A Sketch of Morality Independent of Obligation and Sanction

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A SKETCH OF MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF

OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

BY

M.

GUYAU.

Translated from the French (Second Edition) by

GERTRUDE KAPTEYN.

London

WATTS &

CO.,

17,

:

JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET 1898.

St.

CONTENTS.

....

...

Translator's Preface Preface

.

PAGE vii i

.

.

INTRODUCTION. Criticism of the Different Attempts

Justify Obligation from the

to

Physical Point of View.

Chapter

I.

—The Morality of Metaphysical Dogmatism — The Hypothesis of Optimism i.

.

-The Hypothesis

of Pessimism

-The Hypothesis of the

7

.

8

.26

.

.

.

Indifference of Nature

38

II. i.

ii.

iii.

— Morality of Practical Certitude — Morality of Faith — Morality of Doubt

.

.

.

45 V-

.

64

.

FIRST BOOK, On

the Motive Force of Morality from a Scientific Point of View.

First Equivalents of Duty.

Chapter

I.

— Intensity of Life the Motive Force of Action —The Highest Intensity of Life has Necessary is

„

II.

,,

III.

— To what Extent

„

IV.

—The

.

71

for its

Correlative the Greatest Expansion

Obligation.

81

.

Inward Power creates a Sort of

Power and Duty

.

.

.89

Sentiment of Obligation from the Point of

View

of

Mental

Repressive Force

Dynamics

as

.

.

Impulsive or

98

CONTENTS.

VI

PAGE

SECOND BOOK. Last Possible Equivalents of Duty for the Maintenance of Morality.

Chapter I.— Fourth

Equivalent of Duty Derived from Love of

Risk and of Struggle

—Fifth

II.

physical Risk. i.

ii.

.116

.

.

Equivalent of Duty, Derived from

Meta-

The Hypothesis,

— Metaphysical Risk in Speculation — Metaphysical Risk in Action

.

*

.

-135 .

147

THIRD BOOK. The Idea of Sanction.

ChaI'TER

I.

— Criticism

of

Sanction i.

ii.

„

II.

„

III.

,,

IV.

...

Natural

Sanction

and

of

Moral 152

— Natural Sanction — Moral Sanction and Distributive Justice .

—The

Principle of Penal

Society

.

.

or .

154

.

158

Defensive Justice in .

—Criticism of Invi'ard Sanction and of

169

.

Remorse

186

—Criticism of Religious and Metaphysical Sanction. — Religious Sanction i.

ii.

iii.

.

—The Sanction of — Conclusion

.

193

.

Love and of Fraternity .

.

.

197 .

208

;

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

There fit

can be

little

doubt that the present moment

offers

a

opportunity for introducing to a large circle of English

own country, Guyau is already known in England by his remarkable and suggestive work on Education and Heredity and The Irreligion of the Future book of Guyau's, which,

readers this is

rightly considered

in his

masterpiece.

his

and another work from him, on so important a subject

may

as Morality, tion

furnish a

and encouragement,

evidently entering

much-needed source of

when moral

at a time

inspira-

science is

upon a period of renewed energy and

wider interest. Stimulated by the great

complexity of

life,

of the old creeds

the problems

difficulties of

under circumstances which render many

and

religions

incompetent to grapple with

demanding solution

chaos which threatens to retard fitful

reactions

;

an ever-increasing

;

distressed

all

the lovers of freedom

and

tion turn to Morality for the support

giving quality without which

life

is

by a mental

progressive efforts by social ameliora-

and the

doomed

to

strength-

decay and

destruction.

But, in order to reality,

make

the influence of morality a living

instead of a shadowy

study of

its

principles should

and conventional dogma, the be approached with a deep

Vm

TRANSLATORS PREFACE.

human

reverence for

nature and truth, and a broad-minded

sympathy, which alone can achieve success in so arduous an undertaking.

In

sphere of moral science, which includes

this

of most

Independent of Sanction or

He

all

that

is

importance to man, the author of Morality

vital

merits the study of

all

Obligation

a master-spirit.

is

men and women who

look for

the development of the highest and best from germs which lie

hidden in the

That Guyau

human

is

breast

itself.

one of ourselves, born in the central

of the nineteenth century, gives

and

actuality to his thoughts,

all

and

more

the

fills

life

significance

his writings with a

convincing interest which the utterances of authors belonging to earlier

times

cannot possess in the same degree and

intensity.

For

each generation the hope and the light

past

may

which has an

give us the eternal essence historical

forces.

The

its

and unquestionable value

present alone can fully express

and

own of human

must necessarily spring from

of the future

The

to

its

own

present must work out

;

present.

thought,

but the

needs, capacities,

its

own

salvation.

Neither Socrates nor Christ, neither Aristotle nor Buddha, neither Luther nor

Kant, can give us the keys to the

problems of an age which was unknown to them. the energies of our

new

birth,

springs of

life,

rise in the

most highly-gifted minds of our own

among

these finely-organized

Our

take their era.

And

and superior natures Guyau

stands one of the foremost.

Born

in

1856, a typical offspring of the second part of

our century, we find in him a personality specially endued with a genius for reflecting the intellectual and moral evolution of the age.

which we

His are the very doubts and negations

experience,

and

his are the very

hopes and ideals

— translator's preface. which shall

lift

ix

us out of the depths of mechanical materialism.

Exclusive attention to physical and external

phenomena has

occupied our minds, and shut us out from the sphere of

and emotional

reflective

activity,

which

none other than

is

the sphere of morality.

Guyau,

in

no way hampered by an antiquated education,

found himself, from the very beginning of life,

at the point

which even now a great many enlightened

minds only reach

":

a religious training invaded." that

is

From

—

should

danger

religion having

Guyau

so apt to be

Religion of thought

:

truth

to

on

a happiness to escape

it is

add

like to

possessed the

in his essay

religion of character is

to say, the loyalty this

Emerson speaks

" For a great nature

We

He

after a severe struggle.

great advantage of which

"Worship

intellectual

his

—

so apt to be

is

escaped,

his

lost.

and only

first

been the ideaUsm of a Plato and a Kant.

These were the masters from whose lofty conceptions he gradually evolved the standpoint whence the royal road to

human efforts.

self-direction lies

And

While acting

great discoveries of

by many of

his

artist

and

half

it

remained a witness

existence.

science,

the works of

understood or wrongly

would-be followers, found

in

intelligence capable of recognising their golden

grains of truth, a

mental

their

all

modern

only

Darwin and Spencer,

Guyau an

and

as the mirror of all the conflicting ten-

to the higher unity which underlies

applied

vision

and moralist with those of the

dencies and characteristics of his age,

The

his

his nature was such as to unite the qualities

of the thinker poet.

open before

verities,

mind open

to accept

some of

their funda-

but also a mind aware of their limitations

and shortcomings.

It

was given to

poet-philosopher to add

to the

this

young and aspiring

sound and healthy naturalism.

TRANSLATOR

X

S

PREFACE.

of his day an idealism without which moral evolution lacks its vital

him

and

spring

In him

meaning.

its fullest

from

lived,

went forth, an idealism which, while rooted firmly in

nature,

could nevertheless soar upwards into the higher

and imagination.

regions of thought

doing of goodness for

its

own

sake

He

material or outward obligation or sanction

own

solely

upon

living

and growing from

its

incentives its

and

own

believed in the

forces

seeds.

in duty relying

;

;

in a morality

This belief was

and development of

inspired by the expansion

from any

in virtue free

;

life

itself.

This new

faith,

freed from the bonds and chains which but

too often

doom

lower conceptions of morality or religion

to sterility,

opened up the prospect of a future

in

which

it

should become possible to realize the ideal of a sane, healthy,

and strong race highest

directing

its

powers and capacities to their

Instead of the external authority of a God,

use.

or the equally external authority of categorical imperatives

imposed upon our freedom (as even the great

Kant

still

more or

less

natural determinism

structed a kind of

Morality

and expe-

unto themselves.

thus conceived as a natural, internal energy

is

for good, translating itself into action

of

vitality.

It is

and thus the

life

by

its

own exuberance

an abundance of force in natural overflow, of a moral agent

fellow-creatures.

is

mingled with that of

which forms the

find a moral power,

as to

subdue

evil

its

Instead of an outer law of restraint, which

incessantly struggles with an unwilling individual (and this

and

of impulses

sentiments, which, disciplined through reflection rience, are a law

Immanuel

conceived morality), Guyau con-

basis

of ordinary morals),

it

is

we here

which may be so trained and increased

tendencies far more successfully than

possible under categorical imperatives or apodictic rules.

is

TRANSLATOR

The

great

merit

PREFACE.

S

book

of the

XI

that

is

unfolds this

it

ideal of the loveliness of the natural moral ideal, it

so vivid as to create the desire for

display

of

this

ideal

a

as

service in a period which

is

and renders

realization.

its

possibility

The

an invaluable

is

threatened on the one side by

moral dissolution, and on the other by a return to mental chaos and superstition.

was

The

to exist.

such

as

latter alternative

which loved

his,

believed in

Guyau perceived

Morality must justify

critical.

it,

and

itself,

that the situation

or

it

must cease

was not possible to a soul

and therefore already

virtue,

in the possibility of its

on

realization

earth.

If

no ready-made

no system, no dogmas, can be

theory,

got out of this book, there remains the great merit of bringing

home

us

to

conviction that

the

to

its

our time

new mental and moral

belongs the task of creating a

guidance, which shall enable the individual and the race to steer a happier course.

" This

a book student task.

a great task, and

is

which

many

It is

gives

to

the

our task."

is

it

and

serious

suggestions as to the best

way of

So ends

open-minded fulfilUng this

Guyau threw

thus both a call and a sign-post.

on whatever problem he touched, and, by virtue of his large-hearted sympathy and singularly gifted nature, his soul

light

realized

the

possibiUty

of ultimate

between those conflicting tendencies

harmony and peace

human

in

nature which

give rise to the riddles of existence.

As an

artist

moralist he different

he

felt,

taught,

spheres of

as a thinker he

that

only

human

could banish sorrow and

the

thought,

pain.

moral qualities were so mixed

discovered, as

a

harmonizing of the emotion, and

will

In him the aesthetic and that

his

conception

of

TRANSLATOR S PREFACE.

XU morality was

lit

up by the ardour and enthusiasm of

his conception of art

The intensity

aspiration.

his nature to

action

and

art,

and

was strengthened by steadfast moral of his life-impulse and force drove

go out towards others, thus exemplifying that

re-action of the individual

and

his surroundings

which may solve the problem of conflicting altruism and egoism.

No

nobler task than the one set by

to the twentieth century

;

and

Guyau could be given

to those

who

mission he should no longer be a stranger.

believe in

In Guyau,

its

who

has not unjustly been called " the Spinoza of France," they will find the inspiration

social efforts

needed

and reforms.

for the carrying

His high-souled

his ceaseless striving after truth

and

virtue

on of

sincerity

all

and

mark him out

as

a standard-bearer in the struggle for the emancipation of humanity.

Gertrude Kapteyn.

ERRATA. Page 44

;

six lines

from bottom.

For " antagnostic " read " ant^o-

nistic."

For "kivSvtjos" read " Kii/Swos."

Page 135

;

middle of page.

Page 172

;

eleven lines from top.

Delete "guilty."

"

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION. PREFACE.

An

ingenious thinker has said that the aim of education

was to give to man "a bias towards goodness."* saying

shows

clearly

To

generally accepted.

there

may

the

foundation

of

This

morality

as

the philosopher, on the contrary,

not be in conduct one single element for the

presence of which the mind cannot account, one obligation

which does not explain which

is

We extent

itself,

one duty the necessity for

not clearly shown.

intend, therefore, to investigate

of

a

conception

should have no part

;

in

of

morality

the in

character and which " bias

which everything would be sup-

ported by reason, and appreciated at

its

true value, whether

with regard to certainties or with regard to merely probable

opinions and hypotheses.

—even schools is

those of the

If the majority of philosophers

utilitarian,

—have not completely

evolutionist,

and

succeeded in their

positive

task, this

because they wanted to put forward their rational moral

philosophy as nearly adequate to the ordinary moral philosophy,

as

having the same scope, and also

to have rendered *

it

as imperative in

its

" Le pr^jug^ du bien "

precepts.

{y'vasi).

pretending

This

is

not

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

2

When

possible.

Science has overthrown the dogmas of

the different religions, she has not pretended to replace

them

nor to immediately supply a distinct object, a

all,

her position with

the religious need;

food, for

definite

regard to morality

the same as with regard to religion.

is

Nothing indicates that a conception of morality which

—

purely scientific

known

and

most part of feelings and

for the

is

on that which

to say, based solely

is

—must agree with the general conception of

composed

make

that

is

morality,

To

prejudices.

Bentham They were

these two conceptions of morality coincide,

his followers

One

wrong.

have too often violated

facts.

can, moreover, understand very well that the

sphere of intellectual demonstration does not equal in range the sphere of moral action, and that there are cases in which

a definite and rational rule happens to

Till

fail.

now, in

cases of that kind, habit, instinct, sentiment, have guided

man is

these

;

done with

one

is

may

be followed in the future, provided

still

clear knowledge,

and

that, in following

conscious of obeying, not some mysterious obligation,

human

but the most generous impulses of

with the most just necessities of social

One does instance, of

science

is

limited.

a purely

On

—by showing that facts.

scie»tific morality that, far

gerate the extent of her domain, limits

itself.

It

In such and such a case I tively in the

name

its

object as a

the contrary, to limit a science

embrace everything, and

its

—for

not undermine the truth of a science-

moral science

alchemy limited to observable

settle

nature, together

life.

often to give a greater stamp of certitude

that

it

them,

of duty.

;

is

is

but

Likewise we believe

should

not

pretend

to

from wanting to exagit

should endeavour to

must consent

am

chemistry

to

say,

frankly:

unable to prescribe impera-

Thus

the sense of obligation

PREFACE.

and of sanction can no longer

exist.

Consult your deepest

your most vivid sympathies, your most normal and

instincts,

most human aversions;

that

after

you may make meta-

physical hypotheses about the foundation of things, about

your

own

and

destiny,

of

that

Starting from this precise point, in other words, to

in morals

your

you are

fellow-creatures.

your " self-government."

— consisting, not in absence of

to yourself—

left

This

rule,

of scientific rule, wherever such cannot justify

Here begins

sufficient rigour.

is

freedom

but in absence itself

with

in morality the part of philo-

sophic speculation which positive science can neither suppress

nor entirely replace.

In climbing a mountain there comes

moment when we

a certain

hide the summit

;

we

wrapped

are

in clouds,

are lost in darkness.

on the height? of thought

It is the

which

same

one part of morality, which

:

is

mingled with metaphysics, may be forever hidden in clouds, but there must also be a solid precision the points where

basis,

man

and we must know with

should resign himself to

enter cloudland.

Among

recent works on morality, the three which, for

reasons, have appeared

different

important are

Spencer

in

;

in

England, "

to us

be the most

to

The Data

of Ethics,"

by Germany, " The Phenomenology of the Moral :

in France, "

The Criticism M. Alfred Fouillee. Contemporary Moral Systems," by

Conscience," by Hartmann

;

seems to us that by the reading of these works, so in

character,

time.

On

Naturalist

two points are brought forward

;

It

different

at the

same

the one hand, the conception of morality of the

and

Positivist schools furnishes

principles, either in the

sanction

of

way of

on the other hand,

morality can provide any,

it is

no unchangeable

obligation or in the

if

an

idealistic

way of

conception of

of a purely hypothetical and

— MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

4

In other words, what comes

not of an assertive nature. within the order of facts universal

disappearance

which

consider

it,

;

is

it

We

appears on both sides.

variability,

The

a speculative hypothesis.

is

imperative, in so far as

this

not universal, and whatever

is

absolute

accept,

result is that the

and

categorical, dis-

on our own account,

and, instead of regretting the moral

is

the result of

on the

contrary, as

future conception of morality.

within certain limits,

it

with

many

In

Hartmann on the imposed

transcendent

the

folly of

respects this con-

speculations

Spencer, that conduct has

a duty, we

as for

motive

most varied

intense, the fullest, the

In

M. de

of

the will to live and on the nirvana

by reason

logically

we

the characteristic of the

ception will not only be " autonomous," but " anomos." contrast

is

life

;

admit, with

power the most whereas our con-

ception of the conciliation of individual and social

On

other than of Spencer.

the other hand,

we

life

is

recognise,

with the author of the " Critique des Systemes de Morale

Contemporains

"

(M. Alfred Fouill^e), that the English

school and the Positivist school, which admit an " unknowable,"

have been wrong in expelling every individual hypo-

thesis

from

author,

this subject

that

;

but

we do not

unknowable

the

itself

think, as does this

can

contribute

a

"principle practically limiting and restricting conduct," a principle of

mere

medium between the

justice,

which would be, as

the categorical imperative of

free metaphysical

hypothesis.

The

it

were, a

Kant and

only admissible

" equivalents " or " substitutes " of duty, to use the

language as the author of "

appear to us to be I.

to

The

La

same

Libert^ et le Determinisme,"

:

consciousness of our inward and superior /ozc;^?-

which we see duty practically reduced.

PREFACE. 2. 3.

The The

5

influence exercised by ideas over actions. increasing

fusion

of

the

4.

The

and the

sensibilities,

increasingly social character of our pleasures

love of risk in action, of which

and sorrows.

we

show the

will

importance hitherto ignored. 5.

The

love of metaphysical hypothesis, which

is

a sort

of risk in thought.

These

different incentives

combined

are, for us, all that

a

conception of morality, reduced to facts only and to hypotheses founded

upon them, would be able

to offer in the

As

place of the categorical obligation of past times.

moral will

sanction, so called, distinct

from

social

be seen that we purely and simply suppress

as " atonement "

it

is

fvinda,menta.lly

immoral

to the

sanctions, it,

it

because

Our book,

should, therefore, be regarded as an attempt to determine

the compass, the extent, and also the limits of an exclusively scientific

conception of morality.

Its value, therefore, existsj

independently of any opinions which absolute

and metaphysical

may be

basis of morality.

held as to the'

I

INTRODUCTION.

CRITICISM OF THE DIFFERENT ATTEMPTS TO

JUSTIFY OBLIGATION FROM THE METAPHYSICAL POINT OF VIEW.

CHAPTER

I,

The Morality of Metaphysical Dogmatism. I.—The HjTpothesis of Optimism. II.— The Hypothesis of Pessimism. III.— The Hypothesis of the Indifferenee of Nature.

The

morality of

in itself" (un

metaphysics admits a

realistic

Men en

''good

a natural good distinct from pleasure and from happiness, a possible hierarchy of what

good

is

in

sot),

nature, and, for that very reason, a hierarchy

of the different beings.

conform one's

Is

it

are under obligation

?

Is

it

maxim, " To

not illusive thus to seek

good to be realized by

in nature a type of

we

It returns to the old

self to nature.''

us,

possible to

and

know

to

which

the basis

of things, and the true meaning of nature, so as to work in the same direction

any meaning us

?

at all ?

Has

nature, scientifically considered,

There are three hypotheses before

— optimism, pessimism, the indifference of nature.

examine them

in

turn, to see if they,

view of metaphysics, categorical obligation

accepted.

justify

Let us from the point of

the absolute, imperative, and

of moral

philosophy as

ordinarily

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

8

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM.

PROVIDENCE AND IMMOR-

TALITY.

Such men as

Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Spinoza, Leibnitz, supported optimism, and have tried to found an have objective morality in conformity with this conception of I.

One knows

the world.

all

the objections to which this

reality, absolute optimism is immoral than moral, for it involves the negation of progress. When once it has penetrated the mind, it pro-

system has given

rise.

In

rather

duces, as correspondent sentiment, satisfaction with things

as they are

everything

:

;

from the moral point of view, from the

justification of

political point of view, respect for all

authority, passive resignation, voluntary

stifling

every

of

and consequently of every feeling of duty. If all that exists is good, no change is wanted there must be no interference with the work of God that great artist. Likewise, everything that happens is equally good every event justifies itself, since it is part of a divine work, comIn the end this brings about, not plete in all its details. feeling of right,

;

—

;

only the exculpation, but the deification, of all injustice. To-day we are astonished at the temples which the ancients raised to

men

such as Nero and Domitian

;

not only did

they refuse to understand crime, but they adored

we doing anything evil

else, if

we

it.

Are

shut our eyes to the reality of

here below in order afterwards to declare this world bless its author? The worshipping of the

divine and

Romans the sign of an inferior moral on that very state, it debased and degraded As much can be said of the worship of a it still more. creative god, who should be responsible for everything, and who, in reality, is irresponsibility itself. Devout optimism is a state analogous to that of the slave, who is happy of the sick man, who is not conscious of his illness ; the latter, Caesars was with the

state

;

reacting

—

at least, does not attribute a divine character to his illness.

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM Charity

order to

exist,

9

needs to believe

in the

and indignity of the miseries which

reality

poverty, spirit

in

itself,

PROVIDENCE.

sorrow,

if

ignorance (blessed are the poor in

if

the evils in this world are not real

if all

!),

If

relieves.

it

evils,

and

bottom, wrongs and absurdities of nature, how will charity be able to keep the rational character which is the condition of existence of every virtue ? And if charity, like

are, at

a flame without food,

extinguished, what will be the value

is

of your world, which you imagine as a work of absolute

and all-powerful goodness ? Even pessimism can often be superior in moral value

charity, of absolute

exaggerated optimism direction of progress

:

;

it

does not always

if it is

to

fetter effort in the

painful to see everything in

sometimes more useful than to see everything in rose colour. Pessimism may be the symptom of an unhealthy over-excitement of the moral sense greatly hurt by the evils of this world ; optimism, on the contrary, too often Whoindicates an apathy, a numbness of all moral feeling. ever does not reflect, and is actuated merely by habit, has a strong tendency to optimism ; the people, being ignorant,

black,

it is

taken in a mass, are

— especially

the

in

— pretty

country

nearly satisfied with the present state of things

by routine

more it

is

;

the greatest evil in their eyes

inferior

a population

this is the political

:

is,

the

more

is

;

they live

change.

The

blindly conservative

Nothing

form of optimism.

is

more dangerous than the desire to give to optimism a religious and moral sanction — to thus make it a guiding the human mind may principle of thought and of conduct ;

thus be paralyzed in lized

by

—had

his

God.

some angel

all its activities

Permit

me

— man may be demoraa dream.

to relate

or seraph taken

me on

his

One

night

wings to

transport me to the paradise of the Gospels, near the " Creator " ? one night I felt myself soaring in heaven, far

—

above the earth. As I rose higher and higher, I heard a sad and weary sound ascending from the earth, a sound similar to the monotonous song of the torrents heard amid

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

lO

I disthe solitude and silence of the mountain summits. sobs, mingled with thanksgiving tinguished human voices groans, interrupted by benedictions ; I heard despairing

—

supplications, the sighs of the dying, rising with the

fumes

—

into a of incense. All this melted into one intense groan symphony so heart-rending that my soul filled with pity.

The sky seemed obscured by sun, nor the joy of the earth.

was with me.

"Do

angel looked at "

it,

I

and

you not hear?"

me

with

no longer saw the

I

asked him.

who The

and peaceful

look.

turned round to him I

a serene

he said, " the prayers of' men, ascending from the earth to God." While he spoke, his white wing glittered in the sun but it seemed to me quite black, and full of horror. "What tears I should shed were I that God!" I I exclaimed and I began, indeed, to cry like a child. loosened the hand of the angel, and let myself fall down

These

are,"

;

;

again to the earth, thinking there remained in

humanity

to

make

it

possible for

me

me

too

much

to live in heaven.

If optitnism, instead of considering the world as actually good, tried to re-establish the notion of a continual progress,

regulated by a Divine law, would

it

succeed better in solving

the problems of this world, and in laying the foundation of

human If,

morality

?

We

do not believe

it.

with the optimists, one postulates a remote aim, which

should be the same for

all

beings, the

means of

attaining

aim are so opposite in character that the moralist will be unable to deduce from the knowledge of the aim a this

practical

perhaps

may

rule

of

many roads

conduct.

All

roads

lead

to

Rome;

and injustice Even for humanity

lead to the universal

ainu,

same purpose as justice. sometimes as sure a means of progress as agreement and, from a universally optimistic point of view, it is not evident why the human good will should be more conformable than the evil will to the hidden ends of nature or of God. All conscious will is often even useless, and good seems to be able to work itself out at least partially— serve the

strife is ;

—

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

—PROVIDENCE.

II

without the intervention of man. A rock on which a child has just split its forehead may be of more service to the future well-being of this globe than that child, since the

rock has been concentrating in itself, during thousands of years, a portion of the solar heat, and thus helps in some degree to retard the cooling of the earth.

The to

morality of

contribute to the

are too

The

many

optimist

good

possible ways.

teacher of gymnastics,

dogmatism commands whole; but Everything can be

of

the

who placed

us

there useful.

same room a

in the

Christ and of himself, believed that he was doing as much as Jesus for humanity. Perhaps he was not wrong with regard to universal and providential evoluportrait of Jesus

The greatest nations have been those whose people were strongest and had the most robust appetite. The Romans astonished the world by their gluttony the EngUsh, the Germans, the Russians (who will have so very important a part to play in the future), are great eaters ; even the egoist himself can work for universal perfection he can produce a healthy, vigorous, hardy generation. Egoism has made tion.

;

—

the English race great.

was a naive egoist

In

many

—the genius of

respects

Erasmus Darwin

grandson has justified it. Everything becomes merely relative, when viewed with regard to the total results for the whole universe. Which point of the Christian teaching do travellers tell us has most his

minds of the negroes ? The religious which one wanted to inspire them ? No ; but the propriety of the Sunday. And the African and Asiatic people, what did they adopt from Mohammedanism ? The drinking strongly impressed the law, with

of water.

In the great organism of the universe the microbe of typhoid fever and cholera has a duty to perform, which it cannot, and dare not, cease to perform ; man, also, has special functions

good. evil.

—the

man

of evil as well as the

man

of

Seen from a certain distance, good comes out of It is thus that great defects, great sacrifices of men,

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

12

are often useful to ajiation.

It is told that Spinoza,

when

laughed at the sight of his favourite spider devouring Perhaps then, applying it the flies which he threw at him. to himself, he thought of the internal complaint which was ill,

him perhaps he smiled to feel himself likewise enveloped in some invisible spider's web, which paralysed his will, silently devoured by a multitude of infinitely small destroying

;

monsters.

Once more, in the immensity of the universe, the paths and roads followed by each being, instead of running parallel or of being concentric, cross one another intersect in every way. He who finds himself, by chance, at the point Thus there is at the of intersection is naturally bruised. root of nature which it is pretended is " as good as possible a fundamental immorality, which is caused by the opposition of functions between living beings, by the quality of space and matter. In absolute optimism the universal good is an end which employs and justifies all

—

''

—

—

means. Moreover, nothing

tells

us that the line which leads to

and humanity usually considered by moralists as the practical foundation of moral obligation. If a tiger believed that, by saving one of his fellow tigers, he was working for the advancement of the this universal

good passes

demands of

individuals that devotion to

all

directly through humanity,

universal good, he might be mistaken

;

it

is

better for all

do not spare each other. Thus, everything blends and grows smooth, viewed from the heights of metaphysical contemplation ; good and evil, individuals and species, species and environment. Nothing base is Spinoza, the optimist, said, " in the house of left, as that

tigers

Jupiter."

A

last hypothesis has been tried to, in a measure, save optimism, to excuse the creating cause or the eternal substance, without compromising the moral sense and the

instinct of progress.

An

effort

has been

made

to point

— THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

— PROVIDENCE.

I3

out in physical evil (suffering) and in intellectual evil (error, doubt, ignorance) a condition sine qua non of moral good. In this way an attempt is made to justify them. It is said that the purpose of the universe will.

The purpose of the

is

universe

is

not outside the morality

—

;

human

but morality

presupposes choice and struggle that is to say, it presupposes the reality of evil, physical or intellectual, and the possibility of moral

From this it follows

evil.

that all the

evil so liberally diffused in this

world has but one object to place an alternative before man. According to that doctrine, in which Platonism is blended with Kantism, the world itself should be nothing but a sort of living formula

Vega

of the moral problem. the suns, the

stars,

and

in the

their satellites

Lyre or Arcturus, all might roll for ever in

on some one day, in one hour (which, perhaps, has never yet come, according to Kant), a small impulse of disinterestedness might be produced, or that a glass of water might be given, with truly kind intention, to some one who is thirsty. That is beautiful ; but how to deduce " a categorical duty " from an hypospace, in order that here below,

it seems, to facts ? If the universe has value only as a simple opportunity for charity,

thesis so uncertain, so contrary,

its

existence seems difficult to justify, and the ways of

God

are very tortuous.

The

hypothesis which

we

are examining

presupposes

the existence of freewill, of a power of choice (at

noumenal). responsibility

Without absolute ;

neither

is

liberty there is

there merit or demerit.

accept, without examination, all these notions.

least,

no absolute Let us

Even then

we can prove to their partisans that this world, made according to their opinion with a view to morality, is far from being the best possible world even in this respect. Indeed, merit stood in direct ratio to suffering, I can very well imagine a world where the suffering would be still much more intense than in this one ; where the contest between right and wrong would be much more heartrending ; where if

.

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

14

more obstacles, would be more meritorious. Let us even suppose that the Creator heaps up so many

duty, meeting

it becomes very difficult for be carried away by evil. The he triumphs in a supreme effort, Will If that which is most beautiful to

obstacles for his creature that

him not to give in

— not

merit of the creature,

be

if

infinitely greater.

God

in the

world

is

to

the resignation of Job or the devotion

why are the occasions for those high virtues so rare, and why does progress make them, day by day, still In our century a general of an army who more rare ? of Regulus,

behaved

Decius would not in the least

like

of his soldiers

mistake in

We

do

;

on the

not,

these

in

temptations which

and

St.

The

tactics.

assist the victory

contrary, his heroism

days,

made

Antoine tremble.

would be a every day.

level of virtue falls

experience

those

the vigorous bodies of

powerful

St.

Jerome

Progress most frequently runs

counter to the development of true morality

—that morality

which is not born ready made, but makes itself. Perhaps I have in me an energy of will which, fifteen centuries ago, might have transformed me into a martyr. In our days I remain willingly or unwillingly an ordinary mortal, for want In short, how poor is our age in true merit of hangmen. what decline in the eyes of a partisan of liberty and of If the only aim of the world is to put absolute morality the moral problem before us, we must admit that barbarism !

puts

it

much more

happy to-day

to

forcibly than civilization.

be deeply moral.

We

We

are too

are generally able

to satisfy our desires so easily while doing

good that it is hardly any longer worth while to commit evil at least, not on a large scale. When Christ was tempted, it was

—

on

a desert,

mountain;

he was almost naked, In these days, when the majority of people are well dressed and do not fast any more, the devil is not seen from so near; but then, if there is no longer a tempter, there is no longer a Christ. To in

exhausted by

explain

the

the

fasting.

world, you establish a sort

of contradiction

;

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

— PROVIDENCE.

15

between perceptible happiness and virtue. You say, the world is all the more perfect as it is less happy, while perfection

in

lies

Well,

desire.*

the

will

exactly in

over grief and

triumphing

the terms of this

same con-

condemn the world. Each of its steps towards progress may be considered as a step backward. Every hereditary quality which we acquire tradiction

possible to

is

it

suppresses something of the absolute

in course of time

character of the primitive

God grief,

the only

and labour

;

all that

of a being enables

The

inwardly.

For every other being but

will.

means of approaching the Absolute which

him more

is

poverty,

limits externally the

successfully

to

power

unfold

Stoics liked to repeat that Eurystheus

it

had

not been the enemy of Hercules, neither had he envied him ; but that, on the contrary, he had been his friend and benefactor. They said that every one of us has also a divine Eurystheus,

who

trains us continuously in the contest

they represented the whole world, the great living Being, as a sort of Alcides in labour.

It

may be

so

;

but, I repeat

once more, our Eurystheus is not very ingenious in multiFate spoils us to-day, as the plying our trials and labours. grandparents of a family spoil their grandchildren. We live in an environment too large, too expansive; and the perpetual growth of our intelligence gradually chokes our will. You must be logical ; you can only justify the world by placing the good, or the condition of good, exactly in that which till now everybody has considered an evil. The con-

sequence

is

that all creatures, labouring to avoid what they evil, are labouring at the same time against

consider as an

your theory, and the evolution of the universe goes on in a diametrically opposed to your pretended good. Thus you condemn the very work which you wanted to exculpate. Everyone is free to find the good where he underdirection

stands

it

;

but, in whatever

* See those ideas (G. Bailliere; 1882.)

way he understands

summed up

in Vallier's

De

it,

he cannot

Vintention Morale.

;

1

6

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

make selves

and

world truly good.

this

by thinking that

that

it

The

it

is

We

cannot even console our-

the worst possible of worlds,

therefore constitutes the

supreme

trial

to our

not an extreme, either for evil or for good ; it would be something to be absolutely bad but the absolute is not of this world. Nothing here below causes will.

universe

is

—

us to experience that satisfaction of seeing an aim pursued

and gained.

It is

impossible to trace a plan in the universe

—not even that of abandoning

all

to the meritorious sponta-

The world has not

its end in us, any more than we have our end in the world fixed for us beforehand. Nothing is fixed, arranged, or predetermined there is no primitive and preconceived mutual adaptation of things. That adaptation would suppose firstly, a world of ideas pre-existent to the real world ; secondly, a demiurge, arranging things according to the given plan, as an architect does. The universe would then resemble certain exhibition buildings, of which all parts are constructed separately, so that afterwards they need only to be adjusted to each other. But no it is more like one of those strange buildings for the construction of which everybody works in his own way, without considering the whole ; there are as many ends and plans as there are workmen. It is a superb disorder; but such a work lacks too much unity to be either absolutely blamed or praised. To look upon it as the complete realization of an ideal of any sort is to lower

neity of created beings.

—

;

our ideal

—consequently

to lower ourselves

;

it

is

an error

which may become a grave mistake. Whoever believes in a God ought to respect him too highly to make him Creator of the world. 2. The refuge of optimism is personal immortality, which would be the great excuse of God. The belief in immor-

suppresses

all definite sacrifice,

or at least reduces that Before the infinity of duration suffering does not seem more than a point, and the whole actual life diminishes strangely in value. tality

sacrifice

to very

little.

7

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

The

— PROVIDENCE.

1

idea of absolute duty and that of immortality are

intimately connected

;

the consciousness of duty constitutes

for the spiritualists the distinctive

mark of the

individual in

the flux of animal generations, his seal of sovereignty, his to a place apart in the "

title

contrary, absolute

immortality loses

becomes a being

duty

kingdom of ends."

principal

its

If,

brought back to an

is

claim

—

existence

to

on the

illusion, ;

man

head is no longer enveloped in a mystic light, like Christ on the mountain, who was transfigured in ascending, and seemed on a level with

the

like

any other

prophets

divine

his

heaven.

soaring in

Besides,

immortality has always been the principal problem in the

conception of morality,

as

well as

of

that

in

religion.

has been badly presented, being confused with the problem of the existence of God. In reality, humanity cares little enough about God not one martyr would have Hitherto

it

;

sacrificed himself for that recluse of the skies.

looked

Man

for in

to

make

What was

us immortal.

has always been wanting to scale the heavens, and he

cannot do that

him was the power

it

He

quite alone.

God may

stretch out a

has invented

hand

to

him

;

God

in order

next he attached

But if to-morrow one were to say to the four hundred millions of Christians,

himself in love to this divine Saviour. " There

is

no God

;

there

is

only a paradise, a man-Christ,

a virgin mother, and saints," they would very quickly be consoled.

In

reality,

do not ask

immortality for

is

enough for us. As to myself, I I do not beg to be united

a "reward."

with those I have loved

—the

of disinterestedness

I

!

day when, for the first death might be the loss of eternal coldness

and

its

;

eternity of love, of friendship,

remember my great despair one time, it came into my head that love,

a separation of hearts, an

that the cemetery,

four walls, might be the truth

;

with that,

its tombstones from day to day, would be taken

who were to me like my moral life from me, or that I should be taken away from them, and those

c

1

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

8

we should never be given back to one another. There certain cruelties which we do not believe because they

that

are

surpass our understanding.

We

impossible," because inwardly

we

say to ourselves, " It think, "

How

is

could I do

her light Nature becomes a personality to us is in all there us; seems a favour especially extended to her creatures such a superabundance of youth and hope that ?"

;

that we, even we, also are life.

dazed by

Thus the ancient form

this flood of universal

of the religious

and moral

this new problem of the existence of God is form immortality. This problem, in its turn, comes back to the question whether from this moment I exist myself, or whether my personality is an illusion, and if, instead of In the case of saying me, I ought to say we the world. there being in nature a single creature, however mean in appearance, who could say, " I exist," without doubt he would be eternal. Here we are face to face with two great First, real fusion of all apparent selves one with hypotheses. the other; real penetrability of all that which possesses consciousness in nature ; reduction of all units supposed to be substantial to phenomenal multiplicities ; never-ending vistas, in which the eye loses itself, opened within ourselves

brought back to

—

—

as well

as

outside

ourselves.

another hypothesis

—nature

Like an immense

tree,

Instead of

this,

there

is

having an end, the individual.

the sap of which

trated in a few kernels, perhaps

is

finally

also the sap

concen-

of nature

one point, so "as to expand later on. In would form lasting groups. Are there not also islets in the ocean ? What is more, some of these individuals would keep together, would get so much attached to one another as never to separate. If only to love were sufficient reason for union, such union would be eternity. Love would make us eternal. collects together at

that case, individuals

Unfortunately there are

The

first,

many

objections to immortality.

and one of the most

from the doctrine

of

evolution.

serious,

The

may be deduced character

of

all

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

— PROVIDENCE.

19

integration, of all individuation, must be provisional, serving only to prepare a larger integration, an individuation more rich. For nature an individual is nothing but a phase of halting, a pause,

which cannot be

definitive,

nature would be arrested in her course.

The

without which ancients,

who

f

with Plato imagined nature to be dominated by immovablel types to which she eternally conforms her creations, werel

able to suppose that those works in which she had succeeded!

most, and which

came

pated in eternity

;

species,

ideas,

we

nearest to the eternal type, partici-

nature operated according to types,

if

might hope, by

fashioning

ourselves

according to these ideas, also to become immortal.

But

our

In the

days

a very

different

beginning of this century

it

conception prevails.

was

still

in

possible to believe that

the immobility of the animal species points to the existence of a preconceived plan living nature.

selves

— an idea

Since Darwin

transitory types,

we

for ever after

imposed upon

see in the species them-

which nature transforms through

the ages, moulds which she herself accidentally casts, and

which she does not hesitate to destroy one after the other. If the species is provisional, what then is the individual ? There is between the individual and the species a solidarity which has not always been understood. It has been incessantly repeated that the individual and the species have contrary interests, that Nature sacrifices one to the Would it not be equally and more true to say that other. she sacrifices both, and that whatever condemns the If individual is precisely the condemnation of his species ? the species were immovable, we might hope to be saved by our conformity to it. But no everything is swept away by ;

same whirlwind, species and individuals all passes away, The individual is a compound rolling on towards infinity. of a certain number of thoughts, of remembrances, of wills corresponding one to the other, and of forces in equilibrium. the

This

;

equilibrium can

only exist in a certain intellectual

and physical environment which

is

favourable to

it.

Now,

— ;

20

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

environment can only be supplied during a certain Man, as he is constituted, cannot predict eternity. There is no indefinite progress in every sense, either this

time.

for

the

individual

or

The complete triumph

species

the

for

species are only middle

;

individual

and

terms between past and future. of

the

future requires their dis-

appearance.

Let us pass on to a second objection which can be made If thought, if will were immortal, they would possess a power superior to nature, capable of ruling to immortality.

According to this hypothesis, life and subjugating it. becomes a sort of struggle of the spirit against nature death would be victory. But why, then, do these triumphant souls stand aside, far from the eternal battle, which Why do they continues to be fought without them ? forsake us ? And while their power cannot be diminished by death, why do they not use that power in serving man, their

brother

How

?

profound, although to

themselves

was that belief of the ancients, who saw the souls of their forefathers move and act everywhere around them who felt the dead revive at their sides ; who peopled the world with spirits, and endowed these spirits with a more than human power If thought conquers death, it should become a providence to others. It seems that humanity would have the right to count upon her dead unconsciously

so,

;

!

as she counts

who

upon her

lead the others.

stretch out a

hand

heroes, her geniuses,

If there are

to support

and

they hide themselves from us

?

upon

all

those

immortals, they ought to

Why

to protect us.

What

strength

do

would

it

not give to humanity to be, like the armies of Homer, conscious of a race of gods, ready to fight on her side?

And

these gods would be their sons, their

crated by death

;

their

number would

own sons

conse-

continually increase

—

produce life and life Nature would thus create beings intended to become a providence over her own self.

for the fertile earth never ceases to

would blend with immortality.

;

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

— PROVIDENCE.

21

That conception is perhaps the most primitive, and, at the same time, the most attractive which has ever tempted the

human mind. separate kills

According to our view, it is impossible to from the conception of immortality. If death

it

not,

releases

it

difference

or

it

;

cannot throw the soul into

impotence.

Hence, according

in-

ancient

to

—

must be spirits scattered everywhere active, and providential. The mythology of the ancients and savages, the superstitions of our country people, must be true. Who, nevertheless, would dare to affirm it to-day, belief, there

powerful,

or even to consider the thing as probable ? Science has never once proved the existence of a good or bad intention behind one phenomenon of nature. It tends to the negation of spirits, of souls, and consequently of immortal life. To believe in science seems to be to believe in death.

There

is

a third objection

induction of is

life

:

—

am

I

;

—

that illusive thing, the familiar

therefore I shall be. This illusion

Even to-day there are tribes found in who do not seem able to conceive that it is absolutely

not less natural.

Africa

man to die. Among this people the induction We Based on life still outweighs that based on death. We know that •civilized people are no longer at that stage. We nevertheless always hope 'Our present life has an end. Life feels repugthat it will be resumed in another form. nance in representing and acknowledging death. Youth is full of hope. It is difficult for an overflowing and necessary for

Whoever

vigorous existence to 'believe in non-existence. feels

in

himself treasures of energy and

cumulation of living

forces,

treasure as inexhaustible.

they have not yet said to

me

— seeing

•could run as fast

understands with all

felt

if

is

inclined

Many men

activity,

an ac-

to consider that

are like children

the limit of their forces.

A child

a horse gallop in a cloud of dust

and he believed that what we wish

I liked ";

difficulty

our heart we, however, cannot do.

it.

to

:

" I

A child do with

Astonished at the

things he does, he concludes that he can do everything.

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

22

There is

is

nothing so rare as the right understanding of what Yet every man, when he comes to grapple

possible.

himself suddenly so he loses even the consciousness of struggle. Can our fight be against the earth, which carries us round the sun? It is thus that he who approaches death feels himself reduced to nought becomes His will, the toy of a power incommensurate with his own. the strongest force in him, resists no more, collapses like a broken bow, dissolves gradually, and slips away from him. with

certain

events

of

life,

feels

dominated, so subjugated, that

—

To understand how weak life is in face of death, we must have passed, not through those violent and brutal illnesses which stun hke a heavy blow, but through those recurrent maladies, which do not directly attack consciousness, which advance with slow and measured progress, and follow a sort of rhythm, seem sometimes to retire, allowing us to renew our acquaintance with life in apparent health, but again In this way throw themselves upon us and hold us fast. the patient successively undergoes the impressions of one who is born into life, and of one who goes to meet death.

He

has, for a time, the

ardour of youth, followed by the

And

exhaustion and prostration of an old man. is

young, he feels

his will.

He

full

while

he

of faith in himself, and in the power of

thinks himself capable of ruling the future,

ready to conquer in the struggle of flows with hopefulness,

everything smiles

which

upon him

is

life.

His heart over-

diffused over all things

—from

;

the rays of the sun to

the foliage of the trees, to the face of men.

He

sees in

Nature the Indifferent, only a friend, an ally, a mysterious will in harmony with his own. He believes no longer irk death, for complete death would be a kind of failure of the and a will truly strong believes it cannot fail. Thuswill ;

seems to him that, through force of will, he will be able Then, without his clearly perceiving to conquer eternity. fulness of life and youth, which was his hope, it, that gradually expends itself, subsides, disappears like water in it

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM

— PROVIDENCE.

23

a vase, which continually gets lower without our knowing whither it goes. At the same time, his faith in the future grows weaker and becomes dim. He asks himself if faith

and hope may not be the fugitive consciousness of an powerful for the moment, but all too quickly subjugated by superior forces. His will then awakens, vainly makes an effort to rise up /again, but falls back ere long with all its weight, giving way under the ruined constitution like a broken-down horse under its harness. Then the mind darkens. A kind of twilight seems to descend and to spread over all our thoughts evening is coming. activity,

;

The

sad

slow,

labour of

follows evolution has set

The

by degrees. vainly

exhausts

dissolution,

unity of

life

trying

itself,

which necessarily and disappears

Life relaxes,

in.

The

destroyed.

is

will

maintain

to re-combine, to

under the same law that bundle of life which is being divided, the union of which constituted the individual. Everything is loosened, is dissolved into dust. Then, at last, death becomes less improbable, less inconceivable to the mind. The eye gets used to it, as it does to the darkness, which descends when the sun has set below the horizon.

—

Death appears only as it really is an extinction of vitality, a drying up of the internal energy. And death, thus conceived, leaves less hope. We recover from an accidental stupor

how

but

;

exhaustion

?

is

possible to recover from complete

it

If the agony

to

make us understand

to

its

is

long enough,

that death

is

very end cannot be re-lighted.

most sad the end

—

it is

that they

first

undermined

a tree seeing

mountain

will

That

be

sufficient

A torch is

really

burnt

what

is

which leave us conscious to take away all hope ; that we

in those slow diseases

feel existence feel like

it

eternal.

assisting at

its its

in its very

depth;

it

is

very roots torn to pieces

own

we

like a

In this way one one approaches it limite," familiar to mathe-

overthrow.

acquires a sort of experience of death

near enough by this "passage h la

that

—

;

;

!

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

24

Annihila-

maticians, to obtain an approximate knowledge. tion

—

at

or,

secret of death, but,

still, it is

it

life

—

that

if

no doubt, heart-rending

is,

better to

Truly eternal

dissolution

dispersion,

least,

become aware of

to

the

is

know

it

it

would be that which should not need

to disunite itself in order to pass through the divisions of

time, which would be in evidence at all the points of duration, and could with one stroke embrace all the differences which, We should then be for us, constitute that very duration.

able to imagine a class of beings, immovable, yet constantly

way as, on a meteorological chart, and we represent by fixed lines the cyclone of the passing storm. But this eternal life, now thought changing, in the same

we

prognosticate,

enviable, would, perhaps, constitute our greatest sorrow

;

for

the contrast between ourselves and our surroundings would

— —

be greater the anguish would be perpetual. Everything would fly before we could attach ourselves to it. The God of religions who, himself eternal, imagines human beings swept away by time could be nothing else but supreme indifference or supreme despair, the realization of moral

—

monstrosity or unhappiness.

Notwithstanding will ever aspire, if

all

the objections of philosophers,

not to an eternity without

The

to one of indefinite duration.

idea of time will always exist one's

self,

as the

To is

to

that

despair, said

all

—

something

leave

sheep leave their

feel

:

tufts

one's

sadness caused by the

to lose one's

self,

possessions

are

passing

heart breaks, like that of the traveller carried

country disappear.

to forget

behind along the road, of wool in the bushes.

away

Turning and looking back, the

Pascal.

never-ending voyage,

man

limit, at least

who watches

off"

upon a

the coasts of his native

Poets have

felt this hundreds of times. concerns the whole of humanity. The desire for immortality is merely the consequence of memory ; life, being apprehended by the power of memory,

It is

not a selfish despair

;

it

instinctively projects itself

into the future.

We

want to

THE HYPOTHESIS OF OPTIMISM and

find ourselves again,

have

lost

we want

;

to

PROVIDENCE.

meet again those

to

make up

for lost time.

25

whom we

In the tombs

of the ancients everything dear to the dead was gathered together

—

his arms, his dogs, his

committed suicide on his grave affection could be broken off attached to

land

;

Time

all his

surroundings

wives.

Even

like bonds.

—

And, whereas

life

all this,

Man becomes

to his house, to a piece of

he attaches himself to living persons robs him of

his friends

they would not allow that

;

—he loves them.

thereby cutting him to the quick.

continues

its

course, healing his wounds,

as the sap of the tree repairs the ravages of the axe, memory,

—

working in the contrary direction memory, that thing which, the whole material universe, preserves his bleeding wounds, and from time to time renews them. In the end this remembrance of past efforts and their

unknown throughout

makes us dizzy. Pessimism then succeeds Pessimism leads back to a feeling of impotence,

uselessness

optimism.

and time

gives us,

pretended,

is

at last, that feeling.

a great

pessimist, a

human

eternal.

is,

feast.

Life,

the Stoics

If that is the case, answers the

but a day, and the universe is a sad thing to imagine an everlasting feast, an everlasting game, an everlasting dance like that of the spheres. That which was at first a joy and a reason for It

hope becomes

after

feast lasts all,

at last

a burden

;

great fatigue overpowers

—

we should like to step aside to be at peace we can go on no longer. Yet we must live. Who knows that death even means repose ? We are hurried on in the great us

;

machine,

carried

;

away by the universal movement,

those foolhardy persons

who

like

entered the mysterious circle

A great ring entwined them, formed by the Korigans. so that, panting, they entranced them, fascinated them whirled round and round, until both life and death failed them. But the ring was not broken. It formed itself again ;

more quickly and the unhappy creatures, while dying, still saw through the veil of death the everlasting ring whirling them round. ;

— MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

26 It

is

easy

understand

to

how

excessive optimism has

produced the reaction tending towards pessimism. The germ of pessimism is in every man to know and to estimate life it is not necessary to have lived long it is sufficient to have suffered much. ;

—

THE HYPOTHESIS OF PESSIMISM. is equally difficult to prove as optimism ; it is equally impossible to base a sound and objective conception Pesof morality on the one system as on the other.

Pessimism

simism has as its principle the possibility of scientific comparison between pain and pleasure a comparison in which pain would turn the scale. This system can be expressed thus the sum of sufferings in the whole of

—

:

human

life

forms a total higher than that of

pleasures

its

deduced the moral philosophy of nirvana. But this formula, which pretends to be scientific, has hardly any sense. Should one compare the pains and pleasures with respect to their duration, this reckoning would evidently be

whence

is

against the pessimists

;

for, in

a healthy organism, suffering

Should one compare pain and pleasure with regard to intensity? But these are not fixed values of the same kind one positive, the other negative one expressible by the sign -1- the other by the sign It is all the more impossible to establish an arithmetical balance between such-and-such a particular pleasure and such-and-such a pain since pleasure, varying in function is

generally short.

—

;

,

.

;

with the intensity of desire,

moments

of

life,

and since pain

the resistance of the

sorrow or pleasure

will.

— the

is

never the same for two

varies equally according to

Besides,

when we

only ones of which

recall

a past

we have had

THE HYPOTHESIS OF PESSIMISM.

27

—

we can only do it with all kinds of alterations, and with countless psychological illusions. In general, pessimists are inclined to compare these two extremes pleasure (volupt) and pain hence the predominance which this latter takes in their eyes. Pleasure, properly speaking, is after all a rarity and a luxury many people prefer to do without it, and thus to avoid suffering. The refined enjoyment of drinking out of a crystal cup cannot be compared with the pain of thirst. But a pessimistic conception of morality takes no account of the permanent and spontaneous pleasure of living that is experience

—

;

;

;

because in

this pleasure,

remembrance.

It

being continuous, shrinks, is

a law of

memory

is

reduced

that sensations

and emotions of the same nature blend confusedly, collect into a vague mass, and at last become nothing but an imperceptible point. I live, I enjoy and this enjoyment of living appears to me, at the actual moment, worth the price. But, if I go back in memory, the indefinite series of pleasant moments forming the thread of life become mixed, ;

reduced to insignificance, because they are

On

rupted.

moments ficance

;

the

all alike

uninter-

other hand, in contrast with these, the

of intense pleasure and pain increase in signi-

they seem isolated, and stand out prominently from

the uniform line of existence.

But intense pleasure, thus detached from the general is not in my remembrance sufficient to

pleasure of living,

counterbalance

suffering

;

this

is

also

proved by other

psychological laws.

weakens in remembrance no longer awakens the desire, which forms a On the part of every sensation and pleasant experience). contrary, there is in pain an element which does not weaken with time, and often grows stronger that is, what is called Intense

(above

pleasure very soon

all, if it

—

the sentiment of intokrability.

A violent

pain which, after

proved to have been bearable, may be absolutely unbearable in remembrance, and so much so that, at cessation,

is

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

28

preceding and ensuing pleasures hence a new optical illusion which has to Pain produces a sort of consideration.

the cost of that pain, lose their value

;

all

be taken into anguish of the whole organism, an instinctive feeling of Even danger, which re-awakens at the least remembrance. affect always therefore, will, a vague representation of pain the organism more deeply than a picture of intense pleasure Fear is in general more easily roused not actually desired. than desire, and in some temperaments fear is so powerful that

some people have

preferred death to a painful opera-

This preference did assuredly not arise from contempt of life, but from the fact that pain sometimes seems unbearable, and beyond human strength to endure ; in other

tion.

respects simply a sign of weakness of character, of cowardice.

Even

in

a brave

man

intense pain will re-echo

A

the anticipation or the

more

memory

of

strongly than that of pleasure.

soldier, recalling his sensations in cold blood, will picture

more

lively emotion the internal laceraany great pleasure in his life ; yet in the midst of action the wound may have seemed scarcely But the joy of noticeable, compared to the joy of victory. victory was connected with an excitation of mind, which has disappeared whereas the thought of his wound still makes

to himself with far

tion of a sword-cut than

;

him tremble even

to-day.

We

are always prepared to suffer

;

demands conditions so much more complex that we can only with difficulty recall them to our mind. In remembrance, therefore, pleasure and pain are whereas enjoyment

not equal.

We

must mention another cause of error

parison of happy and unhappy times of

the happy days are those which seem

life.

the

in It

is this,

shortest

comthat

and pass

most quickly the unhappy days, on the contrary, lengthen, so to speak, and thus occupy a larger place in our memory. Pessimism, after all, explains itself by psychological laws. Some of these laws make past pleasures, with which we are satiated, seem of less significance than the pains endured. ;

— THE HYPOTHESIS OF PESSIMISM. There are pleasures

others,

always

however,

seem

according

29 which

to

future

have a value superior to the pains which we shall have to endure to attain them. These laws balance one another. This explains the fact that

mankind

to

in general are not at all pessimistic,

and that

the most convinced pessimists rarely commit suicide. We always hope something from the future, even when contem-

There is a pleasure which dies, so to speak, after every accomplished action, which vanishes without leaving a trace in the memory yet it is nevertheless the pre-eminently fundamental pleasure plation of the past impels us to despair.

;

is

it

the very pleasure of action.

measure the attraction of this attraction

when once astonishment recollections,

withdraws the of

action

all

itself is

him who

It

constitutes in great

objects desired by man, only

when once ends accomplished. tries

and who does not

to

judge

are attained,,

Hence, the life by his

find in his past pleasures,

a cause sufficient to justify his efforts and his trouble. in life itself, in the nature of

our

for the justification of our efforts.

do not all

all fall into

activity, that

The

the calyx of a rose.

rain-drops of a cloud

Our

lead to definite and attainable pleasure

itself, if it

;

actions

do not

we act forown weight

but

falls by its ;. were conscious, would experience a

the sake of action, like the raindrop

the raindrop

It is

we must look

kind of intense pleasure in going through space, to glide This pleasure lies at the root of into the vast unknown. only it disappears from memory, which is no longer the unknown, but the known, and which altogether offers us only what is past and passive. life,

The

pessimistic conception of morality rests, therefore, not

but on a purely individual appreciawhich may enter many elements of error. AVe perpetually exchange pains for pleasures, and pleasures for

on

scientific reasoning,

tion,

in

pains; but, in this exchange, the only rule as to value is that of demand and supply, and we can rarely say a priori

such-and-such pains are greater than such-and-such plea-

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

30

— those

There is no end of love, wealth, glory, etc. number of people offering themselves to undergo suffering and pain, even without being urged thereto by the sures

to the

We may conclude, therefore, that suffering

necessities of life. is

not the evil most dreaded by

man

—that inaction

is

often

worse that there is, moreover, a particular kind of pleasure which springs from conquered sorrow, and, in still

;

general,

from every expended energy.

is, in a great measure, an should therefore equally mistrust those boast of having been perfectly happy, and those

Unhappiness, afterthought.

who who

like happiness,

We

maintain that they have been absolutely unhappy.

formed by memory and desire formed by memory and fear. We rarely ever, consciously, have been perfectly happy, and Where, then, is absolute yet we remember having been so. happiness to be found if it is not in our own consciousness? Nowhere ; it is a dream in which we dress up reality ; it is the embellishment of memory, as absolute unhappiness is the darkening of memory. Happiness, unhappiness is merely the past that is to say, that which cannot return. It is also everlasting desire, which will never be satisfied,

Complete happiness

is

absolute unhappiness

is

—

or fear ever ready to reappear at the slightest thrill of alarm.

Hence, happiness or unhappiness, in the accepted sense from a comprehensive view of life, which is often an optical illusion. Certain rivers of America seem to roll along a mass of black water, and yet, if one of the words, results

takes

some of

this

water in the hollow of the hand,

it

is

which almost looked appalling, was an effect due to the mass of water and the bed in which the river runs. In the same way, each moment of our life, taken separately, may have this pleasant lack of

-clear as crystal.

Its blackness,

cohesion, this fluidity^ which scarcely leaves a perceptible trace in the

memory.

Yet the whole seems gloomy because

of certain luminous hours which others.

seem

to penetrate all the

THE HYPOTHESIS OF In

these questions

all

numerable

we

PESSIMISM.

31

are thus surrounded by in-

and absolutely certain We should compare only simultaneous sensations of pleasure and pain but each time that the comparison bears upon past or future Nothing

illusions.

is

real

except the sensation of the moment.

;

it implies error. The preponderance of pain over pleasure cannot therefore be proved either by experi-

sensations,

ence or

by calculation

;

on the contrary, experience

is

against

the pessimists, for humanity incessantly proves a posteriori the value of

life,

Does the prove

its

because

it

incessantly

looking for

is

it.

pessimist conception of morality attempt to

principle

by some argument drawn, not from but from the very nature of

mathematical calculation,

One of the theses of pessimism is that, presupposing desire, and desire springing chiefly from want and consequently from suffering, pleasure thus pleasure itself? pleasure

implies suffering, and is nothing but a fugitive moment Hence that condemnation between two painful situations. of pleasure which we find again and again, ever since the time of Buddha, in the conception of morality. But it is very incorrect to represent pleasure as thus connected with pain, because it is connected with desire, and even with want. It is only up to a certain point that want becomes Hunger, for instance, is painful, but appetite suffering. may be a very pleasant sensation. The spur of want is, then,

no more than a kind

general law

is

this

of pleasant

irritation.

—-want

The

becomes pleasant to every intellinot too violent, and when there is

gent being, when it is the certainty or the hope of

its

nea'r satisfaction.

It is

accompanied by the anticipation of enjoyment. so-called sufferings, preceding pleasure

— enter

—

then

Certain

like hunger, thirst,

formed by us of pleasure without them the enjoyment is incomNay, more taken by themselves, they are accomplete. panied by a certain enjoyment, provided they do not last the

thrill

of passion

as elements into the idea

;

;

too long.

Where

the lover recalls

his

impressions, the

—

—

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

32

moments of desire seem pleasant to the very highest degree. They encircle the moment of keenest pleasure, which, without them, would be much too short and too fugitive. Plato was right in saying that pain can enter into the composition of pleasure; but pleasure, on the contrary,

The loathing does not enter into the composition of pain. which follows the abuse of certain pleasures is not at all inseparable from their use it does not appear as an element ;

in the conception

we form

Pleasure, therefore,

of them.

has this superiority over pain

—

that

it

not always produces

whereas pain, at least physical pain, by its mere cannot fail to give rise to pleasure, and, indeed, sometimes is so associated with pleasure that it the latter

;

disappearance,

represents in itself an agreeable

moment.

Sufferings of intellectual origin are not themselves absolutely incompatible with intellectual pleasures.

The former give make them paler,

less

striking

which

is

colours

—

not

so to speak Melancholy may make

not unbecoming to them.

certain enjoyments keener.

When

only the latter

very vivid, they mingle.

From

all sides, therefore,

not-

withstanding gloomy moralists, pleasure surrounds pain, and

even mingles therewith. Besides, those pleasures which rarely correspond to

any need i.e., aesthetic and intellectual pleasures develop, and become more and more an important element in our lives, the longer we live. Art is, in modern life, a considerable source of enjoyment, which has, so to speak, painful

no counter-weight

in pain.

with pleasure the dullest

those in which

we

does

— can

manner.

aim

to succeed in filling life

—

that

is

to

say,

man

;

—instead of

enjoy himself in an

And

is

of

from action it is "the great consolaBetween two expenditures of physical

rest

tion of the idler. force, the civilized

Its

moments

sleeping, like the savage

intellectual

and

aesthetic

enjoyment can be prolonged more than any other. We hear, inwardly, certain symphonies of Beethoven a long time after having heard them with our this

THE HYPOTHESIS OF PESSIMISM.

We

ears.

33

enjoy them beforehand by anticipation

;

we

enjoy them at the moment, and afterwards as well.

In order to solve (if this be possible) the question posed by pessimistic morality, we believe that we must address ourselves not only to psychology, but to biology,

and

find out whether the actual laws of life do not imply a surplus value of welfare over pain. In this case the positive morality which we uphold would be right in wanting to conform human actions to the laws of life,

instead of aiming at final annihilation of

life,

and of the

desire to live, as pessimistic morality does.

In the

first

place,

how

are the different senses affected

by pain ? The sense of sight is hardly affected at all by it. So also with the sense of hearing, for the discords which reach the ear, and all the ugliness which hurts the eye, are slight mortifications, which we cannot possibly weigh against the keen enjoyments of harmony and beauty. Pleasure also predominates very largely in the sensations

from taste and smell, as we generally eat that which pleases these two senses ; and, as we must eat in springing

order to

live,

the very conservation of

life

periodical satisfaction of the organs of taste

presupposes a

and of smell

—the

Lastly, very few real two being intimately connected. sufferings are caused by the sense of touch, if we localize

that sense in the hand.

All, or nearly all,

our physical pain,

therefore, originates in our tactile feeling, or in our internal

Even when more pain than joy comes to us from both these sources, we may still ask ourselves if the suffering would counterbalance the pleasures of all kinds given us But the question arises from a by our other senses. sensibility.

biological standpoint

:

Is

it

possible, with respect to internal

and suffering, on an average, preponderate over those of comfort and wellsensibility, that the feelings of discomfort

being

We

?

believe

question.

If,

it is

in

possible to give a decisive answer to this living beings,

the feelings of discomfort

34 MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

would be impossible. power does but translate into the language of consciousness that which takes place in our organs. really prevailed over those of comfort, life

In

our

fact,

vital

The subjective discomfort of suffering is only a symptom of a wrong objective state of disorder, of the beginning of an illness

the translation of

it is

:

trouble.

On

some

functional or organic

the contrary, the feeling of well-being

subjective aspect of a right objective state.

of existence well-being life,

illness

it is

it

tends to increase that very trouble.

it.

echo of mischief in the brain. into the brain itself

on

it,

corresponds to evolution of

not good to feel our ailment too deeply, or

the sensation exaggerates

re-acting

like the

Not only is pain the consciousness

pain to dissolution.

of a vital trouble, but

In

thus

is

In the rhythm

and

is

Pain

may be

then a fresh evil added to the

finally increasing

which

just

partial

disintegration,

regarded as the

A sympathetic trouble carried it.

first,

In this way pain,

appeared only as the consciousness of now herself appears as an agent of Excess of pain over pleasure is, therefore,

before

disintegration.

incompatible with the conservation of the species. When with certain individuals the balance of suffering and enjoyment is upset, and the former prevails, this is an anomaly,

which usually causes death to the individual without delay.

A being who

suffers

too

sary for the existence of

much

is

unfit for

an organism

that,

life.

It is neces-

taken as a whole,

should keep up a certain regularity in its functions ; pain should be banished, or, at least, be reduced to the lowest it

degree.

more natural selection works without more does it tend to eliminate the sufferers in

Besides, the

restraint, the

;

killing the diseased it also

stamps out the disease. If in these days philanthropy succeeds in saving a certain number of invalids, it has not yet been able to save their race, which generally extinguishes itself. Let us imagine a ship in a storm, rising follows

and

may be

falling

on the

crest of the waves.

The

line

indicated by a series of curves, of which one bend marks the direction of the trough, the other that

it

THE HYPOTHESIS OF PESSIMISM. of the surface of the water.

If at

35

one moment of the passage

the descending curve bears the ship down, and she does not

would be a

is sinking deeper and Even so is it with Hfe, tossed about on waves of pleasure and of pain if one

rise again,

it

sign that she

deeper, and beginning to founder.

:

marks these undulations with

and if the line of pain lengthens more than the other, it means that we are going down. The outline stamped on our consciousness by sensation

our

life

;

is

and

lines,

only a figure representing the very course of life,

in order to exist,

needs to be a perpetual

victory of pleasure over pain.

What we here inner sense, as

in

is

physical

dissolution

—a

beloved one

is

dying oneself. morally

say of physical

life

to lose

Moral

— crushes

he who,

after

In moral as well marks a tendency to

life.

For example, to lose a something of one's self, to begin

death.

suffering, if really triumphant, kills

the intelligence and the

some

violent moral

every sense,

to will, to act in

suffering will soon stifled.

suffering always

partial

as revealed by our

life,

also true of moral

crisis,

may indeed

be counterbalanced

will.

Besides,

continues to think,

—

suffer,

will

but his

gradually be

Life will prevail over the dissolving tendencies.

life the superior being is he who most delicate sensibility with the strongest will. In him, no doubt, suffering is very vivid, but it provokes a He suffers much, but still more vivid reaction of the will. he acts the more and as action is always a joy, his joy Excess of suffering over generally exceeds his pain. pleasure indicates weakness or exhaustion of the will, consequently of life itself. The reaction within no longer responds to the outward action. All sensation is a sort of demand addressed to each sentient being. Will you be happy or unhappy ? Will you accept or reject me ? It is the will which must answer and the will which gives way to weakness condemns itself begins a sort of suicide. In moral suffering one must distinguish between thfe

In moral as in physical

unites the

;

;

—

— ;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

36

One must upon system and those who are pessimists owing to

purely affective and the purely intellectual. distinguish between those e.g.,

—

Schopenhauer

happy ;

for

it

is

are pessimists

The

heartrending anguish.

resemble that of us

who

all,

life

after all

it

only

in the intellect

there,

it

;

were, on this scene

selves,

or,

if

for

No

and we go back

tragedy goes

some hours

not long ere the curtain

is

be very

possible to be sad intellectually without

being so in the very depths of our heart.

on

may

of the first-named

and they may

falls

it

acted

is

softly of itself, as

too entirely outside our real

still

into ordinary

life

which generally

upon and have a long posterity that is because they are, so to speak, happy in spite of themselves. But it is not the same with those who find

has nothing so dramatic to

system

may

offer.

The

pessimists

therefore live long

the world miserable because they are really miserable

those whose pessimism

— with

only an abstract of their

is

most

own

But they are condemned beforehand by nature, and, so to say, by themsufferings

;

these deserve the

The

selves.

full

pity.

consciousness of their unhappiness

the vague consciousness of their unfitness for physical

or moral

sufferings,

life.

but All

hypochondria, disappointed

ambitions, broken affections, are like an atmosphere less unfit for respiration.

is

Those who are

more or

greatly distressed,

sufferers from spleen, from true melancholy (many people are melancholy only as a matter of pose or system), have neither lived nor taken firm root in life. They are

the

sensitivists injured

The artists

by a

slight shock.

of suffering, like de Musset, Chopin, Leopardi,

Lenau, were not made for life ; and their sorrows, which have given us their masterpieces, were but the result of a bad adaptation to environment, of an almost Shelley, Byron,

which could maintain itself for a certain which could not last long. It is possible to lend

factitious existence,

time, but

a kind of If in

artificial

Hfe to the

head of a decapitated man.

such a case the mouth could open and articulate

— THE HYPOTHESIS OF

PESSIMISM.

37

sounds, surely these would be only screams of pain. In our society there is a certain number of people in whom the nervous

system predominates to such a degree that

Such

they are, so to speak, brains, heads, without body. beings live only by deception, by

They can speak

artifice.

only to lament, sing only to sigh, and their wailing sincere that

is

so

goes straight to our heart.

it

Yet we cannot judge humanity by such as these humanity, which is full of life, and from which the future will

come

Their shrieks of pain are but the beginning

forth.

of the pangs of death.

come iWe happiness

'to

is

conclusion

this

— that

a certain amount of

a necessary condition of existence.

Hartmann supposes that, if pessimistic day triumphs among mankind, all people return to nothingness of their own will. suicide will put an

however, encloses

end to

M. von

morality

one

will

agree to

A

universal

This naive conception, pessimism planted itself

life.

this truth, that if

human heart, it would, by degrees, and lead, not to the rather burlesque event of which von Hartmann speaks, but to a

deeply enough in the diminish

its vitality

theatrical

slow and continuous subsidence of actually realizing

the

sum

of

its

its

—

pessimism

life

—a race of pessimists

that

woes by imagination

;

to say, increasing

is

such a race could not

survive in the struggle for existence.

If the

and the other animal species survive, it is This world life is not too bad for them. of

all

A

ever living being

In

reality,

possible

it

is

race

is

not the worst

and remains moral philosophy of annihilation, to what-

possible worlds, since definitively

in existence.

human

precisely because

it

is

proposed,

is

it

exists

like a contradiction.

the same reason which makes existence

and which makes

it

desirable.

;:

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

38

HYPOTHESIS OF THE INDIFFERENCE OF NATURE. If dogmatic moral philosophy searches for the most probable hypothesis in the present state of science, is

neither optimism nor pessimism ;

ence of nature. This nature us to conform

—shows,

The

optimist

fact,

human

and the

in short.

him

for

Listen,

will find that it

;

an absolute indifference

(2) with

regard to the pos-

will.

pessimist, instead of simply trying to

—

are moved, grow angry, rejoice, good or ill, beauty or ugliness qualities, on the other hand, to the man of science

understand, feel like poets attribute to nature

it

that of the indiffer-

—to whose end dogmatism wishes

in

(i) with regard to sensibility

sible directions of the

it is

—

there are only quantities, always equivalent.

Nature,

—

from her standpoint, is neutral as unconscious of pleasure as of suffering, of good as of evil.

The

indifference of' nature to our pains or our pleasures

an hypothesis not to be taken into effect. The absence of a Providence relieving our suffering will change nothing in our moral conduct, once we have admitted that the pains of life, taken on an average, do not exceed the joys, and that existence in itself remains desirable for every living being. But it is the indifference of nature to good or to evil which is of interest to morality. Now, a great many reasons can be given for this indifference. The first is is,

for the

moralist,

account, because

without practical

it is

the powerlessness of the

whole universe

any of

—the

human

What will be the a human action ?

appreciable way.

essentially

to the

it

cannot change in

result to the universe

evil

student of physical

moral temperature, and heat and

with regard to the

We do not know. do not appear to nature to be more opposed to one another than cold and heat

such-and-such

Good and

will

direction of which

cold,

they

it

is,

science; they are degrees of perhaps, necessary that, like

should balance each other in the

HYPOTHESIS OF THE INDIFFERENCE OF NATURE. universe.

Perhaps good and

evil neutralize

39

each other in

the world at the end of a certain time, as in the ocean the

movements of the waves neutralize each other. Each one of us makes his own track, but nature little heeds the different

direction of that track

; it is destined to be effaced, to disappear rapidly in the great, aimless tumult of the universe.

Is

really true that the sea

it

Pompey's ship ?

Has

than of yore, in spite of

waves ?

still

heaves with the wash of

the ocean itself one all

more wave

the ships which

now

to-day

travel over

good committed a hundred thousand years ago by a man of the tertiary age, can have modified the world in any single respect ? Confucius, Buddha, or Jesus Christ will they have any effect on nature after a thousand million years ? Let us imagine the good deed of an ephemera ; it dies, together with the insect, in a ray of the sun. Can the good deed retard for the millionth part of a second the coming of the night which will kill the insect ? Once there was a woman whose harmless madness was to believe herself to be a bride, and on the eve of her wedding. Waking iip in the morning, she asked for a white dress, and " To-day a bride's crown ; smiling, she adorned herself. In the evening sadness overhe will come," she said.

its

Is

it

certain that the consequences of a

action, or of a crime

—

mastered her, after the idle waiting she then took off her But the following morning, with the dawn, her ;

white dress.

" It

confidence returned.

is

for to-day," she said.

And

her

passed in this tenacious, although ever-deceiving, certitude taking off her gown of hope, only to put it on again. life

—

woman, oblivious of all deception ; coming of its ideal. Probably it has " To-morrow it will come." said, for hundreds of centuries Every generation in turn puts on its white dress. Faith is The whole of eternal, like the spring and the flowers.

Humanity resembles

it

this

awaits each day the

:

nature has, perhaps, such a faith scious

and

intelligent nature.

centuries ago,

—

at least, the

whole of con-

Perhaps, an infinite

on some now dissolved

number of

planet, the mystical

— 40

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

bridegroom was already expected. Eternity, in whatever it be conceived, seems to be an everlasting deception. Between It matters not; faith bridges the infinite chasm. the two gulfs of the past and the future it ceases not to

way

its dream it sings always the same hymn of joy and of appeal, believing it new each time, although it has

delight in

;

lost itself already so

continues to stretch the more attractive

many

times without being heard.

arms towards the ideal, which is because it is vague and it puts on its

;

It all its

crown of flowers without noticing that it has been faded for hundreds of thousands of years. M. Renan has said " In the pyramid of goodness raised by the successive efforts of living beings every stone counts.'' The Egyptian of the time of Khephren still exists by means of the stone he laid. In a Where does he exist ? desert, in the midst of which his work is reared, as useless in its hugeness as the smallest grain of sand at its base. Will not the " pyramid of goodness " undergo the same Our earth is lost in the desert of the skies ; humanity fate ? itself becomes lost on earth our individual action is lost in forehead

its

:

;

How

humanity.

how

shall

we

give unity to this universal effort,

concentrate the infinite radiation of

life

towards the

same point? Each work is isolated; there is an infinite number of small, microscopic pyramids, of solitary crystallizations of Lilliputian monuments, which cannot form themselves into a whole. Probably the just man and the unjust man weigh neither one more than the other on this terrestrial globe, which pursues its way through the ether. The particular exercise of their will can no more affect the whole of nature than the beating of the wings of a bird soaring above a cloud can refresh my forehead. The celebrated formula, ignorabimus, may be transformed into this one illudemur ; humanity speeds on, enveloped in the inviolable veil of its illusions.

A

second reason which " indifferentism

optimism

is

that the great whole,

" can oppose to whose direction we are

— HYPOTHESIS OF THE INDIFFERENCE OF NATURE.

41

—

unable to change, has itself no moral direction there is absence of aim, complete non-morality of nature, neutrality of the infinite mechanism. Indeed, the life of the universe shows very little signs of regular labour with an aim. Long

ago Heraclitus compared it with a game. This game is that of the see-saw, which calls forth such shouts of laughter from

Each being counterbalances another. My part in is to paralyze someone whom I do not know to prevent him from ascending too high, or descending too low. None of us will carry away the world its tranquillity

children.

the universe

;

is

assured by our tumult.

At the

basis

the

of

mechanism

universal

we may

imagine a sort of moral atomism, an infinite number of egoisms set to struggle each against the other. There might

be thus in nature as many centres as there are atoms, as many aims as individuals, or at least as many ends as there are conscious groups or societies ; and these ends might

be opposed. Egoism would be the essential and universal law of nature. In other words, there would be coincidence between what we call the immoral will in man and the normal will of every being. This, perhaps, would be the Each individual would then be deepest moral scepticism. no more, and worth no more, than a soap-bubble. All the difference between the you and me would be that in the

first

point of view

;

we

case

second case inside right

are outside the bubble, in the

Personal interest would only be a

it.

would be another ; but compass

to prefer the point of view within our is

not.

destroy

The

My

soap-bubble

is

my

fatherland

;

it

is

natural

to that

which

why should

I

it ?

love of every limited being would be, according to

this doctrine,

as

illusive

egoist, in fact, deceives

which he exaggerates the beloved one.

as

the

love

of

self

may

no more value than egoism.

Rationally, love haS

;

himself as to his the lover or the

be.

The

own importance,

frie];id

as to that of

Again, from this point of view, moral

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

42

good and evil remain for " the indifferentist " things quite human, quite subjective, without fixed relation to the whole of the universe.

Perhaps there is nothing which offers to the eye and the mind a more complete and more sorrowful representation of the world than the sea.

In the

place,

first

it is

a picture of

it is a force in its wildest and most unconquerable form display, a luxury of power, of which nothing else can give an idea and it lives, moves, tosses, everlastingly without aim. Sometimes we might say that the sea is animated, that it palpitates and breathes, that it is an immense heart, whose powerful and tumultuous heaving we see ; but what ;

;

makes us despair here is that all this effort, this ardent life, This heart of the world beats spent to no purpose. without hope; from all this rocking, all this collision of the waves, there results only a little foam stripped off by

is

the wind. 1

remember

that, sitting

on the beach once,

I

watched

They came without sea, roaring and white. noticed another and

the serried waves rolling towards me. interruption from the expanse of the

Behind the one dying

at

my

feet I

further behind that one, another

and another

—a

multitude.

;

At

;

and last,

further

still,

another

as far as I could see,

roll on towards me. There was a reservoir of infinite, inexhaustible forces there. How deeply I felt the impotency of man to arrest the effort of that whole ocean in movement A dike might break one of these waves it could break hundreds and thousands of them ; but would not the immense and indefatigable

the whole horizon

seemed

to

rise

and

!

;

ocean gain the victory

And

this rising tide

?

seemed

to

me

the image of the whole

of nature assailing humanity, which vainly wishes to direct course, to

dam

he multiplies

it

in,

to master

it.

Man

its

struggles bravely

;

Sometimes he believes himself to be the conqueror ; that is because he does not look far enough ahead, and because he does not notice far out on his efforts.

;

HYPOTHESIS OF THE INDIFFERENCE OF NATURE. the horizon the great waves which, sooner or

destroy his work and carry himself away.

where worlds

and

rise

In

43 must

later,

this universe,

we

the waves of the sea, are

fall like

not surrounded, unceasingly assailed, by the multitude of beings ? Life whirls round us, envelopes us, submerges us.

We speak of immortality, of eternity

;

but only that

is

eternal

which is inexhaustible, that which is blind enough and rich enough to be always giving without measure. That man becomes acquainted with death who feels the need of rest, who after work lets his hands fall in his lap, for the first time learns that his strength has a

an

ideal

;

We

is

speak in the same way of we believe that Nature has an aim, that she is

going somewhere her.

Only nature

limit.

We

so untiring as to be eternal.

that

;

is

because we do not understand

take her for a stream which flows towards

mouth, and

some day

will arrive there

;

but nature

is

its

like

To give an aim to Nature would be to narrow an aim means an end. That which is immense

the ocean.

her

;

for

no aim. It is often said that " nothing exists in That is true in detail. A grain of corn is made to produce other grains of corn. We cannot imagine ii field which should not be fertile. But nature, as a whole, is not compelled to be fertile. It is the great balance between life and death. Perhaps its grandest has

vain."

poetry

lies in its

equal the ocean. it

moves.

gives

grand,

down

It

superb

does not give

and takes

it

A

sterility.

The ocean

field

of corn does not

neither works nor produces

life

;

it

contains

or rather

it,

with the same indifference.

eternal cradle rocking

fathoms, we see

its

creatures.

it

It is the

If

we look

swarming life. There is not one of its drops of water which does not hold living creatures, and all fight one another, persecute one another, What does it matter to the avoid and devour one another. whole, of what consequence to the deep ocean, are these The inhabitants, wandering at random in its briny waves ? ocean itself gives us the spectacle of a war, a struggle into

its

its

44

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

its breakers, the strongest of which cover over and sweep away the weaker ones, represent to us the abridged history of the worlds, the history of the earth and

without truce

;

of humanity.

It

so to speak, the universe

is,

become

This tempest of the water

parent to our eyes.

trans-

but the

is

continuation, the consequence, of the tempest of the air

;

is

not the shudder of the winds which communicates itself to the sea ? The air-waves in their turn find the explanation of their movements in the undulations of light and of

it

ether,

eyes could embrace the immensity of the

If our

heat.

we should

reason

— a war of

all

not carried away

human

amazing

see everywhere nothing but an

clash of waves, a struggle without end, because

against

by

all.

There

this whirlpool.

intelligence, nothing

can

offer

is

it

is

without

nothing which

is

Earth itself, man, us anything fixed to

—

which it would be possible to hold on all these are swept away in slower, but not less irresistible, undulations ; everlasting war also reigns there, and the right of the strongest. As I thus reflect, the ocean seems to rise around me, to invade all, to sweep away all it seems that I am no longer myself, but part of the waves, a drop of the water of those waves ; that the earth has disappeared, that man has dis;

appeared, and that there remains only nature with undulations,

its

endless

ebb and flow, its perpetual changes of surface, deep and monotonous uniformity.

its

which hide its Between the three hypotheses of a benevolent nature, an antagnostic nature, or an indifferent nature, how can one choose and decide ? It is an idle fancy to give man the law

j|',c

:

Conform to nature. is. Kant was right, not ask dogmatic conduct.

We

do not know what

therefore,

in

saying

this

that

nature

we must

metaphysics to give us a sure law of

— ;

CHAPTER

II.

Morality of Practical Certitude.

Morality of Faith.

Morality of Doubt.

MORALITY OF PRACTICAL CERTITUDE.

The that

morality of practical certitude'

we

is

and imperative moral

Some

law.

which we grasp by

intuition,

—a

good

and whose value

superior to everything else.

this

which admits

represent this

themselves as containing a substance is

that

are in possession of a positive, absolute, apodictic,

in

law to itself

to our

mind

Others, with Kant, represent

law to themselves as purely formal, and as not con-

taining in itself any matter,

any good, any

definite

end

but only bearing a character of universality, which makes

it

possible to distinguish the ends as

conformable to the law.

we

discern,

conformable or nonThus, according to the intuitionists,

by immediate

intuition,

dignity of actions, faculties, virtues

the

— such

worth and the as temperance,

According to the followers of Kant, on the deed is only proved if we

purity, etc.

contrary, the moral character of a

can generalize the principle of that deed, and thus show to be disinterested in

Against the stands,

above

first all,

its

it

nature.

conception of the morality of certitude

the old sceptical argument of the contra-

dictions of the moral

judgment

— of

its

relativeness

and

its

This argument has a dissolvent influence on the conception of the law itself, so far as it imposes in an It absolute way such or such deeds, such or such virtues. uncertainty.

is difficult

to

remain

faithful

to the rites of an absolutist

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

46

if these rites begin to appear supremely indifferent, you no longer believe in the particular god which is worshipped by them. The problem put by Darwin on the changeableness of duty does not cease, therefore, to be alarming to anyone admitting an absolute, imperative, certain, universal goodWould the formula of duty change totally for us if we were

religion

and

if

descendants of the bees

?

There is to be done,

society

common

in

every

which implies,

— of the

work in

of

different

kinds

general, division of the

labour of the community.

Now, the

duties of one class of workers will surely differ

from those

task

of another class, and may become as strange as the morals of men-bees would be. Even in our present society there

These whose morals were not in the Middle Ages, nor are yet to-day, perhaps, the same as those of the rest of .society. Under Charles VII. an act was committed which are neutrals, as in the society of the bees and ants. .are

is

the monks,

the counterpart of the extermination of the males after

fecundation.

Companies of mercenaries, become

useless,

were exterminated it was believed to be a righteous act. Corporations might exist on the planet Mars quite different from ours they might have mutual duties very contrary to ours, but imposed by an obligation quite as categorical in form. On our planet on the earth even we sometimes .•see conscience change the character of its guidance. There .are cases in which the individual feels an obligation in a wrong way an obligation to commit deeds usually considered to be immoral. Let us name, among many other examples, that fact Telated by Darwin of the conception of certain duties in ;

;

—

—

—

Australia.

The people

kinsmen

in Australia attribute the death of

by some neighbouring tribe moreover, a sacred duty to avenge the 4eath of any relative by kiUing a member of one of .the neighbouring tribes. Dr. Landor, a magistrate in .their

they consider

to a spell cast it,

MORALITY OF PRACTICAL CERTITUDE.

47

Western Australia, relates that a native employed on his farm lost one of his wives through illness. He announced to the doctor his intention to start

go and

kill

the wife of a

man

on a journey,

in order to

belonging to a far distant

" I answered him that, if he committed such an act, would put him in prison for the rest of his life." Thereupon he did not depart, but remained on the farm. But, from month to month, he wasted away remorse tribe.

I

;

He

consumed him.

could neither eat nor sleep

;

the

—

haunted him reproached him for his One day he disappeared. At the end of a year

of his wife

spirit

neglect.

he returned,

Thus one

in

perfect health

sees that a sentiment

;

he had

more

obligation serves as an incentive to

fulfilled

his

duty.

or less similar to moral

evil,

or purely instinctive

Thieves and murderers may possess the sentiment of professional duty ; animals may vaguely feel it. The feeling

acts.

of having to do a thing penetrates the whole of creation, as consciousness and voluntary

far as

We

know what happened

movement

penetrate.

de Musset when he was young (the same fact is told of M^rimde). Once, being very much scolded for a childish freak, he went away in tears, deeply penitent, when he heard his parents say, after the door was shut " Poor boy, he thinks himself quite a criminal !" The thought that his misdeed was not so very serious, and that his repentance was mere childishness, wounded him deeply. This small matter remained engraved on his memory for ever. The same thing is happening to humanity to-day. If it comes to imagine that its moral to Alfred

:

ideal

is

a childish ideal

—changeable, according

to the

whim

end and reason of many duties are puerile, superstitious, humanity will become inclined to smile at itself, to bring no longer into its actions that This seriousness without which absolute duty disappears. is one of the reasons why the sentiment of obligation is of custom

;

that the

now losing its sacred on too many objects

character. ;

We

find

we hear it applied

it

brought to bear

to too

many

worth-

48

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

less creatures

This variability

(sometimes even to animals).

in the objects of duty

proves the error of

all

intuitionist

which pretends to be in absolute possession of an unchanging reason for good. This moral philosophy, formerly adopted by V. Cousin, by the Scotch, and the Eclectics, morality,

maybe considered

as untenable in the present state of science.

There remains the formal and subjective moral philosophy of the followers of Kant, which admits as absolute only the imperative, and considers as secondary the idea formed of its object and application. Against a morality of that sort every objection drawn from facts seems to lose its worth for is it not always possible to find an answer by making a distinction between the intention and the act? If the act is practically harmful, the intention may have been morally disinterested, and that is all that the moral philosophy of Kant demands. But a new problem presents itself. Is there attached to the good intention a feeling of obligation truly supra-sensible and supra-intellectual, as Kant will have it ? ;

1\\% feeling oi obligation,

from brought back to a feeling of resistance, felt each time that one wants to take such or such a course. This resistance, being of such a nature as to be apprehended by the senses, cannot arise from our relation to a moral law, which hypothetically would be quite intelligible and independent of time. It arises from our relation to natural and empiric laws. if

exclusively considered

the point of view of mental dynamics,

The

feeling of obligation, therefore,

not moral

;

it is

sensible.

is,

is

properly speaking,

Even Kant himself

is

obliged to

acknowledge that the moral sentiment is, like any other, pathological; only he believes this sentiment to be roused by the mtr&form of the moral law, without regard to

its

subject-matter.

There

a mystery, which he avows

results

—an

from

this, in his eyes,

and suprawhich, however, produces a pathological and natural sentiment, respect.

natural law,

intelligible

;

MORALITY OF PRACTICAL CERTITUDE. " It

is

absolutely impossible to understand

a pure idea, not containing in

itself

ct,

49 priori

how

anything sensible, pro-

duces a sensation of pleasure or of pain

We

are abso-

how the universality of a maxim as such, and, consequently, why morality interests us." There is somewhat of a mystery here. The projection

lutely

unable to explain why and

domain of sensibility under the form of moral sentiment would be possible without a " why," of morality into the

and Kant nevertheless asserts it to be evident a priori. " We are obliged," he says, " to be content with thus clearly seeing h priori that this sentiment (produced by a pure idea)

inseparably united

is

to

the representation of the

moral law in every reasonable finite creature." The truth is, we believe, that we really do not see at all any reason a priori to join sensible pleasure or pain to a law which, hypothetically, would be supra-sensible and heterogeneous Moral sentiment cannot be explained rationally to nature. and a priori. Besides, it is impossible to prove by fact in the human conscience the act of respect for a pure form. In the first place, an unapplied and purely formal duty does not can

only

exist,

The sentiment of obligation, it to arise when there is some

be seen

is

clear,

subject-

and even the followers of Kant acknowledge this. Hence duty is never

matter given for duty, are

obliged to

grasped by consciousness, except as having relation to There certain contents from which it cannot be detached.

no duty independently of the thing we have to do, of the doing of the act. Moreover, there is no duty unless it be towards somebody. The theologians were only half wrong is

in representing duty as addressing itself to the divine will there, at least,

was some one behind the obligation. Now, in matter and form,

this synthesis of the real indissolubility of is

the

sentiment of

obligation

still

only formal?

We

from experience, that the sentiment of obligation is not connected with the representation of law as formal law, but is connected with law by reason of its evident E believe,

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

50

subject-matter

and of

Law

aim.

its

law can only be

as

grasped by our mind through its universality ; but to this precept, " Act in such a way that your maxim may become a universal law," no sentiment of obligation whatever will attach

and

itself,

no question of awakened by it,

so long as there

deep

the

is

inclinations

social life

so

long

we do not conceive the universality of something, some end, some good, which may be the object of a

as

sentiment.

The

can but produce a logical

universal, as universal,

which itself is man and this

satisfaction,

instinct in

;

dency, an expression of intelligent,

still

a satisfaction of the logical

logical instinct

is

a natural ten-

higher form, which

in its

life

is

favourable to order, to symmetry, to similitude,

to unity in variety, to law, therefore of universality.

Will

be said that the universal law itself contains at bottom will pure will ? The reduction of duty to the will of law, which itself would still be a purely formal will, far from it

—

up morality, seems to us to produce a dissolvent on the will itself. The will to do a certain deed cannot be based on any law which is not founded on the The old practical and logical value of the deed itself. doctrine of Ariston, for instance, did not admit any difference of worth, any degree between things but a human building

effect

;

being

will

the aim

is

never be content to pursue his aim, saying that entirely indifferent, that its

moral value

lies

only

would at once give way, and indifference would pass from the object to himself. Man needs to believe always that there is something good in his will to pursue

it.

This

will

not only in the intention, but also in the act. The conception of a morality exclusively formal, independent of everything else, is a demoralizing one ; it is the analogy of the labour which the prisoners

obUged

to do,

and which

merely for the sake of turning to this.

It is

in

English prisons are

without aim

—

to turn a handle one can be resigned necessary that the intelligence should approve is

it

!

No

MORALITY OF PRACTICAL CERTITUDE.

5

of the imperative, and that a feeling should attach

I

itself to

object.

its

The

other day a

little

whose mother had entrusted

girl,

her with a penny for some small purchase, was crushed in

She did not drop the penny. Recovering from dying, she opened her firmly-closed fist, and handed her mother the humble penny, whose small value she did not realize, saying to her, " I have not lost it." There is something subHme in this bit of childishness ; for this little one life was of less importance than the penny which had been entrusted to her care. Well, whatever may be the moral merit which a stoic or a follower of Kant can reasonably discover in this fact, he would be the streets.

a fainting

fit,

absolutely incapable of imitating

it

knowing the worth of a penny. perhaps not the

faith in

his

—

he, the philosopher,

Faith would

own

fail

him,

possible merit, but faith

in the penny.

Hence

is

it

moral merit

is

absolutely necessary, where the question of

own

concerned, to transfigure in one's

subject-matter of the meritorious act,

value superior to

its

real one.

and often

eyes the

to attribute

A comparison is necessary,

a

not

moral

effort

will and the law, but also between the and the value of the object pursued. If the

merit

itself

still

only between the

seems good, whatever the

because we recognise in

it

ferred to a superior object, because

of living force, which

force in a particular case

use

;

but

it is

to the

always

its

use,

The

Let us suppose that we, from a concerned

we

see in

it

and not the power

which we approve.

view, could see all our actions is

is

a reservoir

may be wrongfully used. It is, which we approve of in the actual

sun, finally sees all things

universe

it

always precious, even although this

is

therefore, the possible use

will in itself,

object,

a power capable of being trans-

:

acts of disinterestedness

a good

in itself, the

upwards on the earth on a level. eagle, soaring

sufficiently high point of

become

level as far as the

many human

would then appear

interests

and

to us equally

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

52

simple their object would not seem to us superior to the penny of the child. In spite of Zeno and Kant, we should then no longer have courage to will and to merit ; we do not use our will for the mere sake of willing. ;

It

is,

apodictical in sality, or, if

as an

Kant,

end is

in all its applications,

its

law, in universality for the sake of univer-

one prefers

it,

in the will for the will's sake only,

The sentiment

in itself

which, according to

attached either to pure reason or to pure will

we experience in our

the quite natural interest ties

admit that duty, variable remains certain and

therefore, very difficult to

and uncertain

or functions, in our intellectual

We

life.

is

superior facul-

cannot be

in-

different to the rational exercise of our reason, which, after all, is

will,

a more complex

which, indeed,

is

instinct,

effects anticipated in their cause.

because we think of the if

nor to the exercise of the

a fuller force and a potentiality of

many

seem

the tree does not already

but even then the tree

The fruits

itself

tree is valuable to us,

of the tree

—

at least,

to us beautiful in itself

appears to be a production, a

certain of our tendencies, In our love of " unity in variety," our aesthetic instinct.

work, a living

fruit

;

it

satisfies

the impression produced by "pure reason" or "pure will" are found If

all

these elements of pleasure, use,

tY\e' pureness

were pushed to

its

utmost

and beauty.

limit,

the result

would be the indifference of the senses and the intellect, and not at all that definite state of the intelligence and the senses which is called the affirmation of a law and the There would be nothing for our judgment respect of a law. and our sentiment to work upon.

II.

MORALITY OF FAITH.

Next

whom the form and practical, we a somewhat altered Kantism, which makes of duty to the moral

of the law in itself find

dogmatism of Kant,

is

for

apodictically positive

MORALITY OF FAITH. an object of moral

itself

Kant made

certitude.

no longer an object of

faith,

faith

begin only with the postulates

following the positive affirmation of duty. itself

53

To-day

faith

has

been magnified into duty. a

in these days, religious faith, properly so-called, has

If,

tendency to disappear, it is replaced in a great many minds by moral faith. The absolute has changed its abode it has passed from the domain of religion to that of ethics ; ;

but

it

has

still

exercises over the

nothing

lost

of

human mind.

It

the

power which

it

has remained capable

an example of this is found in the can call forth the most generous enthusiasm it may also produce a certain kind of fanaticism, much less dangerous than religious fanaticism, but not without of raising the masses

;

French Revolution.

It

;

its

Fundamentally, there

inconveniences.

difference between moral faith

and

is

no

religious faith.

essential

They each

contain the other ; but, in spite of the presumption to the con-

more more universal character than the other. If the God has ever had a metaphysical value and a practical

trary, still

too prevalent in these days, moral faith has a

primitive and

idea of

utility, it

is

power and

in

so far as

justice.

In

it

appeared to unite the ideas of

reality,

the following affirmation was

contained in the deliberate affirmation of the divinity The highest force is moral force. If we no longer adore the :

gods of our ancestors because,

among

—

Jupiter, Jehovah, even Christ

other reasons,

we

find ourselves in

—

it

is

many

We judge our gods, and, in respects morally above them. denying them, we often do no more than condemn them morally. The " irreligion which seems to predominate ''

to-day

is,

therefore, in

many

respects at least, the provisional

triumph of a purer faith, of a religion more worthy of the name. In becoming exclusively moral, faith does not alter ;

on the

contrary,

it

casts off all foreign elements.

religions appealed not only to fear,

inward

faith,

The

old

they invoked

the misleading evidence of miracles and of revelation

;

they pretended to rest in something positive, plain, tangible.

; :

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

54

All these

{"fiper

"

of gaining, of " cadging " for confidence la confiance, as Montaigne would say), have now-

means

Everything becomes simpler. The formula useless. which has had so much influence in the world, " It is a duty to believe in God," resolves itself into this, which it

become

presupposed

and

It is

:

the same time, a

having

new The

of conscience.''

The temples is founded. law takes refuge in the " sanctuary is dead There remains the

great Pan, the nature-god,

humanity-god,

the

formulated, and, at

religion

lost their idols, the

Jesus,

dead.

is

inward and ideal god, Duty, whose destiny also to die If

some

we seek

The simple

a duty to believe in duty.

definite expression of faith is thus

is,

it

perhaps,

day.

to analyze this faith in duty as

is

it

presented

by the followers of Kant, and even by those of Jouffroy, we observe in it several assertions which differ widely, although connected with one another, and which are to be found, moreover, in every sort of

faith,

forming the distinctive

—

compared with science (i) full and complete affirmation of a thing which cannot be positively proved duty, with its principle of modern freedom, and all character of religion as

—

its

consequences

;

(2)

another assertion confirming the

first

namely, that it is better morally to believe this thing rather than

any other, or than not to believe at all (3) a fresh assertion by which belief is placed above discussion, for it would be immoral to hesitate for a moment between the better and ;

At the same

the less good.

be immovable, because faith,

it

time, one's faith

above

is

all

is

declared to

discussion.

thus defined, rests on this postulate

:

Moral

there are prin-

which must be asserted, not because they are logically demonstrated or materially evident, but because they are ciples

morally good

;

in other words,

objective truth.

Such

is

goodness

is

a criterion of

the postulate contained fundamen-

the moral philosophy of neo-Kantians Renouvier and Secr^tan.

tally in

To

justify

this

postulate

it

like

should be noted that

MM. it

is

MORALITY OF FAITH. characteristic of in act,

do the

goodness to appear as inviolable, not only

but even in thought.

evil,

55

but even to think

moment we doubt

Is

it ?

the

not injustice, not only to

it

Now, good.

our thought

evil is in

We

must,

therefore,

good more than in anything else; not because it is more evident than anything else, but because not to believe in it would be to commit evil. Between a simply logical proposition and its opposite there is always an alternative the mind remains free between the two and chooses. In this case the alternative is suppressed choice would be wrong. The truth can no longer be sought on either side. AW. problem disappears, for a problem would believe

in

what

is

;

;

imply many different solutions calling for verification so one does not verify duty there are questions which we ;

;

may

not address even to ourselves

must not

we

there are questions

;

What becomes,

raise.

for

example,

of

the

doctrines of the utilitarian moralists, of the evolutionists,

of the partizans of Darwin, in the presence of the belief in absolute duty sible

energy

examined.

They

?

are rejected with the greatest pos-

—sometimes

without having been seriously Moral consciousness always takes that side ; it

represents in the

human

soul the blindly conservative part.

A convinced believer will

never ask himself the question Is not duty merely an empirical generalization ? It would seem to

him

:

that such a question

scienceas an honest

man

";

would

cast a

before doing

doubt on

this,

he

The

science incapable of treating this problem.

his

"con-

will declare

scientific

—which always ready examine the For and Against, which sees everywhere a twofold way, a double the mind—has give way the case of the spirit

to

is

issue for

believer, to

thus, in

quite another spirit

commands

with so

face to face with therefore, placed

it,

;

for

much

him duty

in itself is sacred,

to

and

force that even the thinker himself,

can but obey.

The

belief in duty

once more above the region

in

is,

which science,

and even nature, moves. He who believes in duty is always such as Horace sang of, Impavidum ferient ruince. Moral

—

;:;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

56 faith

would in this way find itself guarded by its very which is to compel the individual to bow before it.

essence,

The

when attacked, seeks support The most superficial minds invoke a

belief in duty, however,

on various grounds.

sort of internal evidence, others

duty, others a social

moral

necessity.

There

I.

the " oracle

is,

"

We

or hesitation.

we

the

first

place, the internal evidence

—which

will

allow no reply

hear duty speak within us with a voice

believe in duty as in something which lives

part of ourselves

in us as a is

in

of our conscience

highest in

us.

;

and

The Scotch and

the

Eclectics tried

only a few years ago to found a philosophy on

—

palpitates

even more, as that which

common

This unscientific on prejudice. philosophy has been opposed with energy by the neoKantians and yet their system is also founded on a simple fact of common sense, on the simple belief that sense

that

is,

in

fact,

;

the impulse called duty

is

of quite another order than

all

the

These sentences recurring so often in followers, and at which to-day we are inclined

natural impulses.

Cousin and to

smile

his

— " conscience

"common

sense requires "

proclaims,"

" evidence

—are they much

proves,''

less convincing,

each in themselves, or in their generality, than these " duty commands," " the moral law demands," etc. ? This inner evidence of duty proves nothing. Evidence is a subjective state, for which one may often account by subjective reasons. Truth is not only that which is felt and seen, but that which is explained and connected. Truth is a synthesis therein lies its distinction from sensation from brute fact. Truth is a bundle of facts. It does not draw its evidence and its proof from a simple state of conscience, but from the whole of the phenomena which hold and support each other. One stone does not make an arch, nor do two nor three stones all are wanted. They have to rest the one

—

;

on the fall

other.

Even when the arch

to pieces completely if

constructed,

it

will

a few stones are taken away.

It

is

;

MORALITY OF FAITH. is

the same with truth

things. it

it

solidarity of all

consists in a

not enough that a thing should be evident

It is

must be

;

57

a truly

to acquire

explicable, so as

scientific

character. for the "

As

2.

duty to believe in duty,"

this is a

pure

might be said as well It is religious to believe in religion, moral to believe in morality, etc. Very well but what is understood by duty, by morality, by religion ? Is it all true that is, does it all correspond with reality ? That is the question and we tautology, or vicious circle.

It

:

;

—

;

must examine it, for fear of turning everlastingly in the same circle. While I believe it to be my sovereign and selfgoverned liberty, commanding me to do such and such an what

act,

me

urging

were hereditary

if it

instinct,

habit,

Am

pretended duty?

to the

I,

education,

according to

Darwin's remark, only a hunting-dog, chasing the game instead of arresting it?

much

importance, after

duty of the dog who

its

much a paw

tion,

as

the

Can you be

which science makes of the object

own

difficulty in

account, strictly

founding an ethical creed but science can

speaking

;

destroy every moral creed which believes

and

value ?

faith ?

Perhaps science has

on

duty, to which I attach so

only so

fetches, or gives

indifferent to the analysis

of your

Has all

although

The

struct.

best to

all

be positive

not always sufficiently able to recon-

is

it

believers

prove their thesis ethical creed

itself to

Science has an incalculable power for destrucr

absolute.

is

if

in

moral

faith

would not even

they succeeded in proving that their

the most complete,

is

that

which responds

interrogations of the moral agent, that which

has least to fear from the exceptions and subtleties of which may push the moral agent, without re-

casuistry,

sistance, to the

When all this,

extreme of absolute devotion.

the believers in the moral creed shall have proved

they will

—

have done nothing no more than the and such a religion, if they could prove

still

believers in such

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

S8

that their religion

is

who defend a

Apologists

the best.

have never proved anything, for there always remains one question which they forget namely, Is there is any true religion or true particular system of morals or religion

—

morality ? Historically, every creed

applied

— has

—

whatever object

to

always seemed binding to the

it

might be

man who

pos-

marks a certain habitual direction of mind, and because a resistance is felt if one abruptly seeks to change this direction. Faith is an acquired habit, and a sort of intellectual instinct, which weighs sessed

it.

heavily

That

upon

is

because

faith

us, constrains us,

and, in a certain sense, pro-

duces a sentiment of obligation. But faith can have no binding force whatever on him who does not possess it. We cannot be obliged to affirm that which on the whole we do not know and do not believe. The duty of believing exists, therefore, only for those who already believe

with

it,

;

in other words, faith,

like every

when it

is

given, brings

powerful and deeply-rooted habit, that

sentiment of obligation which seems attached to obligation does hot precede faith, does not

it

;

but the

command

it

—at

Reason can only be commanded in the name of science, or in the name of an already formed faith. Belief outside the range of our not rationally speaking.

least

knowledge can, therefore, never have anything obligatory about it.

On

the other hand, a mere doubt would be enough to

absolve from any obligation which arises only from

And duty

this

—the

doubt, once

become

conscious,

faith.

would create a

duty of being consistent to ourselves, of not

blindly solving an uncertain problem, of not closing an open question in such a way that to the " duty to believe in

conceived by the believer, can be opposed the duty doubt duty, which imposes itself on him who denies. If it can be said of faith that it has obligations, the same may be said of doubt. duty,'' as

to

MORALITY OF FAITH. 3.

The attempt

is

I

made

also

the social necessity for

it

—a

to give

59

a motive to

faith

by

very outward motive indeed

:

believe in duty, because without duty society could not

This

exist.

the same argument as the one given by thflise " because the people must have a religion,

is

who go to mass and we must set

:

There

the example."

a certain scepticism at the bottom of faith thus understood. husband having suspicions of his wife prefers not to go too deeply into them, prefers the quiet of habit to the possible anguish of truth. Thus w^ sometimes is

A

do with

We would

rather be deceived by her and moral peace before truth. But within us truth will find its way. To truth might be applied what Christ said of himself " I have come to bring war into nature.

follow her

;

we ask

for

:

souls.''

This half-scepticism of objections of a

Necessity generally inner necessity

more reason morality

faith calls forth

more complete and more is

may be

for a

and

not truth, the sceptics a necessary illusion

social

may be based on

the

justifies

logical scepticism.

;

will

there

necessity to be such.

say is

;

all

an the

Practical

a system of useful errors which

and corrects. Thus optics which are constantly made use of by painting, architecture, and by every art. Art is thus partly founded on error ; it uses it as an indispensable factor. Art and its craft are but one. Art forms a middle term between the subjective and the real it works by scientific methods to produce illusion ; it makes use of truth, to both delude and charm ; the mind displays all its ingenuity in theoretical morality explains

explain, mathematically, illusions

;

order to catch the eye.

Who

will

say that morality

is

not

an art in the same way, being beautiful and useful at the same time ? Perhaps, likewise, it charms us, while deluding Duty may be but a play of inward colours. In the us. pictures of Claude Lorrain are far-distant perspectives, long vistas between the trees which give the idea of actual an infinity of some centimetres square. In ourinfinity

—

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

6o

selves there are likewise similar perspectives vs^hich

may be

As to social life, it rests for the most part on artifice and by artifice we do not mean anything opposed to nature. Not at all nothing deceives us better than nature. There we find the great art that is so only in appearance. ;

;

—

to say, the deception, the innocent conspiracy of

all

against

one. The relations between different beings are a series of illusions ; the eyes, the ears, deceive us why should the

—

Moral philosophy, which tries to formulate the most manifold and complex relations existing between the creatures of nature, is, perhaps, also founded on the greatest number of errors. Many beliefs related by history, which have inspired to self-sacrifice, may be compared with those magnificent mausoleums erected in honour heart alone not deceive us

?

mausoleums are opened, nothing is But their beauty alone is sufficient to justify their existence, and, in passing, you bow before them. You do not ask if the unknown dead is worth these honours you think that he was loved, and that this love is the real object of our respect. It is the same with the of a name.

found

;

If these

they are empty.

;

whom

heroes causes.

urged to great deeds for small

faith often

They are sublime

spendthrifts.

These prodigalities

have undoubtedly been one of the indispensable elements of progress.

The

and for faith, the sceptics There was a time when religion was absolutely necessary. at It is no longer so least for a very great number of people. God has become, and will become more and more, useless. Who knows if it will not be the same with the categorical imperative ? The first religions have been imperative, despotic, hard, inflexible. They were systems of iron discipline. God was a violent and cruel chief, checking his subjects by iron and fire. People bowed and trembled before him. At the present

"will

social necessity for morals

add, can only be provisional.

time

religions

much

in these

are

—

growing milder.

days in hell

?

That

is

Who

believes very

a worn-out scarecrow.

1

MORALITY OF FAITH.

6

Likewise the different conceptions of moralities are softening

down.

Even

disinterestedness will perhaps not always have

the character of social necessity which

it seems to have was remarked that there existed illusions which were provisionally useful. If Decius had not been as superstitious as his soldiers, if Codrus had been a freethinker, Athens and Rome would probably have been

Long ago

to-day.

conquered.

it

Religions which, to the philosopher, are only

a collection of organized and systematized superstitions, are also

made

time, for an epoch.

for a

Their gods are but

various forms of that Greek divinity, Kairos, to serve the

purpose of the moment. Humanity needs to adore something, then to burn that which it has adored. At present the most elevated minds among us adore duty. Will not this latest religion,

others

The

this

last

superstition, disappear like the

?

brass idol to which

their children

is

for us

the

Carthaginians

an object of horror.

sacrificed

Perhaps we from whose

have kept in our hearts some brass idol Already " our dominion our descendants will escape. " a matter of much suspicion in very have become rights The socialists have maintained that there is this century. no right over against pity, and " rights " can hardly be condition of giving them a new and nearly blending them with the principle of Perhaps, by contrary evolution, duty will brotherhood. have to transform itself and to blend itself more and more Do we not with normal and regular development of self. still conceive duty in the image of our imperfect society ? We picture it stained with blood and tears. This still

maintained, except on extension,

barbaric notion, necessary in our days, is perhaps destined Duty will then be equivalent to an epoch to disappear. of transition.

Such are the doubts which a complete scepticism may oppose to this half-scepticism hidden under the faith which invokes social necessities. The question remains undecided.

62

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

and

faith

cannot get out of

In

wager.

fact,

accepted by the

—

inward energy wager of Pascal.

otherwise than by a kind of

it

the doctrine of moral faith will,

to

recalls

But

— of duty

freely

by an act of has been said, the

of incertitude decided

this

our mind, as wager can no longer have motives

such as those of Pascal. We are certain, in these days, that God, if he exists, is not at all the vindictive and cruel His existence being which Port Royal imagined him to be. would necessarily be an advantage to me, and I wish for Although it with all my heart, while wagering against it.

my

remains infinitely desirable. my whole life to him. Doubt has long enough been accused of immorality, but the immorality of dogmatic faith can be equally maintained.

improbable

This

To

eyes,

it

which I simply sometimes as impossible. seeking to build up an artificial truth, a merely

believe

conceive

This

in

not a reason for sacrificing

is

is

is

apparent

to assert as real to myself that

possible

as

truth.

At

in

itself,

same

the

the objective truth, thrusting

knowing anything about progress

more

is

or

it

The

it.

doubtful

shutting one's eyes to

greatest

To

the presupposition.

less

is

aside beforehand without

it

solutions,

enemy

—that

movement. Faith from becomes indolence of thought.

arresting the forward

Indifference

One who he adds

is :

even

is

will

not

believe without knowing.

is

may flatly

that point of

often superior to dogmatic faith. " I do not care to know." But

indifferent says

" I

human

which everyone

bring forward, but the problems themselves -view

of

reject not only the

:

believe."

The

first

The

believer wants to

remains at least per-

sincere towards himself, while the other tries to ensnare himself Therefore, whatever may be the question, fectly

doubt

is

better than the perpetual affirmation, better than the

renunciation of

all personal initiative, which is called faith. This kind of intellectual suicide is inexcusable, and that which is still more strange is the pretension to justify it, .as is

constantly done, by invoking moral reasons.

Morality

!

MORALITY OF FAITH.

command

should is

the

mind

63

—

that to search without resting " The dignity

to say, precisely to guard itself against faith.

of believing

!"

you

Man

reply.

history, rested his dignity

upon

has too often,

errors,

and

all

through

truth has at

first

appeared to him to be a lessening of himself. The truth is not always so fair as the dream, but its advantage is that true. In the domain of thought there is nothing more moral than truth and when truth cannot be secured through positive knowledge, nothing is more moral than doubt. it is

;

We

Doubt is dignity of mind. must therefore drive out of ourselves the blind respect for certain principles, for certain

We

beliefs.

everything.

must be able

to question, scrutinize, penetrate

Intelligence should

not cast

down

its

eyes

even before the object of its adoratiori. A tomb in Geneva bears this inscription: "Truth has a face of brass, and those who have loved truth will have faces of brass like her." But, it will be said, if it is irrational to affirm in our thoughts as true that which is doubtful, still it will sometimes have to be affirmed in action. May be but it is always a provisional situation and a conditional affirmation I do this, supposing it to. be my duty, even supposing that I can have an absolute duty. A thousand acts of that kind cannot establish a truth. A great number of martyrs have made Christianity triumph a little reason may be sufficient to overthrow it. Besides, how much humanity would gain if all self-sacrifice were done out of regard for science, and not for faith if one died not to defend a belief, but to discover a truth, however small it might be. That was what Empedocles and Pliny did, and what in ;

:

;

—

our time

many faith,

men

of science, physicians, explorers do.

How

were lost of old to assert objects of an unsound which might have been utilized for humanity and.

lives

science

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

64

III.

MORALITY OF DOUBT.

We

have seen the certitude of duty, as admitted by Kant, resolve itself into faith, even with the followers of Kant, and faith itself become a doubt which will not declare itself. Very well there remains a third attitude of mind, this time ;

absolutely sincere with itself

and with others it consists in and the morality of faith founding morality partly on the ;

replacing the morality of certitude

by the morality of doubt

—

in

very consciousness of our metaphysical ignorance, joined to

which we have learned from positive science. This attitude of mind has lately been analyzed and put forward as the best (see " La Critique des Systemes de that

Morale," par A. Fouillee, conclusion and preface).

The author of " 1' Id^e Moderne du Droit,'' and of the " Critique des Systemes de Morale Contemporaine," has one synthesis the legitimate

tried to unite in

results of the

philosophy of evolution and of the philosophy of criticism. Its point of

deny,

experimental departure, which no doctrine can

the fact that

is

rightly interpreted,

we have

first

of right and the duty of justice. What, in reality, of consciousness in

its

widest sense, and what

It realizes itself, realizes the

the whole world character

;

in

This

consciousness.

according to him, the

is,

fact,

foundation

is

the object

is its

limit ?

consciousness of others, realizes

consequence

and an universal range

it

";

has both " an individual it

does not assume

its

own consciousness without assuming the consciousness of others similar to its own it does not grasp itself but in association with others. By this very fact, consciousness " comprehends its own limitation, its own relativity, as a ;

means of knowledge," " either

for

it

cannot completely explain

itself,

own

nature as a thinking subject, or the nature of the object which it realizes, or the transition of the subjective to

its

the objective."

From

this springs the principle of

the

MORALITY OF DOUBT. "relativity

of knowledge^'' which

is

65

moral

of a

import

hitherto disregarded. " true positivist, like a true critic

A and a true sceptic, must keep in the depth of his mind a what do T know T and a 'perhaps.' He must not assert that science or his brain is adequate to comprehend reality, but only that they are adequate to comprehend reality so far as it is known. Our very experience teaches us that our mind is not made '

so as to always represent

dently of that object,

as felt

and

things as they are, indepen-

all

On

mind

pictured,

is

the one hand, therefore, the

not conceived as capable of

being entirely penetrated by science, or by the feeling and thinking subject

;

on the other hand, the

subject

is,

perhaps,

in his turn, not wholly penetrable to himself."

This principle of the

of right, as of the duty of justice. is,

knowledge, built up

relativity of all

by the ideas of our consciousness,

is

the preliminary condition

In

fact,

such a principle

in the first place, " limitative

egoism," which

is

intolerant

strictive of practical

and restrictive of theoretical dogmatism moreover, it is " re;

egoism," which

is injustice.

To make

of one's egoism and of one's self an absolute formula

is

to

dogmatize in action as well as in thought it is to act as if one possessed the absolute formula of being ; it is as much " The world mechanically knowable is all ; force as to say ;

:

is

all; self-interest is all.

in action,

and

Injustice, therefore,

hurtful to others

Now,

is

absolutism

there will always

remain something which cannot be explained mechanically, if it were only movement and sensation, the element of consciousness.

Joined to

all

the other considerations, the

idea of that something irreducible which constitutes

our

knowledge gained by means of our senses (connaissance sensible), also imposes on us rationally the limitation of our motives derived from the consciousness, while restricting the

senses (mobiles sensibles), and that with regard to others, and with regard to everything. Solipsism, as the English say, is no more to be admitted in morality than in meta-

F

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

66

physics, although

it is,

perhaps, logically irrefutable in both

spheres."

This doctrine, we must own, contains a great deal of

But

truth.

it is

necessary to exactly calculate to what point

this morality leads us,

and

also

where

it

leaves us.

It is

an

attempt to found a primary equivalent to obligation upon doubt itself, or at least upon the relativity of human knowledge,

and

to rid the assertion of moral justice of a certain

metaphysical scepticism.

In the

that the practical formula of

first

doubt

is

place,

we must agree

really abstinence.

It

from action in general, not only from injustice, that All action is an complete doubt would have to abstain. it is also a kind of choice, of election. While affirmation acting, I always seize something from the midst of the metaphysical mist, from the thick cloud which envelopes the is

;

world and myself. The perfect equilibrium of doubt is, therefore, rather an ideal than a real state an almost imper-

—

ceptible

moment

of transition.

If there

is

no true morality

but in action, and if to abstain is still to act, that is, by this very reason, departure from equilibrium. Besides, metaphysi-

most concrete cases not an entire and thorough mind by different possibilities which counterbalance one another ; it most often envelopes a vague belief, which is unconscious of itself, or, as M. Fouillde owns, at least one or more hypotheses hence it can have a practical influence. Man, placed between the different hypotheses concerning the world, has cal

doubt is

in

doubt, a perfect equivalent created in the

always some instinctive preference for a certain one among them; he does not remain hanging in the f-rioyj] of Pyrrho he chooses according to his own habits of thought. These vary in different individuals, according to their creeds and hopes, not according to their doubts.

—

But,

will

be

said, there is in all sincere

doubt a precise the consciousness of our ignorance of the foundation of things ; it is the conception of a simply

and

it

lasting

element

possible, reality,

;

it is

which goes beyond our thought, a wholly

— MORALITY OF DOUBT. negative

and

restrictive

67

conception, being nevertheless of

sovereign importance in restricting our "intellectual pride."

Quite so

;

but the question

is

to

know

if this

conception

same importance in restricting our conduct. In the first place, be it noted that this conception could not produce an imperative, and this is shown by the very author of the theory which we are examining. That which is in itself indeterminable cannot determine and regulate conduct an order and a rule are a by a law which commands determination. The unknowable cannot even limit conduct a limitative principle, as such, in a categorical manner cannot have an absolute character at least not unless an absolute behind the limit be presupposed. But let us go further. Would doubt, with regard to the unknowable, in itself axid in so fat as it is a mere suspension of judgment, be able to limit conduct in any way ? A limit cannot, it seems, have practical influence on us as long as we move inside this limit. Now, we are unable to move outThe glass of a bowl has no direct effect side phenomena. on the conduct of the fish, so long as the fish does not Even the future hurt itself against the side of the bowl. has influence on me only in two ways firstly, in so far as I picture\t to myself in my mind in pure supposition; secondly, in so far as by my acts I produce, or help to produce, 01 So long as the future is not, believe to produce, the future. in some form or other, represented in my imagination, it remains strange to me, and cannot in any way modify my It is in the same way necessary, we believe conduct. and M. Fouillde undoubtedly admits this also that, if the unknowable is to have a positive and determined effect on our conduct, it should not only be conceived as possible, but be represented under some form or other in its relation to my act, and under forms which do not contradict is

of the

;

;

—

:

—

It is, moreover, necessary that I or destroy each other. imagine I can exercise some influence on the unknow-

able and

its

realization

;

in short,

it

is

necessary that

it

68

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

becomes, as M. Fouill^e says, an "ideal" more or less determinable for me, a future which I am more or less able to realize. The idea of a moral rule, even of a restrictive one, presupposes,

therefore, as positive principle, not the

mere

'Cat,

conception

representation of

nature

and,

;

influence

unknowable, but a an imaginary determination of its

possibility of the

nature,

its

presupposes the belief in a possible in the it, and on its realization

lastly, it

of the will on

And once

shown that these are so and right even included appears metaphysically hypothetical, considerations drawn

future.*

many

—

or

clearly

is

it

—

hypotheses, morality

justice

from positive science, evolution, happiness,

utility, etc.,

being

omitted.

The

theory of doubt as limiting egoism corresponds to a

somewhat subtle point which thought and without stopping

mine tive

make room

this point, to

ignorance,

Surely

at.

it

is

in

pass by

act

important

to

morality for

deter-

our posi-

our positive doubt, and, so to speak, for

This M. Fouillde has our incertitude. While waiting till he has developed the positive part of his doctrine, we must allow that he has logically reduced Kant, we have the idea of the imperative to its true value. his followers raised it to an said, saw in it a certainty now it is reduced to a formula of our doubt, object of faith to a limitation of our conduct by a limitation of our thought. After having been an imperative order, the unknowable is This interrogation presents nothing but an interrogation. but the answer which each one of itself to each one of us us can give to it varies with individuals, and is left to their own initiative. One remembers the plank of safety of which Cicero speaks, upon which a man walks trying Metaphysical doubt alone would be of to save himself. the certainty of

done.

;

;

;

little

use to prevent

me

taking,

if I

can, the place of that

" * Besides, the author of the Critique des Systteies de Morale himself makes of the ideal " a hypothetical formula of the unknowable" '

'

—an ideal which

itself

can only have a conditional influence.

MORALITY OF DOUBT.

69

The unknowable,

in the midst of which we Hve and and which envelopes us, so to speak, intellectually, is very much like the empty space which surrounds us physically. Now, the empty space means for us absolute freedom of direction. It can only act on us and rule our course by the bodies it contains, which are revealed to us by our senses. For him who believes the depth of things to be inaccessible

man.

breathe,

to our thought

our

to

acts.

in relation to

supreme

it

will

always be doubtful

if it

be accessible

The supreme unknowable can, therefore, our own will, remain without contradiction

indifference,

long

as

as

it

remains

for

our

mere object of doubt and of suspension of

intelligence a

judgment.

The

theory sketched in the " Critique des Systemes de

Morale"

will

when

author shall have succeeded in drawing, as he

its

only

become

sufficiently

clear

intends to do, a restrictive rule, and, above

and all,

fruitful

a "per-

—

suasive ideal " not out of our doubts about the unknowable (mere " preliminary condition " of morality), but out of our

and out of " the known depth of human According to his own words, we must be make the moral ideal "immanent," and to show that

knowledge

itself,

consciousness."

able to it is

derived from experience

That

is,

itself.

moreover, what he already

tries to

the important pages of his work (Preface,

In his opinion, there

exists,

of the intelligence, a kind

and

justifies

altruism

in

of

the

in

do

in

one of

ix.).

very constitution

which explains There is, he says,

altruism,

conduct.

an intellectual disinterestedaltruism, which makes us able to understand others to put ourselves in their place ; to put ourselves into them by an

"intellectual

—

ness,

thought.

Consciousness, projecting

other beings, and into the whole,

is

itself in this

way

into

joined to others, and to

is at the same time a force." a sort of " intellectual altruism "

the whole, by an idea, which

We does

believe, in fact, that exist

;

only, in our opinion, this disinterestedness of

70

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

the intelligence

is

instead of being

only one of the aspects of moral altruism,

its

place,

and enter

must, above feeling

is

To be

main principle.

the consciousness of others well

—

to

able to conceive

put ourselves in their

into their consciousness, so to speak

all,

be in sympathy with them

;

the germ of the extension of consciousness.

understand

— we

sympathy of

To

understand others is to feel ourselves in harmony with others. This communicability is

really to feel

;

to

of emotions and of thoughts side, is

a

phenomenon

to a great extent

which life

is

that

—which, on

by the fecundity of

almost in direct ratio to

we

will

its

of nervous contagion

demand

its

life,

psychological

—

is

explained

the expansion of

intensity.

the principle of morality.

It is

from

—

FIRST

BOOK.

ON THE MOTIVE FORCE OF MORALITY FROM A SCIENTIFIC POINT OF VIEW.

FIRST

EQUIVALENTS OF DUTY.

CHAPTER Intensity of Life

By no means do we

is

I.

the Motive Force of Action.

reject the part of metaphysical specula-

tion in moral philosophy, provided that

it

presents itself as

and the importance of it we ourselves will show later on. But a strict method obliges us to examine first what a moral philosophy may be which is founded exclusively on facts, and which in consequence does not start from an i priori thesis, nor from an a priori law, which itself would be a metaphysical thesis. The question which we have to examine is Which is the point of departure and the goal, and what is the exact domain of science in moral philosophy ? A moral philosophy which only invokes facts cannot it

really

is

i.e.,

as speculation,

:

from the very beginning represent to the individual, as spring of action, the

good

the happiness of society

is

or

the happiness of

first

society, for

often in opposition to that of

In these cases of opposition social happiness, as such, can only become for the individual a thoughtout end by virtue of pure disinterestedness ; but it is the individual.

impossible to prove this pure disinterestedness as fact,

and

its

versy;

existence has always

been a subject of contro-

Besides, scientific morality, in order not to include

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

72

from first

its

very beginning an inverifiable postulate, must be It should preoccupy itself with the

individualistic.

destiny of society only in so far as

The

that of the individual.

it

more or

less includes

mistake of utilitarians

first

Stuart Mill, and even of evolutionists, has been to confuse the social aspect and the individualistic aspect of like

the moral problem. It

is

important to add that an individualistic morality, facts, is not the negation of a metaphysical

founded on

or religious morality, founded, for example,

personal ideal

it

;

does not exclude

constructed in a different

sphere.

this latter It

is

a

on some im-

—

it is

simply

small house,

Tower of Babel. It does not in the Tower of Babel raising itself to heaven, if it can. Nay, more who knows if the small house will not in the end need shelter itself under the shadow of the tower? Therefore we will not try either to deny or to built at the foot of the least prevent the

;

exclude any of the ends put forward as desirable by metaphysicians

;

but we

of the desirable, and

what

in reality

is

will at

we

present leave alone the notion

will limit ourselves to first

speculation into moral philosophy

determine

first

how

precisely

showing

Before introducing metaphysical

desired*

conception of morality can go.

it is,

in fact, essential to

an exclusively scientific This is what we now pro-

far

pose to do.

The ends pursued

by mankind and by all living However, in the same everywhere shows characters in common, and of in reality

creatures are extremely numerous.

way as

life

a similar type of organization, it is probable that the ends sought by different individuals can be in reality more or less This unique and profound goal of action led back to unity. could not be the good a vague conception, which, when

—

one wants

to determine

it,

dissolves in metaphysical hypo-

* On the distinction of the desired and desirable see our " English Contemporary Moral Philosophy," second edition, part ii., " De la

M6thode Morale."

INTENSITY OF LIFE theses

IS

THE MOTIVE FORCE OF ACTION.

— nor duty, which none

as a primitive

and

73

the more appears to science

irreducible principle

;

nor, perhaps, hap-

piness in the fullest meaning of the word, which Volney has called an object of luxury,

presupposes, moreover,

a

and the conception of which

very advanced development of the

intelligent being.

What, then,

When

a

will

be the natural aim of human actions

marksman has

a target, one he has made

sees, in

?

for a long time practised shooting at

looking at the numerous holes which

in the piece of cardboard, that these holes are

distributed pretty uniformly round the white at which he

aimed. Not one of these balls, perhaps, will have hit the geometrical centre of the circle of the target, and some will

be grouped round this centre, according to a very regular law, which Qudtelet has ascertained and named "the binomial law."

Even without knowing this law, one would not be deceived by the mere aspect of the holes one would put a finger in the centre of the place where these holes are most frequent, and one would say " That is the point of the target aimed at." This searching for the point aimed at by the marksman may be compared to that which the purely positive ;

:

science of morals undertakes

when

it

endeavours to deter-

mine the ordinary aim of human conduct. Which is the target constantly aimed at by humanity, and which must also have been the target for

man

all

human

beings, for to-day

no longer regarded by science as a being separate from the rest of the world, and the laws of life are the same, from the top downwards, on the ladder of animal life ? is

Where

is

the centre of the universal effort of beings towards

which the strokes of the great hazard of things have been directed, perhaps without one perfectly exact stroke, without the aim having ever been fully attained ? According to the " Hedonists," the natural direction of every act would be the minimum of pain and the maximum of pleasure

;

in

its

evolution " conscious

the line of the least suffering."

life

always follows

Hardly anyone can dispute

;;

74

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

our desire, and we, for our part, admit it is too narrow, for it can only be applied to the conscious and more or less voluntary acts, and not to the unconscious and automatic acts, which are simply this direction of

but the preceding definition

accomplished according to the line of the least resistance. Now, to believe that most of our movements spring from consciousness, and that a scientific analysis of the springs of

conduct has only to reckon with conscious motives, would For Dr. undoubtedly mean being dupe of an illusion. Maudsley and Professor Huxley consciousness is, in life, but

an epi-phenomenon, in the absence of which everything would go on in the same way. Without wishing to solve, or even to raise, this question which in England, as well as in France, is a great point of controversy we must own that

—

—

consciousness embraces a rather restricted portion of

and

action.

Even those

ness have generally their beginning and instincts

and

reflex

life

acts achieved in full consciousfirst

dumb

origin in

Consciousness

movements.

is,

therefore,

only a luminous point in the great obscure sphere of life it is a small lens, gathering in bundles some rays of the sun,

and imagining

too

readily

very focus from which the rays of action, before

that

focus

its

the

is

The natural spring

start.

appearing in consciousness, must have

already acted from underneath in the obscure region of the

The constant end of action must primarily have been a constant cause of more or less unconscious movements. In reality, the ends are but habitual motive causes become conscious of themselves. Every movement of the will has begun by being a spontaneous movement blindly executed because it presented less resistance. Every conscious desire, therefore, has first been an instinct. The

instincts.

sphere of finality coincides, at least in sphere of causality (even

if,

regards finality as primitive). end, the

constant

target,

centre, with the

The problem this

:

What

is

the

becomes, therefore, problem What is the

of action

from another point of view,

its

with the metaphysicians, one

?

:

— INTENSITY OF LIFE

IS

THE MOTIVE FORCE OF ACTION.

constant cause of action

aimed

circle of life the point

In the

?

75

at blends with the very point

from which the action

springs.

We

believe

an

that

exclusively

morality

scientific

must, to be complete, admit that the pursuit of pleasure

only

consequence of the instinctive

the

itself

and

maintain

enlarge

The aim

life.

determines every conscious action

produces every unconscious action. life

in

its

forms.

of

its

most intense and,

From

the

first

mother, to the

ment of the

at the

in

the

then,

is,

time,

its

embryo

life

fact,

which itself

most varied

in the

womb

convulsion of old age, every move-

This life in its evolution. from another point of view,

creature has, as cause,

universal cause of our acts its

It

same

bound of

last

which,

also the cause

is

is

to

effort

is,

constant effect and end.

The

preceding analysis

agrees

in

result with

its

the

analysis of the evolutionist school, which we will not reproduce here (see our " Morale Anglaise Contemporaine,''

second

edition).

as the motive underlying all our actions, is even admitted by the mystics, for they generally suppose a prolongation of existence beyond this world ; and timeless Life,

existence

itself is

The tendency .to

but

life

not only for man, but for for the

last

abstract of

concentrated in a punctum stans.

persist in life

atom of ether

life.

is

all living ;

the necessary law of creatures

for force is

This tendency

is

—

life,

perhaps even

probably only an

undoubtedly, as

were,

it

the residuum of the universal consciousnesss, the more so

because It

is,

it

goes beyond and envelopes consciousness

therefore, both the

most radical of

realities

itself-

and the

inevitable ideal.

The

solely and systemapart of morality founded the on positive facts may be thus defined science which has for object all the means of preserving and enlarging material and intellectual life. The supreme tically

:

laws of this morality will be identical with the deepest laws

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

76

of life

itself,

and in some of its most general theorems, this con-

ception of morality will be of value for

creatures.

all living

be said that the means of preserving physical life belong to hygiene more than to morality, we answer that temperance, which for a long time has been placed among the virtues, is practically an application of hygiene; and that, moreover, an exclusively scientific conception of If

it

morality can, in

its

physical aspect, oblivious of

all

other

from an enlarged hygiene. If we are asked what to increase the intensity of life means, we reply that it is to enlarge the range of activity under all its forms (in such a measure as is compatible with the renewal of force).

aspects, hardly differ

The

inferior creatures

only in a certain direction,

act

and sink into absolute inertia as, for example, the hunting dog, which goes to sleep until the after

which they

very

moment when he

will

human

strict limits

is

hunt.

The

activity

rests

is,

of necessity of

periods of lying fallow. action

again begin to

by variety of action, by variety of production. The aim pursued in

the culture of the

;

on the contrary,

superior being, like a field

rest

To

therefore, the reduction to

what might be called the

act

is

to live

to increase the fire of inward

would

life.

;

to increase

The

worst of

from that point of view, laziness, inertia. The moral ideal will be activity in all its variety of maniat least, of those which do not contradict each festations other, or which do not produce a permanent loss of forceTo take an example thought is one of the principal forms vices

be,

—

:

of

human

activity,

not, as Aristotle believed, because thought would be action when pure and detached from all matter (an unverifiable hypothesis), but because thought is,

so to

speak, condensed action

and Hfe

at its

maximum

development. It is

the

same with

love.

After having stated in very general terms the foundations of a moral philosophy of life, let us see what place it allows

—

:

INTENSITY OF LIFE within

IS

THE MOTIVE FORCE OF ACTION.

77

range to hedonism, or to the moral philosophy of

its

pleasure.

Pleasure

is

a state of consciousness which, according to

psychologists

'

and

physiologists,

connected

is

an

with

or intellectual), from which it follows that the precept, " Persistently increase the inten-

increase of

life

(physical

of your life," will finally be confounded with this " Persistently increase the intensity of your pleasure."

sity

Hedonism, and more

may

therefore,

stand, but in the second place,

consequence than as principle.

as

" Pleasure

the

All

by which people can be moved." Let us understand one another. There are two kinds of pleasure. At one time pleasure corresponds with a particular and superficial form English

moralists

say,

only lever

the

is

at another ; connected with the very root of that activity (the In the one pleasure of living, of willing, of thinking, etc.).

of activity (the pleasure of eating, drinking, etc.)

time

it is

case, is it

it

is

purely a pleasure of the senses

;

in the other,

it

more deeply vital, more independent of exterior object.s The utilitarians is one with the very consciousness of life.

or the hedonists take too great a delight in considering the first

sort of pleasure

tance.

the other kind has a greater impor-

;

One does not always

particiilar pleasure

Sometimes we

—limited

exterior to the act

act for the pleasure of acting

the pleasure of living

we think

;

is

used.

If its expenditure is

in us

we

;

a

itself.

for

live

for the pleasure of thinking.

accumulated force which demands to be impeded, this force becomes

There

desire or aversion if it is

act with the view of seeking

and

:

if

opposed, there

the desire is

pain.

is satisfied,

But

it

there

is

pleasure;

does not follow from

this that the stored-up activity unfolds itself solely /(7r the

sake of pleasure

and expresses creatures

— with

itself in

pleasure as motive. activity

because

it

unfolds

Life is

In

life.

much more than Before all we must Hve

pleasure accompanies,

vokes, the search after life.

ment comes

after.

it ;

all

pro--

enjoy-

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

yS

For a long time it was believed that the organ created the it was also believed that the pleasure created the

function

;

function.

"A

creature goes," said Epicurus,

"where

his

These words, according to modern science, contain a very incomplete truth, and are mingled with error. In the beginning the creature did not possess any organ already complete neither did he possess, in any way, He himself, by action, has a fully-developed pleasure. created his organ and his pleasure. The pleasure, as well Moreover, as the organ, proceeds from the function. afterwards, like the organ itself, it reacts on the function. Finally, one acts in such-and-such a way because one has an organ developed after such a fashion, and because one finds pleasure in going in such a direction. But the pleasure does not come first ; that which is first and last is pleasure calls him."

;

the function,

is life.

superior to her

;

if

to

an

inferior

an impulse which

nature

is,

is

it is

not

foreign or

so to speak, self-moved

and

any the more necessary to appeal and particular motive, such as any special

self-governed, neither to

for the direction of nature,

If,

appeal

necessary to

is it

pleasure.

The

we can agree with the Hedonists some vague Pleasure and pain might be considered pleasure or pain. as the very principle of consciousness on the other hand, is

point on which

that

consciousness could not exist without

;

consciousness

the lever necessary to produce all action other than purely reflex action. The English theory is,

therefore, true

is

in

this

sense, that every voluntary action,

being, so to speak, always obliged to pass through consciousness, necessarily becomes impressed with either a pleasant

To act and react is always to moreover, always to desire or to

or an unpleasant character. enjoy or to suffer

;

it

is,

fear.

But

this pleasant or

sufficient to

unpleasant character of action

completely explain

is not Enjoyment, instead of

it.

being the deliberate end of action,

is

often, like conscious-

INTENSITY OF LIFE

IS

THE MOTIVE FORCE OF ACTION.

79

ness

itself, only an attribute of it. Action springs naturally from the working of life, which is, to a considerable extent, unconscious. It enters immediately into the domain of consciousness and enjoyment, but it does not spring from it. (The tendency of the creature to continue in existence is

at the root of all desire,

minate

desire.

space, ignores

A

>

body

without forming in

direction,

its

speed, ready to transform

and

yet

passes.

It is

thus that

it

life

its

heat,

and even

acquired force, and of the

its activity, is

tion

which

this

fully

being

open

known, one can predict the will

feel itself

to

direc-

inwardly obliged to

an astronomer could predict the course of merely by the knowledge of its bulk, its speed, and It is as if

take.

a

once

If the

it.

in a being, having different issues

life

it

desire or fear, pain or

primitive directions in which evolution has flung intensity of

into

medium through which

becomes

pleasure, precisely in virtue of

a deter-

possesses an acquired

itself into

according to the resistant

light,

itself

motion, carried on through

in

star

of the action of the other stars.

One sees now the only position which can be taken up by a science of morals without metaphysics in the question of the moral end, independent of

the hypotheses which Given on the one hand sphere of instincts, habits, and dumb all

metaphysics could add later on. the

unconscious

on the other hand the conscious sphere of will, morality is placed on the of these two spheres. It is the only science thus

perceptions,

reasoning and of thoughtful limit

having for

its

facts purely

object neither facts purely unconscious nor It must, therefore, search for a

conscious.

tendency which should be common to these two orders of facts, and which might be able to connect the two spheres. Classical psychology was always restricted to conscious phenomena, leaving alone the study of pure mechanism. It was the same with classical moral philosophy. But both supposed it to be proved that mechanical life does not act

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

8o

upon the conscious region of mind give rise sometimes in that region to

To suppose

disturbances.

(or thought),

more or

less

does not

inexpHcable

that the independence of the

conscious with regard to the unconscious was thus demonstrated, was to begin with a postulate which is sanctioned

We

believe that, in order to avoid this postumorality must look for a spring of action which should be able to work at the same time in the two spheres, and move in us both the unconscious and the

by nothing. late,

scientific

conscious being.

The

object of the science of morals

is |

produced by the mere effort of life, springs incessantly from the unconscious depths of being, and how, next, to enter into the domain of consciousness action may be weakened in this new sphere, often even be suspended for example, when there is struggle between to

show how

action,

;

;

the instinct of

a

life

and such or such a

belief in the rational

may furnish may become

In that case, the sphere of consciousness

order.

new source

of actions, which in their turn

and thus

re-enter the unconundergo numberless Instinct deviates in becoming consciousness alterations. and thought ; thought deviates in becoming action and the Moral science has to reckon with all germ of instinct. It looks for the meeting point where these deviations. the two great forces of our being, instinct and reason, touch and mutually transform themselves without ceasing. Moral science has to study the action of these two forces on each other, to regulate the double influence of instinct on thought, of thought and of mind on instinctive and reflex actions. We shall see how life, by becoming conscious of itself, and without rationally contradicting itself, may give rise to an indefinite variety of motives derived from it. The universal instinct of life now uncon-

principles of habit or instincts,

scious depth of the creature, there to

scious,

now

shall see

positive

it

end

conscious

—

—

in the different aspects in

which we

clothed, supplies moral science with the only ;

which, moreover, does not

mean that no other

j

1

I

— 1;

INTENSITY OF LIFE end

facts, let

that

is,

it

is

8

adequate to every

The moral

philosophy, founded on be said once more, can but " show " one thing

that

reality.

life

among

increase

THE MOTIVE FORCE OF ACTION.

or that our experience

is possible,

imaginable

IS

has a tendency to maintain beings,

all

itself,

and to

unconsciously, and later

first

with the help of spontaneous and thinking consciousness that

the desire of

with

all

and universal form of

thus, in fact, the primitive

life is

every good thing which life

is

desired.

It

does not follow that

absolutely exhausts the idea of the desirable,

the metaphysical, and even mystical, notions which

can be attached to

it.

It is

a reserved question, which will

no longer be properly an object of of metaphysical hypothesis.

It is

positive aiifirmation, but important for science to

mark the exact point of separation of the

certain

and the

uncertain, in moral philosophy as well as in other branches

of science.

Certitude has never injured speculation, nor

even dreams

;

injured the injured

neither has the knowledge of the real facts

impulse towards the

metaphysics.

The

ideal,

reaper,

nor has science

carefully

gathering

barn sheaves which he has himself collected and counted, has never prevented the sower going round with open hands, his eyes fixed on far-off the known harvests, throwing out to the winds the present together into

—so

his

—

as to see a future germinate

hopes

which he knows

not, but

for.

CHAPTER

II.

The Highest Intensity of Life has for

its

Necessary

Correlative the Greatest Expansion.

From

the physiological point of view, existence and

life

imply nutrition, consequently appropriation, transformation Life is a kind of gravitafor itself of the forces of nature. But a being always needs to accumulate a tion upon itself. G

— MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

82

surplus of force to ensure the

amount necessary

to maintain

a very law of nature. What will become of this surplus of force which is accumulated by every healthy being, of this superabundance which nature succeeds in Thrift

life.

producing In the

is

?

place,

first

it

be able

will

to

expend

itself in

"Repro" and of nutrition of Haeckel, an excess duction," says is growth, in consequence of which a part of the individual

generation,

which

is

simply a case of nutrition.

independent in everything " (" Morphologic," In the elementary cellule generation takes the form of simple division. Later, a kind of distribution of labour takes place, and reproduction becomes a special

is

created

ii.

1 6).

by the germ-cells ; this is sporogony. two cells one ovular, the other spermatic There unite and blend together to form a new individual. The is nothing mysterious in this conjunction of two cells. muscular tissue and the nervous tissue result, to a great extent, from these cellular fusions. Nevertheless, with this sexual generation or amphigony begins, we may say, a new moral phase for the world. The individual organism ceases

function, carried out

—

Finally, later,

centre of gravity changes its place by change its place more and more. of capital importance in moral life. If against

to be isolated,

degrees,

and

Sexuality

it

is

all possibility

among

the

its

will

a non-sexual generation had been prevalent

animal

beings, society

species,

would hardly

since that spinsters,

and

finally

among human

was noticed long bachelors, and eunuchs fall into the exist.

It

more selfish. Their centre has always remained in the depths of themselves without ever fluc-

habit of being

Children also are selfish ; they do not yet possess a surplus of life to pour forth from themselves ; it is about the period of puberty that their characters transform themtuating.

selves.

The young man

is

full

of enthusiasm

for every sacrifice because, in point of fact,

that

he should

sacrifice

it

;

he

is

ready

necessary

is

—that

something of himself

he

THE HIGHEST INTENSITY OF

LIFE.

should diminish himself to a certain extent of

to live only for himself.

life

The

also that of generosity.

The

;

83 he

is

too

full

period of generation

is

old man, on the contrary,

is

become selfish again. People who are ill have the same tendency. Each time that the fount of life is diminished a need is felt in the whole of one's being to save One hesitates to allow one drop to spare one's self. often inclined to

—

of internal sap to

The

filter

through.

of generation

first effect

is

to

produce a grouping of

organisms, to create the family, and, through the family, to create society

most evident seen,

is

;

but this

is

The

effects.

only one of

its

most

sexual instinct, as

visible

and

we have

just

a superior but particular form of the general need

Now, this need, symptom of a surplus of does not only act on the special organs of generation it acts on the whole organism. It exercises a kind of pressure on our being, the different forms of which we are going to enumerate. I. Intellectual Fecundity. It is not without reason that of fecundity.

force,

—

—

the works of a thinker have been

The his

artist also

inmost

self,

is,

by an inward

compared

to his children.

force, driven to cast forth

to give us of his innermost, like Musset's

pelican.

Let

be added that

it

this fecundity is

somewhat

The organism

tion to physical generation.

in opposi-

cannot, without

accomplish this double expenditure. It seems animal species also, physical fecundity decreases Very great geniuses with the development of the brain. have generally had children only under the average, whose suffering,

that, in the

These geniuses undoubtedly minds of the human race, but blood could not mingle with that of mankind.

race was soon exterminated. still

live

their

by

their ideas in the

Intellectual fecundity also admits of a kind of debauchery.

The mind can be

abused.

The young man

exhausted for the whole of his intellectual labour.

life

The American

is sometimes by premature excess of

girl

may, in the same

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

84

way, imperil her future maternity, or the fate of the generawhich she will bring into the world. It is the duty of

tion

morality to restrain here, as elsewhere, the instinct of pro-

As a general rule, we may say that the expenditure should only be an excitation and not an exhaustion of life. duction.

Be

that as

it

may, the need of intellectual fecundity, more

even than of sexual fecundity, deeply modifies the condiThought, in fact, is impersonal tions of life in humanity.

and

disinterested.

—

Sensibility Fecundity of Emotion and of Sensibility. must be exercised as well as intelligence. Of ourselves, we are not sufficient for ourselves. We have more tears than are wanted for our own sufferings, more joys in reserve than our own happiness would justify. We really need to go out of ourselves to others we want to multiply ourselves by communion of thoughts and sentiments. Hence the kind of unrest in a too solitary creature, an 2.

;

If, for instance, we feel some artistic we would rather not enjoy it alone. We like know that we exist, feel, suffer, love. We would

unsatisfied desire.

pleasure,

others to

like to tear the veil of individuality. is far

from our thought.

Vanity ?

No

;

It is rather the antithesis of

vanity

egoism.

Very

inferior pleasures are sometimes selfish. If there is only one cake, the child wants to be the only one to eat it. But the true artist does not wish to be alone in seeing some-

thing beautiful, in discovering something true, in feeling a

generous sentiment.*

There is in these higher pleasures a force of expansion, ever ready to burst the narrow shell of self.

we

In face of these we are not sufficient to ourselves made to transfer them, like the vibrating atom

are only

of ether transfers from place to place the sideral *

One

beam

has, however, here to distinguish

of

between the enjoyment of and the enjoyment of the amatem- in art, which can be narrow and selfish, because it is always barren. See our " Problems of Contemporary the artist

—which

^Esthetics.''

is

always

fruitful,

consequently generous

—

THE HIGHEST INTENSITY OF which traverses

light

momentary

the

it,

and of which

it

LIFE.

85

retains nothing but

thrill.

also, we have to avoid an exaggerated expansion a kind of altruistic debauchery. There are people, although rare, who have lived too much for others, who

Yet here,

of

life,

have not retained enough of themselves; the English moralists blame these with some reason. Is it quite certain that a great man always has the right to risk his life to save that of an imbecile? The woman a mother ^who forgets

—

—

herself too is

much may,

in advance,

bearing to a sickly and ailing

who submits

life.

condemn the child she The father of a family

himself and his family to daily privations in

order to leave the children some small competency will, in the end, really only succeed in leaving a small sum to beings ill-born,

and without value

to the species.

—

of Will. We need to bring forth and to impress the form of our activity upon the world. Action has become a necessity for the greater part of mankind. J. Fecundity

The most

constant and the most regular form of action is work, with the attention which it demands. The savage is incapable of true work all the more incapable as he is more degraded. These organisms among us which are the

—

still

living fragments of ancient

man — the

criminals

generally, as a distinctive feature, a horror of work.

do not in

is,

get tired of doing nothing.

Known

They

say that ennui

—

of fecundity of will. The " the spleen " is the most active

man, a sign of superiority

nation which has

We may

—have

pation.

Work

will in time become more and more necessary mankind. Now, work is at the same time the most economical and the most moral phenomenon, in which egoism and altruism are most easily reconciled. To work is to produce, and to produce is to be useful both to one's self and to others. Work can only become dangerous by its accumulation in the form of capital ; it may then take a frankly selfish character, and, by virtue of an inherent con-

for

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

86

tradiction,

may tend

idleness which

to

own suppression by

its

But, in

allows.

it

its

the very

living form,

work

is

belongs to the domain of social laws to prevent the bad results of the accumulation of work excess of idleness for oneself and excess of power over others as always good.

It

—

—

which are too powerful. It is necessary for us to will and work, not only for ourWe want to help others, to give selves, but also for others. toilsomely draws humanity along ; which a lift to the coach One of the inferior forms of in any case, we buzz round it. one takes care to

isolate batteries

need is " ambition," which must be recognised, not merely as a desire for honours and for fame, but as a thing which is also and before all else a need of action or of speech, an abundance of life under its rather coarse form of motive power, of material activity, of nervous tension. Certain characters have, above all, this fecundity of will They upset the surface of the for example, Napoleon I. this

world,

with the object of impressing their

mark upon

to substitute their will for that of others,

They want

they possess a poor sensibility

—an

it.

but

intelligence incapable of

word; an intelligence which does not think for the sake of thinking, and which they make the passive Others, on the contrary, instrument of their ambition. have a highly-developed sensibility, like women (who have creating, in the largest sense of the

which

is

worth nothing in

itself,

played so great a part in

founding of morality)

;

human

but

in

evolution and in

the

and

will

these intelligence

are too often lacking. Finally, life has

,

nutrition tion

and

and

two aspects. According to the one, it is according to the other, produc-

assimilation

to give out

;

that

physiologically

;

it

;

The more

fecundity. is is

its

it

takes

in,

the

Expenditure

law.

more

is

it

needs

not an evil

one of the conditions of

life.

It is

expiration following inspiration.

Thus, the expenditure for others which social is

not

— everything taken into

account—a

life

demands

loss for the indi-

;;

THE HIGHEST INTENSITY OF vidual

Man

wishes to

constantly

87

a desirable enlargement, and even a necessity.

it is

;

LIFE.

become a

agitated

social

and moral being

by that

The

idea.

he remains

;

delicate cells of

mind and his heart aspire to live and to develop in the same way as those " homunculi " of which M. Renan somewhere speaks ; every one of us feels in himself a kind of

his

pushing of moral

life,

like that of the physical sap.

fecundity, and, reciprocally, fecundity that

Life

abundance of

is

is

life

true existence.

is

There

a certain generosity which is inseparable from and without which we die we shrivel up internally. We must put forth blossoms ; morality, disinterestedness, is the flower of human life. Charity has always been represented under the guise of a mother, holding out to her children her breast, overflowing with milk. That is so because, in reality, charity is but one with overflowing fecundity; it is like a maternity too large to be confined is

—

existence,

The

within the family.

mother's breast needs

eager to

life

empty it the heart of the truly humane creature needs to be gentle and helpful to all. Within the benefactor himself ;

dwells the incentive towards those

We have

verified,

even in the

who

suffer.

of the blind cell, a prin-

life

which prevents the individual being suffithe richest life is found to be that which most tends to spend itself lavishly, to sacrifice itself within

ciple of expansion,

cient unto himself

;

certain limits, to share itself with others.

most perfect organism

that the

and

will

that the ideal of individual

Thus we

Whence

it

follows

be also the most sociable,

life

is

the

life

in

common.

find replaced in the very depths of our being that/

spring of all these instincts of sympathy and which the English school has too often shown us

sociability

as

more oy

less artificially acquired in the course of evolution, and, in

consequence, as more or

less

adventitious.

We

are far

Bentham and the utilitarians, who everywhere avoid pain, who see in pain the irreconcilable enemy

distant from try to it is

as

if

one would not breathe too

strongly, for fear of too

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

88

great expenditure.

outside,

Even

in

Spencer there

is

still

too

much

Besides, he too often looks at things from the

utilitarianism.

and does not see

in the unselfish instincts anything

There is, we believe, in the heart an evolution corresponding to the which makes the latter possible, and

but a product of society. of individual

life itself

evolution of social

which

is

life,

the cause of

it,

instead of the result.*

objection has been made to us that the fecundity of our inward forces could find its satisfaction as well in the dis^reement as in the agreement with others, in the crushing of other perBut, in the first place, one sonalities as well as in the raising of them. forgets that the others do not let themselves be so easily crushed ; the will which seeks to impose itself necessarily meets the resistance of Even if it conquers this resistance, it cannot conquer it quite others. alone it must lean on its allies, and in this way re-constitute a social group, and impose on it, with regard to this iriendly group, the very servitudes from which it tried to get free vpith regard to the other men, its natural allies. Therefore all struggle always in the end exterin the second place, it changes it internally. nally limits the will The violent man stifles the whole sympathetic and intellectual part of his being that is to say, that in him which is most complex and most elevated from the point of view of evolution. By brutalizing others he more or less brutalizes himself. Violence, which thus seemed a victorious expansion of internal power, becomes in the end a restriction of this power ; to make the humiliation of others the object of one's will is to give it an inadequate aim, and to impoverish one's self. At last, by a final and deeper disorganization, the will itself loses its equilibrium *

'

'

The

different

—

;

—

completely by the use of violence ; if the will has become used to meet no obstacle whatever from outside, as happens with despots, every one of its impulses becomes irresistible ; the most contradictory inclinations it is a complete ataxy. The despot becomes a given up to contradictory whims, and his objective omnipotence ends in bringing about a real subjective impotency"

succeed each other; child again

;

he

is

(" Education and Heredity," p. 58).

THE CREATION OF OBLIGATION.

CHAPTER

89

III.

To what Extent Inward Power creates a Sort of Obligation. Power and Duty. (I " can," therefore I "must.")

After

having established this principle of moral fecundity, which to us seems essential, there remains for us to see in what manner, and under what psychological form, it manifests itself. Is a creature impelled, by its very nature and the normal expansion of its will, to spend itself for others ? or is it simply prompted thereto by the attraction

of a special pleasure

We

etc. ?

see

—the pleasure

that

here,

also,

of sympathy, of praise, study of " mental

the

dynamics " in the English and Positivist schools has often been elementary and incomplete. Kantism has this great merit, which no naturalistic theory would be able to dispute, of having considered the primitive impulse, which constitutes one of the essential elements of duty, as anterior to all philosophical reasoning on goodness ; in fact, no demonstrative reason could suddenly change either the direction or the intensity of this spontaneous

The

impulse.

theory of the categorical imperative

is

there-

and deep, as the expression of a only Kant had no right, without

fore psychologically exact fact of consciousness

;

proof, to consider this imperative as transcendental. practical internal necessity " can be a tive

and even mechanical

necessity.

more or

"

A

less instinc-

In morality, as in

genius, there can exist a kind of natural power, preceding

knowledge Is

it

—a power which impels us

to act

and

to produce.

not precisely the characteristic of natural inclinations,

habits, customs, to

any reason

command

Custom

the individual without giving

respected in individual consciousness or in the state, as Pascal has said, " for this one reason, that

it is

?

is

accepted."

The authority

of the law

is

sometimes " entirely based upon

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

go

itself,"

without attaching

any

itself to

"

principle.

The

law-

In the presence of every power which is anterior to it, of every force which is not that of rational ideas, the understanding always plays the secondary

is

law,

part,

and nothing more."

Kant's philosophy has so well shown.

as

itself in

Yet

the presence of a mystery.

up trying

that the understanding gives

it

It

feels

does not follow

to explain this mystery,

even in a somewhat superficial way. On the contrary, there is nothing for which human intelligence finds so many explanations as for a thing which

many

theories

on goodness

this irrational affirmation

to put

In

)

1

[

it,

it

must

reality,

—

be

Sei /

reason

in

!

/

:

is

for

inexplicable.

it

How many musf,

as the ancients

or,

the abstract

is

How

reasons given for

used

incapable of ex-

accounting for a force Observation, which is infra-rational in its very principle. experience, is necessary. The fact of duty imposing itself

plaining a power, an

instinct,

of

on consciousness as a superior force once being admitted with Kant, variations,

let

and

consciousness. offer

us try to clearly show this fact in

We

will afterwards see if to

anything supernatural.

problem

its

essential

in its relations with the other similar facts

us

Kant himself has " Duty

—

it

seems

of to-

stated the

where be^found which proudly repudiates all alliance with the inclinations ?" Kant, however, has not really answered this question ; he has not discovered what bond of relationship might, in spite of appearances, connect this " noble " and " proud " duty with is

in the celebrated prosopopoeia

the root of thy noble

^m

!

to

the other inclinations. " The law of duty," Confucius has also said in a sense quite like that of Kant, " is a shoreless ocean ; the world

cannot

hold

it."

But

sometimes

a

distance

hours from the shore gives a lesser mass of

of three

water the

appearance of an ocean. Sailing on the river of the Amazon, one believes oneself on the sea. To distinguish the river from the sea,

we must not

try to

look into the

1

THE CREATION OF OBLIGATION.

9

—

distance we must bend over the water and taste it. ^Inward analysis is also the only way to appreciate the real ir imaginary infinity of our moral horizon.

We

will place ourselves successively at the three points

view of the

The

I.

existence

of a certain impersonal duty

is

—

.

move

to

Whatever

duty, or to such-and-such a particular pleasure ? is

true

and deep

in

the badly elucidated notion of moral

duty can, we believe, subsist

which

\

it

created by

Firstly, First equivalent of duty. the will without appealing either to a mystic

the power-of-acting itself

how

of

the intelligence, and the sensibility.

will,

even

after the

purification

by the theory sketched above.

has undergone

Duty will be reduced to the consciousness of a certain inward power, by nature superior to all other powers. ^ To feel inwardly the greatest that one is capable of doing is really the first consciousness of

what

Duty, from the point of view of facts being

demands

much

on one

left

to

side

exercise,

—

is

one's duty to do. >

now

itself. <

life

as the sentiment of a necessity

above all, the sentiment of a power.-^, cEvery force which accumulates creates a pressure on the obstacles placed before it. Every ability (power), considered separately, -produces a kind of obligation which is proportionate to itself. To have the power to act is to be obliged to act. Among inferior beings, whose intellectual or compulsion.

It

\

which Duty has been too

a superabundance of

to impart

interpreted until

is

it

— metaphysical notions

'-'

is,

''

life

is

this

fettered

means

and smothered, there are few

that there

is

little

power.

duties

Civilized

;

man

but has

countless duties, because he possesses a very rich activity,

expended in a thousand ways. - From this point of which is in no way mystical, moral obligation is ty reduced to this great law of nature life can maintain itself It is impossible to only on the condition of diffusing itself. to be view,

:

'>

compass one's aim with certainty unless one has the power beyond it and if one holds that the self is, in itself,

to go its

own

;

aim, this

is

still

a reason

why

it

cannot

suffice for

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

92

The

itself.

Sometimes sap

plant

cannot prevent

to flower

still rises.

means

it

itself

from flowering.

No

to die.

matter, the

Nature does not look back to see what it goes its way, always forward, always upward.

abandons ; it 2 The existence of a .

conception-of-action

the

for

certain impersonal duty is created by the

—

In Second equivalent of duty. activity creates a kind of

itself.

same way as the power of

impulse, so

obligation or imperative

natural

intelligence

has, in itself, a motive-power. If

we

raise ourselves high

enough, we

may

find incentives

which do not only work as springs of action, but which are, in and through themselves, without direct intervention of the sentiments, the moving power of activity and of life. Here again may be applied that important theory of ideas as forces {les idees forces) which a contemporary to action

philosopher has broached.* Intelligence

and

To

an abyss.

activity

understand

seem no longer separated by is

already the beginning in us

of the realization of that which

we understand.

ceive something better than that which exists

Action

it.

Thought

almost a word

force to express what

man,

less

the

To first

con-

labour

but the extension of the idea.

in realizing is

is

is

we are urged with so much we think that the child and the old ;

capable of resisting this compulsion, think aloud

the brain naturally makes the lips move.

In the same way, mind will make the arms and the whole body work and move it will direct life. Conception of aim, effort to

the

;

^I

attain— hese are not two let

us repeat

it,

is

a

first

things. eff'ort.

The conception itself, think, we feel, and

We

Hence, there

is no need whatever to call outward pleasure, no need of a middle term or bridge to pass from one of these two

action follows.

for the intermediate agent of

* See edition),

M. Alfred FouilWe's " La Liberie et le Determinisme " (2nd and " La Critique des Syst^mes de Morale Contem-

poraine.''

THE CREATION OF OBLIGATION. things

to

93

Thought, action— they are funda-

the other.

mentally identical.

That which the

is

called obligation or moral restraint

is,

in

sphere of intelligence, the sentiment of this radical

identity.

<

Obligation

is

an internal expansion

—a

need to

complete our ideas by converting them into action.

who does

moreover, that something

feels,

plete

not act as he thinks, thinks incompletely.

he

;

not

is

himself

fails

him

;

Immorality

he is

is

an

'

He He

not cominternal

Every movement of the mind lifts the body up. Not to act in accordance with that which we believe to be the best is to be like one who can neither laugh when he is joyful, nor weep when he is sad ; who, in short,, can neither outwardly express nor translate anything of that which he feels. That would be supreme torture. The distinction between the will and the intelligence has been made too great, and has been of such a kind as to immediately bring into evidence the need of moving the mutilation.

by means of motives of sentiment or feeling. need not be called in so long as the inner mechanism of thought and of life is sufificient, ;nce,/ may be said that will is but a superior degree of intelligence, and that action is but a superior degree of will. will exclusively

But

exterior motives

From being.

—an

that

moment

morality

is

nothing else than unity of

Immorality, on the contrary,

is

a dividing into two

which limit each Hypocrisy consists in checking the natural expression of thought, and in substituting a contrary expression for it ; in this sense it could be said that, in essence, immorality is hypocrisy, and, consequently, a check on the opposition

of different faculties,

other.

development of the being.* J. The existence of a certain impersonal duty created by the been completed by important passages in " Educaand Heredity," translated by W. J. Greenstreet, M.A., and pub(See pp. 75-79.) lished in the Contemporary Science Series. * This theory has

tion

94

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

growing fusion of

the se?isibilities,

and

by the more sociable

Third equivalent of duty. A new kind of obligation is derived from the very nature of sensibility, which tends to transform itself by the effect of evolution. The superior pleasures which daily form a character of the higher pleasures.

—

greater part of

human

reasoning, of learning, things, etc.

—require

life

—pleasures

of

art,

pleasures of

and of understanding, of finding out

far less, as regards external conditions,

much more accessible to all, than pleasures. The happiness of a thinker or

.and are

happiness which costs

little.

the really selfish

of an

artist is

a

With a piece of bread, a book,

may taste a pleasure infinitely superior an imbecile in a carriage with armorial bearings,

or a landscape, you to that of

drawn by

four horses.

The

superior pleasures are, therefore,

both more intimate, deeper, and more free of expense .(without always being completely so)^ They tend to separate beings far less than do the inferior pleasures.

Thus, by a natural evolution, the origin of a great

of our

many

pleasures seems to ascend from the outward to the

inward.

The man

of feeling possesses, in his

own

activity,

a source of very varied enjoyment, and that sometimes independently of outward things. Does it follow from this that he will shut himself himself,

the

like

stoic

up

in himself,

sage?

and

will suffice

Far from

pleasures have this remarkable characteristic

it;

—

unto

intellectual

that they are both the most inward and the most communicative, the most

and the most social, pleasures of our being. Bring together thinkers, or lovers of the beautiful (as long

.individual

there is no personal rivalry between them) ; they will like each other more quickly, and in any case more truly, than

.as

other people

;

they will at once recognise that they live

—

same sphere that of thought they will feel themselves as of the same country. This bond which will be established between them will also link their conduct, and will impose on them, in their mutual relations, a particular kind of obligation it is an emotional bond a union in the

;

;

—

THE CREATION OF OBLIGATION. produced by the complete, or and of thoughts.

95

harmony of sentiments

partial,

The higher we rise in the scale of evolution, the more do the pleasures of mankind seem to partake of a social and The

idea becomes one of the essential Now, the idea is a kind of contingent

sociable character.

sources of pleasure.

common

to all

human

brains

it

;

a universal conscious-

is

more or less made up of individual consciousness. As the part played by ideas in the life of every one of us

ness,

increases,

we

find that the part of the universal increases

and fends

to predominate over the individual. Conbecomes more easy of penetration. He who is born to-day is meant for a much more intensely intellectual life than he who was born a hundred thousand years ago ; and yet, notwithstanding the intensity of his individual also,

sciousness then

life,

his intelligence will

more

socialized ;

richer,

it

be found to be, so to speak, its being so

precisely because of

will possess

much

less for itself alone.

much much

It is

the

same with sensibility. We have already asked, in commenting on Epicurus, what, after all, would a purely personal and selfish pleasure be ? Do pleasures of that kind exist, and what share in life do they have ? To this ever-present question we answer, as we did before We see, in descending the scale of beings, that the sphere in which each of them moves is small, and almost shut off; if, on the contrary, we :

ascend towards superior beings, we see their sphere of action open out, become larger, lose itself in the sphere of action of other beings.

from the other

The

—

selves

self distinguishes itself less or, rather, it

of them, in order to form of scale, along which partly travelled over

by

own

exist.

it is

itself,

action.

to create outside of itself

At the same

less

Now,

this sort

has already been in its evolution.

true, selfishness

virtue of the very fecundity of all

to enlarge its

and

human thought moves, by the human species

Its point of departure was,

ness,

itself

and

has more and more need

life,

;

but selfishwas obliged

new

centres for

time, sentiments correlative to

— ;

96

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

tendency are born from time to time, and, so to speak, overlap the selfish sentiments which served

this centrifugal

principles. We are on the way to an epoch in which primitive selfishness will recede more and more, be driven back, and become more and more unknown to us. In this ideal era a being will, so to speak, no longer be able to enjoy himself alone ; his pleasure will be like a concert, in which the pleasure of others must form a part, by virtue of its being a necessary element and is it not

them as

;

already so in

the part

many

to

left

cases at present

mere

selfishness is

If,

?

in hfe generally,

compared with that which

be seen how relatively small the first is ; even the most selfish pleasures, being entirely such as the pleasure of eating and drinking physical belongs to " altruism,"

will

it

—

charm only when we share them with predominant part played by the social sentiments in all our enjoyments and all our pains. Moreover, pure selfishness would not only be, as we have shown, a kind of self-mutilation it would be an impossibility.

acquire their

We

others.

full

shall find this

;

Neither

my

sufferings

nor

my

pleasures are absolutely

my

own. The thorny leaves of the aloe, before being fully developed and spread out in enormous bands, remain for a long while folded one over the other, forming, as it were,

one

single heart.

In that stage the thorns of every leaf are

imprinted on the neighbouring leaves grow freely,

Later on

leaf.

and spread themselves out

;

all

yet this

these

mark

and even grows with their growth. It is a seal of The same thing happens pain, stamped upon them for life. in our heart, in which all the joys and pains of mankind remains,

are imprinted from the very

one of

us,

whatever

we may

moment

of

In the same way, in short, as the self psychology, an illusion

;

as there

is

its birth.

On

each

mark remains stamped.

do, this

is,

for

contemporary

no separate personality

and as we are composed of an infinite number of beings, and of small consciences and states of consciousness; so selfish pleasure may be said to be an illusion. My own

CREATION OF OBLIGATION.

97

pleasure does not exist without the pleasurg of others feel

that the

whole community

has,

more or

less,

;

I

to con-

from the small family circle which surrounds us in which I live.* Thus, then, a truly positive moral science may, to a certain extent, speak of obligation; and that, on the one hand, without intervention of any mystical idea, and on the other without appealing (as Bain does) to an exterior and social compulsion, or to an inward ''fear." No it is sufificient to tribute to

it,

to the large

community

;

consider the normal directions of psychic

life.

There

will

always be found a kind of inner pressure exercised by the activity

itself in

these directions

;

the moral agent

will,

by a both natural and rational inclination, feel itself driven in that sense, and it will recognise that it has to make a kind of inner coup coup d'etat which

d^'etat

we

to escape that pressure.

It is this

In committing

call fault, or crime.

the individual does wrong to himself; voluntarily extinguishes something of his

it

he decreases and physical or mental

life.

Moral of

life,

which has

obligation,

therefore happens to

its

come

root in the very function in principle before thinking

consciousness, and springs from the obscure and unconscious

depths of our being

—

or, if

one prefers to put

it

so,

from

the sphere of spontaneous and synthetical consciousness.

The

sentiment of natural obligation may, in a great measure,

be brought back to

means

this

formula

:

by and modi-

I ascertain in myself,

of reflective consciousness, certain powers

which, however, do not spring therefrom, but which spring from unconscious and sub-conscious depths in myself, and which urge me in a certain fixed .direction. Thus, across the luminous sphere of consciousness are flashing rays of heat from that obscure fire which constitutes fications,

the inner

life.

* See our

'

'

Morale d'Epicure " (second

edition), p. 288.

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

98

CHAPTER

IV.

The Sentiment of Obligation from the Point of View of Mental Dynamics as Impulsive or Repressive Force. In whatever manner duty may be metaphysically or morally represented, springs

of

is

not,

is

with regard to other motives

without

a

certain

and

psycho-mechanical

Dynamically considered, the sentiment of obliga-

power. tion

it

action,

a force acting in time according to a determinate

direction with to find out

more or

how

less intensity.

We,

therefore,

have

these powers of action have been born

—these impulsive forces

which are, at the same time, and sentiments. We should like to sketch here the dynamic genesis of the sentiment of obligation and of its dynamic action, so that in future we may look upon it, in us

ideas

not as a limitation or restriction of activity, but as the very consequence of its expansion. A man celebrated for his courage and integrity (Daumesnil) said, one day, to a " I do not follow my conscience I According to this very delicate distinction, the impulses of the moral and social order may be divided into two classes. By the one, we are literally driven forward

minister of Charles X.

am

driven by

:

;

it."

by the sentiment of duty without having time to discuss, to deliberate, to reason by the other, we allow ourselves ;

be dragged along in its course with a more precise consciousness of a possible and already real resistance of a certain independence. to

A

example of impulsive and spontaneous by some poor labourers in a lime-kiln in the Pyrenees. One of them, having to descend into the kiln to look after something which had gone wrong, fell down suffocated. Another, hurrycharacteristic

sentiment

is

given us

ing to his assistance, also accident,

the spot.

fell.

A

woman, witnessing the

Other labourers hastened to For the third time a man went into the burning

called for

help.

;

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION.

99

kiln and immediately succumbed. A fourth, a fifth man jumped into it, and succumbed. Only one man remained he approached, and was ready to jump, when the woman, who was standing on the spot, clutched him by his clothes and, half mad with terror, kept him back on the edge. A little later, when the magistrates arrived at the place of

the accident

to

hold an inquest, the only survivor was

questioned on his thoughtless

self-sacrifice,

magistrates began very gravely to point

and one of the him the

out to

The man gave this admirable answer " My comrades were dying ; I felt driven to go." In this example the sentiment of moral obligation and irrationality of his conduct. :

human It was,

solidarity had, in appearance, lost its rational basis.

however,

drive five

men

still

sufficiently

powerful to successively

to the useless sacrifice of their lives.

It will

not be disputed that, in this case, the sentiment of duty appeared more in the form of a spontaneous impulse of a sudden overflow of inward life towards others, than in the form of a deliberate respect for an abstract " moral law," or of a search for " pleasure " or " utility." Moreover, let it

—

be noted

and

that,

sentiment,

with the development of it is

human

in an almost reflex state without there being it

intelligence

impossible to discover the moral impulse

mixed up with

general and generous, even metaphysical, ideas.

At other times the spontaneous sentiment of of inciting to action, stops

it

suddenly.

duty, instead

Then may develop

what Messrs. Maudsley and Ribot, with the physiologists, would call a power of suspension or of "inhibition'' not less sudden and violent than the power of impulse. " I was still a Uttle fellow in skirts," the American preacher, Parker, tells us, " and only four years old. I had never killed the smallest creature ; yet I had seen other children amuse themselves by kilUng birds, squirrels, and other little animals One day I discovered, in a not very deep pond, a small speckled tortoise warming itself in the sun. I lifted my stick to give it a knock Suddenly something

I

;

lOO

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

held back

me

saying.

my

arm, and I heard a strong, clear voice within

That

sensation, this

of me, opposed air until I

had

is

wicked

!

Quite surprised at this new in me, and in spite kept my stick lifted up in the

unknown power which

my

actions, I

lost sight of the tortoise

no other event of my impression upon me."

life

has

I

must own that

such a deep and lasting second example the sudden

left

In this

more remarkable than in the presuspends action already begun, and opposes a sudden obstacle to the nervous discharge ready to be sent forth. It is a coup de theatre, a sudden revelation. The power of the sentiment is made more evident action of feeling

is

ceding one, because

still it

by suspension than by impulsion by prohibition rather Moreover, after an experience of that kind, the sentiment of what must be done may, to the thoughtful conscience, at once assume a mystic character which it does not always have in other cases. When the intelligence is, in so sudden a way, confronted with a deep, strong instinct, it tends towards a kind of religious respect. Thus, from the restricted point of view of pure mental dynamics which we adopt, duty can already produce a sentiment of respect which it owes, partly to its great power ;

than by command.

of arrest, partly to

The

its

mysterious origin.

force of the moral sentiment acquires a

more remarkable character, not of sudden impulse or

if

it

shows

itself

in

repression, but as

more and the form,

an inward

constant tension. In most cases, and with most people, the sentiment of what must be done is not violent, but it is durable. In default of intensity, it has its advantage in time, which is as yet the most powerful of

pressure, a

factors.

A

and same direction, must necessarily conquer resistances which are much stronger, but which neutralize each other. When, for the first time, the idea of helping tension not very strong, but acting continuously

always in

the

France entered the soul of Joan of Arc,

this idea did

not

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION.

lOI

prevent her from bringing her sheep back to the farm later on,

when

her mind,

this

altered her whole

it

changed the of humanity

fate of France,

in

but

life

as a peasant

a very appreciable manner.

form which

first,

this

it

If,

will

we

shall

and then adopt later on

for its power,

power

then,

we

analogies, not with the

its

impulsive force, but with the force of tension, better able to account,

girl,

and thus modified the course

consider the inoral sentiment in

special

;

same idea took complete possession of

be

for the

in the

— the sentiment of moral obligation.

mind The

force of tension

filling

the

structible

;

(2)

intermissions

:

—

being very nearly

— for

harmony and

in to,

may belong

following conditions

instance,

to every instinct ful-

(i)

being almost inde-

constant

of hunger;

in association with,

and without

(3)

finding itself

and not

in opposition

those other instincts which promote the maintenance

of the species.

remark that moral obligation, properly sodemands the immediate doing of the act nor even its fulfilment in a general way ; it accompanies the idea of an act possible, but not necessary. Duty is, in this case, no longer an irresistible, but a lasting impulse ; it is a sublime obsession.' We soon experience, as Darwin has shown, that an inclination is not destroyed by violating it. The discontent which we feel after having disobeyed it shows us our impotence to uproot the instinct which we have had the power to violate. This instinct may, at each moment of its duration, be inferior to the sum of forces demanded for the accomplishment of the act; but it appears in the conscience as a permanent instinct, and thus gains a quite new kind of power. In this way we have, among the inward forces, the sentiment of a force which is not insurmountable, but which is, for us, indestructible (or at least seems to us to be so after a series of experiences). In this respect obligation in its most elementary state is the ^^ prevision of the indefinite duration Let us

first

called, neither

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

I02

of an impersonal and generous inclination, the experience of There is, moreover, no distinct consciousness of the bonds of obligation until there has been

its indestructibility."

more

—

or less a feeling of remorse spite of

the instinct in

of

that

to say, persistence

is

violation.

its

Mistake

is

a

necessary element in the formation of thoughtful moral consciousness. In reality, it is the idea of time which

begins to give

particular character to that instinct

its

of

duty in which Kant saw only the manifestation of the intemporal. Under the sway of passion the actual intensity

sum of forces which on the mind. The future and the past have no influence. Now, the past and the future, remembered or foreshadowed,

of the inclinations alone enters into the act

The

are a condition of morality.

greater

every

if

our imagination

in

moment

of time.

A

pressure of the great

infinitely greater and becomes multiplied by being to become moral must

instincts, useful to the species,

grows it

possess consciousness of the duration of time.

One knows

the examples by which Darwin shows that,

if

animals had our intelligence, their instinct would be replaced

by a sentiment of

—from

^-feeling

This sentiment of obligation

obligation.

of view of dynamics,

the point

effectively

instinct

depends solely on

on the

;

it

is

inde-

moral or non-moral direction of the

pendent of

its

intensity, its duration,

and

which it meets in its environ" Let us suppose," Darwin says, " to take an extreme ment. case, that, if men had been born under the same conditions of life as the bees, without doubt our non-married females, following the example of the work-bees, would consider it their sacred duty to kill their brothers, and the mothers would try to kill their pregnant daughters, without anyone resistance or assistance

interfering."* * See

" The Descent

poraine."

An

of

Man

''

and our " Morale Anglaise Contem-

empirical verification of these theories on the relation

of instinct and of obligation

would be necessary

may be

to continue in

sought.

To accomplish this it way the experiments

a methodical

— THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION.

I03

Now, why is it impossible to satisfy the moral instinct which in man is found to really coincide with the social and humanitarian instinct and why does it not take the periodical form of the other instincts ? There are two

—

sorts of instincts

— the one tends

to repair the expenditure

of force, the other to produce this expenditure.

The

first

they disappear when once the want is satisfied ; they are periodical and non-continuous. Polyphagy, for instance, is rare. The others tend very often are limited by their very object

;

commenced by Messrs. Charcot and Richet, on what we will call moral made in a state of somnambulism. According to these

suggestions,

experiments,

a,

command

given to someone in a state of somnambulism

bj- the person, sooner or later, when he wakes up, without his being able to himself interpret the reasons which have urged him to do the action. The magnetizer thus seems to have been able to create at all points an inward tendency, an inclination persistent in the background, and imposing itself on the will of the patient. In these curious examples the dream of the somnambulist still dominates and directs his life after his awakening ; it is like an

during his sleep

executed

is

artificial instinct in

birth.

its

observed by Mr. Richet.

Here

It deals

One

of not taking sufficient food. told her that she ought to eat a

instance, a curious case

for

is,

with a

woman who had

the mania

day, during her sleep, Mr. Richet

good

deal.

When

awakened, she had

completely forgotten the injunction. However, one of the following days, the nursing sister of the hospital took Mr. Richet aside, to tell

him

that she could not

make

out the change which had taken place in

the patient.

" She now always asks

sister said.

If these facts

for

more food than

only the execution of a particular order, approaching very closely to natural instinct.

moral

I give her," the

were carefully observed, we have here, not but unconscious impulse, In short, every natural or

instinct is derived, as Cuvier remarks,

from a sort of somnam-

gives us an order of which we ignore the reason hear the " voice of conscience " without knowing whence it comes.

bulism, because

it

vary the experiment, one ought to order the patient, not only to for instance, to get this

up early every day,

way succeed in modifying the moral

and the

state of

to

work

obligation

to

it

eat, but,

in

character of persons by degrees,

somnambulism might become important

would attach

we To

One might

steadily.

as a means were possible instinct, undoubtedly a kind of mystical provided it did not meet with resistance

of action in the moral hygiene of some sick people. thus to create an artificial

;

—

If

it

.

I04

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

become continuous and unsatisfied. Thus, in certain depraved organisms the sexual instinct may lose its habitual to

character of periodicity

mania or diture

satyriasis.

of

force

and

may

lectual debauch, love of travel,

etc.

instincts

We

regularity, to

Every

become nympho-

instinct urging

thus

become

money, of

to

an expen-

insatiable

play,

—

intel-

of fighting,

of

have to distinguish, therefore, between

demanding varied expenditure of force and those

from other pre-existent and more vivid inclinations. An inverse experiment might also be made, to see if it would not be possible to annul, by a repeated series of orders, such or such a natural instinct. It is said that a somnambulist can be made to lose his memory, for instance, viiith regard to names ; he can even be made to lose his whole memory, according to Mr. Richet (Rev. Philos., October 8th, 1880).

He

adds:

" This experiment must only be attempted with the utmost prudence ; I have, in such a case, seen so great a terror and such a disorder of the an hour, that I If one identifies memory, as most of the psychologists do, with habit and instinct, one would think it would be also possible in a somnambuUst to provision ally annihilate, or at least weaken, instincts even of the most fimdamental or most obligatory kind, such as the maternal instinct, modesty, etc. It remains to be known if this suppression of instinct would not leave some traces after the awakening. Then the power of resistance of diverse instincts might be tested for instance, of the moral instincts ; and it might be shown which are the deepest and most tenacious, the intelligence caused, persisting for about a quarter of

should not like to re-commence this dangerous attempt often."

—

selfish or the altruistic impulses. Anyway, the experiment of destroying bad habits or hereditary manias might be attempted ; it might be seen if

a series of orders or advice often repeated during sleep could, for

instance, lessen delusions of grandeur

The madman, commanded to the madman who

and persecutions.

believing himself to be an object of hatred, could be love his enemies

;

prayer might be forbidden to

believed he was thus entering into direct communication with God, etc. In other words, one would try to counterbalance a natural mania by an impulse, created during sleep. Somnambulism would thus be found to be a subject of richer psychological and moral observation than

artificial

insanity.

Both are derangements of the mental mechanism

;

but in

the state of somnambulism this derangement can be calculated and regulated by the magnetizer. Since the first edition of this book many

experiments of this kind have been made, and with success

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION. demanding always the same expenditure.

I05 [J^'hose

which

belong to one particular organ are very easily exhausted. Those which include a series of indefinite tendencies love of exercise, of movement, of action)

(as, for instance,

can naturally be

satisfied less easily,

expenditure gives a kind of instinct belongs, as

mental

because the variety of

The

rest.

force, to this

social

kind

;

and jnoral

it is

therefore

among those which easily become insatiable and continuous. What happens if some instinct or other has thus become insatiable little

?

Every time an instinct

varied in

its

exercised which

is

is

but

manifestations there follows such an exhaus-

tion of the organism that

it is

unable to repair the expenditure.

The nymphomaniac has no children. of brain-force also checks fecundity

The exaggerated

A too great expenditure

— even

causes untimely

and of war multiplies the risks and diminishes the chances of life. But there are some rare tendencies which may become insatiable without checking the multiplication of the species, but, on the contrary, favouring it. First in the list naturally comes the altruistic sentiment that is, the one which could best produce a strong feeling which persists after a passing gratification. Even from the physiological point of view, it is possible to thus show the necessary formation of the social and moral instinct. The aesthetic instinct, which prompts the artist to seek beautiful forms, to act according to a certain order and death.

love of danger

—

measure, to perfect everything he does

much

—

this instinct is very

moral inclinations, and, like these, can give rise The artist to a certain sentiment of rudimentary obligation. feels

like

inwardly obliged to produce, to create, and to create

harmonious works in taste as

conduct

;

many

;

he

is

as vividly

conscientious

he incessantly

feels,

wounded by

a mistake

people by a mistake in with regard to forms and

colours or sounds, this double sentiment of indignation and

admiration, which one might believe to belong exclusively to the moral judgment.

Even the

artizan, the skilled

work-

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

I06

man, does whatever he works at with satisfaction ; loves his work ; cannot consent to let it remain unfinished and unpolished. This instinct, which is to be traced even in the bird building its nest, and which has burst forth with extraordinary power in certain artistic temperaments, might '

undoubtedly, in a people hke the Greeks, in

its

development,

give rise to an asthetic obligation similar to moral obligation

but the Eesthetic instinct was only indirectly connected with the propagation of the species for this reason it has neither ;

become

nor has

sufficiently general,

it

acquired sufficient

has only become of real importance where it was in touch with sexual selection. In the relation of the sexes the aesthetic inclination becomes something like a intensity.

It

moral bond remorse.

;

the aversion,

The

ends in a kind of which an individual feels

violated,

if

sesthetic aversion

with regard to certain individuals of the other sex

among animals

even

;

it is

known

is

noticed

that a stallion will disdain

be coupled with too coarse mares. In man we find that this same sentiment connected, moreover, with many others, social or moral will produce far more marked effects. The negro women whom their to

—

— —

masters want to pair like animals, and so marry by force to the males chosen for

them

— have even gone so

far as to

strangle the children of this enforced union (and yet pro-

miscuousness

is

frequent

tries to gratify his brutal

and

of the race.

;

parents, marries a feel

much below him

A man who

woman

physically

man who

feels afterwards

displeases her,

may

afterwards

a disgust strong enough, near enough to moral remorse,

to throw herself out of the

In

negroes).

an he has the feeling of it being a degradation The young girl who, in obedience to her

aesthetically too

inward shame

among

desire with a

all

same

window of the

nuptial chamber.

these instances the aesthetic sentiment produces the

effect as the

bring obligations.

moral sentiment. Genius and beauty Like every power discovered in our-

selves, they clothe us in

our

own

eyes with a certain dignity,

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION.

I07

and they impose on us a

duty. If genius were absolutely necessary to every individual in order to conquer in the struggle for life, it would undoubtedly have become general. Art would be to-day a groundwork common to mankind, like virtue.

One

of those instincts which, apart from the moral and

esthetic instinct, has been able to so sufficiently develop certain individuals as tg make it possible for the English school to regard it as an analogue to the sentiment of obligation is the inclination so often given as an instance

itself in

—

by this school viz., avarice. But, even from and still gross point of view which we here

this

narrow

take, let us

notice the inferiority of this impulse in comparison with

the moral instinct.

of

life,

Avarice, while diminishing the comfort

has the same effect as poverty

fecundity, for the miser

is

;

it

does not promote

afraid of having children.

Besides,

whose development has been cramped by the paternal avarice, a reaction is very often produced which prompts it to prodigality. In short and this is a decisive reason avarice, not having any social utility, has not been encouraged by opinion. Let us imagine a society of misers. Every one of them will have but one aim to transform his neighbour into a spendthrift, so as to be able to lay hands on his gold. If, nevertheless, against all possibility, misers could live with perfect mutual understanding and mutual incitement to avarice, it would not be long before we should see a " du.ty ofparsimony " spring up a sentiment as strong as many other duties. Among our French peasants, and in the child,

—

—

—

—

especially

among

the Jews,

we

find this

not very moral

obligation raised almost to the level of moral duties.

member

A

of a society of misers would undoubtedly feel the

obligation of parsimony more strongly than that of temperance or courage, for instance ; he would feel deeper remorse for having failed in this obligation than in either of the others.

From

the foregoing

it

may

already be concluded, inde-

I08

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

many other considerations, that it is impossible that the different moral duties, divers forms of the social or pendently of altruistic

instinct,

should not he born

others could spring up.

A

;

and hardly any

fresh reason, which ought to

assure the triumph of the moral instinct,

is

the impossi-

by a good action When once hunger is stilled, as one satisfies hunger. the pain felt becomes but a vague remembrance, which we at last completely lose. It is not the same with remorse ; the past seems indelible, and is ever smarting. For the rest, no wants which are not too merely animal admit of such compensations as hunger and thirst allow. Thus it is with love. You may everlastingly regret the supreme hour of love which the beloved woman offered you, and which you allowed to slip away, without having ever been able to win it back again. The lover cannot, as in a comedy of Shakespeare, replace one woman by another. bility

—

of satisfying remorse, of satisfying

it

" Je ne vis qu'elle etait belle Qu'en sortant des grands bois sourds Soit, n'y

Et

moi,

pensons plus,

dit-elle,

fy pense tonjours."

In short, the most considerable advantage of the moral them belongs the last word.' If I have sacrificed myself, I am either dead, or I survive

instincts, as instincts, is that to

with the satisfaction of duty

The

fulfilled.

selfish instincts

are those which are always thwarted in their triumph.

enjoy the satisfaction of

fulfilled

duty

is

To

to forget the trouble

we took in fulfilling it. On the contrary, the thought that we have failed in our duty somehow embitters even our pleasure. In general the remembrance of work, of strain, of effort employed for the satisfaction of any instinct,

soon effaced

is

but the remembrance of the unsatisfied instinct persists as long as the instinct itself. Leander soon forgot with Hero the great effort made in crossing the

Hellespont in the

;

he would not have been able ; embrace of another lover.

to forget

Hero

;

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION.

The moral

1

09

once established in its generality, what order has it given rise to the different particular moral instincts, the well-considered formula of which will constitute the different duties ? In an order often the reverse of the logical order adopted by moralists. Most moralists give the first place with

instinct being

power

its

in constant application, in

to the duties towards ourselves, to the conservation of the

inward dignity

;

next, they place the duties of justice before

the duties of charity.

This order

by no means an absooften produced in

is

and a quite contrary order

lute one,

is

The

the evolution of moral impulses.

and

ignores justice

savage generally

right properly so-called,

but he

is

sus-

he does not know tempernecessary, he will risk his life

ceptible of an impulse of pity

;

and yet, if Temperance, courage, are, to a great extent, and derived virtues. Temperance, for instance, is

ance, shame,

etc.,

for his tribe. social still,

among

the masses, a social virtue.

people, at a meal to which he

drink so

much

is

If a

as in the public-house,

it

is

sentiment

moral

of

refinement.

without a certain desire

of the

more from

Courage for

fear

than from a

of impropriety or from fear of indigestion

exists

man

invited, does not eat or

praise,

hardly

ever

honour

for

has been much developed, as Darwin has shown, In short, duties towards by means of sexual selection. ourselves in the way we moderns understand them may, in a great measure, be reduced to duties towards it

others.

Moralists distinguish between negative duties duties,

between abstaining and

acting.

and

positive

Abstaining, which

pre-supposes self-control, sut compos, comes

first

from the

moral point of view; it is justice. But it is much less One of the primitive from the point of view of evolution. most difficult _ things to obtain from primitive beings is Moreover, that which is called right precisely abstention. and duty in a strict sense is more often posterior to duty in the large sense

;

this, for

primitive people, has often a less

no

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

To throw

obligatory character.

one's self into a fight to

many

help a comrade will seem to a savage (and to

men) more

and more honourable than

obligatory

from robbing him of his

Cunningham

The people

wife.

no more of the

says, think

life

civilized

to abstain

in Australia,

of a

man

than

none the less or even of charity, of susceptible, when the moment comes, heroism. The Polynesians commit child-murder without a shadow of remorse but they can very tenderly love the There is, in the children whom they thought fit to spare. effort demanded by abstention, an often greater working of the will than in acting, only it is less visible hence moralists have been inclined to attribute a secondary importance to of that of a butterfly

;

they are, for

all that,

;

;

One does

abstention.

not see the effort of Hercules in

up a heavy burden with outstretched arm, precisely because the arm is motionless, and does not tremble but this immobility costs more inward energy than many move-

lifting

;

ments.

Up

to this point

we have considered

only as a sentiment conscious of sentiments of the

and is

its

human

hidden causes

going to happen

rational

—when

causes of

its

the

action

soul,

its

the moral sentiment

relations to the other

but unconscious of

its

—as non-philosophic, in short.

when

What

the sentiment becomes reflective,

moral

and

source

man

to justify

wants it ?

to

If

explain

we must

the

believe

Mr. Spencer, moral obligation, which implies resistance and must some day disappear to make room for a kind The altruistic instinct will be of moral spontaneousness. so incomparably strong that without struggle it will bear We shall not even estimate its power, because us along. we shall not feel tempted to resist it. We might say that at that time the force of tension which the idea of duty

effort,

possesses will transform itself into a living force as soon as there shall be an opportunity,

only become conscious of

even says the day

will

it

and we

shall,

as a living force.

come when

so to speak,

Mr. Spencer

the altruistic instinct

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION. will

be SO powerful that men

and death.

sacrifice

that while

it

— opportunities of

Mr. Spencer goes too tends

civilization

while

rules of

morality into mere rules of

it

on the other hand

developes thoughtful intelligence,

outward observation

— the

the scientific

is

is

spirit

the dissolving

par

Nature herself has bound.

self-

forgets

the

the higher

social propriety, of civilization

infinitely

enemy

of

excellence of

and

of inward

habits

Now,

scientific spirit, in short.

the great

force

He

indefinitely develop

to

instinct,

almost,

far.

gradually changes

altruistic

civility

each other in

will vie with

finding opportunities of exercising

Ill

all all

instinct

that

;

it

which

the revolutionary

spirit.

It incessantly struggles against the spirit of authority

which

is

at the root of societies

;

It

it

is

will also

struggle against the

Whatever

authority in the depths of conscience.

one

attributes to the impulse of duty, if this impulse

origin is

not

by reason it will find itself seriously modified by Human the continuous development of reason in man. nature, said a Chinese sceptic to Mencius, the faithful

justified

disciple it

of

Confucius,

so pliant

is

resembles the branch of the willow.

and so

flexible

that

Equity and justice

woven out of this willow. But the moral being needs to believe himself an oak with a sound heart, needs to feel himself not giving way like the willow If to the chance stroke of the hand which touches him. his conscience is but a basket woven by instinct with bending branches, reflection might easily undo what instinct

are like the basket

had done. and all its

The moral solidity.

sense will then lose

We believe it

prove the following law destruction

when

it

:

"

is

Every

all its

resistance

possible to scientifically

instinct tends to its

own

becomes conscious'"''

* See our "Morale Anglaise Contemporaine" (part ii., book iii. ). This is what M. Ribot concedes to us ( " L'Heredite Psychologique," " Instinct only disappears second edition, p. 342) ; but he adds before a form of mental activity, which takes its place by doing Intelligence could only kill the moral sentiment by finding better :

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

112

In France, as well as in England, a certain number of objections have been brought forward against us, which tend to

make

practical thetically itself

out that moral theories are without influence in life. it

is

We

had shown that the moral sense, if hyporobbed of all truly rational authority, finds

reduced to the rdle of a constant obsession, or halluciThe answer was made to us that the moral sense

nation.

has nothing in

common

with hallucination

sense a judgment, neither

is

it

for

;

does not affirm, it commands ; and a or foolish, but not true or false."*

it

in

is

no

" Conscience

an opinion.

command may be But we,

in

wise

our turn,

say that what precisely constitutes the dogmatic character

of a

command

is

plausible reasons

that

— that

it

is

Every

false view of the reality.

"affirmation,"

and

does not explain itself at all by it corresponds with a

to say, that

command

not

implies,

only

thus includes an

"foolishness"

or

In the same way, every mad affirmation implicitly includes a rule of conduct. person is not only " deceived " by the ideas which possess

"wisdom," but error or

truth.

A

him

—he

rule us.

is

directed

by them

our illusions

;

command and

The moral sentiment which keeps me from

killing

on me as a sentiment, by means of the same springs as the immoral impulse which urges a maniac to kill ; we are both moved in the same way, but according to opposite acts

One

motives or springs. if this,

my

has, therefore, always to

motive, possesses

more

examine

rational value than that

something better." Assuredly, on the condition that the word better be taken in quite a physical and mechanical sense. For example, it is better it is preferable for the cuckoo to lay her eggs in the nest of other birds but this does not seem to be better, speaking absolutely, nor, above all, does it seem so for the other birds. An amelioration from the point of view of the individual, and even of the species, might

—

—

;

therefore not always be identical with

There is here, at examined ; it is precisely tion."

least,

what we

call

" moral ameliora-

a question which deserves to be

this question

which we examine in

volume. * Mr. Pollock, in

Mind {vol.

iv., p.

446).

this

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION. of

the

That

murderer.

is

the

question.

II3 If,

now, to

appreciate the rational value of motives, one trusts to a

purely positive and scientific criterion, a certain

number

of

be produced between public utility and personal utility conflicts which it is right to foresee. As to the hope that instinct will be able to decide in these conflicts quite alone, we do not believe in it on the contrary, instinct will be more and more altered in man by the conflicts will

—

;

progress of reflection.

We

should not, therefore, be able to agree with our

critics on this essential point. Has the science of which is a systematization of moral evolution in humanity, no influence on this very evolution ; and is it unable to modify its meaning in any important way ? In more general words, does not every phenomenon, in becoming conscious of itself, change under the very influence of this consciousness ? Elsewhere we have made the remark that the instinct of suckling, so important in mammifers, to-day tends to disappear in many women. There is a still much more essential phenomenon the most essential of all that of generation, which tends to modify itself according to the same law. In France (where the majority of the people are not held back by religious considerations) the personal will becomes, in the sexual act, a partial substitute for the instinct of reproduction. Hence, in our country, the very slow increase in population, which causes both numeral inferiority to the other continental nations and our economic superiority (very provisional, however, and already compromised). Here, then, is a striking instance

English

ethics,

—

—

of the intervention of the will in the sphere of instinct.

no longer protected by a religious or moral becomes powerless to furnish a rule of conduct. The rule is borrowed from purely rational considerations, and generally from considerations of mere personal utility by no means of social utility. Yet the most important duty of Instinct, being

creed,

—

the individual

is

generation, which assures the duration of I

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

114

the race.

Likewise, in

many

individual lives only to breed, diately

on fecundity.

To-day

of the animal species, the

and death follows imme-

this duty, first in the

animal

consigned to the lowest rank in the French nation, which, with deliberate purpose, seems to follow the maxim of in-fecundity. This is not the place to blame, but scale, finds itself

merely to

state.

The

gradual and necessary disappearance

of religion and absolute morality has in store for us.

If there is

many such

nothing in this to

surprises

terrify us, at

we must try to foresee them in the interest of science. Another remark. The mere excess of scruples may go so far as to dissolve the moral instinct in the case of confessors and their penitents. Bagehot remarks also that in reasoning excessively about modesty one may weaken, and even gradually lose, that very sentiment. Every time that reflection is steadily fixed on an instinct, on a spontaneous impulse, it tends to alter the same. This fact might, perhaps, be physiologically explained by the moderating action of the grey matter of the brain on the secondary nervous centres, and on every reflex action. For instance, if a pianist plays by heart a piece studied mechanically, it is necessary that he should play with confidence and smoothness, without paying too close an attention to himself, and without wanting to

least

account for the instinctive movement of his fingers. To reason about a system of reflex actions or habits always means to upset them.* The moral instinct, which evolution tends to strengthen

many ways, might, therefore, undergo some alteration by the excessive development of thoughtful intelligence. Undoubtedly one has to carefully distinguish, in moral in so

between metaphysical theories and practical have ourselves elsewhere made this distincbut we cannot agree with the EngHsh philosophers

philosophy, morality.

tion

;

We

* See on this point the "Probl^mes de I'Esth^tique Contemporaine," P- 137-

THE SENTIMENT OF OBLIGATION.

-115

that theories never influence practice, or at least influence it

as

as they maintain

little

is

Messrs. Pollock and

the case.

Leslie Stephen compare moral philosophy with geometry.

hypotheses relative to the reality of duty, Mr. Pollock

The

tells us,

have no more influence on conduct than the hypotheses relative to the reality of space

and

its

dimensions.

Pollock and Leslie Stephen forget that,

dimensions instead of three, to

my

legs or to

the three exists for

or other,

my

this is

of no interest either

move

within

contrary, there

to new dimenan advantage to me in some way should hasten to try, and I should work with all

if I

Messrs.

space has four

arms, which will always

known dimensions. If, on the me the means to move according

and

sions,

my

if

that might be

strength to destroy

my

primitive

intuition

of space.

what happens in moral philosophy ; a whole field of activity, closed until now by the phantom If I of the idea of duty, sometimes opens before me. notice that there is no real harm in my exercising myself freely in it, but that, on the contrary, it would be beneficial The differ* to me, how sliould I not take advantage of it ? ence between ordinary scientific speculations and speculations in moral philosophy is, that the first indicate mere alternatives for thought, while the second indicate, at the same time All the possibilities discovered by alternatives for action. It is for me to science can be here realized for ourselves. This

is

precisely

realize the hyperspace.

—

The result predicted to us by Mr. Spencer gradual disappearance of the sentiment of obligation could, therefore, be obtained in a way quite other than the one of which he Moral obligation would disappear, not because speaks. moral instinct would have become irresistible, but, on the contrary, because man, no longer taking into account any instinct, would absolutely conform his conduct to

—

reason

—would unfold

may be

his life like

said that for Vincent

in so far as

it is

a

series of

theorems.

It

de Paul moral obligation, painful and austere, had disappeared. He

II 6

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

; but it may also be said that for had equally disappeared. He had forced himself he did not obey any to combat every moral prejudice instinct unless he could accept it after deliberate reasoning. He was more of a rational than a moral being. He sub-

was Spontaneously good

Spinoza

it

;

constantly obscure, and, so to

mitted, not to the

speak,

opaque obligation springing from his moral nature, but to the clear and transparent obligation springing from his reason. And where this obligation imposed on him any kind of suffering, he must have experienced that stoic sentiment of intellectual origin

—resignation—rather than the

Christian sentiment of mystic origin, the overflowing joy of

duty accomplished.

Anyone Therefore,

analyzing himself to excess if it is

day used by some at the

same

is

necessarily unhappy.

possible that the analytical spirit be one at the cost of their morality,

time, cost

them

ever to tempt a great

it will,

at

These are

their happiness.

many

sacrifices

too

Yet

the task of the philosopher to examine even his

it

is

instincts

;

great

he must endeavour

people.

to justify obligation, although

the very effort to justify the moral sentiment risks

its

impair-

ment by making the instinct conscious of itself, by making deliberate that which was spontaneous. Let us search in the domain of facts, to which we have methodically confined ourselves, for all the forces which would contend against moral dissolution, and thus supply the obUgation absolute of the ancient moralists.*

*

As complement

parallel chapters in

of the above chapters,

it is

" Education and Heredity

"Genesis of the Moral Instinct."

necessary to read the "

(by

Guyau) on the

SECOND BOOK.

LAST POSSIBLE EQUIVALENTS OF DUTY FOR THE

MAINTENANCE OF MORALITY.

CHAPTER

I.

Fourth Equivalent of Duty Derived fFom Love of Risk

and of Struggle.

THE PROBLEM.

Let

us recall the chief problem which presents

every exclusively

how

conception

scientific

of

itself to

morality.

To

great an extent can deliberate consciousness feel itself

bound by an impulse, by an inward pressure which hypothetically, only a natural character

—

—not a

has,

mystical nor

even a metaphysical one and which, moreover, is not completed by the prospect of any extra- social sanction ? To what extent must deliberate consciousness rationally obey

an

" obligation

A

positive

''

and

of this sort

?

scientific morality,

the individual this

commandment

we have

only

:

said, can give Develop your life

be an " individual " as rich as possible in and extensive energy ; therefore be the most social and sociable being. In the name of this general rule, which in all directions,

intensive

is

the scientific

equivalent of the

imperative,

morality can enjoin

upon the individual

moderate

;

sacrifices

it

a positive

certain partial

can formulate the whole

and

series of

/

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

Il8

average duties to which ordinary

In

confined.

is

life

all

nothing categorical, nothing If you pursue absolute, only excellent hypothetical advice. this,

be

this

aim

short,

it

understood, there

— the

it is

How mere

highest intensity of

life

— then

do

this

in

;

a good average morality.

will

individual,

is

this

in

morality

and

partial

manage

from

obtain

to

the

—

a definite sacrifice not a Charity urges us provisional one ?

certain

cases,

—

which the right hand has given excellent but reason advises us to watch well what we give. The altruistic instincts invoked by the English school are open to forget that

to all sort of restrictions

them

and

alterations

for securing disinterestedness

of struggle between

them and the

is

;

to

on

rely solely

to introduce a kind

Now,

selfish impulses.

the latter are sure to get the best of the majority of people,

because they have a visible and tangible root others

appear to the individual

;

hereditary influences by which the race tries to

dupe.

individual

its

intervene,

and

Selfish reasoning

to paralyze the

first

while the

reason as a result of

is

make

the

always ready to

spontaneous movements

of the social instinct. It

belongs really to the part of the superior nerve-centres

—

moderate the action of the inferior centres to regulate the instinctive movements. If I walk along a mountainpath at the top of a precipice, and a noise or a sudden to

fear fling

makes

me

start,

the mere reflex action will urge

myself again to the other side

moderate

my movement

;

by warning

me

to

but then reason will

me

that there

is

a

The hedonist finds himself in a somewhat similar situation, when it is a question of throwing himself blindly into some sort of self-sacrifice. It is reason's part to show him the abyss, to prevent him throwing himself down without due consideration under the impulse of the first instinctive movement and the " preventive action " precipice near.

;

of reason will be, in that case, as logical, as powerful, with regard to the altruistic impulses as it can be with regard to

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY.

II9

That is what we have elsewhere an objection to the English school. The self and the not-self, therefore, are both present. They seem, indeed, to be two values without a common measure. There is in the self something sui generis

the merely reflex action. raised as

—

irreducible.

If

the

to

his

quantity

in

him

world self,

is,

his

for the

hedonist,

superior

must always seem

self

superior in quality to the world

— the

to

quality resting

he says, "and and as I maintain my existence ; this is the principle which dominates both the reason and the senses." So long, therefore, as one keeps to hedonism, one cannot logically be obliged to detach one's interest from one's self. Now, hedonism in its fundamental principle, which is the obstinate con-

for

him

you

exist

in

the

"I

enjoyment.

for me only in so

far as

am,''

I exist

servation of self cannot be refuted from the point of view

of

facts.

Only the metaphysical hypothesis may attempt

to

make

the will overcome the transition of the self to the

From

non-self

hypothesis

presented seems, at

problem can mate solution. this

and with all problem which we have just

the positive point of view, aside, the

left

first,

theoretically insoluble.

receive, in practice, at least

And

yet

an approxi-

II.

FOURTH EQUIVALENT OF DUTY, DERIVED FROM THE LOVE OF RISK AND OF STRUGGLE. It

is

rare that real sacrifices present themselves in

certain.

The

soldier, for instance, is

life

as

not certain of falling

from it there is here only a mere possibility, Now, it is necessary to In other words, there is danger. see if danger, even independently of all idea of moral in the fight ; far

obligation, life itself

is

not a

:

medium

useful for the development of

—a powerful stimulant of

all

the faculties, capable

Cy

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

I20

maximum of energy, and maximum of pleasure.

of carrying them to their also of producing a

capable

Primitive humanity lived in the midst of danger, hence there

must

to face

still

men, as sport This

danger.

many people a

exist in

Danger was, so

it.

is

to-day, for

natural predisposition

to speak, the sport of primitive

many

people, a kind of

taste for peril, faced for its

own

sham

sake, is to

be met with even among animals. We find on this subject a curious tale of a traveller in Cambodia. As soon as a troup of monkeys notice a crocodile with its body sunk in the water, its mouth wide open, so as to

which may pass within reach, they seem to little by little, and begin their sport, being by turns actors and spectators. One of the most agile, or of the most imprudent, passes from branch to seize anything

plan together, approach

branch, to within a respectful distance of the crocodile,

suspends himself by a paw, and with the dexterity of his race advances, goes back, now striking its adversary with paw,

its

now merely

amused by

pretending to hit him.

Some

of the

game, want to be of the party but, the other branches being too high, they form a chain by holding one another hanging by their paws. They balance others,

this

;

in that way, while he who is nearest the amphibious animal torments it as much as possible. Sometimes the dreadful jaw shuts itself, but without catching the audacious monkey. There are screams of joy and merry antics ; but sometimes also a paw is caught in

themselves

the vice, and the leaping

monkey

is

water with the quickness of lightning.

drawn down under The whole troup

then disperses moaning and howling, which, however, does not prevent them beginning again the same sport several days, perhaps even several hours, later."*

The

pleasure of danger

of victory. *

One

is

derived chiefly from the pleasure

likes to conquer,

Mouhot, " Voyage dans

le

no matter whom, even an

Royaume

d'e

Siam

et

de Cambodge."

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY. animal.

We

121

prove to ourselves our superiority.

like to

Baldwin, an Englishman, '

who went

to Africa only with the

intention of shooting, one day put this problem to himself,

having been very nearly felled by a lion: "Why does man risk his life without having any interest in " It is a question which I will not try to doing so ?" " All I can say is that in victory one solve," he answered. finds an inward satisfaction for which it is worth while to run a risk, even if there is nobody to applaud." Moreover, even after having lost the hope of conquest, one obstinately goes on struggling. Whosoever may be the adversary, every fight degenerates into a desperate duel. Bombonnel, having after

rolled with a panther close to the edge of a precipice, pulled his head out of the open mouth of the animal, and threw him, by a stupendous effort, into the ravine. He lifted himself

up, blinded, spitting quantities of blood, not being able to

He thought only of one must die from his wounds, and that before dying he must revenge himself on the " I did not think of my pain. panther. Being completely carried away by fury, I pulled out my hunting-knife, and, not knowing what had become of the animal, I looked for it everywhere to begin the struggle over again. It was in this condition that the Arabs found me when they arrived." This need of danger and of victory, which carries away the soldier and the huntsman, is found also in the traveller, A French manufacturer of the colonist, the engineer. dynamite, not long ago, sent an engineer to Panama ; he died on arriving there. Another engineer went, arrived safely, account clearly for the

—namely,

thing

situation.

that probably he

but died eight days

after.

Most

professions, like that

great

many

instances of' the

attraction of the sea

lies,

A

third immediately set

sail.

of medicine, would furnish a

same kind.

The

invincible

to a great extent, in the constant

danger which it presents. which is born

It

tempts in succession each

on its shores, and if the English nation has acquired an intensity of life and force

generation

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

122

of expansion so great that whole world, we may say that

it

has spread

itself

over the

due to its education by the sea that is to say, to its education by danger. Let us note that the pleasure of contest alters its form without disappearing, be it in the struggle with an animated being this is

—

(war (sea,

or chase), or in the struggle with visible obstacles mountain), or in the struggle with invisible things

(illness to

The

•

be cured,

be conquered). same character that

difficulties of all sorts to

struggle always partakes of the

—

In truth, the doctor who starts for Senegal has decided upon a kind of duel with the yellow of a passionate duel.

The

fever.

struggle

passes

from the domain of

thingS:

physical to the intellectual domain, without losing anything

of

its

ardour or of

its

fascination.

The

pass into the special domain of morals.

struggle

There

is

may

also

an inward

struggle between the will and the passions, as captivating as any other, and in which the victory brings an infinite joy, as was well understood by Corneille. In short, man needs to feel himself great, in order now and again to have full consciousness of the sublimity of his will. This consciousness he gets in struggle struggle with him-

-

—

self,

with

passions, or with material

his

Now,

obstacles.

have an aim.

Man

of the monkeys of

and

intellectual

our reason must too rational a being to fully approve

this struggle to satisfy is

Cambodia playing

for fun with the

jaws

of the crocodile, or of the Englishman Baldwin going into the heart of Africa for the pleasure of hunting.

of

danger

exists at times in

everyone of

The

intoxication

even in the most timid but this instinct of danger requires to be more reasonably exercised. Although, in many cases, there us,

;

is

only a superficial difference between temerity and courage,

he who,

for instance, dies for his country is conscious of

having accomplished an idle deed.

and of

greater,

not

of danger

on condition of it being thus directed and by reason, assumes a moral importance all the as it is one of the rare instincts which have no fixed

struggle,

utilized

The need

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY. direction.

It

may be used

1

23

without resistance for any social

end.

There was, therefore, in Pascal's bet an element which he did not bring to light. He saw only the fear of risk he did not see the pleasure of risk. To well understand the attraction of risk, even when the chances of misfortune ;

many

are very numerous,

psychological considerations

may

be brought forward. 1. In calculating we must not take into account only the good and bad chances, but also the pleasure of running these chances the pleasure of adventure.

—

2.

A pain

when

it

simply possible and far distant, and, above

has never yet been

felt,

all,

corresponds to a state quite

we actually are, while a desired harmony with our present state, and

other than that in which pleasure

more

is

in

thus acquires, in our imagination, a considerable value. so far as the remembrance of pain characters, so far bility all,

in

of pain leave

youth

—

may

may be

In

painful to certain

the vague and indeterminate possi-

them

indifferent.

that optimistic age

It is also rare

par

excellence)

(above

that the

chance of pain seems to us equivalent to the chance of This explains, for instance, the fearlessness which lovers have at all times shown in confronting all great pleasure.

kinds of peril in order to meet again. lessness also all

when

it

among

animals.

One

finds this fear-

Pain seen from

afar,

above

has not yet been repeatedly experienced, seems

negative and abstract to us; pleasure seems and palpable. Besides, every time that pleasure responds to a want, the representation of future enjoyment is accompanied by the sensation of an actual pain the enjoyment seems then not merely a kind of superfluity, but a relief from real pain, and its value still increases. These psychological laws are the very condition of life and activity. As most actions bring both a chance of pain and a chance of pleasure, it is, from a purely mathematical point of view, abstention which ought most often to prevail ; but in reality generally

positive

;

— :

I

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

24

it is

action

and hope which

action itself 3.

is

—

prevail^

all

the

more so

as the

the foundation of pleasure.

Another psychological

—

times escaped a danger

fact is

:

for instance,

He who a bullet

has twenty

— concludes

on escaping it. In this way a habit of disis produced which the calculation of could not justify, and which nevertheless

that he will go

regarding danger probabilities

forms an element in the bravery of veterans.

Moreover,

the habit of disregarding danger induces a habit of dis-

—

itself a sort of admirable familiarity with neighbour who has been seen, as the saying is, " very close at hand."*

regarding death this

To

is often added that of responsibe responsible not only for one's own destiny, but for that of others to manage the world on one's own account. This intoxication of danger mixed with the joy of commanding, this intensity of physical and intellectual life exaggerated by the very presence of death, has been expressed with mystic barbarity by a German marshal, von Manteuffel, in a speech made in Alsace-Lorraine

the pleasure of risk

One

bility.

likes to

—

" War yes, gentlemen. I am a soldier. element of the soldier, and I should like !

War to

the

is

taste

it.

That elevated sentiment of commanding in battle, of knowing that the bullet of the enemy may call you any moment before God's tribunal, of knowing that the fate of the battle, and consequently the destiny of your country, may depend on the orders which you give this tension of mind and of feelings is divinely great !" The love of danger and of risk plays its part, more or less

—

degenerated, in a great of

considerable

Capitalists

who

many

importance

social circumstances.

in

the

economic

It is

sphere.

risked their savings in the enterprise of

* Even in the heart of most criminals may be traced an instinct of importance, from a social point of view, and which should be utilized the instinct of adventure. That instinct might find its use in the colonies, in the return to savage

life.

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY.

125

the Suez Canal imitated, in their way, the engineers

who

risked their Hves in

and

Speculation has

it.

in these very dangers lies its fascination.

The

of the shopkeeper at the corner of the street

amount of

a certain

If

risk.

failures (bankruptcies) with the

shall find that this risk

in endless shades

one's

—from

still

admits of

Moreover, danger

the danger of losing

danger of losing one's money

to the

life

simple trade

we compare the number of number of establishments, we

of importance.

is

and degrees

dangers,

its

of the important features of social existence.

— remains one There

is

not

a movement in the social body which does not imply a risk. And intelligent boldness to run this risk identifies itself up to a certain point with the very instinct of progress,

liberalism

;

while the fear of danger identifies

the conservative instinct, which, after

all, is

always

and

to be beaten as long as the world exists

itself

and with

doomed

progresses.

Thus, in the danger incurred on behalf of somebody (myself or some one else), there is nothing contrary to the deep instincts and laws of life. Far from it to expose one's self to danger is something normal in a morally wellconstituted individual to expose one's self to danger for the sake of others is but going a step further on the ;

;

same road.

From

this side self-sacrifice

general laws of escape.

pletely

others

of

—

self

The

and of personal

peril

seems

life

The sublime to

place

among

seemed

to

the

com-

confronted for oneself or for is not a mere negation

it

is

—

this life itself raised

into

in ethics, as well as in jesthetics, at

is

roots of the sublime

and the

;

its

at first

it

be in contradiction to the order constituting

the beautiful; but this

The

again takes

from which

intrepidity or self-sacrifice

sublimity. first

life,

only a superficial contradiction.

and the

intensity of feeling

which

beautiful are the same, it

pre-supposes does not

prevent a certain inward rationality.

When we death.

accept risk we have also accepted possible In every lottery one has to take the bad numbers,

— MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

126

Moreover, he who under such circum-

as well as the others.

stances sees death approaching feels himself, so to speak,

linked

to

He

it.

had foreseen and willed

it,

although

hoping to escape it he will, therefore, not retreat except from inconsistency, from weakness of character to which is Undoubtedly he generally given the name of cowardice. who has left his country to escape military service will not ;

—

necessarily be an object of horror to every state

it,

—

one (we must

but he who, having agreed to who, having accepted his task, flees from

while regretting

it)

;

become a soldier danger and turns his back on it at the supreme moment be will be called a coward and a worthless wretch. With all the more reason the same will be said of the officer who had consented, not only to meet death face to face, but to be In the the first to march towards it, to set the example. same way, no doctor can morally epidemic.

refuse his services in an Moral obligation takes the form of a professional

obligation, of a contract freely undertaken, with all the con-

sequences and

we

all

the risks which

advance, the more

be brought back to the science of compensating assurance.

them

And

—

it

implies.*

The

further

economy and sociology risks, and of the means of

will political

in

other words,

to

the

science

of

the more will social morality be brought

back to the art of using to advantage, and for the good of this need of " risking on^s self" which is experienced by •every individual life with any power at all. -Jn other words, we shall endeavour to make those who are economic of themselves all,

feel

assured and undisturbed, and to

make

those

who

are, so

to speak, prodigal of themselves useful.

* The risks can be multiplied incessantly in this way, and may surround one with an even tighter ring, from which one can neither logically nor morally retreat. "The exaltation of sentiments of anger

and of generosity

same proportion as the danger," which he has addressed to us without knowing that we were fundamentally of the same opinion on .all these points (Revue Philosophique, 1882, vol. ii.). rightly

increases in the

remarks M. Espinas

in the objections

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY. But

let

I27

The moral agent may be

US go further.

not face to face with mere

risk,

placed,

but before the certitude of

definite sacrifice.

In certain countries, if the labourer wants to fertilize his he sometimes uses very energetic means he takes his horse, opens his veins, and, whip in hand, drives him fields,

;

into the furrows.

The bleeding

horse drags himself across

under his tottering legs the earth becomes red as he passes, each furrow drinking its share of the blood. When, exhausted, he falls down with rattling throat, he is still forced to get up again, to give the last drop of his blood to the greedy earth. At last he sinks down he is buried in the field, which is still red ; his whole life, his whole being, passes to the revived earth. This sowing with blood becomes a source of wealth the field thus fed will yield corn in abundance a great benefit to the labourer. Things do not happen differently in the history of humanity. the

which

field

lies

;

;

;

—

The

legion of the great unfortunate ones, of the

martyrs

—

all

unknown

these men, whose very misfortune has conduced

all those who have been forced to have freely sought it ; all have passed through the world sowing their lives, shedding their blood. They have made the future pregnant. Often they have

to the welfare of others self-sacrifice,

;

or

been mistaken, and the cause defended was not always worth their sacrifices nothing so sad as to die in vain. But to him who considers the mass, and not the individuals, self-sacrifice is one of the most precious and the most powerful forces in history. To make humanity this great, indolent body progress one step, there has always been needed a shock which has crushed individuals. The humblest, the most ordinary of men, may, therefore, find ;

—

—

himself pladed before the alternative of the certain sacrifice life or of an obligation to be fulfilled. He may be,

of his

not only soldier, but policeman, fireman,

etc.;

and these

which we designate as humble, are of the kind which sometimes demand sublime actions. Now, how can we callings,

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

128

demand from anyone

I

the sacrifice of his

life, if

based only on the regular development of ;

;

morality

this

very

is

life ?

There is contradiction in the terms. It is the chief objection which we have elsewhere made to all naturalistic moral philosophy, and to which the necessity of things has again brought

us.

From

the naturalistic point of view at which

we

place

even the act of merely watching over the interests of others is superior to the act of watching our own interests only in so far as it indicates a greater moral capacity, a In any other sense it would only be surplus of inward life.

'ourselves,

a kind of monstrosity, as in those plants which have hardly any leaves or roots nothing but a flower. To be at all

—

command

able to

is

self-sacrifice,

something more precious

Now,

empirically speaking, there

must be found. nothing more precious

than as

life

life

;

value from

it.

It

is

nothing else has the same value this,

and borrows

its

impossible to convince the English

utilitarian that morality, is

;

everything else acknowledges

maintained by the sacrifice of

not analogous to a miser dying to

save

his

life,

treasure.

Nothing more natural than to ask a person to die for you, or an idea, when he has entire faith in immortality, and already feels the growing of his angel's wings ; but what if he does not believe this ? If we had faith, there would be no difficulty it is so easy to be blindfolded A man exclaims " I see, I know, I believe." He sees nothing he knows still less ; but he has the faith which takes the place of it all. He does what faith commands; he goes to the sacrifice, looking up to heaven. Cheerfully he lets oneself be crushed by the wheels of the big social machine and sometimes even without distinct aim for a dream, for an for

;

!

:

—

—

—

error,

as

the Hindus did,

who threw themselves

at full

length under the bloody wheels of the sacred chariot, happy to die under the weight of their gigantic and empty idols.

But how, not having

faith,

can we demand from the

vidual a definite sacrifice, without basing this

indi-

demand on

;

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY.

129

some

principle other than the development of this very life which is to be wholly or partly sacrificed ? Let us begin by recognising that in some extreme cases moreover, very rare ones this problem has no rational and scientific solution. In those cases in which morality is impotent, morality must leave it wholly to the spontaneity

—

—

of the individual.

The

fault of the Jesuits

not so

is

much

wanted to enlarge morality as their having brought in the detestable element of hypocrisy. Before all, one has to be frank with one's self, and with others ; a paradox is not dangerous if it presents itself boldly to all eyes. Every action may be considered as an equation to their having

Now,

be solved.

there are always, in a practical decision,

known terms and unknown but

scientific

terms, which have to be found

morality cannot always

equations, therefore, are insoluble

—

find

these.

or, at least,

Some

do not allow

of an undeniable and categorical solution.

The

of moralists

and universal

is

to pretend to solve in a definite

mistake

way problems which may have a great many peculiar solutions. Let us add that the fundamental unknown something, the X, to be sought in a certain number of problems is death. The solution of the equation presented depends, therefore, on the variable value attached to the other terms, which are (i) physical life to be sacrificed (2) some

—

;

moral act to be accomplished. Let us examine these two terms. The solution depends chiefly, let us say, on the value Undoubtedly life is for everyone the most attached to life. precious of all blessings, because it is the condition of all others ; nevertheless, if the others are reduced almost to naught, life itself loses its value it then becomes a conIf there are two individuals, the one temptible thing.

—

having

lost those

he loved, the other having a large family

whose welfare depends on him, these two are not equal before death.

To

fairly

present this great problem of contempt of

life,

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

130

must be compared with another important consideration. more than one point, an analogy with suicide, since in both cases death is consented to, and even desired, by the will of an individual who knows what life means.

it

Self-sacrifice presents, in

To

explain suicide,

we must admit

average enjoyments of

life

is

of

the intensity of certain sufferings equally true ^i

—

viz.,

that the duration of the

value compared to and the converse will be

little ;

that the intensity of certain enjoyments

seems preferable to the whole duration of life. Berlioz represents an artist who kills himself after having known the highest sesthetic joy which he thinks it possible to feel once in his life. This is not so mad an action as one might Suppose it were granted to you to be for an instant think. a Newton discovering his law, or a Jesus preaching love on

—

the rest of your life will then seem colourless you would purchase this instant at the price of Give anyone the choice between living over all the rest. again the monotonous round of his whole life, or living over again the small number of hours which he remembers few people will hesitate. as having been perfectly happy Let us extend the question to the present and the future. There are hours in which the intensity of life is so great that, placed in balance with the whole possible series of

the mountain

and empty

;

;

years, these

hours will turn the

scale.

One

passes three

days in climbing to a high summit of the Alps one finds that the short moment passed on the white summit, in the ;

calm of the sky, is worth these three days of fatigue. There are also moments in life when we seem to be on a mountain-top when we soar; compared with these moments, everything else becomes indifTerent. Life, therefore, even from the positive point of view at which we now place ourselves, has not that measureless value which at first it seemed to have. Sometimes, without being irrational, the totality of existence may be sacrificed for one of its moments, as one single verse may be preferred to the whole poem.

great

—

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY. So long

suicide

as

persists

I3I

among men,

would be

it

inexplicable that there should not be self-sacrifice definite

and without hope. is,

Only one thing

that society should not try to

self-sacrifice as

A certain

much

number

is

to be regretted

;

that

transform suicide into

as possible.*

of perilous enterprises ought always to

be offered to those who are discouraged with life. Human progress will always need for its fulfilment so many individual lives that watch should be kept that no one might lose

it

In the philanthropic institution called the widows devote themselves to the

in vain.

Dames du

Calvaire

nursing of repugnant and contagious illnesses.

advantage of society

— of

more or

This use,

broken by widowhood is an instance of what might be done, of what certainly will be done in the society of the future. There are thousands of persons for whom life has lost its greatest value. These persons could find a for the

and become

Now,

In the same way, there

—

useless

true consolation in self-sacrifice

them.

lives

are

special

all

;

less

use should be

capacities should

capacities

for

made

of

be employed.

perilous

and

dis-

interested occupations, temperaments born to self-forgetful-

ness and always ready to risk themselves.

This capacity a superabundance of moral life. Every time that the moral life of an individual is checked or repressed by its environment, another environfor self-sacrifice has its source in

ment must be discovered possibility of its

employment Besides,

for

it

in

which

it

may

unlimited extension, and of

recover the its

untiring

in the service of humanity.

life

not always being an object of preference,

it

moment when a about to attack some children, a man ran up to him, knocked him down, broke his backbone, and threw him into the Seine. As people wanted this man to have the many wounds which he had * Lately, on the Place des Invalides, at the very

mad dog was

received attended to die because

"

to,

he escaped from the crowd, saying that he wished had broken his heart." There ought to be no

his wife

other kind of suicide.

132

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

may become,

in certain cases, an object of disgust and of There is a sentiment peculiar to man which has We have already called it hitherto not been well analyzed. Through the influence of the sentiment of intolerability. attention and of reflection, certain physical, and, above all,

horror.

certain moral sufferings, increase in our consciousness to

such a degree as to obscure everything pain

sufficient to efface

is

man

all

the

One

else.

many

single

pleasures of

life.

he chooses, to be the most unhappy animal in creation, because of the Now, one of tenacity he can communicate to his pains. the sentiments which possesses to the highest degree this character of intolerability is that of shame, of moral Life, for instance, bought at the cost of shame failure. may seem unbearable. The objection will be made that a truly epicurean or utilitarian philosopher can afford to look with a certain disdain at those sentiments of moral shame which are always rather conventional. But we would Probably

has this privilege of being able,

if

reply that they are far less conventional than a great

others

—

ruined

many

money. Daily you see becomes unbearable, and

for instance, the lust of

people

philosophy

is

whom

to

life

of small service to them.

Besides, there

is

a kind of moral ruin far more terrible in every way than That which is merely pleasant as this or that the other. pleasure of

life,

and even

as the

sum

of

life's

pleasures, can

never compensate for that which rightly or wrongly seems to be intolerable. Certain particular spheres of activity

important in

become

finally so

that they cannot

be attacked without touching life at its very source. We cannot imagine Chopin without his piano to have forbidden him music would have meant killing him. Likewise, existence would probably not have been bearable for Raphael without forms, colours, life

;

and a brush to reproduce them. way as important as life itself, morality should have, in

becomes in this need not astonish that the eyes of man, a still higher value. If art

it

EQUIVALENT OF DUTY.

Here

there

than in

artistic

really a

Those

sentiment.

completely dead than nevertheless those

if

whom

33

wider-reaching sphere of activity

still

some vanity and find yet more

If the sceptic finds

moral sentiment, he

the

in

is

art.

1

illusion

whom

art

the

in

will

has killed are more

they had died for humanity, and art

has killed and

will yet kill are

be a greater number of those who sacrifice themselves for a moral ideal. Let us suppose a tree, a branch of which becomes enormously developed, and even takes root in the surrounding earth as happens

many.

There ought

to

—

In the long run, the even hide the very trunk it is the branch

in the case of the giant tree of India.

branch will which seems to support and to sustain the trunk. Likewise the moral and intellectual life is a kind of shoot, a powerful branch of the physical life. It developes to such an extent in the social environment that an individual killed, so to speak, in his moral life seems by that to be more completely crushed it is like a trunk having lost all its strength ;

;

and the

foliage

very

—a

motives of

eternally true

To lose, in order to live, The lines of Juvenal are him who rejects the stoic doctrines.

true corpse.

even

for

"

life !"

The most disabused tain rule of

sceptic still imposes on himself a cerconduct which dominates his life at any rate a

practical ideal.

—

Life at certain

moments may not seem

him worthy of being preserved by the renunciation of last trace

If in

of the ideal.

no

single doctrine the

moral

sentiment, in itself

alone, can give true positive happiness to our sensibility,

nevertheless capable of making happiness without sible,

and

to

this

this is practically sufficient.

it

it is

impos-

For beings who have

arrived at a certain degree of moral evolution happiness

no longer

Therefore, the moral sentiment has

reason It

of

its

destructive

may be compared

passions

;

is

desirable outside the sphere of their ideal.

than

of

still

greater value by

its

creative

with a great love extinguishing

without this love

life is

intolerable

power. all

other

and impossible

— MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

134 to US.

On

the other hand,

we know

that

it

will

not be

be so. It is customary to pity those who in their hearts feel such love a love without hope, which nothing can satisfy ; and yet we all cherish quite as powerful a love for our moral ideal, from which we cannot rationally expect any sanction. This love returned, neither

can

it

be,

nor should

it

always seem vain, from an utilitarian point of view,

will

it must not hope for satisfaction, for reward ; but, from a higher point of view, these satisfactions and pretended compensations may, in their turn, disappear as mere

since

vanity.

To sum up, the value of life is something quite variable, which may sometimes be reduced to nought to less than nought. Moral action, on the contrary, has always a certain value. It is rare that a being falls low enough to do, for instance, an act of cowardice with perfect indifference, or even with pleasure. Now, to form an idea of the value which the moral act may acquire in certain cases, we must remember that man or, as we have said before, a philosophic is a thinking animal animal. Positive morality cannot take into account all the metaphysical hypotheses which it pleases man to make on Moreover, an exclusively scientific the basis of things. moral philosophy cannot give a definite and complete solution of moral obligation. One has always to get beyond mere experience. The luminous vibrations of the ether pass from Sirius to my eye, that is a fact ; but have I to open my Simply to open it eye or to shut it to receive them ?

—

—

not reveal the law

of the vibrations

of

light. In understand but have I to completely open myself to that of others others, or have I to keep myself partly shut up? This is

will

the

same

way,

my

consciousness

gets

to

;

a problem, the practical solution of which will depend on the personal hypothesis which I shall have made of the

and of my relation to other beings. Only these hypotheses must remain absolutely free and personal, and universe,

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION. it

is

1

35

impossible to systematize them into a metaphysical

doctrine, which reason.

We

would impose

will

itself

universally

on human

see how, thanks to the strength of the

individual hypothesis, there

is

no absolute

sacrifice

which

may

not become, not only possible, but, in certain cases, almost easy.

CHAPTER

11.

from Metaphysical The Hypothesis.

Fifth Equivalent of Duty, derived Rislc.

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION.

We

have shown the considerable practical influence which there remains for us to ; see the influence, no less great, of that which Plato called the KaAos KtvSvijos, of the great metaphysical risk in which the

the pleasure of danger or risk has

mind

loves to disport

itself.

In order that I may reason out to the very end certain moral acts which go beyond the average and scientific morality, in order that I

may

strictly

deduct them from

philosophical or religious principles, these principles them-

be settled and determined. But this can only be done by hypothesis ; therefore, I myself must establish Given the unthe metaphysical reasons of my actions. knowable, the X of the essence of things, I must represent this to myself in some way, and conceive it according to If, for the image of the act which I wish to accomplish. instance, I want to do an act of pure and definite charity, and if I should wish to justify this act rationally, I must imagine an eternal charity inherent in the very heart of things, and of myself; I must render the sentiment which selves should

136

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

induces

me

The moral agent here

to act objective.

plays

same part as the artist ; he must convey to others the tendencies which he inwardly feels, and, out of his love, create a metaphysical poem. The unknowable and neutral X is the counterpart of the marble shaped by the sculptor, of the inert words which, in the poet's stanza, are arranged, and become alive. The artist shapes but the form of the

things

the moral being

;

—which always a metaphysician, — shapes the very essence of is

either spontaneous or deliberate things, builds

up

would seem

upon the model of his conception and gives to this act, which otherwise

eternity

of the act of one day,

hang in the

to

air,

a root

the world of

in

thought.

The noumenon, in the moral and not purely negative we ourselves make it acquires a moral value only by virtue of the type according to which we represent it to ourselves of our metait is a construction of our mind sense,

;

—

;

physical imagination.

Will

it

be said that there

this effort to give type

without form or hold

view

?

this is possible.

is

something

and form

From

to that

like child's play in

which

is

essentially

a narrowly scientific point of

In heroism there is always a kind of Every human action contains of illusion. Perhaps this element

simple and grand artlessness.

an element of

error,

increases in proportion as the action rises above the average.

The most

loving hearts are those which have been

deceived

the greatest geniuses are those which exhibit the

;

most inconsistencies. children.

What

The

martyrs were

often

most

sublime

childishness in the ideas of the alchemists,

who nevertheless,

in the end, created a science It was partly consequence of an error that Christopher Columbus discovered America. Metaphysical theories must not be judged according to their absolute truth, which can never !

in

be

verified

;

but one of the ways of judging them

appreciate their fecundity.

Do

not, therefore,

be true independently of ourselves

and our

is

to

ask them

to

but

to

actions,

— METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION. become

true.

A

error may, in this sense,

fertile

137

be more

true from the point of view of universal evolution than a

too narrow and barren truth.

think that

M. Homais

is

right,

It is sad, says

and

M. Renan,

to

that he has recognised

the truth from the very beginning, without effort and without

by simply looking at his feet. Well, no M. Homais shut up as he is in his small circle of positive verities. He may have been quite able to cultiver son jardin, but he looked upon his garden as the world, and he was mistaken. It would perhaps have been much better for him if he had fallen in love with a star, or been haunted by some kind of absolutely visionary chimera which, at least, would have made him realize something great. Undoubtedly Vincent de Paul had his mind filled with more idle dreams than M. Homais but it has been found that the small portion of truth contained in his dreams was more fruitful than the number of common-sense truths apprehended by M. Homais. Metaphysics is, in the domain of thought, what luxury and outlay are, with regard to art, in the domain of economics. It is a thing all the more useful, as it seems at first less necessary. We might do without it, but we should lose much by it. We do not know exactly where it begins, still less do we know where it ends and yet humanity will always move in that direction along an irresistible and easy slope. Moreover, there are certain cases, as economists have shown, in which luxury suddenly becomes a necessity ; in which we need, in order to face life, that which before was superfluous. Similarly, there are circumstances in which practice suddenly needs metaphysics. We can neither live, nor, merit,

is

not

;

right,

;

;

above

all,

different

die without

worlds

—the

it.

Reason

gives us glimpses of two

real world, in

which we

a certain ideal world, in which we also

live,

and

which our mind incessantly acquires new vigour, and which it is

impossible not to take into account. ideal world people

no longer agree

;

live,

in

Only, in regard to the

everyone has his

own

138

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

conception of

it;

some deny

Yet on the

altogether.

it

conception we have of the metaphysical essence of things

depends the way in which we compel ourselves to act. In fact, a great number of the most noble human actions have been accomplished in the name of religious or metaphysical

morality.

It

is,

therefore, impossible to neglect

this very fruitful source of

activity.

But

is

it

none the

impossible to impose upon activity a fixed rule derived from one single doctrine instead of absolutely regulating the less

;

application of metaphysical ideas,

it is

only of importance

them their legitimate without allowing any encroachment upon that of

to fix their boundaries, to assign to

sphere,

positive morality.

In moral philosophy

to reckon with metaphysical speculation, as politics

is

it it is

necessary

necessary in

and sociology to take economical speculation into Only it is, in the first place, necessary to be quite that its domain is that of sacrifice, practically unprofor the individual, of absolute devotion, from an point of view. The domain of economic speculation

account. certain ductive

earthly is,

on the

with

contrary, that of reproductive sacrifice of risk run

some

In the second place,

interest as its aim.

it

is

In fact, I know a thing by hypothesis, and according to a personal for calculation of probability I infer from it another thing

necessary to

leave

it

its

hypothetical character.

—

instance, that disinterestedness

is

the root of

selfishness merely the surface, or vice versA.

my

being,

and

By deduction

law of conduct. This law is a and I feel rationally obliged to follow it. Only as long as the hypothesis seems In this to me the most probable, the most true for me. way a kind of rational and non-categorical imperative is obtained, dependent on an hypothesis. In the third place, it must be admitted that this hypothesis may vary according to individuals and to intellectual temperaments. It is the absence of fixed law which may be designated by the word anomy, in opposition to the autonomy I derive

from

this a rational

simple consequence of

my

hypothesis,

;

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION.

By

of the followers of Kant. gorical imperative,

1

39

the suppression of the cate-

and

disinterestedness

self-sacrifice

are

but their object will vary. One person will devote himself to this cause, another to a different one. not suppressed

;

Bentham devoted his whole life to the idea of self-interest is one way of devoting one's self. He subordinated

that

to the study of that which was useful to and necessarily also useful to others. The result is that he has been really very useful as useful, and even more so, than many an apostle of disinterestedness, such as all his faculties

himself,

—

St.

Theresa.

Hypothesis produces practically the same effect as faith even gives rise to a subsequent faith whichf however, is not affirmative and dogmatic like the other. Moral philo--

—

;

sophy, which at

summit

its

bases

naturalistic

is

and

positive, rises

There is one unchangeable moral philosophy that of facts ; and, to complete it, when it is not sufficient, there is a variable and at its

into the sphere of free metaphysic.

—

individual moral philosophy

Thus the old

—

that of hypotheses.

shaken. Man, freed by the doubt of all absolute obligation, partly recovers his liberty. Kant began a revolution in moral philosophy when he wanted to make the will " autonomous," instead of making it

bow

He

apodictic law

before a law exterior to

is

itself

;

but he stopped halfway.

believed that the individual liberty of the moral agent

could be reconciled with the universality of the law

;

that

everyone must conform to a fixed type ; that the ideal " reign " of liberty would be a regular and methodical

government. But in the " reign of liberty " good order is maintained, simply because no order is imposed beforehand,

nor any preconceived arrangement. Consequently, starting from the point where positive moral philosophy stops, there may be the greatest possible diversity of action and the The true " autonomy " greatest variety of ideals pursued. must produce individual originality, and not universal uniformity.

If

everyone establishes a law for himself, why

I40

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

should there not be several laws possible of Bentham and that of Kant ?*

The

greater the

number

—

for instance, that

of different doctrines which offer

themselves to the choice of humanity, the greater will be The evolution the value of the future and final agreement. of mind, as well as material evolution,

is

always a transition

from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. If the intelligence is reduced to complete uniformity, the intelligence itself will be annihilated. Shape all minds in the same mould, give them the same creeds, the same religion, the same metaphysics, pull the human brain by a string, and you go precisely against the essential tendency of progress. Nothing is Aiore monotonous and insipid than a town with all its streets alike, and laid out in straight lines ; and those who imagine the intellectual city to be of that type suffer from a misconception. It is said " Truth is one ; the ideal of thought is this very unity, this uniformity.^' Absolute truth is an abstraction, like the perfect triangle or the perfect circle of the mathematicians. In reality, everything will

:

is infinitely

people

who

multiplex.

number of sum of truth

Besides, the greater the

think differently, the greater

is

the

which they finally will apprehend, and over which they will be reconciled to one another. Diversity of opinion must not be feared, therefore on the contrary, it must be encouraged. Two men have a different way of thinking, at last

;

perhaps if

;

all

the better, they are

they both thought the same.

much

see the whole of a landscape, there * Let

nearer to truth than

If several persons is

want to

only one way, and

be well understood that we have never dreamed of conand other critics have reproached us for doing, all metaphysical hypotheses as equal for human thought. There is an abstract logic of the hypotheses from which point of view they may be classified or arranged according to the scale of probabiliAll the same, their practical force will not, for a long time to ties. it

sidering, as Messrs. Boirac, Lauret,

come, correspond exactly with their theoretical value. on "The Progress of Metaphysical Hypotheses" " L'Irreligion de I'Avenir.")

(See the chapter in

our volume,

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION. that

back

to turn their

is,

out as scouts, and

all

141

one another. If soldiers are sent same way, observing only

to

turn the

one point of the horizon, they will most

likely return without

having discovered anything.

Truth point

like light.

is

does not come to us from one

It

by

reflected

it is

;

all

same time

objects at the

and

us from every direction,

;

it

a thousand ways. We should want a hundred eyes to catch all its beams. Humanity as a whole has millions of eyes and ears. Do strikes

not advise It

in

to shut them, or to listen

it

must open them

The

directions.

all at

the same time

on one side

—turn

only.

them

in all

of the points of view ought to

infinity

The

correspond with the

infinity

doctrines proves the

wealth and the power of thought.

Moreover,

variety,

this

must increase of harmony.

in

from

far

Division are

that

so

details,

labour

intellectual

of things.

decreasing

with

may end

it

and

thought

of

necessary

as

variety of

time, chords-

in

diversity

division

as

of

and

manual work.

This division of labour is the In bygone times thought was infinitely less divided than in our days ; all had imbibed the same superstitions, the same dogmas, the same falsehoods. If one met an individual, one could beforehand, diversity of

condition of

wealth.

all

and, without knowing

say

it,

:

" Such

is

his

creed

;"

one

could count up the absurdities of his brain, draw up the

Even

balance-sheet of his mind.

in our days

both of the inferior and superior

beyond

this

;

classes,

many

people,

have not got

their intelligence is of the conventional type.

Happily, the number of these minds, inert and without diminishes

spring,

increases

;

own law and

own

his

far as that, there

ever

—

I

daily

;

the

rdle

played

by

almost everyone shows a tendency to

mean no

creed.

If only

initiative

make

we could once

his.

get so

would no longer be any orthodoxy whatgeneral faith, lumping all minds together.

—

Oh, that faith might become wholly individual that heterodoxy might become the true and universal religion L

— MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

142

Religious

seems

(and every absolute moral philosophy form of religion) this society, united

society

be the

to

—

last

by community of superstitions, is a social form belonging to ancient times, which tends to disappear, and which it would be strange to take as ideal. Kings are disappearing and priests go also. Theocracy may well try to solely

;

some compromise with the new order of things some other kind constitutional theocracy can no more definitely satisfy reason than constibring about

to establish concordats of

:

The French spirit, above all, is not arrangements of compromise, with halfmeasures, with anything which is but partially just and true. In any case, it will not look in that direction for its With regard to reHgion and to metaphysics, the true ideal.

tutional monarchy. easily satisfied with

ideal

is

absolute independence of

mind and

free diversity

of doctrines.

To

wish to rule minds

bodies

;

is still

worse than to wish to rule " authority over con-

we must shun every kind of

science " or " authority over thought " as a veritable curse.

Authoritative metaphysics fit

for childish people.

that

and

It is

religions are leading-strings

time that we should walk alone,

we should have a horror

of

sham

apostles,

of mis-

time that we should be our own guides, and that we should look for " revelation"

sionaries, of preachers of all kinds

There

;

it is

no Christ now.

Let every one according to Let every his own choice and abilities, or even deny God. one conceive the universe according to a type which appears monarchy, oligarchy, republic, to him the most probable All these hypotheses can be maintained, therefore or chaos. they must be maintained. It is not absolutely impossible within ourselves.

of us be his

own

Christ,

is

bind himself to

God

—

that one of

them

will

some day

on its side means of them, turn the human minds it is not imposcollect together

the greatest probabilities, and, by scale in the

most cultivated

negation.

;

should be a doctrine of But we must not encroach upon so problematic

sible that this privileged doctrine

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION.

a

and

I43

by doing away with revealed humanity will be suddenly thrown into atheism and moral scepticism. In the intellectual order there can be no violent and sudden revolution, but only an evolution, more accentuated every year. It is just this slowness of the mind in running through the whole chain of reasoning from one end to the other which, in the social order, makes too sudden revolufuture,

religion

tions

believe that,

or

categorical

come

to nothing.

duty,

Likewise,

men whom we have

when

concerns pure

it

and who most revolutionary those whose thoughts are boldest. We ought to admire them without dread ; they can do so little The storm which they raise in a small corner of the ocean will hardly produce any perceptible undulation on the immense mass. On the other

speculation, the

are

most

to fear least,

—

useful, are the

!

hand, in practical matters the revolutionary

make

spirits

always

mistakes, because they always believe truth to be too

simple, because they are too confident of themselves,

and

imagine that they have found and fixed the end and aim of human progress. Whereas real progress is to have no end; is to reach those ends which one has put before one's self, only to transform them

;

problems only by changing

to solve

their given terms.

Happy, therefore, are those to-day to whom a Christ would say, " Oh, ye of little faith !" if that means sincere men who do not want to allure their reason and debase their dignity as intelligent beings

and philosophic mind, who their eyes

and

their

minds,

to test their sensations

only people

who might

and

;

men

of a truly scientific

distrust appearances,

who to

examine

possess

who distrust

incessantly begin over again

some

their reasonings

;

the

particle of the eternal

because they never imagine they have the whole truth people who have sufficient resX faith to always go on searching, instead of resting and exclaiming, " I have found it !" brave people, who walk on when others It is such as these who have the. future stop or go to sleep. truth, precisely ;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

144

them

before

;

is

it

they

who

mould the humanity of

will

the ages to come.

The

of to-day understands

morality

tence to rule the whole of

human

life

its

impo-

partial

absolutely,

and

in

advance ; it leaves a larger sphere to individual liberty it does not threaten except in a sufficiently rare number of cases, and only when the absolutely necessary conditions of ;

all social life

are concerned.

Philosophers no longer agree

who regulated who forbade every of moral command-

with the rigorous moral philosophy of Kant, everything by the tribunal of conscience, transgression, every free interpretation

ments.

sacrilege,

form

was a moral philosophy similar to the ritualist which count any failure in ceremonial as a and which forget the essence for the sake of the was a kind of moral despotism, creeping every-

It

religions,

it

;

where, wanting to rule everything.

At present the rigorous law of Kant's philosophy in many minds, but no longer makes itself

reigns

in details

it is

;

recognised in theory, but in practice

often necessary to deviate from

whose frown was

Jupiter

a

prince,

liberal

danger.

Is

It

it.

sufficient to

whom we may

is

move

still

felt it

is

no longer the the world

disobey without

there not something higher than

this

;

it

is

much mock

and must not man, when he reaches the borders of moral philosophy and of metaphysics, reject all absolute

royalty,

supremacy, in order to frankly approach individual speculation

?

The violent

more

coarser a mechanism, the greater the need of a and coarse motive-power to set it in motion ; in a delicate mechanism the finger-tip is sufficient to

produce considerable

To make

effect.

same with humanity. enormous promises had and the veracity of these

It is the

the ancient nations move,

at first to

be made by

religion,

promises had to be guaranteed. It spoke to them of mountains of gold, and streams of milk and honey. Would Ferdinand Cortez have conquered' Mexico if he had not

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN SPECULATION.

I45

believed he should see the glitter of the supposed golden

domes people,

of Mexico in brilliant

distance?

the

images,

glittering

before their eyes, as scarlet

In order to excite

colours, were dangled

held out before a bull. At needed to conquer the natural

is

that time a robust faith was inertia.

was wanted. One touched one's god one ate, one drank him. Then one could quietly die for him, and with him. Later on, duty seemed, and still seems to many, a divine thing a voice from heaven, which is heard within us, which speaks to us, commands us. The Scotch even talked of moral "sense," of moral " tact.'" This coarse conception was still needed To-day a mere hypothesis, a to conquer coarse instincts. simple possibility, is sufficient to attract and fascinate us. The martyr no longer requires to know if he will receive palms in heaven, or if a categorical law commands his self-sacrifice. One dies, not to conquer the whole truth, but Something

certain

with one's finger

;

—

the least of for

its

elements

a calculation.

;

a

Ardour

man

of science sacrifices himself

in research supplies the place of

certainty in the object sought

;

enthusiasm takes the place

of religious /a///4 and moral law.

The

which we want to realize its immediate reality. If we hope for something very great, we derive from the beauty of the aim the courage to defy obstacles; if the chances of its attainment decrease, the desire to do so The further the ideal is removed increases in proportion. from reality, the more desirable it seems ; and, as the desire itself is the supreme force, it has command over the loftiness

of the

ideal

supersedes the energy of faith in

maximum of force. The vulgar gifts

of

life

are

worth so

little

that,

in

comparison with these, the conceived ideal must seem immense ; all our little enjoyments become as nothing This before the supreme one of realizing a noble thought. thought, even if it has no meaning with regard to nature or

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

146

may mean

science, is

everything with regard to ourselves

the farthing of the poor.

"

To

search for Truth "

—

;

it

this

action no longer contains anything conditional, doubtful, or

We have got hold of something, not of the truth undoubtedly (who will ever get hold of it completely ?), but at least of the spirit which enables us to discover it. If we obstinately stop at some doctrine, which is always too narrow, it is like a shadow, disappearing with every change fragile.

itself,

of light

;

but always to advance steadily, always to search,

—

this alone is no mere shadow. The truth is found by moving forward, by hoping ; and it is not without reason that a " philosophy of hope " has been suggested as a complement to positive moral philosophy.* A child saw a blue butterfly resting on a blade of grass ; The child the butterfly was benumbed by the north wind. picked the blade of grass, and the living flower at the end

always hope to be

benumbed, could not fly away. The child up its chance prize. A sunbeam touched the wing of the butterfly, and suddenly, revived and gay, the living blossom flew away towards the light. We all, seekers and workers we are like the butterfly our strength is made only of a ray of light nay, only of the hope of a ray of light. We must, therefore, know how to hope hope is the force which bears us upward and forward. But it is an illusion How do we know that ? Must we not move a step, for fear that some day the earth will disappear from of

it,

still

returned, holding

—

:

;

;

!

under our feet?

It is

future, or into the past

must note there the and we must act.

;

not sufficient to look far into the we must look into ourselves. We

vital forces

which demand to be spent

See M. Fouillee, " La Science Sociale Contemporaine,"

livre v.

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN ACTION.

1

47

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN ACTION.

We

" In the beginning was action," says Faust. at the end.

thoughts,

If

find

it

also

our actions are in accordance with our

we may

also say that

our thoughts

exactly to the expansion of our activity.

correspond

The most

abstract

metaphysical systems are themselves but formulas of feeling,

and

feeling corresponds to the greater or lesser tension of inward activity. There is a middle term between doubt and faith, between incertitude and categorical affirmation it is action. By it only can the uncertain realize itself and become a reality. I do not ask you to blindly believe in an ideal ; I ask you to work towards its realization without

—

believing in

so as to believe in

it,

you have striven

it.

You

will believe in

produce it. All the ancient religions have wanted to make us believe by means of our eyes and our ears. They have shown us

it if

to

God in flesh and bone. Saint Thomas and those resembling him have touched him with their fingers, and they have been convinced. In these days we can no longer be convinced in this way. We should look, we should listen, we should even touch with our finger, only to deny yet more obstinately. One is

not convinced of an impossible thing because one thinks

one

sees or touches

it.

Our reason

is

now

strong enough

and miracles Therefore, a new way of no longer convince anybody. persuasion is wanted, which even religions have already used to their benefit. This way is action you believe in proportion as you work. But action must not consist of outward practices and coarse rites it must have a wholly inward source then only will our faith come truly from Its symbol will be not the within not from without. to

scoff at the

need

to actually see things

;

;

;

;

—

routine of a

rite,

but the

infinite

variety of invention, of

and spontaneous creation. Humanity has long waited for God

individual

to appear,

and when

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

148

he appeared

at last is

over

now

;

a house,

like

built

towards

was not God.

it

The time

of waiting

ready depends on us to labour together If the idea is not

the time for work.

is

it

construction. " I all say

its

hope because I believe, and because an external revelation." We must say I believe because I hope, and I hope because I feel in myself a wholly internal energy, which will have to be taken into Religions

•

I believe in

:

Why

account in the problem. the question

known

the

with

self

regard to

whatever.

revelation

deep

of

silence

inwardly

will,

and

and

hear no " word

I

is

it

the

is

but

things,

It is action alone

in others,

look only at one side of

unknown world, there is I do not know what I am capable of outward things, and I have received no there

If

?

my

will

which gives us confidence the world.

in

echoing in the

"

do know that which I which constitutes my power. I

in ourselves,

Abstract meditation, solitary

thought, in the end weaken the vital forces.

we remain

If

too long on the mountain-tops, a kind of fever of infinite

we wish never to descend again, The eyelids droop sleepiness, we cannot easily wake

weariness takes hold of us

we wish

to stop

but, if

we

up

again.

where we

;

are, to rest.

;

give

way

The

penetrating cold of the summits freezes the

very marrow

to

of our bones.

The

and painful was really

indolent

ecstasy which threatened to take possession of us

the beginning of death.

Action

is

have

its

all,

the true remedy for a pessimism, which may, after share of truth

plaining, not so

much

That which

not.

evil.

life.

It is

As

to

utility, if

of what

exists

principal object of

an

and

Pessimism, in

sense of the word.

in life

life

human

sorrow, it

itself

is

that

and

they seek after

truth,

and

life

simply

of com-

what

life

is

in itself is not

the

negation

men would

either for themselves or those dear to

death

as of

is,

but rarely constitutes the

death,

not death

taken in the highest

reality, consists

them

to see

;

of

ever desire,

but through

God,

etc.

The

;

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN ACTION. wishing

child

reach

to

and

of-an-hour,

moon

the

then consoles

possess eternity, cries also

—

cries

I49

at least, inwardly

philosopher he writes a big book

a quarter-

for

Man, wishing

itself.

;

if

he

to is

a

he is a poet, he writes a poem if he is incapable, he does nothing at all. At last he consoles himself, and begins life once more, indifferent to if

;

;

everything. it

is

Indifferent

in the

main

— no,

the desire for the infinite it

is

precisely because

;

it

for

he cares

for life

True pessimism

pleasant.

is

;

after

really

all,

but

is but infinite hope and inextinguishable

noble despair infinite

is

that it changes into despair. What does the consciousness of suffering for the most part amount to in the end ? To the thought that it will be possible to escape from it to the conception of a better state of things that is to say, to a kind of ideal. Evil is the feeling of impotence. It ;

—

would prove the impotence of God

God

existence of

one granted the man, it, on the Suffering becomes

if

but, with regard to

;

contrary, proves his

relative

power.

mark of a kind of superiority. The only being who speaks and thinks is also the only one capable of crying.

the

A poet

has said " the ideal takes

May

suffer."

moral

suffering,

sufferings

which gives

In

?

superiority

its rise among those who not be this very ideal which gives rise to

it

;

it is

fact,

man

certain

not everyone

full

consciousness of his

sufferings

who

is

are

a mark

of

thus able to suffer.

Great souls with broken hearts resemble the bird struck by It gives a shriek which fills in its highest flight.

an arrow

it is dying, and yet it soars. Leopardi, Heine, or Lenau would probably not have exchanged those hours of anguish in which they composed their finest songs for the Dante suffered, as much as it greatest possible enjoyment. is possible to suffer, from pity, when he wrote these lines on Francesca de Rimini. Which of us would not undergo a

the skies

similar

There

;

suffering? is

Some

heartaches are infinitely sweet.

likewise a point at

pleasure seem to taingle.

which keen pain and keen of agony and those

The spasms

'

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

150

The

of love are not without analogy.

heart breaks with joy

as well as with pain. Sufferings productive of

good are accom-

panied by ineffable joy ; they resemble those sobs which, rendered by the music of a master, become harmony. To suffer

and

self a new power Aurora sculptured by

to create is to feel in one's

by

called forth

It is like the

pain.

Michael-Angelo which, opening

seems but to see the

light

its

through

light of sorrowful days is yet light

eyes filled with tears,

Yes ; but this worth being looked

its tears.

;

it is

at.

Action, in ticism

;

it

How

certitude. I shall

be

its

productiveness,

forms in

do

itself,

I

alive within

as

know

is

also a

we have if I

an hour,

remedy

seen,

its

for scep-

own inward

be alive to-morrow, if will be able to Life from all sides is surshall

if

my hand

which I begin ? rounded by the unknown. Nevertheless, I act, I work, I undertake and in all my acts, in all my thoughts, I presuppose that future upon which nothing gives me a right to count. My activity extends every minute beyond the present instant projects into the future. I expend my energy without fearing that this expenditure may be pure loss I impose privations on myself, counting on the future This incertitude, to compensate me for them ; I go my way. which is pressing on me equally from all sides, is, for me, equivalent to a certitude, and makes my liberty possible ; it finish this line

;

—

;

one of the foundations of speculative moral philosophy? all its risks. My thought goes before it, so does my activity ; it sets the world to rights, disposes of the future. is

with

It seems to make me master of the infinite, because my power has no equivalent in any other fixed quantity the more I achieve, the more I hope. Action, in order to possess the advantages which we have just attributed to it, should undertake some precise work, and, to a certain extent, some work which lies near at hand. To do good, not so much to the whole,wo rid or the world ;

of humanity, as to certain definite people

;

to relieve actual

;

METAPHYSICAL RISK IN ACTION. misery, to lighten someone's burden deceive.

We know

151

—

such things cannot what we are doing; we know that the aim

—

be worth our efforts not in the sense that the result will be of considerable importance in the mighty stream of things, but in the sense that there certainly will be a result, and a good result that our action will not be lost in the infinite, like a small cloud in the monotonous blue of the atmosphere. To do away with some suffering, that is in itself a sufficient aim for a human being. By so doing we change an infinitesimal part of the total sum of pain in the universe. Pity remains inherent in the heart of man, vibrating in his deepest instincts even when purely rational justice and universalized charity sometimes seem to lose their foundations. Even while doubting, one may love even in the intellectual night, which prevents our pursuing any far-reaching aim, we may stretch out a helping hand to those around us who suffer.

will

obtained

;

—

—

THIRD BOOK.

THE IDEA OF SANCTION.

CHAPTER Criticism of Natural Sanction

Humanity

its

sanction.

vice rationally brings in

4

and of Moral Sanction.

has nearly always considered the moral law as

inseparable from

a kind of

I.

its

or happiness.

right,

In the eyes of most moralists

train suffering

The

;

virtue constitutes

idea of sanction, more-

now, been one of the primitive and essential morality. According to the Stoics and the followers of Kant, sanction, it is true, does not by any means serve to lay down the law nevertheless, it is the over, has,

till

notions of

all

;

necessary complement of the law.

According to Kant,

every reason, being a priori, unites by synthetic judgment

misfortune to vice, and happiness to virtue.

Such

is,

in the

opinion of Kant, the force and the legitimacy of this judg-

ment

that, if

will, it

human

would

first,

society dissolved itself of

before the dispersion of

its

its

own

free

members,

have to execute the last criminal shut up in its prisons. It ought to pay off this debt of punishment, which is firstly its own debt and afterwards that of God. Even certain determinist moralists, while in the demerit, this

seem

still

main denying merit and need in

to see a legitimate intellectual

tendency of humanity to consider every act as followed

by sanction.

Lastly,

Sidgwick

seem

the

—

utilitarians for instance, Mr. admit some mystical link between such and such a kind of conduct and such or such a happy,

—

also

to

;

THE IDEA OF SANCTION. or unhappy, state of sensibility.

name

possible, in the

to the pains

153

Mr. Sidgwick believes it make an appeal

of utiUtarianism, to

and rewards of a future life. Moral law, without would seem to him to end in a " funda-

definite sanction,

mental contradiction."* is one of the principles of human be found in the essence of every religion Christian, Pagan, or Buddhist. There is no religion which has not a Providence ; and a Providence is

As

the idea of sanction

morality,

is

it

also to

—

but a kind of distributive

justice,

which, after having acted

incompletely in this world, takes

This distributive justice sanction.

may be

It

,

—that

of this belief

is

its

revenge in another

!

what the moralists understand by

)

said that religion consists essentially

it is

every moral act; in

a sanction metaphysically linked to

other terms,

the profound

that in

order of things there must exist a proportion between the

good or bad

'

state of will

On

and the good

or

bad

state of the

and morality seem to coincide their mutual demands seem to agree and, moreover, morality seems to be completed by religion. The idea of distributive justice and of sanction, generally sensibility.

given

the

first

this point, therefore, religion

—

place

in

our moral conceptions, in

fact

naturally appeals, under one form or another, to a divine justice.

We

wish to sketch here a criticism of this important idea

of sanction, so as to purify Is

it

it

of any kind of mystical alliance.

true that there exists a natural

and

rational link

between

the morality of the will and a reward or a suffering caused to Hoe. sensibility 1

In other terms,

is

it

right to associate

merit with enjoyment, demerit with suffering

?

This

is

the

problem, which can be also put in the form of an example, if

we ask

:

Does there

exist

any

sort of reason (exclusive

of social considerations) that the greatest criminal should receive, because of his crime, a simple pin-prick, *

See our " Morale Anglaise Contemporaine " (second

and the

edition).

I

/

i

154

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

man a prize for his virtue ? Has the moral agent the right (exclusive of questions of utiUty or moral

virtuous itself

hygiene), having regard to

itself,

to punish for the sake of

punishing, or to reward for the sake of rewarding 1

A

should like to show

how

which ordinary morality

We

morally condemnable is the idea and religion give of sanction.

From

the social point of view, the truly rational sanction of a law could only be a defence of this law, and this defence, useless with regard to every past act, we shall find bears

From the moral point of view, sanction seems simply to mean, according to its actual etymology, consecration, sanctification. Now, if for those who admit a only on the future.

and sacred character of the must imply, according to the idea which we have to day of holiness and of ideal divinity, a sort of supreme renunciation and of disinterestedness. The more sacred the law, the more disarmed it must be so that, taken in the absolute and apart from social conventions, true sanction must seem to be the moral law

it is

really the holy

law which gives

it

force as law, this

;

complete impunity of the thing done. We shall also see Morethat all penal justice, properly so called, is unjust. over, all distributive justice has an exclusively social character, and can only be justified from the point of view of society.

In a general way, that which we call justice is a human and relative notion only charity or pity

completely

;

(without the pessimistic significance which Schopenhauer gives

it) is

a truly universal idea which nothing can limit or

restrict.

I.

NATURAL SANCTION.

The

classic moralists are accustomed to see in natural sanction an idea of the same order as that of expiation ; nature begins, according to them, that which human con-

NATURAL SANCTION. and God have

science

to continue.

155

Whosoever

violates

l/^

natural laws, therefore, finds himself already punished in a

way,

we may

if

believe them, which forewarns of, and prepunishment resulting from moral laws.

pares, the

In our eyes nothing is more inexact than this conception. Nature punishes no one (in the sense in which classic moral philosophy uses this word), and nature has nobody to punish, for the reason that

One does

respect to nature.

would not

be, in that case,

nobody

is

truly guilty with

not violate a natural law, or

any longer a natural

law.

it

The

pretended violation of a natural law is never anything else but a verification, a visible demonstration. Nature is a great mechanism which always goes on, and which the will of the individual

is

^

unable to impede for a moment. falls between her cog-wheels.

She calmly crushes him who

To

be, or not to

be

—she hardly knows any other punishment

or any other reward.

If

we attempt

gravity while bending too far

we

to violate the law of

over on the tower of

St.

once give the painful verification of this law by falling down with broken bones. If, like a certain personage of a modern novelist, we wish to stop a Jacques,

locomotive at front of

of

it,

human

we

shall at

its

highest speed by holding an iron spear in

shall prove, at our

own

expense, the inferiority

force to that of steam.

In the same way, the indigestion of a glutton and the drunkenness of a tippler have by nature' no kind of moral \/ and penal character whatever ; they simply allow the patient to calculate the force of resistance which his stomach or his brain can offer to the hurtful influence of a certain mass of food or a certain quantity of alcohol. It is still a mathematical equation, this time a more complicated one, which serves as verification for the general theorems of hygiene

and of physiology.

Besides, this force of the resistance of

the digestion or the brain varies a great deal according to individuals.

Our

drinker will learn that he

is

not able to

drink like Socrates, and our glutton that he has not the

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

156

Emperor Maximin.

digestion of the

natural consequences of an act are

Let us note that the never linked to the

you throw yourself into it be from self-sacrifice or merely from despair, you will be drowned If you have a good digestion and no disequally quickly. position to gout, you will be able to eat to excess almost with impunity ; on the contrary, if you are dyspeptic, you will be condemned to incessantly undergo the torment of comparative starvation. Another example you have given which dictated the act

intention

the water without knowing

how

;

if

to swim, whether

:

of intemperance, you are awaiting with anxiety the " sanction of nature ; some drops of a medical mixture " will turn it off by changing the terms of the equation put

way

to

a

fit

before your organism to solve.

The

justice of things, there-

same time absolutely inflexible from a mathematical point of view, and absolutely corruptible from the

fore, is at the

moral point of view.

To

A

better express

immoral

—

are necessary

the less

you

or, if ;

a-moral

— precisely

because they

they are the less holy and sacred, they have

veritable

Man

inviolable.

the laws of nature, as such, are

it,

like,

sanction, as

sees in

they are really the more

them only a movable

fetter

which

he tries to remove. All these bold acts against nature are but happy or unhappy experiments, and the result of these experiments has a scientific, but by no means a moral, value.

The attempt

nevertheless, been made to maintain by establishing a kind of secret harmony by aesthetics, between the course of nature and has,

natural sanction

made

visible

that of the moral will.

Morality necessarily imparts to those a superiority even in the order of nature. " Experience, it has been said, shows such a dependency between the morally and the physically good, between the

who

possess

beautiful

it

and the ugly expressed

materially,

and between

the beautiful and the ugly in the sphere of passions and ideas ; one sees the organs become so distinctly modified

;

NATURAL SANCTION.

157

and modelled according to their habitual functions, that there is little doubt that prolonged human life (if it could only be sufficiently prolonged) would show us, in the long run, on the one side monsters, on the other true human beings and this, according to the more and more instinctive abandonment of certain people to every vice, and the acquired domination of certain others, or according to their turned to right purposes."* of

First

all

let

between nature

it

and

be noted that morality,

to

strenuous efforts have been made, the species than for individual

is

life,

this

law of harmony

which such

establish

more

certainly

even

faculties

if

valid for

that were pro-

A succession

of generations and of specific modifiwanted for a moral quality to express itself by a physical quality, and a defect by some deformity. Moreover, the believers in sesthetic sanction seem to entirely confound immorality with what may be called animalism longed. cations

is

that

to say, the absolute

— ^

is

abandonment

to the

coarser

absence of any elevated idea, of any subtle Immorality is not necessarily like this ; it may cpincide with refinement of mind, and it does not always lower the intelligence. Now, what is expressed by means of instincts, the

reasoning.

the body

is

rather

more the lowering of the

A

intelligence than

Don Juan do not necessarily cease to be types of physical beauty, nor would they even if their existence were prolonged. The instincts of cunning, anger, and revenge which we find among the Italians of the South have, in nowise changed the degradation of the

will.

the rare beauty of their race.

Cleopatra and a

Besides,

many

of the types

of conduct which to us, in our advanced social

No

vices are virtues in the state of nature.

no marked

ugliness,

alteration

therefore be the consequence of qualities,

and sometimes the *

of the it.

On

state,

human

seem

shocking

really

type,

can

the contrary, the

virtues, of civilization, if carried

M. Renouvier, "Science de

la

Morale,"

i.

289.

^

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

158

to excess,

may

easily

become physical

monstrosities.

It is

on how frail a basis is built the attempt to deduce moral and religious sanction from natural sanction.* clear

II.

MORAL SANCTION AND DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE. Bentham, Mill, MM. Maudsley, Fouillee, and Lombroso have already grappled with the idea of moral punishment they wanted to take away from pain all character of expiation, and have reduced it to a simple means of social repres-

To

sion and compensation. have,

in

general,

relied

doctrines, which are in the

name

thought

this,

still

reach

this

conclusion

they

on determinist and materialistic under discussion. M. Janet, also,

of classical spiritualism, has, notwithstanding it

all

to be his duty to maintain, in his last work,

the principle of redemptory atonement of freely-committed " Punishment," he says, " must not only be a threat, crimes.

which assures the execution of the law, but a reparation, or an expiation, which serves as a corrective to the violation of the law. The order, upset by a rebelHous will, is reestablished by the suffering which is the consequence of the fault

*

committed."!

M. Renouvier,

for instance

:

"It

is

permissible to see in future

reward a natural prolongation of the series of phenomena which, from this very moment, make the fundamental conditions, and even the physical conditions of happiness, depend on morality" ("Science de la Morale," p. 290). '

t M. Janet, "Traite de Philosophic" (p. 707): "The first law of order, V. Cousin has said, is to be faithful to virtue if one fails in this, the second law of order is to expiate one's fault by punishment In the intelligence the idea of pain corresponds to that of injustice." Two of ;

the philosophers

who have

France most strongly protested against be laws of expiation instead of laws of defence, MM. Franck and Renouvier, seem nevertheless to admit as evident the principle of remuneration as attached to the moral law. in

the doctrine that social laws should

MORAL SANCTION AND DISTRIBUTIVE

JUSTICE.

159

has been said that "

it is, above all, the metal needs sanction " (M. Marion, " Lemons de Morale," p. 157). "It is a severe and sacred law only on the condition of punishment being attached to its violation,

Again,

it

law which

and happiness attached

We all,

to the care taken to observe

believe that this doctrine of tangible reward

that of atonement,

is

untenable

it."

—above

— from whatever point of

view it is regarded, even from the point of view of supposing " a moral law " to exist imperatively addressing itself to beings gifted with freedom. It is a materialist doctrine wrongly opposed to the so-called

materialism of

opponents.

its

Let

from all prejudice, from all preconceived ideas,

us, free

and

what moral reason there might be that a being morally bad should receive sensible suffering, and a righteous try

find

being receive a surplus of enjoyment. there

is

no reason, and

We

shall see

that

that, instead of finding ourselves face

we are placed and physical deduction derived

to face with a proposition evident a priori,

before a grossly empirical

from the principle of

well- understood retaliation or interest. This deduction goes under the disguise of three so-called rational notions -(i) that of m^rit ; (2) that of order , (3)

—

that of distributive justice.

\\. In the

classical theory of merit, " I

esteem," which at

first

have forfeited the

simply expressed the intrinsic value " I

have

deserved a punishment," and thenceforth expresses a

state-

of

the

will,

acquires

the

following meaning,

.

ment made by the inner nature " The question

is

not," says

to the world outside.

M. Franck, "

to be punished, for this proposition

is

to

know

evident va

if

the

itself "

wrong

This

deserves

("Philosophie

du Droit Penal," p. 79). " It would be against the nature of things," M. Renouvier, " to demand of virtiie not to expect any M. Caro goes remuneration" ("Science de la Morale," p. 286). further, and, in two chapters of " Problemes de Morale Sociale," he tries hard, while relying on M. de Broglie, to maintain both the moral and the social right of punishing the guilty ones.

says also

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

l6o

sudden passing from the moral to the visible, from the depth of our being to the outside, seems to us unjustifiable. It is still more so in the hypothesis of freewill than in the others.

man

of

defined. itself

According to that hypothesis, the different faculties not truly linked together and mutually

are, in fact,

The

will is

not the pure product of the intelligence,

sprung from the

Sensibility

sensibility.

longer the true centre of our being, and to

how

understand

it

can be responsible

the will has freely wanted the

fault

it

to

has

no

difficult

If

for the will.

commit the

of the sensibility, which

then,

is,

becomes evil,

it

is

not

only played the

and not of cause. Join the tangible evil of the punishment to the moral evil of the fault, under pretext of expiation, and you will have doubled the sum of evils without mending anything. You will be Hke the doctor in Moliere who, called in to cure a diseased arm, would have cut oif his patient's other arm. Without the grounds of

part of mover, I

'

which we shall speak later on) the punishment would be as blameworthy as the crime, and the prison would be no better than those who live in it. Let us say further that the lawgivfers and the judges, by deliberately condemning the guilty to punishment, would become their

social defence (of

fellows.

Theoretically speaking

—what

—

that

is,

putting aside the social

between the murder committed by the murderer and the murder committed by the executioner ? The last-named crime has not even, as an extenuating circumstance, some reason or other utility

difference will there be

the legal murder becomes more wholly absurd than the illegal murder. The executioner imitates the murderer other murderers will imitate him submitting, in their turn, to that kind of fascination which murder exercises, and which practically makes the scaffold of personal interest or revenge

;

;

1

It is impossible to see in the " sanction of expiation " anything resembling a rational consequence of

a school of crime. the

fault.

It is

simply a mechanical sequence,

or, better,

a

MORAL SANCTION AND DISTRIBUTIVE material repetition,

and

imitation, the

model

l6l

JUSTICE. for

which

is

the

fault itself. 2. Shall we, with V. Cousin and M. Janet, invoke this strange principle of order which a " rebellious will " disturbs,

Here the distincsuffering can re-establish ? between the social and the moral question is forgotten. Social order has been really the historical origin of punishment, and. pain was at first, as Littr6 has shown, but a compensation a material indemnity demanded by the victim

and which only tion

—

—

or by his relatives; but

when we

place ourselves at the

compensate anything ? would be too convenient if a crime could be physically redeemed by punishment, and if it were possible to pay the penalty for a bad act by a certain amount of physical suffering, as the indulgences of the Church may be bought for chinking crowns. No ; that which is done remains

social point of view,

can pain

really

It

The moral

done.

physical evil which

is

notwithstanding

evil persists,

added

to

It

it.

all

the

would be as rational

to attempt, with the Determinists, the cure of the criminal as

it is

irrational to look for

This idea

punishment or compensation of

the result of a kind of childish mathematics and infantile judgment. " An eye for an eye,

his crime.

is

a tooth for a tooth."* *

M.

Renouvier, one of the principal representatives in France of

the moral philosophy of duty, after having himself severely criticised the vulgar idea of punishment, has yet principle of retaliation itself,

and

by interpreting

it

made in

great efforts to save the

a better

sense.

" Taken by

as an expression of a sentiment of the soul with regard to

crime, retaliation would be far from deserving the disgust or the indig-

whose penal theories are ("Science de la Morale," vol. ii., p. 296). According to M. Renouvier, it would not be undesirable that the guilty should undergo the effect of this maxim if turned into a general rule that which is impracticable is the mathematical equivalence which retaliation supposes between the suffering and the wrong done. But, will be our reply, if this equivalence were realizable, the retaliation would not, therefore, _be more just; for we cannot, whatever M. Renouvier may say, convert into a general law the nation with which the publicists regard often worse founded

upon the

it,

basis of strict justice"

;

M

;

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

l62

For him who admits the hypothesis of free-will, one of the is in the moral world, the other in the In visible world ; the one in heaven, the other on earth. scales of the balance

the

first is

will, in the second a wholly limited sensiequiUbrium to be established between them ? it is someexists, is quite intangible to us

a free

How

bility.

Free-will, if

is

it

thing absolute,

;

and we have no hold on the

resolutions are, piable.

and, in

absolute.

Its

therefore, in themselves irreparable, inex-

They have been compared with flashes of lightning they dazzle us for a moment, and disappear.

fact,

The good

or evil act mysteriously descends from the will

into the sphere of the senses sible to re-ascend

as to get hold of

from it

this

;

but, after that,

it

sphere into that of

and punish

The

it.

descends, but does not re-ascend.

is

imposso

free-will,

flash of lightning

Between

free-will

and

the objects of the visible world there does not exist any other rational link than the will itself of the agent.

maxim and tion

;

the immoral intention of

neither can

we

Therefore

him who has provoked the

convert into a general law the

—

maxim

it

retalia-

of revenge,

which gives back the blows received we can only generalize the physical evil and the painfiil effect. But the generalization of an evil is morally an evil in itself ; therefore only personal or social reasons of defence remain reasons of precaution, of utility. According to M. Renouvier, retaliation, once purified, may be expressed in this formula, which he " Whosoever has violated the freedom of declares to be acceptable others has deserved to suffer in his own. " But this very formula is, in our opinion, not admissible from the point of view taken by Kant and his followers with regard to intention. The guilty one must neither be made to suffer, nor be restricted in his liberty, in so far as he has in the past violated the freedom of otherS, but in so far as he is capable of violating it again. It cannot, therefore, be said that no act of the past whatever deserves suffering, and pain is never justified but by the antici'

—

;

pation of similar acts in the future. to simple possibilities,

which

it

It

tries to

does not cling to modify.

realities,

but

If the guilty person

went by his own free will into exile to a desert island, from which return would be impossible, human society (and, in general, every society of moral beings) would find itself disarmed no moral law would then possibly demand that, having violated the freedom of others, he should suffer in his own. ;

MORAL SANCTION AND DISTRIBUTIVE is

necessary, so as to

make punishment

should desire punishment

JUSTICE.

1

63

possible, that free-

and it can only desire it when an already sufficiently deep improvement has taken place, which, in its turn, renders the punishment partly will itself

;

undeserved.

Such

the antinomy in which the doctrine of expia-

is

tion ends

undertakes, not only to simply correct, but

if it

As long

to punish.

as a criminal remains really criminal,

him below any moral sanction. He be converted before being struck and, if he is converted, what reason is there for striking ? Guilty or not, the will endowed with freedom would at this point go so far beyond the visible world that the only way of behaving in regard to it would be to bow down to it. A will of this kind is an irresponsible Caesar, whom it is well enough to this very fact places

ought

to

;

condemn and passion,

but

to execute in effigy, so as to satisfy popular

who

really

During the " Terreur default of

every

him whom they symbolized.

their hypothesis of

do nought

escapes

else

;

external action.

blancfie " live eagles

an expiation to be

were burned in

Human inflicted

their cruelty is as vain

and

judges, in

on

free-will,

as irrational.

While the innocent body of the accused struggles in their will, which is the real eagle, the supreme eagle free in flight, soars out of their reach high above them. 3. If one tries to investigate this naive or cruel principle of order brought forward by the spiritualists, which reminds us a little too much of the order reigning at Warsaw, it becomes transformed into that of a pretended distri"To everyone accordiiTg to his works" butive \\i.%'a!Z&. hands, his

—such

is the social ideal of St. Simon ; such is also the moral ideal according to M. Janet (''La Morale" p. 577). Sanction in this case is merely a question of the general proportion fixed between all labour and its remuneration (i) he who does a great deal must receive a great deal; (2) he who does but little must receive little (3) he who commits evil must receive evil. Let it first be noted that :

;

:

164

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

can in no way be deduced from the two preceding ones. If a smaller benefit seems to call for smaller recompense, it does not follow that an offence should call for revenge. Besides, the two other principles seem to us to be open to controversy at least in so far as they pretend to be formulas of the moral ideal. Here, again, the two points of views the one moral, the other social are confounded with one another. The principle, "To each one according to his works," is a purely economic principle. It sums up well enough the ideal of equal exchange and of social contracts, but not at all that of an absolute justice which should give to everyone according to his moral intention. It means only this independently of intention, the objects exchanged in society ought to be of the same value, and an individual who produces a thing of considerable value must not receive in exchange an insignificant recompense. This is the rule of exchange ; it is that of all self-interested labour ; it is not the rule of disinterested effort, which virtue should hypothetically demand. There is, and must be, in social

/this last principle

—

—

—

relations a certain tariff of the actions, not of the intentions.

We

all watch that this tariff may be duly observed ; that a merchant who gives sham goods, or a citizen who does

fulfil his civic duty, may not receive in exchange the normal quantity of money or of reputation. Nothing can be better ; but what tariff can be put on virtue, which should be truly " moral "? Where economic contracts and material exchanges are no longer under consideration, but the will

not

^

itself, this

as

it is

law loses

plausible,

is

all its

worth.

Distributive justice, so far

therefere a purely social, purely utilitarian

which has no longer any sense outside some sort of Society rests entirely on the principle of reciprocity that is to say, if one produces that which is good and useful, one expects good in exchange ; and if one produces what is harmful, one expects something harmful. From this entirely mechanical reciprocity, which we find in the social

rule,

society.

—

MORAL SANCTION AND DISTRIBUTIVE body, as in

all

between the

JUSTICE.

1

65

other organisms, results a rough proportion

visible welfare of

one individual and the

visible

welfare of the others, a mutual solidarity which takes the form

of a sort of distributive justice.

But, once more, this

is

a

natural equilibrium, rather than a moral equity of distribution.

The unrewarded

righteous act, which

is,

so to speak, not

valued at its right worth, the evil which is not punished, simply shocks us as an anti-social occurrence, as an economic

and

a relation between individuals from a moral point of view, this is

political monstrosity, as

which

harmful

is

no longer

so.

—

works

"

ment

for the

;

but,

The

principle

—"

j

;

to everyone according to his

an excellent form of social encourageworker or the moral agent. It imposes on him, as his ideal, a kind of " piece-work,'' which is always much more productive than " day-work," and, above all, more productive than work for " a sum down." It is preeminently a practical rule, not a sanction. The essential characteristic of a true moral sanction should really be never is,

in fact,

become a

to

end or aim

fixed

in itself.

The

child

who

says his lessons correctly merely for the sake of afterwards

some sweets, no longer deserves these sweets from moral point of view, exactly because he has made them his aim. The sanction must, therefore, be found receiving

the

entirely outside the regions oi finality,

reason outside the regions of the

so far as

will, in

it

is

utility.

and with Its

claim

still

is

more

to reach

a cause, without wishing to direct

Nor can any contrivance alter the practical principle of social justice, " Expect to receive

it

with reference to an aim.

from men

in proportion to

this metaphysical principle

what you :

will give to

them," into

" If the mysterious cause acting

is good in itself and by itself, a pleasant effect If it is bad, your be produced on your sensibility.

within you will

sensibility will

The

first

because

it

be made to suffer." proportion in exchange

formula

—

formed a

cerned the future.

—was

practical motive for the will,

The

rational,

and con-

second, which does not contain

'

1

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

66

any motive bears on the

for action,

and which, by a

justice

is

prac-

The

idea of distributive therefore, only valuable in so far as it expresses

barren and morally empty.

tically

retro-active effect,

modifying the future,

past, instead of

is,

an entirely social ideal, the economic laws of which themIt becomes an selves tend to bring about its reaUzation. immoral idea if, by giving it an absolute and metaphysical character, one wants to turn it into a principle of punishment or reward.

There certainly is nothing more rational than that the moral judgment of every being should be in favour of virtue and be opposed to crime but this judgment cannot pass the limits of the moral world to be transformed into the least kind ;

of coercive and penal action. This affirmation good, you are bad " ought never to become this

—

be made to enjoy or to

suffer."

The

— " You are

"You must

:

allowed the privilege of forcing the righteous

man

to

Both vice and virtue are therefore, responsible only to

harm.

themselves, and, in

many

others. After

and virtue are but forms of the

all,

vice

cases, only to the conscience of

under these forms the will itself continues to nature it seems to be to aspire to happiness. see

be do him

guilty should not

why

this

eternal desire

The human

satisfaction.

absolute, treated

beings.

It

fatal or free

with

should not, in wild beasts

indulgence and

all

must pity,

and whose do not

will,

exist,

We

of us, find be, like

the

in

other

matters ;

little if their ferocity be considered as they are morally always to be pitied. Why

should one want them to become physically

pitiful also ?

A

was once shown a large coloured picture representing martyrs. In the arena lions and tigers were feasting on ChrisOn one side another tiger was left locked up in tian blood. its cage, and looked on with a woeful air. The child was " Dont you pity these unhappy martyrs ?" asked She answered " And what about the poor tiger which has no Christian to eat !" A sage, free from all prejudice, would surely have pitied the martyrs; but this would not have

little girl

:

:

MORAL SANCTION AND DISTRIBUTIVE

167

JUSTICE.

prevented him likewise pitying the starving

tiger.

We

re-

member the Hindoo legend which tells us how Buddha gave his own body to a wild animal dying of hunger. This is some Such conduct, absurd from the practical standpoint, is the only legitimate one from the

the supreme pity, the only one which does not conceal

hidden

and

injustice.

social

standpoint of pure morality.

For the narrow and entirely human justice which refuses kindness to him who is already unhappy enough to be must be substituted another larger justice, which a justice which not only ignores the hand with which it gives, but will not even know the hand which receives it. This kind of claim to a happiness which is reserved for the good man only, and to which should correspond a veritable guilty

—

gives kindness to all

unhappiness among

right to relic

(in

all

inferior individuals, is the

the etymological sense of

the word) of ancient

Reason may please itself by supposing a certain relation between sensibility and happiness ; for every sentient being, by its very nature and definition, desires enjoyment and hates pain. Reason may also suppose a relation between all will and happiness, for every being aristocratic prejudices.

susceptible of will spontaneously aspires to feel itself happy.

The

differences in will

show themselves only when there

is

a question of choosing the ways and means of arriving at happiness. Some people believe their happiness to be incompatible with that of others, some try to find their happiness in that of others

this it is

;

which distinguishes

good men from bad men.

To

this difference in

would

correspond,

essential

difference

direction of such or such a will

according in

its

independent cause which be so

;

to

orthodox morality, an

very nature, in the deep and it

manifests outwardly.

It

may

but this difference cannot do away with the per-

Even rrianent relation between the will and happiness. now, under our present laws, criminals retain a certain

— 1

68

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

number of

rights;

absolute (for

way

that a

they maintain

him who admits an

man

cannot

sell

these rights in the

all

absolute).

himself as a

In the same he cannot

slave, so

take away from himself this kind of natural

title

to ultimate

happiness which every sentient being believes himself to possess. So long as beings, evil by deliberate choice or forced to

it

by necessity, will persevere in wishing for hapno reason which can be urged for withholding

piness, I see it

from them. There is, you

will say, this

that they are bad.

Is

it,

reason

—

sufficient in itself

then, only to

make them

better

you have recourse to pain ? No that is for you but a secondary aim, which might be attained by other means. Your principal aim is to produce expiation in them that is

that

;

—

and without object. As Our moralists be wicked

to say, unhappiness, without utility

were not enough for them to have not yet got beyond the arbitrary distribution which the Gospel seems to admit "To him that hath shall be given to him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath." The Christian idea of grace would, however, be acceptable on one condition that of its being universal,

if it

!

:

;

—

In this way it would become, instead of a grace, a kind of divine debt. That which is deeply shocking in all morality that is more or of less borrowed from Christianity, is the idea of election choice, of favour, of a distribution of grace. A god ought not to choose between beings, to see which he will in the end make happy. Even a human legislator, if he pretended to give an absolute and truly divine worth to his laws, would be forced to renounce everything which would indicate any

given to

all

men and

all

beings.

—

" election " or " preference," any pretended distribution and

Every /a/-/«a/ gift is necessarily also biassed, and on earth nor in heaven ought there to be such a

sanction.

neither

thing zs favour.

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

CHAPTER

II.

The Principle of Penal or Defensive Justice

Our

169

in Society.

present society can surely not realize the far distant but it can far less take ;

ideal of universal forbearance

as

its

type of conduct quite the opposite ideal of orthodox

morality

—namely, the

there

is

and unhapAs we have seen,

distribution of happiness

piness, according to merit

and demerit.

no purely moral reason whatever to suppose any and of reward to virtue. We have

distribution of pain to vice

acknowledge with even greater reason

to

pure question of

that,

taken as a

no social sanction, and that name are mere phenomena of social

right, there is

the facts called by this

defence.*

Now, we have

to

standpoint at which

come down from the purely theoretical we have hitherto placed ourselves, to

the more confused sphere of sentiments and the association

may be

of ideas, where our opponents

advantage of

us.

The

agree with the ideas

able to again take

mankind does not at all of the Hindus, and of every true philomajority of

sopher, about absolute justice being identical with universal charity.

for

It

has strong prejudices against the starving tiger

which Buddha

sacrificed

himself;

it

has natural pre-

does not seem satisfactory to them that the wrong action should not be punished, and ferences with regard to sheep.

virtue

be quite gratuitous.

who do

It

Mankind

is

like those children

not like stories in which the good

little

boys are

* Doubtless the old. objection will be made "If punishments were, on the part of society, only a means of defence, they would be blows, no'!, punishments" (M. Janet, " Cours de Philosophie," p. 30). On the contrary, when punishments do not find their justification in :

defence,

it

is

precisely these punishments

by whatever euphemism they may be of social defence,

which are the

real blows,

Outside the reasons, for instance, the act of administering a hundred called.

strokes of a stick on the soles of the feet as punishment to a thief will

never be transformed into a moral

act.

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

170

eaten up by wolves, and who, on the contrary, would like to Even on the stage the hear that the wolves were eaten up.

demand

general

punished

;

and

is

that

should be rewarded, vice

virtue

this is not the case the spectators

if

go away

discontented, with a feeling of disappointed expectation. Why this tenacious sentiment, this persistent need of sanction,

—

the sociable being this psychological impossibility of being reconciled to the idea of unpunished evil ?

in

In the practical

place,

first

and

action from

it

is

active being,

he

all

sees,

and

because man is an essentially tends to deduce a rule of

who for

whom

the

of others is

life

a perpetual moral lesson given in examples. With that wonderful social instinct which man possesses, he feels directly that an unpunished crime is an element of social

he

destruction;

himself and

all

feels

a presentiment of danger, both to

others, such as a citizen feels in a besieged

town when he discovers an open breach. In the second place, this bad example personal exhortation to

evil,

is

like a

whispered in his

kind of

ear, against

This is due to the popular which always believes sanction to enter into the \&cy formula of the law, and regards reward and punishment as motive forces. Human law has the double character of being utilitarian and obligatory, which is exactly the opposite of a moral law commanding a free-will without a motive power. There is a third and still more profound reason for the indignation with which impunity is met. Human intelligence

which

his highest instincts revolt.

common

finds

it

sense,

difficult

volted by

it

to

a

to stop at the idea of far

higher degree than

is

moral

evil

;

it

is

re-

possible by a want of

material symmetry or mathematical exactitude. Man, being essentially a sociable animal, " Zwov ttoXitikov" cannot resign

himself to the definite success of anti-social actions, when such

humanly speaking, to be successful. The very mind urges him to turn to the superhuman, demand reparation and compensation. If bees, suddenly

actions seem,

nature of man's to

1

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

1 7

chained, were to see the order of their cells destroyed before their very eyes, without

them

any hope of ever being able to set would be extreme, and

right again, their consternation

they would instinctively expect some intervention or other to them as immutable would be to a higher The very soul of man is penetrated by the

to re-establish that order, which

and sacred as intelligence.

of the

that

We

idea of sociability.

is

stars

think, so to speak, within the limit

of society, as within that of time and space.

Man, by

moral nature (such as is transmitted to him thus induced to believe that the last word in the universe cannot remain with the wicked. He is always indignant at the triumph of evil and of injustice. This indignation manifests itself in children even before they can properly talk, and numerous traces may be found of it even among animals. The logical result of this protest

by

his

heredity),

against evil acter of

is

is

the refusal to believe in the definitive char-

Completely dominated by the ideal

triumph.

its

oi progress,

it

cannot allow any being to remain for any length

of time arrested in

its

we have

onward

course.

the work of those which are inseparable from social and moral reasons. An immoral being possesses an ugliness which is much more repulsive than physical ugliness, and on which our eye does not care to dwell. We, therefore, want Finally,

also

to

estimate

aesthetic considerations

to correct, to remove, to improve, or to suppress recall the precarious position of the leper

it.

Let us

and the unclean

They were treated as we in these days and dramatic authors do not crime too evidently unpunished, neither do

in ancient society. treat

criminals.

generally leave

they as a

rule,

Novelists

be

personages, above

it

here noted, represent their principal

all their

heroines, as entirely ugly (with

hump-backed, or one-eyed, etc.). If they sometimes do so, as Victor Hugo in his Quasimodo, their aim in

goitre,

that case

is

to

make

rest of the work, or to

us forget the deformity during

make

use of

it

as

an

antithesis.

all

the

Most

172

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

ends with a transformation of the hero or Jane Eyre). Ugliness, therefore, produces with certainty, although in a less degree,

often, the novel

the heroine (as in Petite Fadette or the same effect as immorality, correct the one as the other

immorality from outside

The

?

and we but

;

how

the need to

feel

we

are

to correct

idea of pain inflicted as a

Punishment

re-agent at once presents itself to the mind.

one of those old popular remedies, like the boiling oil into which, before the time of Ambroise Pard, the limbs of the wounded were plunged. Really the desire to see the gsiJisJ It is chiefly guilty one punished comes from good nature. explained by the impossibility for man to remain inactive, He wants to indifferent in the presence of any kind of evil. is

try it

and do something,

wound,

to touch the

or to apply a revulsive

;

and

either to heal

his intelligence is enticed

by the apparent symmetry offered by the proportionality of moral and physical evil. He does not know that there are The certain things which it is better not to touch at all. first people who made excavations in Italy, and who found statues of Venus with an arm or a leg wanting, felt the same indignation which we still feel in these days in presence of a badly-balanced will. They wanted to mend the evil, to put back an arm borrowed from elsewhere, to put on another leg. Now, more resigned and more timid, we leave the masterpieces as

we

find them, superbly mutilated.

very admiration for the great works of art

not without some pain

commit an brought

face

irreparable,

;

but we prefer to

act of profanation.

we

to

face

feel far

with

This evil,

more deeply

is,

suffer, rather

suffering,

this still

Our.

in that case,

than

when we

are

sentiment of the in the presence of

moral evil. The inward will can be efficaciously corrected only by its own self, just as it is only the long-departed creators of the marble statues who can mend these smooth, white, broken limbs. We are thus reduced to that which is hardest for man to await the future. Real

—

progress can only spring

from the

inner nature

of

the

:

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETV. individual. direct

The

1

73

we can use are all inAs to the will itself, it those who consider it free,

only means which

— education,

instance.

for

ought to be sacred precisely to or at least spontaneous ; they cannot, without contradiction and injustice, attempt to lay hold of it. Thus the feeling which urges us to desire a sanction is partly immoral. Like many other sentiments, it has a very legitimate principle and wrong applications. Between human

and the

instinct

We

to analyse

still

and

scientific truth.

being living in society.

we

that this oppo-

will, in

that instinct

that psychological want of sanction which

want, and

exists, therefore,

show

are going to

the end, be With this object we will try more deeply than we have hitherto done

sition is provisional,

conformable to

theory of morality

scientific

a certain opposition.

shall see

We how it

is

we

find in the

sketch the genesis of this

will

produced, in the

first

place,

by a natural and legitimate instinct, and then tends to restrict and limit itself more and more as the course of human evolution continues. If there is

Every

any general law of

animal (we might

life,,

it

extend the

is

law

the following

even

to the

kingdom) answers to an attack by a defence, which is itself most often an attack in answer, a kind of shock in return. This is a primitive instinct, which has source in the reflex movement, in the irritability of its living tissues, and without which life would be impossible. Do not even animals, deprived of their brain, still try to Those beings in which this bite him who pinches them ? instinct was keenest and most developed have more easily vegetable

survived, like the rose-trees provided with thorns.

the superior animals such as

but continues to

unbend

against

which throw

exist.

darts.

many

others,

Among

this instinct is modified,

In us there

him who touches

is it,

a spring ready to as in those plants

This was originally a mechanical,

unconscious phenomenon so

man

;

but this instinct does not, like

weaken when

it

becomes conscious.

(See

a

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

174

on

this point

sec.

It

iii.).

"La Morale

is,

Anglaise Contemporaine," part

In every primitive society one must be able, in order to

when

to bite

ii.,

in fact, necessary for the life of the individual.

bitten, to strike

when

And

struck.

live,

to-day a

when he has received a blow, even which he cannot return ; he has a 'feeling of inferiority. On the contrary, when he has returned the child in

discontented

is

play,

blow, with even additional energy, he

no longer

is satisfied.

He

feels

no longer unequal to the struggle for life. We find the same feeling among animals. When we play with a dog, we must from time to time let him take our hand in his mouth, if we do not want him to take it in anger. In the games of grown-up men we also find the same need of a certain equalization of chances, the players always desiring, according to the popular expression, to find themselves even. Undoubtedly, 'with man new sentiments interself-love, vene, and are added to the primitive instinct vanity, care about the good opinion of others. It does not much matter what is underneath all this ; something deeper may be perceived the sentiment of the necessities of life. inferior,

—

—

who

In uncivilized society a being

is

returning the evil done to him, and of even is

not capable of

more than

that,

a being badly equipped for existence, meant to disappear

sooner or

later.

Life itself

is,

—

in its essence,

a revenge

—

permanent revenge for the obstacles which fetter it. Revenge is, moreover, a physiological necessity for all living beings, so deeply rooted in

remains

moment

them

that the brutal instinct

There is a wellwho, mortally wounded, seeing an Austrian chief pass near him, found strength to catch hold

known

until

the

of

death.

story of a Swiss

of a piece of rock, and to knock his brains out, killing himself

by

this last effort.

A

great

many more

kind could be related, in which revenge

facts

of this

no longer justified by personal defence, and, so to speak, extends beyond the question of Hfe, by one of those numerous and sometimes fruitful contradictions which produce in the social being is

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

175

wrongful sentiments, like avarice, or useful sentiments, like the love of glory.

Let

be noted that the moral notion of justice or of unknown throughout this whole mechanism. If an animal without its brain bites him who hurts it, there is here no idea of sanction. If you ask a child or an unculmerit

it

is still

man why he

tured

someone, he

strikes

himself

will think

when he tells you that he himself was first Ask him no more. Really, for him who only

fully justified

struck.

considers the general laws of

We

this is a sufficient reason.

life,

are here at the very origin,

of physical emergence, of

this

and almost

at the point

pretended moral need of

sanction, which so far does not offer us anything moral, but

which

will

soon modify

itself.

Let us suppose a

instead of being himself the object of an attack,

the onlooker.

back will

He

he cannot

;

sees

fail

to

the aggressor

his

thought he

who defends

and, as the English school has demonstrated, he

Every blow given

pathize with him. therefore, seem a a sanction.* *

just

simply

is

vigorously driven

applaud, for in

put himself in the place of the one

man who,

himself,

sym-

will

to the aggressor will,

compensation, a legitimate revenge,

Why does

he put himself in the place of him who defends himself, ? For several reasons, which yet do not imply that sentiment of justice which has to be explained (i) Because the attacked and abused man is always in an unfortunate If we are present at a position, more fit to excite interest and pity. struggle, do we not always take the side of the weakest, even without

and not

in the place of the other

:

knowing

if it

aggressor

is

ciation allows

sympathize

is

he who

is

in the right ?

anti-social, contrary to the

all

;

and, as

we always

(2)

The

situation

mutual security which

are part of

some

society or other,

the more with the one of the two adversaries

—the

own which a man

who

is

we in

But let us suppose that the society of is a part may not be the great human association, and happens to be, for instance, an association of the most similar situation to our

most

of the

all asso-

social.

In that case rather strange facts will arise in his conscience. approve of a thief defending himself against another thief, and punishing him ; but he will not approve of a policeman defending himthieves.

He

will

176

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

Stuart Mill

is,

therefore, right in thinking that the desire

on the individual punished comes back mere instinct of personal defence only he has too decidedly confounded defence with revenge, and he has not shown that this very instinct is reduced to a reflex action, to see every attack

to the

;

called forth either directly or sympathetically.

If this reflex

seems to adopt a moral That which character by taking a disinterested character. only a fundamentally therefore penal sanction is we call

action

roused by sympathy,

is

defence exercised

it

by individuals in whose place we can put whose place

ourselves in thought, a defence against others in

we do not want to put ourselves. The physical and social need aspect

— since sanction If reward

reward. it

of

has

at

this is

another because

calls for

and expects another caress

in

every expression of kindness calls forth in others

;

This

a similar expression. life.

of sanction bears a double

one time punishment,

seems as natural as pain,

Every caress

life.

at

origin also in a reflex action, in a primitive instinct

its

response

is

A dog which

comes

is

true all

up the

softly forward,

name of

scale of animal

wagging

He

its

tail,

to

invincible repugnance to put himself in the place of the policeman,

an and

to sympathize with him, for that will falsify his

It is

self against

in this

way

a thief in the

society at large.

moral judgments.

that the people of the lower classes take sides against the

police in every squabble, without even inquiring

foreign lands

Frenchmen would

French,

Conscience

etc.

will feel

is full

very point of contradiction

what is going on ; and in

feel inclined to

take the side of the

of phenomena of this kind, complex to the

—which, however,

under the one law. which we witness as spectators, and in which we take the part of one or other of the opponents. If we are a policeman or quiet citizen, we shall approve of the handcuffs, the prison, if need be of the gallows. If we are a thief or lazzaroni, or, perhaps, simply one of the common people, we shall approve of the pistol-shot fired from behind a bush, of the dagger mysteriously thrust into the back of the carabinieri. The only thing that remains identical in all these moral or immoral judgments is Sanction

is

fall

essentially the conclusion of a struggle

statement of this fact of experience. He who strikes naturally and socially expect to be struck in his turn.

the

must

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

177

lick his mate is indignant if he finds himself received with a growl, just as a good man is indignant when he receives evil in return for his benefactions.

extend and generalize

and you

entirely personal,

By means

this impression,

of sympathy,

which was

will arrive at this

at first

theory

:

it

is

natural that every being working for the happiness of his

means of

fellow-creatures should receive, in exchange, the

being happy.

we

Considering ourselves mutually responsible,

feel ourselves

bound by a kind of debt with regard

to

every benefactor of society. To the natural determinism which connects benefit with benefit is therefore added a feeling of sympathy, and even of gratitude, towards the benefactor. Now, in virtue of an inevitable illusion, happiness seems to us always to be more deserved by those with whom we are in sympathy.* After this rapid glance at the genesis of the sentiments

aroused in

man by

the punishment of evil or the reward of

goodness, we can understand

and

inflexible justice

how the notion

was formed

—a

good to good and evil to evil. It physical symbol of a deep-rooted physical tions

of a distributive

justice is

which proporbut the meta-

instinct,

which

in

reality is part of the instinct of the preservation of life.t * Will some pessimist, perhaps, deny this natural instinct of gratitude, and object that, on the contrary, man is by nature ungrateful? Nothing is more inaccurate. Man \% forgetful; that is all. Children and animals are still more forgetful. There is a great difference between these two things. The instinct of gratitude exists in all beings, and subsists as long as the remembrance of the benefit remains vivid and intact. But Far stronger instincts, such as this remembrance changes very rapidly.

personal interest, pride, etc. if

we put

,

fight against

ourselves in the place of others,

it.

we

It is for this

reason that,

are so shocked not to see

a good action rewarded ; whereas we often feel as little remorse when we ourselves forget to respond to some kind action. The sentiment of gratitude is one of those natural altruistic sentiments which, finding themselves in opposition to an equally strong selfishness, are stronger the appreciation of somebody else's conduct, and not the ruling

when

of our own,

t This

is

concerned.

instinct,

after

having created the complex system of social

N

1/

"

178 It

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION. remains for us to see how, in the partly

ments of

human

society,

this

artificial

instinct gradually

environ-

becomes

modified in such a way that one day the notion of distributive justice will lose even the practical support which it still

derives from popular sentiment.

Let

us, in

fact,

follow

the

course

together with the evolution of societies.

ment was much

of penal

sanction,

-Qriginally punish-

the defence was in ; you provoke a wild animal, it will tear you to pieces ; if you attack a man of the world, he will answer you humorously; if you offend a philosopher, he will not answer at all. It is the law of economy of force \^'' greater than the fault

excess of the attack.

If

punishments and rewards, has been fortified by the very existence of We have not been long in recognisingthis system of protection. that, if we should injure somebody in any way, we must expect a In this way a natural and rational more or less quick repression. association is established (already pointed out by the English school) We between a certain kind of conduct and a certain punishment. find in the Revue Philosophique a curious instance of a dawning

"

have not," says M. Delboeuf, its meaning. The hero is a small dog, a cross between a wolf-dog and a spaniel. He was at the age when, among his species, the serious duties of social life begin. As he was allowed to choose my study as a favourite resting-place, he often misbehaved himself there. Being a very strict master, I made him feel association of this kind in '

'

an animal.

I

ever seen an account of any fact so significant in

each time the horrors of his behaviour, and carried him quickly into the court-yard and made him sit up in a corner. After making him stop there for a longer or shorter time, according to the

allowed him to come back. understand certain articles

importance of the offence, I This education made him pretty quickly of the code of canine civility little rascal as I believed him to be quite cured of his

—

he was ; so that at last tendency to forget the rules of propriety. Oh deception One day, coming into my study, I found myself fece to face with a fresh I looked for my dog to make him feel instance of his wrongdoing. I called him, but he all the shame of his relapse ; he was not there. I went down to the court-yard there he was, sitting did not appear. in the corner, holding his front paws pitifully over his chest, looking I was disarmed distressed, ashamed, and full of repentance. (Revue Philosophique, April, 1881). See also in Romanes more or !

less similar facts.

;;

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

I

79

^V

which produces

growing softening of penal sanction. The animal is a coarsely-regulated spring, the expansion of which is not always proportional to the force which releases

same with primitive man, and with the penal To defend one's self against an was necessary to crush him. Later on it was

the

It is

it.

this

law of primitive peoples. aggressor,

it

seen to be unnecessary to strike so heavily.

made is

An

attempt

to exactly balance the reflex action with the attack

stage

this

which

summed up

is

expresses an ideal

still

infinitely too

"

—a

it

"An

in the precept,

eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth

is

;

precept which

high for primitive

men

an ideal which we ourselves to-day are far from realizing completely, although from other points of view we go beyond it. An eye for an eye, that is the physical law of equality between action and reaction, which must rule a perfectly b balanced and steadily working organism. Only as time goes on does man become aware that it does not conduce even to his personal preservation to exactly proportion the pain inflicted to the suffering received. He, therefore, tends,

and

will

always tend in future, to diminish the suffering.

He

economize the punishments, the prisons, the sanctions of all kinds. These are perfectly useless expenditures of social force, as soon as they go beyond the only aim which will

scientifically justifies

them

— defence of the

of the attacked social body.

more recognised innocent (2) to

the

:

spirit

that there are

(i) to strike

strike

It is in these

him who

is

individual

and

days more and

two ways of striking the innocent in every respect

the guilty too hard.

Even

of revenge (so idle a use of

rancour, hatred,

human

faculties

!),

tend to disappear, so as to give place to the statement of fact its

and the research

for

more

rational

means of preventing

renewal.

What

is

hatred

?

A

mere form of the

instinct of physical

preservation, the sentiment of a danger ever present in the

person of another individual. If a dog thinks of some child who has thrown a stone at him, a succession of natural

)

l8o

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

images

him immediately

for

associates the action of the

throwing of the stone with the thought of the child

;

causes the dog to be angry, and to grind his teeth. has, therefore,

had

its utility,

a state of society which

and but

is

is

which Hatred

rationally justifiable in

little

advanced.

It

was a

valuable stimulant to the nervous system, and, through

it,

to

In the superior social state, in which the individual no longer needs to defend himself, hatred has the muscular system.

no longer any sense. If one is robbed, one complains to the police ; if one Already, in is struck, one asks for damages and costs. our own time, only an ambitious or an ignorant man, or a

The

fool, feels hatred.

disappear

moreover,

;

like the visit of

mere form.

an

it

—

duel is

that piece of absurdity

—

will

at present treated in its details

and very often the

official,

fighting is

Capital punishment will either disappear, or be

only maintained as a

means

of prevention, for the purpose

of mechanically frightening hereditary criminals, or habitual

Prisons and gallows will probably be demolished,

criminals.

to be replaced

simplest form

;

by transportation, which is elimination in its even the rigour of prison-life has already

been mitigated.* More air and light are allowed to enter into the prison. The iron bars, which confine the prisoner without shutting out the rays of sunlight too much, symbolically represent the ideal of penal justice, which may be expressed by this * For

all

offences

rightly proposed or,

finally,

Philos.,

a.

whith do not

entail transportation

forced military service under severe

May,

M. Le Bon has

fine, or compulsory labour (industrial or agricultural),

1881).

perversion than of

known that our prisons conversion. They are places It is

association for the evil-doers

—"

dents of the Court of Appeal,

discipline

(Revue

are rather places of of reunion and of

anti-social clubs."

One

M. B&anger, wrote

that every year

of the presi-

a

hundred thousand individuals " there (in prison) plunge deeper into crime." It may be a million in ten years. Hence the considerable increase of relapses. (This increase is, on an average, over two thousand per annum.

—

1

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY. formula

scientific

-The

maximum

10

of social defence with the

[.^

minimum of individual suffering. In this way, the more we progress truth imposes itself even

the more the theoretical on the masses, and lessens the

popular need of punishment. punishes,

it is

committed

;

it

If,

these days, society

in

never on account of th£ deed which has been

because of those which the evil-doer, or his example, may commit in the future.

is

others following

Sanction has value only as a promise or a threat preceding the act

act, is

and tending mechanically

accomplished,

it

to

produce

entirely loses its value.

it.

It is

If this

simply

and nothing more. It is really for this reason that, for instance, madmen are no longer punished. The punishment was given up, after it had been recognised that the fear of punishment had no appreIt was barely a century before the ciable effect upon them. time of Pinel that popular instinct wanted to punish mad

a

shield or a simple, deterministic spring,

people like

all

other criminals

;

which proves how vague

the ideas of responsibility or irresponsibility are in the vulgar and utilitarian conception of social sanction. in

When,

bygone times, the people demanded cruel punishments

harmony with the morals of

in

not in the

name

name

their

day, they

of metaphysical ideas, but rather

did

so,

in the

Neither ought our legislators, who day are labouring to reduce pain to the necessary amount, to put forward these metaphysical

of social interest.

the present

in

strictly

and " absolute responsibility," in themselves, no more justify social punishment than metaphysical irresponsibility and metaphysical determinism. That which alone justifies pain is its efficacy, from the point ideas any more.

" Free-will "

of view of social defence.*

We must,

therefore, approve of the new school of jurists, which is numerous and brilliant in Italy, and which endeavours to place penal right outside all moral and metaphysical considerations. Let us, however, remark that this school is wrong when, after having

*

particularly

put aside every idea of metaphysical responsibility,

it

considers itself

>

\ '

'

{

l82

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

In the same way as social punishments are in our time being reduced to that which

rewards

(titles

obliged by

own

its

is

necessary, social

strictly

of nobility, honorary posts, etc.) also principles to equally put aside

'

'

become

the intentional

and

According to Messrs. Lombroso, E. Ferri, and Garofalo, legal judgment must only bear upon the action, and the social or anti-social motives which produced it, without even pretending

voluntary element."

and the intrinsic quality of the Garofalo and Ferri bring forward an example which

to appreciate the greater or lesser power will.

Messrs.

argues against them ; they quote the article of the Italian and French codes which punishes " murder, invohmtary blows, and wounds" with

imprisonment and

fines

(Garofalo,

" Di un

Criterio

Positivo

della

PenaHta," Naples, 1880; E. Ferri, "II Diritto di Punire," Turin, 1882). According to them, this article of the law, not taking into account the will of the criminal, considers the brutal act as entirely

detached from the intention which dictated it. This law, in their eyes, is one of the types with which the laws of the future should conform. But it is a great omission that the article in question should take no account of the will of the criminal.

If the blows

and the wounds said

to

be

be committed by imprudence) were absolutely so, they would not be punished, because the punishment would be ineffective. The truth is that they are caused by lack of attention. Now, attention, being an act of the will, can be mechanically roused or sustained by the fear of pain, and that is why pain involuntary

(or,

rather, said to

demands precisely from man, over and above all amount of attention, a, power and stability of It is the aim of of which the savage, for instance, is incapable.

intervenes.

Social

life

other qualities, a certain will,

penal law, It

is,

find

among

other things, to develop the will in this direction.

therefore, also

" any

not on his

wrong

own

initiative

and E. Ferri do not him who has committed a crime,

that Messrs. Carrara

social responsibility " in

or from an anti-social motive, but because

somebody else has forced him to strike with a dagger or give the poison. Such a man, whatever modern Italian jurists may think, constitutes a certain danger to society undoubtedly, not because of his passions, or

even of his personal actions, but simply because of his weakness of will. He is an instrument instead of being a person. Now, it is always Somedangerous in a State to have instruments instead of citizens.

may exist, not only in the exterior motives which act on the will, but even in the nature of this will. Now, in all cases in which something anti-social may be found there is cause for Ifegal Human penal law, therefore, must not be considered assanction. being absolutely of the same order as the pretended natural sanction thing anti-social

PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

much more

rare

Formerly,

exceptional.

which deduces the consequences of a given act falling into the

water

—without ever concerning

intention which preceded the act (E. Ferri, p.

25).

83

if a he was If he was the conqueror, he was

and more

general was conquered, he was sentenced to death

even crucified sometimes.

1

—

for instance, that of

itself

"

II

;

about the will and

Uiritto di Punire,"

No, the inward determinism of the individual should not

and, because a judge is not compelled ; an act is morally or metaphysically free, it does not follow that he is in any case whatever right to neglect to examine the amount of attention and intention in short, the degree of conscious By degrees punishment will with which this act was accomplished. has now-a-days become only a measure of social precaution ; but this precaution must aim, not only at the act and its motives, but also at the This will, whatever may be its will which is hidden behind these. ultimate and metaphysical nature, is mechanically a force the greater or It less intensity of which must be reckoned with in social calculations. would be absurd for an engineer, wanting to dam in a river, to consider only the volume of its water, without taking into account the force of Let it be well understood, however, that the current sweeping it along. we in no sense make the will " a mysterious faculty placed behind the motives. The will of which I wished to speak is for us simply character the system of tendencies of all kinds which the individual is accustomed to obey, and which constitute his moral self ; in short, the greater or lesser resistance which this fund of inward energy is able to present to entirely escape legal appreciation

to ask himself if

—

—

'

'

—

anti-social motives.

We

believe that the appreciation of the courts of

justice will always take into consideration, not only the statement of the act, but also the person himself, and even the character of the accused. Not only will the motives and springs of action have to be more or less judged, but the persons (who are themselves but complicated systems of motives and springs, which counterbalance each other, and form a living equilibrium). In other

determinating motives of a given

terms, there exists only a social responsibility, not in any sense a moral

one ; but I may add that the individual is not only responsible for such or such an anti-social act and passing motives which may have urged him he is responsible for his very character ; and it is, above to this act The jurymen all, this character which penal law must try to reform. :

always want to judge the person, and allow themselves to be influenced

by good

or

bad antecedents. They often ca?ry this to excess ; but I wrong in principle, because an act is never isolated,

believe they are not

but

is

simply a symptom ; and, therefore, social sanction ought to bear as a whole.

on the individual

— 184

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION. and

called imperator,

carried about in triumph.

In our

days a general need not expect either such honours or so lamentable an end. Society is based on a system of exchange.

I

He who renders a service counts upon receiving, by virtue of economic laws, not a sanction, but simply another service ; an honorarium, or salary, takes the place of the reward, properly so called.

One good deed

calls forth

another by

—

In reality, reward as it existed, and still exists to-day, in non-democratic societies always leads to privilege. The author, for instance, formerly chosen by the king to receive a pension, was surely a a kind of natural equilibrium.

privileged writer sell is

;

while now-a-days the author whose books

simply a writer

who

is

read.

Reward was formerly

often it very In this way pretended distributive justice really produces most shocking injustice. Moreover, the very man who was rewarded lost

considered so entirely as a privilege that

became

hereditary, like fiefs

or

titles.

thereby in moral dignity for that which he received appeared to himself only as a gift, instead of being a legitimate possession. It is a remarkable thing that the economic system which tends to predominate among us ;

has, in

V

some

respects,

a

much more moral

system of pretended distributive justice

aspect than the ;

for,

instead of

making us liegemen, it makes us legitimate and absolute possessors of all which we earn by our works and our labour. Everything which in the past was obtained by reward or by favour will be obtained more and more by competition. Competition, in which M. Renan sees a degrading agent in modern society to-day, allows the man of talent to create his own position, and to owe the place which he attains to his own efforts. Now, competition is a means of superseding reward and largess by payment due. The further we go, the more everyone is conscious of what is due to him, and claims it but that which is due to everyone loses more and more the character of a sanction, and takes that of an engagement binding both on society and on the individual. ;

— PENAL OR DEFENSIVE JUSTICE IN SOCIETY.

1

85

In the same way as certain social rewards, which we mentioned just now, so the other more vague rewards of public esteem and of popularity, also tend to lose their importance

as

Among

goes on.

civilization

man

a god, or at least partly-civilized peoples he still

popular

Among

very

is

a

is

savages a one-

nearly

man

of super-

In time he form, " an instrument of Providence." become, in the eyes of all, a man and nothing more. The infatuation of nations for Caesars and Napoleons will

human will

Already, in these days, the only truly great to be that of the men of science ;

gradually pass.

and durable fame seems and, these being, above

stand them, will

who

all,

admired by people who under-

are but a very small number, their glory

always be limited to a small

tide of

human

heads,

accustomed

fore, get

that of a small

They

men to

number

Lost in the rising

circle.

of talent or of genius

need only to sustain

them

will,

there-

own esteem and

their

in their

labours.

pave the way in the world for themselves and for humanity, urged onward more by inward force than by the will

The

attraction of rewards.

name

that the

we

still

of a

cling to

it

further

man comes

we

go, the

to be of

little

essential

thing.

feel

from a kind of conscious childishness

but the deed, for ourselves as well as for

working almost

more we

importance

The people

of

all

is

;

the

high intelligence, while

silently in loftier spheres,

see the small ones, the lowest, those

or merit, take a growing part in

others,

who

must rejoice to

are without

name

the pre-occupations of

many more efforts are made to who are unhappy, or even guilty, than to overwhelm with benefactions those who are happy enough to be on the top rung of the human ladder. For instance, a new law concerning the masses or the poor has more interest for us than any event which may happen to some high personage in the past it was just the contraryPersonal questions will be effaced to leave room for the humanity.

In these days

alleviate the fate of those

;

abstract ideas of science, or for the concrete sentiment of

1

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

86

and philanthropy.

pity

The misery

of a social group will

and kind deeds than the We shall wish more to merit of a certain individual. help those who suffer than to reward in a brilliant and superFor distributive ficial way those who have acted well. justice, which is an entirely individual and personal justice,

more

invincibly attract attention

(if such words are not a paradox), must, be substituted a justice of a more absolute charCharity for all acter, and which at bottom is really charity. men, whatever may be their moral, intellectual, or physical worth, should be the final aim to be pursued even by

a justice of privilege therefore,

public opinion.

CHAPTER Criticism of

Every appeared

Inward Sanction and of Remorse. sanction,

exterior

III.

punishment,

or

reward,

has

us sometimes as a cruelty, sometimes as a

to

no purely moral reason for thus an absolute proportion between happiness and virtue, is there a moral reason for

privilege.

If

there

is

establishing outside the individual

seeing this proportion realized within the individual through his se?isibility

1

In other words, must there and can there use the words of Kant, 2^ pathological

exist in conscience, to

state of pleasure or pain, a

sanctions the moral law

;

kind of moral pathology which and must morality d priori have

consequences in which

the passions play a large part? Let us imagine, by hypothesis, a virtue so heterogeneous to nature that it would neither have any perceptible character, nor find itself in conformity with any social or personal instinct,

or with any natural passion, any Tra^os, but only

Let us imagine, on the other hand, an of the will which, while being the negation of the " laws of pure practical reason," would, at the same time, not meet with resistance from any natural

with pure reason.

immoral direction

CRITICISM OF INWARD SANCTION AND OF REMORSE.

1

87

impulse, any natural passion (not even, hypothetically, the natural pleasure of exact reasoning, the pleasant feeling of logical

exercise

case (which, after

according to all, is

rule).

Would

it,

in

this

not to be found in humanity), be

and a demerit having no relation be added perceptible pain or pleasure Moral satisfaction and remorse also, as

rational that to a merit to the visible should

—a

•

pathology

?

—

much as pleasure, pain, and the passions that is as much as all the simple phenomena of sensation Kant not

to

He

sees in

less inexplicable

it

to say,

— seem

than the idea of duty

itself.

a mystery.*

But this mystery resolves itself into an impossibility. If moral merit were pure conformity to rational law as such, pure rationality, pure formalism, and if it were the deed of pure transcendental liberty foreign to every natural impulse, it would produce no joy in the order of nature, no expansion of the living being, no inward warmth, no throbbing of the heart.

In the same way,

if

the evil

demerit, could hypothetically find

itself,

will,

the source of

at the

same

time,

not contrary to any of the natural impulses of our being, but was serving them all, it could not produce any

Demerit would,

suffering.

in that case, naturally

have to

end in perfect happiness of the senses and of the passions. That this does not happen is because the moral or immoral act, even when one supposes it to be intentionally suprasensible,

nature.

still

If

meets aids or obstacles in our pathological

we enjoy

or suffer,

* Crit. de la liaison Pratique,

tr.

it is

no longer

in so far as

M.

Janet, inspired

Barni, p. 121.

doubt by Kant, and perhaps by the theologians, also objects to deducing the sentiment of remorse from immorality. He seems to see in it the proof of a kind of mysterious harmony preestablished between nature and the moral law. "Remorse," he says, "is the smarting pain, the sting which tortures the heart after a guilty deed. This suffering has not any moral character, and must be considered as a kind oi punishment inflicted upon crime by nature herself" (Tr. de without

Philos., p. 673).

l88

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

our intention

conformable or contrary to a rationally

is

fixed law, to a law of supranatural liberty, but in so far as it finds itself, at the same time, conformable or contrary to our

always more or

less variable sense-nature.

In other words, moral satisfaction or remorse does not proceed entirely a priori from our relation to a moral law, but from our relation to the natural and empirical laws. Even the mere pleasure of reasoning, which we may feel in generalizing a maxim of conduct, can yet only be explained by the natural tendency of the mind to go beyond every personal limit, and, in a general way, by the tendency of all activity to everlastingly continue a

movement once begun. not made to intervene, all

If empirical considerations

become unexplain-

purely logical enjoyment will not only able, but

are

moral, or even rational, or even

A

i priori impossible.

superiority of the order

of reason over that of sensation and of nature might well enough be admitted, but not a possible echo of these two orders, the entirely

d,

echo, which

one mingling with the other

is

posteriori.

To render inward sanction truly moral, it should have naught of the sensible or the pathological that is to say, it should have nothing which is pleasant and nothing which is painful to the passions. It should be like the apathy of

—

means a perfect and supra-passionate

an ataraxy, a It should

the Stoics, which

serenity,

supra-sensible

satisfaction.

be, with regard to this world, the nirvana of the Buddhists,

the

complete

therefore,

detachment from

lose

all

character

all

of

ira^os.

sensible

should,

It

sanction.

A

supra-sensible law can only have a supra-sensible sanction,

which

is

consequently

natural pleasure

unknown

and pain

;

and

to that

this

minate for us as the supra-sensible order

The

which

sanction

is

is

called

as indeter-

itself.

sanction called moral and truly sensible

is

really

a particular case of that natural law according to which every development of activity

is

accompanied by pleasure.

This

CRITICISM OF INWARD SANCTION

AND OF REMORSE.

1

891

pleasure diminishes, disappears, or gives place to suffering,,

according to the inward or outward resistances which the activity meets. In the inward self of the individual the

may meet

activity

the

mind and

this

resistance either in the nature of

the intellectual temperament, or in the character-

and the moral temperainent. Evidently the aptitudes of the mind differ according to the individual. It will be difficult for a poet to be a good lawyer and one understands the sufferings of Alfred de Musset as a clerk in an office. It will be also difficult for an imaginative poet to be a mathematician and one understands the protestations of Victor Hugo against the " torture of the X's and Y's."" Every intelligence seems to have a certain number of directions, in which hereditary habit pushes it by preference. If it ;

;

deviates from these directions, in

certain

cases,

become

nearly " moral " remorse.

it

suffers.

truly

Let

This suffering may,

heartrending,

us, for

and very

example, think of an

who feels genius stirring in him, and who is condemned to manual labour for the whole of his life. This artist

feeling of a lost

the

same way

of an unfulfilled task, of an unrealized and haunt his sensibility more or less in would the consciousness of a moral failure.

life,

ideal, will beset

as

Here, therefore, we have an instance of the pleasure or pain

which attends every development of activity in any environment whatever. Let us now pass on from the intellectual temperament to the moral temperament. Here, again, we

many

are in the presence of a great

which

will

obedient or resistant theft,

instinctive impulses,

produce joy or pain, according as the

—impulses

will is

of Such diverse one and the same character, and pull of avarice, of charity,

of sociability, of savagery, of pity, etc.

impulses

may

exist in

about first in one direction, then in another. The joy which the righteous man feels in following his social instincts will, therefore, find its counterpart in the joy which it

the evil

man

feels in following his anti-social instincts.

saying of the young evil-doer,

whom

The

Maudsley mentions,.

V

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

TQO is

known

well

:

"

By Jove

!

how

nice

to steal

it is

!

When

!"

Even

if

this joy

still want compensated by any subsequent regret or remorse (and this is what would happen, according to the writers on criminal law, to nine-tenths of the criminals by

I

had

millions, I should

to steal

in evil-doing is not

derangement follows in the direction that which is produced in the

heredity), a complete

conscience, similar to

•of

magnetic needle. The evil instincts stifling all the others, almost entirely from these alone that the pathological

it is

If the young thief, of whom Maudsley had missed an opportunity for theft, he would certainly have suffered inwardly ; he would have had a

:sanction comes. ispeaks,

twinge of remorse. pathological phenomenon designated by the name inward sanction may, therefore, be considered as in itself Sensibility, in indifferent to the moral quality of actions. which phenomena of this kind happen, has by no means

The

•of

the stability of reason

.and of double

;

it

usage,''

belongs to those things, "ambiguous of which Plato

befriend evil as well as good.

Our

;

It

may

our impulses,

—

know what they want they must be and the joy or suffering which they may

our passions, do not

guided by reason

speaks.

instincts,

cause us hardly ever arises from their conformity with the

end which reason proposes

to them, but

from their con-

formity with the end towards which they themselves would naturally turn.

In other words, the joy in well-doing and

the remorse for evil-doing are never proportional in us to the triumph of the moral good or

evil,

but to the struggle

which they have had in fighting against the impulses of our physical and psychical temperament. Although the elements of remorse and of inward joy thus springing from the sensibility are generally variable, there is, however, one which presents a certain fixity, and which may exist in all elevated minds we mean that satisfaction which an individual always feels in being classed with superior beings beings conformable with the normal type of his species, and ;

—

CRITICISM OF INWARD SANCTION

AND OF REMORSE.

I9I

own ideal. This satisfaction corresponds to the intellectual pain of feeling himself fallen

adapted, so to speak, to his

from

his rank

and

his species,

sunk

to the level of inferior

Unfortunately, this kind of satisfaction and this

beings.

kind of

intellectual

remorse only clearly manifest themselves

Moreover, this sanction, limited to moral beings, admits of a certain provisional antinomy. In fact, the pain caused by the contrast between our ideal and our real state must be in philosophic minds.

a small

all

number

of

the greater to us, as

ideal

;

for in that case

we we

distance separating us from

are

more

it.

conscious of the

Susceptibility of consciefice,

increases in proportion

therefore,

fully

get a clearer perception of the

to the

conscience, and the vividness of remorse

development of a measure of

is

In the same way, as more sensitive to all kinds of pain coming from outside, and as, on the average, a white man, for instance, suffers in his life more than a negro, so the more highly organized beings are morally more exposed

our very

efforts

towards morality.

superior organisms are always

than others to that suffering arising from inward causes, whose cause is always in action the suffering from the

—

unrealized ideal. scruples,

but in

its

True remorse, with

inward tortures,

may

its

strike

subtlety, its painful

men, not

in inverse,

direct, ratio to their perfection.

As a matter of

fact,

popular morality, and even morality as

understood by Kant, tend to turn remorse into expiation, a mysterious and inexplicable relation between moral will and nature. They tend, in the same way, to find a reward in moral satisfaction. As to ourselves, we have tried to bring

back sensible remorse

to

a simple natural resistance of the

deepest impulses of our being, and sensible satisfaction to a natural sentiment of facility, of ease, of liberty, which we experience

when

yielding to these impulses.

supra-sensible sanction,

be

— unknown

±0 the

Trddos.

it

must be

—

let

If there is

us repeat

it,

it

a

must

to the senses properly so-called, to the passions,

All the same,

we

are far from denying the

192

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

practical utility of

law,

what are called moral pleasures and moral as, penal

Suffering, for instance, if not justifiable

sufiferings.

very often justifiable as

is

valuable

if it

utility.

Remorse becomes

can serve some definite purpose,

if it

is

the

consciousness of some remaining imperfection, whether in its causes or its effects, of which the past act was simply the sign.

It

itself, but upon upon the conse-

does not then bear upon the act

the imperfection revealed by the act, or

quences following in

From

forward.

its

this

train

;

it

is

an incentive urging us

point of view, which

is

not that of

sanction in the proper sense, the suffering caused by remorse, even all suffering in general, and every austerity, acquires a

moral value which must not be neglected, and which has but too often been neglected by pure utilitarians. Bentham's horror of anything reminding him of the " ascetic principle," or of anything which seemed to him the least sacrifice of pleasure, is well known. He was wrong. Suffering may sometimes be morally like bitter medicine a powerful The patient himself feels the need of it. He who tonic. has abused pleasure is the first to wish for, and to relish,

—

pain.

It is

for

a similar reason

that,

undue use of

sweets,

one comes to

The

vicious

man

quinine.

will

having made an infusion of

after

relish

not only get to hate his vice,

but also the very enjoyments it yielded him he despises them so deeply that, in order to give himself evidence of Every stain needs a this, he likes to feel himself in pain. ;

kind of biting remedy to efface it. Pain can be this biting remedy. If it can never constitute a moral sanction patho-

— —

and moral evil being heterogeneous it may sometimes become a useful caustic. Under this new aspect logical evil

sanction has an unquestionable remedial value

;

but

first,

for

must consent to it must demand it. Moreover, it must be remembered that remedial treatment should neither last too long nor, above All religions and classic morality have underall, be eternal. stood the value of pain, but they have abused it. They it

to be truly moral, the individual himself

—

have acted

like surgeons

who, wonder-struck at the results

RELIGIOUS SANCTION.

1

93

of their operations, ask nothing but to cut off arms and " Cutting off" should never be an aim in itself; and legs. to " sew

up again " should be the very

Remorse

is

definitely

good

We

only of value in so far as

it

last

resource of

leads

more

all.

surely to

resolution.

have shown that remorse may be considered under two aspects sometimes as the painful and relatively /a^^/w statement of a fact (disobedience to a more or less deeplyrooted impulse of our being, a falling below the ideal of the

—

individual, either with relation to the species or to his

conception), sometimes as an effort

but active and failure.

energetic,

Under

its first

physically necessary

;

an

still

effort to rise

aspect remorse

but

it

more or less

own

painful,

out of this state of

may be

and

logically

only becomes morally good by

assuming its second character. Remorse, therefore, is the more moral the less it resembles true sanction. There are temperaments in which the two kinds of remorse are clearly enough divided. There are some which feel a very stinging, and yet a perfectly useless, pain ; there are others which (reason and will being predominant in them) need no very acute pain to recognise their evil-doing, and to impose reparation on themselves. These latter are superior from a moral point of view, which proves that the so-called inward sanction, like all others, justifies itself only in so far as

a means of

it is

action.

CHAPTER Criticism of Religious

IV.

and Metaphysical Sanction. I.

RELIGIOUS SANCTION.

The

further

we advance

sanction, properly so-called

in this criticism, the

—that

is

more does

to say, moral "pathology

—seem

to us a kind of fence,

there

a path marked out, and someone walking in

is

"

being of use only when

o

it.

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

194

Beyond

life,

in the eternal void, the fences

there

is

become

once the probation of life no coming back to it, unless it be, let

superfluous.

is

If

it

entirely

ended,

be well

understood, for the sake of deriving experience and wise lessons from it, in the case of our having to begin fresh

Such

trials.

is

not the idea of the principal

Religions, in so far as they

conduct, obedience to certain

command rites, faith

human

religions.

a certain rule of in such and such a

need a sanction to strengthen their commands. They all agree in calling upon the most formidable sanction imaginable ; to those who have transgressed their orders, in one way or another, they promise eternal suffering, and threaten them with horrors far beyond any which the imagination of the most furious man dreams of inflicting upon his most deadly enemy. In this, as in many other points, religions are in total disagreement with the spirit of our

dogma,

time

all

but

;

it is

strange to think that they are

still

followed

by a great many philosophers and metaphysicians Imagining God as the most terrible of all powers, one comes to the conclusion that, in his anger, he must inflict the most terrible of punishments. One forgets that God this supreme ideal should simply be incapable of hurting anyone, and, with Precisely still more reason, be unable to return evil for evil. because God is conceived as the maximum of power, he should be able to inflict only the minimum of pain ; for the greater the force over which one has command, the less need is there to use it to obtain a certain effect. Besides, as he is believed to be the highest goodness, it is impossible to picture him inflicting even this minimum of pain. The " Heavenly Father " should at least have this supe.

—

—

riority

over earthly fathers, of not flogging his children.

he is hypothetically the supreme intelligence, we cannot believe that he would do anything unreasonable. Now, for what reason would he cause the evil-doer to suffer ? Finally, as

God

is

above

all

insult,

and need not defend himself;

therefore he should not strike.

—— RELIGIOUS SANCTION.

1 95

Religious systems always have a tendency to represent the bad man as a Titan engaged in a struggle against God himself. It is quite natural that Jupiter, once being the conqueror, should in future guard himself, and crush his opponent under a mountain. But it is a strange idea to

God

imagine

as being thus materially able to fight evil-

and

doers, without losing his majesty

moment when

the

undertakes a physical struggle with evil-doers, loses

character of law,

its

victim

—

it

A

fails.

lowers

it

Either God, this living law,

Jacob.

it

like

is

thus

inevitably

with a

fight

to being overthrown,

exposes himself

Law "

the level of

itself to

god cannot

From

his sanctity.

" Moral

the personified

man

its

he the angel by

all-powerful

;

—and

we cannot truly offend him, nor should he punish us or we really can offend him but in that case we in some way influence him, and he is not all-powerful, not " the The founders of religions have absolute," not God. then

;

imagined that the most sacred law should be also the strongest law

it is

;

The

absolutely the reverse.

idea of force logically

resolves itself into the relation between

ance

;

What

every physical force

is,

power and

a strange and very anthropomorphic conception to

imagine

God

his servant

as keeping a gaol, or a " hell,"

and gaol-keeper the Devil

more responsible

!

In

and having fact,

for hell than the executioner is for the

he should even be very much pitied

made

to do.

for

the Devil is

instruments of torture which are put into his hands

is

resist-

therefore, morally a weakness.

The

;

for the sort of

maybe, work he

real responsibility is not his.

only the executioner of high and divine works

;

and a

He

is

pihilo-

sopher might maintain, not without likelihood, that the true If a human law, if a civil law, cannot do Devil here is God. without physical sanction, the reason

is

—

as

we have seen

and human. It is not the same with the " Moral Law," which is supposed to protect only a principle, and which is represented as immovable, eternal, precisely because

it is

civil

to a certain extent passive;

it

is

impossible to be moved

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

196

Force being powerless in the not necessary that the law should answer

before an immovable law.

presence of

by

it, it

He who

force.

always find

will

the giant,

it

thinks to have overthrown moral law

confronting

him

again, as Hercules

whom

he thought he had finally up time after time from under

ground, rise

be

is

that

eternal,

is

felled

saw

to the

his grip.

To

the only possible revenge of goodness

with regard to those who violate it. If God had created beings with natures so perverse as to

always act contrary to his commands, he would, in their He could only pity presence, be reduced to impotence.

His duty them, and pity himself for having created them. would not be to strike them, but to alleviate their misfortune as much as possible ; to show himself all the more

and better, in proportion as they were worse. Those doomed, if they were really incurable, would, after all, be more in need of the delights of heaven than the chosen ones themselves. One of two things either the in that case the evil-doers may be converted to goodness so-called hell will only be a school on a very large scale, in which an attempt will be made to open the eyes of all the outcasts, and to enable them to ascend to heaven as quickly as possible or the evil-doers are beyond cure, like incurable maniacs (which is absurd) in that case they also will be everlastingly pitiful, and a supreme goodness must try to compensate them for their misery by all imaginable means, by the sum of all possible happiness. In whatever manner it be understood, the dogma of hell thus appears the gentle

who

are

:

—

;

;

very reverse of truth. Besides, it

away

—

by damning a soul that from his presence,

for ever

is

to say,

or, in less

by turning mysterious

—

from the truth God would turn himself away from his soul, would limit his own power, and would, so to say, damn himself also to a certain

words, by shutting

extent. it.

As

The

it

out for ever

pain of damnation recoils on him

to the physical suffering singled out

who

inflicts

by theologians.

;

THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY.

197

when taken in a metawho have gone wrong, God should only everlastingly call them back to him. it

is

We

bearable

evidently far less

phorical sense.

Instead of damning those

it is, above all, for two arms so widely on the

should say, with Michael Angelo,

evil-doers that

symbol of the

God opens cross.

We

his

picture

him

as looking

on

every-

thing from so great a height that in his eyes outcasts are

never anything but unfortunates. are unhappy, as such,

not from

if

Now, must not those who other standpoints, be

all

the favourites of the infinite goodness

?

II.

THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY.

Thus

far

we have considered the two aspects of sanction and reward as if bound together but, consider them separately. it is possible to

—punishment perhaps,

—

Certain philosophers,

for

;

instance,

seemed

disposed

to

reward properly so-called, and the right to reward to admit punishment only as being legitimate.* reject

This first position is, we believe, the most difficult which can be taken up in examining the question. There is a second one, quite opposed to it, which another philosopher has taken up, and which, in order to be thorough, we also must examine. It is to entirely reject punishment, but to try, nevertheless, to maintain a rational relation between

—

" We admit without hesitation the stoic maxim virtue is its own Could one conceive a geometrical triangle, which, being hypothetically endowed with consciousness and liberty, and which, *

reward

having succeeded in disengaging its pure essence from the conflict of material causes, which on all sides tend to violate its nature could

—

one conceive

this triangle

exterior things from

to require in addition

whose dominion

(M. P. Janet, " La Morale,"

p. 590).

it

a prize from those

had already freed

itself?"

^-"^

198

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION. (M. Fouillee, "La Liberty

merit and happiness.

et le Deter-

minisme.")

Thfs doctrine renounces the idea of Kant, which makes

The

merit conform to an entirely formal law. is

immense community,

represented as an

in

always a duty towards an active, a living being. community " he who loves must be loved "; is

more

natural

happiness "

To

?

to

is

becomes a

The

all

duty

In this what is deserves

good will the good which he a

everybody with

that

wishes to do good to him in return for

has tried to do

man

say that the virtuous

say

universe

which

relation of merit to happiness thus

relation of will to will, of person to person, a

and consequently of

relation of gratitude,

The

fraternity

and

between good actions and happiness would thus be found in the idea of return and gratitude. Loving-kindness would be the moral love

new

" (ibid).

principle

link sought

of sanction

—a

for

principle which, while ex-

cluding punishment, would be sufficient to justify a kind of reward, non-material, but moral.

sanction

Let us note that this

not valid for an individual, who, hypothetically,

is

might be considered absolutely to the doctrine

we

solitary.

are examining, there

But, according

nowhere

exists

an individual. One cannot get outside society, because one cannot get outside the universe. Moral law is, therefore, fundamentally only a social law, and that which we have said with respect to the actual relations between men such

holds good also for the ideal relations of

From

another. v/

this

point

of

all

beings one

view, reward

mth

becomes a

kind of " response " of love. Every good action is like an " appeal " addressed to all beings of the vast universe. It

seems against

listened to,

and

all

law that this appeal should not be produce gratitude.

that love should not

Love presupposes mutuality of love, consequently co-operaand helpfulness, consequently satisfaction of desire and

tion

happiness. person,

it

As

to

the evident unhappiness of

would be explained

in

any one

accordance with this

THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY. doctrine by the presence of

some blind

will

199

opposing him

from the midst of nature, from the midst of universal society. Now, if, hypothetically, a being is truly loving, he will

become

eyes of

all

lovable not only in the eyes of men, but in the

the elementary wills which

will thus acquire

make up

nature.

It

a kind of ideal right to be respected and

—consequently —

be made happy by may be considered as being brought about by a kind of war and blind

by them

assisted

them.

hatred of inferior

we become

to

pain, illness, death

All tangible evils

—

If this will takes for its victim love

wills.

and what could be more just ? can be requited only with love, we at least have the consciousness that this must be done with the love of the whole of nature, not only with the love of such or such an individual. This love of the whole of itself,

indignant,

If the love of others

may become happiness for him outward happiness included. The link between goodwill and happiness, which we desired to break, will be re-established. This hypothesis, we admit, is the last and only resource nature thus generalized

who

receives

for

metaphysically

it,

justifying

of indignation which panies goodwill.

that

empirical

sentiment

produces in us if it accomus note well what the hypothesis

pain

Only

let

involves.

In

this doctrine

it

will finally

have to be admitted, without

proof, that all the wills constituting nature are analogous in

essence and direction, in such a way as to converge towards the same point.

If,

for instance, the

good pursued by a

society of wolves were fundamentally as different from the

good pursued by human society as it apparently seems to be, the goodness of a man would rationally have no connection with that of a wolf, nor the goodness of a wolf with that of

a man.

The preceding

hypothesis must, therefore, be com-

pleted by this other very seductive and hazardous one, which we ourselves have elsewhere defined as possible. " Is there

not a tendency, an inward aspiration, eternally the same, and

;

200

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

which corresponds with that exterior which the forms are so varied ? Should there not be between them a connection of tendencies and efforts similar to the anatomical connection in organisms pointed out by G. Saint-Hilaire ?" (see our " Morale Anglaise Conat

work

in all beings,

evolution, of

temporaine," p. 370, and

M.

Fouill^e, "

La Science

Sociale

Contemporaine," book v.). According to this doctrine, the idea of sanction becomes blended with the moral idea of "co-operation." He who does good universally labours at so great a task that he has a right to

ideally

members

they are

all

beings,

same whole, from the

since

first

cell

He, on the contrary, who commits evil ought to receive from all a " refusal of co-operation,'' which would be a kind of negative punishment; he ought to find himself morally to

/

the co-operation of of the

the grey brain-matter of the highest organism.

isolated,

whereas the other should be in communion with

the universe.

—

—

this purified, saved by metaphysics harmony between the morally good and hapBut, in the first place, piness certainly becomes admissible. it is no longer truly the sanction of a formal law ; all that

Thus

restricted,

idea of final

remains of the ideas of necessary or imperative law, of equally necessary sanction, properly so-called, has disappeared.

It is

no longer even the formal law of Kant,

nor the synthetical a priori judgment by which legality should be united to happiness as reward. In one word, it is no longer a system of legislation, nor, consequently, of

We

true sanction. "^

'

can even say that we are here transported

to a sphere higher than that of justice, properly so-called it is

the sphere of brotherhood.

It is

no longer the

justice

of equal exchange, for the idea of brotherhood excludes that of mathematical exactly nieasurable,

not measure returns two,

its

exchange, of a balance of services

and equal

and even

Goodwill does

in quantity.

return according to what tenfold, for one.

it

has received

It is

;

it

no longer even

— THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY. distributive justice in

its

201

exact sense, for the idea of an

even moral, distribution is no longer that of brotherhood. The prodigal son might be received even exact, or

more warmly than the good son. An evil-doer might be and perhaps the evil-doer may need to be loved, more than any other. I have two hands one to clasp the hand of those with whom I go through life, the other to

loved,

—

who fall. To the latter I might even stretch forth both my hands together. Thus, in this sphere, purely rational relations, purely intellectual harmonies, and with even greater reason legal relations seem to disappear ; thus even the truly rational, logical, and even quantitative relation vanishes, which should bind the good will to a certain proportion of outward good and of inward love. From this results a kind of antinomy. Love is either a particular grace, and an election, which bears hardly any resemblance to sanction, or it is a kind of general grace, and an ideal, far-reaching equality between all beings, which even less resembles sanction. If I love raise those

—

—

one man better than another, it is not certain that my love must be in direct ratio to his merit and if I love all men for their humanity if I love them universally, equally the proportion between merit and love seems still more to disappear. Besides, men of " goodwill " would undoubtedly ;

—

themselves dislike, according to ideal justice, to be the object of any mark of preference ; the voluntary victims of love would not consent to be placed in any way before others in the case of any redistribution of material goods.

would object pitied

superiority of the ideal

when

this

give

rise.

;

to

supra-sensible wealth has given

material inconvenience

Such are the •will

be him who admits the over the real, the good man is the

than imposed suffering

rich one, even

him

They

that, after all, voluntary suffering is less to

and suffering. which we believe

difficulties to

These

but their solution

difficulties are,

will surely

this

theory

perhaps, not insoluble ;

mean a thorough

modification

202

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

of the traditional idea of sanction

—

for,

as far as pain goes,

punishment will have disappeared ; and, as to reward, the compensation belonging to pure justice will seem to vanish before more elevated relations of brotherhood, which shall be free from precise limitations.

On the

one hand, physical

suffering (death included) always rouses indignation morally,

whatever

may be

which causes

the good or bad character of the will Suffering shocks us in

it.

itself,

independently

a distribution of suffering is, On the other hand, as to therefore, morally unintelligible. happiness ^we want all to be happy. These notions cause of

its

point of application

;

—

Proportionality,

great trouble in the balance of sanction. rationality, law, vo/x.os (derived

from

ve/iw, to allot),

are only

and utility, of and of mathecommutation exchange, of defence and of applicable to the relations of social order

Sanction, properly so-called,

matical distribution.

is

there-

an entirely human idea, which enters as a necessary element into the conception of our society, but which might be expelled without contradiction from a highly-elevated

fore

society

composed of sages

like

Buddha and

Jesus.

In short, the utilitarians and the followers of Kant, placed at the two opposite poles of moral philosophy, are never-

same error. The utilitarian, who' may be of his existence in the hope that bring him something in return in the life

theless victims of

the

sacrifices as little as this sacrifice will

beyond, reckons irrationally from his point of view sacrifice

;

for, in

due to him for his interested than would be due to him for an evil act of self-

the absolute, nothing

interest.

On

more

is

the other hand, the disciple of

sacrifices himself,

Kant who

with his eyes shut, for the sake of the law

only, without calculating, without

none the more any

demanding anything, has

compensation or we should give up all reference to aim, and the disciple of Kant does not aim at happiness. It may be objected that, if the moral law constrains us, it is itself bound to do something for us. It

indemnity.

Of

veritable right

course,

if

to

we have no aim

in view,

THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY.

may be

may be an

said that there

to the law

that

;

instance,

for

if,

" appeal from the agent

demands the

the law

annihilation of self without compensation, this cruelty

;

and

is

203

a cruel law just ?" (M. Janet, "

is

supreme

La Morale,"

We answer that it is here necessary to distinguish between two things the fatal circumstances of life, and the law which rules our conduct under these circumstances. The fatal situations of life may be cruel ; let nature be accused of this but a law can never appear cruel to him p. 582).

—

;

who

believes in

stain

a crime cannot

who

believes in a " moral law "

this

law, while regarding

because sible,

law

this

and

is

is

feel

considers every

cruel to remain chaste.

it

it

it

is

For him

impossible to judge

from a human point of view,

hypothetically unconditional, irrespon-

believed to be speaking to us from the very

depths of the absolute. of which

clauses

He who

legitimacy.

its

It

we might

makes no contract with

us, the

quietly debate, weighing

the

—

advantages and disadvantages. At bottom even in the moral philosophy of Kaht sanction is really only a supreme

—

expedient to rationally and materially justify the formal law of sacrifice, the moral law. Sanction is added to the

law to render

it

legitimate.*

* This question-begging, is

really

still

more evident

disguised under the

name

in those systems of morality

openly to keep the mean between

egoistic

absolute disinterestedness, of Stoicism.

of postulate,

which

utilitarianism

try

more

and

The moral philosophy

of

the

M.

Renouvier in France, and of Sidgwick in England, seems to be of " Reason" says M. Renouvier (and the English moralist this kind. entirely agrees on this point), " is only of value and makes itself only linown in so far as it is supposed to be conformable with the final cause, the principle oiiht passions, and happiness The postulate of a final conformity of the moral law with happiness is the induction, the proper hypothesis of moral philosophy. Is this postulate denied?

Then

the moral agent might oppose to the obligation of justice another

obligation

—that

terest such as

we

urge him to

p. 17).

of his

own

he represents

make

it

preservation, to himself.

and

to duty the idea of in-

In the

name of

if^a^ shall

choice of duty?" ("Science de Morale," vol.

M. Renouvier, very

cautious

and circumspect,

tries

i.,

afterwards

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

204

The

doctrine of the disciples of Kant, even

more than

that of the utilitarians, if pushed to extremes, would logically end in a complete antinomy between the purely "moral merit" and the idea of a reward, or even of some sort of

might be summed up in the story of an Yves, Eastern woman, told us by the Sieur de Joinville a preaching friar, one day saw at Damascus an old woman tangible hope.

It

:

to

somewhat diminish the importance of

philosophy

them and

ih3.n

to

a.

/>osttilaie

make them

this

acknowledgment by a

a postulate of moral of (Ae passions "necessary to legitimatize

Sanction, he says,

scholastic distinction.

—

is

less

Unfortunately,

enter the sphere of science."

he happens to recognise that

there

cannot

exist

a moral science

independently of the passions, and that the obligation of self-interest If the passions is a power lo^cally equivalent to moral obligation. postulate a sanction, on the other hand moral philosophy postulates In moral philosophy thus conceived, duty the passions ; it is a circle. finds

itself,

with

self-interest.

from the logical point of view, put on equal footing Bentham and Kant are placed on the same level ; it is

at least

owned that both are right, and it is made to appear as if they want the same things in the name of contrary principles. Sanction serves as their

common

meeting-ground, and the supreme principle of remuneration as It is not for us here to appreciate the value of these moral

magistrate.

We only state that the formal law of Kant has disappeared that " the obligation of doing one's duty solely arrangement from duty " no longer exists, and is considered as a mere paradox (" Science de la Morale," vol. i., p. 178) ; that sanction is no longer a In that case this idea conseqtience of duty, but simply a condition. Punishment and reward are no longer entirely changes its aspect. considered as bound to moral conduct by an h priori synthetic judgment ; but they are demanded beforehand by the agents, so as systems. in this

;

commandment of the " law" from The moral 4ct no longer constitutes

to justify the

of view.

right to happiness

but every sensible being

;

hope

naturally a right to it

in

the moral act.

M.

is

the reasonable point in

and

for

itself

a

considered as having

and as unwilling to renounce and Mr. Sidgwick, no longer

for happiness,

Renovivier

maintaining that duty deserves a reward, simply say that the moral agent, expecting a reward,

rewarded.

They invoke,

would be duped

veracity of

the desire, in the same

veracity of

God

right

;

if

one day

it

was not

so to' speak, as their only argument, the

way

as

Descartes invoked the

but the one, as well as the other,

be suspected by every truly

scientific

may

moral philosopher.

with good

THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY. carrying in her right

205

hand a

brazier containing fire, and in " What are Yves asked her you going to do?" She answered that with the fire she wanted to burn paradise, and with the water to extinguish hell. And he asked her " Why do you want to do " Because I do not want anybody ever to do good this ?"

her

a phial of water.

left

:

:

for the sake of gaining paradise as a reward,

One

thing would

would be

to

—

between two joys

The

other superior.

;

happiness

lies

it

this;

Stuart

This hypothesis

himself.

this

and pleasure the one inferior, the

believed

Stoics

and even Epicurus

also;

reconcile everything

to

that, analytically,

that to choose between

;

to choose

still

seem

demonstrate

enfolded in virtue is

nor for fear of

but simply for love of God."

hell,

Mill

may

undoubtedly prove true for a small number of elevated souls, but its complete reahzation is indeed " not of this world." Virtue itself is by no means, here on earth and in itself, a perfect tangible reward, a full compensation (prcemium ipsa

There

virtus).

is little

the outpost and struck

likelihood that a soldier, standing at

down by

the sentiment of duty

fulfilled,

to the happiness of a

whole

ledge

it

there that

is

it

—

virtue

a bullet, would experience, in

sum

a

of enjoyment equivalent

Let

life.

acknowNay, more ;

us, therefore,

not tangible happiness.

is

no natural

reason, nor any purely

should ever become

so.

Besides,

moral reason,

when

certain alter-

natives arise, the moral being has the feeling of being caught

he is bound, he is confined, by "duty." He cannot free himself, and can but await the working of the great social or natural mechanism which must crush him. in a snare;

He

gives

way

—

while, perhaps, regretting that

The

have been the victim chosen. is,

in

a good

theless,

many

one draws

some pride

cases, the it,

binds

—and departs.

drawing of a bad

it

on one's brow

Duty, in

of the tragic events which burst on very nearly escape

it

;

he should

necessity of self-sacrifice

its

life.

lot.

—not

Neverwithout

acute state, forms parts

There are

lives

which

they are generally considered happy.

206

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

duty can thus make real victims, do these victims acquire exceptional rights to a material compensation, rights If

superior to that of other unfor-

to a material happiness,

tunates, of other martyrs of so.

All

life ?

It

does not appear to be always appears

suffering, involuntary or voluntary,

and this solely Compensation that is to say, a is a word which indicates an entirely logical and It is the same material, but in no sense a moral, relation. with the words " reward " and " punishment," which have They are terms which belong to the the same sense. sphere of the passions, and are wrongly transferred to moral language. The ideal compensation of material benefits and evils is all that one can observe in the popular ideas We must remember that the of punishment and reward. ancient Nemesis punished, not only the wicked, but also those who were happy those who had had more than their In the same way, Christianity, in share of enjoyment. to us as

demanding an

because it balancing

ideal compensation,

—

suffering.

is

—

—

primitive times, considered the poor, the

weak

in

mind

or

body, as having the best chance of one day being the chosen The rich man of the Gospel is threatened with hell, ones. without any other apparent reason than his very wealth.

The

first

of-scales

shall

The

ours.

ideal

for all beings, is

be

last.

method seems

Even

in the present

seems to be absolute equality of happiness may be ; life, on the contrary,

good or

to a reparation

—a

The ocean

ling.

pair-

whatsoever they

a perpetual consecration of inequality.

living beings,

day the

to us desirable for this world of

evil,

sort of

The

majority of

might, therefore, ideally pretend

balance of joys, a universal level-

of things would have to be levelled.

No

induction whatever drawn from nature leads us to suppose that this would ever happen quite the contrary ; and, on the other hand, from no moral system whatever carl one

—

deduce recognition of a true moral right to any compensation for actual suffering. This compensadesired by the senses, is by no means demanded by

strictly

definite tion,

—

THE SANCTION OF LOVE AND OF FRATERNITY. reason.

It is entirely doubtful, as far as

—perhaps even impossible.* *

science

is

207

concerned

"We

do not think that the belief in religious sanction works any which a being, morally unsound, presents to every healthy being. Crime can offer man but one single attraction that of having the chance of procuring wealth for himself. But wealth, whatever may be its popular value, is nevertheless not without common measure as regards everything else. Propose to a poor man to make him a millionaire, at the same time inflicting gout upon him, and he will refuse, if he has any shadow of common sense. Propose to him to be rich upon condition of being bandy-legged or hump-backed, and he will probably refuse this also, especially if he is young ; every woman would refuse. The difficulty experienced in filling certain posts, even well paid posts such as that of executioner still shows that, in the popular judgment, money is not everything. If it were everything, no religious threats could ever prevent a, universal assault upon riches. I know women, and men also, who would refuse a fortune if it had to be gained by becoming a butcher ; so strong are certain aversions, even purely sentimental and sesthetic ones. The moral horror of crime more powerful in most hearts than any other aversion will, therefore, always drive us away from criminals, whatever may be the prospects of life hereafter. This horror will only become stronger when, for the usual sentiments of hatred, anger, and revenge, which the presence of a criminal causes us, there will, by degrees, be substituted the sentiment of pity of that pity which we feel for inferior or ill-born beings, for the involuntary monstrosities of nature. The only enduring element worthy of respect in the idea of sanction is neither the notion of pain nor that of reward ; it is the conception of the ideal good, as necessarily having a sufficient force of realization to impose itself on nature, It would seem to us right that the just to invade the whole world. and gentle man should one day have the last word in the universe. But this reign of goodness dreamt of by humanity does not need the The moral operations of human legislature in order to establish itself. sentiment may consider itself as being of necessity the great force and This ambition of morality to progresthe mainspring of the universe. great change in the aspect

—

—

—

—

—

sively invade nature, through the

medium

thing in the domain of philosophy foster

to

the missionary

spirit.

;

it is

No myth

of humanity, also that

whatever

is

which is

the highest is

mOst

fit

to

here necessary

arouse the ardour for goodness and the sentiment of universal

fraternity.

That which is great and beautiful suffices in itself— carries and its flame" (" L'lrr^ligion de I'Avenir," p. 358),

in itself its light

208

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

CONCLUSION. will not be without value to sum up the which we have developed in this work. Our aim was to find out what a moral philosophy would be without any absolute obligation, and without any absolute

In conclusion,

it

principal ideas

how far positive science can go in this direction, and where does the sphere of metaphysical speculations sanction

begin

;

?

law anterior or superior we have to had to start from the facts themselves in order to deduce a law; to start from reality, to build up an ideal, and to extract a moral philosophy from nature. Now, the essential and Systematically putting aside every th.& facts,

consequently

ai.

priori and categorical,

constitutive fact of our nature

is

that

we

are living, feeling,

and thinking beings. It is from life, both in its physical and moral form, that we have had to demand a principle of conduct. It is indispensable that this principle

double character,

two parts

in

for

man

life,

—into

unconscious and conscious

Most

moralists

It

nevertheless, the unconscious

is,

which true,

the sphere of

may, in

the

conscious

or sub-conscious

Conscious

the true source of activity.

is

destroy,

only

see

should present a

so to speak, divides itself into

long run, react upon and

by the acuteness of

its

analysis, that

life,

life. life.

life it

is

gradually

which the

individuals or nations.

has accumulated among Consciousness has a dissolving force,

which the

and even the

obscure

has

not

necessity

synthesis

of

utilitarian

taken of

heredity

sufficiently

re-establishing

into

the

evolutionist

account.

harmony

school

Hence

the

between

the

and the spontaneity of the unconscious instinct. A principle of action must be found which shall be common to the two spheres, and which. reflection

of consciousness

CONCLUSION.

209

consequently, while becoming conscious of

have found

in

life

becoming conscious of

extension, does

increases

its

own

tends more

itself.

and mental manifestations. of its intensity and its

possible, with regard to its physical

Life, in

itself,

This principle we believe to the most intensive and the most extensive

to fortify than to destroy

not tend to

itself,

own

its

destruction

;

but

it

force.

However, there are also antinomies in the sphere of which are produced by the struggle between individualities, by the competition of all beings for happiness, and sometimes for existence. In nature the antinomy of the struggle for life is nowhere solved ; it is the life

dream of the as

much

moralist to solve

For

as possible.

to appeal

to a

to this law

—

—

law superior to

supernatural law.

eternal,

it

or, at least, to

at least as law.

life

itself

spring from an hypothesis. life

—an

it

tempted

intelligible,

We have given up appealing We have relegated the intelli-

gible world to the region of hypothesis,

obliged to appeal to

reduce

this reason the moralist is

and a law cannot therefore, we are But then it is a

Once more,

to regulate

life.

more complete, a larger life, which is able to regulate a less complete and smaller life. Such, in fact, is the only possible moral philosophy. which has enabled us to unite, a union which is the to a certain extent, egoism and altruism philosopher's stone of morality is that which we have rule for

The

an exclusively

scientific

characteristic of life

—

called itself

others,

in

others,

individual

and,

if

life

should diffuse

necessary,

should

up ; and this expansion is not contrary nature; on the contrary, it is in accordance with

yield its

The

moral fecundity. for

—

itself

nature; nay, more,

The

it

utilitarian school

is

the

very

condition of true

to its

life.

has been obliged to stop short with

more or less hesitation before this perpetual antithesis of Me and Thee, of Mine and Thine, of personal interest and general But living nature does not stop short at this cutinterest. and-dried, this logically inflexible division.

Individual

life

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

210 is

expansive for others because

by the very reason that

fruitful

regard to physical

that

life,

it is

another individual

to beget

is

it

it

is

with

the need of each individual

much

so

;

and

fruitful,

We have seen,

it is life.

that this other

so

becomes a necessary condition of our being. Life, like fire, only maintains itself by communicating itself ; and this is none the less true with regard to the intelligence than with regard to the body. It is as impossible to shut up the intelligence as to shut up flame ; it exists in order to radiate. We find the same force of expansion in sensibility. We need to share our joy ; we need to share our sorrow. It is our whole nature which absolute classifications

metaphysicians

;

We are

to be.

it

Life does not

is sociable.

and

cannot be entirely

open on

and encroached upon.

selfish,

even

is

not only nutrition

to

spend as well as

After having stated this general law of

we have

find out

tried to

mean

to

; it is

to gain.

physical

how some

equivalent to obligation might be derived therefrom.

does obligation actually

wished

if it

on all sides encroaching This springs from the fundamental :

life,

the

and the

sides,

all

law which biology teaches us Life production and fecundity. To live is psychical

know

divisions of the logicians

and

sort of

What

him who does not admit

an absolute imperative or a transcendental law ? A form of impulsion. In fact, analyse " moral obliga" duty," " the moral law " tion," that which gives them their character of action is the impulsion which is inseparable from it it is the force demanding exercise. Well, it is this impulsive force which has appeared to us to "Fejhe first either

certain

:

;

natural equivalent of supernatural duty. still

toomuch absorbed "by

think of nothing but the aim, which to reducible to pleasure.

they

make

They

of pleasure, be

it

the great spring of mental

The

utilitarians are

considerations of finaUty.

them

are Hedonists

in

a

life.

selfish

—that

finality.

We

We, on the

declare that there

is

is

to say,

or sympathetic form, contrary, place

ourselves at the point of view of efficient causality,

of

They

is utility, itself

and not a cause in us which

;

CONCLUSION.

211

operates as an aim, even before any attraction of pleasure this

cause

tending by

is life,

its

very nature to grow and to

diffuse itself, thus finding pleasure as consequence, but

necessarily taking

as an

it

end

in itself.

not

The living being

is

not purely and simply a calculation a la Bentham, a banker putting

down

To live

is

book the balance of profit and loss. it is to act. There is in the living being an accumulation of force, a reserve of activity, which spends

in his big

not to calculate,

not for the pleasure of spending

itself

because spending

a

itself,

but

of its very existence. It is impossible that a cause should not produce its effects, even if there be no consideration of aim or object. We have thus reached our fundamental formula. Duty is

is

necessity

but an expression detached from the power which neces-

sarily

tends to pass into action.

By duty we do but

nate that power which, passing beyond respect to

because

an

it

; becomes that which which it can be, because

ideal

that

it is

ought to be,

it it

desig-

becomes with

reality,

is

the germ of

There is no supernatural principle whatever in our morality it is from life itself, and from the force inherent in life, that it all springs. Life makes its own law by its aspiration towards incessant development it makes its own obligation to act by its very power of action. the future already bursting forth in the present.

;

;

As we have

already explained, instead of saying,

I can,

Hence a

certain impersonal duty is created by the very power to

act.

Such

it is

the

is

more

first

true to say,

I can,

/ must, I must.

therefore

therefore

natural equivalent of the mystical

and

transcendental duty.

The second equivalent we have found idea-forces upheld

The

in the theory of the

by a contemporary philosopher

(Fouillde).

very idea of the superior action, as that of every action,

a force tending

commenced from

to its realization.

The idea itself is

realization of the superior action.

is

already the

Obligation

but the sense of the profound identity which exists between thought and action. It is, for is,

this point of view,

212

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

of being, of the unity does not, by his action, conform to his highest thought is at war with himself, is inwardly divided this very reason, the sense of the unity

of

He who

life.

against himself. Here, again,

we have

got beyond Hedonism.

not a question of calculating pleasures, of making up accounts, and of finality. It is a question of being and of It is

of feeling oneself be, of feeUng oneself live

living,

as

we

are

and

as

we

live

;

to be, not a sort of

;

to act

lie in action,

but a truth in action.

A

borrowed from the sensifrom the intelligence and the activity. It is from the growing fusion of sensibilities, and from the increasingly sociable character of elevated pleasures, that a kind of duty or superior necessity springs, which moves us, quite naturally and rationally, towards others. third equivalent of duty

bility

is

not, like the preceding ones,

;

virtue of evolution our pleasures become wider and more and more impersonal. We cannot enjoy ourselves Our environment, in ourselves as on an isolated island. to which we better adapt ourselves every day, is human society, and we can no more be happy outside this environment than we can breathe beyond the atmosphere of the

By

The

earth. is

an

truly

purely selfish happiness of certain epicureans

an abstraction, an impossibility.

fancy,

idle

human

pleasures are

we have

all,

more

or less, social.

The Pure

being a real affirmaThus, in our activity, in our intelligence, in our sensibiUty, there is a pressure which exercises itself in the altruistic sense. There is a force of expansion as powerful as the one which acts on the stars ; and it is this force of expansion which, becoming selfishness, as

tion of

self, is

said, instead of

a mutilation of self

power, gives to

name of

conscious of

its

This, then,

the treasure of natural spontaneousness, which

is life,

is

and which,

But, as

at the

we have

thesis with natural

way as to

restrain

itself

same time,

the

duty;

creates moral wealth.

may find itself in antispontaneousness it may work in such a seen, reflection

;

both the power and the duty of sociability,

CONCLUSION.

when by chance

213

the force of expansion towards others finds

opposition to the force of gravitation to

itself in

struggle for

life

may be diminished by

it

are

frequent in our day.

re-appears

The

under certain circumstances, which In such case, without impera-

lution; still

self.

the progress of evo-

what will urge the individual to definite disand sometimes to self-sacrifice ? Besides these motives, which we have previously examined, and which, under normal conditions, are constantly being brought into action, we have found others, which we called the love of '^physical risk " and the love of " moral risk!' tive

law,

interestedness,

Man is a being fond of speculation practice.

where

—not only

in theory, but in

Neither his thought nor his action stops at the point

A

his certitude ends.

purely speculative hypothesis

can, without danger, be substituted for the categorical law

;

same way, a mere hope can be substituted for dogmatic faith, and action for affirmation. The speculative hypothesis is a risk of the mind the action which conforms in the

;

a risk of the will. The superior being undertakes and risks the most, either by his

to this hypothesis is

he who

is

thought or by his actions.

This superiority springs from a

he has more power. he has a higher duty.

greater treasure of inward force this very reason,

Even the

sacrifice of life

expansion of

life,

;

may

still

which has become

For

be, in certain cases,

an

sufficiently intense to

mere There are hours, as we have seen, possible to say at one and the same time: " I

prefer an impulse of sublime exaltation to years of

grovelling existence. in

which it is have lived."

live; I

physical and moral agonies last for years, one can, so to speak, die to self during a whole existence, the reverse is also true, and it is possible to concentrate a whole life into one moment of love and sacrifice. If certain

and

if

Lastly, in the

act by its

its

same way

that

very power to act,

very action

;

it

for, in acting, it

life

creates

also creates

takes joy in

obligation to

its its its

sanction by

own

capacity.

<> ''^

;

214

MORALITY INDEPENDENT OF OBLIGATION OR SANCTION.

Acting

less, it finds less

Even

more.

in dying

enjoyment

in sacrificing itself

conscious of

it is

acting more,

;

life

it

finds itself again

enjoys ;

even

plenitude, which will reappear

its

elsewhere, indestructible under other forms, since nothing in the

world

To sum can solve

is lost.

up,

—

if

action

it is

not

the power

and

of

entirely, at least partially

life

which alone

— those problems

which abstract thought gives rise. The sceptic, in morality as well as in metaphysics, believes that he deceives to

himself and

all

other?

;

believes that

humanity

will

always

merely a "marking-time." He is wrong. He does not see that our fathers have spared us the very errors into which they fell, and that we will spare those who follow us our own errors ; he does deceive

not see that, after that this itself.

the pretended progress

itself; that

all,

in all errors there

particle of truth

On

is

is

some truth, and and confirms

gradually grows

the other hand, he

who has a dogmatic

faith

believes that he possesses, to the exclusion of all others, the

whole definite and imperative truth. He is wrong. He does not see that errors mingle with every truth, that there is nothing as yet in the thought of man which is perfect enough to be final. The first believes that humanity does not advance ; the second, that it has already arrived at its goal. There is a mean between these two hypotheses we must say to ourselves that humanity is marching forward, :

and we must march forward ourselves. said, is as good as prayer. It is even or, rather, it is

the true prayer

—the true human providence.

Let us act instead of praying.

and

men

Work, as has been better than prayer

Let us have hope only in ourus count on ourselves.

Hope, ahead (providere). The difference between supernatural Providence and natural hope is that the one pretends to directly modify na,ture by supernatural means, like itself; while the other from the^ first modifies only ourselves. It is a force which is not superior selves

in other

like Providence, sees

to us,

but interior

;

;

let

sometimes

it

is

we

far

ourselves

whom

it

carries

CONCLUSION. onward.

It

the world

is

remains to be seen following us,

if

we

thought

Let us go on

carry nature along.

We

if

215 are going alone,

will ever

if

be able to

the same.

all

upon the deck of some great vessel, whose rudder had been torn away by a wave, and whose mast had been broken by the wind. It had been lost on the sea, as our planet was in space. It went on thus at random, driven on by the storm, like a great wreck carrying people neverstand as

if

;

theless,

it

arrived at

perhaps humanity,

which

it

will

This

is

—

will

Perhaps our planet, also arrive at an unknown goal, destination.

have created for

eye looks out for

broken

its

or, rather,

a great

task,

us.

itself.

No hand directs us, no

The rudder has long

there never was one

and

it is

our task.

;

it

since been

has to be made.

fcA"^*h.

V*.