronous learning environment. In G. M. Piskurich (Ed.), Getting the most from online learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2003). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business. Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London. Wikipedia (2009a). Geert Hofstede. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Geert_Hofstede Wikipedia (2009b). List of countries by GDP (PPP). Retrieved March 22, 2009, from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP) Wilson, B., Sherry, L., Dobrovolny, J., Batty, M., & Ryder, M. (2002). Adoption of learning technologies in schools and universities. In H. H. Adelsberger, B. Collis, & J. M. Pawlowski (Eds.), Handbook on information technologies for education & training. New York: Springer-Verlag. Retrieved March 6, 2009, from http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/pubs/newadopt.htm

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Siew Mee Barton is a lecturer and Campus Coordinator for Business Communication at Deakin University. She earned her Bachelor of Business in Marketing and Finance at Monash University and her Master Business Information Technology at RMIT University. She is currently completing her PhD in Information Systems at RMIT University. Her current research is on key factors influencing the ways in which university academics from different cultural backgrounds in SE Asia adopt IT for online teaching and learning. She can be reached at [email protected].

Brian Corbitt is Professor of Management Information Systems at RMIT University in Australia and was Professor of Management Science at Shinawatra University in Thailand. He has previously been Pro Vice Chancellor (Online Services) at Deakin University and JADE Professor of eCommerce at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand. Prior to that, Brian lectured at the University of Melbourne and Monash University. He specializes in knowledge management, business modeling and electronic commerce trade relationships, and IT policy development, analysis, and implementation. He has written 6 books on eBusiness, eCommerce and eGovernment as well as 4 additional books. He has also published over 150 refereed scholarly papers and numerous government reports for the Governments of Thailand and New Zealand. Brian has given dozens of invited papers as a keynote speaker in Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, New Zealand, Japan, Hong Kong, and Australia. He can be reached at [email protected].

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Lemai Nguyen is a Senior Lecturer at Deakin University, Australia. She received her PhD in Information Systems from Deakin University in 2000. Her research areas include creativity in requirements analysis, health informatics, online learning, and virtual communities. Her work is published in various scholarly journals, book chapters, and conferences in Australia as well as internationally. Lemai is a member of the Steering Committee for Australian Workshop on Requirements Engineering since 2002 and a member of the organizing committee for aged care informatics workshops in 2008 and 2009. She can be reached at [email protected].

A Special Passage Through Asia E-Learning (2009), 147-155

E-Learning in Asia: Just as Good Is Not Good Enough THOMAS C. REEVES The University of Georgia, USA [email protected] The dramatic economic and social developments underway in Asia have been fueled by traditional education, but that is rapidly changing. E-learning is essential to further development in Asia and elsewhere around the world. Despite the laudable achievements described in the articles included in this special book, many unresolved issues related to the effectiveness of online higher education in Asia remain. Three particularly interrelated thorny issues are: (1) access, (2) quality, and (3) accreditation. A deplorable lack of alignment persists in Asian online higher education enterprises among the critical elements of the learning environment, viz., higher order outcomes, specific objectives, content, instructional design, learner tasks, teacher roles, technological affordances, and assessment. Continuing to use e-learning to deliver the same instructional methods as traditional higher education in Asia will ultimately fail because “just as good” as what exists is simply not acceptable in light of the goals and needs of 21st Century learners.

Introduction It was mid March 2009 when I began writing this article in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia where I was one of 19 invited speakers at the First International Conference on e-Learning and Distance-Learning sponsored by the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education. Among the other invited speakers were three Korean, two Japanese, and one Malaysian e-learning experts. In my experience, such an event a few years ago would have been almost exclusively dominated by speakers from Australia, Europe, and the USA, but times have clearly changed. As should be expected, the recognition of the e-learning experience and expertise in Asia is rapidly increasing. This special book is just one more example of this important trend.

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The Rise of Asia Kishore Mahbubani, Dean of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at the National University of Singapore and author of the 2008 book The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East, predicts that the 21st Century will be an Asian one in the sense that much of the world’s economic activity and wealth will shift from the West to the East. In the process, hundreds of millions of people in countries like China and India will finally escape the shackles of poverty. In the West, especially in the USA, this should be regarded positively. After all, it was American universities that largely educated the entrepreneurs and scholars who Mahbubani (2007) called the “dynamic new Asian elites” behind the fast economic progress that has seen Asia “become an engine of worldwide growth.” Instead of applauding this success, however, most Western politicians and pundits, as well as the public at large, appear to view these developments with fear and foreboding. This xenophobic attitude appears to becoming even more entrenched in the wake of the current global economic crisis. In view of this negative attitude, Mahbubani (2008) warns: It is also clear that the mental maps of the leading minds of the world, especially in the West, are trapped in the past, reluctant or unable to conceive of the possibility that they may have to change their worldview. But unless they do, they will make strategic mistakes, perhaps on a disastrous scale.

The Rise of Asian E-Learning In March 2009, Scientific American magazine noted the 20 year anniversary of the submission of the original blueprint for the World Wide Web protocol by Tim Berners-Lee (Greenemeier, 2009). The rapid growth of the World Wide Web over the past two decades has fueled economic wonders such as Google and eBay, while simultaneously setting the stage for numerous financial disasters. An example of the latter has been the online megauniversities originating in the West that venture capitalists and entrepreneurial academics alike predicted would prosper as they fulfilled the developing world’s demands for higher education. Some of the elite universities in the USA, the United Kingdom, and Australia were especially misguided in assuming that the Asians would beat a path to the doors of their online education ventures. Market projections for online universities originating in the West were extremely exaggerated, and as a result, high profile online learning ventures such as UNext, the Global Academic University, and the UK’s eUniversity failed after spending millions on course development and delivery infrastructure (Garrett, 2004).

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Instead of online learning being outsourced to Western universities and organizations, as described in several articles in this special book, homegrown higher education initiatives have blossomed in several Asian countries. Consider, for example, the amazing growth of the Open University Malaysia which combines e-learning with face-to-face tutorials and selfmanaged learning (Abas, this book). OUM opened its doors in 2001, and now has more than 77,000 students. Similar enrollment expansion in online or blended higher education institutions can be seen in China, India, and other Asian countries as described in the excellent contributions to this journal. Clearly, the significant e-learning developments throughout Asia described in this special book are laudable. But many unresolved issues about both the quantity and quality of online higher education in Asia remain. The balance of this brief article highlights three key ones: (1) access, (2) quality, and (3) accreditation. It is important to note that while the discussion below may seem to be especially critical of Asian e-learning academic ventures, these same criticisms can and should be applied to many similar postsecondary online enterprises in North America and Europe (Reeves, 2003). It is also imperative to point out that lumping all of Asia into any across-the-area generalizations is unjustified because enormous differences exist between e-learning developments in various Asian countries (Latchem, Jung, Aoki, & Ozkul, 2008). Access, Quality, and Accreditation There are two primary goals for online higher education. One is increasing access to higher education opportunities for people who would not otherwise have them and the other is enhancing the quality and outcomes of higher education. The articles in this book make a good case that the first goal is being achieved in Asia. However, with hundreds of millions of potential higher education students throughout Asia, there remains enormous room for further growth. Unfortunately, the evidence for attainment of the second goal, enhancing the quality and outcomes of Asian higher education, is much harder to find. Latchem (2008) surmised that Asian distance education is more concerned with access while Western distance education is more concerned with quality. If such tendencies are valid, one must reflect on the causes. Perhaps the focus on access is appropriate in the Asian context where higher education opportunities have been and continue to be extremely limited in the wake of numerous economic, geographic, and infrastructure barriers. Some proponents of online learning may argue that access to any kind of higher education is better than none, and that the quality issue can be dealt with after access has been greatly expanded. However, I agree with Twigg (2003) that it is better to deal with quality assurance from the onset of any e-learning initiative:

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Reeves At the crux of the quality issue in distance and e-learning is the nosignificant-difference phenomenon. Much of the discussion that occurs on campus consists of technology advocates trying to prove that online courses are as good as traditional education. Instead, we should be thinking about how to make online courses even better than traditional courses. (p. 116)

The quality issue is especially important given ample evidence that the quality of higher education across Asia is generally poor, especially when looking beyond the relatively few elite institutions found in any given country (Huang, 2005; Tiwari, 2005; Welch, 2007). Under-funding, over-crowding, weak staffing, crumbling infrastructure, corruption, and other issues severely limit the quality of education provided to students at most institutions of higher education within some Asian countries. Of course, there are also notable weaknesses in the higher education systems in the USA and other Western universities and colleges (Hersh & Merrow, 2005; Smith, 2004). Nevertheless, the lack of high quality offerings and outcomes of Asian higher education is an issue that must be confronted and soon! Some Asian countries have made the controversial choice to funnel sizable resources into a few elite institutions to raise their stature in international comparisons while using online education to provide lower quality higher education to the masses of students clamoring for greater access. Other Asian countries are leaving the provision of their open online enterprises up to private commercial interests whereas a few countries are maintaining more centralized governmental control. Regardless of the model, massification of higher education access appears to be getting much more emphasis than enhancing the quality of the outcomes derived from the higher education provided. As the most widely applied method of addressing quality assurance in higher education, accreditation has a long and checkered past in the USA (Wergin, 2005) and more recently in Europe (Stensaker & Harvey, 2006). For example, accreditation of U.S. universities and colleges was long handled by six large regional entities, but in recent years dozens of alternative private and commercial accreditation schemes have sprung up. These new accrediting bodies have watered down the already dubious quality of the accreditation services provided by the traditional agencies. For example, many commercial online higher education enterprises that were unwilling or unable to obtain approval from traditional accreditation agencies have simply established their own accrediting bodies such as the Distance Education and Training Council (http://www.detc.org/). Accreditation as traditionally conceived, with its emphasis on the inputs to higher education institutions rather than the outcomes, is probably not worth saving in the West (Morgan, 2008), much less being extended to the applica-

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tion of e-learning in higher education in Asia. Instead, Asian countries could consider the establishment of a pan-Asian peer-review system for online higher education courses and degree programs. The Quality Matters project (http://www.qualitymatters.org) funded by the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE) in the USA provides a model for such an inter-institutional quality assurance system for online higher education. Developing rigorous assessments of the competencies achieved by students as a result of their participation in higher education in Asia, admittedly a daunting undertaking, is a much more promising, even necessary direction. Some fledgling efforts to develop rigorous assessments of online learning are already underway in Asia. For example, the Pan Asia Networking (PAN) project (http://www.idrc.ca/panasia/) initiated by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), a Canadian non-governmental organization that supports research for development in emerging economies, includes student assessment as one of the major foci for its ambitious distance learning research and development agenda. PAN involves 11 Asian countries (Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Mongolia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam). After visiting most of the PAN project sites in Asia, Baggaley and Ng Lee Hoon (2005) rendered this positive judgment: “the evidence shows that distance educators of the developing world have now surpassed their first-world counterparts and, with thrift, ingenuity and determination, are dictating the next developmental phase of learning, media and technology internationally” (p. 13). Despite their optimistic conclusion, Baggaley and Ng Lee Hoon provide no evidence that the ambitious PAN initiative has a sufficient focus on identifying and measuring the critical competencies that learners should possess as a result of completing various levels of higher education. The Way Forward Matthew Pittinsky (2003), founder of the BlackBoard course management system, predicted the five most important developments in e-learning. One of his key predictions related to the development of a global learning profile that would map a person’s educational achievements onto specific knowledge and skill competences needed for success in the 21st Century global economy. Much work remains to be done before Pittinsky’s (2003) promising prediction comes true. Although various agencies and think tanks have defined the critical outcomes for 21st Century learners in the West (CEO Forum, 2001; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2007), these efforts are not informed sufficiently by global perspectives that acknowledge the rise of Asia and other major shifts in political and economic power. Nor have the majority of Asian countries made sufficient progress in identifying the most desirable outcomes for their own higher education students. Although recent advances in assessment strategies such as digital portfolios (Klenowski, Askew, & Carnell, 2006) and other online assessment tech-

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nologies (Bryan & Clegg, 2006; Oosterhof, Conrad, & Ely, 2007) are noteworthy, they have not been adequately linked to efforts to define the critical competences of 21st Century graduates. Indeed, the lack of alignment in Asian higher education with essential 21st Century skills as well as the critical elements of any learning environment is simply deplorable. These elements include higher order outcomes, specific objectives, content, instructional design, learner tasks, teacher roles, technological affordances, and assessment (Reeves, 2006). Bonk (2009), Christensen, Horn and Johnson (2008), Iiyoshi and Kumar (2008), and others point us toward an optimistic future when opening learning resources, social networks, and ubiquitous computing will fundamentally change how people learn. I am hopeful that these positive prognostications will be realized, but mindful of earlier predictions which were equally optimistic (Chambers, 1999; Perelman, 1992). To be sure, neither Asia nor the rest of the world will realize these Learning 2.0 dreams without fundamentally changing how we conceive, provide, and evaluate higher education. John Seely Brown emphasized the demand for fundamental change in higher education in the Foreword to Iiyoshi and Kumar’s (2008) volume: …the unrelenting velocity of change means that many of our skills have a shorter shelf life, suggesting that much of our learning will need to take place outside of traditional school and university environments. It is also unlikely that sufficient resources will be available to build enough new campuses to meet the growing demand for higher education, at least not the sort of campuses we have traditionally built for colleges and universities. Nor is it likely that current methods of teaching and learning will suffice to prepare students for the lives they will lead in the twenty-first century. (p. xi) The authors of the articles in this book provide hopeful signs that the future of e-learning in Asia will be a positive one. Suzuki (this book) describes an innovative approach to preparing the next generation of e-learning designers and developers in Japan with a strong foundation of welldefined competencies driving the program. Anzai (this book) presents a picture of how Japanese youth are using portable devices and Web 2.0 technologies to interact socially, and perhaps even learn in the process. Zhang and Hung (this book) present a strong case for increased investment in establishing the quality of e-learning in Taiwan before widespread acceptance can be expected. Pena-Bandalaria (this book) highlights the potential of e-learning to overcome the gaps between the rich and the poor in the Philippines. Tan, Lee, Chan, and Lu (this book) illustrate a possible Higher Education 2.0 future in Singapore based upon the implementation of advanced e-learning technologies. Abas (this book) portrays the amazing growth of the Open University of Malaysia where e-learning is a critical component of “University for All,” a goal which arguably all countries around the world should strive to achieve. Laohajaratsang (this book) demonstrates how even in

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Thailand, a country stricken with on-going internal political turmoil, elearning has the potential to provide higher education learning opportunities. Mishra (this book) stresses the need for a regulatory agency in India to oversee the myriad e-learning developments in a country that experts predict will be the most populous on earth by 2050. Finally, Barton, Corbitt, and Nguyen (this book) delineate how early adopters of e-learning play a key role in supplementing more centralized efforts to disseminate online learning innovations in Turkey. Despite the optimistic signs of progress highlighted in these articles, much more remains to be done. It is quite disappointing and even ironic to see that rather than taking advantage of the unique features of e-learning to provide more effective instructional methods that are aligned with its unique affordances, e-learning in Asia (and elsewhere) is primarily used to deliver the same instructional methods as used in classroom instruction. Not surprisingly, comparisons between e-learning and traditional instruction have almost always found “no significant differences” in learning (Bernard, Abrami, Lou, Borokhovski, Wade, Wozney, Wallet, Fiset, & Huang, 2004; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, & Liu, 2006). Given the emphasis on traditional ways of instruction in Asia, it is unlikely that significant advantages for e-learning will be found there anytime soon. This might be acceptable to some, but I argue that “just as good is not good enough.” It never was and it never will be. References Baggaley, J., & Ng Lee Hoon, M. (2005). PANdora’s box: Distance learning technologies in Asia. Learning, Media and Technology, 30(1), 5-14. Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., Wallet, P. A., Fiset, M., & Huang, B. (2004). How does distance education compare to classroom instruction? A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 379-439. Bonk, C. J. (2009). The world is open: How Web technology is revolutionizing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bryan, C., & Clegg, K. (Eds.). (2006). Innovative assessment in higher education. Oxford, UK: Routledge. CEO Forum on Education and Technology (2001). Student achievement in the 21st Century. Assessment, alignment, accountability, access, analysis. Washington, DC. Retrieved February 12, 2009, http://www.ceoforum.org/ Chambers J. (1999, November 16). Convergence for business, education and entertainment. Keynote Address at the 1999 COMDEX Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., & Johnson, C. W. (2008). Disrupting class: How disruptive innovation will change the way the world learns. New York: McGraw-Hill. Garrett, R. (2004).The real story behind the failure of U.K. eUniversity. Educause Quarterly, 27(4), 4-6. Greenemeier, L. (2009, March 18). Remembering the day the World Wide Web was born. Scientific American. Retrieved online March 26, 2009, from http://www.sciam.com/ article.cfm?id=day-the-web-was-born

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Hersh, R. H., & Merrow, J. (Eds.). (2005). Declining by degrees: Higher education at risk. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Huang, F. (2005). Qualitative enhancement and quantitative growth: Changes and trends of China's higher education. Higher Education Policy, 18, 117-130. Iiyoshi, T., & Kumar, M. S. V. (2008). Opening up education: The collective advancement of education through open technology, open content, and open knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Klenowski, V., Askew S., & Carnell, E. (2006). Portfolios for learning, assessment and professional development in higher education. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 31(3), 267-286. Latchem, C. (2008, October). Open, distance and e-learning: A global overview. Presentation at Maltepe University, Turkey. Retrieved online March 26, 2009, from www.maltepe.edu.tr/ 08_haber/uzaktanegitimkonferans/1_oturum/Colin_Latchem.ppt Latchem, C., Jung, I. S., Aoki, K., & Ozkul, A. E. (2008). The tortoise and the hare enigma in e-transformation in Japanese and Korean higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(4), 610-630. Mahbubani, K. (2007, December 19). Make way for the rise of Asia. Newsweek. Retrieved online March 3, 2009, from http://www.newsweek.com/id/80934 Morgan, J. H. (2008). The gathering storm: Accreditation and the search for accountability in American higher education. South Bend, IN: The Victoria Press. Oosterhof, A., Conrad, R., & Ely, D. P. (2007). Assessing learners online. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2007). Beyond the three Rs: Voter attitudes toward 21st century skills. Retrieved online March 14, 2009, from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/ documents/P21_pollreport_singlepg.pdf Perelman, L. J. (1992). School's out: Hyperlearning, the new technology, and the end of education. New York: William Morrow. Pittinsky, M. S. (Ed.). (2003). The wired tower: Perspectives on the impact of the internet on higher education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Reeves, T. C. (2006). How do you know they are learning? The importance of alignment in higher education. International Journal of Learning Technology, 2(4), 294-309. Reeves, T. C. (2003). Storm clouds on the digital education horizon. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 15(1), 3-26. Smith, P. (2004). The quiet crisis: How higher education is failing America. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Stensaker, B., & Harvey, L. (2006). Old wine in new bottles? A comparison of public and private accreditation schemes in higher education. Higher Education Policy, 19, 65-85. Tallent-Runnels, M. K., Thomas, J. A., Lan, W. Y., Cooper, S., Ahern, T. C., Shaw, S. M., & Liu, X. (2006). Teaching courses online: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 76(1), 93-135. Tiwari, S. (2005). Education in India. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers. Twigg, C. A. (2003). Quality, cost and access: The case for redesign. In M. S. Pittinsky (Ed.), The wired tower: Perspectives on the impact of the internet on higher education (pp. 111-143). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Welch, A. R. (2007). Blurred vision? Public and private higher education in Indonesia. Higher Education, 54(5), 665-687. Wergin, J. F. (2005). Waking up to the importance of accreditation. Change, 37(3), 35-41.

Thomas C. Reeves is a Professor of Learning, Design, and Technology at The University of Georgia where he teaches graduate-level program evaluation, multimedia design, and research methods courses. Since receiving his Ph.D. at Syracuse University in 1979, he has designed, developed and evaluated numerous interactive learning programs for education, training, and performance support. Professor Reeves’ research interests include evaluation of instructional technology for education and training, mental models and cognitive tools, authentic tasks for online and blended learning, socially responsible research goals and methods in education, and the applications of instructional technology in developing countries. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tom Reeves, Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, 604 Aderhold Hall, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7144. Email: [email protected]

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