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From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa Contents p. √¤ Foreword A Handbook of pronunciat...

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From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa

Contents p. √¤

Foreword

A Handbook of pronunciation English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto 1

1 16 21 23 28 34 36 37 39 41 46

1. Prelude A synthesis of çNaturalÇ Phonetics “ Tonetics Transcriptions ˛e contents of the HPr (“ of the HPh) Observations on phonetic terminology Guide to the ﬁgures Guide to di‡erent types of transcriptions Transcribing by hand Generic symbols ˛e o‚cial IPA chart canIPA “ correspondent oƒIPA symbols

2. English – American “ British (neutral “ other accents)

123

3. Italian

152

4. French (neutral “ other accents)

186

5. German (neutral “ other accents)

231

6. Spanish – Iberian “ American

257

7. Portuguese – Brazilian “ Lusitanian

282

8. Russian

314

9. Arabic

330

10. Hindi

345

11. Chinese – Mandarin

370

12. Japanese

392

13. Esperanto

413 424 427

Utilizable bibliography Index Language index

From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa

1. Prelude A synthesis of Phonetics “ Tonetics 1.1.1. ©th the aid of some indispensable diagrams (mostly taken from the HPh, but with simpliﬁcations and other modiﬁcations), we will provide the key to adequately use the rich potentialities of Phonetics, with regard to the 12 languages dealt with in this book: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, and Esperanto. Above all we take into consideration voicing, vowels, consonants, and intonation (including tones). For in-depth analyses, the reader is referred to the companion volume HPh (A Handbook of Phonetics). 1.1.2. û 1.1 shows the glottis (which is the space between the vocal folds) and the positions adopted during the phonation types we are interested in. In addition to normal breathing, we have a complete stoppage (¤ the stop (ö), which technically can be neither voiced nor voiceless, but has more a‚nities with the latter type, and will schematically be represented with Ï ), besides voicelessness ((f), Á ) and voicing ((v), Ë ). Furthermore, we also ﬁnd lenis (or lenited] voicelessness and voicing (respectively (É, v), Ù, È ), and mixed phonation (or half-voicing, (Ñ), with three schematic û 1.1. Phonation types and positions of the glottis.

å. breathing

∫. occlusion

(){}

(ö, P)

©. voicelessness

Ï

(f, s, ·)

(É, s, h, ), A)

+

2

Ù

3

+ +

Ÿ. lenis voicing

(v, z, H, ")

ƒ. mixed phonation

∆. creaky voice

(Ca)

Ú

Ë

+

1

™. lenis voicelessness

Á

∂. voicing

(v, z, â, m, a)

(Ñ, Ω, ≈, Ø) {1 Î (pbX ), 2 Í (bpX b), 3 Û (bpX )}: 1 (|'Êa, ap'Êa)÷ 2 (&aÊa'Êa)÷ 3 (aÊ'pa, 'aÊ|)

¤. falsetto

(Úma)

∏

È

2

a handbook of pronunciation

icons, which we will shortly see), where half of the interested phone is voiced, while the other half is voiceless. Generally, the çchoiceÇ –between the three of them– depends on context: after a pause (or silence) or a voiceless C, the ﬁrst half is still voiceless; whereas the second half, which is in contact with voiced phones, is voiced: (Î ), as in German: Bett /'bEt/ ('ÊEt). Instead, before a pause or a voiceless C, the two halves are exchanged: (Û ), as in English: Bed /'bEd/ ('b™;ﬂ). On the other hand, within words or phrases/ sentences, between voiced phones, the central part is the voiceless one, whereas the two margins (each one for a fourth of the total duration) are voiced: (Í ), as in Neapolitan-Italian pronunciation: dato /'dato/ ('dA;√&∂ø). We have added several particulars in û 1.1, where there are two peculiar phonation types, too: creak (Ú ) and falsetto: (∏ ), which are useful for Chinese and Hindi respectively. In § 4.1.7-12 of the HPh, we have explained how to verify and check if çvoiceÇ is û 1.2. Di‡erent phonation types exempliﬁed by some languages: American “ British English (with mediatic British variants); Italian (with two regional variants: Naples “ Rome); French; (Lusitanian) Portuguese; German; (Mandarin) Chinese; Hindi; Japanese.

ÁÙËË

ÁÁËË ËËË

ËËÛ

ÁÙËËË

ÙËÛÁËÁ

('pha;Ù)

('spa;Ù)

('ba;Ù)

('b¤;Ê)

('phl™;I)

('h™;ﬂ&S¤p)

pie

spy

buy

bib

play

headship ({Amer./Brit.} Eng.)

ËÁÁË/ËÏÁË ËËÁÁ/ËËÏÁ

ËÏÁÁË ËËÏÁÁ

('πkTå, 'π∏Tå) ('w¤ks, 'w¤∏s) actor

('Eökça) ('w¤öks) (Brit.)

wicks

actor

wicks (mediatic Brit.)

ÁËËËË ËËËËËËËÁË ËËÁËËÁËËËÁË ÁËËËÈ ('fa:va) fava

(u˙'gwan:to)

(&u˙kan'tan:te)

un guanto

ËÁÁÁÙ

ÁËÁËËÁË

('sud:H, -d:È) ('Es:th, -tÈ)

un cantante

sud

(sa'pe:te) sapete

est

(Ital.)

ËËÁËÁÁËÁÁÁË ËËÙËÁÙËÁÁÙË ËËÈËËÈËËËÈË ÁËÍËËÍË ÁËÈËËÈË (&ilkap'pOt:to)

(&ilk√p'pOt:ùo)

il cappotto

il cappotto (~å)

(&u˙g√n'dan:de)

un cantante (~å)

(s√'Êe;I∂e) sapete (~å)

(sa'be:de) sapete (®µ) (reg.)

ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁËÁÙ ÁÎËÁÙ ÁËÁÁ

ËÛÁÙ

('p¿e) ('p#Å) ('pÎi) ('púÅ) ('p§pa) ('püis)) ('©ÅtX)

('AÓtu)

pied

alto (Lus. Port.)

poids

puis

plat

peuple

prisme

quatre (French)

ÁÙËËË ÎËËËË ËËËÁÎËÁ ÏËËËË ÏËÁÎËËÁ ÛËËÁÎËËÁ ('phaen) ('Êaen)

('li:púIÂ)

('öa:b…)

('öap&ÊIlt)

('ÊE‰k&∂ø‰f)

Pein

lieblich

aber

Abbild

Bergdorf

Bein

(Germ.)

ÁÁËË

ÁÙËËÁÚÚÚ

ÁÁËËËËÁÚÚÚ

ÙËË

ÎËËÁÁÚÚ

ÁÚËÚ

(5p·aÉ)

(—phaÉç2ßøøU)

(5t·¤,2buç2tUU¥)

('1paÉ)

(ÒÊaÉ63q·aË)

(63pa3bå)

pai

paishœu

tingbudœng

bái

báicài

bàba (Chinese)

ÁËËË ÁÙËËË ËËËË ËÈËËË

∏∏∏

ÁÙÁË

('kaan) ('khaan)

('gaan)

('gHaan)

(¿Ú'mì™21)

(3Âi'Âi)

kaan

gaan

ghaan

mãq? (Hindi)

chichi (Japanese)

khaan

1. prelude

3

present or not, depending on vocal-fold vibrations during the productions of phones. û 1.2 shows the various phonation types applied to the 12 HPr languages, only. 1.1.3. As far as vowels are concerned, let us recall that from a phonetic point of view it is more convenient to use the term vocoids, while reserving the more traditional terms for phonemes and graphemes, in addition to more general expositions, as at the beginning of the HPh. û 1.3-5 will help to çreconstructÇ the typical modalities for the production and identiﬁcation of vocoids, or vowel phones, which have three fundamental components that – concisely– are: the fronting and raising of the dorsum (or central part of the tongue), with di‡erent degrees of jaw opening, and di‡erent lip positions, since lip rounding doubles the number of possible vocoids. û 1.3. Orograms with the extreme points for vocoid articulations.

å

π

i

u

û 1.4. Vocogram with the extreme points for vocoid articulations (and corresponding labiograms). u i

å

π

nt ce -cen nt tr ra al ba l ck ba -cen ck tra l fro nt fro rou nt nd e ce cen d nt tra r l ba al ro rou ck u n nd ba cen ded . ck tra ro l ro un u de nd d .

… ¢ È ‘ å a

0

1

2

M [*] û [ï] X [Ú] x [¢] √ ∏ A å 3

4

Y y è Y [∏] ° [π] # [œ] § [ì] π 5

6

% T + ê @ ∏

¯ ¨ P Ö ∏ ù

u U o ø O Ø

7

8

9

high (å)

≥ ©¬øß™ lower-high (∫) higher-mid (©) lower-mid (∂)

≥ µ¤∂

Û˙…˙M

Y˙{%˙¯}

higher-low (™) ≥ øπ™~ low (ƒ) y˙{%˙¯}˙u

= +

Û ¤ Ù É Ä Å

±

fro

i I e ™ E π

= ±

i

≠

fro

nt

û 1.5. Vocoid classiﬁcation (with labiograms of high vocoids).

Furthermore, û 1.6 will complete our general view, by providing all possible vocoids, in orograms which contain a miniature vocogram, in order to help to see

4

a handbook of pronunciation

û 1.6. Vocoid orograms.

unrounded

i

Û

…

M

{{*}}

I

¤

¢

û

{{ï}}

e

Ù

È

X

{{Ú}}

™

É

‘

x

{{¢}}

E

Ä

å

√

∏

π

Å

a

A

å

rounded

Y

y

%

¯

u

è

Y

T

¨

U

{{∏}}

°

+

P

o

{{π}}

#

ê

Ö

ø

{{œ}}

§

@

∏

O

{{ì}}

π

∏

ù

Ø

1. prelude

5

nuances and di‡erences better. For vocoids, voicing is the normal type, so much so because voicelessness is considered to be the marked characteristic. Also the addition of possible nasalization is considered marked (Ô û 1.7; in § 11.17 of the HPh we explain how to verify and check exactly how nasalized vocoids are produced). For the eight vocoids which appear without any grey background, and with symbols in double brackets, no language has been found that uses them systematically. û 1.8 shows the various lip positions, by means of labiograms. û 1.7. Oral (or normal) vocoids and nasalized vocoids.

i

a

u

i

Å

u

û 1.8. Labiograms for the di‡erent vocoids. spread

neutral (or normal)

half-round(ed)

vertically rounded

round(ed)

i

Û … M {{*}}

{¨ ˚ W}

Y {% ¯}

y {% ¯} u

I

¤ ¢ û {{ï}}

{Ù : w}

è {T ¨}

Y {T ¨} U

e

Ù È X {{Ú}}

{È , „}

{{∏}} {+ P}

° {+ P} o

™

É ‘ x {{¢}}

{Í Ï ∑}

{{π}} {ê Ö}

# {ê Ö} ø

E

Äå√∏

{É † ,}

{{œ}} {@ ∏}

§ {@ ∏} O

π

ÅaAå

{Ω Ä a}

{{ì}} {∏ ù}

π {∏ ù} Ø

1.1.4. Also for consonants we follow a more scientiﬁc terminology, which deﬁnes the consonantal phones as contoids, while reserving the more traditional terms for phonemes and graphemes, in addition to more general expositions. ˛e three fundamental components for the production and identiﬁcation of contoids are: manners and places of articulation, and phonation types. ˛e latter are extremely useful for contoids, since –depending on whether voicing is present or not– they double their number, for distinctive –or phonemic– purposes, as of-

6

a handbook of pronunciation

ten happens with (t, d÷ c, G÷ f, v), which then form diphonic pairs, which are distinguished only by the di‡erent type of phonation. ˛ere are seven fundamental manners of articulation: nasal, stop, stop-strictive, constrictive, approximant, trill, lateral. Traditionally (in spite of an actual and objective di‚culty, instead of the clearer articulatory terms that we use), some terms of auditory origin, such as ça‡ricateÇ for stop-strictive or çfricativeÇ for constrictive, are still widespread. Depending on languages, some internal subdivisions are possible, as that between grooved (constrictive and stopstrictive) contoids, which are marked in comparison with the simple –slit– ones, from which they can be distinguished by the addition of a groove along the longitudinal part of the tongue. For instance, (s, z÷ S, Z÷ q, Q÷ c, G) are grooved articulations. Another important subdivision applies to trills, such as (r, K), which consist in two rapid tappings (respectively of the tip of the tongue or of the uvula), and taps, such as (R, ç), with just one tapping. Also ﬂaps are possible, such as ([, ®), which produce a rapid contact in passing to a fronter position, as can be seen from the illustration (û 1.14.3). û 1.9-15 present, according to the seven manners (with further internal subdivisions), the contoid articulations found in dealing with the 12 languages described in é 2-13, including the variants indicated. ˛is is why we call them çHPr conû 1.9.1. Nasal contoids. ˝ )/m

/[

/m

/M

/‹

˝ /M

/“

/"

/M

/˙

/n

˝ £/n

/N

/¸

/º

/ª

/n

“ /n

˝ /N

/n

/˝

/~

/√

˝ /N

/∞

/”

˝ /˙

/Ñ

/\

/û

/m

˝ /,

1. prelude

7

toidsÇ, in order to recall both the completeness of the HPr (in itself), and that these consonantal articulations are not the only existing ones. Rather, since there are çonlyÇ 200 in comparison with the 462 given in the HPh, they are less than half (again, of course, considering them as mere çarticulationsÇ, since potentially each one may produce a diphonic pair, with two distinct elements because of the addition of voicing. As a matter of fact, they almost double the actual number of phones; there are 283 in the HPr, but 772 in the HPh).

/M

/∫

/π

/«

û 1.9.2. Semi-nasal contoids. /n

˝ p/b

(/{

Q/Á

p/b

]/7

˝ t/d

t/d

4/7

T/D

B/∫

˝ ˛/Ã

T/D

t/d

+/_

˝ ©/á

£/8

´/Ò

˝ k/g

$/¢

û 1.10. Stop contoids.

˝ ›/

˝ ö

˝ p/

˝ ∫/

˝ ‡/ƒ

./…

˝ k/›

%/

∞/

˝ w/

k/

û 1.11.1.å. (∫at) stop-strictive contoids.

˝ ∑/

8

a handbook of pronunciation

û 1.11.1.∫. Grooved stop-strictive contoids. ˝ q/Q

˝ q/Q

ç/Ç

˝ ﬁ/"

C/‚

˝ c/G

&/1

˝ C/G

c/g

v/∆

⁄/Á

˝ Â/©

û 1.11.2. (Grooved and ﬂat) stop-semi-strictive contoids.

ú/∂

˜/

º/Ÿ

å/6

˝ f/v

5/ç

f/v

w/W

˝ †/∑

/D

Q/z

/ï

/ø

˝ Â/J

…/

¢/Ú

˝ x/Ÿ

/)

˝ X/º

û 1.12.1.å. (∫at) constrictive contoids.

˝ h/

·

˝ s/z

˝ s/z

†/Ã

ß/ﬁ

˝ ß/Ω

∑/

ë/ò

˝ S/Z

«/»

X/5

x/ç

‹/¶

./÷

//\

S/q

À/=

˝ ¿/B

û 1.12.1.∫. Grooved constrictive contoids.

1. prelude

9

û 1.12.2. (Grooved and ﬂat) semi-constrictive contoids.

ƒ/√

ﬂ/∂

∂/d

À/ö

»/«

/,

/y

/m

û 1.13.1. Approximant contoids. ˝ F/B

/ñ

˝ /V

/¶

/◊

Ï/ƒ

≈/¸

/⁄

˝ â/j

˝ /¥

˝ /µ

/°

∆/V

˝ W/w

˜/˜

x/‰

˝ /H

˝ h

+

˝ H

∆

û 1.13.2. Semi-approximant contoids.

/b

/d

/ã

/%

/F

/Æ

/=

/j

û 1.13.3. Lateralized approximant contoids.

/S ˝ />

+

+

/Ã

+

/˛

+ /‰

/¸

+

/Í

+

+ ˝ /<

ù,§ semilateral approximants ‰ semiapproximant

+

/ù

+ /<

+

/§

+

10

a handbook of pronunciation

“ /5

˝ /r

/5

{/D

û 1.14.1. Trill contoids.

˝ '/K

º/˜

˝ /R

“ /R

˝ /e

/R

û 1.14.2. Tap contoids. [/ç

3/r

û 1.14.3. ∫ap contoids.

+ Ó/[

r/m

/®

{V}/e

û 1.15.1. (Bi)lateral contoids (and two semilateral (ù, ))).

+

/R

/l ˝ /ı ˝ /$ ˝ /L

+

+

+ /Ï

+

+

/l

+

˝ /ı

Ñ/¬

/L

+ /ù

+

+

/)

+

+

û 1.15.2. Unilateral contoids.

/÷

/ô

û 1.15.3. Lateral tap contoids.

+

+

+ /¯

˝ /¬

+ +

/∞

/]

+

˝ a/l

+

+ /»

In û 1.9-15, some orograms are marked with an eight-point asterisk; they indicate the few articulations which actually correspond to the canonical or o‚cial ones. Near those marked with ç“Ç another slightly di‡erent articulation appears, which however is represented with the same symbol. In these synopses, very precise symbols are given, in order to satisfactorily couple articulations and symbols,

1. prelude

11

although for some of them more common symbols can then be used (as can be seen in § 10.2-8 of the HPh]˘ In addition, û 1.16-7, with their labiograms, dorsograms and palatograms, are the necessary help to distinguish –and observe well– all the nuances, which contribute to di‡erentiate the contoids given there.

≠

=+

û 1.16.1. (Two perspectives of) consonant labiograms. ± m˙p˙b

M˙f˙v

S˙Z˙c˙G

≠

≠

+

[˙(˙{

= ±

±

±

+ +

±

w˙u

«˙»˙&˙1

ë˙ò˙C˙‚

j˙i

û 1.16.2. Further consonant labiograms (only front view). s˙z˙q˙Q

t˙d

l

n

r

R

L

N˙Â

k˙g˙˙˙x

¿˙B˙Â˙©

û 1.16.3. Consonant orograms with di‡erent labial positions.

ë

S

¿/B

«

û 1.17. Consonant dorsograms and palatograms. grooved constr.

ﬂat consrtict.

approximant

(appr.) lateral

s, z÷ ß, Ω÷ S, Z

†, ∑÷ Â, J÷ x, Ÿ

¸, j, w

l, {L}

†, ∑

s, z

S, Z

T, D

(appr.) unilateral constr. unilat.

‡, ƒ

l

ô

!, ¡

ô

!, ¡

q, Q

c, G

12

a handbook of pronunciation @

@

@

å 6

F B b

> fv 5 ç

ƒ √

V¶

Ñ M ö >) m[ mM‹M p ( p ] F > 7≥ @ b { b ∫ p

`

@

Ô

&

ƒ



_

`

´

ß

ã

ó

˘

Â

‰

„

‹

Æ æ

S " ˙ n t 4 >d 7

>‡ƒ

q q QQ

f w† v W ∑ > ﬂ∂ > sz sz > ∂d Ï ◊ > ƒ d Ã

l R

ç Ç

∫ > £n N ¸ º ª n t T B d D≥ ∫ . ≥ … ˛

ﬁ > " ú > ∂

Ã

»

ø

Í > ˛

e ®

π [n] N

ß > Ω

Q D z≥

† ß Ã ﬁ≥

⁄

ù § 5

R V ≥ e

ı ∞ l $ ] ÷

≈≥ ¸

¸ [5] [5] r

[R] [R] R Ó ≥ [ r m≥ a [Ï] l ≥

ô ¬

n [T] [t] [D] [d]

Cc & C cv ‚G 1Gg∆

~ + _

⁄Â ≥ Á©

> {D

> [ç

>Ñ¬

∑ ë S « X x ‹ . / S À ¿ >ò Z »5 ç ¶ ÷ \ q = B À » > ö «

¯ L

« n √N∞ ” ˙ Ñ \m , k › >© £ ´ ≥ ≥ á 8 Ò g k% ∞ w ∑k > › ˜ > ºŸ

Â … >J ,

> âj 3 ¥ ã % F

L

¢ Ú

< x >Ÿ ) ym

∆W µ ° V w≥ = j

ı

X º

ö

h·

Ñ ö

F

`

@

Ô

&

ƒ

´



ß

_

> ˜˜ x‰ H hH ∆

ã

ó

˘

Â

‰

`

< ' K≥ º ≥ ˜ 3≥ r „

‹

Æ æ

û 1.18. Table of the contoids dealt with in the HPr. (@ indicates an çintermediateÇ articulation manner not present here, Ô é 10 of the HPh.]

bilabial bilabial rounded palatalized bilabial uvularized bilabial labiodentalized bilabial labiodental labiodental rounded postalveolariz. labiodental r. palatalized labiodental uvularized labiodental pro-dental dental denti-alveolar velarized dental uvularized dental alveolar alveo–bilabial labiodentalized alveolar alveolar semi-rounded semi-paltaliz. alveolar semi-r. velarized alveolar velarized alveolar rounded uvularized alveolar postalveolar postalveolar rounded velarized postalveolar postalveo-palatal (lowered tip) postalveo-palatal protruded postalveo-palatal over-rounded postalveo-palatal (raised tip) postalveo-palatal protruded postalveo-palatal over-rounded postalveo-prevelar postalveo-prevelar protruded postalveo-velar protruded prepalatal bilabialized prepalatal labiodentalized prepalatal palatal postpalatal postpalatal rounded prevelar postalveolariz. prevelar round. provelar provelar rounded velar velar rounded labiodentalized velar velar–bilabial velar–alveolar uvulo-postalveolariz. velar r. uvular pharyngealized uvular pharyngeal laryngeal laryngeal rounded

1. prelude

13

Obviously, the total possible places of articulation are far more numerous than those needed for our 12 languages. For each of them, in the respective chapter, a table is given, which contains all the necessary contoids (and deﬁnitions) for the neutral pronunciation of every single language. However, the table in û 1.18 provides these contoids (except 7 complex coarticulations, which appear among the orogram synopses, though), for a useful overall comparison. û 1.19 “ û 1.20 show the mechanisms of three particular types of explosion: lateral, nasal, and inaudible, respectively for a stop followed by a homorganic lateral or nasal contoid, or else by another di‡erent contoid, with an intermediate phase, made up of an'articulation with two simultaneous occlusions. û 1.19. Lateral (å) “ nasal (∫) explosions.

(å) tl, tÍ, t® ((Tæl, TæÍ, Tæı))

û 1.20. Inaudible explosion.

pt ((pæT))

(∫) tn, tó ((Tæn, Tæó))

kt ((kæT))

1.1.5. Intonation is the most evasive aspect of languages and (perhaps because of this) it is generally very badly and superﬁcially dealt with, that is when it is not completely neglected (which would, sometimes, be preferable – rather than causing damage, or simply confusing readers). In this synthesis, û 1.21-3 will help us to present intonation, without useless –absurd and harmful– complications. In fact, without scaring (but also without ba·ing or disorienting anyone), û 1.21 very intuitively shows the normal pitch movements, in neutral British pronunciation, of the four intonemes of English and the two most frequent preintonemes (of its four). An intonation group includes a given number of syllables (formed by phones/phonemes – so they are phono-syllables), which are combined in order to constitute some rhythm groups, made up of the words occurring in a particular utterance. 1

2

3

See you on Satur day. se e you on d a y? [Wi ll I] Sat ur [∑y won't they]

4

û 1.21. Iconic tono-graphic examples.

see you on Sat urday?

[If I

don't] see you total di on Sat d ay… [it'll be a sa s te r.] ur

[If I

don't] see you worry a on Sa t urd ay… [don't bout it.]

5

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a handbook of pronunciation

˛e most normal and frequent intonation group is composed of two parts: a preintoneme and an intoneme. Obviously, the preintoneme precedes the intoneme, which concerns the last strong stress of the intonation group. ˛ere are three marked intonemes: conclusive /./, interrogative /?/, and suspensive /÷/. A fourth unmarked –continuative /,/– intoneme completes the inventory. ˛e ﬁrst two, as shown by the ﬁrst two examples in û 1.21, are respectively used to state or to ask something. ˛is kind of question is deﬁned a total question, because the answer –which regards the whole question, in its totality– must be Yes or No (or Perhaps, I don't know, Â]˘ 1.1.6. Our third example is a partial question, because it inquires about why (by taking the rest for granted, or known) and its answer cannot be simply Yes or No. ˛us, there is only one part of the question, which is the one marked by the interrogative word (such as: when, why, where, what, who, how, Â]˘ As can be seen from the movements in the third example, the intoneme that has to be used, in partial questions, is not the interrogative one at all (as, however, schools lead us to believe, with their grammars, and even the recordings of language-teaching courses!). On the contrary, the appropriate intoneme is a conclusive one, whereas its preintoneme is actually interrogative indeed. As a matter of fact, a statement like ∑en you come back again (as an answer to a question like ∑en will you tell us about it?) is intonationally di‡erent, from the very start, from ∑en'll you come back again? In fact, even before hearing /®/ (Í) 'll, which is the only syntactical di‡erence, we can perceive that /'wEn/ (5w™n:) is already di‡erent in the two examples, because in the question it has a slightly rising pitch movement (while in the statement it is level), as can be seen from û 1.23. ˛e interrogative preintoneme begins with /¿ / (¿ ), whereas the normal one has no particular symbol. (Here the space after the isolated symbol helps to identify the preintoneme; but in actual examples it does not appear at all.) ˛e statement can di‡er also because it may have a slightly weaker stress and di‡erent pitch: (&w™n) up to (w™n), and to /wÈn/ (wûn) as well (with a clear segmental change). Here are the transcriptions of both sentences (including assimilatory coarticulation for /n/ (~) + heterosyllabic /j/, while /-n® j-/ = (-nÍ j-), as a compromise): ∑en you come back again (5w™~: j¯&khåm'bπk û'g™n:3 3), (&w™~5j¯;u, w™~5j¯;u, wû~5j¯;u), and ∑en'll you come back again? (¿5w™nÍ j¯&khåm'bπk û'g™n:3 3). (As some readers might have observed, in our inter(dia)phonemic transcription of English, we use both /l/ and /ı/, although they are not in opposition, (l, ı); whereas, an intraphonemic kind of transcription would give only /l/, with (l, ı). Instead, we also have /®/ (®, Í), the latter occurring before /é/ or /j/. Our transcription is diaphonemic too, since it also shows di‡erences between American and British English, as for instance in no /'nOU/ ('n‘;¨)a ('nø;¨)b.) ˛e last two examples illustrate the suspensive intoneme, /÷/, which is used to draw attention to what one is going to say (or not to say) in a kind of suspense, and the continuative one, /,/, which instead does not produce this e‡ect, as it simply divides the utterance (just in order to continue). ˛is is done either to avoid strings which are too long, or to subdivide them into parts which present semantic cohesion between the elements of each group, in comparison with those of another group.

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15

û 1.22. ˛e four neutral intonemes of British English.

conclusive /./ (2 ' 3 3) >6≥

interrogative /?/ (2 ' 2 1) >•≥

suspensive /÷/ (2 ' 3 2) >¶≥

û 1.23. Two neutral preintonemes of British English. normal //()§@

continuative /,/ (2 ' 2) §'@ interrogative /¿ / (¿ ) §¿ @

1.1.7. We can now carefully see (or see again) the tonograms of the intonemes and preintonemes given in û 1.22-3. ˛is is also useful to run trials in order to check how much we approach –or not– what is shown there, depending on our own spontaneous pronunciation, which may be more or less regional. It is likely that the major di‡erences exist for the suspensive intoneme, which is the most varied and çimaginativeÇ one. In é 2-13 we always also give the imperative, /¡ /, and emphatic, /˚ /, preintonemes. ˛ese are respectively used, above all, to give orders, to curse… or to exclaim, declare… Lastly, let us observe that a continuative intoneme can substitute a conclusive one, when it is needed to attenuate the impact of the latter, in order to be less abrupt, or nicer, as also happens in partial questions addressed to strangers, such as ∑at's the time? or ∑at's your name?, or How much does it cost? For many other things, including paraphonics (which concerns states of mind, attitudes…), it is necessary to refer the readers to the HPh or MaPI. We simply add û 1.24, that shows pitch modiﬁcations in (low or mid) parentheses and in quotations, that occur in the text of †e North Wind and the Sun, which we have used for the transcriptions given at the end of each chapter (before possible appendixes, as for English and French). û 1.24. Tonograms of parentheses and quotations.

low parenthesis: (ì œ) /ì œ/ mid parenthesis: (‘ ’) /‘ ’/ quotation: (^ Œ) /^ Œ/

1.1.8. û 1.25 helps us understand the relationship tone languages have with intonation. As a matter of fact, the di‡erent tones (which are the realizations of particular tonemes, such as those of Chinese, for instance) obviously have their own peculiar characteristics, as can be seen from û 1.26. ˛erefore, intonation is added to the existing tones, by modifying them in preintonemes, according to what is shown in û 1.25. In the tonograms there, the grey parts indicate how the preintonemes slightly deform lexical pitches (by delimiting the available extents). In comparison with an emphatic preintoneme, /˚ /, the normal one, / /, is more compressed towards the middle part; an interrogative, /¿ /, is raised, whereas an imperative one, /¡ /, is falling.

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Obviously, also in intonemes there are some (even greater, Ô û 13.9 of the HPh) modiﬁcations, which are indicated by the corresponding tonograms, for Chinese and Japanese (é 11-2; or in the phonosyntheses of the HPh, for the various tone languages given there). Naturally, what has been presented here about intonation holds for the languages treated, with all due di‡erences –at a tonetic level– which are indicated by possible observations and respective tonograms. ˛ese sections might seem to be too short, but in actual fact, they provide all that is needed, whenever one adequately knows the tonetic method, which is an integral –and necessary– part of the phonetic method (within natural phonetics). ˛e tonemic symbols, /¿ ¡ ˚ . ? ÷ ,/, can be applied to all languages, since intonation functions are shared, although their actual tonetic realizations are extremely di‡erent, as can be seen in the individual tonograms given. û 1.25. ˛e four preintonemes for tone languages. / / ( ) ((” ))

/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ ))

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» ))

/˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ ))

û 1.26. ˛e four basic ton(em)es of (Mandarin) Chinese.

1 /5/ (5) >1≥

2 /•/ ('1) >Q≥

3 /¶/ (ç2) >5≥

4 /6/ (63) >Z≥

Transcriptions 1.2.1. ‹en it comes to analyzing the pronunciation of a language, for learning or teaching purposes, it is necessary to use two fundamental types of transcription: phonetic and phonemic. Both of them must start from real interlinguistic strategies, rather than from intralinguistic considerations. In fact, an intralinguistic transcription has the sole aim to be used for just one language and –above all– for native speakers. ˛erefore, it is limited to what is merely phonemic, without concerning comparisons with other languages. All this is quite legitimate, though, when no connection with other languages is felt necessary. In this case, even very generic symbols may be used, provided each phoneme has a di‡erent symbol from those of all other phonemes. In theory, it could be su‚cient to transcribe the English diphthongs (Ii, ™I, aÙ, øÙ, aÖ, ‘¨/ø¨, ¯u/Uu) (here American variants appear after a slash), simply as ç/i:, e:, ai, oi, au, o: u:/Ç (if not even as ç/ij, ej, aj, oj, aw, ow, uw/Ç). According to this way of thinking, German (ae, ao, OY) are çrightlyÇ indicated as ç/aj, aw, oj/Ç, or even Spanish or Italian (ai, au) as ç/aj, aw/Ç.

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1.2.2. However, it is immediately clear that –dealing with descriptions and teaching– indications such as ç/aj, aw/Ç are rarely faithful and highly misleading, for such di‡erent realities as English (aÙ, aÖ) (with centralized and non-high second elements), German (ae, ao) (with peripheral and non-high second elements), and Spanish or Italian (ai, au) (with peripheral and decidedly high second elements). Besides, transcribing German (OY) as ç/oj/Ç would mean completely ignoring (or concealing) the fact that –in neutral pronunciation– also the second element is rounded (and neither fully high nor front). For English it would be desirable –once and for all– not to continue to conceal the evident fact that not only are (™I, ‘¨/ø¨) real diphthongs, but that (Ii, ¯u/Uu) are diphthongs too. Instead, interphonemic transcriptions seek to take into proper consideration the characteristics of each language, even though within a less rich and less precise symbol inventory, which is however capable of using the similarities and di‡erences among the various languages in a better way. ˛erefore, we have: English /aE, aO/, German /ae, ao/, Spanish or Italian /ai, au/. A careful analysis of the vocograms in é 3 “ 5 will surely explain the notational di‡erence between English and German. To complete the series given above, we have English /Ii, EI, OE, OU, Uu/, and German /OY/. 1.2.3. ˛e most e‡ective phonetic transcriptions are the taxophonic ones. ˛ey resort to every useful symbol (among the available ones for the di‡erent phones: vocoids and contoids) and all the most precise prosodic elements, in order to manage to show the necessary nuances. Only in this way is it possible to make real and valid comparisons between di‡erent pronunciations, either regarding di‡erent languages or di‡erent areas for the same language. Otherwise, everything becomes approximate and deﬁnitely less useful, since people may think they are working well, while generally they are simply deceiving themselves. Even excessive simpliﬁcations, to help learners, are not the best solution in order to teach–learn pronunciation really well. For instance, when English phoneticians continue to use (È) even in more accurate transcriptions (perhaps with diacritics), for all occurrences of /È/ (and perhaps ç/ÈU/Ç too), they miss the opportunity to show reality, as when to go˚ the man˚ further˚ are rendered as ç(tÈ'gÈU, ∑È'mπn, 'f‘:∑È) (or ('fÈ:∑È))Ç in British pronunciation, instead of actual (Tû'g‘;¨, ∑È'mπ;n, 'f‘;∑å) (as happens to the quite often reported cases of ç(i:, u:)Ç for (Ii, ¯u/Uu)). 1.2.4. ˛erefore, for those who use several languages, but also for those who utilize one foreign language only, the most recommendable phonemic transcriptions are the interphonemic ones, because they use symbols in a less arbitrary way. In fact, they do not ﬂatten reality, by only showing what is functional, but compare di‡erent languages better, by considering similarities and di‡erences as well. In Japanese, it is certainly better to use /M/ rather than ç/u/Ç, even if there is no possibility of confusing them, since this language has no /u/. However, the use of /M/ highlights the di‡erences from other languages which do have /u/. ˛e kind of diaphonemic transcription is important, as well. It generally rests on an interphonemic basis, although an intraphonemic basis is possible, too (but

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with all the imperfections that this inevitably implies). diaphonemes are fundamental to transcribe partially di‡erent accents of the same language simultaneously. In fact, by using a sole kind of transcription and occupying less space, it calls to mind that there are di‡erences and indicates systematic variations (with no need to repeat the same words but only change the symbols of the parts that really di‡er). In this way, for instance, /Uu, OU/ represent (and trace back to) (¯u, ‘¨) (Br.) and (Uu, ø¨) (Am.): two /'tUu/ ('Th¯;u, 'ThU;u), go /'gOU/ ('g‘;¨, 'gø;¨). Equally we have: /π;/ for (A:) (Br.) and for (π) (Am.): last /'lπ;st/ ('lA;sT, 'lπsT); or /Ø;/ for (Ø) (Br.) and for (O:) (Am.): lost /'lØ;st/ ('lØsT, 'lO;sT); and /ù, ≤/ in /'lEùÈ≤/ for ('l™Tå) (Br.) or for ('l™m≥) (Am.). 1.2.5. ‹atever the phonemic transcription used, to go on to the phonetic one (and then to an adequate pronunciation) each distinctive element –¤ each phoneme– must be considered as one of a given number of ﬁxed points in the phonemic space, either vocalic or consonantal, of a certain language. Each of these points, or elements, is necessarily di‡erent from all the others because of its function, and is also di‡erent from a çzero occurrenceÇ. For instance, /π/ is di‡erent from /I/, or from /Ø/, Â, but it is di‡erent from /`/ too. As a matter of fact, beat /'bIit/ di‡ers from heat /'hIit/, but they are also di‡erent from eat /'Iit/ (or //'`Iit//, to show the relationship more clearly). Even the opposite process –¤ the decoding of an oral message– is carried out according to these principles. Each phone of a given utterance –depending on the global meaning and the speaker's phonic system as well– must be assigned to an agreed phoneme (as a realization of it). ˛en this has to be placed into a speciﬁc phonemic space, as already said. 1.2.6. It is important to keep in mind the di‡erence between phonemes, phones, and sounds. phonemes have a distinctive value within a given language, since it can change the meaning of words, as for instance: (I can) read /'
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19

these languages use the dental type instead). A phone has the function to maintain consistency between the elements of a given pronunciation: it is substance. 1.2.7. On the other hand, sounds have their value exclusively in transmission, their function being to enable human communication through sound waves. ˛erefore, a sound is a single emission, in practice unrepeatable even by the same person. It can oscillate quite a bit, often producing quite di‡erent realizations: it is matter. As can be seen in § 2.4 of the HPh, one way to allude to the fact that actual sounds are always a bit di‡erent would be to represent them with di‡erent fonts: o, o, o, o… In conclusion, many di‡erent –yet similar– sounds constitute a single phone. ˛en, in the context of a particular language, several phones, not wholly identical (but with the alternation governed by ﬁxed and systematic rules, which can and should be discovered and then explained simply and completely), constitute a phoneme. ˛e phones referred to by a given phoneme are called taxophones (or combinatory phones, or çallophonesÇ {a more ambiguous and less advisable term, since it implies modiﬁcations not necessarily due to combination, but simply any sort of di‡erence, for any reason, whether general or random}). Sometimes, in the course of listening to recorded materials, certain sounds still need to be disregarded in the process of constructing the phonetic inventory of that language. ˛is is because it is possible for single speakers to occasionally produce sounds presenting abnormal deviations, whereas it is essential to consider mainly what is more typical and frequent. 1.2.8. ˛erefore, actual sounds are practically inﬁnite, and phonetics and phonology would be decidedly complex if it were not possible to rely on the systematicity of phones. In fact, the set of phones is the result of a past classiﬁcation and structuring of sounds (abstracting from the unrepeatability of the same sound). ˛is set allows us to reach recognizable types, which can in turn be represented through precise phonetic symbols, regardless of any particular language. ˛us, what is similar in di‡erent languages and dialects is realized by phones and their symbols, which make it possible to compare di‡erent languages (an essential point in order to be able to learn and describe those languages). ˛erefore, the phonemic representation of single languages necessarily uses a selection of (phonemic) symbols, with distinctive functions and purposes, even if –of course– some symbols may be the same but with rather di‡erent phonetic values. ˛us plain phonemic symbols (generally chosen among the most common, as the o‚cial IPA ones, ¤ International Phonetic Alphabet, or oƒIPA), do not represent pronunciation exactly, but rather the relationships between the phonemes of a given language. ˛ey are useful for the speciﬁc purpose of keeping the current writing system distinct from the phonic level. ˛erefore, phonemic transcriptions make it possible to avoid interference deriving from not knowing orthographic çrulesÇ, or from

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the inconsistency of these rules. However the exact pronunciation, for purposes of learning and teaching, can only be shown with the careful, consistent, and systematic (because normalized] transcriptions of a phonetic alphabet such as canIPA. 1.2.9. In the books which do not completely ignore it, intonation is usually treated after vowels, consonants, and stress (and other prosodic characteristics, such as length) – this is due to the greater di‚culties involved in describing intonation. However, intonation should not be ignored, or relegated to the end in teaching˚ since it is inseparable –in actual language– from the other elements. ˛erefore, phonetic transcriptions, in the strict sense of the word, simplify reality a bit by indicating it only partially; in fact, it is as if they indicated –in any case– a continuative intoneme, as in Italian ('tan:to2), ('tEm:po2), (a˙'ko:Ra2). (˛e dot at medium height indicates the presence of intonation, even though of an unmarked type. ˛e symbol (:) denotes length.) However, in tonetic and phonotonetic transcriptions, the notation (') represents not only stress but also a mid-range pitch (both in the context of tones and in that of intonation) – it is thus in contrast with other signs such as (5), (ç), (6), (¶), Â. ˛e examples given –also in the chapters on the 12 languages– are of a phonetic type, with possible durations, but without intonation. For instance, to a French transcription like (pÅ'ºi) /pa'Ki/ Paris we will have to add an adequate pitch, as if it were –say– in a conclusive intoneme. ˛us, we ought to have at least (pÅçºi) (since another slight di‡erence exists, Ô § 4.3.5). However, the low pitch on (çºi) depends on its occurring in the stressed syllable of a conclusive intoneme; thus, in actual fact, we ought to transcribe it as (pÅçºi3 3), that gives us intonational information, which has to be added when necessary (as for a conclusive intoneme), provided we already fully know the intonation characteristics of the language. 1.2.10. ˛erefore, it is certainly useful to have –right at the very beginning of the study of the pronunciation of a language– at least an idea of the pitch movements of that language. One ought to manage to (re)produce them adequately and be able to ﬁnd their tonograms again easily, whenever they are useful (regardless of laziness and the illusion one does not need them). However, by indicating pitch in transcriptions of isolated words, for non-tone languages (which simply means çwithout any ton(em)esÇ, certainly not çwithout intonationÇ!), people could be led to think that all stressed syllables of French are low-pitched – whereas the other French intonemes and preintonemes are not so. ˛erefore, in conclusion, a realistic solution to the problem states that, for all non-tone languages, intonation is marked only in sentences, which are given as examples of actual utterances. On the contrary, for tone languages (although, again, intonation is not generally given), it is necessary, instead, to show all the ton(em)es, since they are a part of the phonemic system itself, which is distinctive, not of intonation (although both ton{em}es and intonation rely on pitch). As a matter of fact, tonemes are real phonemes (not at the segmental –but su-

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prasegmental– level), as can be seen from the examples associated with û 1.26: (5ma) /5ma/ ma çmotherÇ, ('1ma) /•ma/ má çhempÇ, (ç2maa) /¶ma/ m∑ çhorseÇ, (63ma) /6ma/ mà çscold, curseÇ˘ (In é 11, we will see that Mandarin Chinese also has a çzeroÇ toneme and very important taxotones, too.) ˛e contents of the HPr (“ of the HPh) 1.3.1. ˛e HPr is about applied phonetics, since (as has been said in § 1.1.1) it gives accurate and fairly extended descriptions of 12 languages (¤ English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, {Mandarin} Chinese, Japanese, and Esperanto) by putting into practice what is explained in the HPh. We thus include the crucial phonemic component –constituted by functional phonetics– which is realized with phonemic transcriptions given together with phonetic transcriptions, so as to show the relationship between phonemes and phones˘ Together with these two types of notation, the o‚cial spelling of each language is provided (or a transliteration in the case of the four Asian languages). Spelling is given last, so that it will interfere as little as possible with the e‚cacy of the phonetic method and the associated transcriptions – thus the reader will come upon the spelling only after having ﬁxed in mind the phonic structures. As will be seen, pronunciation variants are also given, and these will be worth studying. Natural phonetics is an artistic science, and the best way to extend its rich potential concretely (after the necessary fundamental premises) is through applying its techniques and knowledge to languages which are in great demand for teaching–learning. In fact, these languages can be taught to others, or they can be self-taught (while remembering that, in order to teach adequately, it is necessary to have learned well ﬁrst). ˛erefore, it is best to begin the course of phonetic analysis with one's own language. ˛e language one speaks is frequently a regional variant, more or less strongly marked. Consequently, it is important to understand how neutral pronunciation operates and how it di‡ers from one's own pronunciation. ˛is method helps to build consciousness of one's own speech patterns. ˛ese patterns can then be compared with those of the neutral pronunciation, which exists in every language of culture, even though speakers and society rarely have a consistent and precise idea of what it is. 1.3.2. In every society, at least when there is a written language and literary production, a neutral pronunciation exists, which is the pronunciation used by professionals in public speaking (particularly actors, presenters, and announcers of high quality). ˛e Danish linguist Otto Jespersen declared that the èbest¶ language is spoken when the social and regional origin of the speaker are least obvious. Neutral pronunciation brings this çmiracleÇ to pass, sometimes even to the point of making the identiﬁcation of social and regional origin completely impossible. ˛e çsupportersÇ of regional pronunciations, who encourage individuals to

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maintain their çgenuineÇ pronunciation (even when they carry out çpublicÇ professions), deceive –themselves as well– because of their lack of success in bettering their own pronunciation (a task which would have required commitment and persistence). In other cases, they fail to understand the importance of being able to free themselves from a heavy burden (often extremely distasteful to the individual in question, at least on an unconscious level), all the while without renouncing their origins or identity. In fact, regional origins can be exhibited more e‡ectively by alternating between one's dialect and the national language (competently, and above all by choice). ˛e least preferable approach is to remain prisoners of an uncontrollable hybrid, which is neither the o‚cial language nor a local dialect. In Italy and the German-speaking countries, dialects di‡er largely not only in terms of pronunciation but also of grammar and vocabulary too; in fact dialect –rigorously speaking– refers (or should refer) to these other di‡erences, while accent predominantly involves di‡erences in pronunciation. In the other 12 chapters of the HPr, therefore, we will apply the phonetic method, which consists of a careful and rigorous comparison of the phonemes˚ phones˚ and intonation of the languages described, listening to good audio recordings, using the two types of transcription (etic and emic), analyzing the phonetic ﬁgures, and showing commitment. ˛e last quality is clearly indispensable: it is not enough simply to want to know – a sustained e‡ort to learn according to an e‡ective method is also required. 1.3.3. It is very important to attain greater precision in identifying and representing the true realizations of each phoneme. ˛is task therefore implies phonetic transcription with the aid of a symbol inventory endowed with a su‚cient number of taxophones, so as to be able to represent the actual phonetic reality, and not merely what this reality is assumed to be. In this way, the çarticulatory basisÇ, ¤ the collective phono-tonetic habits inherent in each language, is implicitly made evident, without the need for speciﬁc and complicated e‡orts (more targeted and burdensome, but –normally– leading to less satisfactory results). ˛us it will not be necessary to transcribe the partial nasalization each time in cases such as thanking ('†π˙k¤˙) ((('†Õ˙k∏˙))), unless it should become more noteworthy, in which case it could be transcribed as ('†π˙k¤˙); the same holds for words like none ('n√n:, 'nån:) {(('nvn:, 'nÄn:))}, if pronounced di‡erently from ('nÚn:, 'nAn:). It will be more than su‚cient to observe, once and for all, that a light nasalization in such cases is practically inevitable, in contact with following (ö) segments. In the case of intonation, mechanical instruments are capable of extracting and measuring single characteristics (through a series of separate processes), but they end up confusedly mixing up the various components. Expert human perception, on the other hand, can sift out superﬂuous elements and concentrate on what is truly important. For these reasons, it is impossible to accept without reserves the raw melodic curves produced by acoustic methods. It is necessary instead to ﬁlter them in imi-

1. prelude

23

tation of the process employed by the human ear, which manages to compensate in an extremely e‡ective way for the many irregularities, whether objective or incidental, which can occur. ˛e results are then standardized in tonograms, by taking a sort of average of large numbers of utterances. Observations on phonetic terminology 1.3.4. In the ﬁeld of terminology, as well, scientiﬁc rigor is a great help, while the vagueness and lack of clarity of certain obsolete traditions with little scientiﬁc foundation is decidedly negative. On every page of the HPr (“ HPh, as well) this requirement is addressed continually – indeed, everything becomes simpler and easier to understand when the technical terms are clear and intuitive (even more so than in normal speech). For example, tonic should refer only to tone –pitch– and not to stress. A diphthong should contain only vocalic elements, such as in ('ai), not vocalic and consonantal elements together, as in ('ja). Were it otherwise, it would follow that ('la, 'ma, 'sa) would be diphthongs as well – in fact, while (a, i, u) are vocalic elements, (j, l, m, s, t, r, h) are consonants. ˛us, contrary to the opinion broadly promulgated by grammarians, Italian ('ia) –for instance– is a true diphthong as well (Ô § 5.2-3 of the HPh). ˛e concept of a phonetic syllable also remains overly subject to the inﬂuence of writing systems and of grammatical and metrical traditions. It is natural that books on linguistics and dialectology should speak about the phonic side of things as well, using transcriptions. However, a minimum of rigor would be of great beneﬁt, since otherwise there is the risk of spreading and reinforcing unmitigated errors, which compromise and discourage e‡ective learning. For example, with the third millennium already here, books are still published which give the provisory IPA table (of 1993), naturally with the mistakes included as well (corrected in 1996), when it would have been a simple matter to download, or refer to, the (currently) deﬁnitive table shown on the o‚cial website. Obviously, this would only bring us to the level of the o‚cial position, which is hardly satisfactory; but at least major errors and embarrassingly naive missteps could be avoided (within the limits of the incompleteness and ingenuousness of the o‚cial table)… ˛ere are also those who succeed in producing brilliant achievements X (¤ the monogram with a sort of çumbrellaÇ on top, in the place of the like ç/c/Ç normal /c/, or the possible ç/tXS/Ç). As we have said in § 8.5 of the HPh, we prefer not to avoid the perfectly grammatical use of su‚xal comparative and superlative for front and back, contrary to mostly non-phonetician common usage. 1.3.5. It must be quite clear that doing phonetics means giving a symbol to a sound. ˛is task is not so trivial as the man on the street and perhaps acoustic phoneticians and theoretical phonologists might imagine. In fact, giving a symbol to a sound necessarily implies several successive and linked phases, in which hear-

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ing, mimicry, kinesthesia, comparison, adjustment, and mnemonic storage are all activated. ≈rst of all, it is necessary to be capable of su‚ciently perceiving the sound, so that it can be identiﬁed with a precise phone which can adequately represent it. ˛e next step is to be capable of reproducing the sound using the appropriate phone, which is carried out especially through imitation which is immediate, ¤, occurring promptly after hearing the sound. ˛e third step, which is indispensable, is to produce the phone using kinesthesia (¤ consciousness of the necessary articulatory and phonatory movements), even when the auditory stimulus is not close at hand. However, auditory memory can still be an important guide, whether it is particular, referring to a speciﬁc sound in a given language, or general, involving comparison with similar phones with the help of experience in listening to and producing the phones of many languages. In this manner, it is possible to produce a particular phone even days, months, or years after having heard it (and to be reasonably sure of producing the correct phone, even in the case of languages which one has never heard). ˛e secret of good notation is for it to be realistic, and consequently, truly useful. As a matter of fact, the fourth point, which is fundamental and decisive, is –as our çdeﬁnitionÇ suggests– ﬁnding a way to symbolize the speciﬁc phone by choosing the most appropriate symbol out of several hundred (not just a few dozen) elements. If, after careful consideration, none of the available symbols is capable of decently representing a particular phone, it becomes necessary to ﬁnd its position with regard to all other known phones. In this way, it will become possible to decide whether it is truly a new phone in need of a new symbol. If a new symbol is necessary, it can then be designed by following the general criteria of necessity, distinctness, and availability (as can be seen in the HPh). 1.3.6. ˛erefore, doing phonetics means managing to truly enter the phonic system of one or more languages, thanks to a rich array of symbols as well. ˛e symbols of the o‚cial IPA (oƒIPA = an o‡ alphabet! – Ô § 7.4 of the HPh) are not at all su‚cient, and they create the illusion of successfully doing phonetics, while all that has been achieved is at most a bit of phonology. Far too often, these studies proceed without the minimal understanding of what the phonetic structure in the case in question actually is. Clearly, it is phonology which is a part of phonetics (Ô § 1.9 and above all § 3.1.3 of the HPh), and not the other way round as some believe. In fact, within the rubric of phonetic analysis and description, there is a functional component as well. ˛erefore, functional phonetics (or phonemics) is an indispensable part of phonetics, but only a part. ˛ere is little which could be done working with phonology alone, just as there is little which could be done with just acoustics. Instead, what is needed is a global vision: articulatory, auditory, functional, descriptive, and contrastive (while verifying various characteristics acoustically). On this subject, it is interesting to note that the phonotonetic data of the HPh, and of the HPr, have been compared with a sizable collection of acoustic data from

1. prelude

25

various sources, or at times, with data from a single source furnished by di‡erent authors. In practice, the correspondence is dramatic, not only with data from a single source, but also with data from multiple audio recordings analyzed accurately and subsequently normalized. ‹en we speak of normalized data, we refer to the practice of çaveragingÇ the results of multiple speakers and many utterances in various contexts, while keeping in mind phonological considerations and excluding inappropriate samples. ˛e çdiscoveriesÇ of sociolinguistics also require normalization; otherwise there is a signiﬁcant risk of irremediably creating confusion, even when çscientiﬁcÇ data are used. ˛is fact has been responsibly demonstrated in several recent works. We will not cite these sources (as çexamples to followÇ), simply because this ought to be the normal way of doing things, not the çalarmistÇ or çscoopistÇ manner of far too many publications. 1.3.7. According to this global framework, every phonic system is an autonomous and complete organism. It contains phonemes, with their taxophones, as well as prosodemes, with their particular realizations (concerning duration, stress, tones, and intonation). To give a simple example, a vocalic element of a language, no matter how similar to an element of another language, must be considered in relationship only with the other vocalic (and consonantal and prosodic) elements of its own phonic system, within its own phonemic space (Ô § 1.5 of the HPh]˘ ˛erefore, if it is necessary to codify (pronounce, or transcribe), and also to decodify (listen, or trans-read), it is essential to constantly refer to only elements from the system of the language in question. ˛e term trans-read should be taken quite seriously, since it means çto read a transcription appropriatelyÇ, using the actual phones (as well as tones and intonation) of the language transcribed. It does not mean at all çto take a shot at reading a transcriptionÇ, using merely the phones of one's own personal accent. 1.3.8. ˛erefore, in the pronunciation of a particular language, it is essential to use only the phones and prosodic elements of that language. Instead, it is almost a rule that people use the phones of their mother tongue, adding a few phones from the other language because these are not present in their own language. Of course, the rough idea is to complete the inventory when things are missing, but ideally all work should take place within a single system, even with parts containing elements which are similar in the two languages. In fact, no matter how similar they may seem, the elements of one language are never exactly like those of another – due to the relationships with other elements, if nothing else. For example, the Italian /i/ is similar to the Spanish, or Portuguese (Brazilian or Lusitanian), or French ones. However, the Spanish /i/ is in opposition with only four vowel phonemes (/e, a, o, u/), while the Italian or Brazilian /i/ is in opposition with six (/e, E, a, O, o, u/), and the Lusitanian /i/ is in opposition with eight (/e, E, a, A, O, o, u, e/, which in an exclusively Lusitanian –not diaphonemic– system, would be represented by /e, E, a, å, O, o, u, …/, together with /i/, of course).

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At ﬁrst sight, the Brazilian system could seem exactly the same as the Italian one, as both have /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/. Instead, the two systems are di‡erent, particularly since in Brazilian Portuguese (and also in Lusitanian, but with additional di‡erences), even nasalized taxophones are expected ((i, e/™, A, 9/Ú, u), when followed by (ö), ¤ a nasal consonant element); without these nasalized phones the pronunciation would not be genuine (while in Italian it would be a regional one if with nasalized vowels). As for French, /i/ is in opposition with fourteen other vowel phonemes (/e, E, a, O, o, u, y, °, §÷ í, Õ, Ú, ^/ and /ù/, ¤, the traditional ç/È/Ç), including the four nasalized vowels (/í, Õ, Ú, ^/), which are true phonemes, in French, and not mere taxophones. Apart from these considerations, the actual phonetic realizations are not exactly the same, even though we use the same phone (i). ˛e di‡erences can be seen by comparing the vocograms (or vowel quadrilaterals) of these languages, in é 213. ˛e same is true for the other elements which çcorrespondÇ. 1.3.9. If we now consider German and English, even without going into too much detail (the details are available, of course, in é 2 “ é 5), it is clear that we will have to take into account phonemic vowel duration. Instead, in the Romance languages we have considered, vowel length is –practically– only phonetic (although it varies considerably from language to language; consult the speciﬁc chapters, or to see the di‡erences more rapidly, consult the transcriptions at the end of those chapters). In German and in English, the ç/i/Ç (çshort iÇ) is considerably more open than in the Romance languages, giving (I) in German and (¤) in English, respectively. However, even more pertinent to the present discussion of phonic systems is the fact that in the Germanic languages, the opposition of duration is relevant (¤, phonemic, distinctive) as well: German /I, i:/ (Schi‡˚ schief /'SIf, 'Si:f/ ('SIf, 'Si:f)); English /I, Ii/ (bit˚ beat /'bIt, 'bIit/ ('b¤T, 'bIiT) – as we have observed repeatedly, we prefer a less abstract type of notation than the predominating form, which less usefully continues to give ç/i:/Ç, even for English, Â). ‹at emerges quite clearly from this discussion is the sorry state of those grammar texts and language courses which çdescribeÇ the German /I/, or worse still, the English one, as ça short i, as in French vite, or in Spanish listo, or in Italian ﬁttoÇ. ‹en one considers that many Italian regional pronunciations have a vowel in ﬁtto which is not at all short, the absurdity is evident! Of course, the same is true when one tries to teach the close and short French (or Spanish, or Italian) /i/ (i) by citing the same old misleading example: machine. Often, silence is golden… 1.3.10. Foreign and regional accents result from pronouncing a national language according to the phono-tonetic system of a particular and recognizable area (— of a particular and recognizable social group), especially in Italy, and in German, Spanish, or Portuguese speaking countries. ˛erefore, it is important to begin to carefully examine one's own pronunciation, so as to be in a position to work towards the goal desired. ˛is task involves learning to analyze one's own sounds,

1. prelude

27

classifying them into precise phones (and transcribing them with adequate symbols), and then seeing how these phones are in turn part of particular phonemes. At this point, it is indispensable to have a reliable and careful description available for the system of the language one is seeking to learn. ˛e necessary comparisons can then begin – they should be carried out objectively and systematically. Obviously, it is imperative to follow an extensive series of speciﬁcally directed exercises, followed by careful checks. ˛ese exercises consist of listening to good recordings and recording oneself to perform çmercilessÇ examinations of how much progress has been made – without cheating, otherwise all e‡ort is wasted. For the pronunciation of Italian, Italians can rely on the seven chapters of the MaPI treating regional pronunciations for the initial diagnosis of how regional their pronunciation is. To (attempt to) achieve a neutral Italian pronunciation, Italians (and foreigners as well) can use the rest of the MaPI (including the two audiotapes which come with it), together with the DiPI. ˛ese two çformulaeÇ refer to two works by the present author (Manuale di pronuncia italiana {çA Handbook of Italian PronunciationÇ} and Dizionario di pronuncia italiana {çA Dictionary of Italian PronunciationÇ}, in the bibliography). 1.3.11. In this handbook, we suggest the use of Esperanto (Ô é 13: a planned and auxiliary international language, which means it is a suitable second language for all {certainly not the only language, which would be absurd}), in order to apply the phonetic method. ˛e aim is to manage to produce the sounds and intonation of Esperanto, which are deﬁnitely simpler than those of other languages. (Of course, the comparison holds –even more– for morpho-syntactic and lexeme-semantic aspects, as well. In fact, the structural comparison at all levels, between Esperanto and some studied languages, including one's own national language, is very revealing. Above all, it is a good preparation for the serious problems of interference, by helping one to see them concretely and systematically, not only as occasional inconvenient troubles. Language teaching ought to acknowledge this opportunity and use it accordingly.) It is a doubly useful drill, since it requires just a limited commitment, which should, however, be taken seriously. Besides, it is very unlikely for anyone to have heard neutral Esperanto before. In fact, even if one happened to hear somebody speak this language, certainly the pronunciations used must have been individual, regional, ethnic, or national. ˛erefore, one has to approach neutral Esperanto pronunciation relying exclusively on the descriptions, ﬁgures, and explanations provided here, in é 13. ˛en the dilemma of self-evaluation can arise: how can people be sure they have really attained their goal, which means neutral Esperanto pronunciation? ˛is is also a part of the phonetic method, where mere imitation (with all its problems of ﬁdelity and authenticity) is not the main aim at all – although, of course, for natural languages, it is always fundamental to have a reliable sound-model to follow. On the other hand, we know fully well that transcriptions are reliable models too, as much as recordings (and sometimes even more), provided they are faithful and serious, mainly if they are supplied with intonation, objectively and realistically

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a handbook of pronunciation

marked. However, the real strength of the phonetic method resides exactly in being aware of what to do in order to attain the (hopefully neutral) pronunciation of a certain language, or of several languages. ˛is is so because we are not in the position of a child any longer, when complete phonotonetic (and phonotonemic, and also paraphonic) learning was right, including certain regional peculiarities, which could be happily renounced – but that is the çbiological methodÇ! ≈nally, awareness has this further advantage as well – it allows one to choose what is thought to be most advisable, between various possibilities. Guide to the ﬁgures 1.4.1. ˛e orograms of the HPr (and HPh) use symbols according to certain conventions, which make the orograms easier to understand (and tell apart). It is therefore important to become familiar with these conventions, so as to be able to make the best use possible of the rich iconic framework they provide. It is di‚cult to understand why some çphoneticsÇ texts contain only a small number of illustrations, or even none at all. It is certainly true, however, that it is better to give no illustrations at all rather than to provide imprecise (or erroneous) ones. It would be better still if certain books were not produced at all… In the vowel orograms (Ô û 1.7), it is of great importance to pay careful attention to the location of the marker indicating the center of the back of the tongue. It is even more important to take note of the precise location within the white (or transparent) miniature vocogram, placed at the center of the oral cavity (with respect to the still more precise location seen in the normal, larger vocograms), and the shape assumed by the entire back of the tongue. In this way, the various vowel orograms can be compared (or just a subset of them, such as those relevant for a particular language). All this e‡ort should lead to a real understanding of the vocoid articulations and of the di‡erent movements of which they are composed, so that an active panorama is produced in the mind, and not simply a passive vision of things. In phonetics, merely passive and memorized knowledge has little use – except to confuse and discourage people! Obviously, the true analysis and description of the vocoids of a given language occur through the use of the large vocograms (vocograms in the strict sense), given that these diagrams succeed in showing nuances very precisely (as can be seen in é 2-13, or in the phonosyntheses of é 16-23 of the HPh, as well as in the MaPI and the various Italian regional pronunciations given therein). 1.4.2. ˛erefore, we will now consider what can be found in vocograms, which should be observed, analyzed, and scrutinized calmly in all of their particulars. Vocograms are full of details, without which it is impossible to come close to the çspiritÇ of a language, manifested especially through vocoids, then through pitch, and ﬁnally through contoids. Even a single millimeter makes a notable di‡erence

1. prelude

29

on a vocogram (as well as on an orogram or on a tonogram). ˛is is the çmagicÇ of phonetics. In fact, those who fail to perceive it accuse phonetics of being cold, dry, incomprehensible, di‚cult, and useless to boot. Instead, it is extremely useful, which is fundamental, and fun as well! Vocograms are subdivided into 30 boxes, where the appropriate markers are placed according to the shape imparted to the lips. Round markers denote lip rounding (as in (u, o, O)), and square ones denote normal lips (or spread lips; in any case unrounded, for example (i, e, E, a)), Ô û 1.4 “ û 1.7-8. It is also true that the vowel orograms (in the miniature vocogram part) also contain circular or square markers according to the lip position. However, it is clearly much easier to see the markers in the (large) vocograms, where it is essential to use them properly (Ô û 1.27). It is possible to use the diamond markers as well (squares rotated by 45°: $) to show lip positions which are half-rounded, halfway between round and normal (as in (˚), Ô § 8.10 of the HPh), or for perfectly coinciding rounded and unrounded V (as (…, %), Ô û 1.27). Besides the shape of the markers, their content and shading are also important. ∑ite markers (where the normal shape is not ﬁlled in by any shading) represent unstressed vocoids, such as English (È), or for example those represented by >o≥ in the following Italian examples: poiché˚ grido (pøi'ke, 'gri:dø) (or possibly, in certain languages, half-stressed vocoids, but not fully stressed ones). Solid black markers represent vocoids which are always stressed, as in yes ('j™s), or in Italian no ('nO). Naturally, there are also vocoids which can occur stressed or unstressed; for these, the symbols are black-and-white (¤ black with a white center), as in singing ('s¤˙¤˙) or in neutral British English lover ('låvå), while we have lovers ('låvÈΩ, -‘Ω), or neutral American English lover ('l√v≥) and lovers ('l√v≥Ω, -≥Ü). û 1.27. Di‡erent markers for vocoids. half-rounded (˚), or coincident (…, %) unrounded: rounded: unstressed /u/ (¯) unstressed /i, È/ (i, È) stressed or unstressed /U/ (¨) stressed or unstressed /I, √/ (¤, å) stressed /E/ (™)

1.4.3. Markers can also be ﬁlled with grey in order to indicate variants (contextual ones – the fundamental taxophones, pronounced using special phones; possible ones, such as those used in regional accents – geophones; or those related to various social groupings – sociophones). In neutral British English, for instance, there are quite a few taxophones, especially including those produced when there is a following (ı) – for example in hut˚ hull /'h√t, 'h√ı/ ('håT, 'h√ı:), or feet˚ feel ('fIiT, 'fi;Iı) (while feeling has ('fIil¤˙)). It is impossible to continue to ignore such variations in vocograms and phonetic transcriptions. A representative example of Italian geophones is given with the varied realiza-

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tions of the phoneme /a/ (a), which include: (Å, A, ù, ∏, Ä, å, √). Some of these realizations can constitute sociophones, since they are more commonly found in broader (instead of less broad) regional accents (these details can be found in the MaPI in both cases). Grey markers can also have white centers in cases where they refer to vocoids which can occur unstressed as well. At times, it can be necessary to improvise a di‡erence in the marker or in its shading in order to represent important realizations which depend upon the position in the word with respect to word boundaries, stress, syllable structure, less common use, or simple occasional variation. In this manner, it becomes possible to avoid the use of supplementary vocograms. ˛e purpose of these special markers will be explained clearly, whether in a text placed close to the vocogram, or in the main treatment. ˛e most common convention is the use of dashed lines, particularly for unstressed vowels which are represented by ordinary unshaded (çwhiteÇ) markers. For examples of these rules in practice, the reader is invited to consult the vocogram of the çinternationalÇ French accent (Ô § 4.4.1), southern French (Ô § 4.4.3), or German (with its various accents: é 5), or Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Arabic (Ô é 7-10). û 1.28. Markers for variants. unstressed /È/ (û) stressed or unstressed /I, √/ (Ù, √) stressed /E/ (e, E)

unstressed /u/ (%) stressed or unstressed /U/ (P)

1.4.4. But let us now proceed to the conventions concerning diphthongs (formed by two tautosyllabic vocoids – ¤, two vocoids contained in a single syllable, Ô § 5.2-3 of the HPh). Diphthongs are denoted with the appropriate marker for the starting element, together with an unbroken black line which moves all the way to the precise location of the second element (Ô û 1.29-31). If the endpoint is an unrounded vowel, nothing is added; instead, with rounded vowels, a minuscule black dot is placed at the end of the line. If the endpoint is half-rounded, the marker at the end is a diamond÷ this marker is thus analogous to the normal-sized marker that would be used for a half-rounded ﬁrst element ($). Meanwhile, the phonemic and phonetic transcriptions completing the information provided are placed around the vocogram. û 1.29. Diphthongs (occurring stressed and unstressed). wide (ai) narrow (a™)

wide, with rounded 2nd element (au) narrow, with rounded 2nd element (aø) monotimbric (aa)

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1.4.5. Diphthongs are considered wide, when their ﬁgure contains a fairly long line, and narrow, when the line is rather short. Besides these ditimbric (two-timbre) diphthongs, beginning and ending with distinct vocoids, monotimbric (one-timbre) diphthongs also exist, with the second element in the same box as the ﬁrst element, but at a slightly di‡erent point of that box. ˛is last group consists of quite narrow diphthongs (which therefore are almost like long vowel phonemes), and often the line is extremely short. Because the distance is so short, a dashed line can be reduced especially in such cases to a single short segment, or to the black dot alone for diphthongs with rounded second elements. Completing the survey, we come to vowel gemination, or vocoid doubling. ˛ese cases involve vocoids which are neither short nor monotimbric diphthongs. A given vocoid is repeated within the same phonetic syllable, but without any movement in the vocogram at all: (aa) (Ô û 1.30). ‹en the ﬁrst element of a diphthong is the same as that of a monophthong given together in the vocogram, it is possible to show the monophthong and the diphthong together by showing the diphthong with a dashed line, instead of an unbroken one (which would indicate the diphthong alone). ‹en variant diphthongs occur, they are denoted by grey markers together with unbroken lines (or, in the case of an unstressed variant, the marker will be an unshaded ﬁgure with the edge and line both dashed). û 1.30. Short and long monophthongs and diphthongs with the same starting point (here, all stressed). (short or long) monophthong (short or long) monophthong and (wide) diphthong (a, a:, ai) and (wide) diphthong with rounded 2nd element (a, a:, au) (short or long) monophthong (short or long) monophthong and (narrow) diphthong with and (wide) diphthong (a, a:, a™) rounded 2nd element (a, a:, aø) (short or long) monophthong and monotimbric diphthong (a, a:, aa)

1.4.6. Moreover, according to the direction of their movement, diphthongs can be classiﬁed into three categories: opening (when the second element is lower), closing (when the second element is higher), and centering (when the endpoint is (È), or (‘)). In û 1.31 (where all the symbols given are unrounded, for the sake of simplicity), the diphthongs given with thinner lines in the ﬁrst and third vocograms ((a‘)), or in the second and third ((…È)), could be considered closing, opening, or centering, depending upon the phonological interpretation and upon what sorts of similar diphthongs are present (or absent) in that language in other areas of the vocogram. For example, if (a‘) comes together with (π™, Øø), or (…È) with (ie, uo), then (a‘) will be considered closing, and (…È) opening. Analogously, diphthongs whose second element is not exactly central, including cases with (Ù, É, X, x÷ °, #, P, Ö) (and (¤, ¢, û÷ Ä, å, √÷ Y, T, ¨÷ §, @, ∏)), could be proﬁtably considered centering, if structural conditions so indicate.

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û 1.31. Di‡erent diphthongs.

closing

opening

centering

For example, in British English, beers /'bIÈ≤z/ ('b¤;ÈΩ) and bear(s) /'bEÈ≤{z}/ ('b™;‘{Ω}) are in the same group as beer /'bIÈ≤/ ('b¤;å), even in accents which present (éÅ, éa) for /éÈ≤/. ˛erefore, the best decisions are normally made considering both phonemic and phonetic transcriptions. 1.4.7. In the vowel orograms (and in the vocogram) supplied in û 1.3-4, we give the most extreme vocogram positions, with the express purpose of showing the limits of the region of oral space used for vocoids. Instead, the orograms in û 1.6 give positions which are more commonly found in the languages of the world; these are slightly less peripheral. In fact, certain trapezoids (or even çvowel trianglesÇ) show all of the symbols perfectly aligned along the edges, çthreadedÇ along the lines (rather like pearls, since they are all circular as well), so that they extend outside of the margins. We ﬁnd such ﬁgures decidedly odd, given that the objective reality of vocograms is quite di‡erent. 1.4.8. ©th orograms, which are fundamental for consonants, we follow several conventions, some of which are more intuitive than others. For example, it is su‚cient to indicate nasals by showing the velum lowered, as in the cases of û 1.9.1-2. Nasalized articulations are indicated in the same way, including vocoids (û 1.7, on the bottom). ˛ere is also nasal explosion (û 1.19, on the right). Stops are shown with a raised velum, and as with nasals, there is contact between two or more articulators (û 1.10). Constrictive orograms show the articulators close to one another (û 1.12.1-2 “ û 1.32; “ û 1.1, ©, for (·)), together with a useful convention (albeit a bit less obvious and objective) consisting of a horizontal black line, immediately above the base of the orograms. ˛is line is intended to allude to the constriction – in this case, the noise of friction produced by the ﬂow of air through the narrowest point of the articulation. If the line is not continuous, but divided into three segments (as in the case of (,)), the contoid is semi-constrictive (intermediate between a constrictive and an approximant). In the case of grooved constrictives (Ô û 1.32 “ û 1.12.1.∫ {and § 9.13 of the HPh}), there is a curved line placed on the tongue blade. ˛is curve is meant to be a reminder of the longitudinal groove that characterizes these articulations. ˛e curve (like the horizontal line) is segmented in the case of semi-constrictives. ˛e same marks naturally occur in the diagrams for stopstrictives as well.

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û 1.32. Slit and grooved constrictives: (†) and (s).

slit

†

s

grooved

In the case of approximants, there is visibly more space between the articulators, and the horizontal line (used with constrictives) is omitted. However, there can be a black arrow, slightly smaller than the one used for laterals, and this arrow signiﬁes lateral contraction –lateralization– a trait accompanying and characterizing some of the approximants (û 1.13.3). Semi-approximants have a dotted horizontal line (û 1.13.2). Trills, taps, and ﬂaps (û 1.14.1-3) are marked with a black dot placed upon the articulator which is in motion (whether this is the tongue tip, the uvula, or the lips). Moreover, a dashed outline is added to trill orograms, and two dashed outlines to ﬂap orograms (Ô û 1.33). In the same ﬁgure, we can see çsequential articulatory compositionsÇ as well, which show two rapid tappings for (r), followed by two çopenÇ positions, with a white background. For the tap, (R), there is only one contact, for a rapid tapping; whereas, the ﬂap, ([), consists of three quite di‡erent (and quick) phases: ﬁrstly, the tip is brought behind the alveolar ridge; then, while moving forwards, it touches the ridge (and this is the pertinent articulation); ﬁnally, the third phase corresponds to the detachment at every tapping, such as the two white ones in (r).

r

=

+

+

+

R

=

+

–

[

=

–

û 1.33. Trills, (r), taps, (R), and ﬂaps, ([).

+

+

Laterals are identiﬁable with an arrow placed on the most fundamental part of the articulation. If the arrow is black, the contoid is bilateral (û 1.15.1); if white, the contoid is unilateral (û 1.15.2). If the contoid is instead a lateral tap, a white dot is shown (û 1.15.3). (Much more is to be found in the HPh, on other types of laterals, with di‡erent additions.) û 1.34. (Bi)lateral, (l), and unilateral, (ô), articulations.

+ l

+ ô

1.4.9. Stopstrictive orograms have a small black part, which refers to the stop phase of these contoids. ˛e stop phase (as can be seen in û 1.11.1-2) is homorganic to the place of articulation of the constrictive phase, which immediately follows

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and constitutes the second part of these phones. ˛e result is a unitary (though compound) phone, since its full duration corresponds to the length of other stops or constrictives, not to the length of two phones combined in sequence. Stopstrictives naturally have a horizontal line at the base of the ﬁgure. Grooved stopstrictives have a curved line as well, representing the groove (û 1.11.1.∫). Stop-semi-constrictives have a black horizontal line divided into three parts. (Here we indicate only the stop-strictives which occur in the 12 languages dealt with in this book. Other languages present further types too, which are dealt with in the HPh.] 1.4.10. Palatograms (û 1.17, two lower rows) are used to show contact with the palate throughout the course of an articulation. Palatograms are mainly useful for certain contoids. It would be possible to employ them to add detail to the description of vocoids, particularly those which are not back. However, vocograms and orograms are more useful in this case for purposes of description and teaching. ‹en parts of the palatogram are shaded black, this convention signiﬁes full contact of the articulators (in the stop phase of stopstrictive contoids). Grey shading indicates instead, naturally, constrictive contact (as in the characteristic constrictive phase of stopstrictives). If the palatograms of the constrictives, (†, s, S) are compared to those of the corresponding stopstrictives, (‡, q, c), this di‡erence becomes clear immediately. It is useful to observe carefully (in the last part of every set of diagrams, in û 1.17) the palatograms –and dorsograms– which show the di‡erence for the voiced alveolar articulation between stop, (D), and (bi)lateral, (l), in addition to unilateral, (ô), and constrictive, (¡), as well (although these do not occur in the 12 languages of the HPr). 1.4.11. Dorsograms (as in û 1.17, ﬁrst row) give a new perspective, which is not longitudinal but instead transversal. ˛ese ﬁgures are particularly helpful to illustrate the di‡erence between slit tongue position (the unmarked position, since it requires fewer phonic features) and grooved tongue position or lateral contraction (or lateralization) – these are the two marked possibilities, in comparison with the unmarked position. ‹en arrows are used in labiograms given in proﬁle (as in û 1.5 “ û 1.16), they indicate the direction of the characteristic movements, as produced by particular facial muscles. Frontal labiograms require no particular explanations (Ô û 1.8 and those just mentioned) – the vertical gap, which is steadily larger as the jaw opens, is fairly intuitive. By carefully observing û 1.16, let us consider attentively the labial di‡erences for (ë, S, «) (keeping in mind what has been said in § 4.2.4 of the HPh, about lip-position detection). However, we think it useful to call to mind that (S) is protruded, not simply rounded (Ô û 1.16.1). Another useful type of diagram is the laryngogram (as in û 1.1), which should be analyzed attentively. ˛ese laryngograms are naturally optical (as well as being schematic and frozen in a particular instant), representing what can be seen with a laryngoscope, or a throat-specialist's mirror. ˛ey are not acoustic laryngograms, which measure vocal fold vibration.

1. prelude

35

1.4.12. We will now move on to tonograms, which are divided into three juxtaposed bands, of high, mid, and low pitch (where the levels are not absolute, but relative to the voice of each particular speaker). Both in preintonemes and in intonemes (Ô § 1.1.5-8 “ û 1.21-3 {and, in the HPh˚ § 6.4.5.1-4 “ § 13.8-34}), as in tones as well (Ô û 1.26 {and, in the HPh again˚ § 6.4.4 “ § 12.17-18}), lines (or dashes) placed at di‡erent heights and with various slopes represent stressed phono-syllables. Dots, on the other hand, represent unstressed syllables, while shorter lines/dashes represent half-stressed syllables (with secondary stress, but with pitch indicated by the position in the tonogram). In phonotonetic transcriptions, secondary stress is indicated by two dots placed close together (smaller than a single dot), variously oriented according to the tonetic necessities. Secondary stress on a medium level pitch is denoted with (&) in order not to create confusion with the hyphen we use to show syllable boundaries. ˛is use is consistent with marking primary stress with ('). çUnstressedÇ phono-syllables (or better, weakly-stressed – ¤, weaker than half-stressed syllables) with mid level pitch are not marked in any particular way. On the other hand, in tone languages, syllables with mid pitch and weak stress are preceded by a dot placed at medium height, (2). Guide to di‡erent types of transcriptions 1.5.1. In the HPr, there is no doubt that a great number of symbols is used. However, these symbols are not superﬂuous for those who desire to do phonetics thoroughly (and not merely çeasilyÇ, and inevitably superﬁcially). A small number of symbols ineluctably leads to mediocrity, whereas a large number of symbols opens the way towards the true understanding and çsavoringÇ of pronunciation. Even if study has been methodical, concentrated, and accompanied by careful exercises, it will remain occasionally necessary to check the value, the nature, and the connections of certain symbols (and concepts as well) which are less frequent. ˛e best way to do so is to look for explanations in the right place, or places. In fact, the necessary answers, veriﬁcations, and connections, as well as new perspectives, can be found in the general index (contents) and in the analytical index (index), by ﬂipping through the chapters and the sections, and by paying attention to the tables, the lists of symbols, and the groups of ﬁgures. ˛e major categories are, of course, vowels, consonants, intonation, other prosodic traits (stress, pitch, duration/length), and paraphonics. It would be complicated –and probably useless– to try to re-explain these matters in a general synthesis (probably too compressed and complex). ˛erefore we will merely suggest following the directions given here, emphasizing only the meaning of the di‡erent çparenthesesÇ used to enclose the symbols. Slashes –/ /– always denote phonemes, on a theoretical and abstract level; instead, brackets –( )– are used exclusively for phones (and taxophones) – ¤, the practical and concrete side of things, which nonetheless naturally comprise essential generalizations and normalizations, without which it would be necessary to

36

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speak only of single, unrepeatable realizations of particular individuals. For example, play /'plaE/ ('phla;Ù). 1.5.2. Doubling the çparenthesesÇ indicates a further accentuation of their primitive values. ˛us, double slashes –// //– refer to a still more abstract or theoretical level of phonological characteristics, such as what we have with German wiederhaben //'vi:dÈKha:bÈn//, with respect to the ordinary phonemic or phonetic transcription /'vi:dÚha:bó/ ('vi:d…&ha;bõ). Double brackets –(( ))– indicate instead more exact symbols, in cases where showing extremely precise nuances is desired. An example of the use of double brackets could occur when showing the articulation with a high tongue tip, ((s, x)) (where these symbols need to be drawn carefully so they can be clearly distinguished from (†, S)), instead of the articulation with a low tongue tip, (s, S), which is considered more normal. Another case is given by partial (or even substantial) nasalization, as indicated above (§ 1.3.3): thanking ('†π˙k¤˙) ((('†Õ˙k∏˙))). ˛e o‚cial IPA has no way to show light automatic nasalization, and in fact, it arbitrarily and misleadingly employs our symbol ç(Õ)Ç for a particular type of phonation, creaky voice (for which we use (π)). ≈nally, when angle brackets –> ≥– enclose symbols or diacritics (such as §õ@), these refer to paraphonic elements. Instead, when they enclose orthographic symbols (such as >a≥), they refer to graphemic elements. Symbols not enclosed in brackets or slashes represent phones in treatments of general phonetics, as in the orograms shown up to now. Instead, in the consonant tables in é 2-13 (and in the phonosyntheses, in é 1623 of the HPh]˚ the symbols not enclosed in slashes represent phonemes, even though they are represented by fairly speciﬁc symbols (this is to avoid sacriﬁcing precision, but without making the visual e‡ect too intimidating – in fact, here the symbols represent phones as well]˘ In the phonemic transcriptions accompanying the phonetic transcriptions, it is also possible to use more generic symbols to indicate phonemes. We have followed this approach in é 2-13, where we have also indicated the corresponding results and presented them in easy reference form in the consonant tables. Transcribing by hand 1.5.3. ≈nally, several fundamental observations should be made on the topic of transcriptions carried out by hand. It is important to draw every symbol (and every diacritical marking) exactly as it is printed in this manual (where we employ the elegant Simoncini Garamond character set, in our personal version called ßimon¸ani). It is necessary to be very careful not to confuse one symbol with another one which is similar to it, but –obviously– not exactly the same and with a di‡erent value. To start out, transcriptions should not be carried out in cursive (or in italics). In fact, contrary to habits in normal handwriting, the symbols should not be connected

1. prelude

37

to each other, but should instead be kept separate, as in print. Moreover, symbols should not be simpliﬁed, changing n into u, or m into æ; or l into æ or a. Dots should not be omitted, and so ª should not be written in place of i, nor ñ for j. çStylisticÇ additions and modiﬁcations should be avoided. ˛us, d must remain di‡erent from ∂ and from ´, just as ä is di‡erent from the grapheme g, and h from Ü. ˛e same goes for cases like z, which should be kept distinct from both Z and Ë. Moreover, (L, r, R, Ÿ) are, by the same token, quite distinct from (ô/H, ¸, [, y), Â. Naturally, small capitals should be avoided as well, since the symbols (Å, ∫, ™, I, G, ì, ,, Ì, K) are di‡erent from (a/A, b, e/E, i/¤, g, l, n, p, r). In conclusion, it is necessary to set aside every normal writing habit which could lead to confusion between the symbols. ˛e best strategy to reach this essential goal is to begin observing every symbol with great care. A çtypographic eyeÇ should be developed which pays attention to every detail, from the size and orientation of a stroke ((t, T, ˛, †), (B, 6)), or of a symbol ((e, Ù, È), (K, º, ˜, ‰), (A, Ø÷ a, å), (™, É÷ E, ‘), (X, x÷ v, √÷ ©, O), (r, <, ¸), (h, H, ¥), (f, á÷ j, 3÷ J, ,÷ ã, ª)), to the presence or absence of a sort of serif, or the type of serif present: (i, I, ¤÷ u, ¯, U÷ o, ø, Ö). In working towards this objective, the observations in é 8-9 of the HPh will help the reader to look at, not just see, the symbols found throughout the text. In this way, it will prove easier to çacceptÇ the fact that (g) always has the value present in the word get /'gEt/, and not the value in gem /'GEm/ (while gif –or ç.gifÇ– can be pronounced either /'gIf/ or /'GIf/), Â. Generic symbols (for phonetic categories) 1.5.4. It might prove useful, sooner or later, to have symbols available which do not directly represent particular segments, but rather whole phonic categories. For this task, phonetic and phonological formulae can be used, and the resulting symbols can be employed, for example, on the edges of vocograms or tables. We therefore provide a list of appropriate symbols of this type. û 1.35 gives a schematic presentation of the seven fundamental manners of articulation, for contoids. Also given are useful groupings and subdivisions, including the distinction between obstruents and sonants (however, the mixed manners of articulation, typical of approximants, and even more of trills and laterals, are not included). ˛e category of obstruent contoids includes stops (but not nasals, even though these could technically be considered stops with added nasalization), stopstrictives, constrictives (including constrictive trills and constrictive laterals), and approximants (only the peripheral ones). ˛e sonants comprise, on the other hand, central or lateralized approximants, besides nasals and trills (together with taps and ﬂaps), and laterals (including unilaterals and tapped laterals). In various languages, for any manner of articulation except trills (and taps and ﬂaps), phonetically semi-… articulations are possible (¤ less tense – with no full contact, also for nasals, stops, stopstrictives and laterals).

38

a handbook of pronunciation

û 1.35. Groupings of the fundamental manners of articulation. 0 F ! ò ß ó ‹ ö ` Ô ƒ _ ¡ ∑ ô

é vocoid/vowel é

ä – ´ V ‚ ◊ ≠ Ÿ 5 Ì † Ï é ü 0 0

¸ ô — Ò Â C = Ê ± Ü J ˆ ó ô ú õ ó ‹ ü û æ Æ

reduced V (in duration; = ä) shortened V nasalized V devoiced V voiced lenis V voiceless lenis V half-nasalized V rounded V unrounded V advanced V retracted V lowered V raised V normal V – or under other conventions creaky V (or laryngealized) contoid/consonant reduced C (in duration; = ¸) shortened C glottalized voiceless C, with simultaneous (ö) intense (çsyllabicÇ) C devoiced C voiceless lenis C – or under other conventions, especially diaphonemic voiced lenis C voiceless C voiced C rounded C unrounded C palatalized C velarized/uvularized C advanced C retracted C tenser/closer C less tense/close C voiced creaky/laryngealized C lateral C constrictive lateral C voiceless lateral C lateral tap C unilateral C

µ ù

Œ semilateral C µ lateral — trill/tap C ¯ intense (çsyllabicÇ) lateral — trill/tap C @ voiceless lateral — trill/tap C ö nasal C M intense (çsyllabicÇ) nasal C ° voiceless nasal C ù sonant (or sonorant) C % intense (çsyllabicÇ) sonant C # voiceless sonant C ó trill (or trill “ tap) C § voiceless trill (or trill “ tap) C ˘ constrictive trill C Â tap C ≈ lateralized tap C ‰ ﬂap C „ lateralized ﬂap C ∑ median approximant C ß approximant C ´ semi-approximant C ã lateralized approximant C J lateralized semiapproximant C ¡ peripheral approximant C ô obstruent C (F, !, ò), in diphonic pairs ‡ laryngeal approximant C â laryngeal constrictive C F stop C K semi-stop C ƒ (slit) constrictive C  (slit) semi-constrictive C _ grooved constrictive C ` grooved semi-constrictive C ò (generic) constrictive C ∞ (generic) semi-constrictive C ` (slit) stop-strictive C @ (slit) stop-semi-strictive C ¤ (slit) semi-stop-strictive C Ô grooved stop-strictive C & grooved stop-semi-strictive C I grooved semi-stop-strictive C ! (generic) stop-strictive C Ì (generic) stop-semi-constrictive C

1. prelude

39

î (generic) semi-stop-strictive C | pause ˜ lateral stop-strictive C \ potential pause º trill(ed)/tap(ped) stop-strictive C || longer pause * lexeme ì œ (low) parenthesis $ grammeme ‘ ’ (mid) parenthesis O rhythm group ^ Œ quotation o reduced rhythm group . emic conclusive intoneme à phono-syllable ? emic interrogative intoneme i reduced phono-syllable ÷ emic suspensive intoneme à çlightÇ syllable , emic continuative intoneme 9 çheavyÇ syllable normal preintoneme (no sign) ` çzeroÇ phone/phoneme ¿ interrogative preintoneme 0 indicates proximity to é – 00, 000, 00 ¡ imperative preintoneme Ò indicates proximity to 0 – Òé, ÒéÒ, éÒ ˚ emphatic preintoneme 0$ C with audible explosion & supplementary interrogative preintoneme 0æ C with inaudible explosion (in French) 05 = /=/ – /=h/, (=) – (=h) 5 (Ì ' Ç ç) tone with strong stress, Ô § 12.17 of 0Ì = /Ê/ – /Êh/, (Ê) – (ÊH) the HPh 0« ejective C — (& –) tone with mid stress, Ô § 12.17 of the ‘0 injective/implosive C HPh 60 dejective/click C 1 (2 3) tone with weak stress, Ô § 12.17 of the ê0 prenalized dejective C HPh è0 prenasalized C 8 ( " ∞ £) tone with extrastrong stress, Ô § 'é stressed V (with strong/primary stress) 12.17 of the HPh &é half-stressed V (with mid/medium/secon- 9 (6 0 à è é) falling tone, Ô § 12.18 of the HPh dary/half-strong stress) Ô (• Ò ` ¶ ´) rising tone, Ô § 12.18 of the HPh ’é unstressed V (with weak stress) ù Japanese akusento (distinctive pitch lower»é destressed V (with reduced stress, up to ing, Ô § 12.3.2.1-4) weak; starting from 'é) # (@ § ° í ï ÷ /) shift diacritic, Ô § 8.11, 9.5 of "é over-stressed V (with extrastrong stress) the HPh é: long V § @ paraphonic element (Ô § 14.3-5 of the é; half-long V HPh) – or grapheme éà less than long V ( ) phonetic transcrition éò less than half-long V / / phonemic transcrition é| utterance-ﬁnal V (( )) hyperphonetic transcrition |é after a pausa or silence V // // hyperphonemic transcrition éò word-ﬁnal V ( ) symbol/phon(em)e which can fall (or be òé word-initial V lacking) é˘ syllable-ﬁnal V (( )) potential symbol/phon(em)e, which can -é- within a word, word-internal V be used, as in û 1.7-8.

˛e o‚cial IPA chart 1.6. For informative purposes– we also show the o‚cial IPA chart (û 1.36). It highlights mostly its defects and global deﬁciencies, however. ˛e ﬁrst section gives the o‚cial pulmonic consonants, which are 58 (with a minor addition of ten çother symbolsÇ). ˛e second small section shows ﬁve dejec-

40

a handbook of pronunciation

û 1.36. O‚cial IPA Chart (1996).

¤~†™®~å†¤ø~å¬ π∆ø~™†¤© å¬π∆å∫™† (o‚cial, revised 1993 and corrected in 1996) ©ø~ßø~å~† (π¨¬µø~¤©) Plosive

Bilabial Labiodent. Dental

Alveolar Postalveol. Retroﬂex

Palatal

Velar

Uvular

p

t

˛ Ã N

© ˝ N

k g ˙

› G , K

# ß Ω

Â

x ‚

X º

Nasal Trill Tap or ∫ap Fricative Lateral fric.

(˝)

F

b m ∫

M

B f

v

† ∑

d n r R s z ! ú < l

S Z

˝

Pharyng. Glottal

ö

h ˚

h H

V > j µ Approxim. $ L ì Lateral app. ‹ere symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right is voiced. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

Clicks

Voiced implosives Ejectives

Ö Bilabial | Dental ! (Post)alveolar õ Palatoalveolar ~ Alveol. lateral

ñ Ã á Ÿ ä

Bilabial Dental/alveol. Palatal Velar Uvular

« as in: p« Bilabial t« Dental/alveol. k« Velar s« Alveol. fricat.

Front

Close-mid Open-mid Open

Voiceless labial-velar fric. Voiced labial-velar app. Voiced labial-palatal app. Voiceless epiglottal fric. Voiced epiglottal fric. Epiglottal plosive

¿ B À Ï

Voiceless alveolo-palatal fric. Voiced alveolo-palatal fric. Alveolar lateral ﬂap Simultaneous S and x

˜

A‡ricates and double articulat. can be represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar if necess.

†ø~™ß “ ∑ø®∂ å©©™~†ß

√ø∑™¬ß Close

ø$™® ß¥µ∫ø¬ß

' w ¥ … H ¿

ï

©ø~ßø~å~†ß (~ø~-π¨¬µø~¤©)

i y I Y e °

Central

… %

Ù + È E § ‘ ê π å a π

Back

M u U ‰ o √ O A Ø

‹ere symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right (and U) is rounded.

Ò ´ 0 ` Ô

or

>1 ≥1 ˇ1 ≤1 <1

¬™√™¬ Extra-high High Mid Low Extra-low

± Downstep (relative) ≠ Upstep (relative)

∂¤å©®¤†¤©ß (Diacritics can be placed above a symbol with a descender, ™ ô) = Voiceless ) Breathy voiced b " Y Dental ∂ ¨ U P î Voiced § Î Apical ÿ ‹ Û ∏ Creaky voiced ë Ä y Linguolabial u p ¥ Laminal ¨ π t5 d5 5 Aspirated g More rounded Æ o t„ d„ e Ú „ Labialized ° Nasalized G Less rounded æ O tJ dJ dô J Palatalized ô Nasal release Ω Advanced % — tˆ dˆ ˆ Velarized ó Lateral release dó ! Retaracted m ù / Pharyngealized t/ d/ æ No audibile rel. dæ Velarized or pharyngealized ë ö ı t 7 Centralized ° F Raised l (∑ = voiced labial-velar fricative) Z Mid-centralized ¬ • c Syllabic f Lowered ó ≥ L (≈ = voiceless velar approximant) W Non-syllabic ƒ Advanced Tongue Root k ¶ ¯ ¤ ‡ Retracted Tongue Root È& A& µ Ù & Rhotacized

£ 8 3 ’ à

± ≠

»1 «1 21 "1 4[1

or

©ø~†ø¨® Rising Falling High rising Low falling Rising-falling

Global rise Global fall

ß¨π®åß™Ÿµ™~†å¬ß

' & : ; z . Ó Ó Ñ

Primary stress Secondary stress:

&foUnÈ'tISÈn Long a: Half-long a; Extra-short q

Syllable break:

Minor (foot) group Major (intonation) gr. Linking (absence of a break)

1. prelude

41

tives (or clicks), ﬁve injectives (or implosives, including the theoretical uvular one), and four examples of ejectives. ˛en the o‚cial quadrilateral follows, which tries to explain the vowels, which are 28, in twelve pairs (for lip-position – spread or rounded), plus four isolated elements. ˛e collocation of (È, Ù, π) is highly unhappy. ˛e paltry section on tone and stress is misleading and leads one to think it is not limited to some examples. ˛en suprasegmental signs are shown. Lastly, we ﬁnd the section on diacritics, which are thus necessary to avoid the risk of being utterly vague and ambiguous. In fact, since only very few segmental symbols are available, one must use some o‚cial diacritics (even two or three for one symbol), which can be of some use when trying to hint at some important articulatory di‡erences. Unfortunately, this partial solution also betrays one of the fundamental principles, which used to di‡erentiate IPA from all other phonetic alphabets, precisely for its outright refusal to use diacritical signs, simply to indicate articulatory characteristics. Instead, now several diacritics are put above or under a generic symbol, or after it as a superscript tiny character. ˛e chart provides nothing at all to show intonation. Even the ToBI system (which someone seems to consider the intonation component of o‚cial IPA] is very far from being really useful, since it fails to separate intonation both from randomness and paraphonics. ˛e CANIPA in the HPr “ their correspondent O‡IPA symbols 1.7. For all the articulations given in the HPr (with their unitary symbols), we thought it useful to add the corresponding oƒIPA çtranscriptionsÇ (given within ç Ç), in order to show their çcompositionÇ (almost as in chemical or algebraic formulae). ˛is will be useful both to understand the combinations of the few basic symbols with so many diacritics (even if we did not use all those which could have been necessary for absolute precision, although oƒIPA followers usually omit them in their approximate and vague transcriptions), and to highlight that it is unthinkable to do çdiacritical transcriptionsÇ, as all other çphonetic alphabetsÇ do. One of the fundamental criteria of the original IPA, in fact, was to avoid articulatory diacritics. ˛e cases where these two IPA systems coincide are indicated with (=); whereas a partial correspondence is marked with (=); the di‡erences, without diacritics, with (–). Let us recall that it is paramount to carefully observe the orograms, to constantly compare them, and to ﬁnd similarities also between symbols, by starting from the o‚cial ones, from which the others have been derived (although with useful modiﬁcations and some necessary substitutions). As we have already said, our ﬁrm intention is to avoid articulatory diacritics and prefer unitary symbols, instead. ˛is is also done to avoid that there may be second- or third-class symbols (and

42

a handbook of pronunciation

thus second- or third-class phones, as well), because they are accompanied by diacritics (which are not easy to combine accurately). Vocoids Spread/unrounded (i) (I) (e) (™) (E) (π)

ç(i)Ç (=) ç(I)Ç (=) ç(e)Ç (=) ç(ef ) or (EF )Ç ç(E)Ç (=) ç(a)Ç (–)

(Û) (¤) (Ù) (É) (Ä) (Å)

ç(i&) or (i]) or (…Ω)Ç ç(I&) or (I7)Ç ç(e& ) or (ÙΩ ) or (e7 )Ç ç(EZ ) or (eZ )Ç ç(aZ ) or (E7 ) or (E& )Ç ç(a7 ) or (a& )Ç

(…) (¢) (È) (‘) (å) (a)

ç(…)Ç (=) ç(…f) or (ÈHF )Ç ç(È) or (ÈF )Ç ç(‘)Ç (=) ç(å)Ç (=) ç(a7& ) or (åf )Ç

(M) (û) (X) (x) (√) (A)

ç(M 7 ) or (M Ω )Ç ç(M Z ) or (M Ëf ) or (M 7f ) or (‰7F )Ç ç(‰Ω) or (‰7)Ç ç(√Z ) or (√7F ) or (‰Z) or (‰7f )Ç ç(√Ω) or (√7 )Ç ç(AΩ ) or (A7 )Ç

(*) (ï) (Ú) (¢) (∏) (å)

ç(M)Ç (–) ç(M f ) or (‰f)Ç ç(‰)Ç (–) ç(‰f) or (√F )Ç ç(√)Ç (–) ç(A)Ç (–)

Rounded (Y) (è)

ç(y)Ç (–) ç(Y)Ç (–)

(∏) (π) (œ) (ì) (y) (Y) (°) (#) (§) (π)

ç(°)Ç (–) ç(°f ) or (§F )Ç ç(§)Ç (–) ç(π)Ç (–) ç(y7 ) or (y. )Ç ç(Y7 ) or (Y& )Ç ç(°7 ) or (°& )Ç ç(§Z ) or (§7F ) or (°Z ) or (°7f )Ç ç(§7 ) or (§& )Ç ç(π7 ) or (π& )Ç

(%) (T) (+) (ê) (@) (∏)

ç(%)Ç (=) ç(%f ) or (+F )Ç ç(+)Ç (=) ç(ê)Ç (=) ç(êf )Ç (–) ç(π7& )Ç (–)

(¯) (¨) (P) (Ö) (∏) (ù)

ç(u7 ) or (uΩ )Ç ç(U7 ) or (UΩ )Ç ç(o7 ) or (oΩ )Ç ç(OZ ) or (OFË ) or (oZ ) or (oËf )Ç ç(O7 ) or (OΩ )Ç ç(Ø7 ) or (ØΩ )Ç

(u) (U) (o) (ø) (O) (Ø)

ç(u)Ç (=) ç(U)Ç (=) ç(o)Ç (=) ç(OF ) or (of )Ç ç(O)Ç (=) ç(Ø)Ç (=)

Semi-rounded (¨) (˚) (W)

ç(ig ) or (yG)Ç ç(…g ) or (%G )Ç ç(M Ëg ) or (uËG )Ç

(Ù) (:) (w)

ç(Ig ) or (YG )Ç ç(I.g ) or (Y.G )Ç ç(M hg ) or (UËG )Ç

(È)

ç(eg ) or (°G )Ç

1. prelude (,) („)

ç(e.g ) or (ÙËg ) or (e7g )Ç ç(‰Ëg) or (oËG )Ç

(Í) (Ï) (∑)

ç(ehg ) or (EHg )Ç ç(‘g ) or (êG )Ç ç(√Zg ), (√7g@ ), (OZG ) or (O7@G )Ç…

(É) (†) (,)

ç(Eg ) or (§G )Ç ç(aZg ) or (§ .G )Ç ç(√Ëg ) or (√g7 ) or (OËG ) or (O7G )Ç

(Ω) (Ä) (a)

ç(aHg ) or (πHG )Ç ç(a:7g ) or (åhg ) or (π7:G )Ç ç(AËg ) or (A7g ) or (ØËG ) or (Ø7G )Ç

43 (/, \) ((/, Ñ)) (/, m) (/, ,)

ç(˙Xm)Ç ç(˙√)Ç ç(˙XnÎ )Ç ç(,)Ç (=)

Semi-nasal ((/, M)) ((/, ∫)) ((/, π)) ((/, n)) ((/, «))

ç(m f )Ç ç(nÎh )Ç ç(Nh )Ç ç(Nh )Ç ç(˙ Ωh )Ç

Stop

Contoids Nasal ({)}, m) (/, [) (/, m) (/, M) ((/, ‹)) (/, M) (/, “) (/, ") ((/, ˙)) ((/, n)) (/, N) ((/, º)) ((/, ª)) ({£}, n) ((/, ¸)) (/, n) (/, n) (/, N) ((/, n)) (/, ~) ((/, √)) (/, N) ((/, ∞)) ((/, ”)) (/, ˙)

ç(m= , m)Ç (–, =) ç(m„)Ç ç(mJ)Ç ç(mˆ„)Ç ç(M√)Ç ç(M)Ç (=) ç(MJ)Ç ç(Mˆ)Ç ç(nY ) or (nΩ )Ç ç(n& )Ç ç(nÎ „)Ç or ç(nÎXm)Ç ç(nÎ „)Ç ç(nÎ fJ „)Ç ç(nÎ≠ , nÎ )Ç (–, =) ç(nÎ √)Ç ç(nÎ ˆ)Ç ç(nÎ ˆ&)Ç ç(N )Ç (=) ç(n¥. )Ç ç(n¥ J)Ç ç(n¥ √J)Ç ç(N)Ç (=) ç(N. )Ç ç(˙Ë )Ç ç(˙)Ç (=)

(p, b) ((, {) (p, b) ((], 7)) (t, d) (t, d) ((4, 7)) (T, D) (˛, Ã) ((T, D)) ((t, d)) (+, _) (©, á) ((£, 8)) ((´, Ò)) (k, g) (›, /) (ö)

ç(p, b)Ç (=) ç(p„, b„)Ç ç(pJ, bJ)Ç ç(p√, b√)Ç ç(tY , dY )Ç ç(tˆ!, dˆ!)Ç ç(t:Y , d:Y )Ç ç(tÎ, dÎ )Ç ç(˛, Ã)Ç (=) ç(t:¥ J, d:¥ J)Ç ç(t:¥ J„, d:¥ J„)Ç ç(t¥J, d¥ J)Ç ç(©, á)Ç (=) ç(©& , .á)Ç ç(kΩ , gË )Ç ç(k, g)Ç (=) ç(›)Ç (=) ç(ö)Ç (=)

Stop-strictive (p, /) (∫, /) (‡, ƒ) (., …) (k, ›) (%, /) ((∞, )) (w, Ÿ) (∑, W)

ç(pXF)Ç ç(pXf)Ç ç(tx†, dx∑)Ç ç(t=ÎH#x< , dxÎ<#H )Ç ç(©XÂ, áXã)Ç ç(©XÂ: )Ç ç(kΩxx , gXË‚)Ç ç(kxx, gX‚)Ç ç(›XX, Gxº)Ç

44

a handbook of pronunciation

(k, K)

ç(›HH=XK , GxKH#)Ç

(q, Q) ((q, Q)) (ç, Ç) (ﬁ, ") (C, ‚) (c, G) (&, 1) ((C, G)) ((c, g)) ((v, ∆)) (⁄, Á) (Â, ©)

ç(tXsY , dXzY )Ç ç(tXs:Y , dXzY:)Ç ç(tXsÎ , dXzÎ )Ç ç(˛Xß, ÃXΩ)Ç ç(¥tXSJ, d¥ XZJ)Ç ç(¥tXS„, d¥ XZ„)Ç ç(¥tXS „g, d¥ XZ„g)Ç ç(¥:tXSJ, d:¥ XZJ)Ç ç(¥:tXS„, d:¥ XZ „)Ç ç(¥:tXS„g, d:¥ XZ„g)Ç ç(tXs¥ J, dXz¥ J)Ç ç(tXs¥ J„, dXz¥ J„)Ç

Stop-semi-constrictive (º, Ÿ) (˜, ‚) (ú, ∂)

ç(©XÂh , áhXã )Ç ç(kXxf , ghX‚)Ç ç(ftXß , dfXΩ)Ç

Constrictive (å, 6) (f, v) (5, ç) (f, v) ((w, W)) (†, ∑) (/, D) (Q, z) (P, p) (Â, J) ((…, /)) ((¢, Ú)) (x, Ÿ) (X, º) (h) (·)

ç(F, B)Ç (–) ç(f, v)Ç (=) ç(f„, v„)Ç ç(fJ, vJ)Ç ç(†Ω, ∑Ω )Ç ç(†, ∑)Ç (=) ç(∑ˆ& )Ç ç(H# , >#H )Ç ç(Â, ã)Ç (=, –) ç(Â. )Ç ç(xΩ , ‚Ë)Ç ç(x, ‚)Ç (=, =) ç(X, º)Ç (=) ç(…)Ç (–) ç(h)Ç (–)

(s, z) ((s, z)) (†, Ã) (ß, ﬁ) (ß, Ω) (∑)

ç(sY , zY )Ç ç(s& , z& )Ç ç(sˆ& , zˆ&)Ç ç(sÎ , zÎ )Ç ç(ß, Ω)Ç (=) ç(ßˆ)Ç

(ë, ò) (S, Z) («, ») ((X, 5)) ((x, ç)) ((‹, ¶)) (., ÷) (/, \) (S, q) (À, =) (¿, B)

ç(S¥J, Z¥J)Ç ç(S¥„, Z¥„)Ç ç(S¥„g , Z¥„g )Ç ç(S¥:J , Z¥:J)Ç ç(S¥:„, Z¥:„)Ç ç(S¥:„g , Z¥:„g )Ç ç(S¥:ˆΩ , Z¥:ˆΩ )Ç ç(S¥:ˆΩ„, Z¥:ˆΩ„)Ç ç(S¥:ˆ„, Z¥:ˆ „)Ç ç(s¥ J, z¥ J)Ç ç(s¥ J„, z¥ J„)Ç

Semi-constrictive (ƒ, √) (/, , ) (/, y) (/, m)

ç(ff , vf )Ç ç(ã° )Ç ç(‚h)Ç ç(‚h„)Ç

(∂, d) (À, ö)

ç(shY , zYh )Ç ç(S¥hJ, Z¥hJ)Ç

Approximant (F, B) (/, V) (/, ¶) (/, ◊) (Ï, ƒ) (/, ⁄) (â, j) (/, ¥) (Õ, j) (/, µ) (/, °) (∆, V) (W, w) (˜, ˜) (x, ‰) (/, H)

ç(F§ , Bf)Ç ç(V)Ç (=) ç(V„)Ç ç(Vˆ& )Ç ç(†:f , ∑:f )Ç ç(ΩÎh )Ç ç(Âh) o (ª), (j)Ç (–, =) ç(¥. )Ç ç(ª:], :]j) or (µ Ω]+ , µ Ω7 )Ç ç(µ Ω )Ç ç(w Ω )Ç ç(µ = , µ)Ç (–) ç(', w)Ç (–, =) ç(Xh , ºf )Ç ç(Xh /, ºf /)Ç ç(Hf )Ç

Semi-approximant (/, ã) (/, %) (/, F)

ç(°j)Ç ç(¥f. )Ç ç(j:]f) or (µ ]fË )Ç

1. prelude (/, =) (/, j)

ç(µ Ωh )Ç ç(w f )Ç

Laryngeal approximant (h, H) (/, ·) (+) (´) (±) (=) (≠)

ç(hf , Hf )Ç ç(Hf „)Ç ç(hî≠ J)Ç ç(hî≠ ˆ)Ç ç(' î≠ )Ç ç(hî≠ )Ç ç(hî≠ „)Ç

45 ∫ap ({Ó}, [) ({V}, e)* (/, ®)

ç(Í˘, ˘R )Ç ç(Í˘ˆ, ˘R ˆ)Ç ç(#˘ )Ç

Constrictive trill (º, ˜)

ç(K#=H , K#H )Ç

Lateralized ﬂap (r, m) (◊ , ©)

ç(R:ÎË± &, R:ÎË&)Ç ç((R:ÎË± &ˆ, R:ÎË&ˆ)Ç

Lateralized approximant (+ 2 semi-…) (/, S) (/, Ã) (/, ¸) (/, Í) (/, >) (/, ˛) (/, <) (/, <) (/, ‰)

ç(VX< &„)Ç ç(∑¥§ &)Ç ç(<Î &)Ç ç(<< &)Ç ç(<< &„)Ç ç(<< &ˆ„)Ç ç(µXΩ < &„)Ç ç(µ<X &ˆ< „)Ç ç(µX hΩ < &„)Ç

Trill (/, r) (/, 5)* (/, 5) ({{}, D) ({'}, K)

ç(rÎ )Ç ç(rÎ ˆ)Ç ç(rÎ ˆ&)Ç ç(r¥+ J, ¥r J)Ç ç(K= , K)Ç (–, =)

Tap ({5}, R) (/, R)* (/, R) (/, e) ({[}, ç) ({3}, r)

ç(RÎ+ , ÎR )Ç ç(RÎ ˆ)Ç ç(RÎ <ˆ )Ç ç(#)Ç (–) ç(R¥+ J, ¥R J)Ç ç(KW+ , KW )Ç

(Bi)lateral ((/, l)) ((/, Ï)) ((/, R)) ({a}, l) ({ñ}, ı) ({Ü}, ]) (/, ∞) ((/, l)) (/, $) ((L)) ({Ñ}, ¬) (/, L) (/, ı)

ç(lY)Ç ç(lYˆ) or (ıY)Ç ç(lY:)Ç ç(lÎ≠ , Îl )Ç ç(l≠Îˆ), (lÎ ˆ) or (ıÎ), (ıÎ≠)Ç ç(lÎ≠fˆ), (l§Îˆ) or (ıÎ§), (ıÎ≠f)Ç ç(lÎ ˆ„) or (ıÎ „)Ç ç(lÎ <ˆ) or (ı:Î )Ç ç($)Ç (=) ç(l:¥ J)Ç ç(l¥≠ J, ¥l J)Ç ç(L)Ç (=) ç(ì)Ç (–)

Unilateral (/, ô) (/, |) (/, ÷)

ç(l@Î )Ç ç(l@Î ˆΩ)Ç ç(l@Î ˆ)Ç

Tap(ped) lateral (/, ¬) (/, »)

ç(à)Ç (–) ç(àÎ:)Ç

Semilateral (/, ù) (/, §)

ç(ıf)Ç ç(ıf „)Ç

2. English 2.0. In this chapter we will deal with the American and British neutral accents (or çstandard accentsÇ). We will also make a teaching proposal for an çinternationalÇ accent of English that could usefully be employed in pronunciation books and pronouncing dictionaries (and in common dictionaries, too), as well as in everyday teaching. ˛e kind of transcription we use is dia#onemic˚ expressly devised for this kind of description, together with its corresponding #onetic and #onotonetic transcriptions. Furthermore, we will also consider the American and British çmediaticÇ accents (from non-local †√ “ radio), which are now as frequently heard as the neutral ones, in the news, in the movies, and in songs. To conclude, we will describe (without going into great detail, mainly by using our usual accurate symbols and many diagrams) some other accents (with internal variations): those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and England (for the latter we will give the traditional, a‡ected, and Cockney accents). In a book in progress –E«li´ Pronunciation*– we will deal with all the native accents of English all over the world (including many non-native accents), by working directly on a substantial number of recordings, as well. 2.1. It will be useful to list the correspondences between our diaphonemic symbols and the phonemic symbols used in recent dictionaries, and especially in the three current English pronouncing dictionaries (Longman, Cambridge, Oxford). ˛ese do not always agree for certain aspects, but we show them (between ç Ç) after the diaphonemes, with examples. Vowels /i/ ç/i, I/Ç lady /'lEIdi/ ('l™IDi) /I/ ç/I/Ç bit /'bIt/ ('b¤T) /E/ ç/e, E/Ç let /'lEt/ ('l™T) /π/ ç/π, a/Ç hat /'hπt/ ('hπT) /√/ ç/√, È/Ç hut /'h√t/ ('h√T)a ('håT)b /Ø/ ç/O, A:, A/Ç hot /'hØt/ ('hAT)a ('hØT)b /U/ ç/U/Ç book /'bUk/ ('b¨k) /u/ ç/u, U/Ç inﬂuenza /Influ'EnzÈ/ (&¤Mfl¯'™nz√)a (-å)b /È/ ç/È/Ç ano`er /È'n√∑È≤/ (È'n√∑≥)a (È'nå∑å)b˚ contain /kÈn'tEIn/ (khûn'Th™;In) /A:/ ç/A:, A/Ç spa /'spA:/ ('spA:) /O:/ ç/O:, O/Ç law /'lO:/ ('lO:)a ('lø:)b /Ii/ ç/i:, i/Ç see /'sIi/ ('sI;i)

/EI/ ç/eI/Ç dZ /'dEI/ ('D™;I) /aE/ ç/aI, √I/Ç ﬂy /'flaE/ ('fla;Ù) /OE/ ç/OI/Ç boy /'bOE/ ('bø;Ù) /aO/ ç/aU/Ç cow /'kaO/ ('kha;Ö) /OU/ ç/ÈU, oU/Ç go /'gOU/ ('gø;¨)a ('g‘;¨)b /Uu/ ç/u:, u/Ç who /'hUu/ ('hU;u)a ('h¯;u)b /¢/ ç/I, È, ¢, î/Ç wi´es /'wIS¢z/ ('w¤SÈΩ)a ('w¤S¤Ω)b /π;/ ç/π, A:/Ç last /'lπ;st/ ('lπsT)a ('lA;sT)b /A;/ ç/A:, π/Ç pasta /'pA;stÈ/ ('phA;sT√)a ('phπsTå)b /Ø;/ ç/Ø, O:/Ç so« /'sØ;˙/ ('sO:˙)a ('sØ;˙)b /O;/ ç/O:, Ø/Ç false /'fO;ıs/ ('fO;ıs, 'fAıs)a ('fø;ıs, 'fØıs)b /È;/ ç/√r, !:, ‘:r, Èr, ò/Ç hurry /'hÈ;i)b

2. english /È:i)b /È:≤/ ç/‘:, È:, ‘:r, Èr, !:/Ç fur /'fÈ:≤/ ('f≥:)a ('f‘:)b /A:≤/ ç/A:, A:r/Ç car /'kA:≤/ ('khA:<)a ('khA:)b /O:≤/ ç/O:, O:r/Ç door /'dO:≤/ ('Dø:<)a ('Dø:)b /È≤/ ç/Èr, ÈÍ, ær, …r, ò/Ç wonder /'w√ndÈ≤/ ('w√nD≥)a ('wånDå)b /iÈ≤/ ç/iÈ, IÈ, iÈr, IÈr, IÈÍ, iÈÍ, i…r, iò/Ç happier /'hπpiÈ≤/ ('hπpi≥)a ('hπpiå)b /IÈ≤/ ç/IÈ, IÈr, Ir, IÈÍ, I…r, Iò/Ç here /'hIÈ≤/ ('hI;≥)a ('h¤;å)b /EÈ≤/ ç/eÈ, E:, er, Er, eÈÍ, e…r, Eò/Ç `ere /'∑EÈ≤/ ('∑™;≥)a ('∑™;‘)b /UÈ≤/ ç/UÈ, UÈr, Ur, UÈÍ, U…r, Uò/Ç moor /'mUÈ≤/ ('mU;≥)a ('m¨;å)b (with further pronunciations) /uÈ≤/ ç/uÈ, UÈ, uÈr, UÈr, uò, uÈÍ, UÈÍ, u…r, u:ò/Ç rescuer /'<EskjuÈ≤/ ('<™skj¯≥)a ('<™skj¯å)b /IiÈ≤/ ç/i:È, i:Èr, i:ò, i:ÈÍ, i:…r, i:ò/Ç seer /'sIiÈ≤/ ('sIi≥)a ('sIiå)b /EIÈ≤/ ç/eIÈ, eIÈr, eIò, eIÈÍ, eI…r, eIò/Ç plZer /'plEIÈ≤/ ('phl™I≥)a ('phl™Iå)b /aEÈ≤/ ç/aIÈ, √IÈ, aIÈr, aIò, aIÈÍ, aI…r, aIò/Ç liar /'laEÈ≤/ ('laÙ≥)a ('laÙå)b /OEÈ≤/ ç/OIÈ, OIÈr, OIò, OIÈÍ, OI…r, OIò/Ç employer /Im'plOEÈ≤/ (¤m'phløÙ≥)a (¤m'phløÙå)b /aOÈ≤/ ç/aUÈ, aUÈr, aUò, aUÈÍ, aU…r, aUò/Ç tower /'taOÈ≤/ ('ThaÖ≥)a ('ThaÖå)b /OUÈ≤/ ç/ÈUÈ, oUÈr, oUò, oUÈÍ, oU…r/Ç slower /'slOUÈ≤/ ('slø¨≥)a ('sl‘¨å)b /UuÈ≤/ ç/u:È, u:Èr, u:ò, u:ÈÍ, u:…r/Ç doer /'dUuÈ≤/ ('DUu≥)a ('D¯uå)b /˘¤˙, -NÃ>¤˙)b /I˘¤˙)b /E˘¤˙)b /U˘¤˙)b (with f. pron.) /Œ/ ç/È, e, E/Ç dictionary /'dIkSÈnŒi)b

47 /K:/ ç/È, O:/Ç repertory /'<EpÈ≤tK:™pÈTÈ>i, -È˛>i)b /È/ ç/U, È, T, ÿ/Ç regular /'<EgjÈlÈ≤/ ('<™gjÈl≥)a ('>™gj¨lå, -gjÈ-)b Consonants /m/ ç/m/Ç some /'s√m/ ('s√m:)a ('såm:)b /n/ ç/n/Ç sun /'s√n/ ('s√n:)a ('sån:)b /˙/ ç/˙/Ç su« /'s√˙/ ('s√˙:)a ('så˙:)b /õ/ ç/æm, …m, m/Ç rhy`m /'-)b /ó/ ç/æn, …n, n/Ç cotton /'kØtó/ ('khATó)a ('khØ-)b /p/ ç/p/Ç pa$ /'pπk/ ('phπk) /b/ ç/b/Ç ba$ /'bπk/ ('bπk) /t/ ç/t/Ç ‘o /'tUu/ ('ThU;u)a ('Th¯;u)b /d/ ç/d/Ç do /'dUu/ ('DU;u)a ('D¯;u)b /k/ ç/k/Ç came /'kEIm/ ('kh™;Im) /g/ ç/g/Ç game /'gEIm/ ('g™;Im) /c/ ç/tS/Ç >ain /'cEIn/ ('ch™;In) /G/ ç/dZ/Ç Jane /'GEIn/ ('G™;In) /f/ ç/f/Ç f[ /'fjUu/ ('fj¯;u) /v/ ç/v/Ç vi[ /'vjUu/ ('vj¯;u) /†/ ç/†/Ç wreath /'Ii†)b /∑/ ç/∑/Ç wreathe /'I;i„)b /s/ ç/s/Ç ice /'aEs/ ('aÙs) /z/ ç/z/Ç \es /'aEz/ ('a;ÙΩ) /S/ ç/S/Ç dilution /d¢'lUuS˘n/ (DÈ'lUuSÈn)a (D¤'l¯uSó)b /Z/ ç/Z/Ç delusion /d¢'lUuZ˘n/ (DÈ'lUuZÈn)a (D¤'l¯uZó)b /™IT)b /j/ ç/j/Ç yate /'jEIt/ ('j™IT) /w/ ç/w/Ç wait /'wEIt/ ('w™IT) /h/ ç/h/Ç hate /'hEIt/ ('h™IT) /l/ ç/l/Ç late /'lEIt/ ('l™IT) /ù/ ç/t, ÿ/Ç ci“ /'sIùi/ ('s¤[i)a ('s¤Ti)b /≤/ ç/–, r/Ç car /'kA:≤/ ('khA:<)a ('khA:)b /ˆ/ ç/j, –/Ç n[ /'nˆUu/ ('nU;u)a ('nj¯;u)b /·/ ç/h, –/Ç when /'·wEn/ ('w™n:÷ 'hw™n:÷ 'W™n:) /ı/ ç/l/Ç lull /'l√ı/ ('l,ı:)a ('l√ı:)b /®/ ç/l/Ç little /'lIù®/ ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b

48

a handbook of pronunciation

Vowels 2.1.1. English has a high number of vowel phonemes, so it may be advisable to subdivide them into groups, rather than keeping them all together. ˛is is also useful to make easier comparisons with other languages, and to avoid possible confusions. ˛e essential English vowel phonemes are: (short and long) mono#`o«s /I, E, π, A:, √, Ø, O:, U, È:, È/ and di#`o«s /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/. Furthermore, there are some dia#onemes\ /π;, A;, Ø;, O;, È;/, and unstressed /i, u, ¢/ (plus some other possible devices). But, in the volume English Pronunciation˙ ˚ instead of /Ii, Uu÷ π;, A;, Ø;, O;, È;÷ √/, we use /ii, uu÷ X, [:, ], r:, ˘:÷ å/, which are more convenient. We deﬁnitely prefer to deal with English pronunciation in a diaphonemic way. It is important to show especially what the American and British accents have in common, so that their structural di‡erences are made clearer and more natural. American monophthongs 2.1.2.1. û 2.1 shows the American monophthongs (the British ones are given in û 2.2). Let us start from the eight bla$ markers, which indicate the realizations of the following eight vowel phonemes (in stressed or unstressed syllables): (¤) /I/, (™) /E/, (π) /π/, (A:) /A:/, (A) /Ø/, (√) /√/, (O:) /O:/, (¨) /U/. Although in the çmediaticÇ American accent (Ô § 2.4.2.2) /A:/ and /Ø/ are often neutralized –because they can both be realized as (A[:])– in the neutral American accent we keep them apart, for three good reasons. ≈rstly, they are in actual fact di‡erent, even if chieﬂy only in terms of length. Furthermore, in this way we can keep a diaphonemic relation with the British neutral accent. And ﬁnally, this will help us in highlighting the characteristics of other accents, starting from comparable bases, although they are actually shared only by a minority of speakers. Let us stress, in fact, that a neutral pronunciation is always learned voluntarily. Let us now illustrate the phonemes in û 2.1. It must be recalled that the transcriptions, including phonemic ones, bear a stress mark, even for monosyllabic words, unless they are usually unstressed in sentences, like the preposition in /In/ (¤n), compared to the adverb in /'In/ ('¤n:), or to the noun inn /'In/ ('¤n:)): ('h¤T) /'hIt/ hit, ('j™s) /'jEs/ yes, ('mπ;n) /'mπn/ man, ('fA;∑≥) /'fA:∑È≤/ fa`er, ('lAT) /'lØt/ lot, ('<√n:) /'<√n/ run, ('lO:n) /'lO:n/ lYn, ('ph¨T) /'pUt/ put. For the sake of descriptive precision, although generally variations do not require di‡erent symbols, it is worthwhile to notice the taxophones of /Iı, Eı, πı, √ı, Uı/; please note the two that change their symbols as well, in comparison with (™, √): ('bEı:, 'h,ı:) /'bEı, 'h√ı/ bell˚ hull. 2.1.2.2. ˛e gr\ markers in the vocogram also show three variants of /I, U, O:/ (I, U, ø:) (compared to normal (¤, ¨, O:)). ˛ey occur in (stressed or unstressed) syllables checked by /≤/: (I≥) /IÈ≤/, ([j]U≥) /[j]UÈ≤/, (ø:<) /O:≤/. ˛ere are no di‡erences in terms of the nuclear element (or, perhaps, çnuclealÇ element) in (™≥) /EÈ≤/, (A:<) /A:≤/, because they coincide with the black markers for /E, A:/ (™, A:). Instead, the

2. english

49

typical American realization of /È:≤/ is through an intense contoid (≥:), rather than a vocoid as in British pronunciation ((‘:)). Examples: ('hI;≥) /'hIÈ≤/ here, ('phjU;≥) /'pjUÈ≤/ pure, ('Dø:<) /'dO:≤/ door, ('∑™;≥) /'∑EÈ≤/ `ere, ('fA:<) /'fA:≤/ far, ('f≥:) /'fÈ:≤/ fur˘ A possible pronunciation with (¤≥, ¨≥) (instead of (I≥, U≥), for /IÈ≤, UÈ≤/} does not sound strange, although it is not the most frequently heard. For /O:-)b /'bO:¤˙)b /'hI˘¤˙)b /'bE˘¤˙)b /'dˆU˘
f

F

‡

/π[ı]/ (π, πı), /π
/ué/ (¯) /U[ı]/ (¨, ¨ı), /UÈ≤/ (U≥), /U˘
f

/iò, ié/ (i) /I[ı]/ (¤, ¤ı), /IÈ≤/ (I≥), /I˘
2.1.2.3. ˛e four white markers show the unstressed realizations of the remaining three phonemes: (i) /i/, (¯) /u/, (È, û) /È/. ˛ey occur in the following contexts – /i/ at the end of lexemes: ('l™IDi[Ω]) /'lEIdi[z]/ lady˚ ladies, ('™ni&†¤˙) /'Eni†I˙/ aJ`i«, and before vowels: (
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ﬁnal /È/ before a pause (even a short one), is realized as if it were the (unstressed) phoneme /√/; however, if a pause is not there, this does not occur. 2.1.2.4. In certain types of diaphonemic transcription, it would certainly be better to use precisely this notation. Let us make this fact clear at once, with suitable examples in phonetic and (dia)phonemic transcriptions, in order to avoid any unintentional misunderstandings. In the plural, we have: ('sø¨fÈΩ)a ('s‘¨fÈΩ)b /'sOUfÈz/ sofas˚ even when not in an intoneme: (h≥'ßø¨fÈ wûz'ø;¨ıﬂ, -fû wÇ-)a (hÈ's‘¨fÈ wûz'Ö;¨ıﬂ, -fû wÇ-)b /hÈ≤'sOUfÈ wÈz'OUıd/ her sofa was old (Ô § 2.1.3.4). On the other hand, if we introduce even a simple continuative intoneme, with a short pause, we have: (¤pwûz[h]≥'ßø¨f√2\ ∑Èpwûz'ø¨ıﬂ)a (¤pwûz[h]È's‘¨få2\ ∑Èpwûz'Ö;¨ıﬂ)b /ItwÈz[h]È≤'sOUfÈ,\ ∑ÈtwÈz'OUıd/ it was her sofa `at was old. ˛us, this is what happens to /È./, /È?/, /È÷/ /È,/, (¤ with intonemes and pauses of any length). ˛e same is true, but only in the neutral British accent, of /È≤./, /È≤?/, /È≤÷/, /È≤,/: ('D¤;å)b /'dIÈ≤/ dear, ('s™nDå)b /'sEndÈ≤/ sender˘ Instead, for /EÈ≤/, the modern neutral pronunciation has (™‘): ('kh™;‘)b /'kEÈ≤/ care˘ One generation ago, it was ('kh™;å)b; while, earlier than that, it was ('khE;å)b; still earlier, it was ('khE;√)b; and before that, ('khπ;√)b – but let us close this micro-diachronic digression. ˛e second taxophone of /È/, (û), occurs in contact with /k, g, ˙÷ w, ı/ (as they are velar, or at least have a velar component): ('bπk û'g™n:÷ -™;In) /'bπk È'gE[I]n/ ba$ again, (khûn'Th™;In) /kÈn'tEIn/ contain, (Thû'gø;¨)a (-‘;¨)b /tÈ'gOU/ to go, ('s¤˙ û'sO:˙, 'sA;˙)a (-Ø;˙)b /'s¤˙ È'sØ;˙/ si« a so«, (∑û'w¤n:ﬂ) /∑È'wInd/ `e wind, ('™I~G®, -Gûı) /'EInG®, -GÈı/ a«el˘ As can be seen from the vocograms, (û) substantially is (¨) with no lip rounding (and the symbol itself makes this quite clear). However, in these cases (È) could be used, without great problems, as is done by some native speakers. On the other hand, the correct articulation may be produced, spontaneously, even by foreigners, when they are able to adequately reproduce all the other phones that realize the English phonemes. British monophthongs (and centering diphthongs) 2.1.3.1. Let us now consider the corresponding vocogram for the Briti´ accent (û 2.2). Here we have nine bla$ markers (for nine either stressed or unstressed phonemes): (¤) /I/, (™) /E/, (π) /π/, (A:) /A:/, (Ø) /Ø/, (å) /√/, (ø:) /O:/, (¨) /U/, (‘:) /È:≤/. We ﬁnd: ('h¤T) /'hIt/ hit, ('j™s) /'jEs/ yes, ('mπ;n) /'mπn/ man, ('fA;∑å) /'fA:∑È≤/ fa`er, ('fA:) /'fA:≤/ far, ('lØT) /'lØt/ lot, ('>ån:) /'<√n/ run, ('lø:n) /'lO:n/ lYn, ('Dø:) /'dO:≤/ door, ('ph¨T) /'pUt/ put˚ and ('w‘:ﬂ) /'wÈ:≤d/ word (for American English, of course, this last word was in the group of /≤/, as we have seen above). If we consider far`er˚ /'fA:≤∑È≤/, we can see that it is pronounced exactly as fa`er˚ ('fA;∑å) (with no /≤/ pronounced), while in American English both r /≤/ are realized: ('fA;<∑≥). For an American pronunciation like ('fA;∑≥), for far`er, and other words, see below: di˛imilation (§ 2.3.3.5). Let us quickly add that even for (ø:) /O:≤/, as in ('wø:[Ω]) /'wO:≤[z]/ war(s)˚ by now,

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pronunciations like ('wø;å, 'wø;‘Ω) are old-fashioned (or regional). For /Iı, Eı, πı, √ı, Uı/ we have some modiﬁcations, with an actual change only for two of them: ('Å;ı, 'h√ı:) /'πı, 'h√ı/ Al˚ hull (in comparison with (π, å)). û 2.2. British monophthongs.

f

/iò, ié/ (i) /I/ (¤), /Iı/ (¤ı) /¢/ = /I/ (¤) f

/E[ı]/ (™, ™ı) /√[ı]/ (å, √ı) /π[ı]/ (π, Åı), /π;/ (A:)

/ué/ (¯) /U[ı]/ (¨, ¨ı) ‡ /È[≤]/ (È, û*, åò|) /O:/ (ø:), /O;/ (ø:, Ø) /È:), /È:≤/ (‘:), /È;) /Ø/ (Ø), /Ø;/ (Ø) /A:/ (A:), /A;/ (π)

2.1.3.2. For British English, /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/ are given in û 2.3: ('h¤;å) /'hIÈ≤/ here, ('phj¨;å) /'pjUÈ≤/ pure, ('∑™;‘) /'∑EÈ≤/ `ere˘ We have already seen that in British English a simple vocoid, with no contoid, occurs in cases like ('f‘:) /'fÈ:≤/ fur˘ It is to be noticed that, in this type of pronunciation, the phonemic sequence /[j]UÈ≤/, by this time, is almost exclusively substituted with its variant /[j]O:≤/: ('phjø:÷ 'phj¨;å) pure, ('phø:÷ 'ph¨;å) poor, ('Sø:÷ 'S¨;å) sure˘ It is curious to note that, in the British pronunciation of the sixties, a similar trend was very strong, but it soon stopped: ('phj‘:, 'khj‘;>iÈs, ¤n'Dj‘;>Èns, 'Dj‘;>¤˙, 'S‘:) pure˚ curious˚ endurance˚ during˚ sure (at that time, of course, the neutral pronunciation had (¤é) ç/Ié/Ç for modern (ié) /ié/: ('khj‘;>¤Ès), curious). Another curiosity is that, in the ﬁrst half of the twentieth century, the same pronunciation (j‘:) /jÈ:≤/ (which today no longer occurs, except as an old-fashioned variant) was a variant of /IÈ≤, I˘Èns÷ 'khlj‘;>Èns) clearance÷ however, it still remains as a secondary variant in ('j¤;å÷ 'j‘:) year˘ 2.1.3.3. Also in the British accent, the four white markers show the realizations of the remaining phonemes, always in unstressed positions: (i) /i/, (¯) /u/, (È, û) /È/. ˛ey occur in the same contexts – /i/ at the end of a lexeme: ('l™IDi[Ω]) /'lEIdi[z]/ lady˚ ladies, ('™ni&†¤˙) /'Eni†I˙/ aJ`i«, and before a vowel: (>i'πkT) /Èf‘Ω) /fÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤z/ #otogra#ers ((fÈ'ThAg<Èf≥Ü)a)˚ ('>¤cÈﬂ) /'ard (('<¤c≥ﬂ)a), (Thû'g‘;¨) /tÈ'gOU/ to go ((Thû'gø;¨)a). Of course, we also ﬁnd (å|) /È, È≤/ (before pauses): ('s‘¨få) /'sOUfÈ/ sofa {('sø¨f√)a}, ('A;fTå) /'π;ftÈ≤/ after {('π[;]fT≥)a}. 2.1.3.4. However, in British pronunciation, /È/ has another –rather important– taxophone, (‘). Phonetically, it is the short version of /È:/ (‘:), and occurs for /È≤ò/ followed by the grammemes /zò, dò/, and for non-prepausal /È≤ò/ (while, if /È≤ò/ is ﬁnal before a pause, it becomes (å)).

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So we ﬁnd: ('fA;∑‘Ω) {('fA;∑≥Ü)a} fa`ers and fa`er's˚ ('A;ns‘ﬂ) {('π[;]ns≥ﬂ)a} an~ered÷ and (∑È'phl™Z‘z&maÙn÷ -‘>¤-÷ 'ma;Ùn) {(-≥ﬁ-÷ -≥¤z-÷ 'm-)a} `e pleasure is mine˚ (È'nå∑‘ 'g‘;ı) {(-√∑≥ 'g≥:ı, 'g≥;®)a} ano`er girl˘ In addition to /È≤ò/, this happens to non-prepausal /Èò/ as well (also in American English, generally only up to (È), with no need to use (‘)): (Åı'phπk‘ 'kh‘¨T) {(-È 'khø¨T)a} alpaca coat –so, as can be seen, (‘) occurs, even near a /k/ Â, instead of (û), Ô (aÉı'phπk û'kh‘¨T) {(û'khø¨T)a} I'll pa$ a coat]– but: (Åı'phπkå|) {(πı'phπk√|)a} alpaca˘ However, even this taxophone can be represented by the usual realization of /È/: (È), as many native speakers do. As a matter of fact, compared to (û), this other taxophone may be less important and almost exclusively limited to the British accent. Both in American and in Briti´ English, but with a traditional or regional connotation, /i, u/ may be realized as if they were /I, U/: ('l™ID¤[Ω]), ('™n¤&†¤˙), (<¤'πkT)a (>¤'πkT)b, (&s¤c¨'™ISÈn)a (-Só)b˚ (Th¨'πıG¤)a (-Åı-)b. A possible compromise is (Ií) for /i/: (-DI[Ω], '™nI-, I-b, -GI). On the other hand, in American English /ué/ = /Èwé/ is quite frequent, too: (&s¤c¯'™ISÈn, &s¤cû'w™ISÈn), ('vπ¬¯¤˙, 'vπ¬jûw¤˙) (('vπ¬j¯¤˙)b) /'vπljuI˙/ valui«, and /’OUé/ = /Èwé/ as well: ('fAlø¨¤˙, 'fAlûw¤˙) (('fØl‘¨¤˙)b) /'fØlOUI˙/ followi«, ('SπDø¨i, -Dûwi) ((-D‘¨i)b) /'SπdOUi/ ´adowy˘ 2.1.3.5. It is useful to recall here (although this is also true of the preceding cases of /È≤/) that, in neutral British pronunciation (as well as Oceanian and South African), the normal realization of /È≤/ is (È): (phÈ'fø;mÈns) /pÈ≤'fO:≤mÈns/ performance˚ (&πsÈ'Th™;In) /πsÈ≤'tEIn/ ascertain˚ (hÈ'håzbÈnﬂ) /hÈ≤'h√zbÈnd/ her husband˘ Of course, this holds good unless in absolute ﬁnal position before a pause, (å|), or ﬁnal in a rhythm group, or with the grammemes /zò, dò/, (‘ò, ‘Ωò, ‘ﬂò): ('h¤È>¤˙) /'hI˘ Èn'∑™;‘) /'hIÈ≤ Èn{d}'∑EÈ≤/ here and `ere˘ ˛e modern neutral British pronunciation of /EÈ≤/ does not change any longer according to context, but it is always (™‘) (with a strong tendency to a long monophthong, through (™É), up to ç(™:) /E:/Ç, as has, for a few generations, already happened to the previous ç/OÈ≤/Ç): ('b™;‘[Ω]) /'bEÈ≤[z]/ bear(s)˘ For /A:≤, È:≤, O:≤/, as we have seen, /≤/ is lost and realized through a çzeroÇ phone, (`): ('khA:[Ω]) /'kA:≤[z]/ car(s), ('f‘:[Ω]) /'fÈ:≤[z]/ fur(s), ('Dø:[Ω]) /'dO:≤[z]/ door(s). In absolute ﬁnal position and before pauses, we ﬁnd: ('b¤;å|) /'bIÈ≤|/ beer, ('khj¨;å|) (and (-jø:|)) /'kjUÈ≤|/ cure and (fÈ'ThØg>Èfå|) /fÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤|/ #otogra#er˘ But, if ﬁnal in a rhythm group, we have: (È'b¤;‘ fÈ'mI;i) {(È'bI;≥ f≥'mI;i)a} /È'bIÈ≤ fÈ≤û 2.3. British /éÈ/ diphthongs. /IÈ, IÈ≤, I˘é, ¤‘z+, ¤‘D+, ¤å+|) /EÈ≤, E˘é, a‘z+, a‘D+, aå+|)

/új/ˆûUÈ, -UÈ≤, -U˘é, újû¨‘z+, újû¨‘D+, újû¨å+|) (+ /újûO:≤, -é, a‘z+, a‘D+, aå+|) {+ "/AÈ/& (AÈ>é, A‘z+, A‘D+, Aå+|)}

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'mIi/ a beer for me, (&∑πk'khj¨;È> '¤zô 'g¨;ﬂ, -jø:> '¤z-) {(&∑πk'khjU;≥ '¤zô 'g¨;ﬂ, -j≥: '¤z-)a} /∑πt'kjUÈ≤ 'Izót 'gUd/ `at cure isn't good, (∑ÈfÈ'ThØg>Èf‘ 'D¤D¤T) ((∑ÈfÈ'ThAg<Èf≥ 'D¤D¤T)a) /∑ÈfÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤ 'dIdIt/ `e #otogra#er did it. Diphthongs 2.1.4.1. Let us now consider the seven phonemic diphthongs of American English. ˛ey have ten realizations, which are necessary for a good pronunciation (û 2.4). ˛e bla$ markers stand for the seven phonemes, while the three gr\ ones show taxophones, or contextual variants. Meanwhile, we will see: (Ii) /Ii/, (™I) /EI/, (aÙ) /aE/, (øÙ) /OE/, (aÖ) /aO/, (ø¨) /OU/, (Uu) /Uu/: ('ThI;i) /'tIi/ tea, ('D™;I) /'dEI/ dZ, ('ha;Ù) /'haE/ high, ('bø;Ù) /'bOE/ boy, ('na;Ö) /'naO/ now, ('gø;¨) /'gOU/ go, ('hU;u) /'hUu/ who˘ Besides, we need: (iIı) /Iiı/, (j¯u) /jUu/, (Uu, ¯u) /ˆUu/, ([j]uUı) /[j]Uuı/: ('fi;Iı, 'fiI®) /'fIiı/ feel, ('j¯u†) /'jUu†/ you`, ('nU;u, 'n¯;u) /'nˆUu/ n[, ('ju;Uı, 'juU®) /'jUuı/ yule, ('khu;Uı, 'khuU®) /'kUuı/ cool˘ ˛e other diphthongs, even if followed by /ı/, do not change much their components, apart from those with front second elements; besides (except for /OU/, which has only /ı/, in neutral pronunciation), they freely ﬂuctuate between /ı/ and /®/ (with a possible realization of /®/ as /Èı/ (ûı)): ('s™;¤ı, 's™¤®) /'sEIı/ sail, ('fa;Éı, 'faÉ®) /'faEı/ ﬁle, ('bø;Éı, 'bøÉ®) /'bOEı/ boil, ('fa;Öı, 'faÖı) /'faOı/ fowl÷ but only ('sø;¨ı) /'sOUı/ soul. û 2.4. American diphthongs. /Iiı/ (iIı) /Ii/ (Ii)

/jUu/ (j¯u, jUu) /[ˆ]Uu/ (Uu, ¯u), /[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j/`]uUı)

/EI[ı]/ (™I, ™¤ı)

/OU[ı]/ (ø¨[ı]) /OE[ı]/ (øÙ, øÉı)

/aO[ı]/ (aÖ[ı])

/aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)

2.1.4.2. For the corresponding Briti´ diphthongs, we ﬁnd seven fundamental types, plus six taxophones. ˛e modern pronunciation di‡ers only slightly from the more traditional one (and so there is little di‡erence from the American one) for /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO/ and for /Iiı/, too, as can be seen better through a careful comparison between the British (û 2.5) and the American (û 2.4) vocograms. But there is a bigger di‡erence for /Uu, OU/ and /Uuı, OUı/. Indeed, we have: ('ThI;i) /'tIi/ tea, ('D™;I) /'dEI/ dZ, ('ha;Ù) /'haE/ high, ('bø;Ù) /'bOE/ boy, ('na;Ö) /'naO/ now, and also: ('fi;Iı, 'fiI®) /'fIiı/ feel, ('s™;¤ı, 's™¤®) /'sEIı/ sail, ('fa;Éı, 'faÉ®) /'faEı/ ﬁle, ('bø;Éı, 'bøÉ®) /'bOEı/ boil, but only: ('fa;Öı) /'faOı/ fowl, ('ju;Uı) /'jUuı/ yule, ('khu;Uı) /'kUuı/ cool˘ We ﬁnd then: ('sÖ;¨ı) /'sOUı/ soul and –above all– ('s‘;¨) /'sOU/ so, as well as: ('j¯u†) /'jUu†/ you`, ('nj¯;u) /'nˆUu/ n[, ('h¯;u) /'hUu/ who (/éé®/ can always be realized as /ééÈı/ (ééûı)). Of course, the most peculiar diphthong is /OU/ (‘¨), not followed by (ı): ('n‘;¨3 3

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'G‘;¨2 5w‘¨˙ 'g‘;¨3 3) /'nOU. 'GOU, 'wOUnt 'gOU./ No, Joe won't go. ˛e ﬁrst element of /OU/ is central and unrounded, (‘¨), while in American pronunciation it is back and rounded, (ø¨): ('nø;¨23 'Gø;¨2 'wø¨˙ 'gø;¨23)a. In the British accent, at the beginning of the twentieth century, (o¨) was widespread; until the ﬁfties it was (P¨), always with lip rounding, while (È¨, ‘¨), at that time, sounded rather a‡ected. û 2.5. British diphthongs. /Iiı/ (iIı) /Ii/ (Ii) /EI[ı]/ (™I, ™¤ı) /aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)

/[j/ˆ]Uu/ ([j]¯u) /[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j]uUı) /OE[ı]/ (øÙ, øÉı) /OU[ı]/ (‘¨, Ö¨ı) /aO[ı]/ (aÖ[ı])

2.1.4.3. In the vocogram showing /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, [j]UÈ≤/ (û 2.3), there are also /aEÈ≤, aOÈ≤/. As a matter of fact, in a typical British pronunciation (besides remaining stable, as in American English), both can frequently reduce to ç/aÈ≤/Ç (a;È) (and (a;å|)): ('faÙ‘Ω, 'faÙå|) and ('fa;‘Ω, 'fa;å|) /'faEÈ≤[z]/ ﬁre(s). Otherwise, /aOÈ≤/ can become ç/A:È≤/Ç (A;È) (and (A;å|)), up to coincide with /A:[≤]/: ('ThaÖ‘Ω, 'ThaÖå|), ('Tha;‘Ω, 'Tha;å|) (also ('ThA;‘Ω, 'ThA;å|), besides ('ThA:[Ω])) /'taOÈ≤[z]/ tower(s). In this kind of pronunciation (sometimes deﬁned çsmoothingÇ), even the rarer /EIÈ≤, OEÈ≤, OUÈ≤/ can always be lessened, respectively, to ç/E:È≤, O:È≤, È:È≤/Ç. ˛us ç/E:È≤/Ç (up to coincide with /EÈ≤/): ('l™I‘Ω, 'l™Iå|), ('l™;‘Ω, 'l™;å|), ('l™;‘[Ω]) (and also ('l™;É[Ω], 'l™:[Ω])) /'lEIÈ≤[z]/ lZer(s); ç/O:È≤/Ç (up to coincide with the old ç/OÈ≤/Ç): (¤m'phløÙ‘Ω, -øÙå|), (-ø;‘[Ω], -ø;å|), /Im'plOEÈ≤[z]/ employer(s); ç/È:È≤/Ç (up to coincide with /È:≤/): ('m‘¨‘Ω, 'm‘¨å|), ('m‘;‘Ω, 'm‘;å|), ('m‘:[Ω]) /'mOUÈ≤[z]/ mower(s) (Ô ('faÙ≥[Ü], 'ThaÖ≥[Ü], 'l™I≥[Ü], ¤m'phløÙ≥[Ü], 'mø¨≥[Ü])a). 2.1.4.4. In neutral (both American and Briti´) pronunciation, /πi)b /'mπi)b /'mEi)b /'stA:i)b /'sØi)b /'stO:i)b /'fÈ:i)b /'hÈ;
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In a diaphonemic transcription, it is conveniently represented by /È:i)b /'mE˘¤˙)b /'klI˘¤T)b /'klI˘¤˙)b /'dˆU˘¤˙)b /'djO:¤T)b), and of /'spI˘¤T)b). On the other hand, some speakers may distinguish, saying: ('sp¤<ÈT, -¤T) /'spI Èn'∑™;‘)b /'hI˘< Èn[d]'∑EÈ≤/ here and `ere˘ 2.1.5.2. ‹en /˘/ is preceded by a consonant, it may be dropped (more frequently so in the British accent): (&™lÈ'm™n[[]Èi)b /El¢'mEnt˘i, -Ènˇi)b /'dIkSóŒi, -mˇi)b /'k√stÈmŒi)b /A:≤'tIkjÈlÈtK:i)b /A:≤tIkjÈ'lEIt˘™gj¨lå, -gjÈ-) /'<EgjÈlÈ≤/ regular˚ /A:≤'tIkjÈlÈtK:A;sp)b /'g<π;sp/ grasp˚ ('lπ[;]sT)a ('lA;sT)b /'lπ;st/ la®˚ ('phπ[;]s)a ('phA;s)b /'pπ;s/ pa˛˚ ('hπ[;]f)a ('hA;f)b /'hπ;f/ half˚ ('π[;]fT≥)a ('A;fTå)b /'π;ftÈ≤/ after˚ ('phπ[;]†)a ('phA;†)b /'pπ;†/ pa`˘

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More examples are: ('Dπ[;]ns)a ('DA;ns)b /'dπ;ns/ dance˚ ('phlπ[;]nT)a ('phlA;nT)b /'plπ;nt/ plant˚ ('khπ[;]nT)a ('khA;nT)b /'kπ;nt/ can't˚ (¤g'zπ[;]mp®)a (¤g'zA;mp®)b /Ig'zπ;mp®/ example˚ (khû'mπ:nﬂ, -π;-)a (-A:nﬂ)b /kÈ'mπ;nd/ command˚ ('π[;]nT)a ('A;nT)b /'π;nt/ aunt÷ ('<π[;]∑≥)a ('>A;∑å)b /'<π;∑È≤/ ra`er˚ (mÈ'<π;ı)a (-'>A:ı)b /mÈ'<π;ı/ morale, (bÈ'nπ[;]n√)a (bÈ'nA;nå)b /bÈ'nπ;nÈ/ banana. Even in British English, there are forms with /π/: ('πsp) /'πsp/ asp˚ ('phπnT) /'pπnt/ pant˚ Â, of course, besides: ('bπ;nD) /'bπnd/ band˚ ('mπ;n) /'mπn/ man˚ ('mπ†s) /'mπ†s/ ma`s˚ Â. 2.1.5.4. ˛e second of these diaphonemes, /Ø;/, shows the di‡erence between /O:/a (but /Ø/a occurs, too) and /Ø/b (in particular before /f, †, s, ˙, g/ and /<é/), as in: ('O;f, 'Af)a ('Øf)b /'Ø;f/ o‡˚ ('khlO;†, -A†)a ('khlØ†)b /'klØ;†/ clo`˚ ('lO;s, 'lAs)a ('lØs)b /'lØ;s/ lo˛˚ ('lO;sT, 'lAsT)a ('lØsT)b /'lØ;st/ lo®˚ ('sO:˙, 'sA;˙)a ('sØ;˙)b /'sØ;˙/ so«˚ ('DO:â, 'DA;â)a ('DØ;â)b /'dØ;g/ dog˚ ('hO;<Èb®, 'hA-)a ('hØ>Èb®)b /'hØ;<Èb®/ horrible˚ ('O;<ÈGÈn, 'A-)a ('Ø>¤G¤n)b /'Ø;<¢G¢n/ origin˚ ('flO;<ÈD√, 'flA-)a ('flØ>¤Då)b /'flØ;<¢dÈ/ √orida˚ ('khwO;<®, 'khwA-)a ('khwØ>®)b /'kwØ;<Èı/ quarrel˚ ('gO:n, 'gA;n)a ('gØ;n)b /'gØ;n/ gone˘ But, for /Ø;/, there are even cases like: /Ø/a (but /O:/a is to be preferred) /Ø/b, as in: ('sAi)b /'sØ‘¨)b /tÈ'mØ;Ø;â)b /'f<Ø;g/ frog˚ ('chAklÈT÷ 'chO;-)a ('chØklÈT)b /'cØ;klÈt/ >ocolate˚ ('DA;ı÷ 'DO:ı)a and ('DAli÷ 'DO;li)a ('DØ;ı÷ 'DØli)b /'dØ;ı, 'dØ;li/ doll(y)˚ ('wAnT, 'wO;nT)a ('wØnT)b /'wØ;nt/ want˘ It is interesting to notice the peculiarity of ('wO;m≥, 'wAm≥)a ('wø;Tå)b /'wO;ùÈ≤/ water˘ In England, ('wØTå) is no neutral pronunciation; it can be found most commonly in an area including Oxford and Reading. In a few words with /Ø;f, Ø;†, Ø;s, Ø;ft, Ø;st/, even in British English, a minority pronunciation with /O:/ is possible, besides the preferred one with /Ø/; they are: o‡˚ cough˚ trough˚ bro`˚ fro`˚ cro˛˚ lo˛˚ to˛˚ soft˚ croft˚ co®˚ fro®˚ lo®˚ oft˚ often˚ soften˘ 2.1.5.5. ˛ere are another couple of diaphonemes, /A;, O;/, which are relatively less signiﬁcant, because /A;/ is used especially in words of foreign origin, written with an a\ ('phA;sT√)a ('phπsTå)b /'pA;stÈ/ pa®a, (&vIi™T'nA:m, -™ö'-)a (-'nπ;m)b /vIiEt'nA;m/ Vietnam˘ ‹ile /O;/ occurs in particular in words written with ausC˚ aunC˚ alC\ (O;'sTI;≥, A-)a (ø;'sT¤;å, Ø-)b /O;'stIÈ≤/ au®ere, ('hO;nT, 'hAnT)a ('hø;nT)b /'hO;nt/ haunt˚ ('sO;ıT, 'sAıT)a ('sø;ıT÷ 'sØıT)b /'sO;ıt/ salt˘ As the examples show, /O;/ concerns, above all, American English. On the other hand, /A;/ may present twofold possibilities, in both accents, according to words and to speakers. ˛e (socio)diaphoneme /¢/ 2.1.6.1. ˛e last vowel diaphoneme we must consider is /¢/ = /È, I/. ˛is refers to the alternation in the realizations of /¢/: between /È/ and /I/. Clearly, /È/ (È) prevails in the American accent, while /I/ (¤) prevails in the Briti´ one, even if things are a little more complicated. Indeed, in American English, too, there are cases of

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/¢/ = /I/, chieﬂy in a more reﬁnd and more conservative way of speaking. By the same token, in British English, there are cases of /¢/ = /È/, chieﬂy in a less reﬁned and more innovative way of speaking. So, we ﬁnd a greater convergence at a more up-to-date and modern level. Here are a few examples: (sÈ'vI;≥)a (s¤'v¤;å)b /s¢'vIÈ≤/ severe, ('™ksÈGÈnT, '™gz-)a (-¤G-)b /'Eks¢GÈnt, 'Egz-/ exigent, (&khAmp<È'h™~SÈn)a (&khØmp>¤'h™~Só)b /kØmp<¢'hEnS˘n/. 2.1.6.2. It may be a good idea to take stock of the situation about some (real or seeming) su‚xes and preﬁxes, because we still ﬁnd old-fashioned and outdated transcriptions, especially in bilingual dictionaries. ˛e modern neutral pronunciation, British too, by now, has /È/ (while /I/ sounds quite pompous) in: -ace ('phπlÈs) /'pπlÈs/ palace÷ -ate ('chAklÈT)a ('chØklÈT)b /'cØklÈt/ >ocolate÷ -iI ('hπpÈli) /'hπpÈli/ happiI÷ -i“ ('khwAn[[]È[i)a ('khwØnTÈTi)b /'kwØnùÈùi/ quanti“˘ ‹en /-Èùi/ is preceded by /s/, it can often become /-sti/. So, a notation like /-s˘ùi/ includes both possibilities, while excluding that the two diaphonemes /˘, ù/ may work together, because of contextual incompatibilities. ˛at means that, if /˘/ falls, then /ù/ automatically becomes /t/, because it is preceded by /s/): nece˛i“˚ universi“˚ veloci“ /nÈ'sEs˘ùi, jUun¢'vÈ:≤s˘ùi, vÈ'lØs˘ùi/. Besides, we have: -le˛ ('hø¨plÈs)a ('h‘¨plÈs)b /'hOUplÈs/ hopele˛÷ -ne˛ ('g¨DnÈs) /'gUdnÈs/ goodne˛˘ For -e˛˚ /Ès/ prevails, chieﬂy in American English, while in British English /Is/ is also possible (actre˛˚ waitre˛); in some cases, /Es/ too (du>e˛); for prince˛˚ we have: ('ph<¤nsÈs, -™s)a (p>¤n's™s, 'ph>¤ns™s)b. To end with, -let ('b<™IslÈT)a ('b>-)b /'b<EIslÈt/ bracelet÷ -ret ('skA;ÈsT, '¤nTÈ&>™sT)b /'Int<Èst, 'InùÈ<Est/ intere®]÷ -ite ('ApÈzÈT, -s-)a ('ØpÈz¤T, -s-)b /'ØpÈz¢t, -s-/ opposite˘ Besides: -ice ('AfÈs, 'O;-)a ('Øf¤s)b /'Ø;f¢s/ o‚ce÷ -ine (¤g'zπmÈn)a (-¤n)b /Ig'zπm¢n/ examine÷ -i« ('v™<È&faÙ)a ('v™>¤&faÙ)b /'vE<¢faE/ veri«˘ Furthermore: be- (bû'kh√m:)a (b¤'khåm:)b /b¢'k√m/ become÷ de- (DÈ'mπ;nﬂ, -π:nﬂ)a (D¤'mA:nﬂ)b /d¢'mπ;nd/ demand (but ède¶ /dIi-/: (DIi'n™Ic≥)a (-cå)b /dIi'nEIcÈ≤/ denature]÷ pre- (ph<È'Th™n:ﬂ)a (ph>¤-)b /p<¢'tEnd/ pretend÷ re- (<È'ThaÙ≥)a (>¤'ThaÙå)b /<¢'taEÈ≤/ retire (but çre-¶ /Ii-)b /
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2.1.6.4. On the contrary, regularly we have /I/ in: -ic(s) (fÈ'n™[¤k[s])a (-T¤k[s])b /fÈ'nEùIk[s]/ #onetic(s)÷ -ical (sÈ'Th¤<¤k®)a (->¤-)b /sÈ'tI-)b /'f<EndSIp/ friend´ip÷ -ive (¤n'Th™ns¤Ñ) /In'tEnsIv/ intensive˘ ˛is group includes: -age ('v¤l¤ä) /'vIlIG/ village÷ -i´ ('¤˙gl¤S) /'I˙glIS/ Engli´÷ -i® ('l¤˙gw¤sT) /'lI˙gwIst/ li«ui®÷ e- and i- (at the beginning of words, in unchecked syllables): (¤'l™vÈn) /I'lEvÈn/ eleven˚ (¤'Thπ¬jÈn) /I'tπljÈn/ Italian÷ im- and in- (in checked syllables): (¤m'phø;-)b /'cIıd<Èn, 'cÈı-, 'cUı-/ >ildren˚ ('DÈzóT, 'DÇóT, -óö) /'d√zót, 'dÈ-/ doesn't (this is given in an example in § 2.6.4, too). Let us consider also the possibility of çrestressingÇ for emphasis, as in: Oh, I didn't buy it: it wasn't the ('∑I;i, '∑Èö) dre˛, it was ju® a ('ö™;I, 'öÈö) dre˛ (example adapted from a phonetics newsgroup). Consonants 2.2.0. At the beginning of this section, we will show the table of the consonantal articulations of (American and British) neutral English: û 2.6. It is useful to make regular reference to it, in order to thoroughly understand the English consonantal system. û 1.9-15 show the orograms of all the contoids needed to describe English (and the other languages dealt with in HPr), including secondary, occasional, or regional variants, arranged according to their manner of articulation.

m ö F pb Ô ƒ _ ß ó ‹

(M) f v

(n) n (t d) T D

(˛ Ã)b

˙ k g

cG

laryngeal

velar rounded

velar

palatal {postalveolariz.} prevelar round.

(~)

† ∑ s z (ß ﬁ)a ([|m)a l ı

prepalatal

postalveopalatal protruded

postalveolar prot.

postalveolar

velarized alveol.

alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 3.6. Table of neutral English consonants.

(ö)

S Z j

(>)b

(¬)

/ù/ ([a, ma, Tb), //l// /l, ı/ (lé, -lj, ¬-j, ı0, ıò), /b)

w

h (H)

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Nasals 2.2.1.1. English has three nasal phonemes\ /m, n, ˙/. ˛e velar phoneme does not occur at the beginning of English words, but it is normal in internal and ﬁnal positions: ('n™;Im) /'nEIm/ name, ('†¤n:) /'†In/ `in, ('†¤˙:) /'†I˙/ `i«, ('bπ;˙) /'bπ˙/ ba«, (bû'kh√m¤˙)a (b¤'khåm¤˙)b /b¢'k√mI˙/ becomi«, ('s¤˙¤˙) /'sI˙I˙/ si«i«, ('lO:˙ û'gø;¨, 'lA;˙)a ('lØ;˙ û'g‘;¨)b /'lØ;˙ È'gOU/ lo« ago, ('sT<™˙[k]†ó¤˙)a ('s˛>-)b /'st<E˙†óI˙/ ®re«`eni«˘ In unstressed syllables, after /t, d÷ †, ∑÷ s, z/, there is a typical intense (çsyllabicÇ) realization of /n/ {(ó) /ó/; after /†, ∑/, we ﬁnd ((2))}. It is deﬁnitely worthwhile to use it in (dia)phonemic transcriptions, as well, although clearly its origin is /Èn/: ('khATó, -öó)a ('khØTó, -öó)b /'kØtó/ cotton, ('w¨Dó) /'wUdó/ wooden, ('≥;†ó)a ('‘;†ó)b ((-†2)) /'È:≤†ó/ ear`en, ('mø:< ∑ó'∑πT)a ('mø:)b ((∑2-)) /'mO:≤ ∑Èn'∑πt/ more `an `at, ('fπ[;]só)a ('fA;só)b /'fπ;só/ fa®en, ('chø¨zó)a ('ch‘¨zó)b /'cOUzó/ >osen˘ After /0t, 0d/, it is best to use /Èn/: ('w¤nsTÈn) /'wInstÈn/ Win®on˚ ('hø¨ıDÈn)a ('hÖ¨ı-)b /'hOUıdÈn/ Holden˘ Furthermore, we have /˘n/ (= (Èn)a (ó)b) after /S, Z/: (ph<È&n√nsi'™ISÈn)a (-å-, -Só)b /p<Èn√nsi'EIS˘n/ pronunciation˚ (phÈ'<¤ZÈn)a (->¤Zó)b /pÈ'eon˚ (<È'l¤GÈn)a (>¤-)b /<¢'lIGÈn/ religion˚ ('<¤bÈn)a ('>¤bÈn)b /'¤-)b˚ ('ø¨pÈn, -põ)a ('‘¨-)b /'OUpÈn/ open˚ ('<¤bÈn, -bõ)a ('>¤-)b˚ ('Th™Ikûn, -kô), ('ø;-)b /'d-)b /'d<Emt/ dreamt, ('s√m&ThaÙmΩ)a ('såm-)b /'s√mtaEmz/ sometimes, ('s™;Im 'kha;Ùnﬂ) /'sEIm 'kaEnd/ same kind, (sÈm'G™li) /sÈm'GEli/ some jelI˚ ('s™;IM 'vøÙs, -m '6øÙs) /'sEIm 'vOEs/ same voice, ('s™;IM 'fπkT, -M] 'f-, -m 'åπkT) /'sEIm 'fπkt/ same fact, ('kh√Mf≥T, -M]f-, -må-)a ('khåMfÈT, -M]f-, -må-)b /'k√mfÈ≤t/ comfort˘ As can be seen, only with labiodentals, /m/ shows a slight let-up, becoming labiodental, (Mf÷ M]f), but this happens just in trivial cases from a lexical-semantic point of view. Otherwise, /f, v/ may become bilabial (constrictives): (må, m6).

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Our examples also show that at present a homorganic (labiodental) stop may very often be inserted into the sequence (mf) (¤ only with voiceless /f/); but a too frequent use is better avoided. ˛is homorganic insertion can happen with other sequences too: ('wø;<m†, -mp†)a ('wø;m-)b /'wO:≤m†/ warm`, ('™mTi, '™mpTi) /'Emti/ emp“, ('s¤msó, 's¤mpsó) /'sImsó/ Sim(p)son. Even /˙/ resists well: ('Ø;˙ﬂ)b /'<Ø;˙d/ wro«ed, ('w¤˙&bπk) /'wI˙bπk/ wi«ba$˘ Only for the su‚x -i« (¤˙) /I˙/ (but at a non-neutral level, not to be followed), can we have /In, ¢n, ó/: ('s™l¤˙÷ ≠-¤n÷ ≠-Èn) /'sElI˙/ selli«. We can also ﬁnd: ('l™˙†, -˙k†) /'lE˙†/ le«`˚ ('kh¤˙sTÈn, -˙ks-, -˙z-, -Tó) /'kInst˘n/ Ki«®on˚ (π˙'zaÙÈ[i, π˙g-)a (-Ti)b /π˙'zaEÈùi/ anxie“, ('π˙SÈs, 'π˙k-) /'π˙SÈs/ anxious. 2.2.1.3. On the contrary, except in a very accurate way of speaking (even too accurate!), /n/ assimilates to a following contoid: (¤m'blπk) /Im'blπk/ in bla$˚ (¤M'vaÙT) /In'vaEt/ invite˚ (¤M'f™kT÷ ¤M]-) /In'fEkt/ infect˚ (¤˙∑È'bAks, ¤˙˙È-)a (-Øks)b /In∑È'bØks/ in `e box˚ ('Th™˙†÷ -˙t†) /'tEn†/ ten`˚ ('Th™ns÷ -˙ts) /'tEns/ tense˚ ('ph¤ns≥, -ts≥)a (-å)b /'pInsÈ≤/ pincer (for ((˙)) see below). For some time, /nzé/ has been simpliﬁed (but /ndzé/ can always be restored, according to current spelling): ('w¤nz≥, -ndz≥)a (-å)b /'wInzÈ≤/ Windsor˚ ('l¤nzi, -dzi) /'lInzi/ Linds\˘ Even in /nzò/, a /d/ can be inserted: ('khl™n:Ω, -n:dΩ) /'klEnz/ cleanse˚ ('khl™nz¤˙, -ndz¤˙) /'klEnzI˙/ cleansi«. But this is less and less recommendable, specially with grammemes: (¤'Thπ¬jÈnΩ÷ -ndΩ÷ È-) /I'tπljÈnz, È-/ Italians˚ ('GA;nΩ÷ -ndΩ)a ('GØ;-)b /'GØnz/ John's˘ Furthermore, we have (~) (postalveopalatal, ((n))): ('¤~c) /'Inc/ in>˚ (¤~'chaÙn√)a (-å)b /In'caEnÈ/ in ≥ina˚ ('™I~G®) /'EInG®/ a«el˚ (È'Th™~SÈn÷ -~cÈn÷ -~+SÈn)a (-~Só÷ -~có÷ -~+Só)b attention˘ But we ﬁnd (~) (prepalatal) before /j/ (if this is heterosyllabic): (khûm'phπ~jÈn) /kÈm'pπnjÈn/ companion˚ ('√~jÈn)a ('å-)b /'√njÈn/ onion˘ Besides: ('h™ni)b /'hEn-)b /In't
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'lIivÈb®/ unbelievable˚ (√M'f<™nDli, √¸-)a (åM'f>-, å¸-)b /√n'f<Endli/ unfriendI˚ (√˙'g<™ITf®, √n-, -öf®)a (å˙'g>-, ån-, -öf®)b /√n'g<EItf®/ u«rateful. In all other cases, with less di‡erent coarticulations, assimilation (which is often considered less recommendable, on mere written and grammatical bases) is more elusive. It is therefore used spontaneously, though unconsciously. To end, simpliﬁcation is also possible, though less frequently than in the past, in cases like: ('s™nts÷ -ns) /'sEnts/ cen_˚ ('pha;ÖndΩ÷ -nΩ) /'paOndz/ pounds˚ ('l√~c÷ -~S)a ('lå-)b /'l√nc/ lun>˚ ('l√~cÈn÷ -~SÈn)a ('lå-)b /'l√ncÈn/ lun>eon˚ (<È'v™~:ä÷ -~:Ë)a (>¤-)b /<¢'vEnG/ reve«e˚ ('™I~G®÷ -~Z®÷ -Gûı, -Zûı) /'EInG®÷ -GÈı/ a«el˘ Stops 2.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of ®ops (¤ pairs of both a voiceless and a voiced articulation): /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/. Of course, /t, d/ are alveolar (T, D): (ThÈ'D™;I) /tÈ'dEI/ todZ, ('D™sTÈ&TUuT)a ('D™sT¤&Tj¯uT)b /'dEst¢tˆUut/ de®itute˘ However, before /†, ∑÷ s, z/, /t, d/ become dental (t, d): ('™It†) /'EIt†/ eigh`, ('w¤∂†) /'wId†/ wid`, ('hπts) /'hπts/ ha_, ('h™;dΩ) /'hEdz/ heads˘ On the contrary, before /)b, in British English, /t, d/ become postalveolar, always due to assimilation: ('Tha;Ù)b /'ti)b /'k√nt¤˙k)b /'d, ∂>÷ ﬁ[h]>, ">÷ C[h]>, ‚>÷ c[h]>, G>)b. Furthermore, a (homorganic) constrictive realization is possible for /a;Ù, 'úh>-, 'ﬁh>-, 'Ch>-, 'ch>-, '˛hø-)b /'ti, -ú>i, -ﬁ>i, -C>i, -c>i, -˛øi)b /'k√nt¤˙k, '∂>-, '">-, '‚>-, 'G>-, 'Ãø-)b /'d-)b /'S
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Even the rare sequences /pf, bv/ present some kind of assimilation (in one direction or in the other): ('kh√på¨ı, -]f¨ı)a ('khå-)b /'k√pfUı/ cupful, ('Ab6iÈs, 'A7v-)a ('Ø-)b /'ØbviÈs/ obvious˘ Prevelar articulations, which are automatic by coarticulation, need not be expressly written down: ('†¤˙k¤˙, 'g™T) {(('†¤”´¤˙, 'Ò™T))} /'†I˙kI˙, 'gEt/ `inki«˚ get˘ 2.2.2.3. One fundamental thing, already seen in previous examples, which must not be neglected in learning and teaching, is that, in stressed syllables, initial /p, t, k/ are çaspiratedÇ (unless they are preceded by /s/ in the same syllable and in a same lexeme), also after silence (even in an unstressed syllable) – (0h) /0/: (ThÈ'D™;I) /tÈ'dEI/ todZ, ('phIik) /'pIik/ peak (but: ('spIik) /'spIik/ speak]˚ ('Th™Ik) /'tEIk/ take (but we have: ('sT™Ik) /'stEIk/ ®ake]˚ ('kh™;≥)a ('kh™;‘)b /'kEÈ≤/ care (but: ('sk™;≥)a ('sk™;‘)b /'skEÈ≤/ scare]. Nevertheless, one should notice: (m¤s'ph<¤n[[]Èﬂ)a (m¤s'ph>¤nT¤ﬂ)b /mIs'pi)b /A:≤'tIkjÈlÈtK:i)b /A:≤tIkjÈ'lEIt˘¯u-)b /'i)b /'pOU¢t¤†-)b /È'
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ùi/ visibili“, (&π[È'm¤sT¤k)a (&πTÈ-)b /πùÈ'mIstIk/ atomi®ic, ('l™m≥)a ('l™Tå)b /'lEùÈ≤/ letter, ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù®/ little˘ Between /n, ≤, ı/ and a vowel, or (≥, ®) (remembering that, as our examples show, ([, m) may often be dropped after /n/, (n[[], n[m])): ('bπn[[]Èm)a ('bπnTÈm)b /'bπnùÈm/ bantam, ('w¤n[m]≥)a ('w¤nTå)b /'wInùÈ≤/ winter˚ ('mπn[[]®)a ('mπnT®)b /'mπnù®/ mantel, ('†≥;[i)a ('†‘;Ti)b /'†È:≤ùi/ `ir“, ('phA;<[i)a ('phA;Ti)b /'pA:≤ùi/ par“, ('SEım≥, -T≥)a ('S™ıTå)b /'SEıùÈ≤/ ´elter˘ Even before a stressed vowel (provided it is heterosyllabic): (phÈ'Th™I[ø¨, phÈ['™I[ø¨)a (phÈ'Th™IT‘¨)b /pÈ'tEIùOU÷ pÈù'EIùOU/ potato, (È['O:ı)a (È'Thø:ı)b /Èù'O:ı, È'tO:ı/ at all (it should be noted that there is a di‡erence, between the two accents, for at all]˘ ˛e sequences /nù, ≤ù, ıù/ may even have çfusedÇ realizations, (å, m, e): ('ph™Iå¤˙)a /'pEInùI˙/ painti«, ('phA;mi)a /'pA:≤ùi/ par“, ('fO;ei)a /'fO:ıùi/ faul“. However, in American English, when speed is reduced, or when more attention is paid to the way of speaking, /ù/ ([) becomes /t/ (T): ('l™m≥, 'l™T≥) /'lEùÈ≤/ letter˚ ('w¤n[m]≥, -nT≥) /'wInùÈ≤/ winter˘ ˛e same goes, even in a normal manner of speaking, for /ıù/: ('SEım≥, -ıT≥) /'SEıùÈ≤/ ´elter, ('O;ım≥, -ıT≥, 'Aı-) /'O;ıùÈ≤/ alter˘ ˛is happens even to less common words, such as: ('vIi[ø¨, -Tø¨) /'vIiùOU/ veto, ('phl™I[ø¨, -Tø¨) /'plEIùOU/ Plato˚ (d¤'fIi[&¤zõ, -&T¤zõ) /dI'fIitIzõ/ defeatism. Also in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (and in towns in Wales and Ireland) /ù/ is ([, m); while, Scotland is well-known for /ù/ = (ö), even between vowels and before (®) /®/ (and even before its typical pronunciation of (ÈR) /È≤/). ˛e same change, /ù/ = (ö), occurs even in broad accents in England, in particular, in London, Birmingham, Â. Unexplosion 2.2.4.1. Notably, in English, stops (both voiced and voiceless) are unreleased, chieﬂy after /é[m, n, ˙, ≤, ı]/, before pauses or consonants. ˛is means that their third phase (¤ their o‡-glide) is inaudible, incomplete. It is useful to put the diacritic (æ) after a proper symbol, to show unreleased contoids, especially at ﬁrst and, of course, when it is the subject in question, as here. ˛erefore, (voiced or voiceless) stops are unreleased after (stressed or unstressed) vowels, even followed by homorganic N (/mp, mb÷ nt, nd÷ ˙k, ˙g/), or by /≤, ı/. ˛is holds good except in very slow or careful pronunciation. Here are some examples, although it is to be remembered that, when single words are said in isolation, before a pause, it is more usual to produce (and let hear) the o‡-glide, indicated by ($): ('bA;Êæ)a ('bØ;Êæ)b /'bØb/ Bob˚ ('kh√pæ)a ('khåpæ)b /'k√p/ cup˚ ('khπmpæ) /'kπmp/ camp÷ ('hπTæ) /'hπt/ hat˚ ('hπ;nﬂæ) /'hπnd/ hand˚ ('<™;ﬂæ)a ('>™;ﬂæ)b /'<Ed/ red˚ ('Sø;å;bæﬂ)b /'<√bd/ rubbed, ('πTæk¤nsó, 'πkæk-) /'πtkInsó/ Atkinson,

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('b™;gæﬂ) /'bEgd/ begged˚ ('sTApæT)a ('sTØpæT)b /'stØpt/ ®opped, ('hATæ&dAâ, -O;â, -öæ-)a ('hØTæDØâ, -öæ-)b /'hØtdØ;g/ hotdog˚ ('sTApæ 'DUu¤˙)a ('sTØpæ 'D¯u¤˙)b /'stØp 'dUuI˙/ ®op doi«˘ More examples: ('Gπkæ 'phi;Iı, -iI®) /'Gπk 'pIiı/ Ja$ Peel, ('bA;bæ 'gø;¨Ω)a ('bØ;bæ 'g‘;¨Ω)b /'bØb 'gOUz/ Bob goes˚ ('skATælÈnﬂ)a ('skØTæ-)b /'skØtlÈnd/ Scotland˚ (¤pæ'baÙts÷ ¤Tæ'b-) /It'baEts/ it bites˚ (¤Tæ'Th™Iks, ¤öæ'Th-) /It'tEIks/ it takes˚ (¤kæ'khπ-)b /It'kπ Èn'ø;Då) (('lO: Èn'ø;-)b (adjusting some examples just seen). In a more systematic way, proceeding by groups, this occurs with vowels (chiefly, but not necessarily, stressed; and even with interspersed sonants, /m, n, ˙, ≤, ı/), before /m, n, ˙÷ l, <÷ j, w/: ('naÙT&m™;≥, -p-, -ö-)a (-™;‘)b /'naEtmEÈ≤/ nightmare, ('nAT 'na;Ö, -ö)a ('nØ-)b /'nØt 'naO/ not now, ('nAT 'j™T, 'nAö)a ('nØ-)b /'nØt 'jEt/ not yet (also (&nAc'™T, n√-, -™ö)a (&nØc'™T, nå-, -™ö)b), ('l™ITli, -öli) /'lEItli/ lateI˘ Before /t, d÷ c, G/: ('g™T 'Da;Ön, -ö) /'gEt 'daOn/ get down, ('g<™IT 'Gø¨k, -ö)a ('g>-, -‘¨k)b /'g<EIt 'GOUk/ great joke˘ Also before /p, b÷ k, g÷ f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z/: ('f¨p&bO;ı,

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-ö-, -T-)a (-ø:ı)b /'fUtbO:ı/ football, ('khπk&g√T, -ö-, -T-)a (-å-)b /'kπtg√t/ catgut˚ ('aÖt '∑™;≥, -ö)a (-™;‘)b /'aOt '∑EÈ≤/ out `ere, ('n√T&SEı, -ö-)a ('nåT&S™ı, -ö-)b /'n√tSEı/ nut´ell˘ Let us also notice: (aÙ'khπ[;]nT {'DUu¤T}, -nö, -n {-È-, -ö})a (-A;n- {-¯u¤T, -ö})b /aE'kπ;nt {'dUuIt}/ I can't [do it]˚ (wi'wø¨nT {'DUu¤T}, -nö, -n {-È-, -ö})a (-‘¨n- {-¯u¤T, -ö})b /wi'wOUnt {'dUuIt}/ we won't [do it]˘ In absolute ﬁnal position, (ö) is not used, except for /It, Èt/, and this only in informal speech: (wi'wAnT, -O;nT)a (-ØnT)b /wi'wØ;nt/ we want˚ (wi'wAn[[]¤T, -ÈT, -ö)a (-ØnT¤T, -¤ö)b /wi'wØ;nùIt/ we want it˚ ('Th¤kÈT, -ö)a (-¤T, -¤ö)b /'tIk¢t/ ti$et. However, the change /t/ = (ö) is less frequent before /h/: ('™IT 'hπts÷ -ö) /'EIt 'hπts/ eight ha_˘ It sometimes occurs in /étó/: ('khATó, -öó)a ('khØTó÷ -öó)b /'kØtó/ cotton˘ In /ntó/, it is more frequent (but it is only possible with /≤, ı/): ('sk<πnTó, -öó, -[[]Èn)a ('sk>πnTÈn÷ -öó)b /'sk<πnt˘n/ Scranton˚ ('khl¤nTó, -öó, -TÈn)a ('khl¤nTÈn÷ -öó)b /'klInt˘n/ Clinton˚ ('EıTó, -öó, -[Èn)a ('™ıTó, -TÈn÷ -öó)b /'klInt˘n/ Elton˘ /t/ = (ö) is no neutral pronunciation, before /é, È≤, ®/: ('b™[i)a ('b™Ti)b /'bEùi/ Bet“, ('b™m≥)a ('b™Tå)b /'bEùÈ≤/ better, ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù®/ little ((≠'b™öi), (≠'b™ö≥)a, (≠'b™öå)b, (≠'l¤ö®)). Nevertheless, it can occur in /tò'é/: (&nAT'IivÈn, &nA['-, &nAö'-)a ('nØ-)b /nØt'IivÈn/ not even˘ It is accepted even for it˚ before a pause: ('Th™Ik¤T, -¤ö) /'tEIkIt/ take it˘ ‹ereas, it is possible, for /p/, (only) before /p, b/, and for /k/, (only) before /k, g/ (otherwise, it is not neutral): ('sø¨p 'phaÖD≥, -ö)a ('s‘¨-, -Då)b /'sOUp 'paOdÈ≤/ soap powder, ('b¨k&kh™Is, -ö&kh-) /'bUkkEIs/ bookcase, ('bπk 'gA;iΩ, ¤∏æ-÷

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¤Tæ-÷ ¤Tæ-) /It'kπ®, -Ï>-) /'pEt<®/ petrol˚ ('Iikw®, -∏w-) /'Iikw®/ equal˚ ('phØpjÈlå, -Pj-) /'pØpjÈlÈ≤/ popular˚ (¤k'saÙT¤ﬂ, ¤∏-) /Ik'saEù¢d/ excited˚ ('b™ts, -ts) /'bEts/ be_˚ ('b™ıts, -ts) /'bEıts/ bel_˚ ('b™nts, -ts) /'bEnts/ ben_˚ ('w¤ks, -∏s) /'wIks/ wi$s˚ ('w¤ıks, -∏s) /'wIıks/ Wilkes˚ ('w¤˙ks, -∏s) /'wI˙ks/ winks˘ For the substitution of /t/ with (ö) Ô § 2.2.5.2. 2.2.6.2. A stronger degree of glottalization is the çglottal reinforcementÇ, ¤ producing (ö) just before /p, t, k/: (öp, öT, ök) (therefore, çpreglottalizationÇ). ˛is is more evident and cumbersome since we have two segments, two phones, even if the laryngeal stop is unreleased, while, in these cases, /p, t, k/ are actually released: ((öæp$, öæT$, öæk$)) before pauses (but not before contoids, in a sentence). Let us see, now, our examples (in progression): ('phIip, 'phIiP, 'phIiöp) /'pIip/ peep, ('hØT, 'hØT, 'hØöT) /'hØt/ hot, ('bπk, 'bπ∏, 'bπök) /'bπk/ ba$. Before contoids: ('πkæT, 'π∏æT, 'πökæT) /'πkt/ act˚ ('πkæTå, 'π∏æTå, 'πökæTå) /'πktÈ≤/ actor, ('πTæk¤nsó, 'πkæk-, 'πTæk-, 'π∏æk-, 'πöTæk-, 'πökæk-) /'πtkInsó/ Atkinson, ('hØTæ&DØâ, -öæ-, 'hØTæ-, 'hØöTæ-) /'hØtdØ;g/ hotdog˚ ('sTØpæ 'D¯u¤˙, 'sTØPæ, 'sTØöpæ) /'stØp 'dUuI˙/ ®op doi«˘ ≈nally: ('Gπkæ 'phi;Iı, 'Gπ∏æ, 'Gπökæ, -iI®) /'Gπk 'pIiı/ Ja$ Peel˚ (¤pæ'baÙts, ¤Pæ-, ¤öp-÷ ¤Tæ-÷ ¤T, ¤öTæ-, -ts÷ -öts) /It'baEts/ it bites˚ (¤Tæ'Th™Iks, ¤Tæ-, ¤öæ-, -∏s÷ -öks) /It'tEIks/ it takes˚ (¤kæ'khπ>iΩ, ¤∏æ-, ¤ökæ-÷ ¤Tæ-÷ ¤Tæ-¤öTæ-) /It'kπ®, -Ï>-, -ö˛>-) /'pEt<®/ petrol˚ ('Iikw®, -∏w-, -ökw-) /'Iikw®/ equal˚ ('phØpjÈlå, -Pj-, -öpj-) /'pØpjÈlÈ≤/ popular˚ (¤k'saÙT¤ﬂ, ¤∏-, ¤ök-) /Ik'saEù¢d/ excited˚ ('b™ts, -ts, -öts) /'bEts/ be_˚ ('b™ıts, -ts, -öts) /'bEıts/ bel_˚ ('b™nts, -ts, -öts) /'bEnts/ ben_˚ ('w¤ks, -∏s, -öks) /'wIks/ wi$s˚ ('w¤ıks, -∏s, -öks) /'wIıks/ Wilkes˚ ('w¤˙ks, -∏s, -öks) /'wI˙ks/ winks˘ ˛e çreplacementÇ of /t/ by (ö) has been dealt with above (§ 2.2.5.2). Lenitions 2.2.6.3. In quick informal speech, in British pronunciation, simple /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, before unstressed vowels may be weakened, and transformed into constrictive phones (more or less tense, while the two apical ones are slit constrictives, di‡erent from the more usual grooved constrictives, (s, z)), (å, 6÷ Q, z÷ x, Ÿ): ('ph™Ip‘Ω, 'ph™Iå‘Ω) /'pEIpÈ≤z/ papers, ('>åbå, '>å6å) /'<√bÈ≤/ rubber, ('l™Tå, 'l™Qå) /'lEùÈ≤/ letter, ('f™ID¤˙, 'f™Iz¤˙) /'fEIdI˙/ fadi«, ('b™Ikå, 'b™Ixå) /'bEIkÈ≤/ baker, ('D¤g¤˙, 'D¤Ÿ¤˙) /'dIgI˙/ diggi«. In American pronunciation, one possible lenition is just a partial voicing of /p, k/, (p, Ê÷ k, â): ('ph™Ip≥Ü, -p≥Ü, -Ê≥Ü) /'pEIpÈ≤z/ papers, ('b™Ik≥, -k≥, -â≥) /'bEIkÈ≤/ baker˘ A further variation of /t/ = /ù/ = ([, m), may be (A, Ó÷ b, r) ({partially} devoiced or {totally} voiceless): ('b™Ti, -[i, -Ai, -Ói) /'bEùi/ Bet“˚ ('l™T≥, -m≥, -b≥, -r≥) /'lEùÈ≤/ letter˘ In American English, the change /d/ = ([, m) is also frequent: ('lπD≥÷ 'lπòm≥) /'lπd-

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È≤/ ladder (Ô ('lπm≥) /'lπùÈ≤/ latter˚ which may have a slight di‡erence in duration, (ò) – shorter than a semi-chrone, (;)), ('™zóT, -&g™[È-) /tÈgEùÈ'p<Ezót/ to get a present˚ (&gØTÈ'mπc, &gØ[È-) /gØùÈ'mπc/ got a mab˚ (&khwaÙTÈ&b¤TÈÑ'˛h>πf¤k, &khwaÙ[È&b¤[È-) /kwaEùÈbIùÈv't<πfIk/ quite a bit of tra‚c˚ (¤Tû'kh‘;ﬂTÈmi, ¤[-) /ItÈ'kÈ:≤tÈmi/ it occurred to me˚ (&sø;T*'GØ;Ê, &sø;[*-) /sO:≤ùÈv'GØb/ sort of job˚ ('wØT È'ph¤Ti, 'wØ[ È-) /wØùÈ'pIùi/ what a pi“˚ ('nØT ‘¨nli'∑¤s, 'nØ[ ‘¨n-) /nØùOUnli'∑Is/ not onI `is˚ (bÈT'ø;ıs‘¨ '∑πT, bÈ['-) /bÈù'O:ısOU '∑πt/ but also `at˚ (bÈTaÙ'D¯;u, bÈ[aÙ-) /bÈùaE'dUu/ but I do. Stop-strictives (or £a‡ricates∞) 2.2.7.1. English has just one (diphonic) pair of stopstrictives, (c, G) /c, G/. For segments, or phones, articulatory terms are preferred over auditory ones (and, of course, acoustic ones), because they are much more adequate and clear, generally self-explanatory. For this reason, we are happy to avoid ça‡ricateÇ, in favor of a more descriptive and tangible (even checkable) term, such as pre®opped con®rictive, which we will presently reduce to ®op-®rictive, after explaining that they are unitary phones, or çsoundsÇ, in that they have a total duration comparable to that of any other single phone, like (p, t, T, k) or (f, s, S, x), not like the sum of two of them (as in (ts, kx)). In addition, they must be homorganic (¤ produced at the same place of articulation). So, the ﬁrst half of a stop-strictive consonantal phone is a short stop, while its second half is a short çfricativeÇ one (or, better, a constrictive one). ˛e place of articulation is determined by the second component, to which the ﬁrst one is just a mere closure, correctly at the same place (even if no actual stop phone exists at that place, in any real language). ˛e simpler and more convenient way to symbolize stop-strictive phones is by means of two çmonographedÇ symbols. Of course, the second one is the more speciﬁc, so the ﬁrst can be a looser one, because its only function is to show a closure, which may be generically labial, pre-lingual or post-lingual. For this reason, the stop phases of the various possible stop-strictive phones, are su‚ciently shown by using simply (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g). As we said, the only (diphonic) pair of stop-strictives of the English language is (c, G) /c, G/. In stressed syllables (or after pauses, even in the rare cases of unstressed syllable, as in ≥aucerian), /c/ is çaspiratedÇ, as /p, t, k/ are (although most

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native phoneticians do not say that, in the least): ('ch¤mni) /'cImni/ >imn\. Usually, /c, G/ have (a slight) labial protrusion, and, most often, they are articulated with the tongue tip in a high position (but we need not really use special symbols, such as ((c, g))). Besides, /G/ (as any other voiced phoneme in diphonic pairs) is partially devoiced before a pause or before a voiceless consonant: ('G√;ä)a ('Gå;ä)b /'G√G/ judge. ‹ile English stops are very often inaudibly released, English /c, G/ always show an audible plosion, even when they occur before themselves (notice that we prefer to mark this plosion only here, by means of (0$)): ('wAc$ 'kh™≥fÍi÷ 'wO;c$)a ('wØc$ 'kh™‘fÍi)b /'wØ;c 'kEÈ≤fÈli/ wab carefulI˚ ('w¤c$ 'chI;iΩ÷ 'W¤c$÷ 'hw-) /'·wIc 'cIiz/ whi> >eese˚ (È'lA:<ä$ 'ch≥;c)a (È'lA:ä$ 'ch‘;c)b /È'lA:≤G 'cÈ:≤c/ a large >ur>. ˛e only possible reduction may be in changing the ﬁrst stop-strictive with the corresponding constrictive (çfricativeÇ) one, (S, Z): ('w¤S 'chI;iΩ÷ 'W¤S÷ 'hw-), (È'lA:<Ë 'ch≥;c)a (È'lA:Ë 'ch‘;c)b˘ ˛is can also occur with /nG, nc/ before /c, G/ (seen that /nG, nc/ have a less frequent variant /nZ, nS/): ('O;<È~G 'GUus, -~Z, 'A<-)a ('Ø>¤~G 'G¯us, -~Z)b /'Ø;<¢nG 'GUus/ ora«e juice˘ For British English, we must add that /c/, as well as /p, t, k/, can show the two kind of glottalization we saw (§ 2.2.6.1-2), with the same frequence and degree of advisability. But, for /c/, it occurs even before vowels: ('f™c, 'f™¸, 'f™öc) /'fEc/ feb, ('b™~c, -~¸, -~öc) /'bEnc/ ben>, ('s‘;cT, -¸T, -öcT) /'sÈ:≤ct/ sear>ed, ('s‘;cmi, -¸mi, -öcmi) /'sÈ:≤cmi/ sear> me, ('f™c¤T, -¸¤T, -öc¤T) /'fEcIt/ feb it, ('Th¤icå, -¸å, -öcå) /'tIicÈ≤/ tea>er. ≈nally, chieﬂy in British English, /c/ may become (öS), before a pause or a C\ ('f™öS, 'b™~öS, 's‘;öST, 's‘;öSmi) (examples we have already seen) and ('khπc÷ 'khπöS) /'kπc/ cab˚ (¿5w¤c 'b¨k3 3÷ ¿5w¤öS 'b¨k3 3) /'w·Ic 'bUk/ whi> book? Constrictives (or £fricatives∞) 2.2.8.1. Also for this manner of articulation (as for the stop-strictive one, rather than ça‡ricateÇ), we prefer to use an articulatory term, because of its greater clarity. ˛ere are four (diphonic) pairs, /f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z/ (f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z). For /f, v/ readers are referred to what has been said about /pf, bv/ (§ 2.2.2.2). We now add some examples that show the frequent reduction or dropping of /v/: (aÙ'khπ[;]m bÈ'lI;iv&∑πT, -iV&∑-, -i&∑-)a (-A;m b¤-)b /aE'kπ;nù b¢'lIiv∑πt/ I can't believe `at˚ ('g¤vmi 'fa;ÙÑ, 'g¤Vmi, 'g¤mi) /'gIvmi 'faEv/ give me ﬁve!˚ (aÙÑ'Sø;¤-)b /∑EÈ≤'laEvz È≤'tE<¢b®/ `eir lives are terrible (in spite of the ambiguity with `eir lies are terrible), ('fø:≥2 'fa;ÙÑ2 's¤ks2 's™vè2 '™IT2÷ 'fa;ÙV2 's¤k2 's™bõ2÷ 'fa;Ù2 's¤k2 's™õ2)a ('fø:2)b /'fO:≤ 'faEv 'sIks 'sEvó 'EIt/ …four, ﬁve, six, seven, eight… And, let us note: ('G™å 'ph¤T, 'fa;Ù6 'b¤ts) /'GEf 'pIt, 'faEv 'bIts/ Je‡ Pit˚ ﬁve bits. /†, ∑/ are slit dental (whereas in American English a çprodentalÇ or çinterdentalÇ

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articulation is possible, perhaps more often indeed, which may be transcribed with ((w, W)); however, since their auditory impression is not very di‡erent, the o‚cial symbols, (†, ∑), may be su‚cient. It is important for foreigners to acquire this slit articulation well: ('†¤˙k) /'†I˙k/ `ink, ('∑¤s) /'∑Is/ `is, ('w¤;„) /'wI∑/ wi`. ‹en a sentence begins with a more or less pleonastic I `ink, generally, a semi-constrictive /†/ is used: (√&ﬂ¤˙k)a (å-)b; the same can occur for the /ò∑/, (∂), of grammemes: `e˚ `is… Besides, in quick informal speech, /ò∑/ in forms such as `e˚ `at˚ `is˚ bo` is normally assimilated: ('w√ts zÈ'Tha;Ùm, 'wAts)a ('wØts)b /'wØts ∑È'taEm/ what's `e time?, ('w√ts 'zπT, 'wAts)a ('wØts)b /'wØts '∑πt/ what's `at?, ('bø¨s 'sa;ÙdΩ)a ('b‘¨s)b /'bOU† 'saEdz/ bo` sides˚ (hiz∑û'w™Im≥, hiz∂û-, hizzû-)a (-Tå)b /hiz∑È'w™ItÈ≤/ he's `e waiter˚ (¤˙∑È'mø;‘¨z¤Ω)b /', ﬁ>): ('nj¯uﬁ&>iIı) /'nˆUuz
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(S, Z) before /S÷ c, G÷ j/: (∑¤S'SAp)a (-Øp)b /∑Is'SØp/ `is ´op, (∑¤S'GA:<)a (-A:)b /∑Is'GA:≤/ `is jar, (∑¤S'jI;≥)a (-¤;å)b /∑Is'jIÈ≤/ `is year, (∑IiË'SU;uΩ)a (-¯;uΩ)b /∑Iiz'SUuz/ `ese ´oes, ('hπËSi, 'hπSSi) /'hπzSi/ has ´e?÷ even /sc/ = (Sc) is possible: ('khw™scÈn, -Sc-) /'kwEsc˘n/ que®ion˘ Generally, with you˚ your˚ there is a complete fusion between elements: (aÙ'm¤S√, -¯)a (aÙ'm¤S¯÷ -å)b /aE'mIsju/ I mi˛ you, (hi'nIiD Z≥'hEıp, -G ≥-÷ -U≥-)a (ZÈ'h™ıp, -G È-÷ -ø;-)b /hi'nIidz jK:≤'hEıp/ he needs your help, (ÈZÈ's™;I, ¶È-÷ &π-, -¯-) /⁄zju'sEI/ as you sZ. Let us also consider: (È'Z™T÷ π-) /⁄z'jEt/ as yet. (Making use of diaphonemes like /⁄, K:/ may help in reducing the space of a phonemic transcription, chieﬂy in a dictionary.) Approximants 2.2.9.0. In order to present the important components of this particular manner of articulation in a simple way, we will proceed by speciﬁc categories. English r /)b (“ /≤/) 2.2.9.1. ˛e English ç/r/Ç phoneme is completely di‡erent from that of most languages, which have alveolar trills or taps (r, R). It is thus extremely important to use a di‡erent symbol for English r, even at a phonemic level: /), in the speciﬁc meaning of an area after the alveolar one, approached by the tip of the tongue (not by the lamina, as in the IPA o‚cial point of view). It is actually an apico-postalveolar articulation. It will be very important to observe the orograms of these two approximants very carefully (û 1.13.3). Both of them are laterally contracted, just as real lateral phones, but there is no contact with the roof of the mouth (as, instead, with real laterals). ˛e absence of such a lateral contraction would simply deprive these ar-

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ticulations of their typical timbre, which is so similar (in these two appoximant phones), even though their actual articulations are relatively very di‡erent. In addition, both (<) and (>) show a certain amount of lip rounding (more evident in stressed syllables), which –changing both towards a duller timbre– contributes in making them less di‡erent auditorily, while remaining articulatorily rather di‡erent. 2.2.9.3. Once the exact articulations are clear, it is easy to understand why, for /t<, d, Ã>). On the other hand, the fact that the auditory impression is so similar for these two types of phones, may explain why, even in the American pronunciation, (˛>, Ã>) can be used, besides the more usual ones, (T<, D<). Certainly, it is very strange that the majority of phoneticians (even native ones) keep on using the symbol (>) to hint at the American type, which is far from being postaveolar. By the way, the term po®alveolar corresponds to the o‚cial one çretroﬂexÇ, which picturesquely tries hard to pass itself o‡ as a real point of articulation, while, in fact, it is at most just a very peculiar articulatory modiﬁcation. But, as is well known, good kinesthetic, auditory (and even acoustic) skills are not the same for all people… Up to now, we have seen several examples of /)b, and several others will follow. Let us remember only that our diaphonemic transcription rigorously distinguishes between /¤;å)b /'™;‘)b /'<EÈ≤/ rare˚ ('<ø:<)a ('>ø:)b /'å, -Ã>å)b /'mÈ:≤dÈ<È≤, -d˘<È≤/ murderer˘ Also (È<, È:<)a, for (≥, ≥:)a are acceptable, even if less frequent. 2.2.9.4. However, /≤/ is pronounced, even in British English, when it occurs ﬁnal in a rhythm group before a following rhythm-group initial vowel (and there is no intervening pause, not even a short one). In this way, the two words are bound together, and /≤/ becomes /): (∑û'khA:< È' È'>a;Ùvﬂ)b /∑È'kA:< È' Èvjø;'s™ıf, -jÈ-)b /'tEIk 'kE˘< ÈvjK:≤'sEıf/ take care of yourself˘ On the other hand, on the analogy of word-ﬁnal /È≤, IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤, O:≤, A:≤/, very frequently, also ﬁnal /È, IÈ, UÈ, O:, A:/ are realized as the previous ones, even if no etymological r is present in their spelling: (∑iaÙ'D¤È[ö]Èv¤T÷ -¤È>Èv¤T) /∑iaE'dIÈÈvIt/ `e idea of it˚ (¤'laÙzÈ '™l¤s÷ -zÈ> '™l¤s) /¢'laEzÈ 'ElIs/ Eliza Ellis˚ ('GI;i&bIi 'Sø: 'A;s[k]T÷ -ø:>) /'GIibIi 'SO: 'A:skt/ G. B. ShY asked. ˛is use is very widespread, chieﬂy for /È≤/, although good speakers try to avoid it, but many others use it airily, even teaching it to foreigners (who should avoid it, unless they are very ﬂuent and have a very good command of British English).

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In a broad New Zealand accent, /), usual also in neutral New Zealand English. As in American English (except in typical Southern, Eastern, and Black accents) and Canadian English, also Irish English (in the whole island) has /≤/ = /å∑û 'g‘;¨÷ -GÈ)b /'dIGUÈ≤ 'b<√∑È≤ 'gOU/ did your bro`er go? For the assimilation to preceding /s, z/, see above (§ 2.2.4). Although rarely, English phonotactics presents sequences such as: ('j¤p) /'jIp/ yip˚ ('jIisT) /'jIist/ yea®. Before /Ii/, /j/ may be realized as a semi-constrictive contoid, (,), which is stronger than (j): ((',IisT)). On the other hand, in unstressed syllables, /j/ (j) may lessen, up to a semi-approximant, (ã): (('n™b-ãÈlÈs)) /'nEbjÈlÈs/ nebulous. 2.2.9.6. ˛e velar rounded approximant, (w) /w/, has no particular characteristics, apart from such rare sequences as in: ('w¨;ﬂ) /'wUd/ wood˚ ('wUunDÈﬂ)a ('w¯unD¤ﬂ)b /'wUund¢d/ wounded. Before /Uu/, /w/ may be realized as a semi-constrictive contoid, (m): (('mUu-))a (('m¯u-)b; while, in unstressed syllables, it may lessen, up to a semi-approximant, (j): ((j¤'∑aÖT)) /wI'∑aOt/ wi`out. It is important to remember that /w/ has a strong bilabial component, which causes changes in the realization of preceding /n, t, d/: ('khπp&wO;k, -ö-, -T-)a (-wø;k)b /'kπtwO:k/ ca‘alk˚ ('khø;<m-

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wO;ı, -n-)a ('khø;mwø;ı, -n-)b /'kO:≤nwO:ı/ Cornwall. By now, the sequence /·w/ (w, W, hw) has only a secondary role, which (at least in theory) allows us to distinguish words beginning with wh- from those with a simple w-. It is to be said that such a distinction is no longer neutral; it can still be found either as a voluntary e‡ort, or –chieﬂy– in some non-urban American pronunciations or in some northern British ones: ('w¤c) /'wIc/ wib˚ ('w¤c÷ 'W¤c÷ 'hw¤c) /'·wIc/ whi>÷ ('w™T) /'wEt/ wet˚ ('w™T÷ W™T÷ 'hw™T) /'·wEt/ whet˘ ˛is distinction is more stable in Scotland, Ireland (including Ulster) and in New Zealand. For /hj/, we can have (âj, â): ('hj¯;uä, 'âj-, 'â-) /'hjUuG/ huge; whereas (j) is acceptable only in American pronunciation. 2.2.9.7. ˛e last English approximant (although too many phoneticians –even native speakers– insist in classifying it as a constrictive) is (h) /h/. It occurs before vowels and –between voiced sounds– it can become voiced: ('hπT) /'hπt/ hat˚ ('hU;u)a ('h¯;u)b /'hUu/ who˚ (ph≥'hπps, ph≥'Hπps)a (phÈ-)b /pÈ≤'hπps/ perhaps˚ (bÈ'ha;Ùnﬂ, -H-)a (b¤-)b /b¢'haEnd/ behind. In British (and Welsh and Australian) uneducated pronunciation, /h/ often becomes çzeroÇ, /`/: ç/'`πt, '`Uu/Ç, hat˚ who, Â. However, it must be clearly stated that in non-emphatic grammemes (not occurring after a pause) the change /òh/ = /`/ is quite normal: ('Th™l¤m) /'tElIm/ tell him, ('Th™Ik≥)a ('Th™Ikå)b /'tEIkÈ≤/ take her (very di‡erent from ('ThEı: "h¤m:)a ('Th™ı: "h¤m:)b /'tEı "hIm/ tell ∆¤µ!, ('Th™Ik "h≥:)a ('Th™Ik "h‘:)b /'tEIk "hÈ:≤/ take ∆™®!]˘ On the other hand, in comparison with Romance languages, we must emphasize the importance of çaspirationÇ for /p, t, k, c/, at the very beginning of stressed syllables (and even of unstressed syllables after pauses), including second elements of compounds: (ThÈ'Th™Ik) /tÈ'tEIk/ to take˚ ('ThEı&Th™¤®)a ('Th™-)b /'tEıtEIı/ telltale (but ('sT™Ik) /'stEIk/ ®ake). Laterals 2.2.10.1. ˛e only lateral English phoneme, from a strict intraphonemic point of view, is \l\ (l, ı), with two very important taxophones, or contextual allophones (together with others, by coarticulation, as we will see). In actual fact, given their considerable importance, from a descriptive and teaching point of view, our diaphonemic transcription makes use of /l, ı/ (instead of a more abstract /&/ –which is decidedly less çinterphonemicÇ– for /ı/). ˛ere is one caveat: although we have decided to include /ı/ among our diaphonemic symbols, this does not imply that we consider it a real phoneme, as no opposition exists in English between /ı/ and /l/. It is simply a very useful guide for foreigners to make a safe and straightforward choice between them. On the other hand, in an almost neutral pronunciation, certain speakers may present cases such as: ('khADl¤˙)a ('khØ-)b /'kØdlI˙/ codli« and ('khAD]¤˙)a ('khØ-)b, besides (-DÍ¤˙, -DÈl¤˙, -D–¤˙) /'kØd˘lI˙/ coddli«, including (-Dl¤˙), which uniﬁes di‡erent pronunciations into one. Traditional transcriptions excessively hide many characteristics, including the

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di‡erence between (®, Í), and the actual fact that, before (a heterosyllabic) /j/, not only does (ı) not occur (as, instead, it does before any other consonants)˚ but it is prepalatal, (¬), ('m¤¬-jÈn). In other contexts, it is alveolar, (l), as in: ('lUusaÙT)a ('l¯u-, 'lj¯u-)b /'lUusaEt, 'lˆ-/ leucite˘ Even between a stressed short vowel and another vowel, which makes one syllable with /l/, in the neutral (American or British) pronunciation, (l) (not (ı)) is used: ('fAl-i)a ('fØl-i)b /'fØli/ folI˚ ('fAl-ø¨)a ('fØl-‘¨)b /'fØlOU/ follow˚ ('Th™l-¤m) /'tElIm/ tell him˚ ('fIil¤T) /'fIilIt/ feel it, ('fO:l 'aÖT)a ('fø:l)b /'fO:l 'aOt/ fall out˚ ('b¤l '™vÈnΩ) /'bIl 'EvÈnz/ Bill Evans. 2.2.10.2. ˛eir distribution is in any case rather simple, once it has been clearly explained. As we have said, in diaphonemic transcriptions, it is convenient to use the two primary symbols, /l, ı/; although (to be precise) it would be useful to use at least four symbols, (l, ¬, ], ı) (besides (¯) in British {and British-like} pronunciation, before /<, t<, d
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as postalveolar, ((¯, ®)): ('ch¤ıD<Èn)a ('ch¤¯Ã>Èn)b ('ch¤ı-)b /'cIıd<Èn/ >ildren, ((O;∞'<™Di))a ((ø;®'>™Di))b (O;ı-)a (ø;ı-)b /O:ı'<Edi/ already. Before pauses, or another C, we have ((ı, ∞)), (ı): ('b¤ı:) /'bIı/ bill, ('b¤ıT) /'bIıt/ built, (('h,∞:))a ('h√ı:)b /'h√ı/ hull, (('fO:∞))a (('fø:∞))b (-ı) /'fO:ı/ fall, (('fO;∞k))a (('fø;∞k))b (-ık) /'fO:ık/ Falk. In the case of words with /ıöò/, we generally ﬁnd nasalization: (('kh¤ı:n)) ('kh¤ı:n) /'kIın/ kiln˚ (('Eı:m))a (('™ı:m))b (-ı:m) /'Eım/ elm. ‹en /ıò/ and a word-initial V meet with no pause between, we have ((l, t)): ('fIil¤T) /'fIilIt/ feel it, (('O:t 'ø¨v≥)a ('ø:l '‘¨vå)b ('O:ı)a ('ø:ı)b /'O:ı 'OUvÈ≤/ all over. As far as intense l is concerned, //Í//, we ﬁnd lip-rounding after C with a labial component, /m, p, b÷ f, v÷ c, G÷ S, Z÷ <, w/. In addition, before V within words, we have ((Í, K)): ('khADÍ¤˙)a ('khØDÍ-)b /'kØdÍI˙/ coddli« (Ô the beginning of § 2.2.10.1), (('Th<√mbK¤˙))a ('˛h>å-)b (-bÍ¤˙) /'t<√mbÍI˙/ trumbli«. However, before V belonging to a following word, a semi-velarized alveolar articulation is found, ((–, º)) (even before front V]\ (('l¤[– '¤[Èli))a (('l¤T– '¤TÈli))b ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù® 'IùÈli/ Little ItaI, (('phIip– 'Ii[¤˙))a ((-T¤˙))b ('phIip®) /'pIip® 'IiùI˙/ people eati«. Lastly, before a pause or a C˚ we have ((®, ¬)): ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù®/ little, ('√˙k®)a ('å-)b /'√˙k®/ uncle, (('Th™Ib¬)) (-b®) /'tEIb®/ table, (('O;f¬))a ('ø;-)b (-f®) /'O:f®/ Yful. After /†, ∑/, the contact is dental: (('b™˙†%)) ('b™n†®) /'bEn†®/ ben`al. Often, many transcriptions present sequences of /Èlé/, because they refer to slow or careful speech: ('nAvÈl¤sT)a ('nØ-)b /'nØvÈlIst/ noveli®˚ (bÈ'lI;iÑ) /bÈ'lIiv/ believe˚ (phÈ'lIis) /pÈ'lIis/ police˚ (khû'l¤ZÈn)a (-Zó)b /kÈ'lIZ˘n/ collision÷ currently, though, we ﬁnd: (('nAvK¤sT))a ('nØ-)b, ((bK'I;iÑ)), ((phK'Iis)), ((khÍ'¤ZÈn))a (-Zó)b. It is interesting to compare the following forms, which generally maintain a slight di‡erence of syllabic structure, in comparison with the cases previously seen: ('blIic) /'blIic/ blea>˚ ('phlI;iΩ) /'plIiz/ please. 2.2.10.4. We will now report, though not recommend, the frequent insertion of a homorganic stop before /†, s, S/ (not /f/) preceded by /ı/: ('f¤ı†i÷ -ıt†i) ((-Ït†i)) /'fIı†i/ ﬁl`y˚ ('fO;ıs÷ -ıts, 'fAı-)a ('fø;ıs÷ -ıts, 'fØı-)b ((-ÿts)) /'fO;ıs/ false˚ ('wEıS÷ -ıTS, -ıc)a ('w™ıS÷ -ıTS, -ıc)b /'wEıS/ Wel´˘ ˛is occurs with /z/, as well, but more rarely: ('bEı:Ω÷ -ı:dΩ)a ('b™ı:Ω÷ -ı:dΩ)b /'bEız/ bells˚ ('fi;IıΩ÷ -ıdΩ, 'fiI®-) /'fIiız/ feels. On the other hand, the reverse simpliﬁcation may be heard, too, as in: ('fi;IıdΩ÷ -ıΩ, 'fiI®-) ((-ÏΩ)) /'fIiıdz/ ﬁelds˚ ('bEıts, -ıs)a ('b™ıts, -ıs)b ((-Ïs)) /'bEıts/ bel_. Especially when there are possible ambiguities (and grammemes >-s˚ -'s≥), spelling is better respected. In non-neutral American pronunciation, /l/ can be realized as (]) (sometimes even (ı)) before V or /j/. ˛is can also occur in New Zealand, in northern Wales, but most of all in Scotland. On the other hand, in Ireland, in South Africa, and in southern Wales, usually, (l) may be heard, even before C or pauses. Other less systematic di‡erences 2.2.11.1. ≈nally, there are some more or less isolated words, which are pronounced di‡erently in the two neutral accents. Others often show both pronunciations. In American pronunciation, word-initial syllables are commonly full, ¤

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not pronounced with /È/: /vEI'kEIS˘n/a /vÈ-/b vacation˚ /nOU'vEmbÈ≤/a /nÈ-/b november˘ Even the article a often has a full timbre (which could sound too formal in British pronunciation): /∑È≤zÈ'gUd '¤kûn)b anti- /&πnùaE-, -i-/a /-i-/b apparatus /πpÈ'<πùÈs/a /-πt-, -EIt-/b artisan /'A:≤ù¢zó/a /A:≤ù¢'zπn, 'A:≤ù¢zπn/b ate /'EIt/a /'Et, 'EIt/b ballet /bπ'lEI/a /'bπlEI/b because /b¢'k√z, -Ø;z/a /-Øz/b Berk´ire /'bÈ:≤kSIÈ≤, -SÈ≤/a /'bA:≤kSÈ≤, -IÈ≤/b beta /'bEIùÈ/a /'bIiùÈ/b cabaret /kπbÈ'<EI/a /'kπbÈ<EI/b cadre /'kπdarade /SÈ'<EId/a /-A:d/b >a˛is /'Sπsi, 'c-, -s¢s/a /'Sπsi/b

>irrup /'cÈ:<Èp, 'cI<-/a /'cI<-/b cigarette /'sIgÈ<Et, -'<Et/a /-'<Et/b circumstances /'sÈ:≤kÈmstπns¢z, -tÈ-/a /-tÈ-, -tπ-, -tA:-/b clerk /'klÈ:≤k/a /'klA:≤k/b comrade /'kØm<πd, -¢d/a /-EId, -¢d, 'k√m-/b consommé /kØnsÈ'mEI, 'kØnsÈmEI/a /kÈn'sØmEI, 'kØnsÈ-/b controverÄ /'kØnt<ÈvÈ:≤si/a /'kØn-, kÈn't<ØvÈ≤si/b cordial /'kO:≤G®/a /-dj-/b coupé /kUu'pEI/a /'kUupEI/b creek /'k
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erase /I'<EIs/a /-z/b ﬁgure /'fIgjÈ≤/a /'fIgÈ≤/b ﬁnancier /faEnπn'sIÈ≤, -nÈn-, f¢'nπnsiÈ≤, faE-/a /faE'nπn-, f¢-/b (just one stress pattern) fracas /'f<πkÈs, 'f<EI-/a /'f<πkA:/b from /'f<√m, 'f<Øm/a /'f<Øm/b garage /gÈ'oI /'mElÈ˙kØli/a /-Èli, -Øli/b migraine /'maEg<EIn/a /'maE-, 'mI-, 'mIi-/b miscellaJ /mIsÈ'lEIni/a /m¢'sElÈ-, mIsÈ'lEI-/b multi- /&m√lùaE-, -i-/a /-i-/b musta>e [mou-] /'m√stπS, mÈ'st-/a /mÈ'stA:S, mU-/b nei`er /'nIi∑È≤÷ 'naE-/a /'naE-, 'nIi-/b nougat /'nUugÈt/a /'nUugA:, 'n√gÈt/b of /'√v, 'Øv/a /'Øv/b omega /OU'mEgÈ, -EI-, -Ii-/a /'OUmIgÈ/b omicron /'ØmIk<Øn, 'OU-/a /OU'maEk<Øn, -Èn, 'ØmIk<Øn/b on /Øn, O:n/a /Øn/b patriot /'pEIt
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prince˛ /'p /'spInIc/a /-G, -c/b squirrel /'skwÈ:<®÷ -I<-/a /-I<-/b st[arde˛ /'stˆUuÈ≤d¢s/a /'stˆ-, -'dEs/b stirrup /'stÈ:<Èp÷ -I<-/a /-I<-/b stratum /'st<EIùÈm, -π;-/ ('sT<™I[Èm, -π-)a ('s˛>A;TÈm, -™I-)b subaltern /sÈ'bO;ıùÈ≤n/a /'s√b®-/b suggest /sÈ'GEst, sÈg'G-/a /sÈ'G-/b Ärup /'sÈ:<Èp, 'sI<-/a /'sI<-/b tomato /tÈ'mEIùOU/a /-A:-/b tourniquet /'tUÈ≤n¢k¢t, -È:≤-/a /'tUÈ≤n¢kEI, -O:≤-/b tra>ea /'t<EIkiÈ/a /'t<EI-, t<È'kIiÈ/b trait /'t<EIt/a /'t<EI, -t/b upon /È'p√n, -Øn, -O:n/a /-Øn/b vase /'vEIs, -z/a /'vA:z/b water /'wO:ùÈ≤, 'wØ-/a /'wO:-/b what /'w√t, 'wØt÷ 'hw-/a /'wØt÷ 'hw-/b wigwam /'wIgwØm, -O:m)a (-πm)b wra` /'<π†/a /'<Ø†, '
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˛ere is an additional short list of words that in American English may often have also /O:/ (O:)a, besides the more usual /Ø/ (A)a (Ø)b: >ocolate˚ doll˚ dolI˚ dol#in˚ god˚ golf˚ gone˚ mo$˚ on˚ resolve˚ revolver˚ rolf˚ solvate˚ solve˚ ®omp˚ ~amp˘ Structures 2.3.0. In this section, we will deal with various macro-segmental aspects, including intonation. Unstressed syllables and £reduced forms∞ 2.3.1.1. As can be seen from many of the previous transcriptions, English unstressed syllables almost always have /È, ¢, I/: (mÈ'nA[ÈnÈs)a (-'nØTÈ-)b /mÈ'nØùÈnÈs/ monotonous, (ph<È'v™n[[]Èﬂ)a (ph>¤'v™nT¤ﬂ)b /p<¢'v™nù¢d/ prevented, ('™DÈm≥Ü)a (-¤T‘Ω)b /'Ed¢ùÈ≤z/ editors, ('m¤nÈsT≥)a (-¤sTå)b /'mIn¢stÈ≤/ mini®er˘ On the contrary, in foreign accents of English, unstressed syllables too often show full vowels. Indeed, many vowels (and consonants) may disappear entirely in comparison with spelling, as in: ('kh√Mf≥[Èb®, -fT≥-, -f≥-÷ -mT≥-)a (-åMfÈTÈ-, -fTÈ-, -fÈ-÷ -mTÈ-)b /'k√nfÈ≤ùÈb®, -mf-/ comfortable, ('mA;ÈT, -ˇÈT)b /'mA:≤g˘<Èt/ Margaret, (&j¯unÈ'v≥;ßÈ[i, -ßTi)a (-'v‘;sÈTi, -sTi)b /jUun¢'vÈ:≤s˘ùi/ universi“˘ However, not all unstressed syllables have vowel reduction or fall: ('khAm™nT)a ('khØ-)b /'kØmEnt/ comment, ('πsfO;ıT, -A;ıT)a /'πsfO:ıt, -A:ıt/ (-ÅıT, -ø;ıT)b /'πsfπıt, -O:ıt/ as#alt, ('khUupAn÷ 'khj-)a ('kh¯upØn)b /'kUupØn/ coupon˘ Only regular consultation of a pronunciation dictionary (or, better, dictionaries) can give the exact structure of words and sentences, in English as in any other language. In English sentences, respect of the reduction, or weakening, of many grammemes (or functional words) is vital: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and modal verbs, some pronouns and some other forms. ˛ere are not many reduced forms (using a clearer term than the traditional one çweak formsÇ) – about eighty – but they are the most frequent ones. ˛ey are listed below (with examples), in alphabetical order, for easy consultation. 2.3.1.2. ˛e examples given illustrate various elements simultaneously. It is worthwhile to observe them very carefully and to consider all the variants given (but only in phonetic transcription, for the sake of space, in a very economical way, while full transcriptions would have been more monotonous, and would not be able to show the same things with precision): a\ (È'l™m≥)a (-Tå)b a letter˚ (È'mπ;n) a man˚ (û'ga;Ù) a guy˚ (¤nû'wa;Éı) in a while˚ (È'j¯unÈT)a (-¤T)b a unit˚ (È'n™;Im) a name÷ am\ (aÙm'wEı:)a (-™ı:)b I'm well˚ (aÙM'fa;Ùn) I'm ﬁne˚ (aÙm'glπ;ﬂ, aÙM-, aÙ˙-) I'm glad˚ (ÈmaÙ'Ø;˙)b am I wro«?÷ an\ (Èn'πp®) an apple˚ ('gA[ Èn'aÙs&kh-)b got an ice cream?˚ (Èn-

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'A:<m)a (Èn'A:m)b an arm˚ (Èn'™;Im) an aim÷ and\ (Èn'∑™n:, ó-) and `en˚ ('b<™D õ'b√m≥)a ('b>™D õ'båTå)b bread and butter˚ ('bA;b ô'kh™IT)a ('bØ;b)b Bob and Kate˚ ('j¯;u Èn'a;Ù, ÈnD'-) you and I÷ aJ\ (¤z∑≥'™ni 'b<™;ﬂ, -∑™≥-)a (-∑È>-, 'b>-, -∑™‘-)b is `ere aJ bread?˚ ('hπvÈ~cû 'gA[ ™ni'mø:<, Èni-, -T ói, -T ni, -ö ói, -ö ni, -c¯)a ('gØT, -ö)b haven't you got aJ more?÷ are\ ('∑I;iz ≥'jU;≥Ü, ≥'jø:<Ü)a (È'jø:Ω÷ È'j¨;‘Ω)b `ese are yours˚ (A<jû'wEı:, ≥jû-, ≥j¯-÷ &A;<j-)a (Ajû'w™ı:, Èjû-, Èj¯-÷ &A;j-)b are you well?÷ but notice how are you? (&haÖ'A;<j¯) (-'A;j¯) (since ('ha;Ö ≥'j¯;u) (È'-) would be contrastive)÷ as\ (ÈzÈ'mπm≥ ÈÑ'fπkT, ÇÈ-, *'f-, È'f-)a (-'mπTÈ>-, -˛>-)b as a matter of fact˚ (ÈËSi's™;ﬂ, ÈSSi-) as ´e said˚ ('G√sT Èz'g¨;ﬂ, GÈsTÈ-)a ('Gå-)b ju® as good˚ ('nAt sø¨'laÙT Èz¤ö'l¨ks, sÈ-, -aÙt s¤-, -T'l-)a ('nØt s‘¨-)b not so light as it looks÷ at\ (Èt∑È'Th™Ib®, Èö∑È-) at `e table˚ (Èö'lIisT, ÈT'l-) at lea®˚ (ûk'khl™;I, Èö'k-) at ClZ˚ (Èp'w≥;k, Èö'w-, ÈT'w-)a (-‘;k)b at work÷ be\ (bi'g¨;ﬂ) be good!˚ ('l™[¤p bi'mI;i, -ö÷ -T)a ('l™T¤-)b let it be me˚ (aÙ'wø¨m[p] bi'lO:˙, √-, -A;˙)a (-‘¨-, å-, -Ø;˙)b I won't be lo«÷ been\ (aÙbb¤nû'w™;I, -b™n-÷ -bÈn-, aÙD-÷ aÙÈ-÷ aÙhÈ-)a (-b¤n-, -bIin-)b I had been YZ [I'd]÷ but\ (bÈt'∑™n:, bÈö-) but `en˚ (bûk'gø;¨, bÈö-)a (-‘;¨)b but go˚ (bÈp'b¤li, bÈö-) but BilI÷ by\ (baÙ'O:ı&mIinΩ, b√Ù-, b√-)a (-ø:ı, båÙ-, bå-)b by all means˚ ('sø;¨ıD baÙ∑È'pha;Önﬂ, b√Ù-, bÈ-)a ('s‘;¨ı-, bå-, bÈ-)b sold by `e pound÷ can\ (khûnaÙ'hπv¤T) can I have it?˚ (wikõ'plh™;I, -kûm-) we can plZ˚ (jûkô'gø;¨, -kû˙-, j¯-)a (-‘;¨)b you can go÷ could\ ('∑πk kûD'DU;u, -ö, -T)a (-¯;u)b `at could do˚ (wikûb'm™Ik¤T, -D'm-) we could make it÷ did\ (D¤Di'sT™;I 'lO;˙g≥, DDi-, -A˙-)a (-Ø˙gå)b did he ®Z lo«er?˚ ('w™n D¤Di'kh√m:, DDi-, Di-)a (-åm:)b when did he come?˚ ('ha;Ö D¤ﬂ'SI;i&nø¨, DÈ-, ﬂS-)a (-‘¨)b how did ´e know?˚ ('ha;Ö D¤D¤k'gø;¨, DD¤-, D¤-, DÈ-, -ö'g-, -T'g-)a (-‘;¨)b how did it go?˚ ('ha;Ö D¤d∑™I'laÙk¤T, DÈ-, dd∑-, d∑-) how did `\ like it?˚ ('w™;≥ D¤Gû'gø;¨, -¯-, -Dj-, DG-, G-)a ('w™;‘, -‘;¨)b where did you go?÷ do\ (GÈ'nø¨¤T, G¯-, Dj-)a (-‘¨-)b do you know it? [d'you]˚ ('w™;≥ Gû'khIip¤T, G¯-, Dj-÷ DÈj-)a ('w™;‘)b where do you keep it? [d'you]˚ ('sø;¨ Dû'wI;i, D¯-)a ('s‘;¨)b so do we˚ ('w™;≥ DÈ∑™I'l¤;Ñ, D¯-)a ('w™;‘)b where do `\ live?˚ ('w√T Djû'wAnT, -j¯-, DÈj-, D¤j-, Dij-, 'wA-, -ö, -O;nT)a ('wØnT)b what do you want?˚ (&D¯A;<'ch¤ıD<û˙ 'gø;¨)a (&D¯A;'ch¤ıÃ>û˙ 'g‘;¨)b do our >ildren go?÷ does\ (DÈz¤p'w≥;k, -ö'w-, -T'w-)a (-'w‘;k)b does it work?˚ ('w√TDÈzi 'mI;in, -tdÇi, -tsi-, -ö-, 'wA-)a ('wØ-)b what does he mean? [what's]˚ ('w™n DÈËSi'DUu¤T, 'w™~ Ëi-)a (-'D¯u¤T)b when does ´e do it? [when's]˚ ('ha;Ö DÈz¤ö'l¨k, dz¤-, z¤, -¤T'l¨k) how does it look? [how's]÷ for\ ('l¨kf≥¤T, -fÈ<¤T)a (-fÈ>¤T, -fˇ¤T÷ -fØ>¤T)b look for it˚ ('sT™;I f≥û'wIik, -f<û-)a (-fÈ>û-, -fˇû-, -f>û-)b ®Z for a week˚ (¤tsf≥'j¯;u)a (¤tsfÈ'j¯;u, -f¤'j-, -f'j-)b it's for you÷ from\ (f<Èm'sku;Uı)a (f>Èm-)b from (ool˚ (f<õ'∑™;≥)a (f>õ'∑™;‘)b from `ere˚ ('w™;≥ 'A;<jÈ&f<√m, -Am÷ -j¯-, &w™<)a ('w™‘> 'A;jÈ&f>Øm, -j¯-, &w™‘>-)b where are you from?÷ had\ (hÈDaÙ'sIin¤T, hπ-) had I seen it˚ (∑™IÈD'Da;Ùﬂ, ∑™ID-÷ -IhÈD-) `\ had died

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[`\'d]˚ (¤[Èbb¤n'D√n:, -Db-, -™n-÷ -Èn-÷ ¤ThÈ-)a (¤TÈ-, -¤n-, -Iin-, -ån:)b it had been done [it'd]˚ (∑È'mπ;n ûg'gO:n, ÈD-, -A;n)a (-Ø;n)b `e man had gone˚ (Si'hπﬂ TÈ'sT™;I, -πT) /Si'hπd tÈ'stEI/ ´e had to ®Z (+ (-π[ È-)a (-πT È-)b /-πù È-/); has\ (hÈzi'gO:n, hπ-, -A;n)a (-Ø;n)b has he gone?˚ (Siz'D√n:, SiÈz-÷ SihÈz-)a (-ån:)b ´e has done [´e's]˚ (¤ts'b¤n:, ¤[Èz-÷ ¤thÈz-)a (¤ts-, -I;in, -¤n:, ¤TÈz-)b it has been [it's]˚ ('Gø:'-)b her \es˚ ('Th™l≥)a (-å)b tell her˚ ('g¤v≥ ≥'hπT)a (-È>‘-, -È hÈ-)b give her her hat˚ (Th¯≥'m√∑≥, ThÈh≥-, Thw-)a (ThÈhÈ'må∑å, Th¯‘-, Th¯È-, Thw-)b to her mo`er÷ him\ (aÙ'sO;¤m÷ -Èm)a (-ø;¤m)b I sY him˚ ('l™[¤m '¤n:÷ -Èm÷ -õ)a ('l™T-)b let him in÷ his\ (h¤Ω'ph™n:) his pen˚ (hi'Th¨k ¤z'b¨k) he took his book˚ (h¤Z'j¯u†) his you`÷ I\ (aÙ'sI;i, √Ù-)a (aÙ-, åÙ-)b I see˚ (aÉı'Th™Ik, ,ı-÷ -®-÷ -ûı-÷ -w®-)a (aÉı-, √ı-÷ -®-÷ -ûı-÷ -w®-)b I will take [I'll]˚ ('ha;Ö kûDaÙ'sT™;I, -√-÷ -È-)a (-aÙ-, -å-÷ -È-)b how could I ®Z?÷ if\ (¤faÙ'm™;I, Èf-, ≥-) if I mZ˚ (¤fjÈ's™;I&sø¨, Èf-, ≥-, -¯-)a (-‘¨)b if you sZ so˚ (¤f'nAö f≥'j¯;u, Èf-, ≥-, -T)a (-nØö fÈ'-)b if not for you÷ in\ (¤n'l√nDÈn)a (-å-)b in London˚ (¤m'phπ<Ès)a (->¤s)b in Paris˚ (¤˙'khπnÈD√)a (-å)b in Canada˚ (hi'sπ[ ¤n∑È'ch™;≥, ¤˙˙È-, ¤nnÈ÷ -T ó∑È-÷ -T ónÈ-)a (-πT, -™;‘)b he sat in `e >air˚ ('b<™Ik¤[ ¤n'ThU;u÷ -¤T ó-)a ('b>-, -¤T, -¯;u)b break it in ‘o˚ (aÙm¤nÈ'h≥;i, √-÷ -mnÈ-÷ aÙÈm-)a (-å>i, å-)b I am in a hurry [I'm]÷ is\ (¤z¤ö'j¯;u, -T'j-÷ Ç¤-) is it you?˚ (¤ts'mI;i÷ ¤[¤z-)a (¤ts-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is me [it's]˚ ('kh¤mΩ 'hI;≥÷ -m ¤-)a ('h¤;å)b Kim is here [Kim's]˚ ('∑¤s ¤zÈ'fa;Ùn 'D™;I, '∑¤s ÇÈ'-÷ '∑¤s sÈ'-) `is is a ﬁne dZ, ('<ø;¨z ¤zÈ'naÙs 'w¨mÈn, '<ø;¨z ÇÈ'-, '<ø;¨z zÈ'-)a ('>‘;¨z)b Rose is a nice woman, (∑¤s'D¤S ¤z'waÙT, Ç'-, s'-, ∑Ès-) `is di´ is white÷ it\ (¤z¤ö'Th¯;u, -˛'˛-)b is it true?˚ (¤ts'O:ı '-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is all right [it's]˚ ('j™s ¤['¤;Ω÷ j™'sT¤;Ω)a (¤T'¤;Ω÷ j™'sT¤;Ω)b yes it is˚ ('Th™Ik¤T, -ûT)a (-¤T)b take it˚ (¤[®biû'g¨;∂ '†¤˙:, T®-÷ ¤pw®-÷ ¤Tw®-)a (¤T®-)b it will be a good `i« [it'll]˚ (¤[Èbbi'naÙs, Twû-, -Db-÷ ¤pw-÷ ¤Tw-)a (¤TÈ-, …)b it would be nice [it'd]÷ i_\ (¤ts'Th™;¤ı) i_ tail˚ (¤T'hπ;D ¤ts'ThIi† 'b<ø¨kûn, Èts-)a ('b>‘¨-)b it had i_ tee` broken÷ ju®\ (aÙvG√s[T]'sIin¤m, -GÈs-) (-Gå-, -GÈ-)b I have ju® seen him [I've]˚ (Siz'G√sgO:n û'w™;I, -Ès-, -A;n)a (-å-, -È-, -Ø;n)b ´e has ju® gone YZ [´e's]˚ (G√s'laÙk ¤Ω's√n:, GÈs-, -T'l-)a (Gås-, -ån:)b ju® like his son÷ maJ\ ('m™ni 'bø;ÙΩ) maJ boys˚ ('ha;Ö m™ni'mø:<, mÈni-, mni-)a (-ø:)b how maJ more?÷

2. english

81

mZ\ (jÈm™I'π[;]sk≥, j¯-÷ -mi-)a (-A;skå)b you mZ ask her˚ (wim™I'gø;¨÷ -mû-)a (-‘;¨)b we mZ go˚ (Sim™I'sT™;I÷ -mÈ-) ´e mZ ®Z÷ me\ (hi'khO;ıbmi, -Dmi)a (-ø;ı-)b he called me˚ ('Sø¨mi ∑û'w™;I)a ('S‘¨mi)b ´ow me `e wZ÷ mu®\ (aÙmÈs'gø;¨, -m#-, √Ù-)a (åÙ-, -‘;¨)b I mu® go˚ (¤pmÈsbi'D√n:, ¤ö-)a (-ån:)b it mu® be done˚ (SimÈs'ph™;I) ´e mu® pZ÷ my\ (maÙ'h™;ﬂ, m√Ù-, m√-)a (måÙ-, må-)b my head˚ ('nAT TÈmaÙ'nAl¤ä, -√Ù-, -√-, -È-÷ -¤-÷ -i-, -ö)a ('nØ-, -åÙ-, -å-)b not to my knowledge÷ no\ (nø¨'mø:< D¯'a;Ù÷ nÈ-)a (n‘¨'mø:÷ nÈ-)b no more do I˚ (nø¨'√∑≥ '-÷ n¯-)b no o`er reason˚ (¤tsnø¨'g¨;ﬂ÷ -nÈ-)a (-‘¨-÷ -nÈ-)b it's no good÷ nor\ (&nIi∑≥'f¤S nø;<'fl™S, n≥-÷ &naÙ-)a (&naÙ∑È-, nø;-, nÈ-÷ &nIi-)b nei`er ﬁ´ nor ﬂe´˚ (&nIi∑≥'hI;i n≥'a;Ù, nO;<-÷ &naÙ-)a (&naÙ∑È-, nÈ>-, nø;>-÷ &nIi-)b nei`er he nor I÷ not, n't\ (¤['¤zóT)a (¤T'¤-)b it isn't˚ (aÙ'wø¨nT, √-)a (å-, -‘¨nT)b I won't˚ (hi'D√zóT, -'DÈ-)a (-å-, -'DÈ-)b he doesn't˚ (wi'Dø¨m 'phl™;I)a (-‘¨-)b we don't plZ˚ (¤['¤zô 'g¨;ﬂ)a (¤T'-)b it isn't good˚ ('¤zói, -óTi) isn't he?˚ ('¤zó¤ö, -ó¤T) isn't it?˚ (hi'j¯usó&T¯) he used not to÷ of\ (∑È'f¤f† Èv'm™;I, *'m-) `e ﬁf` of MZ˚ (û'kh√p ÈÑ'ThI;i, -È'T-, -≥'T-)a (-åp)b a cup of tea˚ ('f≥;sT Èv'O:ı, *'-)a ('f‘;-, -ø:ı)b ﬁr® of all÷ on (the most reduced form only occurs when no ambiguity with in is possible): (&√pO;n∑È'bAks, -An-÷ -Èn-, -nnÈ-)a (&åpØ-, -Øks)b up on `e box˚ (&¤tsO;mmaÙ'sa;Ùﬂ, -Am-, -m√Ù-÷ -mÈ-÷ ¤[¤z-)a (-Øm-, -måÙ-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is on my side [it's]˚ ('w√[Èn '≥;†, 'wA-, -O;n, -An)a ('wØTÈn '‘;†, -Øn)b what on ear`!÷ once\ (w√ns'mø:<, wûn-)a (wåns'mø:, wûn-)b once more (= again] – (&w√ns'mø:<)a (&wåns'mø:)b once more (= one more time]÷ one(s) (the form without /w/ may be judged as dialectal or regional): (È'b¤g&w√n, -wûn÷ -ûn)a (-wå-)b a big one˚ (&∑πtsû'g¨;b&w√n, -wûn, -D-÷ -DÈn÷ -Dó÷ &∑π[¤zÈ-)a (-wå-÷ &∑πT¤zÈ-)b `at is a good one [`at's]˚ (w√n'O;ıwûΩ 'hø¨ps, wû-, -¤Ω, -™IΩ, -O;w-)a (wån'ø;ıw¤Ω 'h‘¨ps, -ûΩ, ™IΩ-, -ø;w-)b one alwZs hopes˚ (&∑ø¨z≥'naÙs&w√nΩ, -wûnΩ÷ -sÈnΩ)a (&∑‘¨zÈ-, -wå-÷ -sÈnΩ)b `ose are nice ones÷ or\ (ThÈ'D™;I ≥TÈ'mO;<ø¨, ø;‘¨)b todZ or tomorrow˚ ('ThU;u ≥'†-)b ‘o or `ree pounds˚ (≥'Eıs)a (È>'™ıs)b or else÷ our\ (A;<'sku;Uı)a (A;-)b our (ool˚ (&∑Iiz≥A;<'ph™n:Ω)a (-zÈ>A;-)b `ese are our pens÷ per\ ('f¤fTi p≥'s™nT)a (pÈ-)b ﬁf“ per cent˚ ('fa;ÙÑ p≥'s™mp p≥'πnÈm, -mö, -nT)a (pÈ's-, pÈ>'π-)b ﬁve per cent per annum÷ ´all (in American English it is a stylistic choice): (&SπlaÙ'Th™Ik¤T, -√Ù-)a (SÈlaÙ'Th™Ik¤T, SÍaÙ-, -åÙ-, -å-)b ´all I take it?˚ (aÙS®'DU;u, aÉı-, ,ı-)a (-¯;u, √ı-)b I ´all do˚ (S®wi'gø;¨, Sûwi-, Swi-)a (-‘;¨)b ´all we go?÷ ´e\ (Si'w™nT) ´e went˚ (Si'hπΩT¯, -sT¯) ´e has to˚ ('hπzóSi, -óTSi) hasn't ´e?÷ ´ould\ (SÈDi'kh√m:)a (-åm:)b ´ould he come˚ (jÈSÈD'DU;u¤T, j¯-)a (-'D¯u¤T)b you ´ould do it˚ (aÙSûg'gø;¨&naÖ, -Sg-, -ÈD'g-, √-)a (-‘;¨-, å-)b I ´ould go now˚ (aÙSÈ∂'†¤˙k&sø¨, -St'-, √-)a (å-, -‘¨)b I ´ould `ink so˚ (∑È[iSûâ'kh√m 'aÖT, -Èﬂ'-, -iS'kh-)a (-Ti-, -å-)b `at he ´ould come out÷ sir\ ('j™ss≥, -s-)a (-å)b yes, sir˚ ('nø¨s≥)a ('n‘¨så)b no, sir˚ (s≥'GA;n)a (sÈ'GØ;n)b Sir John˚ (s≥'πıf<Èﬂ)a (sÈ>'Åıf>¤ﬂ)b Sir Alfred˚ (s≥'chA:<ıΩ, -A;<®Ω)a (sÈ'chA:ıΩ, sÈ-,

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#-)b Sir ≥arles÷ so\ ('nAt sø¨'g¨;D Èz¤p'w√;Ω, sû'-, -A;Ω, -Èp-, -T'-)a ('nØt s‘¨-, -Ø;Ω, sû'-)b not so good as it was˚ (¤ts'nAt sø¨'fa;Ùn TÈ'd™;I, sÈ-, ts-, s-÷ ¤[¤z-)a (-Øt s‘¨-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is not so ﬁne todZ [it's]˚ ('nAt sø¨'ø;¨ıﬂ÷ s¯-)a ('nØt s‘¨'Ö;¨ıﬂ÷ s¯-)b not so old˚ ('™v≥ sø¨'m™ni, sÈ-)a (-È s‘¨-)b /'EvÈ≤ sOU'mEni/ ever so maJ÷ some (determ.): (wûGÈ'laÙk sõ'ThI;i, sÈm-) would you like some tea?˚ (Djû'wAn sÈ'mø:<, sÈm-, Dj¯-, -'wO;-)a (-wØ-, -ø:)b do you want some more?˚ (aÙ'hπÑ&s√m)a (-åm)b I have some÷ St˘, Saint\ (s™Im'phIim≥, -mp'ph-)a (sõ'phIiTå, s¤m-, s™Im-)b St. Peter˚ (s™I˙'khl™;≥, -˙k'kh-)a (sô'khl™;‘, s¤˙-, s™I˙-)b St˘ Clair˚ (s™In[[]'πn†Èni, -T-)a (sóT'πnTÈni, s¤n-, s™In-, -†-)b St˘ An`oJ÷ su>\ (&s√cÈ'ph≥;só÷ sÈ-)a (&såcÈ'ph‘;só÷ sÈ-)b su> a person˚ (&s√cÈ'†¤˙:÷ sÈ-)a (&så-÷ sÈ-)b su> a `i«÷ `an\ ('mø:< ∑ó'∑πT)a ('mø:)b more `an `at˚ (SiΩ'faÙn≥ ∑õ'm™i)b ´e is ﬁner `an Mary [´e's]˚ (¤ts'l™s ∑ÈnÈn'¤~c, óÈn, ts-÷ ¤[¤z-)a (÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is le˛ `an an in> [it's]˚ (&∑πts'mø:< ∑ÈnaÙ'hπ;Ñ÷ Èn√-÷ &∑π[¤z-)a (-ø:÷ -ø:> Ènå-÷ &∑πT¤z-)b `at is more `an I have [`at's]÷ `at (conj. “ rel. pron.): ('nAt ∑È[¤p'mπm≥Ω, 'nAö, -¤ö'm-, -¤T'm-)a ('nØ-, ∑ÈT¤-, -T‘Ω)b not `at it matters˚ ('sI;in ∑ÈcÈ'nø¨&∑πT, ∑ÈTSÈ, ∑ÈTjÈ-, ∑ÈöjÈ-, -¯-) seen `at you know `at÷ (∑È'D™;I {∑Èp}wi'm™T) `e dZ (`at) we met÷ `e\ (∑È'b¨k) `e book˚ (∑È'mπ;n) `e man˚ (∑È'jEı:, ∑¤'j-, ∑i'j-)a (-™ı:)b `e yell÷ (∑i'™n:ﬂ) `e end˚ (∑i'√∑≥ 'D™;I)a (∑i'å∑È)b `e o`er dZ˚ (∑È'hIiT÷ ∑¤-) `e heat˚ ('w√ts ∑È'Tha;Ùm, zÈ-, 'wA-÷ -[¤z-)a ('wØ-÷ -T¤z-)b what is `e time? [what's], (&¤z∑û'khπt '∑™;≥, &¤zzÈ-÷ &¤zÈ-, -ö)a (-™;‘)b is `e cat `ere?, (¤n∑È'haÖs, ¤˙˙È-, ¤nnÈ-) in `e house˚ (û'w™;I f<Èm∑È's¤[i, -„'s-)a (f>-, -Ti)b /È'wEI f<Èm∑È'sIùi/ YZ from `e ci“÷ `eir\ (∑™I'bO;t ∑™≥'bø¨T÷ ∑≥-)a (-ø;t ∑™‘'b‘¨T, ∑‘-÷ ∑È-)b `\ bought `eir boat˚ (È'haÖs Èv∑™<'ø;¨n÷ -∑≥-, *∑-, È∑-)a (-™‘>'‘;¨n÷ -∑È>'-)b a house of `eir own÷ `em\ (wi'sO;∑Èm, -∑õ, -O;Èm)a (-'sø;-, -ø;Èm)b we sY `em˚ ('g¤v∑Èm, -∑õ, -vÈm, -vè) give `em÷ `en\ ('sUup 'f≥;sT ∑™~'ch¤kûn, ∑È-)a ('s¯up 'f‘;-, -k¤n)b soup ﬁr® `en >i$en˚ (aÙ'maÙk&gø¨\ bÈö∑™nû'g™n:\ aÙ'maÙö 'nAT, -∑Èn-, √-, -T&g-, -T 'n-)a (-‘¨\, -ØT)b I might go but `en again I might not˚ (∑™n'π[;]fT≥ È'Tha;Ùm, ∑Èn-)a (-'A;ftÈ> È-, -˛>È 'Th-)b `en after a time…÷ `ere (exist.): (∑™<≥'m™ni, ∑È<≥-, ∑≥≥, ∑<≥-)a (∑™‘>È-, ∑‘>È-, ∑È>È-, ∑>È-)b `ere are maJ˚ (∑™≥zÈ'lAT, ∑≥-)a (∑™‘zÈ'lØT, ∑‘-, ∑È-)b `ere is a lot˚ ('hπvè∑™≥, -≥)a (-å)b haven't `ere?÷ `\\ (∑[™]≥'∑™;≥)a (∑™‘'∑™;‘)b `\ are `ere˚ (&w™n∑™I'w™nT÷ ∑™-÷ ∑¤-) when `\ went˚ (∑™[I]ı's™;I÷ ∑™[¤]®-÷ -w®-) `\ will sZ [`\'ll]÷ `is\ (∑¤s'Iivn¤˙, ∑Ès'-, ∑È's-) `is eveni«˚ (∑¤s'ph™n:÷ ∑Ès-) `is pen˚ (¤n∑¤s'w™;I, ¤nn¤-÷ ón-÷ -Ès-) in `is wZ˚ (&O;n∑¤s'Th™Ib®, -nn-, &A-÷ -Ès-)a (&Ø-)b on `is table˚ ('w√ts '∑¤s, -ös, -s, 'z¤s, 'sIs, 'wA-÷ -[¤z)a ('wØ-÷ -T¤z)b what is `is? [what's]÷ till\ ('w™IT T¤li'kh√m:Ω, TÍi-)a (-åm:Ω)b wait till he comes˚ (Th¤ı'ThUuzD™I, Th®-, -i)a (-'Thj¯u-)b till tuesdZ÷ time(s)\ (∑È'f≥;s&ThaÙm aÙ'w™nt&∑™≥, -sT√Ùm, -sT√m, -sTÈm, -nö&-, -n&-)a (-‘;s-, -aÙm,

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-åÙm, -åm, -Èm)b `e ﬁr® time I went `ere˚ ('†-, 'fø:> È-, -åÙ-, -å-, -È-, -™ı:Ñ)b `ree times four are ‘elve÷ to\ (ThÈ'l√nDÈn)a (-å-)b to London˚ (ThÈ'sku;Uı) to (ool˚ (Th¯'¤˙glÈnﬂ, 'Thw¤-) to E«land˚ (ThÈ'j¯;u, Th¤'j-, Thi'j-) to you˚ (Th¯'π;n) to Ann˚ ('kh√mT¯¤T, -Tw¤T)a ('khåm-)b come to it˚ (jÈ'hπÑT¯, -fT¯, j¯-) you have to˚ (Thû'g¤;Ñ) to give˚ (Thû'w¤n:, Th¯-) to win˚ (Th¯'IiT÷ ThÈ-)a (÷ ThÈ'ö-)b to eat˚ (Th¯'O;f≥, -'A-÷ ThÈ-)a (÷ ThÈ'öØfå)b to o‡er – for to˚ before consonants˚ (È, û) can be very short; and, before voiceless consonants, they are often devoiced: ('Th™n TÈ'fa;ÙÑ) ten to ﬁve; up\ ('m™Ik√p j≥'ma;Ùnﬂ, jU≥-÷ -ûp-)a (-åpjÈ-, -jø;-÷ -ûp-)b make up your mind˚ (∑≥z'w√n √p'∑™;≥÷ Èp-÷ ∑≥¤z-)a (∑Èz'wån åp'∑™;‘÷ Èp-÷ ∑È>¤z-)b `ere is one up `ere [`ere's]÷ upon\ ('w√n È&pO;nÈ'n√∑≥, È&pA-, È&p√-, ÈpÈ-)a ('wån È&pØnÈ'nå∑å, ÈpÈ-)b one upon ano`er˚ ('la;Ùn ÈpO;n'la;Ùn, -pA-, -p√-, -pÈ-)a (-pØ-, -pÈ-)b line upon line÷ us\ ('Th™lÈs) tell us˚ (l™ts'gø;¨, l™ös-, l™s-)a (-‘;¨)b let's go! – but: ('l™[Ès 'gø;¨)a ('l™TÈs 'g‘;¨)b let us go÷ was\ (aÙwûz'Ø;˙)b I was wro«˚ (hiwÇÈ'f<™n:ﬂ)a (->-)b he was a friend÷ we\ (wi'm™;I) we mZ˚ ('A;-)b `\ were ill˚ (w≥jÈ'∑™;≥, -j¯-)a (wû-, -™;‘)b were you `ere?÷ what\ ('sI;i w√TjÈv'D√n:, wA-, wû-, -TS-, -c-, -¯v-÷ hw-÷ W-÷ -j¯È-÷ j¯hÈ-)a (wØ-, wå-, …)b see what you have done! [you've]˚ (hi'nU;u w√[i'wAn[[]Èﬂ, wA-, wû-, -'wO;n-÷ hw-÷ W-)a (-'nj¯;u wØTi'wØnT¤ﬂ, wå-, …)b he kn[ what he wanted˚ (&w√m≥jÈ's™I¤˙, -j¯, &wA-, wû-÷ hw-÷ W-÷ -™;¤˙)a (&wØTÈ-, …)b what are you sZi«? [what're]˚ (&w√TDjÈ 's™;I, -TGÈ, -TSÈ, -cÈ, -GÈ, -¯, &wA-, wû-÷ hw-÷ W-)a (&wØ-, …)b what do you sZ? [d'you]˚ (&w√TDjÈ'DU;u, -TGÈ, -TSÈ, -cÈ, -GÈ, &w√DÈjÈ-, &w√DjÈ, -¯, &wA-, wû-÷ hw-÷ W-)a (&wØ-, …)b what do you do? [d'you]÷ when (not interr.): (Èmw™naÙ'sO;¤T, õwû-, -nÈ'-)a (-ø;-)b and when I sY it…˚ (&sø¨w™~jû'g™ö '∑™;≥, -wû-, -T-)a (&s‘¨-, -™;‘)b so when you get `ere…÷ where (not interr.): (∑È'phl™Is w™≥iwûΩ'fa;Önﬂ, w≥-)a (w™‘>i-, wû>i-)b `e place where he was found˚ (û'kh√nTi w™‘-, wû-)b a country where people si«÷ who\ (∑È'mπ;n ¯'D¤D¤T, h¯-) `e man who did it÷ will\ ('∑π[® 'DU;u÷ '∑πpw®÷ -Tw®)a (-T® 'D¯;u, …)b `at will do [`at'll]˚ (jûı'sI;i, j¨ı-, juı-÷ j¯ûı÷ j¯w®) you will see [you'll]˚ (w¤l¤p'w≥;k, -ö'w-, -T'w-÷ wûl-)a (-‘;k)b will it work?˚ (¤[®bi'mI;i÷ ¤pw®-÷ ¤Tw®-)a (¤T®-)b it will be me [it'll]˚ ('GA;m wûıbi'hI;≥, -n ®bi-)a ('GØ;-, -¤;å)b John will be here [ John'll]˚ (∑È'ch≥;c [w]ûıbi'f¨ı:, w®-)a (-‘;c)b `e >ur> will be full÷ would\ (wûD¤pbi'g¨;ﬂ, -öb-, -Tb-) would it be good?˚ (∑™ID'DU;u÷ ∑™IÈD-÷ -wûD-)a (-¯;u)b `\ would do [`\'d]˚ (hiâ'kh√m:, -ﬂ'k-÷ hiûâ÷ hiÈﬂ-÷ hiwû-)a (-åm:)b he would come [he'd]˚ (¤[Èbbi'naÙs, -Db-÷ ¤pwû-÷ ¤Twû-)a (¤TÈ-)b it would be nice [it'd], ('GI;im wûd's™;I&sø¨, -n Èd-)a (-‘¨)b Jean would sZ so÷ you\ (¤fjÈ'DU;u, -j¯-)a (-¯;u)b if you do˚ (aÉı'Th™¬j√, -j¯, ,ı-÷ aÉûı-÷ aÙwûı-)a …(-j¯, √ı-)b I will tell you [I'll]˚ ('†π˙kj¯, -j√)a (-j¯)b `ank you˚ ('A;<~c¯, -√)a ('A;~c¯)b aren't you?˚ ('D¤DócÈ 'sI;i, -c¯, -óTS-) didn't you see?˚ ('D¤Dócû 'khw¤T, -¯,

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-óTS-, -ó j-) didn't you quit?÷ your\ (j≥'phl™Is, jU≥-, jø;<-)a (jÈ-, jø;-)b your place˚ (&w√TS≥'n™;Im, -U≥-, -ø;<-, -tsS-, -tsj-, &wA-÷ -[¤Z-÷ -[¤zj-)a (&wØ-, -È'n-, -ø;'n-÷ -T¤Z-÷ -T¤zj-)b what is your name? [what's]˘ 2.3.1.3. ‹en prepositions become çpostpositionsÇ, they have full vowels: ('hU;u ≥jû'w™I[¤˙&fø;<, -j¯-)a (Èj-, -T¤˙&fø;)b who are you waiti« for?˚ ('w™;≥ ≥jû'kh√m¤˙&f<√m, -Am, -j¯-)a ('w™;‘> Èjû'khåm¤˙&f>Øm)b where are you comi« from?˚ ('w√t si'l¨k¤˙&πT, 'w√[ ¤zi-, 'wA-)a ('wØt si-, -T ¤zi-)b what is he looki« at? And when a preposition is followed by an unstressed pronoun, there are two possibilities, according to rhythm and speaking rate (or tempo): (hi'w™I[Èﬂf≥j¯, -j√, -&fø;<j√)a (hi'w™IT¤ﬂfÈj¯, -&fø;j¯)b he waited for you˚ (wI≥'l¨k¤˙ûm≥, -˙&π-)a (w¤È'l¨k¤˙ûTå, -&πTå)b we're looki« at her. Of course, with emphasis, things change: (wI≥'l¨k¤˙ ûT"h≥:| 'nA[ ÈT"h¤m:)a (w¤È'l¨k¤˙ ûT"h‘:| 'nØT ÈT"h¤m:)b we're looki« at her˚ not at him, (aÙ"DU;u&nø¨)a (aÙ"D¯;u&n‘¨)b I do know˘ ˛e forms beginning by h-˚ after a pause, never lose initial /h/: (hi'nø;¨Ω)a (-‘;¨Ω)b he knows˚ (hÈvjÈ'sI;in≥, hπ-, -j¯-)a (-å)b have you seen her?˚ (h¯'A;<j¯, -j√)a (-'A;j¯)b who are you?˚ Â. 2.3.1.4. Here we will make some examples of compounds with reduced second elements, especially in British English: ('sTø;bˇi, -b>i)b ®rYberry /-bŒå)b Peterborough /-b˘å, -bˇå)b Edinburgh /-b˘<È/, ('nU;u&b™i)b N[bury /-bŒÈm)b Durham /È;ÈmÈni)b ceremony /-mKÈni/, ('phl¤mÈ†) PImou$; ('sO;s&phπn)a ('sø;spÈn)b saucepan /-p⁄n/, ('nAns™ns, -sÈns)a ('nØnsÈns)b nonsense /-sŒns/, ('jø;È>i, -b>ˇi, bˇi, -b>i)b library˚ ('kh√sTÈ&m™i, -Èmˇi, -Èm>i)b cu®omary˚ (DÈ'<™kTÈ™kTÈ>i, -˛ˇi, -˛>i, DaÙ-)b directory˚ ('Dø;<mÈ&Tøi, -TÈ>i)b dormitory. Taxophonics 2.3.2.1. From the examples given thus far, the use of #onetic duration for the various English phones will be su‚ciently clear. However, we will summarize its

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characteristics. In stressed syllables, the long vowels (/A:, O:, È:/, and the possible long ones from the diaphonemes /A;, π;, Ø;, O;, È;/) as well as the diphthongs (/Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/) undergo a little shortening –half-´orteni«, indeed: from (é:, é;é) to (é;, éé)– when they are followed, within the same word or rhythm group, by at least one of the following three elements: (1) a voicele˛ consonant, or (2) an un®re˛ed vowel (and that changes them into diphthongs or triphthongs, (éé, ééé)), or (3) a whole un®re˛ed Ällable. ˛e second elements of compounds have secondary-stressed syllables; so they have no inﬂuence on length. ˛erefore, we have: ('phl™;I) /'plEI/ plZ, ('phl™;IΩ) /'plEIz/ plZs, ('phl™;Iﬂ) /'plEId/ plZed, ('phl™;I&bπk) /'plEIbπk/ plZba$, but ('phl™I¤˙) (or, possibly, ('phl™;¤˙)) /'plEII˙/ plZi«, ('phl™I≥)a (-å)b /'plEIÈ≤/ plZer, ('phl™IÈb®) /'plEIÈb®/ plZable, and ('phl™IT) /'plEIt/ plate, ('phl™Its) /'plEIts/ plates, ('phl™I[Èﬂ)a (-T¤ﬂ)b /'plEIù¢d/ plated, ('phl™I[¤˙)a (-T¤˙)b /'plEIùI˙/ plati«, ('ph™InT) /'pEInt/ paint˘ Equally: ('khA:<)a (-A:)b /'kA:≤/ car, ('khA:<Ü)a (-A:Ω)b /'kA:≤z/ cars, ('khA:<ﬂ)a (-A:ﬂ)b /'kA:≤d/ card, ('khA:-)b /∑È'bUı '<πn/ `e bull ran). In both accents, though, there is an exception to the exception, insofar as /π, Ø/ are half-lengthened (in a preintoneme, too), instead of a following contoid: ('GA;n)a ('GØ;n)b /'GØn/ John, ('bπ;˙) /'bπ˙/ ba«, ('hπ;nﬂ) /'hπnd/ hand˘ In the sequences /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/, the ﬁrst element is half-lengthened, both in intonemes and preintonemes; this occurs before vowels as well, if ﬁnal in rhythm groups: ('hI;≥)a ('h¤;å)b /'hIÈ≤/ here, ('∑™;≥)a ('∑™;‘)b /'∑EÈ≤/ `ere, ('phjU;≥, 'phj≥:)a ('phj¨;å, 'phjø:)b /'pjUÈ≤/ pure˚ ('hI;≥ Èn'∑™;≥)a ('h¤;È> Èn'∑™;‘)b /'hI˘< Èn[d]'∑EÈ≤/ here and `ere˘ We should notice that, in American English, /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/ followed by vowels,

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within words or rhythm groups, become ç/I<, E<, U¤T)b spear it and for /'spI¤T)b spirit˚ ('h¤<¤˙)a ('h¤È>¤˙)b /'hI˘-))b /'†<Et/ `reat˚ (('s2ø:<))a (('s2ø:))b /'snO:≤/ snore˘ Everyday-speech simpliﬁcations 2.3.3.1. In normal –non-slow– speech certain articulatory simpliﬁcations are quite normal. In particular, /t, d/, between C˚ are easily dropped: ('mø¨sli)a ('m‘¨-)b /'mOUstli/ mo®I˚ ('hπnsÈm) /'hπndsÈm/ handsome˚ ('phø¨smÈn)a (-‘¨-)b /'pOUstmÈn/ po®man˚ ('ph≥;f¤kli)a (-‘;f-)b /'pÈ:≤fIktli/ perfectI˚ ('n™ks 'D™;I) /'nEkst 'dEI/ next dZ˚ ('f≥;ß '†¤˙:)a ('f‘;s)b /'fÈ:≤st '†I˙/ ﬁr® `i«˚ ('mπS pÈ'Th™I[ø¨Ω)a (-T‘¨Ω)b /'mπSt pÈ'tEIùOUz/ ma´ed potatoes˘ ˛is simpliﬁcation occurs for /sts/, as well: ('phø¨sts, -sös, -ss)a ('ph‘¨-)b /'pOUsts/ po®s˚ ('Th™sts, -sös, -ss) /'tEsts/ te®s˚ ('Th™kst sÈ'l™kSÈn, -ks s-, sÍ'™-)a (-Só)b /'tEkst sÈ'lEkS˘n/ text selection. Besides: ('mU;uv 'bπk)a ('m¯;uv)b /'mUuvd 'bπk/ moved ba$˚ ('l¨k 'laÙk) /'lUkt 'laEk/ looked like˚ ('-)b /'ed me˚ ('Thø;¨ı 'bA;Ê)a ('ThÖ;¨ı 'bØ;Ê)b /'tOUıd 'bØb/ told Bob˚ ('kh™p 'khwaÙÈT) /'kEpt 'kwaEÈt/ kept quiet˘ In addition to simpliﬁcations, there are assimilations: ('hπ;m 'm™;Iﬂ, -n 'm-) /'hπnd 'mEId/ handmade˚ ('khlø;¨Ë 'SAp, -Ω)a (-‘;¨Ë 'SØp)b /'klOUzd 'SØp/ closed ´op˚ ('khπ[;]˙ 'gø;¨, -n)a (-A;˙ 'g‘;¨)b /'kπ;nt 'gOU/ can't go˘ Even for vowels, simpliﬁcations are frequent: ('g™[ Í'O:˙, -A;˙)a ('g™T Í'Ø;˙)b /'gEù È'lØ;˙/ get alo«˚ ('π[;]fT <û'wa;Éı)a ('A;f˛ >û-)b /'π;ftÈ≤ È'waEı/ after a while˚ (T'<¤f¤k)a (T'>-)b /tÈ'
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And there are combinations, too: ('l¤T<Èli, -[È<È-)a ('l¤˛>Èli, -TÈ>È-)b /'lIù˘<Èli/ literalI˚ (ph≥'Th¤kjÈl≥li, -kj≥li, -kli)a (phÈ-, -kjÈlÈ-÷ -kj¨lÈ-)b /pÈ≤'tIkjÈlÈ≤li/ particularI˚ ('phØ-)b /'p<ØbÈbli/ probabI˘ 2.3.3.2. In vowel combinations, within words or sentences, several simpliﬁcations are possible: ('s™;¤˙, 's™I¤˙) /'sEII˙/ sZi«˚ ('Sø;¤˙, 'Sø¨¤˙)a (-‘;¤˙, -‘¨¤˙)b /'SOUI˙/ ´owi«˚ ('si;¤˙, 'sIi¤˙) /'sIiI˙/ seei«˚ (È'nø;¤˙, -øÙ¤˙) /È'nOEI˙/ annoyi«˘ Besides: ('d-)b /'d-, 'Ã>-)b /d¢'<Ektli/ directI˚ ('IizÍi, 'Iizli) /'IizÈli/ easiI˚ (¤g'zπkTli, 'gzπkli) /Ig'zπktli/ exactI˚ (v™i-, vˇi-)b /'vE˚ ('†π˙kj¯, -j√, 'hπ-, 'ôkj¯, '˜kj¯) {(('˜ækj¯))} /'†π˙kju/ `ank you˘ Others: (bû&kÈΩ, p&k-, &kh-, -'khÈ;Ω÷ bû'kh√;Ω÷ -O:Ω÷ -A;Ω)a (-'khÈ;Ω÷ -Ø;Ω)b /b¢'kØ;z/ because˚ (ó'Th¤ı:, √n-)a (ån-)b /√n'tIı/ until˚ (ó'l™s, √n-)a (ån-)b /√n'lEs/ unle˛˚ (È'n√f, ó'-)a (-åf, ó'-)b /¢'n√f/ enough˚ (&j™só'DI;iﬂ) /'jEs ¢n'dIid/ yes indeed˚ (ÈÑ'khø;<ß, Èf'- f&-, &k-)a (-ø;s)b /Èv'kO:≤s/ of course˚ (ÈZ'¯uZ®, ¶'-, -Zw®, ÈZ'j-, ¶'j-) /Èz'jUuZw®/ as usual˚ (ph≥'hπps, -&Hπ-, &ph<π-, phπ-)a (phÈ-, &ph>-)b /pÈ≤'hπps/ perhaps˘ 2.3.3.3. Some other cases: (wûı, w®, wû {,ı'Th™¬jû&w√T, -ö})a ({√ı-, -Ø-})b /wEı, wÈı, w®/ well, [I'll tell you what]˚ (≥&ø¨nli√'kh¨;ﬂ, -ni-)a (-‘¨-, -å'-)b /IfOUnliaE'kUd/ if onI I could˚ ('skj¯uzmi, ¤k'-) /Ik'skjUuzmi/ excuse me!˚ (baÙ'ba;Ù, b√-, bÈ-, &baÙ'ba;Ù)a (bå-)b /baE'baE/ bye-bye˚ (g¨b'ba;Ù, gûb-, g¨'-, gû'-÷ -D'b-, 'ba;Ù) /gUd'baE/ goodbye˚ (g¨b'mø;-)b /aE'†I˙k jÈ≤'ÈnT, 'såmpõ)b /'s√m†I˙ 'dIf<Ènt/ some`i« di‡erent˚

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(f¨ı'f¤ı:, fûı'-, f¨'-, fÈ'-) /fUı'fIı/ fulﬁll˚ (¤M'vaÙ<ÈnmÈnT, -ÈmmÈ-, -ÈmÈ-, -aÙ<mÈ-, ™-, È-)a (->Ènm-, ->ÈmmÈ-, ->ÈmÈ-, -aÙÈmÈ-, -aÈmÈ-, ™-, È-)b /In'vaE<ÈnmÈnt, E-, È-/ environment˚ ('g√v≥nmÈnT, -v≥m-, -vÈm-, -võ-, -vm-÷ -bõ-÷ -mm-)a ('gåvÈnm-, -vÈmm-, -vÈm-, -võ-, -vm-÷ -bõ-÷ -mm-)b /'g√vÈ≤nmÈnt/ government. American English has, too: ('khπnDÈ&D™IT, 'khπnÈ-, -DÈT) /'kπnd¢dEIt, -d¢t/ candidate˚ (πnT'A;‘¨)b /È'nπ‘¨)b /Èn'πoose˚ ('waÙT 'SU;uΩ, -ö)a (-¯;uΩ)b /'waEt 'SUuz/ white ´oes÷ (maÙ'Th<™;In)a (-'˛h>-)b /maE't<EIn/ my train˚ ('maÙT '<™;In, -ö)a ('>-)b /'maEt '<EIn) might rain÷ (È'blπk 'Tha;Ù) /È'blπk 'taE/ a bla$ tie˚ (È'blπkT 'a;Ù) /È'blπkt 'aE/ a bla$ed \e˘ Forms like (m¤s'spEı:)a (-™ı:)b /mIs'spEı/ mi˛pell and (m¤s'sm¤†) /mIs'smI†/ Mi˛ Smi` may seem a bit strange. Indeed, as consonants often fall between others, so, in less slow manners of speaking, even (m¤'spEı:, m¤'sm¤†)a (-™ı:)b occur. For British English, the following examples are usual, too: (s‘¨'b¤;g û'mπ;n, sÈ-)b /sOU'bIg È'mπn/ so big a man˚ (È'b¤g‘ 'mπ;n)b /È'bIgÈ≤ 'mπn/ a bigger man÷ ('laÙT È'faÙå)b /'laEt È'faEÈ≤/ light a ﬁre˚ (È'laÙT‘ 'faÙå)b /È'laEtÈ≤ 'faEÈ≤/ a lighter ﬁre÷ (¤tsÈz'w™ı Tû'w™IT)b /ItsÈz'wEı tÈ'wEIt/ it's as well to wait˚ (hizû'w™ıT‘&w™IT)b /hizÈ'wEıtÈ≤wEIt/ he's a welterweight˘ Let us add an important remark about the syllabic structure regarding /'é0é/, which has /I, E, π, √, Ø, U/, even preceded by /j, w, <, l/, or with ﬁnal /ó, ®/. Although we will not mark it systematically, but only here (as it would be an almost useless increase in weight of our transcriptions), it is worthwhile knowing that a single consonant and the preceding short stressed vowel belong to the same syllable: ('l¤m-≥)a ('l¤T-å)b /'lIùÈ≤/ litter˚ ('b™g-≥)a ('b™g-å)b /'bEgÈ≤/ letter˚ ('phπk-≥)a ('phπk-å)b /'pπkÈ≤/ pa$er˚ ('kh√m-≥)a ('khåT-å)b /'k√ùÈ≤/ cutter˚ ('hAm-≥)a ('hØT-å)b /'hØùÈ≤/ hotter˚ ('l¨k-≥)a ('l¨k-å)b /'lUkÈ≤/ looker˚ ('s™l-≥)a ('s™l-å)b /'sElÈ≤/ seller˚ ('kh™<-i≥)a ('khπ>-iå)b /'khπån-¤˙)b /'<√nI˙/ runni«˚ ('l√v-¤˙)a ('låv-¤˙)b /'l√vI˙/ lovi«˚ ('m√T-ó, 'm√ö-ó)a ('måT-ó÷ 'måö-ó)b /'m√tó/ mutton˚ ('khAT-ó, 'khAö-ó)a ('khØT-ó÷ 'khØö-ó)b /'kØtó/ cotton˚ ('l¤s-ó) /'lIsó/ li®en˚ ('m¤D-®) /'mId®/ middle˚ ('m™[-®)a ('m™T-®)b /'mEù®/ metal˚ ('D™v-®) /'dEv®/ devil˚ ('m™T-<¤k)a ('m™˛->¤k)b /'mEtÈT)b /'πkjÈ<Èt/ accurate˚ ('Øk-w®)b /'<ØkwÈı/ Ro$well˚ ('Øk-li)b /'<Økli/ Ro$l\˚ ('<¤p-li)a ('>¤p-li)b /'®)b /'nˆUut<Èı/ neutral˚ ('aÙ-pli)b /'
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American dissimilation of r 2.3.3.5. To simplify the articulation of words and rhythm groups with two /≤/'s, American pronunciation can have variants with /`/ for the ﬁrst /≤/, although not very frequently, even in stressed syllables: ('fA;<∑≥, 'fA;∑≥) /'fA:≤∑È≤/ far`er˚ ('f≥;∑≥, 'fÈ;∑≥) /'fÈ:≤∑È≤/ fur`er˚ ('ø;i, -&b™>i)b} /'kπnùÈ≤bŒi, -&b™>i)b} /'wO;ùÈ≤bŒi, -Èbˇi, -Èb>i)b} /'EıdÈ≤bŒ˚ (∑™≥'f≥:mΩ, ∑™È'-, ∑≥'-, ∑È'-) /∑EÈ≤'fÈ:≤mz/ `eir ﬁrms˚ (∑™≥'D≥;[i, ∑™È'-, ∑≥'-, ∑È'-) /∑EÈ≤'dÈ:≤ùi/ `\'re dirty˚ (f≥'w≥:ﬂ, fÈ'-) /fÈ≤'wÈ:≤d/ for word˚ (ø;<'hI;≥, ø;'-, ≥'-, È'-, -'H-) /O:≤'hIÈ≤, È≤'-/ or here˘ In addition to /≤/, the following examples will show dissimilation for /È>i, -b>ˇi, bˇi, -b>i, -bÈ>i)b /'laEb<Œ¯È>i, ->¨>i, -b>ˇi, bˇi, -b>i, -bj¨>i, -bjÈ-)b /'fEbÈ˛>i, -È&T™>i, -kû-)b /'sEk<ÈtŒÈ-÷ -gû-)b /stÈ'nØg<ÈfÈ≤/ ®enogra#er˚ (fÈ'ThAg<Èf≥÷ -gû-)a (-Øg>Èfå÷ -gû-)b /fÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤/ #otogra#er˚ (ph<È'f™s≥÷ phÈ-÷ ph≥-)a (ph>È'f™så÷ phÈ-)b /p<È'fEsÈ≤/ profe˛or˚ (ph<È&n√nsi'™ISÈn÷ phÈ-÷ ph≥-)a (ph>È&nånsi'™ISó÷ phÈ-)b /p<Èn√nsi'EIS˘n/ pronunciation˚ (ph<È'phπ<È&Tø¤'phπ>È˛>i, ph>È-÷ phÈ-)b /p<¢'pπ<ÈtK-ed÷ -(e)s÷ -'s, -s'≥.

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Simply, we have: /d/ (D) after voiced phonemes (¤ vowels, diphthongs, and voiced consonants, except the very /d/): /'plEId/ plZed, /'hÈ;ard's÷ /s/ (s) after voiceless consonants (except the grooved ones, /s, S, c/): /'tØps/ tops, /'-)b present (noun, adj.), (p<¤'z™nT)a (p>-)b present (verb). English sentences usually keep the stresses of their words well, even in lexical monosyllables, while grammatical monosyllables lack any stress (as, in general, do polysyllabic unstressed syllables): ('sπmz 'bO;t '†I;i 'nj¯;u 'smø:ı)b Sam has bought `ree n[ small bla$ ca_÷ but we have: (ó∑≥wÇÈ'lA:<ä 'kh™IT-, -ø;-)b but it's of `e greate® importance˘ However, in long words (and in sentences as well), many syllables with full vowels generally receive secondary stresses (especially when they occur near unstressed and reduced syllables): (&ø¨v≥'™sTÈ&m™IT)a (&‘¨vÈ>'™sT¤-)b overe®imate, (&v¤zÈ'b¤lÈ[i)a (-Ti)b visibili“, (&ph≥;pÈn&D¤kjÈ'lπ<È[i)a (&ph‘;-, ->ÈTi)b perpendiculari“, ('<™kûg&naÙΩ)a ('>™-)b recognize, ('m™ks¤&kø¨)a (-‘¨)b Mexico. In compounds, the more frequent structure is ('à&à) (more rarely (&à'à): (&f¤f'ThI;in) ﬁfteen). Sometimes, even ('à'à) occurs, as in çcollocationsÇ (or occasional –or free– compounds, which are, then, modiﬁable): ('blπk&b≥;ﬂ)a (-‘;ﬂ)b bla$bird (but ('blπk 'b≥:ﬂ)a ('b‘:ﬂ)b bla$ bird), ('b¨ı&DAâ, -O;â)a (-Øâ)b bulldog˘ Of course, there are also many instances like: ('¤˙gl¤S&ThIic≥)a (-å)b E«li´ tea>er ça teacher of EnglishÇ and ('¤˙gl¤S 'ThIic≥)a (-å)b E«li´ tea>er ça teacher who is EnglishÇ.

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2.3.4.2. Let us now consider compounds such as ﬁr® cla˛ (noun and adverb) and ﬁr®-cla˛ (adjective), and the collocation ﬁr® cla˛˚ in a sentence like `at was `e ﬁr® cla˛ to be considered˘ From a phonetic point of view, they are alike: ('f≥;ß[T] 'khlπ[;]s)a ('f‘;s[T] 'khlA;s)b; however, from a phonemic point of view, and for teaching and lexicographical purposes as well, it could be very useful to distinguish them as: /'fÈ:≤st'klπ;s/ (compounds: ç/'à'à/Ç) and /'fÈ:≤st 'klπ;s/ (collocation: ç/'à 'à/Ç). Besides, patterns are ﬂexibly structured. As a matter of fact, we have: (&f¤f'ThI;in) ﬁfteen and ('ph™;Iä f¤f'ThI;in) page ﬁfteen˚ but ('f¤f&ThIim 'ph™;IGÈΩ)a (-¤Ω)b ﬁfteen pages÷ ('b<π;n[D] 'nU;u)a ('nj¯;u)b brandn[˚ but (È'b<π;n[D]&nUu kûm'phj¯um≥)a (-&nj¯u, -Tå)b a brandn[ computer˘ Moreover: ('s™kûn[D] 'hπ;nﬂ) secondhand˚ but ('s™kûn&hπnﬂ 'khlø;¨[∑]Ω)a (-‘;¨[∑]Ω)b secondhand clo`es÷ and (∑[™]≥'O:ı &s™kûn'hπ;nﬂ)a (∑™‘>'ø:ı)b `\'re all secondhand÷ also (&πfT≥'nU;un)a (&A;fTÈ'n¯;un)b afternoon and (&g¨DπfT≥'nU;un, g¨D&-, gûD&-)a (&g¨DA;fTÈ'n¯;un, g¨D&-, gûD&-)b good afternoon˚ but ('πfT≥&nU;un 'ThI;i)a ('A;fTÈ&n¯;un 'ThI;i)b afternoon tea˘ A few cases can vary according to speech rate, but also whether they occur in intonemes or preintonemes, as well as according to personal choices. Here, we will make use of di‡erent degrees of intermediate stress, too, which (without an emphatic one, (")) are, in descending order: ('), (“), (&), (÷), ( ). It is worthwhile observing nuances carefully: (&D™mÈn'sT<™ISÈn '™ks≥&saÙzÈΩ, 'D™mÈn&s-, -'sT<™ISÈn“™ks≥&saÙzÈΩ)a (-'sT>™ISó '™ksÈ&saÙz¤Ω)…b demon®ration exercises˚ ('™lÈ&v™Im≥ 'Ap≥&™Im≥, '™lÈ&v™Im≥“Ap≥&™Im≥, '™lÈv™Im≥&Ap≥÷™Im≥)a (-TÈ> 'ØpÈ&>™ITå)…b elevator operator˚ ('laÙT&haÖs 'khIip≥, 'laÙT&haÖs“khIip≥, 'laÙThaÖs&khIip≥)a (-å)…b ligh`ouse keeper÷ let us notice: ('laÙT 'haÖs&khIip≥)a (-å)b light housekeeper˘ 2.3.4.3. To feel certain about the stress patterns of compounds, it is necessary to look them up in reliable dictionaries. But pronunciation dictionaries are not always the best choice, for this aspect, although, of course, they have to be consulted. We willingly recommend the Random House dictionaries which, for secondary stress, are almost perfect; of course, the stress patterns shown are American ones, but, in general, they may hold good even for British English, which, in the meanwhile, may have added — kept some other possible variants (mainly collocation-like, rather than compound-like, so less useful ones: weekend˚ icecream˚ N[ York˚ N[ Zealand˚ N[ Hamp´ire…). In addition, the Oxford çAdvanced Learner'sÇ dictionaries show the çmarkedÇ cases of primary stress in several lexical collocations (which are quite unpredictable, above all for foreigners). In (dia)phonemic transcriptions such as ours, the most typical and numerous compounds are shown with a single primary stress /'àà/; the secondary one is easily recoverable, because the second lexeme necessarily bears a secondary stress. cce versa, most dictionaries printed in the ¨ßå include secondary stress, ç/'à&à/Ç; but usually the non-IPA symbols they use put stresses after stressed syllables, unfortunately, not before, and simply through a di‡erence in thickness (which, sometimes, is not evident enough, even with both of them in præsentia); as a matter of fact, we happen to ﬁnd, ™ çin scrib’Ç instead of /In'sk
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teÇ for /vIzÈ'bIlÈùi/ (&v¤zÈ'b¤lÈ[i)a (-ÈTi)b visibility˘ But some American dictionaries are misleading, because they mark secondary stress for most unstressed syllables bearing full vowels. Regrettably, mainly dictionaries published in the ¨º (even pronouncing dictionaries) do not use secondary stress wisely enough. As a matter of fact, a collocation like ('s™nT<® 'hIi[¤˙)a (-˛>-, -T¤˙)b /'sEnt<® 'hIiùI˙/ central heati« is, usually, represented as */&sentrÈl 'hi:tI˙/, exactly like (&s™nT<È'l¤sT¤k)a (-˛>-)b /sEnt<È'lIstIk/ centrali®ic (their */&sentrÈ'lIstIk/). However, the more they mark the better, even when things are predictable, provided they do so in an exact and accurate way. Indeed, teaching transcriptions, especially for beginners, should show several characteristics, with no absurd and groundless fear that they may confuse. In reality, too simple a transcription is less useful and, sometimes, misleading. 2.3.4.4. As regards diaphonemic transcriptions in compounds with su‚xes, it is su‚cient to know which of them are always non(half)®re˛able (ç/’à/Ç) and which are prosodically (half)®re˛able (ç/%à/Ç). As a matter of fact, the others, that have full vowels, are always (half)®re˛able (ç/&à/Ç). In addition to those with /È, È≤, ¢/, the following are always unstressed: /-Ik, -Iks, -I˙, -IS, -Ist, -Iv, -fIı/ -ic˚ -ics˚ -i«˚ -i´˚ -i®˚ -ive˚ -#il\ /'<™ùÈildhood]˚ /'tE<È(&)i3 3)b /aEv-

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'G√st 'bO:t È'nˆUu 'dIkSóŒø;bˇiz32 ø;'bl¯ubˇiΩ3 3)b /jukÈn'hπv 'st
/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 • 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 6 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

/ / (2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

û 2.8. British intonation.

Other accents 2.4.0. ˛is section is likely to be very important for descriptive and communicative purposes, as it deals with pronunciations going beyond the neutral accents.

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£International∞ neutral accent 2.4.1.1. As a teaching application for foreigners, the proposal of an çinternationalÇ accent seems to be welcome and useful. It will certainly have more real advantages than learning without a method, in a wild and uncontrolled way, and acquiring elements of both neutral accents, together with many personal (and regional) peculiarities and interferences due to spelling inconsistencies. ˛ings will become simpler and more straightforward, when, at long last, a dictionary with diaphonemic transcriptions is available. ˛e çinternationalÇ accent is mainly based on the ©~~ pronunciation, which covers the whole globe. Although it is slightly more American-like, which is the more widespread accent and also the less diverging –if possible– from current spelling, still it is not too American. Of course, we are referring to newsreaders, not to local correspondents, who in certain cases may even be speaking English as a second language. Indeed, it simpliﬁes actual complexities of real accents, above all the British one, eliminating unnecessary and unwanted distinctions (not shown by spelling, among other things), to recover a more organic and general situation. All this is done, starting from actual pronunciations, which, moreover, lack any connotations that can be easily localized. Many singers and actors use it. So, roughly, this international pronunciation is intermediate between the American and British neutral pronunciations. Besides, it does not sound çstrangeÇ to any native speaker. It simply is more çorganizedÇ, but with no undue or far-fetched exaggerations. 2.4.1.2. Starting from our diaphonemic transcription, the international accent is obtained mainly by bringing the diaphonemes /π;, A;÷ Ø;, O;÷ È;, ¢/ to their most natural çmatricesÇ (/π, A:÷ Ø, O:÷ È:, È/ (π, A:÷ Ø, ø:÷ È:, È)), ¤ more traditional and widespread, as well as less apart from spelling, as we have already said. In this way, we can simplify the hard task of foreigners, who –unfortunately– are forced to çlearnÇ from spelling. Actually, our modern-language teaching is still in a pitiful condition as far as pronunciation is concerned, as it is often completely neglected. ˛us, we have: ('lπsT)i ('lπ[;]sT)a ('lA;sT)b /'lπ;st/ la®, ('phA;sTå)i ('phA;sT√)a ('phπsTå)b /'pA;stÈ/ pa®a, ('sØi)b /'sØi)b /'hÈ;
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û 2.9. International monophthongs. /i+/ (i)÷ /ié/ (i) /I/ (¤ú§û) /¢/ = /È/, /È/ (È, å+|) /E/ (™ú§û) /√/ (åú§û) /π/ (πú§û), /π;/ (π)

/ué/ (u) /U/ (¨ú§û) /È:<, È;
û 2.10. International diphthongs.

/EIúıû/ (™¤ú§û)

/OUúıû/ (ø¨ú§û), /OEúıû/ (ø™ú§û)

/aEúıû/ (a™ú§û)

/aOúıû/ (aøú§û)

f

/új/ˆûUuúıû/ (újûuuú§û) f

/Iiúıû/ (iiú§û)

('håT)i ('h√T)a ('håT)b /'h√t/ hut, ('hØT)i ('hAT)a ('hØT)b /'hØt/ hot, ('sø:)i ('sO:)a ('sø:)b /'sO:/ sY, (&s¤cu'™¤SÈn)i (&s¤c¯'™ISÈn)a (&s¤c¯'™ISó)b /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situation˘ For /È:≤/, we have (È:‰): ('wÈ:‰ﬂ)i ('w≥:ﬂ)a ('w‘:ﬂ)b /'wÈ:≤d/ word÷ for /È:<, È;i)b /'hÈ;¤˙)b /'hI˘i)b /'mE˘¤˙, 'Djø;>-)b /'dˆU˘
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For /ı, ®/, it is better to use (ù, æ) (semilateral, û 1.15.1), which, articulatorily, are decidedly simpler than (ı, ®) (in case, even velar can be used –velar semilateral (), £)– which, auditorily, are decidedly better than (l, Í)). As for consonants, su‚ce to say that (ö) is acceptable for /t/ (§ 2.2.2.4) and that ([) may be good for /ù/, mainly after vowels, while, (T) is more recommendable, after /n, ≤, ı/: ('b™Ti, -[i)i ('b™[i)a ('b™Ti)b /'bEùi/ Bet“, ('Thw™nTi)i ('Thw™n[[]i)a ('Thw™nTi)b /'twEnùi/ ‘en“˘ ˛us, for r˚ we have: /
/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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We reckon that this dilemma may be faced, in a practical and diplomatic way, aiming at acquiring an çinternationalÇ accent, which –although it might seem to be çnobody's accentÇ– would have none of the possible negative connotations of the two mediatic accents (we will be dealing with below), or even of the two national neutral ones (which some people seem to consider çnobody's accentÇ, as well, since –in both nations– only about 3% of native speakers actually use them). £Mediatic∞ accents 2.4.2.0. In addition to the two neutral accents, the American and the British ones, and to the international accent, we believe it is important to show the two kinds of accent actually used by American and British native speakers. Naturally, çmediaticÇ pronunciations are often used by North-American people in the midwestern states, and by English people in the southeastern counties, respectively, as well as by most spoken-word mass media (¤ radio and television) that do not use the neutral accents nor more local ones. ˛erefore, û 2.12-18 (which speak for themselves) must be carefully analyzed, comparing them with the neutral ones, in order to capture the di‡erences, which are sometimes not slight! In ordinary people's opinion, mainly if their own pronunciation is directly concerned, these mediatic accents are thought to be less peculiar than the neutral ones. On the other hand, as everyone knows, neutral pronunciation –in percentage terms– is used the least by native speakers; but, it is the one generally aimed at by advanced foreign learners, except for more or less frequent interferences, especially from their mother tongue, and individual peculiarities. For this reason, we do not hesitate to show these actual realities, although we will not get to the point of recommending an active usage by foreigners. On the contrary, a passive usage is certainly welcome, to really understand native speakers, when they talk… ças they canÇ. Actually, this happens every day, all over the world, because school and society usually ignore (good) pronunciation. However, as these mediatic pronunciations are really very widespread, and often considered as çalmostÇ neutral (or, at least, less a‡ected and less artiﬁcial than the neutral accent), many people would be willing to declare them to be neutral. ˛ey would do so, on the one hand, in opposition to pronunciations which are more recognizable as local ones, and, on the other hand, to an çunsubstantialÇ neutral kind of pronunciation… It is no rare fact that some çmediaticÇ speakers ﬂuctuate towards the neutral type (or away from it), for some words. Here we wish to brieﬂy draw attention to some details, with reference only to the respective (American or British) variant, for a direct (çinternalÇ) comparison. In the light of what has been seen so far, it will not be di‚cult to ﬁnd the corresponding neutral forms of the other accent. On the contrary, it will be a very useful exercise.

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£Mediatic∞ American English pronunciation 2.4.2.1. Traditionally it was called çGeneral American accentÇ, since it is di‡erent from the stereotyped accents of New York City, and Eastern New England, or of the Great Lakes (¤ Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, Superior), or the South (either the çDeep SouthÇ and its variants, or its mountains, ¤ Appalachia, Ozarks), or of the American Blacks. 2.4.2.2. As can be seen from û 2.12, /I, U, E/ are (Ù, „, E): ('hÙT)m;a ('h¤T)a /'hIt/ hit, ('ph„T)m;a ('ph¨T)a /'pUt/ put˚ (']E;â)m;a ('l™;â)a /'lEg/ leg (let us also note ('f¢ı:)m;a ('f¤ı:)a /'fIı/ ﬁll, ('fPı:)m;a ('f¨ı:)a /'fUı/ full]÷ whereas, /IÈ≤, UÈ≤, O:/ are (¤>, ¨>, ù:): ('h¤;>)m;a ('hI;≥)a /'hIÈ≤/ here˚ ('ph¨;>)m;a ('phU;≥)a /'pUÈ≤/ poor˚ ('wù:ı)m;a ('wO:ı)a /'wO:ı/ wall˚ ('sù:)m;a ('sO:)a /'sO:/ sY (instead, /O:≤, O:, 'fA;∑>, 'bA;∑>, 'hA;m> 'mA;]i, 'khA;öó, 'phA;pi, 'DA;gm≈)m;a ('fA;<∑≥, 'fA;∑≥÷ 'bA∑≥, 'hAm≥, 'mAli, 'khAöó, 'phApi, 'DAgm√)a /'fA:≤∑È≤, 'fA:∑È≤÷ 'bØ∑È≤, 'hØùÈ≤, 'mØli, 'pØpi, 'dØgmÈ/ far`er˚ fa`er˚ bo`er˚ hotter˚ MolI˚ cotton˚ poppy˚ dogma; ('hAm> ¯n'hA;m>)m;a ('hAm≥ Èn'hAm≥)a /'hØùÈ< Èn[d]'hØùÈ≤/ hotter and hotter˚ ('hA ¯n'hA;)m;a ('hA
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guished by labialization (which is slight since the two vocoids are low). ˛us many speakers can unify them (but, productively — perceptively, things are rather complex and oscillating) by also obtaining ('sA;:) /È'kÈ:≤/ occur˘ û 2.12. Mediatic American monophthongs. /iò, ié/ (i), /[']I˙/ (I˙) /I[ı]/ (Ù, ¢ı), /IÈ≤/ (¤>), /I˘
/E[ı]/ (E, Eı), /EÈ≤/ (E>) /E˘<, π
/π[ı]/ (π, πı), /π;/ (πÄ)

/ué/ (%) /U[ı]/ („, Pı), /UÈ≤/ (¨>), /U˘:), /È≤/ (>), /È) /√[ı]/ (x, Öı) /O:/ (ù:, A:), /O:≤/ (ø:<), /O:
2.4.2.3. û 2.13 gives the diphthongs. Let us observe the di‡erences for /Ii, aE, aO, OU, [j]Uu, Uuı/ (¤i, √Ù, πÖ, Ö¨, [j]%¯, ¯¨ı)m;a (Ii, aÙ, aÖ, ø¨, Uu, j¯u, Uuı)a: ('b¤;i)m;a ('bI;i)a /'bIi/ bee˚ ('g√;Ù)m;a ('ga;Ù)a /'gaE/ guy˚ ('Dπ;Ôn)m;a ('Da;Ön)a /'daOn/ down˚ ('nÔ;s)m;a ('nø;¨)a /'nOU/ no˚ ('Th%;¯)m;a ('ThU;u)a /'tUu/ ‘o˚ ('nß;*)m;a ('nU;u)a /'nˆUu/ n[˚ ('fj¯;¨ı)m;a ('fj¯;uı)a /'fjUuı/ fuel˘ û 2.13. Mediatic American diphthongs. /Ii[ı]/ (¤i, i¤ı) (“ /IÈı/} /EI[ı]/ (™I, ™Ùı) /aO[ı]/ (πÖ[ı])

/jUu/ (j%¯), /[ˆ]Uu/ (%¯) /[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j/`]¯¨ı) (“ /UÈı/} /OU[ı]/ (Ö¨[ı]), /OE[ı]/ (øÙ, øÉı) /aE[ı]/ (√Ù, √Éı)

2.4.2.4. As far as V are concerned, then, we have to pay attention to frequent neutralizations (+ /ı/), which however can present oscillations depending on words or speakers. In extreme cases, which are not at all rare indeed, we can ﬁnd: ('f¤;®)m;a both for ('f¤ı:)a /'fIı/ ﬁll and ('fi;Iı, 'fiI®)a /'fIiı/ feel÷ ('w™;®)m;a both for ('wEı:)a /'wEı/ well and ('w™;¤ı, 'w™¤®)a /'wEIı/ wale÷ ('vÄ;®)m;a both for ('vπ;ı)a /'vπı/ Val and ('va;Öı, 'vaÖ®)a /'vaO˘ı/ vowel÷ also ('fP;®)m;a both for ('f¨ı:)a /'fUı/ full and ('fu;Uı, 'fuU®)a /'fUuı/ fool˚ and ('gÖ;®)m;a both for ('g,ı:)a /'g√ı/ gull and ('gø;¨ı)a /'gOUı/ goal. Two

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further variants are fairly frequent, which produce: /I˙/ (i˙), /A:≤=, A:≤’0é/ (A<): ('khi˙:, 'si˙i˙)m;a for ('kh¤˙:, 's¤˙¤˙)a /'kI˙, 'sI˙I˙/ ki«˚ si«i« and ('phA, 'DA<]i˙)m;a for ('phA;
/Uı, uuı/ (¨;®)

/Eı, EIı/ (™;®)

/åı, OUı/ (Ö;®)

/πı, aOı/ (Ä;®)

/A:≤/+/’0é, =/ = ç/Ø≤/Ç (A<)

2.4.2.5. As far as C are concerned, keeping in mind that these observations are general (and not absolutely çobligatoryÇ for all speakers — words) and that our transcriptions are çnormalizedÇ, let us say that for /l[j]éı/ we have (][j]éı): (']¢ıT)m;a ('l¤ıT)a /'lIıt/ lilt˚ (']Öı:)m;a ('l,ı:)a /'l√ı/ lull˚ ('mK]j'n)m;a ('m¤¬jÈn)a /'mIljÈn/ million˚ ('n˙v–ûsT)m;a ('nAvÍÈsT)a /'nØvÍ¢st/ noveli®˘ Besides, /)m;a (')m;a can represent either ('lπm≥)a /'lπùÈ≤/ latter or ('lπD≥)a /'lπdÈ≤/ ladder÷ (&≈n≥'ßT™;’nﬂ, &≈nm>-)m;a (&√nD≥'ßTπ;nﬂ)a /√ndÈ≤'stπnd/ under®and˘ ˛e same goes for /ˆ/ = (`), as seen in n[÷ and it is also possible to have /·w/: û 2.15. Mediatic American intonation. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 Ì 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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('wín:, 'W-, 'hw-)m;a ('w™n:÷ 'W-÷ 'hw-)a /'·wEn/ when˘ ˛ere is a tendency to slightly shorten stressed ﬁnal vowels and diphthongs, which we will only mark here, because they oscillate (by indicating /O:, A:/ as doublings, (éé)m;a, for (é;é)a): ('s¤i) /'sIi/ see˚ ('Th%¯) /'tUu/ ‘o˚ ('D™I) /'dEI/ dZ˚ ('gÖ¨) /'gOU/ go˚ ('h√Ù) /'haE/ high˚ ('nπÔ) /'naO/ now˚ ('bøÙ) /'bOE/ boy˚ ('spAA) /'spA:/ spa˚ ('sùù) /'sO:/ sY (also ('sùA, 'sAA)). £Mediatic∞ British English pronunciation 2.4.3.1. Journalists love to call it çEstuary EnglishÇ, in reference to the ˛ames estuary, but it is not limited to this area, since –from the south-eastern coasts of England– it surely stretches to Cambridge, Oxford, and Southampton, too. Of course, the direct inﬂuence of London is real, especially on the çnew townsÇ (such as Milton Keynes /'mIıtó 'kIinz/, in northern Buckinghamshire, 1967), which have been built since 1946, each one planned as an autonomous whole (with factories, houses, shops, Â), in order to decentralize masses of populations, particularly from London. However, in general, the South-East has always shared –to a lesser or greater extent– the London-type pronunciation characteristics. ˛us, this accent rather than çspreadingÇ has been çemergingÇ more and more, with the actual recognition of its existence. Many speakers ﬁnd that this accent is more genuine and authentic, in comparison with traditional çrpÇ (çReceived PronunciationÇ), which used to be the symbol of the prestigious and expensive –and deﬁnitely private– çPublic SchoolsÇ, such as Eton, Harrow, and ©nchester. ç®πÇ –/'A:≤ 'pIi/– is also known as çbbc EnglishÇ, because it was used by the bbc right from the beginning (1927 {and television, 1932}). But today it can be mainly heard only on international transmissions of the çbbc World ServiceÇ radio broadcastings and the çbbc WorldÇ television broadcastings, since most English people –who do not use it– ﬁnd it to be too a‡ected and élitist. û 2.16. Mediatic British monophthongs. /iò/ = /Ii/ (ÙI) /ié/ (i), /I[ı]/ (¤, ÙP[§]) /È/ (È, û*, aò|) /¢/ = /È/, /È:/ (È‘) /E[ı]/ (™, ÉP[§]) /π[ı]/ (E, ÄP[§])

/ué/ (%), /U[ı]/ (¨, UP[§]) /[j]UÈ≤, [j]U˘
˛erefore, foreigners must be familiar with the mediatic British accent too, but with no real need to actually use it. However, often, the native speakers' conception of this accent is subjective and contrasting. In fact, if on the one hand they may consider it to be neutral, or almost neutral, with respect to çcommonÇ peo-

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ple, when çpublicÇ people are concerned –as politicians are– the same pronunciation can be deﬁned as çCockneyÇ, that is very dialectal (and hardly appropriate). But we do know that linguistic opinions are very colorful and personal. 2.4.3.2. As can be seen from û 2.16, /π, Ø, O:/ are higher, (E, O, oo). ˛e last one is doubled (since it moves upwards slightly), or diphthongized (downwards) when lexeme ﬁnal, or followed by the /zò, dò/ (oø[ﬂ/Ω]ò) grammemes. Also /E/ is higher, though remaining within its own box, (™°) (to be better distinguished from /π/ (E)): ('[h]Eöç)m;b ('hπT)b /'hπt/ hat˚ ('Øk)b /'<Øk/ ro$˚ ('lo;on)m;b ('lø:n)b /'lO:n/ lYn˚ ('lo;ø)m;b ('lø:)b /'lO:/ lY˚ ('mo;ø)m;b ('mø:)b /'mO:≤/ more˚ ('lo;øΩ)m;b ('lø:Ω)b /'lO:z/ lYs˚ ('pho;øﬂ)m;b ('phø:ﬂ)b /'pO:≤d/ pored˘ In the vocogram, the diphthongs due to the vocalization of /ı/ are marked in grey: /Iı, Eı, πı, √ı, Uı/. Note the di‡erent symbols: ('bÙ;P[§])m;b ('b¤ı:)b /'bIı/ bill˚ ('bÉ;P[§])m;b ('b™ı:)b /'bEı/ bell˚ ('Ä;P[§])m;b ('Å;ı)b /'πı/ Al˚ ('kh√P[§]öç)m;b ('kh√ıT)b /'k√ıt/ cult, ('bU;P[§])m;b ('b¨ı:)b /'bUı/ bull. ˛ose who systematically realize /π/ as (Å) are inﬂuenced by a sort of strategy in reaction to the mediatic (and Cockney proper) closer articulation, which is realized as (E), but it does not belong to neutral pronunciation. In addition, it can cause confusion with /√/, not neutralization (as some think), since these realizations are uttered by di‡erent speakers, not the same, although in the same places. Besides, /u/ is fronter, (%): (&s¤öc%'ÄISÈn)m;b (&s¤c¯'™ISó)b /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situation; /√, È[≤]|/ are lower (and fronter), (aï): ('baöça)m;b ('båTå)b /'b√ùÈ≤/ butter˚ ('b¤;a)m;b ('b¤;å)b /'bIÈ≤/ beer; whereas, /È:≤, A:{≤}/ are diphthongized, (È‘, Aå): ('fÈ;‘[Ω])m;b ('f‘:[Ω])b /'fÈ:≤[z]/ fur[s]˚ ('khA;å[Ω])m;b ('khA:[Ω])b /'kA:≤[z]/ car[s]˘ 2.4.3.3. û 2.17 gives us the positions of /IÈ≤, I˘<÷ EÈ≤, E˘¤˙)b /'hI˘ Èn'∑™;‘)b /'hI˘< Èn[d]'∑EÈ≤/ here and `ere˚ ('[h]¤: 'khamz ∑È'san:, '[h]¤;‘, &[h]¤;'-, &[h]¤È'-)m;b ('h¤;‘ 'khåmz ∑È'sån:, &h¤È'-)b /'hIÈ≤ 'k√mz ∑È's√n/ here comes `e sun. It is to be noted that even /E˘<, EÈ≤/ are more often long monophthongs than narrow diphthongs: ('m™;<ÙI, 'm™‘-)m;b ('m™‘>i)b /'mE˘
/[j]UÈ≤, -U˘
/aEÈ≤/ (AÙÈ, AÙaò|), /aOÈ≤/ (πPÈ, πPaò|), /EIÈ≤/ (ÄIÈ, ÄIaò|), /OUÈ≤/ (x¨È, x¨aò|), /OEÈ≤/ (oÙÈ, oÙaò|), /IiÈ≤/ (ÙIÈ, ÙIaò|, ÙI<é), /UuÈ≤/ (T%È, T%aò|, T%<é), /A:≤/ (Aå) + ç/A:È≤/Ç (AåÈ, Aåaò|), /éé˘<é/ (éé[È]<é)

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/'dUuÈ≤/ doer˘ In addition: ('phlÄIa)m;b ('phl™Iå)b /'plEIÈ≤/ plZer˚ ('fAÙa)m;b ('faÙå)b /'faEÈ≤/ ﬁre˚ ('çhπPa)m;b ('ThaÖå)b /'taOÈ≤/ tower˚ and even: ('gx¨a)m;b ('g‘¨å)b /'gOUÈ≤/ goer˚ (¤mö'phloÙa)m;b (¤m'phløÙå)b /Im'plOEÈ≤/ employer (all with /-È≤z/ (-ÈΩ)). For ('fA;å)m;b ('fA:)b /'fA:≤/ far˚ ('khA;åΩ)m;b ('khA:Ω)b /'kA:≤z/ cars it is also possible to have ç/'fA:È≤, 'kA:È≤z/Ç ('fAåa, 'khAåÈΩ)m;b. 2.4.3.4. û 2.18 shows that there is a more retracted ﬁrst element for /Ii, Iiı, aE/, ¤ (ÙI, I¤ı, AÙ): ('bÙ;I)m;b ('bI;i)b /'bIi/ bee˚ ('çhA;Ùm)m;b ('Tha;Ùm)b /'taEm/ time. ˛e ﬁrst element is lower and backer for /EI, OU/ (this last one is unrounded too, when not followed by /ı/, as in neutral British pronunciation), (ÄI, x¨): ('DÄ;I)m;b ('D™;I)b /'dEI/ dZ˚ ('gx;¨)m;b ('g‘;¨)b /'gOU/ go (('gO;U[§])m;b ('gÖ;¨ı)b /'gOUı/ goal]. ˛e ﬁrst element is fronter for /aO, Uu/, (πP, T%) (besides, /Uuı/ is (¨u[§])): ('çhπ;Pn)m;b ('Tha;Ön)b /'taOn/ town˚ ('çhT;%)m;b ('Th¯;u)b /'tUu/ ‘o˚ ('chT;%Ê)m;b ('Thj¯;uÊ)b /'tˆUub/ tube˚ ('fj¨;u[§])m;b ('fju;Uı)b /'fjUuı/ fuel÷ whereas, the ﬁrst element is higher for /OE/ (oÙ): ('bo;Ù)m;b ('bø;Ù)b /'bOE/ boy˘ For the diphthongs with front second elements, there are some remarkable triphthongs which derive from the vocalization of /ı/ (and realized with or without (ù)); /Iiı, EIı, aEı, OEı/ (I¤P[§], ÄÙP[§], AÉP[§], oÉP[§]): ('[h]I¤P[§])m;b ('hi;Iı, 'hiI®)b /'hIiı/ heel˚ ('™;¤ı, '>™¤®)b /'<EIı/ rail˚ ('fAÉP[§])m;b ('fa;Éı, 'faÉ®)b /'faEı/ ﬁle˚ ('oÉP[§])m;b ('ø;Éı, 'øÉ®)b /'OEı/ oil. In [n]ei`er the American-like pronunciation prevails: ('[n]ÙI∑a÷ -AÙ-)m;b ('[n]aÙ∑å÷ -Ii-)b. Generally, /i/ is realized as if it were /Ii/ (and in the preﬁx /0I-/ as well): (<ÙI'Eökç)m;b (>i'πkT)b /¤'gA:ﬂ)b /<¢'gA:≤d/ regard˘ For /È≤[0]ò/ (‘) is more frequent (thus, we have an extension of what happens in neutral pronunciation for /È≤[z/d]ò/): ('l™öp‘ﬂ)m;b ('l™pÈﬂ)b /'lEpÈ≤d/ leopard˘ Seeing that native phoneticians continue to overlook phonetic particulars, we add some sociolinguistic variants for several phonemes (drawing from our archives for the description of regional accents) for now without adding ﬁgures, and within the limits of the seven most typical diphthongs. As regards what we have said above, we also provide the transcription of both the most marked variants (çbroaderÇ, ç(≠)Ç), and the least marked ones (more çreﬁnedÇ, that is more controlled, ç(±)Ç): /Ii/ (ÙI, ≠¢i, ±¤i), /EI/ (ÄI, ≠å¤, ±EI), /aE/ (AÙ, ≠ØÙ, ±åI), /aO/ (πP, ±ÅP), /OE/ (oÙ, ±øÙ), /OU/ (x¨, ≠√¨, ±êT), /Uu/ (T%, ≠¢%, ±¨¯). ˛ose who are really interested in them will quite easily manage to draw useful comparisons, even without speciﬁc vocograms (however they can be found in English Pronunciation*]˘ û 2.18. Mediatic British diphthongs. /Ii[ı]/ (ÙI, I¤P[§])

/[j]Uu[ı]/ ([j]T%, [j]¨u[§])

/EI[ı]/ (ÄI, ÄÙP[§])

/OE[ı]/ (oÙ, oÉP[§]) /OU[ı]/ (x¨, OU[§])

/aO[ı]/ (πP[§])

/aE[ı]/ (AÙ, AÉP[§])

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û 2.19. Mediatic British neutralizations.

/I[i]ı/ (¤P[§]) /-Èı, -®/ (P[§]) /πı, EIı, aOı, √ı/ (aP[§])

/[j]U[u]ı/ ([j]¨U[§]) {“ /[j]O:ı/ ([j]oU[§])} /O:ı/ (oU[§]) /Øı, OUı/ (OU[§]), /OUlé/ (x¨lé) {in derivatives, also (OUlé)}

2.4.3.5. Even for çmediaticÇ British English, neutralizations are frequent before /ı/ (although less frequent than in Cockney, the typical and popular –and less educated– dialect and accent of the East End of London). In fact, Ô û 2.19, we often ﬁnd ('f¤;P[§])m;b both for ('f¤ı:)b /'fIı/ ﬁll and ('fi;Iı)b /'fIiı/ feel÷ in addition, ('[h]a;P[§])m;b both for ('hÅ;ı)b /'hπı/ Hal and ('h™;¤ı)b /'hEIı/ hail˚ and both for ('ha;Öı)b /'haOı/ howl and ('h√ı:)b /'h√ı/ Hull, as well. Besides, we ﬁnd ('DO;U[§])m;b both for ('DØ;ı)b /'dØı/ doll and ('DÖ;¨ı)b /'dOUı/ dole÷ and ('f¨;U[§])m;b both for ('f¨ı:)b /'fUı/ full and ('fu;Uı)b /'fUuı/ fool (the last one is possible for ('fo;U[§])m;b ('fø:ı)b /'fO:ı/ fall too]˘ (We will deal with (§) shortly.) 2.4.3.6. For the consonants, the strong preglottalization of /p, k, c/ must not be forgotten as it practically occurs in all the cases indicated in § 2.2.6.1-2 “ § 2.2.7.1; in addition, it is important to mention the massive substitution of /t/ with (ö), in all the cases indicated in § 2.2.5.2; whereas we can say that, generally, (ç) replaces (T) /t, ù/ of neutral pronunciation. ˛erefore: ('DØp)b /'d<Øp/ drop˚ ('DØpT)b /'d<Øpt/ dropped˚ ('phEök)m;b ('phπk)b /'pπk/ pa$˚ ('phEökç)m;b ('phπkT)b /'pπkt/ pa$ed˚ ('<ÙIöc, -öS)m;b ('>Iic, -öS)b /'˚ ('<ÙIöcç, -öSç)m;b ('>IicT, -öST)b /'ed˚ ('aÙTå)b /'-)m;b ('s˛>™;I~ä)b /'st<EInG/ ®ra«e˚ ('khw™scÈn, -ßc-, -ëcÈn, -ScÈn)m;b ('khw™scó, -Scó)b /'kwEsc˘n, -Sc-/ que®ion˘ For /ù/, ([) can occur, too: ('ph<¤öçÙI, 'ph<¤[ÙI÷ 'çhw™nöçÙI, -™n[ÙI)m;b ('ph>¤Ti, 'Thw™nTi)b /'p-i«≥: ('<x¨l¤n, '‘¨l¤˙)b /'
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ﬂuence of /OUı/ (OU[§])m;b (Ö¨ı)b, whereas in non-derivatives the normal realization occurs: ('phx¨la)m;b ('ph‘¨lå)b /'pOUlÈ≤/ polar˘ It is possible to have /˙k/ in: ('sam†¤˙ök, '™nÙI&†¤˙ök)m;b ('såm†¤˙, '™ni&†¤˙)b /'s√m†I˙, 'Eni†I˙/ some`i«˚ aJ`i«. From the examples, one can notice that the most frequent realization of /), as in neutral pronunciation), but (postalveolarized) prevelar rounded ((<), corresponding to the neutral American articulation). But there are also four further quite frequent variants: the labiodental, (V), and its combinations with other articulations, labiodental rounded, (¶), velarized labiodental, (◊), and postalveolarized labiodental, (S): (<ÙIÈ'<Ä;I~ä, VÙIÈ'V-, ¶ÙIÈ'¶-, ◊ÙIÈ'◊-, SÙIÈ'S-)m;b (>iÈ'>™;I~ä)b /-)m;b ('˛h>™;In)b /'t<EIn/ train˚ ('D<¤˙ök, -V-, -¶-, -◊-, -S-, '">-)m;b ('Ã>¤˙k)b /'dÈ&nånsi'™ISó, 'Gπksó)b /p<Èn√nsi'EIS˘n, 'Gπks˘n/ pronunciation˚ Ja$son˘ ˛e sequences /tˆ, dˆ, nˆ/ have the peculiarity of typically corresponding to /c, G/ and (~): ('chT;%n)m;b ('Thj¯;un)b /'tˆUun/ tune˚ ('GT;%n)m;b ('Dj¯;un)b /'dˆUun/ dune˚ ('~T;%)m;b ('nj¯;u)b /'nˆUu/ n[ (in Cockney we actually ﬁnd ('nÈ;%) = /'nUu/). Occasionally, /†, ∑/ can become /f/ and /òd, v/ respectively (which is a typical Cockney pronunciation, and can be heard even on the borders of the çEstuaryÇ area {and in further –mostly metropolitan– areas, which have been inﬂuenced by this accent}): ('†<Ù;I, 'f<-)m;b ('†>I;i)b /'†
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b‘öç, -P'h-)m;b (&å˙k®'h‘;bÈT)b /'√˙k® 'hÈ:≤bÈ≤t/ uncle Herbert˚ where we can see the normal kind of prevocalic l ((l)), and the intense one, again prevocalic: ('nOvÍ¤sç, -ßç)m;b ('nØvÍ¤sT)b /'nØvÍIst/ noveli®˘ 2.4.3.9. In cases like the following, we often ﬁnd secondary stresses: ('D¤kSÈ&n™<ÙI, 's™mÈ&ç™<ÙI, 'DoomÈ&ço<ÙI)m;b ('D¤kSó>i, 's™m¤˛>i, 'Dø;m¤˛>i)b /'dIkSÈnŒ
/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Text 2.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun (by Aesop) follows. It is given in ﬁve di‡erent (çnormalizedÇ) versions. In fact, they systematically and coherently present the most typical characteristics, which are acknowledged as peculiar. We start with the American and British versions in (neutral) English, which is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method. ˛e international version follows together with the two mediatic versions of American and British English. In the other chapters of the book, for each language dealt with, at least two kinds of foreign pronunciations are given: ﬁrst the foreign pronunciation of English, and lastly the British English pronunciation of the foreign language in question, according to the same principles. ˛e speakers are supposed to be neutral speakers of their own language, ﬂuent in English (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segments (vowels “ consonants) and intonation elements, which are typical of neutral English (although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given ﬁrst. Sometimes further accents have been added as can be seen in the correspondent chapters.

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Graphemic text 2.5.2.0. †e Nor` Wind and `e Sun were disputi« whi> was `e ®ro«er, when a travel(l)er came alo« wrapped in a warm cloak. †\ agreed `at `e one who ﬁr® succeeded in maki« `e travel(l)er take his cloak o‡ ´ould be considered ®ro«er `an `e o`er. †en `e Nor` Wind bl[ as hard as he could, but `e more he bl[ `e more closeI did `e travel(l)er fold his cloak around him; and at la® `e Nor` Wind gave up `e attempt. †en `e Sun ´one out warmI, and immediateI `e travel(l)er took o‡ his cloak. And so `e Nor` Wind was obliged to confe˛ `at `e Sun was `e ®ro«er of `e ‘o. Did you like `e ®ory? Do you want to hear it again? Neutral American pronunciation 2.5.2.1. (∑È'nø;<† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È's√n:2 w≥D¤'spj¯u[¤˙ 'w¤c wûz∑È'sTØ˙gå3 3| 5w™n È'˛h>πvl‘2 5kh™;Im È'lØ˙2 ì5>πpT ¤nû'wø:m 'khl‘¨k3 3œ| ∑™Iû'g>I;iD2\ ∑Èt∑û5wån ¯'f‘;s sûk'sIiD¤D2 ¤m5m™Ik¤˙ ∑È'˛h>πvl‘2 5Th™Ik ¤Ω'khl‘¨k 'Øf32| &S¨bbikûn5s¤D‘ﬂ "s˛>Ø˙g‘ ∑Èn∑i'å∑å3 3|| '∑™n:2 ∑È5nø;† 'w¤m:2 5bl¯;u2 ÈΩ'hA:D2 Èzi'kh¨;ﬂ3 3| bÈt∑È5mø:> i'bl¯;u32| ∑È5mø: 'khl‘¨sli2 &D¤d∑È'˛h>πvlå2\ 5fÖ;¨ıD ¤Ω'khl‘¨k û'>aÖnD¤m3 3| ìÈn[D]Èö'lA;sT2œ\ ∑È5nø;† 'w¤˙:2 5g™;Iv 'åp ∑iÈ'Th™mpT3 3|| ì'∑™n:2œ ∑È5sån 'SØn 'aÖT3 3 ì'wø;mli3 3œ| Èn¤'mIiDiÈTli2\ ˚∑È5˛h>πvl‘ 'Th¨k 'Øf3 3 ˚¤Ω'khl‘¨k3 3|| ìó's‘;¨2œ ∑È5nø;† 'w¤n:D2 wûzÈ5bla;Ùä TûkûM'f™s2| ∑Èt∑È'sån:3 3 wÇ∑È's˛>Ø˙g‘>3 3 ìÈv∑È'Th¯;u3 3œ|| ¿&D¤G¯'laÙk21 ¿∑È'sTø;>i2| ¿Dj¯5wØn TÈ'h¤È>¤T û'g™n:21|||)

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£International∞ English pronunciation 2.5.2.3. (∑È'nø;‰† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È'sån:2 wÈ‰D¤'spjuuT¤˙ 'w¤c wÈz∑È'sc<Ø˙gÈ‰23| 'w™n È'ch<πvlÈ‰2 'kh™;¤m È'lØ;˙2 ì'<πpT ¤nÈ'wø:‰m 'khlø¨k23œ| ∑™¤È'gDÙ'spj%¯[I˙ 'wÙc wûz∑È'sT<Œ;˙g>23| 'wín ''Th<πv]>2 'kh™;Im ¯']Œ;˙2 ì'<πpT ’n¯'wø:<m 'kh]Ö¨k23œ| ∑™Iû'g<¤;iD2\ ∑Èt∑û'w≈n %'f>;s sûk's¤i[ÈD2 ’m'm™IkI˙ ∑È'Th<πv]>2 'Th™Ik ÙΩ'kh]Ö¨k Ìù;f2 2| &SPbbik¯n'sÙm>ﬂ "sT<Œ;˙g> ∑'n∑i'x∑>23|| '∑ín:2 ∑''n9;<† 'w’m:2 'b]%;¯ ÈΩ'hA:2\ 'fÖ;¨ıD ÙΩ'kh]Ö¨k û'<πÔnD’m23| ì'n[D]Èö']πÄsT2œ\ ∑''n9;<† 'w’˙:2 'g™;Iv 'xp ∑iÈ'ThímpT23|| ì'∑ín:2œ ∑È's≈n 'SÔ;sn 'πÔT23 ì'wø;<m]i23œ| 'n’'m¤i[iÈT]i2\ ˚∑È'Th<πv]> 'Th„k 'ù;f23 ˚ÙΩ'kh]Ö¨k23|| ìó'sÖ;¨2œ ∑''n9;<† 'w’n:D2 wûzÈ'b]√;Ùä Tûk¯M'fEs2| ∑Èt∑È's≈n:23 wÇ∑È'sT<Œ;˙g>23 ìÈv∑È'Th%;¯23œ|| ¿&DÙGûÌ]√Ùk21 ¿∑È'sTø;
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Appendix: further accents 2.6.0. Concisely, we now provide the phonosyntheses of six accents. ˛e practice had with the ﬁve preceding accents (¤ the two neutral and two mediatic American and British, and the international one) will surely allow us to identify their peculiarities, starting from the diaphonemic transcriptions to see how they are actually realized in the indicated areas. Obviously, if the readers cannot immediately ﬁnd some appropriate examples, they can use those given in the whole chapter, depending on its sections. Clearly, the readers who are already familiar with these other accents will more easily and spontaneously ﬁnd both the examples and the phonic values (together with connections and analogies). A more systematic treatment will be done in E«li´ Pronunciation* (in the bibliography); although a careful examination of the vocograms given here will certainly provide more detailed information. Canadian English pronunciation 2.6.1. ˛ere are many peculiar uniﬁcations of vowels, with the merging of /O:, O;, Ø, Ø;/ into (Ø:) and of /O:≤, O:<, Ø<, Ø;
f

/iò, ié/ (i), /’I˙/ (I˙) >-ing≥ /IÈ≤/ (I≥), /I˘
/aO/ (aÖ, √¯=) / / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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Current and mediatic variants /iò|/ ([I]i), /I[ı]/ (Ù[ı]) /I˙/ (In) >-ing≥ /E<, E˘
/U[ı]/ (P[ı]) /O:≤/ (o:<, O:<) /O:<, Ø<, Ø;
/aE=/ (‘i) /EI[ı]/ (™e, ™Ù) /aO/ (π¨, ÅÖ), /aO=/ (x¯)

/OE[ı]/ (oÙ, oÉı) /OU/ (ÖP) /Ii, EI, aE, aO, OE, OU, Uu/ + /ı/ = /éé®/

/'naEt, 'aOt/ night˚ out. ˛ere are neutral and non-neutral taxophones for many vowels and diphthongs + /ı/. ˛e neutral ones which change phones are: /πı, √ı, Uı÷ Iiı, EIı, aEı, OEı, Uuı/; the others are /Iı, Eı/ and /√ı/ with other variants; in addition to a possible insertion of (û) before (ı). As far as phoneme distribution is concerned, certain words are pronounced with çBritishÇ vowel elements, others with çAmericanÇ ones. For the consonants, the use is similar to the American one. In current and mediatic pronunciations (given in the second set of vocograms), we ﬁnd that hypercorrection can produce /jUu/ for /Uu/ [noon˚ too˚ do…), due to the fact that, for /ˆUu/, careful speakers prefer /jUu/, after /n, t, d/. In addition, we ﬁnd the nasalization of /éöò, éö˘/ (–öò, –ö˘), even in /é˘ö/ (above all for /π/); lastly, for /l/, we have (]é), in these kinds of pronunciations.

Australian English pronunciation 2.6.2. We present four di‡erent accents separately: neutral (çcultivated AustralianÇ, in the ﬁrst three vocograms, which is used by a limited number of speakers, who have learned it intentionally, as happens for all neutral accents). ˛e mediatic accent (çgeneral AustralianÇ, in the second series of three vocograms, typical of mass media and many speakers), the broad accent (çbroad AustralianÇ in the third series of three vocograms, typical of uneducated people, which is heavily nasalized, too), and also the a‡ected accent (çmodiﬁed AustralianÇ, in the fourth series of three vocograms, used by a very small group of élite speakers, who aim at imitating traditional or a‡ected British pronunciation, which is considered to be too mannered and unacceptable). For each accent, we will ﬁrst see the monophthongs (given in the ﬁrst vocogram), moving then to the diphthongs, and lastly to centering diphthongs (in the third vocogram; in this case, the peculiarities of broad accents are quite evident). For /¢/, we regularly have /È/, except in a‡ected pronunciations.

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Neutral accent/èCultivated Australian E.¶ /i/ (i)

/u/ (¯) /U/ (U) /È:≤/ (È:), /È/ (È, û*, å|) /O:/ (o:) {/O:|/ (oø), /O:0/ (oo)}

/I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı)

‡

/E[ı]/ (e, Ùı) /π[ı]/ (E, Äı) /√[ı]/ (å, √ı), /A:/ (a:) /Ii[ı]/ (¤i, i¤ı) /EI[ı]/ (ÄI, Ä¤ı) /aE[ı]/ (ÅÙ, ÅÉı)

‡

/Ø[ı]/ (Ø, Øı)

/Uu[ı]/ (¨¯, Uuı) /OE[ı]/ (o¤, oÙı) /OU[ı/l]/ (ÖT, OUı, OUl) /aO/ (Å¨)

/IÈ[≤], I˘
/[j/ˆ]UÈ[≤], -U˘
/EÈ≤, E˘
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

/˚ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Mediatic accent/èGeneral Australian E.¶ /i/ (Û) /I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı)

/U/ (U) /È:≤/ (È:)÷ /È/ (È, û*, Å|) /O:/ (o:)

/E[ı]/ (e, Ùı) /π[ı]/ (E, Äı)

/Ø[ı]/ (O, Øı)

/√[ı]/ (Å, åı)÷ /A:/ (a:) /iò/ (¢Û, Û) /Ii[ı]/ (¢Û, Û¤ı) /EI[ı]/ (å¤, åÙı) /aO/ (π¨)

/Uu[ı]/ (T%, ¢¯, T¯ı, ¢uı) /OE[ı]/ (o¤, oÙı) /OU[ı/l]/ (åT, OUı, OUl) /aE[ı]/ (A¤, AÙı)

/IÈ[≤], I˘
/[j/ˆ]UÈ[≤], -U˘
˛e most typical characteristic (similar to mediatic British and Cockney pronunciations) consists in a wider pronunciation of the diphthongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/, as can be seen from the respective vocograms (in addition to (I, e) for /I, E/, since, only in a‡ected pronunciations, can we ﬁnd (™°) for /E/). ˛e diapho-

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neme /≤/ follows British use (although some young Australians, especially females, who live abroad, present a ﬂuctuating and non-neutral use of (>)). Let us notice (and very well too) the various taxophones + /ı/. We systematically ﬁnd ç/OUlé/Ç (whereas in Cockney and in mediatic British English minimal pairs occur such as ç/√Ulé/Ç – ç/OUlé/Ç, as polar]˘ Occasionally, we can have ç/O:È≤/Ç, for /O:≤/ (either ç/Or/Ç, or ç/or/Ç). Except in neutral pronunciation, for the /Ii, EI, aE, OE/ diphthongs, we have (ééı, éé®); besides, /{é}éÈı/ ({é}éûı, {é}é®), without vocalizations (with (ı, ®), after phones with labial component). ˛e diaphoneme /ù/ has ([), as in American English. For /0®ò, 0Èıò/, neutral pronunciation has (0®ò, 0ûıò); thus, it has (léı), without vocalizations (which are present, though, in broad pronunciations). It is possible to hear a non-neutral pronunciation with /l/ (]), for l + -y˚ -ie˚ -i«˚ -er… (grammemes {or even pseudo-grammemes} added to /ıò/). Broad accent/èBroad Australian E.¶ /i/ (Û) /I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı) /E[ı]/ (e, Ùı)

/u/ (¯) /U/ (U) /O:/ (o:) /È:≤/ (¢:), /È/ (È, û*, Å|)

/π[ı]/ (E, Äı)

/Ø[ı]/ (O, Øı)

f

/√[ı]/ (Å, åı), /A:/ (Å:) /IÈ[≤], I˘é, È0, Å|) /OE[ı]/ /EÈ≤, E˘
/iò/ (ÈÛ, Û) /Ii[ı]/ (ÈÛ, Û¤ı) /aO/ (EÖ) /EI[ı]/ (Å¤, ÅÙı)

/UÈ[≤, -˘<]/ =/Uu/ (È%) +(>é, È0, Å|) {“ /O:[≤]/}

A‡ected accent/èModiﬁed Australian E.¶ /u/ (u), /U/ (U) /U/ (U), /È:≤/ (È:), /È/ (È, û*, å|)

/i/ (i) /I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı)

f ø:0, øo0) /O:/ (ø:÷ ø:ò, øøò÷

/π[ı]/ (π, Åı) /A:/ (a:) /Ii[ı]/ (Ii, iIı) /EI[ı]/ (EI, E¤ı) /aO/ (ax)

/Uu[ı]/ (¨u, Uuı) /OU[ı/l]/ (êT, øUı, øUl) /OE[ı]/ (ø¤, øÙı) /aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)

/√[ı]/ (å, √ı) /Ø[ı]/ (Ø, Øı) f

/E[ı]/ (™, Éı)

/IÈ[≤], I˘é, IÈ0, Iå|) /EÈ≤, E˘é, ™È0, ™å|)

/[j]UÈ[≤]/ ([j]PÈ>é, PÈ0, På|) {“ /[j]O:≤/}

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New Zealand English pronunciation 2.6.3. In addition to the neutral accent, with three vocograms (the ﬁrst three), we present the mediatic accent (whose centering diphthongs {fourth and ﬁfth vocograms} correspond to the neutral ones) and the broad accent (whose monophthongs {sixth and seventh vocograms} correspond to the mediatic ones, whereas the centering diphthongs are peculiar, including the uniﬁcation of /EÈ≤, E˘, e;>, e‘>) (even in less neutral speech, the timbre is always (e): (e>, e˛)). For /I÷ ¢>, ¢˛); whereas, for /I˘, iI˛); for idea\ /aE'dIiÈ/. /π÷ ™>) is always distinct (in all accents). Occasionally, we can ﬁnd ç/O:È≤/Ç, for /O:≤/ (both ç/Or/Ç, and ç/or/Ç). ˛e triphthongs are not attenuated into diphthongs. Even in neutral pronunciation, we have /I˙/ (¤˙) (not ç(Ù˙, ¢˙)Ç). In New Zealand, /π;, A;/ = /A:/, /Ø;, O;/ = /Ø/, /¢/ = /È, ±I/ (¤ /I/ is only an intentional choice); ﬁni´ /'fInIS/ ('fÙnÙS÷ 'f¢n¢S), visit /'vIz¢t/ ('vÙzÈT, 'v¢zÈT). ˛e most typical characteristic consists in (Ù, e) for /I, E/, in neutral pronunciation (but (¢, ¤), in the other accents), in addition to the pronunciation of the diphthongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/ (which is similar to the Australian, mediatic British, and Cockney accents), as can be seen from the respective vocograms. Besides, /È:<, È:≤/ is rounded, (ê:) (or only partially so, (+È, +‘|), in the other pronunciation kinds). /i/ (i)

/u/ (¯) /U[ı]/ (¨, Uı) /O:/ (o:)

/I[ı], I˙/ (Ù, ¢ı, ¤˙) /E[ı]/ (e, ™ı)

/È:≤/ (ê:), /È/ (È, û*, å|) /√[ı]/ (å, √ı) /Ø[ı]/ (O, Øı)

/π[ı]/ (E, Äı) /A:/ (a:) /Ii[ı]/ (Ii, iIı) /EI[ı]/ (EI, E¤ı) /aO/ (aP)

/Uu[ı]/ (¨¯, uuı) /OE[ı]/ (øI, øÙı) /OU[ı/l]/ (∑¯, ∏Uı, ∏Ul) /aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)

/IÈ≤, I˘
/UÈ≤, U˘
/EÈ≤, E˘
/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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Mediatic-accent variants /i/ (Ii) {“ /Ii/ (¤i, Ùi)} /I[ı]/ (¢, ûı) /E[ı]/ (¤, ¤[Ù]0ò, Ùı) /È:≤/ (+È, +‘|) /π[ı]/ (™, ™[É]0ò, Éı) /A:/ (Åa) /Ii[ı]/ (¤i, i¤ı)

/u/ (%) /U[ı]/ (w, Uı) /È/ (È, û*, å|÷ ‘) /O:[ı]/ (oø, oUı) /Ø[ı]/ (O, ° Oı) # /√[ı]/ (å, √ı, ∏ı)

/Uu[ı]/ (T%, Uuı) /OE[ı]/ (o¤, oÙı)

/EI[ı]/ (ÄI, ÄÙı) /aO/ (πÖ)

/OU[ı/l]/ (@T, OUı, OUl) /aE[ı]/ (AÙ, AÉı)

Broad-accent variants /Ii[ı]/ (Ùi, i¤ı)

/Uu[ı]/ (¢%, ¨uı) /OE[ı]/ (PI, PÙı) /OU[ı]/ (x%, ÖUı, ÖUl)

/aO/ (Ex) /EI[ı]/ (a¤, aÙı) /IÈ≤, I˘
/aE[ı]/ (ùÙ, ùÉı) /UÈ≤, U˘
˛e diaphoneme /≤/ is distributed like in British English (although in the southern and rural part of the South Island, /≤/ is not silent, as in American pronunciation). On the other hand, even in non-neutral pronunciations of other New-Zealand areas, /≤/ can be pronounced in words –mostly in monosyllables– ending in r. Neutral /) (while non-neutral accents can even have (˛)); as in British English, /t<, d, ">), in addition to normal (˛[h]>, Ã>) (whereas the other accents can also have (c[h]>, G>) and (c[h]˛, G˛), including /st, Sc˛)). In non-neutral pronunciation, often /tˆ, dˆ/ = (c, G). ˛e neutral accent can have /hw/ (W), still rather extensively used, even in current pronunciation; besides, it has (léı); whereas, non-neutral pronunciation has (]éı) and also (ıéùò, ı≠§ò, ıé¨ò). Except in neutral pronunciation, for the diphthongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE/, we ﬁnd /ééı, éé®/; unless they are vocalized as (éé¨). For /0®ò, 0Èıò/, the neutral accent has ((0®ò, ±¬ò, 0ûıò)); the other accents have (0¨ıò, 0¨§ò, 0¨ò÷ 0Pò): milk /'mIık/ ('m¢ık÷ 'm¢¨k÷ 'mûùk÷ 'mû¨k).

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We systematically ﬁnd ç/OUlé/Ç (whereas in Cockney and in mediatic British English there are minimal pairs with ç/√Ulé/Ç – ç/OUlé/Ç, as in polar). ˛e reader is invited to carefully observe the numerous taxophones + /ı/, both neutral and non-neutral. In non-neutral pronunciation, there are more or less regular vowel neutralizations — mergers (realized as in the given vocograms; those appearing in round brackets occur less often): normal – /Iiı, Iı/ = /Iı/ {/Iiı/}÷ /IiÈ≤, IÈ≤/ = /iIÈ≤/ {/IÈ≤/}÷ /OUı{0/ò}÷ Øı{0/ò}/ = /OU/ {/Ø/}; frequent – /IÈ≤, EÈ≤/ = /IiÈ≤/ {/IÈ≤, EÈ≤/}÷ /I˘<, E˘, 'éRé, †R, ∑R, pR, bR, kR, gR). It invariably presents (-¤˙) /-I˙/÷ it has (h, `) for /ò’h/ hotel, and (`) in reduced forms with ¸h and in -ham¸; /·w/ (w), ('w™n:) when; in addition, unstressed my is

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/’mÅÙ, ’mI, ’mÈ/÷ besides, /’EI, ’OU/ are (™, P) before ('): vacation˚ november; /-OU/ is (P) in compounds when it is at the end of the ﬁrst lexeme (even if separated): window sill. For ar, ç/A√/Ç (A;√) is possible; even ç/OÈ≤/Ç for /O:≤/. ≈nally, it has (é‘>é) for /éÈ<é, é˘<é/, and (¤) for /iò, ié/: ('khA:, 'khA;√÷ 'mO;√÷ 'mE‘>¤, -R¤) /'kA:≤, 'mO:≤, 'mE˘
f

/I[ı], i, ié/ (¤, ¤ı) /E[ı]/ (™, ™ı) ‡ /π[ı]/ (π, Åı) /Ii[ı]/ (Ii, iIı)

/U[ı], ué/ (¨, Uı) /¢/ (¤) {desinential as well) /È/ (È, û*, √|), /È:≤/ (È:) /√[ı]/ (√, ∏ı), /O:/ (O:) /A:/ (A:), /Ø/ (Ø) /[j]Uu[ı]/ ([j]Uu, [j]uUı)

/EI[ı]/ (eI, e¤ı)

/OU[ı]/ (P¨, oUı)

/aE[ı]/ (ÅÙ, ÅÉı)

/OE[ı]/ (OÙ, OÉı) /aO/ (AP)

/IÈ[≤], I˘
/EÈ≤, E˘
/[j]UÈ[≤], -U˘
/IiÈ≤/ {(Ii‘, Ii√|) “) (I:‘, I:√|) (“ /IÈ≤/}

/UuÈ≤/ {(¨u‘, ¨u√|) “) (U:‘, U:√|) (“ /UÈ≤/, not /O:≤, OÈ≤/!}

/EIÈ≤/ {(eI‘, eI√|) “) (e‘, e√|) (“ /EÈ≤/}

/OUÈ≤/ {(P¨‘, P¨√|) “) (P‘, P√|)

/aEÈ≤/ {(Å‘, Å√|) “) (ÅÙ‘, ÅÙ√|)

/OEÈ≤/ {(OÙ‘, OÙ√|) “) (O‘, O√|) /aOÈ≤/ (A‘, A√|) (“ (AP‘, ÅP√|)} (“ /A:È≤/ (A:‘, A:√|)}

A‡ected British English pronunciation 2.6.5. It can be ﬂaunted by aristocrats and people of high social, religious, and cultural standings. But it is generally thought of as too a‡ected. It is characterized

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by more peripheral /I, U/, ¤ (I, U) (instead of (¤, ¨)); but they are more centralized in /IÈ≤, I˘<÷ EÈ≤, E˘<÷ UÈ≤, U˘é), and (Ù) for /’iò|/, as well: ('mÄx>Ù) Mary. ‹en the phoneme /I/ is fully unstressed, it is (Ù), as /iò/ too (instead of (i)), and, before pauses, it even becomes (É): (&v¤zÙ'b¤lÙTÙ, -TÉ); it has /-I˙/ (-Ùn, Ù˙)÷ also /¢/ is (Ù), as many /È/ are, as well. Besides, /E, π/ are closer (e, E); when /I, E, π/ are ﬁnal, in stressed checked syllables ending in voiced C before a pause, they diphthongize as (IÙ, eÉ, EÄ): ('bIÙâ, 'weÉÊ, 'bEÄﬂ) big˚ web˚ bad. /È:≤, È:<÷ √÷ A:/ are backer, (x:, √, å:) (and the last one occurs more frequently than in neutral pronunciation); for ar, ç/A√/Ç (å;√) is possible. ˛e diphthongs are considerably narrow and have particular timbres, manly /Ii, Uu/ (ii, uu) and /aO, OE, OU/ (Ax, @Ù, É+) (and (‘Pı), for (Ii, ¯u, aÖ, øÙ, ‘¨) and (Ö¨ı)). For short vowels and for diphthongs with front ﬁrst elements, there are taxophones requiring di‡erent symbols. /I[ı], ié/ (I[ÙÊ|], ¤ı, Ié), /’I/ (Ù) /iò/ (Ù, É|) /E[ı]/ (e[ÉÊ|], ™ı) /π[ı]/ (E[ÄÊ|], Äı)

/EI[ı]/ (™Ù, ™Éı) /aE[ı]/ (ÅÙ, ÅÉı) /IiÈ≤/ (i:x, i:√|) (“ /IÈ≤/ (Ix, I√|)} /EIÈ≤/ (™‘, ™√|) (“ /EÈ≤/} /aEÈ≤/ (Å:, Å√)

/[j]Uu[ı]/ /IÈ[≤], I˘
F f

/Ii[ı]/ (ii, iiı)

f /U[ı], ué/ (U, Uı) /O:/ (o:) /È/ (È, û*, √|), /È≤:/ (x:) /È≤z˙d/ (È, x|), /È≤/ (È, √|), /¢/ (Ù) /√[ı]/ (√, ∏ı) /A:/ (å:), /Ø/ (Ø)

/UuÈ≤/ (u:x, u:√|) (“ /UÈ≤/, not /O:≤/! “ (Ux, U√|)} /aOÈ≤/ (A:, A√)

/êUÈ≤/ (É‘, É√|)+/È:≤/

/[j]UÈ[≤], -U˘
/OEÈ≤/ (@x, @√|)

It has no glottalization of /p, t, k, c/ (¤ neither (ö0), nor (ô); with the only possible occurrence of (ö) for /t/, before sonants: ('skØTlÈnﬂ, 'skØölÈnﬂ) Scotland]÷ ç/tj, dj, sj, zj, †j/Ç are fairly frequent, as in ('khwesTjÈn, -scÈn÷ 'sjuup√, 'suu-), que®ion˚ super (with (S Z, Sj Zj) only in colloquial or informal pronunciation, for /'kwEscÈn, 'sUupÈ≤/ ('khw™scÈn, 's¯upå)); /Ø;f, -†, -s, -ft, -st/ = /O:/ (o:), in addition to /Ø/ (Ø) in some words, today, but o‡ maintains /O:/. /, 'éRé, †R, ∑R, /, 'éRé, †R, ∑R, pR, bR, kR, gR) (also ('éVé), and even ('éeé,

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'é=é) in some frequent words: very˚ terrible˚ sorry˚ tomorrow); non-written and non-etymological /<òé/ is frequent. Often, the çaspirationÇ of /p, t, k, c/ is very weak (contrary to Cockney usage). In addition, it has (`) for /ò’h/ hotel÷ /·w/ (w), ('weÉn) when÷ unstressed my is /’mI, ’mÈ/÷ /-OU/ is (P) in compounds when it is at the end of the ﬁrst lexeme (even if separated): window sill. Triphthong attenuation is extremely frequent (as in Cockney), even between words, also for /ééò’I/: ('fÅ;√, 'fÅ:÷ ÅÙ¤~'G@¤T, Å¤~-) /'faEÈ≤, aEIn'GOEIt/ ﬁre˚ I enjoy it. Substantially, its intonation patterns correspond to the neutral ones; with the conclusive and suspensive intonemes, the creaky phonation type is very frequent; paraphonic pitch expansion is typical; in intonemes, syllables are lengthened. Cockney pronunciation (London) 2.6.6. Most typically, it is the speech of the working-class of `e Ea® End of London˚ which includes the harbor. ˛e main vocalic characteristics reside in its diphthongs, which we present in the second vocogram, while in the third vocogram we add both the le˛ broad variants (», seven) and the broade® ones (*, two {with grey edges}). Frequently, speakers can ﬂuctuate between these three types: /Ii/ (ÈÛ, ¢i»), /EI/ (ÅÙ, Ä¤»), /aE/ (ØÉ, åÙ»), /aO/ (EX, πX», Åå*) (the last variant, which is generally çdescribedÇ as ç(π:, a:)Ç, is the most narrow diphthong of all), /OE/ (o¤, oÙ»), /OU/ (åP, @+», åX*), /Uu/ (È%, ¢%»). Usually, the diaphoneme /¢/ is /I/ (¤). For the monophthongs, the most evident characteristics –in addition to some timbres– are contextual diphthongizations. In fact, in the most typical and broad accent, /E, π, Ø/ occurring in stressed monosyllables in (bi)checked syllables –¤ with /0ò, 00ò/– are pronounced (™¤, EÙ, Oø). For the ﬁrst two phonemes, this fact is particularly clear with /n, nd, t, d÷ ˙, k, ks, g/ (although /t/ = (ö)) and with other voiced C (but also with voiceless ones), as in: ('ÇEÙ§) /'dπd/ dad (for ('Dπ;ﬂ). Something similar happens to /O:{≤}/, which most typically is (oU) (although in a less broad pronunciation it is (o:)), as in ('lo;Un, 'woUöÅ, 'ßçoU>ÈÛ) /'lO:n, 'wO;ùÈ≤, 'stO:i)). In an intermediate accent as in the less broad one, in all positions, we always ﬁnd (o:, oU), respectively; instead, in the most typical and broadest, we ﬁnd (oUÅ), when in word-ﬁnal position before pauses. However, in ﬁnal position, within sentences, or with the grammemes /zò, dò/, we have (oU‘): ('phoUÅ) pY˚ pore˚ pour˚ poor (for ('phø:) /'pO:, 'pO:≤/, and ('phø:, -¨;å) /'pUÈ≤, -O:oUs) /'Ø;f, 'klØ;†, 'k<Ø;s/ o‡˚ clo`˚ cro˛. Even /È:≤/ can be diphthongized (È:, È;‘); and also the timbres of /A:, √/ are quite remarkable (for /È{≤}ò|/, too): ('whå:, -Ø:*÷ 'fÈ;vÅ, 'fÈ‘-) /'kA:≤, 'fÈ:≤∑È≤/ car˚ fur`er˘ ˛e vowels which are followed by nasal consonants (and often those which are preceded by nasals, too) are nasalized (as is the diph-

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119 /ué/ (%), /U[ı]/ (¨, UP, ’¨) /È/ (È, û*, Å|) /O:/ (oU) {(o:)»} {(oUÈ + z/D, oUÅ|, oU>é) = /UÈ/}

/ié/ (i), /i|/ = /Ii/ (ÈÛ) /I[ı]/ (¤, ¤P, ’¤), /¢/ (¤) /E[ı]/ (™[¤0], ™P) {(™)»} /È:≤/ (È:) “ (È‘) /π[ı]/ (E[Ù0], ÄP) {(E)»} /√[ı]/ (Å, aP)

/Ø/ (O[ø0]) {(O)»} /A:/ (å:) {(Ø:)*]

/[j]Uu[ı]/ ([j]È%, [j]¢¨P) /Ii/ (¢i)» /OE[ı]/ /EI/ (Ä¤)» (o¤, oÙP) /OU/ (@+)» /OU/ (åP) {(åX)*} /aE[ı]/ /aO/ (πX)» (ØÉ, Ø‘P) {(Åå)*] /[j]UÈ≤/ ([j]U‘, -U:ò, -UÅ|) /[j]U˘é) “ /[j]O:≤/

/Ii[ı]/ (ÈÛ, ¤¢P)

/aO/ (EX) /EI[ı]/ (ÅÙ, ÅÉP) /IÈ≤/ (I‘, I:ò, IÅ|) /I˘é) /EÈ≤/ (e‘, e:ò, eÅ|) /E˘é)

/aOÈ≤/ (E‘, EÅ|)

/IÈ≤/ (IÛ‘, IÛò, IÛÅ|, IÛ>é)* /EÈ≤/ (e¤‘, e¤ò, e¤Å|, e:>é)*

/[j]Uu/ ([j]¢%, [j]T%)» /OE/ (oÙ)»

/aE/ (åÙ)»

/aEÈ≤/ (Ø‘, ØÅ|) “ (ØÉ‘, ØÉÅ|) /aE˘)

/[j]UÈ≤/ ([j]oU‘, -oUò, -oUÅ|, -oU>é)* = /[j]O:≤/ /aOÈ≤/ (Å:)* “ (Åå‘, ÅåÅ|)*

/aOÈ≤/ (πX‘, πXÅ|)» “ (π‘, πÅ|)»

/aEÈ≤/ (Ø‘, ØÅ|)*

/aEÈ≤/ (åÙ‘, åÙÅ|)» “ (å‘, åÅ|)» /IÈ≤/ (¤‘, ¤:ò, ¤Å|, ¤:>é)» /EÈ≤/ (™‘, ™:ò, ™Å|, ™:>é)»

/[j]UÈ≤/ ([j]o‘, [j]o:ò, [j]oÅ|, [j]o:>é)» = /[j]O:≤/

thong /aO/, quite often independently from context). For the grammeme /I˙/ we have (In, ’n, ó); and, for -`i«˚ (-f¤˙ök) is frequent: ('mÕ3n, 'samf¤˙ök, '™n'I&f¤˙ök)

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/'maEn, 's√m†I˙, 'Eni†I˙/ mine˚ some`i«˚ aJ`i«. ˛e fourth and ﬁfth vocograms show the realizations of /IÈ≤, I˘<÷ EÈ≤, E˘<÷ {j}UÈ≤, -˘<÷ aEÈ≤, aE˘<÷ aOÈ≤, aO˘é)», /EÈ≤, -˘é)», /UÈ≤, -˘é)» (thus, as /{j}O:≤, -
/[j]U[È]ı, -Uu[È]ı, -O:ı/ ([j]ou) {/[j]U[È]ı, -Uu[È]ı/ ([j]Uu)»} /-[È]ı, -®/ (P) (“ (PU)», (U)*} /OUı/ (OP) /OUlé/ (åPlé) {in deriv. + (OPlé)} /√ı/ (aP) {(OP)*}, /Øı/ (OP) /A:ı, aE[È]ı/ (åP)

As far as C are concerned, the most typical characteristic refers to /p, t, k, c/, which are typically preglottalized, (ö=), even (öÒ), in all cases where in the British accent synglottalization is possible (Ô § 2.2.6.1-2, § 2.2.7.1), or where in mediatic British English preglottalization occurs (Ô § 2.4.3.6). Even for the phonetic realizations we ﬁnd some di‡erences. In fact, in the most typical and broadest pronunciations, /p, t, k/ are realized as the corresponding stopstrictives: (p, ç, w), even çaspiratedÇ (in the normal contexts expected for neutral pronunciation, too): (ph, çh, wh) (which can give the impression of stronger çaspirationÇ). However, the most typical and broad element is the substitution of /t, ù/ with (ö) in all the cases seen in § 2.2.5.2, but with further typifying contexts (¤ except before a tautosyllabic stressed nucleus, or after pauses, or after /s/, ('çh, |çh, 'sç, sç)). Examples: ('bÅöÅ) /'b√ùÈ
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/'Eıtó/ Elton˚ ('whl¤nöó) /'klInt˘n/ Clinton˚ ('l¤öP) /'lIù®/ little˚ ('phå;öna, -Ø;ö-) /'pA:≤tnÈ≤/ partner˚ ('s™öp>¤ölÈÛ) /'sEp˘<Ètli/ separateI˚ ('lOös) /'lØts/ lo_˘ More examples: ('pha’nöÅ, -n,Å, -nÅ, -n[Å, -nöçÅ) /'pEInùÈ≤/ painter˚ ('pha’nö¤ö, -n,¤ö, -n¤ö, -n[¤ö, -nöç¤ö) /'pEInù¢t/ paint it˚ ('woUöÅ) /'wO:ıùÈ≤/ Walter˚ ('oUö¤ö, -,¤ö, -[¤ö, -öç¤ö) /'hO:ıù¢t/ halt it˚ ('ßçå;ö¤ö, -,¤ö, -[¤ö, -öç¤ö) /'stA:≤ù¢t/ ®art it˚ ('¤ö¤ö, '¤,¤ö, '¤[¤ö, '¤öç¤ö) /'hIù¢t/ hit it˚ (È'l¤öP 'b¤ö È'bÅöÅ) /È'lIù® 'bIù Èv'b√ùÈ≤/ a little bit of butter˚ ('ph¨ö 'Åöp) /'pUù '√p/ put up˚ ('ph¨ö¤ö 'Åöp) /'pUù¢ù '√p/ put it up˘ In less broad pronunciations, an incomplete, attenuated stop is possible: (,), which is less çinvasiveÇ; the vocoid preceding (ö) can even be laryngealized, whereas (ö) can become çzeroÇ, especially before another vocoid (adding, however, the creaky phonation type), (éöé = é,é = ü,é = üé): (È'l¤P 'b¤ È'bÅÅ). Generally, forms such as lill ('l¤P) /'lIù®/ and little ('l¤P, 'l¤P;, 'l¤PU) /'lIù®/ maintain some di‡erences even if the latter is actually pronounced in this way; as a matter of fact, in addition to the creaky phonation type, /®/ is often lengthened (at least in an intoneme). Before V (even if derived from /®/, and even between words), also a less broad variant, ([), is possible (or even (öç) in çelegantÇ speech, which we do not indicate). It is also possible for (n[) to become (n); here we will report the relevant examples, without spelling, following the order in which they are given above (including water and Walter): ('bÅ[Å, 'woU[Å, 's¤[’n, 'bØ[’m, 'l¤[P), ('pha’n[Å, -nÅ÷ 'pha’n[¤ö, -n¤ö), ('woU[Å, 'oU[¤ö, 'ßçå;[¤ö, '¤[¤ö, È'l¤[P 'b¤[ È'bÅ[Å, 'ph¨[ 'Åöp, 'ph¨[¤[ 'Åöp). Other consonants can become (ö), especially /p, k/: ('ßçOöõ) /'stØpI˙/ ®oppi«˚ ('f¤l¤ö 'lØÉöç¤ö) /'fIlIp 'laEktIt/ Philip liked it˚ ('whOönÈÛ) /'kØkni/ Co$n\˘ In a previous example, we have seen that typically /d/ becomes stopstrictive, (Ç); besides, commonly, /éd/ is realized as (éö), when it is word-ﬁnal and followed by C or V˚ and in the grammeme sequence >-dn't≥ /-dót/, as well: ('b>™öõ 'bÅöÅ) /'b<Edó 'b√ùÈ≤/ bread and butter˚ ('g¨ö 'bo;Ù) /'gUd 'bOE/ good boy˚ (ØÉ'Ç¤öó{öç}) /aE'dIdót/ I didn't˘ For /st, st<, sc/, broad pronunciations have (ßç, ß˛>, Sc): ('ßçÅ;Ù) /'stEI/ ®Z˚ ('ß˛>O;˙) /'st<Ø;˙/ ®ro«˚ ('wwh™ScÈn, -có) /'kwEsc˘n/ que®ion˘ In broad pronunciations, /†, ∑/ become /f, v/; however, there are many intermediate nuances, including the realizations of normal pronunciation: (f, v÷ ƒ, √÷ Ï, ƒ÷ ﬂ, ∂÷ †, ∑). More often, /ò∑/ can be realized as (`, Ã, d, D): (¤s'EXs ¤z'mÕ3n, Ã¤s-, d¤s-, D¤s-) /∑Is'haOs Iz'maEn/ `is house is mine. As we have seen, the typical realization of /h/ is (`), which is a stigmatized pronunciation, and therefore can lead many speakers to hypercorrecting: ('hÈÛö{ç}) /'Iit/ eat. For /nˆ, tˆ, dˆ/, the typical Cockney pronunciation has no /ˆ/, but, in less broad pronunciations, mediatic-like types are possible, as well: ('nÈ;%, 'n¢;%, '~¢;%, '~T;%) /'nˆUu/ n[˚ ('çh';ßn, 'çhK;ßn, '⁄hK;ßn, '⁄hﬁ;ßn, 'chK;ßn, 'chﬁ;ßn) /'tˆUun/ tune˚ ('ÇÈ%öw, 'Ç¢%öw, 'Á¢%ök, 'ÁT%ök, 'G¢%ök, 'GT%ök) /'dˆUuk/ duke. Triphthong attenuation is extremely frequent, even between words, also for /ééò’I/: ('fØ;Å, 'få;Å÷ Ø¤~'Go¤T, å¤~-) /'faEÈ≤, aEIn'GOEIt/ ﬁre˚ I enjoy it. Substantially, its intonation patterns correspond to the neutral ones. For [n]ei`er we generally ﬁnd /Ii/.

3. Italian 3.0.1. ˛is chapter will analyze modern neutral Italian pronunciation, keeping it separate from traditional pronunciation, which will be looked at later, in order to demonstrate the accepted and shared di‡erence between them. However, this di‡erence is not evident in dictionaries and grammar books, which is hardly surprising given the inertia and lack of dynamism shown by schools and obviously dictionaries and grammar books. ˛ey continue to perpetuate çconventional convictionsÇ, a legacy from grammar books and dictionaries from the 1800's, without even doubting that things may have changed in the meantime… Endless plagiarizing, with very few innovations as far as orthoepy (¤ pronunciation) is concerned. ˛is can be seen in the way çcàsaÇ for casa, ¤ /'kasa/ is still given. ˛is is the traditional pronunciation, while the modern one has /'kaza/. Evidently, this shows a lack of attention for the phonic aspect of the language. It is also true that this kind of notation can, almost systematically, escape non-attentive dictionary-users, who can thus presume that when a dictionary reads >-s-≥ it means /z/. ˛is case is not so serious as it coincides exactly with modern pronunciation; but what would happen for -asi in qualsiasi? In the Zingarelli dictionary (çcarrying the yearÇ 1997), the present writer has given two variants, indicated as cà{a (= /'kaza, -sa/), and many other words, increasing the double possibilities for /e, E÷ o, O÷ q, Q/ as well, though not reaching the variety of pronunciation in DiPI, with its modern, traditional, acceptable, tolerated, slovenly, intentional and lofty variants (explained in MaPI, as well). However, before we even begin to deal with these çsubtletiesÇ, we will have to discredit a good few beliefs which are part of çcommon cultureÇ, especially upheld by teachers (even language teachers, abroad too), perpetuated by society and schools worthy of the ﬁrst millennium of our era… Earlier we mentioned the pronunciation shown in dictionaries and grammar books, which, instead of depicting the actual reality, as can be perceived by merely paying attention with çopen earsÇ, they are çeasilyÇ satisﬁed with using and reusing what has always been printed, without checking to verify if it is still in current use. Unfortunately, the same happens in various brief guides to diction and pronunciation, that continue to proliferate, regardless of objective change (that one should be able to perceive or, above all, want to perceive). Even in books about linguistics, glottology, dialectology and in historical grammar books or text books or –even– descriptive grammars, one can ﬁnd a continual perpetration, as if it were real, of what is unproposable as far as both vowels and consonants, or word-stress and co-gemination are concerned.

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3.0.2. ˛at brings us to the sore points. Writing is (erroneously) considered a faithful indication of pronunciation; if pronunciation is looked at –at all– in teaching. More often than not it is spelling that is dealt with, relegating pronunciation to quite a secondary position or else, it is even considered bothersome. Indeed, very few people have a real perception of what exactly Italian pronunciation is (the same goes for any other language). ˛e most common belief amongst çlanguage workersÇ, ¤ language teachers, is that dealing with pronunciation is not part of their duties, as if it were an unrelated aspect, or just an added complication to their work. Nevertheless, the ﬁrst manifestation of language is exactly through sound, therefore through pronunciation. Only telepathy could possibly make pronunciation superﬂuous. Despite this, for the whole of the third millennium we will have to face this çproblemÇ whether we like it or not… ˛is being the case we should ﬁnally begin to look at it properly; no more pushing the problem aside, ﬁnding all kinds of excuses. ‹at is actually lacking here, is a çfriendlyÇ approach, one which is not misleading. As pronunciation is inevitable, at least for us common mortals, we have to learn to accept it for what it is: the objective and perceptible manifestation of language. It is neither, therefore, a wicked invention, nor a task comparable to çSisyphus' e‡ortsÇ; it is merely a part of the teaching–learning process of any language. In some languages spelling is (still) quite close to pronunciation, in others the gap is wider, to greater or lesser extents, due to natural linguistic evolution, which is unstoppable, whereas the written word is always left behind, like an eternal defeat, it never comes ﬁrst. However, schools and society consider it –instead– to be the real indication of pronunciation, when it is only a çrough and poorÇ way to render pronunciation. Indeed, its aim is not to indicate pronunciation, but more modestly, to permit the conservation of written documents independently from its pronunciation, so as to allow people, who know the language, to ﬁnd the contents put in writing. 3.0.3. ˛e very act of confusing spelling with pronunciation, inevitably leads to interpretations and deductions which often have little to do with pronunciation. Let us now look at the çconcrete factsÇ. ‹en a person with no adequate reading into pronunciation is asked how many vowel phonemes there are in Italian, the answer is, inevitably (from teachers themselves onwards), ﬁve: a˚ e˚ i˚ o˚ u. ˛is erroneous answer, results from the examination of the wrong object. For the Italian language the following procedure was undertaken: starting with the alphabet and excluding all consonants, obviously leaving only the ﬁve letters: a˚ e˚ i˚ o˚ u. Clearly, the result is erroneous, because the calculation was reckoned on entities which have very little to do with pronunciation. letters are not sounds! In neutral Italian, the letters: e and o, each indicate two phonemes, that are –respectively– /e, E/ and /o, O/, which are çclosedÇ and çopenÇ e and o, like in (se) corresse (più velocemente) çif she ran fasterÇ with /e/ (çéÇ), which is di‡erent from (lei) cor-

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resse (i compiti) çshe corrected the homeworkÇ, with /E/ (çèÇ), or in (se) fosse (vero) çif it were trueÇ with /o/ (çóÇ), which di‡ers from (le) fosse (&avate) çthe dug gravesÇ, with /O/ (çòÇ). ˛erefore, there are seven Italian vowel phonemes: /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/. Let us continue our çsearchÇ for the number of phonemes, looking at consonant phonemes. ˛e automatic answer (from a person with normal schooling, without appropriate reading or consideration) is sixteen: b˚ c˚ d˚ f˚ g˚ h˚ l˚ m˚ n˚ p˚ q˚ r˚ s, t˚ v˚ z. ˛e very order of letters inevitably betrays the fact that the incredible ﬁgure of sixteen was reached by means of an arithmetical operation, using the alphabet, instead of actual sounds. Hence, if you take the çLatinÇ alphabet, take away the ﬁve çItalian vowelsÇ and the ﬁve çnon-Italian consonantsÇ [j˚ k˚ w˚ x˚ y), it seems logical to get to the çsadÇ list given above. ˛e number of phonemes in a language, however, cannot be obtained through spelling, but through the distinctive sounds of that language. Just to begin with, the list contains two letters which have nothing to do with Italian sounds: q is practically useless; and h is only a diacritic, it is necessary to distinguish ha from a, ho from o, hanno from anno, and also º /ki*/ from ci /ci»/, ªro /'giro/ from giro /'Giro/; there is even a vowel di‡erence between ho /O*/ and o /o*/. Incidentally, we can but disapprove of the çmethodÇ used by those teachers who, worried only and exclusively about spelling (and not really understanding anything about the pronunciation of the language!) dictate things such as */has'kritto, hannostu'djato/ to students, for ha &ritto˚ hanno studiato çhe/she has written, they have studiedÇ. ˛e poor (selﬁsh and dishonest) result of managing to obtain çcorrectÇ written tests –to show them o‡ shamelessly– produces, instead, a much worse (and absurd) error in making pupils believe that above all, in formal situations, you really should say such çobscenitiesÇ as */hOs'kritto/ ho &ritto, instead of the only possible and admissible version: /Os'kritto/. 3.0.4. For the moment, let us say that there are 23 consonant phonemes in Italian and they are certainly not in alphabetical order, but in a phonic order, according to places and manners of articulation and phonation type, after having çdiscoveredÇ them, not by graphic deduction, but by looking for opposites in minimal pairs, that contain two similar words, but with one di‡erent phoneme, which makes the meaning of the two words change, as seen with /ki*, ci»/ and /'giro, 'Giro/ (respectively º and ci, ªro and giro). Furthermore, in the number of phonemes, we must bear in mind that the two graphemes s and z each have (as do e˚ o) two di‡erent phonemic values, as in presento [una persona çI introduce a personÇ, /pre'zEnto/, from presentare] and presento [un avvenimento çI have a presentiment of an eventÇ, /pre'sEnto/, from presentire˚ ¤ pre-sentire) – in the same way we have razza (çray, spokeÇ: /'raQQa/) and razza (çrace, breedÇ: /'raqqa/)… We must not forget other spelling çproblemsÇ that derive from the fact that Italian represents a transformation and evolution of Latin, which had a certain number of phonemes (obviously di‡erent from Italian, both phonically and numerical-

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ly speaking, as can be seen in the phonosyntheses of NPT/HPh, 22.1-4 or from é 18 of MaPI {from 1999” onwards}). As a matter of fact, classical Latin did not have /c, G/, which are still expressed by ci˚ gi in Italian (because Latin /ki, gi/ were transformed in time using the palatal (©i, ái) of imperial Latin, to (ci, Gi) of medieval Latin {as well as clerical and academic Latin in Italy}). ˛erefore, Italian has to then render /ki, gi/ with º˚ ª. Similarly, Latin did not have /S, N, L/ or even /q, Q/, so in Latin, amicitia was /ami:'kitia/ (&åmi'kItIå) not /ami'ciqqja/ as in Italian, and in Italian clerical and academic Latin (whereas in {clerical and academic} Latin in other countries, the phonic result –obviously– depends on the pronunciation of their national languages); hence, Italian spelling resorts to &(i)˚ √˚ ∫(i), and z for /q, Q/, as they are new phonemes, foreign to classical Latin. Furthermore, one must not believe everything that is –unfortunately– published; as a matter of fact, neutral Italian does not have vowels reduced to schwa, not even in unstressed syllables, (È) (or (‘, å), é § 11.19 of NPT/HPh; nor to (Û, Ù, É, å, Ö, P, ¯), that are –all– regional pronunciations), nor assimilations such as ç/ss/Ç –actually, (sﬂ)– for /st/ (like in questo), and /00/ for /r0/ [giorno]˚ that are very regional; nor /0wjé/ like ç(0¥jé)Ç [continuiamo]˚ which is not even Italian (although some Italian {!} authors tried to pass it o‡ as Italian). Obviously, in spontaneous speech, one can stammer or mu·e some sounds, but we certainly do not get (È, ¥), Â÷ the only real possibilities for a neutral çreductionÇ of vocoids are explained in û 10.11 of NPT/HPh (since in neutral pronunciation, one never has a full (È), not even in cases such as /'sum, 'frak/ sum (Lat.), frac (Fr.), which are ('frak:$, 'sum:$), where ($) at the most, stands for (È); while, most coarticulation for /wj/ can consist of ((°3)) (provelar rounded + postpalatal approximants, instead of canonical velar rounded + palatal approximants, (wj)). Vowels 3.1.1. As examined in § 3.0.3., for the ﬁve graphemes a˚ e˚ i˚ o˚ u˚ neutral Italian has seven vowel phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/, realized by nine taxophones, (i, e, ™, E, a, O, ø, o, u), as can be seen in û 3.1. Before presenting the examples, we will analyze the two taxophones which are seemingly foreign to the çharmonyÇ of the seven phonemes, ¤: (™, ø). ˛e most çintriguingÇ aspect is that it deals with the pronunciation on the basis of di‡erent principles of both /E, O/ and /e, o/. In the ﬁrst case we have the manifestation of half-closing, in fact, starting with /E, O/ we get to (™, ø), when there is no longer a primary –or strong– stress, as is the case for the ﬁrst elements of compound words from independent lexemes: (&pR™ndi'so:le) /prEndi'sole/ prendisole, (b™˙'ke) /bEn'ke*/ ben>é, (&køpRi'lEt:to) /kOpri'lEtto/ copriletto, (pøi'ke) /pOi'ke*/ poi>é. ˛e other case regards the manifestation of half-opening, because starting with /e, o/ we –again– get to (™, ø). ˛is happens in /e, o/ endings after stressed syllables, when the stressed vowel is /i, u/, as in: ('vi:v™, 'vi:vø) /'vive, 'vivo/ vive˚ vivo, ('ku:c™, 'ku:cø) /'kuce, 'kuco/ cuce˚ cucio. Moreover, in an intoneme, the same can

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also occur for /'e-oò/: ('ve:do, -dø) /'vedo/ vedo (but not for /'o-eò/: ('do:ve) /'dove/ dove). ‹at remains to be said, as can be guessed (and conﬁrmation is always precious), is that this happens with a ﬁnal C too: ('ri:d™R, 'ri:døn) /'rider/ rider(e)˚ ridon(o), ('ip:siløn, 'su:tøR) /'ipsilon, 'sutor/ ipsilon, sutor (Lat.). ˛ere are however, other less regular cases which are dealt with in § 3.3 of MaPI. Let us take a look at some examples of the seven vowel phonemes: ('vi:ni) /'vini/ vini˚ ('se:te) /'sete/ sete˚ ('sEt:te) /'sEtte/ sette˚ ('ra:na) /'rana/ rana˚ ('Ot:to) /'Otto/ otto˚ ('sot:to) /'sotto/ sotto˚ (kul'tu:Ra) /kul'tura/ cultura. Clearly, /j, w/ are not vowels, but (approximant) consonants, as in: ('pju) /'pju*/ più˚ ('kjE:do) /'kjEdo/ ºedo˚ ('kwa) /'kwa*/ qua˚ ('bwO:no) /'bwOno/ buono. It is equally true that /ju, jE, wa, wO/ Â are not çdiphthongsÇ at all (Ô § 3.1.2) but simply sequences of CV˚ like /su, tE, va, nO/, Â. û 3.1. Italian monophthongs. /i/ (i) /e/ (e), ({'i/'u…)™ò) /E/ (E), (™{…'})

/u/ (u) /o/ (o), ({'i/'u…)øò) /O/ (O), (ø{…'})

/a/ (a)

Diphthongs 3.1.2. Italian grammar books put a lot of e‡ort into complicating what is, in fact, quite simple. Indeed, instead of the three very common structures, ¤ the real diphthong (('éé, &éé, ’éé)), the hiatus ((é'é, é&é)) and the heterophonic sequence ((0é)), ™, (jé), (wé), and the like), they continue to consider only two of them: çdiphthongÇ (with fusion: çsyneresisÇ) and çhiatusÇ (with separation: çdieresisÇ), but with strained interpretations of medieval origin, of a graphic-grammatical and graphic-metric nature. In fact, çsemi-vowelsÇ or çsemi-consonantsÇ do not exist: they are merely an çincredibly successfulÇ magic trick! As a matter of fact (unless one expects to do çmagicÇ in phonetics using graphic-grammatical categories), it is phonetically absurd to speak about a çdiphthongÇ for (—jé, —wé) (('pjE:no) /'pjEno/ pieno˚ ('gwan:to) /'gwanto/ guanto]˚ as only (—éi, —éu) (('fai) /'fai/ fai˚ ('pa;uza) /'pauza/ pausa] are real diphthongs, as any sequence of ('éé, &éé, ’éé) (('a;uto) /'auto/ auto˚ (au'tEn:tiko) /au'tEntiko/ autentico]˘ It is equally absurd to speak about çhiatusÇ for ('ié, 'ué), as only (i'é, u'é) are real hiatuses, as any other sequence like (é'é, é&é) ((pa'u:Ra) /pa'ura/ paura]˚ compared to (pau'ro:zo) /pau'rozo/ pauroso˚ a real diphthong. Hence, one cannot believe literature that only uses two categories (¤ diphthong and hiatus) and, what is more, they dangerously mix them up to a point where they include –in çdiphthongsÇ– the heterophonic sequences (/jé, wé/), and –in çhiatusesÇ– the real diphthongs (as in ('ma;i, 'ca;o, 'bO;a) /'mai, 'cao, 'bOa/ mai˚ ciao˚ boa… – Ô § 1.4.4).

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3.1.3. ˛us, in languages like Italian, diphthongs are vowel sequences, which are more or less common, formed by a combination of the seven vowel phonemes and nine taxophones (/i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (i, e, ™, E, a, O, ø, o, u)), that writing tidily reproposes without the problems presented –for example– by Germanic languages. ˛ese really do have monophonemic diphthongs, because, in di‡erent accents they vary as to their realizations, independently from monophthongs (and more than monophthongs do), and also because they have varied historical spellings. ˛erefore for Italian, it seems pointless –in this chapter– to make a list of diphthongs, of very di‡erent frequency; it would be appropriate however, to look at § 8.26 of NPT/HPh (as well as § 5.1.2-3 of MaPI]˘ By forcing (and violating) reality, grammar and metrics continue to call, above all, /jE, wO/ çascendant diphthongsÇ, because they derive from the Latin /E, O/ (™, ø), and they ﬁnd they need to have to çinventÇ (as the best lawyer for the worst criminals) ﬁctitious realities, like çsemi-consonantsÇ and çsemi-vowelsÇ. ˛ese seem to be nearly cinematographic special e‡ects, that make one believe one is facing something real, but which is completely invented! If phantaphonetics –or virtual phonetics– is not our aim, then sequences like (jé, wé) are –naturally– part of /{0}0é/ groups, as in /'fjanko, 'franko÷ 'gwado, 'grado÷ 'twOno, 'trOno÷ 'gjande, 'grande, 'glande/ ﬁanco˚ franco÷ guado˚ grado÷ tuono˚ trono÷ ªande˚ grande˚ ∫ande. Paradigmatically, /j, w/ are in opposition with /0/, clearly not with /é/ and can under no circumstance belong to vowel groups. Even çsemi-vowelsÇ are a truly distorted reality and have been invented to try to explain (but they are only deceived into trying to explain) what has no need of explanations. Indeed, what need do normal diphthongs, like /ai, au/, have for alibis to defend themselves from grammatical and metric fanaticism, so as to demonstrate that they constitute one syllable and not two: ('ma;i, 'ka;u{to}) /'mai, 'kau{to}/ mai˚ cau(to)? Even /ia/ is a –monosyllabic– diphthong, as in ('mi;a) /'mia/ mia. It is evident, in the same way as the Earth is round and rotates around the Sun; and yet, it has not been at all easy for it to be accepted…! ˛e diphthong, hiatus, and /CV/-sequence matter, is much simpler: one does not have to be a scientist; all it takes is observation and thought (using both ears)! Yet… there is no change! Let us trustingly refer to § 5.1.2-3 of MaPI as well.

Consonants 3.2.0. û 3.2 shows the table of the neutral Italian consonant articulations, including their taxophones ((M, ~, ˙÷ R÷ ¬)), which are necessary for satisfactory pronunciation. Instead, û 1.9-15 gives orograms, grouped by manners of articulation of all contoids given in the chapters of this volume, even as secondary, occasional or regional variants of the 12 languages dealt with.

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N c G

velar rounded

(~)

velar

n

palatal

dental

(n) t d qQ

postalveo-palatal

(M)

alveolar

ö m F pb Ô ƒ _ ß ó ‹

labiodental

bilabial

û 3.2. Table of Italian consonants.

postalveo-palatal protruded

a handbook of pronunciation

(˙) k g

f v s z (l)

S {Z} r|(R) l

j (¬)

w

L

Nasals 3.2.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, N/ (m, n, N), and four taxophones, for /n/, that can be rendered by three supplementary symbols (M, ~, ˙) (a fourth symbol, ((˙)), in front of /t, d÷ q, Q÷ s/, can be useful to bring attention to the assimilation, from alveolar to dental, even if the di‡erence, though real, is less important than in other cases): ('mam:ma) /'mamma/ mamma˚ ('ma:ma) /'mama/ m'ama˚ ('nOn:no) /'nOnno/ nonno˚ ('nO:no) /'nOno/ nono˚ ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba√o˚ (peR'NOk:ki) /per'NOkki/ per √ocº˚ ('toM:fo) /'tonfo/ tonfo˚ ('dEn:te) /'dEnte/ dente˚ ('fra~:Ga) /'franGa/ frangia˚ ('fa˙:go) /'fango/ fango. In neutral Italian, /N/ is self-geminant (Ô § 3.3.1.5.): ('soN:No, loN'NO:mo) /'soNNo, loN'NOmo/ so√o˚ lo √omo. We can observe that the self-geminant /N/ is in opposition to geminates, as in ('soN:No) /'soNNo/ so√o and ('son:no) /'sonno/ sonno, but not simple C (('so:no) /'sono/ sono); the minimal pair is between the ﬁrst two examples, not the third. In order to closely examine the manifestation of nasal assimilation in neutral Italian, a whole series of nouns could be shown (beginning with all possible C, Ô § 3.4 of MaPI]˚ preceded by (kon) /kon/ con çwithÇ, but we will limit ourselves to (kom'mar:ko) /kom'marko/ con Marco and to the improbable (koN'NE;o) /koN'NEo/ con Gneo (a rare male name, even in ancient Rome). Various problems (not only with consonants, but with vowels and intonation, too) deriving from various regional pronunciations are examined in some chapters of MaPI, as well. We can now brieﬂy mention the fact that, very often, in the north of Italy, the sequences of /n0/ are not homorganic by assimilation, but have a velar articulation, (˙), or semi-prevelar (without full contact), («), as in (&u˙ba˙'bi:nø, &u«ba«'bi:nø) (concentrating, here, only on the nasals, because the actual regional di‡erences, doubtlessly, also regard other C, many V˚ the type of phonation, the syllabic structure and the intonation), for neutral (&umbam'bi:nø) /umbam'bino/ un bambino. In the same way, in the north, /N/ is very often not self-geminant: ('sO:No, 'so:No÷

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lo'NO:mo); but, generally, /N, nj/ are confused with something intermediate, which we show quite generally here: (ka˙'pa;~ja, ka«-) which stands both for /kam'panja/ Campania and for /kam'paNNa/ campa√a. In central areas, /nj/ becomes (N) (but in this case not self-geminant): (an'tO:No) /an'tOnjo/ Antonio˚ (aN'NEn:to) /an'njEnto/ anniento˘ Stops 3.2.2. Italian has three diphonic pairs of stops, /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g): (peR'bE:ne) /per'bEne/ per bene˚ (ti'dO) /ti'dO*/ ti do˚ (ko˙'gwaL:Lo) /kon'gwaLLo/ congua˙o. Although before a front V –and in front of /j/– /k, g/ are realized as prevelar, it is not necessary to systematically use the special symbols ((´, Ò)): (&kjakkje'ra:Re) /kjakkje'rare/ ºacºerare˚ ('kik:kø) /'kikko/ ºcco˚ ('gE˙:ga) /'gEnga/ ghenga. ˛e greatest regional problem concerning stops is provided in the çgorgia toscanaÇ (¤ çTuscan throatÇ) and in the çcentral-southern voicingÇ, which will be examined in general terms (also because there are di‡erences between areas; but for more precise details, various chapters of MaPI can be consulted). ˛erefore, the following gives just a general idea: (&ihaFi'Ïa:ni) /ikapi'tani/ i capitani and ('ci˙âwe im'Êun:∂ø) /'cinkwe im'punto/ cinque in punto˘ Stopstrictives 3.2.3. ˛ere are two diphonic pairs, dental and postalveopalatal protruded, /q, Q÷ c, G/ (q, Q÷ c, G): ('dan:qa, 'pjaq:qa) /'danqa, 'pjaqqa/ danza˚ piazza˚ ('QO:na, aQ'QO:to) /'QOna, aQ'QOto/ zona˚ azoto˚ ('ce:na, 'fac:co) /'cena, 'facco/ cena, faccio˚ ('GEn:te, 'OG:Gi) /'GEnte, 'OGGi/ gente˚ oggi. ˛e main regional problems regarding the north concern the sequential realizations of /q, Q/, as: ('da˙tsa, -ﬁa, -†a, 'da«-÷ 'pja{t}tsa, -ßa, -†a÷ d'zO:na, d'ﬁ-, d'∑-÷ ad'zO:to, ad'ﬁ-, ad'∑-) (or, in broader accents, simply as constrictive: ('da˙sa, -ßa, -†a, 'da«-÷ 'pjassa÷ -ßßa, -††a÷ 'zO:na, 'ﬁ-, '∑-÷ a'zO:to, a'ﬁ-, a'∑-)), instead of real stopstrictive phones, (q, Q). For almost the whole center and many parts of the south, without going into too much detail, the most obvious characteristic is given by the change of /écé/ to its corresponding constrictive, (éSé): ('pe:Se) /'pece/ pece˚ (&diSe'Si:lja) /dice'cilja/ di Cecilia˚ ('ka:So) /'kaco/ cacio. In Tuscany the same goes for /éGé/ = (éZé): ('a:Zile, la'Zak:ka) /'aGile, la'Gakka/ agile˚ la giacca. It is important to focus on the fact that we are dealing with single postvocalic /c, G/ (and hence, in this case, intervocalic too), thus avoiding ridiculous imitations which have, unfortunately ended up amongst examples shown in books about linguistics, dialectology, language history, language teaching and sometimes even in… phonetics and phonology! ˛erefore, it is legitimate to give (la'Zi:†a) /la'Gita/ la gita, as an example (although the o‚cial symbol (†) is hardly recommendable), but not simply *('Zi:†a)

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/'Gita/ gita, because after silence or after C, it stays for (G), ('Gi:†a), as does, obviously, (aG'Gi:na) /aG'Gina/ a Gina (because of co-gemination, Ô § 3.3.2.1-3; certainly not *(aZ'Zi:na)). Naturally, the same is true of (la'Se:na) /la'cena/ la cena˚ while we can only have: (peR'ce:na, ac'ce:na) /per'cena, ac'cena/ per cena˚ a cena (absolutely not *(peR'Se:na, aS'Se:na))! Apart from Tuscany (and some northern parts of Umbria and the Marches), in the center and south (still generalizing the area and the precision in transcription, too), we have /éGé/ = (éGGé): ('aGGile, laG'Gi:∂a)… Constrictives 3.2.4. Neutral Italian has two diphonic pairs of constrictives, /f, v ÷ s, z/ (f, v÷ s, z) as well as a voiceless postalveopalatal protruded self-geminant /S/ (S) (Ô § 3.3.1.5.), with the voiced correspondent, but non-geminant (Ô the beginning of the same paragraph), in foreign words, above all French: ('fa:va) /'fava/ fava˚ ('sO:zja) /'sOzja/ sosia˚ ('peS:Se, loS'Sa:me, {laS}'SE:na) /'peSSe, loS'Same, {laS}'SEna/ pe&e, lo ßame, (la) &ena˚ (&aba'Zu:r, &aZi'go) /aba'Zur, aZi'go/ abat-jour˚ à gigot˘ In front of any voiced C there is always /z/ in Italian: (biz'bE:tiko, zve'ni:R™, zle'ga:Re, zden'ta:to) /biz'bEtiko, zve'nire, zle'gare, zden'tato/ bisbetico˚ svenire˚ slegare˚ sdentato (Ô (sten'ta:to) /sten'tato/ stentato]˘ As far as VsV is concerned, modern neutral pronunciation resolves the problem of the traditional one (Ô § 3.3.5.2.); actually, every postvocalic intralexemic -s- (¤ in simple words, not compound] is voiced, /z/ (z): ('ka:za, 'ri:zø, 'pre:za, ci'ne:ze, Ge'lo:zo) /'kaza, 'rizo, 'preza, ci'neze, Ge'lozo/ casa˚ riso˚ presa˚ cinese˚ geloso˘ Only in compounding, is the initial -s- of lexeme or grammeme /s/ (s): (&pR™ndi'so:le, &sotto&segRe'ta:Rjo, &pResa'la:Rjo, kwal'si;asi, Ri'sal:to) /prEndi'sole, sottosegre'tarjo, presa'larjo, kwal'siasi, ri'salto/ prendisole˚ sottosegretario˚ presalario˚ qualsiasi˚ risalto˘ ˛e last example means çI jump againÇ; whereas, the noun means çto stand outÇ and is (Ri'zal:to) /ri'zalto/… Forms such as prosieguo, whose composition –nowadays– is heard in a less deﬁnite way, vary: (pRo'sjE:gwo, -z-) /pro'sjEgwo, -z-/. For /s, z/, in the north, an alveolar instead of dental articulation is frequent; ('ßO:ﬁja) /'sOzja/ sosia (be warned that, too often, neutral Italian articulation, which is dental {with lowered tip}, is deﬁned çalveolarÇ, even in phonetic books!). In central-southern regional pronunciations (except in Tuscany), for VsV (even if with an approximant inserted after s), we do not have /z/, but /s/: ('rO:se, 'a:sja) /'rOze, 'azja/ rose˚ Asia. However, the prestige of voiced pronunciation, with /z/, is such that, many speakers try to go from (s) to (z); but from a regional situation without /z/ (and with no help from the written word), the substitution often generalizes (z) (or (Ω)), even in words like: *(&laza'lu:t™, &laΩa-) /lasa'lute/ la salute, that is (&lasa'lu:t™). In the center (except ∫orence and Prato) we ﬁnd the typical change /s/ = (q) after /n, r, l/: /'pEnso, 'pErso, 'falso/ ('pEn:qo, 'pEr:qo, 'fal:qo) penso, perso, falso. The same happens in Tessin and in northern and easter Lombardy. It is very frequent also in some areas of southern Italy, including its partial or complete voicing: (ë,

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Q) (Ô MaPI). However, speakers who have a kind of defective r produce ('pEV:so, 'pE˜:so, 'pEK:so)… (not a stopstricive). In the center and south of Italy, above all, there are areas in which preconsonantal /s, z/ are seen to be prepalatal, (À, =): ('viÀ:ta, ='bat:to) /'vista, z'batto/ vista˚ sbatto (¤ in the south-eastern parts of the Marches, Umbria, and Latium; and in western Sicily, and southern Calabria and Salento; as well as in northern Lombardy). In Campania, /s0, z0/ are typically realized as postalveopalatal protruded constrictives, (S, Z), but only in front of non-apical C; thus, for instance: (S'pA;√Rø, Z'gar:Rø) /s'paro, z'garro/ sparo˚ sgarro. We cannot but reveal that too many third-rate çimitatorsÇ (even in books!) show absurd pronunciations, for example in Neapolitan, ™: *(S'ta:Re) /s'tare/ stare˚ for (s'tA;√R™). In the north, /S/ is often without lip protrusion, but, above all, it is not self-geminant: ('pe:ëe, lo'ëa:me, {la}'ëe:na) pece˚ lo ßame˚ la scena; so, the ﬁrst and third examples are closer to the central-southern pronunciation of ('pe:Se, la'Se:na) /'pece, la'cena/ pece˚ la cena! We can see how self-geminant /S/ opposes geminates, as in ('faS:Se) /'faSSe/ fa&e and ('fac:ce) /'facce/ facce, but not single, as in ('fa:ce) /'face/ face (a literary word), which in central Italian pronunciation (and very often in southern ones) is ('fa:Se); however, the minimal pair is between the ﬁrst two examples, not the third. Approximants 3.2.5. ˛e two Italian approximants are /j, w/ (j, w): ('jE:Ri) /'jEri/ ieri˚ (gjac'ca:jo) /gjac'cajo/ ªacciaio˚ ('wO:vo) /'wOvo/ uovo˚ (kwa'lu˙:kw™) /kwa'lunkwe/ qualunque˘ In central-southern pronunciation, we sometimes ﬁnd /j/ = (jj): ('paj:jo, 'pa;jjo) for ('pa:jo) /'pajo/ paio˘ In the south we often have even (i'e:Ri, u'o:vø) for /'jEri, 'wOvo/ ieri˚ uovo (simplifying a little). Trills 3.2.6. ˛ere is only one trill phoneme, /r/, with two important taxophones, (r, R), which depend on the strength of the syllables; in stressed syllables, before or after the syllabic nucleus we ﬁnd a trill, (r) (lengthened, (r:), if in a checked syllable of an intoneme); whereas in unstressed (or half-stressed) syllables we have a tap: ('ra:Ro) /'raro/ raro˚ ('pOr:ta) /'pOrta/ porta˚ (Ri'prE:ndeRe) /ri'prEndere/ riprendere˚ (&pRepa'rar:si) /prepa'rarsi/ prepararsi˚ ('kar:Ro) /'karro/ carro˚ (aR'ri:vø) /ar'rivo/ arrivo˚ (&aRRi'va:Re) /arri'vare/ arrivare˘ As one can see, even for /rr/, the choice between (r, R), depends on the position of the stress. ˛ere are various types of accents with a çFrench rÇ, in Italian, that range from uvular, like (K, º, ˜, r), to labiodental (with or without uvularization), (V, ◊). For regional pronunciations (as shown in MaPI), we could have a generalized

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(R) or (r), independently of the stress; we could also have uvularization, (5, R); or in Venice, (¸, Í, ®). Let us take a detailed look at the çSicilian typeÇ (in Sicily, of course, and in southern Calabria and the Salentina Peninsula as well) for /òr, rr, tr, dr, str, sdr/. Indeed, simplifying a little (even the transcriptions) for /òr, rr/, we have the voiced slit alveolar constrictive, (z), self-geminant if postvocalic: ({laz}'za:djo) /{la}'radjo/ (la) radio˚ ('kaz:zø) /'karro/ carro˘ It is clearly not the postalveolar trill phone ((#), çcacuminalÇ, çó¶), as it has been çdescribedÇ for generations, without proof. Relative to this, we also have the çbizarreÇ pair ç=ó, ƒóÇ which is persistently presented as ç(˛#, Ã#)Ç, without listening carefully. In fact the most normal articulation is given, simply, by the stopstrictives which correspond to (z), ¤ (., …) (slit alveolar): ('.a:v™) /'trave/ trave˚ ('…a:gø) /'drago/ drago˘ Lastly, the /str/ sequence (lexically quite common), is more often rendered by the voiceless postalveo-prevelar constrictive (self-geminant, if postvocalic) (.): ('na.:.ø) /'nastro/ nastro˚ ({la.}'.a:da) /las'trada/ (la) strada; instead, the (less common) sequence /zdr/ is more often rendered by a voiced (grooved + slit) alveolar sequence, (ﬁ…): ({la}ﬁ'…a:jø) /{la}z'drajo/ (la) sdraio (much less commonly by (la{÷}'÷a:jø)). We will conclude by indicating the assimilation of /r0/, which is more typical of eastern Sicily: ('pat:tø) /'parto/ parto. Laterals 3.2.7. Italian has two lateral phonemes, /l, L/, alveolar and palatal (this last is quite rare in languages, and – in neutral Italian – it is self-geminant, as well): ('la:la) /'lala/ l'ala˚ ('lal:la) /'lalla/ Lalla˚ ('dir:Li) /'dirLi/ dir˙˚ ('fOL:La) /'fOLLa/ fo˙a. We can observe how the self-geminant /L/ opposes to geminates, as in ('paL:La) /'paLLa/ pa˙a and ('pal:la) /'palla/ palla, not to (('pa:la) /'pala/ pala); the minimum pair is between the ﬁrst two examples not the third, which is a single consonant. In some central areas, /L/ becomes /j/, or /lj/ becomes (L) (in this case it is not self-geminant): ('paj:ja, 'pa;jja) /'paLLa/ pa˙a˚ ('O:Lo) /'Oljo/ olio˚ (&paLLa'ti:vø) /pallja'tivo/ palliativo˘ On the other hand, in the north, generally, /L, lj/ are mixed into something intermediate that we can render quite generally here: (li'ta;¬-ja) that stands for /li'talja/ l'Italia and for /li'taLLa/ li ta˙a. Neutral Italian has /l/ = (¬) + /c, G, S/: ('a¬:ce) alce˘ Structures 3.3. We will now look at the characteristics which go beyond simple segments, those with syllable, length, stress, and intonation relevance. ˛e intermediate vocoids, (™, ø), were mentioned in § 3.1.1; for assimilations and consonant taxophones, the relevant characteristics are shown, including the most common regional peculiarities, in their respective paragraphs.

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It has already been stated that in Italian, diphthongs are biphonemic and are formed by joining two vocalic phonemes/phones, retaining their normal typical realizations, with no modiﬁcation, in particular of the second element, that is always distinct, even in the case of /ai, au/ (ai, au), contrarily to many languages, above all Germanic (Ô § 8.26-8 of NPT/HPh). Taxophonics 3.3.1.1. It is necessary and useful to speak out against the widespread practice, led by journalists and unreﬁned publishers, of yielding to laziness of various forms regarding the spelling of grammemes, ™: la˚ una˚ della…, -re (in inﬁnitives) –we refer to the linguistic convention, that places an asterisk (*) in front of undesirable forms, which report a decidedly inaccurate use– like in *la esattezza, *una opportunista, *della università, *voltare pagina… for the more usual and deﬁnitely more harmonious: (&lezat'teq:qa, &unop&poRtu'nis:ta, del&luni&veRsi'ta, &voltaR'pa:Gina) /lezat'teqqa, unopportu'nista, delluniversi'ta*, voltar'paGina/ l'esattezza, un'opportunista, dell'università, voltar pagina… As a matter of fact, Italian is a real native language only in central Italy (where local dialects present substantially, the same structure as the Italian language, only with di‡erences of register); ¤ in Tuscany, Umbria, the Marches and Latium (although their linguistic borders do not coincide exactly with administrative borders, but are a little less widespread, for the four regions and above all for the Marches, as even the whole province of Pesaro and Urbino do not come into the çlinguistic CenterÇ). In the center, the dropping of grammeme endings [-i˚ -e˚ -a˚ -o {in clear phonic order}), even for nouns, adjectives, conjunctions, adverbs and verbs, is a normal and natural procedure, as seen in: ancor indietro˚ sempr'avanti˚ er'andato˚ quant'altri mai˚ cinqu'anni˚ or'ott'e trenta (o&Røttet'tren:ta), Dant'Aliªeri˚ Â. For words in connected speech (unless there are particular reasons, such as highlighting, or emphasis, which should be present or risk lacking expressiveness), neutral pronunciation resorts to elision, ¤ the dropping of one of two identical V (including the dropping of the ﬁnal V of the articles and some pronouns {considered by grammar, in front of even di‡erent V}): (lat'te:za, &unat&tivi'ta, le&zeRcitaq'qjo:ni, aL&Lita'lja:ni, su&naRgo'men:to÷ la'mi:ka, u'nal:tRa, u'nal:tRo, lin'seN:No) /lat'teza, unattivi'ta*, lezercitaq'qjoni, aLLita'ljani, sunargo'mento÷ la'mika, u'naltra, lin'seNNo/ l'attesa˚ un'attività˚ l'esercitazioni˚ a∫'italiani˚ s'un argomento÷ l'amica˚ un'altra˚ l'inse√o. If one is not inﬂuenced by spelling without elision, and one is, at the same time, free from non-central and non-neutral sounds, one can easily see that normal pronunciation really is not: *(laat'te:za, &unaat&tivi'ta, le&ezeRcitaq'qjo:ni, &aLLi&ita'lja:ni, su&unaRgo'men:to÷ laa'mi:ka, &una'al:tRa, liin'seN:No), even for the words written as: le esercitazioni, a˙ italiani, su un argomento, li inse√o. For this reason, it is more advisable to use writing which accurately considers these facts, explicitly showing how closely linked genuine pronunciation and spell-

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ing elision is (indicated by an apostrophe; whereas, it is deﬁned as truncation, if there is no apostrophe). ˛e following is by no means a counterexample: (sa'peres 'kri:veR™) /sa'peres 'krivere/ sapere &rivere, with no vocalic omissions, as it falls perfectly, into the genuine Italian structure (based on the use of central Italy), which barely tolerates things such as (sa'pers 'kri:veR™) /sa'pers 'krivere/ saper &rivere, but prefers: (&sapes'kri:v{eR}™) /sapes'krive{re}/ sapé &rive(re), which are of local/dialectal use. 3.3.1.2. Amongst the bad habits we have just examined, unfortunately we can ﬁnd, propagated by schools, the (humiliatingly mechanical, ¤ without the slightest consideration, resulting in a damaging conditioned reﬂex) use of the notorious çeuphonic dÇ –¤ çwell-sounding dÇ, however, the only euphonic part of it is its high-sounding name– as in: *ad Emilia, *ed an>e, *od altro, (not to mention: *ed educazione, *ad Adele, *od odore!). Once more, the central way of speaking, which is not ruined by schools or journalism, spontaneously and correctly, gives: (ae'mi:lja, e'a˙:ke, o'al:tRo) /ae'milja, e'anke, o'altro/ a Emilia, e an>e, o altro˚ and even: e educazione, a Adele, o odore (not including the really çcacophonous dÇ, forming sequences such as ç/édédé/Ç). Contrarily, neutral language, prefers cases such as: (&ada˙'ko:na, e&deve'li:na, &odol'fat:to) /adan'kona, edeve'lina, odol'fatto/ ad Ancona˚ ed Evelina˚ od olfatto. However, we obviously have: (e'E:va, o'Ot:to) /e'Eva, o'Otto/ e Eva˚ o otto, as the V˚ in these cases are not the same at all (phonically speaking)! ˛e cases of the preposition da and of pronouns una and uno as well followed by an adjective are clearly di‡erent. ˛ey must never be elided (or çtruncatedÇ for uno), as they are necessary to maintain an important distinction between the preposition di and the articles (written una˚ uno as well): (dan'da:Re) /dan'dare/ d'andare is only çdi andareÇ, not çda andareÇ; in the same way, (u&nita'ljana, &unan'ti:kø) /unita'ljana, unan'tiko/ un'italiana˚ un antico are nouns; hence, di‡erent from: (&una&ita'ljana, &unoan'ti:kø) /unaita'ljana, unoan'tiko/ una italiana˚ uno antico, as in: ne cerco… (for instance: canzone, mobile) çI'm looking for an Italian song/piece of furnitureÇ. A last reﬂection, linked to spelling and school wrongdoings, has to be cast regarding the absurd complication of insisting on teaching çthe exception to the ruleÇ, where the pronoun sé is written with an acute (accent) in order to di‡er from se (conjunction and also allotrope, or variant, of sé in front of other weak pronouns or ne): (&sevveR'ra;i, &sela'ri:d™, &sene'va) /sevver'rai, sela'ride, sene'va*/ se verrai˚ se la ride˚ se ne va˘ It is not at all çclearÇ why, once the spelling rule is formulated, to distinguish sé from the other se, one must rack one's brains to excogitate the çexceptionÇ to sé stesso, sé medesimo… which some grammars –and many pedants– would rather we wrote *se stesso and *se medesimo, with no good reason to do so. Indeed, we cannot exclude the possibility of ﬁnding (even in an ambiguous initial position) sentences such as: Se stessi male, non potrei venire çIf I were ill, I couldn't comeÇ, which is di‡erent from: Sé stessi malediranno ˙ azzeccagarbu˙ della grammatica ç˛e pettifogging lawyers of grammar will curse themselvesÇ; or: Se medesime compa√e

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di gioco perdono, vengono e&luse… çIf equal playmates lose, they are excludedÇ, di‡erent from: Sé medesime comparano a tutte le altre ç˛ey compare themselves to all the othersÇ. ˛erefore, eliminating the accent from sé is not only utterly pointless, but causes awkward ambiguity, as well as undue analogies that lead to many people writing *a se stante, instead of the only form possible: a sé stante çseparate, apartÇ. Let us brieﬂy turn our attention to the çimproperÇ use (decidedly incorrect – proudly lead by a fair number of çintellectualsÇ) of *e non˚ *o non, as in: *italiani e non. In Italian, the negative non /non/ çnotÇ has to be followed by the term which is denied, as in: giallo, non verde; cotto, non crudo; un ºlo, non due (ºli); coßa, non petto; essere, o non essere? Instead, the absolute negation (hence, ﬁnal in the sentence) is only no /'nO*/ çnoÇ (Eng. /'nOU/ ('n‘;¨, 'nø;¨)) – even if the given term is not expressed or repeated. ˛erefore, logically, we must even have: italiani e no. Is it possible to imagine an Italic Hamlet saying *Essere, o non? – or, *Io ti amo, ma tu non!? (for correct English çTo be, or not to be?Ç, of course, and çI love you, but you don'tÇ). Such usage is much worse than English cases like: *I don't want no bread˚ *We ain't going (no more)˚ *She don't love you (no more)˘ Syllabiﬁcation and length 3.3.1.3. Distinctively, in Italian, length (or quantity) only concerns consonants not vowels. ≈rst and foremost, we must ﬁrmly repeat that this is about true gemination, not length or lengthening; hence, the only suitable way of rendering the length of Italian C, consists –even phonologically– of the gemination (or doubling) of the symbol in question: (af'fat:to) /af'fatto/ a‡atto˚ (&koRReG'Ges:se) /korreG'Gesse/ correggesse; certainly not: *(a'f:at:o, kor:e'G:es:e) */a'f:at:o, kor:e'G:es:e/ (even */kor:e'd:Zes:e/!), which have no reason or justiﬁcation (neither theoretical nor acoustic), and rather pose problems for the syllabiﬁcation, which is: (af-'fat:to, &koR-ReG-'Ges:-se) /af-'fat-to, kor-reG-'Ges-se/. On the subject of syllabiﬁcation, apart from unsatisfactory çmodern phonological modesÇ, one must recall that even traditional grammars are not the most objective – quite the opposite, in fact! As well as the absurd graphic syllabic division of -sC- (which, despite its obvious ﬂaws, has been entrusted to computers too, so, unfortunately there is no hope of changing it), from a phonic point of view, the only real division (and natural: just listen to it!) for /s0/ is after /s/, not before (as for other sequences, which are heterosyllabic; therefore, di‡erent from /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/, which are all tautosyllabic, in neutral Italian): ('pas:-ta) /'pas-ta/ pasta >pa-sta!≥˚ ('par:-te) /'par-te/ parte >par-te≥˚ ('al:to) /'al-to/ alto >al-to≥˚ ('pas:-so) /'pas-so/ passo >pas-so≥ (but: ('ma:-Rjo) /'ma-rjo/ Mario >Ma-rio≥˚ ('a:-kwi-la) /'a-kwi-la/ aquila >a-quila≥˚ ('a:-pRo) /'a-pro/ apro >a-pro≥˚ ('du:-pli-c™) /'du-pli-ce/ duplice >du-pli-ce≥. It is also true that in northern Italian, especially in the more typical, broader regional accents, the structures /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/, after a stressed V˚ are very often heterosyllabic: ('a;k-wi-la) for ('a:-kwi-la) /'a-kwi-la/ aquila˚ ('a;p-Ro) for ('a:-pRo) /'a-pro/ apro˚ ('ma;R-jo) for ('ma:-Rjo) /'ma-rjo/ Mario˚ ('du;p-li-c™) for ('du:-pli-c™) /'du-pli-ce/ duplice.

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˛is aspect can be hard to grasp, especially if accurate transcriptions are not availed of (and obviously, if no keen listening is made); so it is quite a common problem for many actors, dubbers and presenters of northern descent, who –as çvoice professionalsÇ– are somewhat lacking; unfortunately they are more like çsemi-professionalsÇ… As seen, phonically we have (bas-'ta:-Re) /'bas-ta-re/ bastare, but also (las-'tO:-Rja) /las-'tO-rja/ la storia÷ therefore, likewise (s'tO:-Rja) /s'tO:rja/ storia˚ with (s't) /s't/, as –when there is a V in front– the phono-syllabiﬁcation is (s-'t) /s-'t/, as in the second example [la storia]˘ Even acoustic data conﬁrm the fact that (|s'té) /|s'té/ (after a pause, or çsilenceÇ) is part of the same syllable (a little particular, possibly, on the scale of syllabicity, but nothing really surprising) whereas, obviously, (és'té) /és'té/ constitute two phono-syllables bordering between two C (Ô § 12.2-6 of NPT/HPh]˘ 3.3.1.4. From a phonetic point of view, neutral Italian, in an intoneme, undergoes a lengthening of the last element of the phono-syllable (with one exception, which will be looked at presently): ('fa:-Re) /'fa-re/ fare˚ (de-'ci:-zø) /de-'ci-zo/ deciso˚ (Ri-'pE:-te-Re) /ri-'pE-te-re/ ripetere˚ (&Ri-ka-&pi-to-'la:-Re) /ri-ka-pi-to-'la-re/ ricapitolare÷ ('kan:-to) /'kan-to/ canto˚ ('mol:-to) /'mol-to/ molto˚ ('ver:-de) /'ver-de/ verde˚ ('pos:to) /'pos-to/ posto (>po-sto≥!), (&i˙-kon-'tran:-do) /in-kon-'tran-do/ incontrando˚ (aR-&Rive-'der:-ci) /ar-ri-ve-'der-ci/ arrivederci. We must be careful not to misunderstand the meaning of çin an intonemeÇ, which should be understood as in a prominent position in a sentence; this does not mean only çat the end of a sentenceÇ, but çevery time there is an intonemeÇ even in the middle of syntactic sentences, which –after all– has very little to do with phonic sentences, which are decidedly richer and more variable than traditional-grammar sentences (and even çgenerative-grammarÇ ones). ˛e exception (to the rule of phonetic length) is made up of a single ﬁnal stressed V, which is always short (except for possible emphatic or communicative reasons): (ko'zi) /ko'zi*/ così˚ (kaf'fE) /kaf'fE*/ ca‡è÷ however: (poR'ta;i) /por'tai/ portai˚ (&paRa'ti;a) /para'tia/ paratia, as in the middle of the word as well: ('ka;uza) /'kauza/ causa˚ (in'trO;ito) /in'trOito/ introito. A partial exception is formed by the ﬁnal stressed /érò/ sequence in an intomene: ('fa:r{e}) /'far{e}/ far(e)˚ (&Rive'de:r{e}) /rive'der{e}/ riveder(e)÷ in other contexts, we have: (pe'Ro:Ra, peR'di:R™) /pe'rora, per'dire/ per ora˚ per dire˘ ˛e other ﬁnal C˚ in an intoneme, are lengthened as they are in stressed checked syllables within a word: (peR'don:÷ peR'do:no) /per'don{o}/ perdon(o)˚ (ka'nal:÷ ka'na:le) /ka'nal{e}/ canal(e). Even geminate C in an intoneme have the ﬁrst element lengthened: ('sas:so) /'sasso/ sasso˚ ('vet:ta) /'vetta/ vetta˚ ('son:no) /'sonno/ sonno˚ ('brac:co) /'bracco/ braccio˚ ('daq:qjo) /'daqqjo/ dazio˚ ('peS:Se) /'peSSe/ pe&e˘ In any other position, ™ before the stress, there is no further lengthening: (sas'set:to, vet'to:Re, son'nam:bulo, &peSSo'li:nø) /sas'setto, vet'tore, son'nambulo, peSSo'lino/ sassetto˚ vettore˚ sonnambulo˚ peßolino, or in a preintoneme: ('sasso pe'zan:te, 'vetta ele'va:ta, 'sonno pRo'fon:do, 'bracco 'lu˙:gø, 'daqqjo ob&bliga'tO:Rjo, 'peSSe 'frit:tø) /'sasso pe'zante, 'vetta ele'vata, 'sonno pro'fondo, 'bracco 'lungo, 'daqqjo obbliga'tOrjo, 'peSSe 'fritto/ sasso pesante˚ vetta elevata˚ sonno profondo˚ braccio lungo˚ dazio obbligatorio˚ pe&e fritto˘

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In a di‡erent position from that in an intoneme, as also in a preintoneme, even the vowel lengths change, dropping the semichrone ((;)): (kau'za:Re) /kau'zare/ causare˚ ('kauze &natu'ra:li) /'kauze natu'rali/ cause naturali (Ô ('ka;uza) /'kauza/ causa). 3.3.1.5. However, in neutral Italian, not all C are geminable; in fact, /z, j, w/ are always single (¤ non-geminable, as also the xenophoneme /Z/, which has been integrated into the Italian phonological system for centuries now): ('pO:za) /'pOza/ posa˚ ('kwO:jo) /'kwOjo/ cuoio˚ (a'Zu:r) /a'Zur/ à jour˘ Nevertheless, phonetically, in the appropriate contexts, /z/ is lengthened: ('riz:ma) /'rizma/ risma. ˛ere are also ﬁve self-geminant C (/N, S, L÷ q, Q/), which, in a postvocalic position, are necessarily geminated; but with no chance of phonological opposition with a single C: ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba√o˚ ('laS:So) /'laSSo/ laßo˚ ('vOL:Lo) /'vOLLo/ vo˙o˚ ('viq:qi) /'viqqi/ vizi˚ ('viq:qjø) /'viqqjo/ vizio˚ (oQ'QO:no) /oQ'QOno/ ozono˘ ˛e reason for this is to be found in Latin; as a matter of fact, these ﬁve phonemes were not part of that language, and generally derive from two or more C (or from other languages); therefore, by assimilation, the result is a geminate C (Ô § 5.6.17 of MaPI “ § 1.6 of DiPI]˘ We can observe that (only) phonetics can supply explanations about the grammar rules (which are çtroublesomeÇ for foreigners and for northern Italians), as the articles (&uno, lo, Li) /&uno, lo, Li/ uno˚ lo˚ ˙ must be used in cases such as: (&unoS'Se:mø, loQ'Qa;ino, LiQ'Qi;i, LiN'NOk:ki) /unoS'Semo, loQ'Qaino, LiQ'Qii, LiN'NOkki/ uno &emo˚ lo zaino˚ ˙ zii˚ ˙ √ocº (as also (&unos'trac:co, los'kOp:pjo, Lis'kOL:Li) /unos'tracco, los'kOppjo, Lis'kOLLi/ uno straccio˚ lo &oppio˚ ˙ &o˙). In fact, it is a question of two –heterosyllabic– consonants, whereby the neutral Italian structure could not tolerate more complicated sequences, as they would make these syllables too heavy to pronounce. ˛e remaining 15 C, /m, n÷ p, b, t, d, k, g÷ c, G÷ f, v, s÷ r÷ l/, in a postvocalic position, can be single or geminate, distinctively, as shown in the example chosen: ('va:no) /'vano/ vano and ('van:no) /'vanno/ vanno˚ ('fa:to) /'fato/ fato and ('fat:to) /'fatto/ fatto˚ ('mO:Go) /'mOGo/ mogio and ('mOG:Go) /'mOGGo/ moggio˚ ('be:ve) /'beve/ beve and ('bev:ve) /'bevve/ bevve˚ ('ka:Ro) /'karo/ caro and ('kar:Ro) /'karro/ carro˚ ('pa:la) /'pala/ pala and ('pal:la) /'palla/ palla˘ We can see that ('ka:za) /'kaza/ casa and ('kas:sa) /'kassa/ cassa do not constitute a minimal pair, in modern neutral pronunciation (but only in traditional pronunciation or… as far as spelling is concerned). 3.3.1.6. In regional pronunciations in the whole of Italy, in checked syllables in an intoneme, it is quite frequent to ﬁnd a length shifting from the consonant to the vowel element: ('pa;sso, 'paasso) /'passo/ passo˚ ('pa;sta, 'paasta) /'pasta/ pasta˚ ('ka;nto, 'ka;˙to, 'ka;«to, 'kaa-) /'kanto/ canto˚ ('di;rti, 'diirti) /'dirti/ dirti˚ ('mo;lto, 'moolto) /'molto/ molto˚ for the neutral ('pas:so, 'pas:ta, 'kan:to, 'dir:ti, 'mol:to). Above all in the south, it is typical to ﬁnd diphthongization, or doubling, of the vocoid (in checked syllables and in a preintoneme as well), but over all in un-checked syllables (which are shown here generally; but can be seen in é 9-15 of MaPI and in the dialect phonosyntheses in é 16 of NPT/HPh): ('pa;ane, 'pa;åne)

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/'pane/ pane˚ ('ve;Ido, 've;edo) /'vedo/ vedo˚ ('do;Uve, 'do;ove) /'dove/ dove˚ for the neutral ('pa:ne, 've:do, 'do:ve)… In the north, geminates, do not often have su‚cient length, even where vowel length does not present the lengthening mentioned at the beginning of this section: (af'fatto, af'fa;tto) /af'fatto/ a‡atto. In the central-southern areas, there can be other self-geminant consonants (Ô § 3.3.1.5.); which takes place more widely for /b, G/ – in parts of the centre for /j/ too: ('rOb:ba, 'rO;bba) /'rOba/ roba˚ (lab'bar:ka, lab'ba;rka) /la'barka/ la barca˚ ('viG:Gil™, 'vi;GGil™) /'viGile/ vigile˚ (laG'Gak:ka, laG'Ga;kka) /la'Gakka/ la giacca˚ ('nOj:ja, 'nO;jja) /'nOja/ noia˚ (daj'jE:Ri) /da'jEri/ da ieri˚ for the neutral ('rO:ba, la'bar:ka, 'vi:Gil™, la'Gak:ka, 'nO:ja, da'jE:Ri). In Rome (and other central areas), instead, we can ﬁnd the degemination of /r/, in broad and typical accents: ('ko:ReRe) /'korrere/ correre˚ (e'ro:Re) /er'rore/ errore˚ (a'ro:ma) /ar'roma/ a Roma (with co-gemination, Ô § 3.3.2.1.), for the neutral ('kor:ReRe, eR'ro:Re, aR'ro:ma). Co-gemination 3.3.2.1. We will now brieﬂy introduce an example of interlexical consonant gemination, choosing the most signiﬁcant from other similar types, occurring in neutral Italian. Traditionally it is (widely) known as ra‡orzamento sintattico çsyntactic strengtheningÇ or raddoppiamento fonosintattico çphonosyntactic doublingÇ, but it is best deﬁned as co-gemination, the occurrence of which, in neutral pronunciation, gives us: (ak'ka:za) /ak'kaza/ a casa˚ (faf'fred:do) /faf'freddo/ fa freddo˚ (™v've:Ro) /Ev'vero/ è vero. In order to explain this, it is worth ﬁrst considering examples such as (Gak'ke, tRep'pjE:de) /Gak'ke*, trep'pjEde/ giac>é˚ treppiede, which do not pose any problems as the pronunciation and the spelling correspond. However, we can also ﬁnd cases such as (Gak'kjEs:to, tRep'pjE:di) /Gak'kjEsto, trep'pjEdi/ già ºesto˚ tre piedi. Furthermore, we also have: (am'met:to) /am'metto/ ammetto and (am'me) /am'me*/ a me as well, which both derive from the Latin sequences /dm/ –admitto˚ ad me– giving /mm/, by assimilation, which operated within words and between them. ˛erefore, one or more of the ﬁnal consonants assimilated to the ﬁrst consonant of the following word, as the assimilation of certain di‡erent consonants in a word occurred; indeed, even septem and octo gave sette and otto in Italian (/pt, kt/ = /tt/). Hence, as we have had /am'me*/ from ad me, also /trek'kapre/ comes from tres capræ. Even /E*/ è (from Lat. est) causes co-gemination as in è vero, as seen above. Separately, in phonemic transcriptions, these words are indicated, as just seen, by /*/: /'tre*, E*/ (here tre çthreeÇ has the phonic stress marked, because generally it is stressed, as in (&sono'tre) /sono'tre*/ sono tre çthey're threeÇ, unless it immediately precedes another stress, as in tre capre çthree goatsÇ /trek'kapre/ (from a theoretical structure //'tre 'kapre//, unlike English /'†
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Not all Italian monosyllables have this characteristic as far as co-gemination is concerned. For example the preposition di çofÇ does not co-geminate (and is not stressed), /di»/, whereas the noun dì çdayÇ co-geminates, /'di*/; on the other hand, the imperative di' çsay!Ç can co-geminate, as a second choice /'di», 'di*/: (di'kwes:ta) /di'kwesta/ di questa çof this (f]Ç, ('dik kwa'lu˙:kw™) /'dik kwa'lunkwe/ (un) dì qualunque çjust any dayÇ, ('di kwal'kO:za, 'dik k-) /'di kwal'kOza, 'dik k-/ di' qualcosa çsay somethingÇ. 3.3.2.2. Amongst the most frequent co-geminant monosyllables (¤ activating)˚ we ﬁnd a /a*/˚ è /E*/˚ e /e*/˚ né /ne*/˚ se (conj.) /se*/˚ già /Ga*/˚ più /pju*/˚ là /la*/˚ lì /li*/˚ qua /kwa*/˚ qui /kwi*/˚ º /ki*/˚ >e /ke*/˚ tre /tre*/: /ammi'lano/ a Milano˚ /Ek'kjaro/ è ºaro, /ep'pOi/ e poi, /net'tun nel'lui/ né tu né lui, /sep'parti/ se parti, /Gad'detto/ già detto, /pjut'tEmpo/ più tempo, /las'sopra/ là sopra, /kwikkon'lEi/ qui con lei, /kikko'noSSi/ º conoß, /kettene'pare/ >e te ne pare, /'trep pun'tini/ tre puntini. ˛e preposition da does not co-geminate in modern pronunciation: /dafi'rEnqe/ da „renze (contrary to traditional {and Tuscan} pronunciation: /daffi'rEnqe/). ˛e following also co-geminate dà˚ do˚ fa˚ fu˚ ha˚ ho˚ può˚ sa˚ so˚ sta˚ sto˚ va: /midarra'Gone/ mi dà ragione, /fam'male/ fa male, /Oppa'ura/ ho paura, /pwOssa'lire/ può salire, /sat'tutto/ sa tutto, /stOvve'nEndo/ sto venendo, /vas'solo/ va solo. Amongst non-geminant monosyllables (¤ inactivating), the following must undoubtedly be included di /di»/, de' /de»/, i /i»/, la /la»/, le /le»/, li /li»/, lo /lo»/, ˙ /{*}Li»/, ˙e /{*}Le»/, mi/me /mi», me»/, ti/te /ti», te»/, si/se /si», se»/, ci/ce /ci», ce»/˚ vi/ve /vi», ve»/, ne /ne»/, 'sta /sta»/, 'sto /sto»/, 'ste /ste»/, 'sti /sti»/, as well as the Latin monosyllables (a˚ de˚ pro˚ quo˚ si˚ tu˚ væ): /di'nOtte/ di notte, /de'mEdici/ de' Medici, /i'gatti/ i gatti, /la'lana/ la lana, /le'reti/ le reti, /li'prEndo/ li prendo, /losa'pevo/ lo sapevo, /Lirak'konta/ ˙ racconta, /cisene'rEnde 'konto/ ci se ne rende conto, /sta'sera/ 'sta sera÷ /kwO'vadis/ quo vadis˚ /vE'viktis/ væ victis. ≈nal-stressed polysyllables (¤ with stress on the last syllable, or tronº çtruncatedÇ co-geminate, even if they can lose their stress (for rhythmic reasons): (kaf'fEk kolom'bja:no, sa&Rappar'ti:tø, &toRnøt'tar:di) /kaf'fEk kolom'bjano, sarappar'tito, tornOt'tardi/ ca‡è colombiano˚ sarà partito˚ tornò tardi. ˛e systematic description of this phenomenon (and other similar ones, linked, but di‡erent, often confused with co-gemination, in many previous treatments {or in all those which uncritically perpetuate the hypothetical state of things}) is given in § 5.6-9 (and § 4.8.1.) of MaPI, and also –entry by entry– in DiPI˘ 3.3.2.3. Co-gemination is part of neutral pronunciation, exactly as lexical gemination, which is marked in spelling, as in: ('Ot:to) /'Otto/ otto. However, this is not the case in the north (natively, except in some common, set expressions, as è vero, ha detto, used by young people raised with high levels of exposure to the television). Too often, it is erroneously considered as if it were a regional characteristic of the central-southern areas. ˛is opinion, but above all the fact that co-gemination does not ﬁgure in writing (apart from crystallized forms, such as giac>é, davvero, soprattutto]˚ is often

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believed –even by Italians from the central-southern areas– that it is to be avoided; in that case, one should consider even normal lexical gemination (which is distinctive, Ô § 3.3.1.5.) abnormal and unsuitable. Clearly, in the central-southern areas, there are regional di‡erences which are contrary to neutral use. In particular, the most systematic and widespread use is met in Tuscany (which, however, is not totally homogeneous), followed by Rome; the other central-southern areas follow, all of them with local, more or less strong di‡erences. ˛e most normal type of co-gemination, in modern neutral pronunciation, is generally represented by a sort of compromise or of average, based on Roman use (including the cases of de-gemination of articles and pronouns, formed by /lé/: la˚ lo˚ le˚ li˚ l']˚ with further simpliﬁcations. ˛e kind of co-gemination which is more similar to traditional pronunciation (Ô § 3.3.5.3), follows Tuscan usage. A few other examples follow, including one of de-gemination (given as the last one): (pjuf'fOr:te) /pjuf'fOrte/ più forte˚ (cit&takkos'tjE:Ra) /cittakkos'tjEra/ città costiera˚ (&tRenta'trek koRRi'do:Ri) /trenta'trek korri'dori/ trentatré corridori˚ (™l'la:na) /El'lana/ è lana˚ (&™los'tes:so) /Elos'tesso/ è lo stesso. In modern neutral pronunciation, come çlike, asÇ (appositive and comparative with nouns and pronouns) is co-geminant, as well: (&komek'ka:ni, &komev've;Ri 'ka:ni, &komet'te) /komek'kani, komev'veri 'kani, komet'te*/ come cani˚ come veri cani˚ come te˘ Stress 3.3.3.1. Generally, in Italian, stress is assigned to rhythm groups, according to (lexical) word stresses. Rhythm groups are stress groups (Ô § 3.2.7, 6.4.2, 12.1, 13.2-3 of NPT/HPh) made up of a syllable with strong –or primary– stress, and others with weak –or secondary– stress, as in: (&peRfetta'men:te) /perfetta'mente/ perfettamente˚ (in'trE:no) /in'trEno/ in treno˚ (&peRil'ka:ne) /peril'kane/ per il cane˚ (&v™Rsola&finedel'me:ze, &v™Rsola'fi;ne del'me:ze) /vErsolafinedel'meze, vErsola'fine del'meze/ verso la ﬁne del mese˘ ˛e last example shows that, according to the prominence given to certain parts of sentences, the number of rhythm groups can change, as in (un&nwøvo'li:bRø) /unnwOvo'libro/ un nuovo libro ça new bookÇ, compared to (un'nwO;vo 'li:bRø) /un'nwOvo 'libro/ ça book (which is) newÇ, written in the same way (un nuovo libro), but with di‡erent prominence, corresponding to a semantic gradation, where in the second case, nuovo takes on greater importance. ˛e communicative importance given to nuovo can be even greater, in an utterance that, in its written form, remains – once more – the same (given the considerable deﬁciency of current punctuation): (un'nwO:vo2 'li:bRø23) /un'nwOvo, 'libro./. ˛e introduction of the post-stress syllables of the continuative ((2) /,/) and conclusive ((23) /./) intonemes were necessary here, because the new greater prominence is given, in this case, by the presence of two intonemes, for a single utterance. (Let us also note the presence of the full chrone, even in the ﬁrst rhythm group, bear-

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ing a continuative intoneme, (O:).) On the other hand, the communicative prominence would still increase, by using a conclusive intoneme, for the ﬁrst rhythm group too: (un'nwO:vo23 'li:bRø23) /un'nwOvo. 'libro./. 3.3.3.2. Going back to the examples of the rhythm groups given above, we can observe that unstressed syllables (or rather, with weak stress), and those with half-stress (¤ with mid or secondary stress), alternate in such a way as to have one or two weak phono-syllables amongst others with secondary (or primary) stress. Secondary stress is assigned rhythmically, bearing in mind –as far as possible– the position of the stress in the original forms (¤ fundamental forms, from which they derived {certainly not in an evolutive sense, from Latin}), as occurs in lexical compounds: (&pøRtasa'po:ne) /pOrtasa'pone/ portasapone˚ (pu&liSSis'kar:pe) /puliSSis'karpe/ puliß&arpe. In derivatives, instead, the origin counts for less than rhythmic reasons, even if, in case of a double possibility (rhythmic or original), the stress of the original form can exert a decisive inﬂuence: (&pata'ti:n™) /pata'tine/ patatine (notwithstanding (pa'ta:ta) /pa'tata/ patata), (&atten'qjo:ne) /atten'qjone/ attenzione (notwithstanding (at'tEn:to) /at'tEnto/ attento]˘ For syllables that follow a stressed syllable of a word, furthermore, they behave as follows: ('fab:bRo) fabbro, ('fab:bRika) fabbrica, ('fab:bRika&no, 'fab:bRika&mi) fabbricano˚ fabbricami, ('fab:bRikame&lo) fabbricamelo (let us also add a rather improbable ('fab:bRika&mice&lo) fabbricamicelo – Ô the end of § 6.4.2 in NPT/HPh]˘ 3.3.3.3. As regards the syllables of a word that precedes a stressed syllable, the spontaneous formation of a rhythmic alternation of weak and half-strong stresses is formed, going back towards the beginning of the word, starting from the strong syllable, of this kind: (ò{&à}à&àà&àà'à). However, given that polysyllabic words are generally derivatives or compounds, there is a clear and agreed tendency to place secondary stresses on the same syllables of the simple forms of the lexeme which are originally stressed. ˛e only exception, so to speak, is made up of the rhythmic tendency that interrupts both sequences of weak syllables that are too long, introducing some secondary stresses, and sequences of stressed syllables (¤ strong and half-strong), suppressing some secondary stresses or shifting them one or two syllables. Some examples: (&soce'ta) società, (ka&paci'ta) capacità, (pRo&babili'ta) probabilità, (be&ati'tu:din™) beatitudine, (&Raqqjo&naliQ&Qabili'ta) razionalizzabilità, (aR&tifi&cali'ta) artiﬁcialità, (u&tilita&Ristika'men:te) utilitaristicamente, (e&zeRcita'to:Re) esercitatore, (aR&tikolaq'qjo:ne) articolazione, (as&socaq'qjo:ne) associazione, (o&ceano'gra:fiko) oceanograﬁco, (ka&RatteRiQ'Qa:bile) caratterizzabile, (in&telliGen'tis:sima) intelligentissima, (oS&Sillo'gram:ma) oßllogramma, (ef&feRveSSen'tis:simø) e‡erve&entissimo˘ Other examples: (do&loRo&zissima'men:te) dolorosissimamente, (as&tuta'men:te) astutamente, (im&maGinaq'qjo:ne) immaginazione, (mo&difikaq'qjo:ne) modiﬁcazione, (kom&poziq'qjo:ne) composizione, (ak&kjappafaR'fal:le) acºappafarfalle, (e~&c™-

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falo'gram:ma) encefalogramma, (&ultRakon&seRva'to:Re) ultraconservatore, (&inteRkon&tinen'ta:le, -&konti-) intercontinentale, (&pRemedi&tata'men:te, pRe&me-) premeditatamente, (pRe&køce'men:te, &pReko-) precocemente. 3.3.3.4. Considering isolated words, normal (¤ neutral, spontaneous) secondary stressing complies to the rules of lexical composition and derivation. However, obviously, there are also di‡erences in the distribution of secondary stresses, due to the rhythmic context in which the words are placed at any given moment. ˛erefore, if –in isolation– a form like partitocrazia is (paR&titokRaq'qi;a) –whereas (&paRti%tokRaq'qi;a) is a çfalse noteÇ, deriving from the lack of compound analysis– in actual sentences, there is some alternation: (&lapaR&titokRaq'qi;a, la&paRti&tokRaq'qi;a) la partitocrazia˚ ('molto as&tuta'men:te) molto astutamente, (pRo'cE;deRe &astuta'men:te)˚ procedere astutamente˚ ('vE˙go &m™Rkole'di) vengo mercoledì˚ (can'drOm meR&kole'di) ci andrò mercoledì˘ We will not broach the subject of two possible stress patterns for some words, ¤: /dia'triba ˙ di'atriba/ diatriba˚ /skle'rOzi ˙ s'klErozi/ &lerosi˚ /te'zEo ˙ 'tEzeo/ Teseo˚ /e'dipo ˙ 'Edipo/ Edipo; the interested reader is referred to DiPI. 3.3.3.5. Neutral Italian does not in any way accept strong stress on two contiguous syllables (in an intoneme), but attenuates the ﬁrst, even by shifting it or, if necessary, it shifts it (without attenuation), as in the third (and fourth) variants given, which are possible, but less common: /fa'rOk 'kwesto = farOk'kwesto/ (&faRøk'kwes:to), (fa&Røk'kwes:to), ('faRøk 'kwes:to), ('fa;Røk 'kwes:to) farò questo, /skoper'kjO il'tetto = skoperkjOil'tetto/ (s&kopeRkjøil'tet:to), (s&kopeR&kjøil'tet:to), (s'kopeRkjø il'tet:to), (s'ko;peRkjø il'tet:to) &operºò il tetto, /nonnepo'tep 'pju* = nonnepotep'pju*/ (&nonne&potep'pju), (&nonnepo&tep'pju), (&nonne'potep 'pju), (&nonne'po;tep 'pju) non ne poté più, /bEn'kek k'reda = bEnkek'kreda/ (&b™˙kek'kre:da), (b™˙&kek'kre:da), ('bE˙kek 'kre:da) ben>é creda, /me'tad 'dOze = metad'dOze/ (&metad'dO:ze), (me&tad'dO:ze), ('metad 'dO:ze), ('me;tad 'dO:ze) metà dose˘ One aspect of attenuation, owing to rhythmic reasons, can concern the moving back of the reduced stress too, as seen in the following examples: /'vEngo 'dopo di'te* = 'vEngo dopodi'te*/ ('vE˙go &dopodi'te), ('vE˙go do&podi'te) vengo dopo di te˚ /'karo pa'pa* = karopa'pa*/ ('ka;Ro pa'pa), (&kaRopa'pa), (ka&Ropa'pa) caro papà˚ /lo'facco 'anke per'te* = lo'facco ankeper'te*/ (lo'facco &a˙kepeR'te), (lo'facco∞a˙&kepeR'te) lo faccio an>e per te˚ /si'kjama 'forse ko'zi = si'kjama forseko'zi*/ (si'kja;ma &foRseko'zi), (si'kja;ma foR&seko'zi) si ºama forse così? 3.3.3.6. In the case of syntagms like //fuG'Gi z'vElto// /fuGGiz'vElto/ (&fuGGiz'vEl:to, &fuGGiz'vEl:to÷ fuG&Giz'vEl:to) fuggì svelto çhe ran away quicklyÇ, compared to similar expressions as //'fuGGi z'vElto// /'fuGGiz 'vElto/ ('fuGGiz 'vEl:to) fuggi svelto çrun away quickly!Ç, there are slight phonetic and prosodic di‡erences, which alone, however, are not always able to maintain the distinction, as even in the case of fuggi svelto, attenuation of the ﬁrst stress is possible, above all in fast pronunciation (&fuGGiz'vEl:to). Co-gemination does not apply with syllable structures like /éò_0/, which actually are syllabiﬁed /é_˘0/.

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In the case of //fuG'Gis 'subito// /fuGGis'subito/ (&fuGGis'su:bitø÷ fuG&Gis'su:bitø) fuggì sùbito çhe ran away at onceÇ, compared to /'fuGGi 'subito/ ('fuGGi 'su:bitø) fuggi sùbito çrun away at once!Ç, the co-gemination contributes a better distinction, in neutral pronunciation: //pa'gOt 'tutto// /pagOt'tutto/ (&pagøt'tut:tø, 'pagøt 'tut:tø, 'pa;gøt 'tut:tø÷ pa&gøt'tut:tø) pagò tutto˚ /'pago 'tutto/ ('pa;go 'tut:tø, &pago'tut:tø) pago tutto÷ //losen'tim 'male// /losentim'male/ (lo&sentim'ma:le, lo'sentim 'ma:le÷ &losen&tim'ma:le) lo sentì male˚ /lo'sEnti 'male, losEnti'male/ (lo'sEnti 'ma:le, lo&s™nti'ma:le) lo senti male˘ Lastly: //lostrap'pOv 'via// /lostrappOv'via/ (los&tRappøv'vi;a, los'trappøv 'vi;a÷ &lostRap&pøv'vi;a) lo strappò via˚ /los'trappo 'via, lostrappo'via/ (los'trappo 'vi;a, los&tRappo'vi;a) lo strappo via˘ Intonation 3.3.4. û 3.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes in neutral Italian (both modern and traditional), which we will illustrate with simple examples: /./: (Ri'partono 'tutti 'sa:bato23) /ri'partono 'tutti 'sabato./ Ripartono tutti sabato. /?/: (¿Ri'partono 'tutti 'sa:bato21) /¿ri'partono 'tutti 'sabato?/ Ripartono tutti sabato? /÷/: (&seRRi'partono 'tutti 5sa:bato12| &mene'va;do a˙'ki;ø23) /serri'partono 'tutti 'sabato÷ mene'vado an'kio./ Se ripartono tutti sabato, me ne vado an>'io. In the north, regional intonation has consistent and varied shifts; in the south they are rather repetitive; while, in the center, they are more contained (and, generally, more similar to neutral patterns). ˛e major di‡erences are found in the suspensive intoneme, /÷/, as can also be seen in the phonosyntheses of é 16 of NPT/ HPh (and of é 10-15 of MaPI). û 3.3. Italian preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Traditional neutral pronunciation 3.3.5.1. As already mentioned (in § 3.0.1), çtraditional neutral pronunciationÇ mainly follows Tuscan use, in particular ∫orentine, and dates back to the uniﬁcation of Italy; therefore to about a century and a half ago, as quoted in dictionaries

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which, at that time were deﬁned as of çTuscan languageÇ, more often than of çItalianÇ. ˛e peculiarities of traditional pronunciation, therefore, are more rigid than those of modern pronunciation (having less variations {and here, we relate above all the çstrangestÇ} and –at the same time– most çcapriciousÇ). The forms followed by * are found only in some dictionaries or speciﬁc lists. As regards the vowel phonemes /e, E÷ o, O/, some examples of words and endings follow. ˛e more bizarre forms are marked with simple (çorthoepicalÇ) written accents: A√èse˚ annèsso˚ auróra*˚ Bertóldo*˚ cè‡o˚ cócca çcorner, notchÇ, collètta˚ connètto˚ crèsima˚ enórme˚ esòso˚ fólla˚ Giórgio˚ gótta˚ gróppo˚ lèttera˚ mòccolo˚ nèsso˚ nórma*˚ órgano*˚ rócca çdista‡Ç, Rómolo˚ sgómino˚ siète˚ stòrpio˚ strènna˚ tè&hio÷ as well as the endings: amaró√olo˚ stètti˚ stèttero… As far as the distribution of /q, Q/ is concerned, the major traditional characteristic regards initial /q/ for many words like: zampa˚ zio˚ zoppo˚ zuc>ero˚ zucca÷ and internal /Q/, in cases such as: aguzzino˚ amazzone˚ brezza˚ ªribizzo˚ intirizzito˚ lazzi˚ lezzo˚ olezzo˚ pettegolezzo˚ ribrezzo˚ rubizzo˚ &orza˚ Ωarzo*˚ sozzo*˘ 3.3.5.2. ˛e greatest di‡erence, however, concerns the use of single /s/, within a word, between V (even if with /j, w/ before the second). ˛e most signiﬁcant cases (including derivatives) are: asino˚ casa˚ ºesi˚ ºuso˚ cosa˚ così˚ desidero˚ desiderio˚ (il) fuso˚ mese˚ naso˚ peso˚ Pisa˚ posa˚ raso˚ riposo˚ riso, and adjective endings -ese˚ -oso˚ and verb endings -esi˚ -osi\ /in'glese/ in∫ese (but /fran'ceze/ francese!) /cinese'ria/ cineseria (but /borge'zia/ bor!esia!), /go'loso/ goloso˚ /cellu'losa/ cellulosa˚ /kurjosi'ta*/ curiosità÷ /'presi, -sero, -so/ presi˚ presero˚ preso (but /'lezi, -zero, -zo/ lesi˚ lesero˚ leso!), /impre'sarjo/ impresario˚ /'rosi, -sero, -so/ rosi˚ rosero˚ roso˚ /ris'posi, -sero/ risposi˚ risposero˚ /ro'sikkjo/ rosicºo (but /ero'zjone/ erosione!). However, in traditional pronunciation, we ﬁnd /z/ in cases such as: biso√o˚ caso˚ ºesa˚ muso˚ paese˚ quasi˚ sposa˚ viso˚ misi˚ misero˚ (io) fusi˚ fusero˚ (ho) fuso˚ incisi˚ incisero˚ inciso… 3.3.5.3. Traditional co-gemination is more systematic and more widespread than modern co-gemination; indeed, it has a higher number of activating forms (as da\ da Milano /dammi'lano/; for the modern: /dami'lano/), and does not provide for de-gemination è la mia /Ella'mia/; modern: /Ela'mia/); what is more, the following are always co-geminant, too, come˚ dove˚ qual>e˚ sopra (unless they are used as nouns): come si fa? dove vai? qual>e volta˚ sopra quel tavolo /komessi'fa, dovev'vai, kwalkev'vOlta, soprakkwel'tavolo/ (but: il sopra del tavolo /il'sopra del'tavolo/); modern: /komesi'fa*, dove'vai, kwalke'vOlta, soprakwel'tavolo/). As far as accentuation is concerned, there are no particular peculiarities; any di‡erences are due to the fact that generations have passed, and, as one knows, the accentuation of learned terms and classical nouns are subject to trends of preference, which can be agreed upon to a greater or lesser extent, but are not under discussion: they are merely documentable (Ô the end of § 3.3.3.4). Intonation does not change, except for the possible adoption (by some) of Tuscan-type preintonemes (Ô the relative phonosyntheses in é 16).

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3.3.5.4. All characteristics of traditional pronunciation may be found, however, in MaPI and DiPI÷ this pronouncing dictionary shows the variants of the center (the linguistic center; but Abruzzo belongs to the upper south) regarding the distribution of /e, E÷ o, O÷ s, z÷ q, Q/ (including some peculiar stress patterns), indicating Tuscany, Umbria, the Marches, Latium and Rome respectively with: t, u, m, l, r (in square brackets). Traditional variants are identiﬁed, in DiPI, by a full-stop which appears before them, and which separates them from modern variants, given ﬁrst (if di‡erent, otherwise they coincide), as, for example: çlettera /'lettera. -Et-/ {† E, ¨µ¬® e}Ç, ¤ /'lEttera/ in Tuscany and /'lettera/ in the rest of the center. ˛ere are at times more intricate variants, ™: çstorpio /s'torpjo. -O-/ {† O/o, ¨ o/O, µ¬® o}Ç. However, there is full agreement throughout the center for çbene /'bEne/Ç. Text 3.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in eight di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Italian pronunciations of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Italian translation follows, in its neutral modern and traditional versions. ˛ree further accents are given: two are mediatic (respectively northern and central – of Milan and Rome), which, for segmental and intonational aspects, are not as broad as those presented –with vocograms and tonograms– in é 10 “ é 12 of MaPI (in which there are 23 regional versions, in é10-14). ˛e respective (dialectal) phonosyntheses in é 16 of NPT/HPh (looking at Milanese, § 16.15, and Roman, § 16.42) can also provide useful preliminary information. In northern mediatic pronunciation, stopstrictives often occur as sequences: (ts, dz÷ TS, DZ) (special symbols would be better: ((tS, dZ))). Lastly, the a‡ected accent (snobbish, § 3.4.9) is examined, as well, with a çFrench rÇ (generally, an approximant: labiodental, (V), or uvular, (˜), or uvularized labiodental, (◊), which has been chosen as a representative type, having both components) and other characteristics linked to that kind of pronunciation, as çtenserÇ but also çlaxerÇ V, at the same time (Ô û 3.4). ˛ey are realized –basically– by higher and more advanced vocoids than normal, which, in stressed syllables (and in preintonemes as well), are diphthongized, but with second elements rather central in their vocogram boxes, therefore, ending in di‡erent –opposite– positions from the initial ones. Furthermore, /c, G÷ S, {Z}/ are postalveo-palatal over-rounded, (&, 1, «, {»}); there is also çdrawlingÇ and splitting of the tonic –in the real tonetic sense– and posttonic syllables (sometimes even of the previous ones), in particular before a pause, and above all for intonemes when they are di‡erent from the conclusive ones. Lastly, we note a bigger pitch extension (which we will indicate paraphonically, with §(ˇ)@, at the beginning of each paragraph) and creaky voice in intonemes (¤ tonic and posttonic syllables), which is represented by the speciﬁc diacritic: (ü).

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û 3.4. A‡ected realizations of the Italian vowels. /i/ (i[i]) /e/ (e[e]), ({'ii/'uu…)™ò) /E/ (EE), (™{…'})

/u/ (u[u]) /o/ (o[o]), ({'ii/'uu…)øò) /O/ (OO), (ø{…'})

/a/ (a[a])

3.4.1. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Italian, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Italian (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version of the Italian pronunciation of American English, with /a/ even for English /Ø/ (¤ ('Sat:$) instead of ('SOt:$), for shot) and so on, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could prepare both their own pronunciation of Italian and the foreign Italian accent of their language, as well. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Italian pronunciation (of English) 3.4.2. (&denøR'twin dende'san:$2 &weRdis'pju:ti˙g$2 wic'wOz des'trO˙:geR23| 'wE na'trE:velleR2 &k™ima5lO˙:g$12| 'rEp$ti na'wOr:m 'klOk:$23| &deja'grid:$2 d™tdi'wa nu'fErs[t] sak'si:d™d$2 im'mEikin de'trE:velleR2 'tEi kisklOk5kOf:$12| Sud'bi kon'si:deR™d$2 s'trO˙geR 'dEndi 'a:deR23|| 'dEn:2 denøR'twin:d$ 'blu2 ™'zar dezi'kud:$23| 'bat$ de'mO:Ri 5blu12| de'mO:r2 'klOz:li2 'did de'trE:velleR2 'fOl dis'klOk:2 ka'raundim$23| &™nd™t5las:t$12| &denøR'twin:d$2| ge'vap$ djat'tEmp$t$23| 'dEn de'san:2 So'na;ut$2 'wOr:m$li23| &™ndim'mi:djat$li2 de'trE:velleR2 tu'kOf fis'klOk:$23| end$'sO2 denøR'twin:d$2 &wøzo'blaiG$d$ &tukoM'fEs:2 'dEtde 'san$ wozdes'trO˙ge &Røvde'tu23| ¿'di;dju 'laik$21 ¿des'tO:Ri2| ¿&duju'wOn tu'i;Ri ta'gEn:$21|||)

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Italian text 3.4.3. Si bisticciavano un giorno il vento di tramontana e il sole, l'uno pretendendo d'esser più forte dell'altro, quando videro un viaggiatore, >e veniva innanzi, avvolto nel mantello. I due litiganti decisero allora >e sarebbe stato più forte º fosse riußto a levare il mantello al viaggiatore. Il vento di tramontana cominciò a so‚are con violenza; ma, più so‚ava, più il viaggiatore si stringeva nel mantello; tanto >e alla ﬁne il povero vento dovette desistere dal suo proposito. Il sole allora si mostrò nel cielo, e poco dopo il viaggiatore, >e sentiva caldo, si tolse il mantello. E la tramontana fu costretta così a ricono&ere >e il sole era più forte di lei. T'è piaciuta la storiella? La vo˙amo ripetere? Modern neutral pronunciation 3.4.4. (si&bistic'ca:va&no2 ìu~'Gor:no2œ| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2| eil'so:le23 ì'lu:nø2 &pReten'dEndo &d™sseRpjuf'fOr:te2 del'lal:tRo23œ &kwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'to:Re23 &kevve'ni;va in'nan:qi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tEl:lo23|| i&dueliti5gan:ti12 de'ci:zeRø2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &kessa&R™bbes'ta;to pjuf5fOr:te12| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:tø2 alle'va;Re ilman'tEl:lo2 alvi&aGGa'to:Re23|| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2 &komi~'cO assof'fja:Re23 ì&koMvio'lEn:qa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja:va12| &pjuilvi&aGGa'to:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tEl:lo23\ 'tan:to2 ìke&alla5fi:n™12œ il'pO;veRo 'vEn:to2 do'vette de'zis:teR™23 ìdal&suopRo'pO:zito23œ|| il'so:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trOn ne¬'cE:lo23| ep&pøko'do:po2 ilvi&aGGa5to:Re12 ì&kessen'ti;va 'kal:do2œ ˚si'tOl:se23 ˚ilman'tEl:lo23| &ela&tRamon5ta:na12 &fukkos'tret:ta2 ìko'zi2œ| aR&Riko5noS:SeRe12| keil'so:le2\ &™Rapjuf'fOr:te23 ìdi'lE;i23œ|| ¿&t™ppja'cu:ta21 ¿&lasto'rjEl:la2| ¿&lavoL'La;mo Ri'pE:teRe21|||) Traditional neutral pronunciation 3.4.5. (si&bistic'ca:va&no2 ìu~'Gor:no2œ| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2| eil'so:le23 ì'lu:nø2 &pReten'dEndo &d™sseRpjuf'fOr:te2 del'lal:tRo23œ &kwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'to:Re23 &kevve'ni;va in'nan:qi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tEl:lo23|| i&dueliti5gan:ti12 de'ci:zeRø2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &kessa&R™bbes'ta;to pjuf5fOr:te12| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:tø2 alle'va;Re ilman'tEl:lo2 alvi&aGGa'to:Re23|| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2 &komi~'cO assof'fja:Re23 ì&koMvio'lEn:qa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja:va12| &pjuilvi&aGGa'to:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tEl:lo23\ 'tan:to2 ìke&alla5fi:n™12œ il'pO;veRo 'vEn:to2 do'vEtte de'sis:teR™23 ìdal&suopRo'pO:zito23œ|| il'so:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trOn ne¬'cE:lo23| ep&pøko'do:po2 ilvi&aGGa5to:Re12 ì&kessen'ti;va 'kal:do2œ ˚si'tOl:se23 ˚ilman'tEl:lo23| &ella&tRamon5ta:na12 &fukkos'tret:ta2 ìko'si2œ| aR&Riko5noS:SeRe12| keil'so:le2\ &™Rapjuf'fOr:te23 ìdi'lE;i23œ|| ¿&t™ppja'cu:ta21 ¿&lasto'rjEl:la2| ¿&lavoL'La;mo Ri'pE:teRe21|||)

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Northern mediatic pronunciation (Milanese) 3.4.6. (ßi&bißtit'tSa:vano2 ìu«d'Zo;Rno2œ| ilève«to di&tRamo«'ta:na2| eilèßo:le3 3 ì'lu:no2 &pRete«ède«do &dj™ßßeRpju'fO;Rte2 delèla;ltRo3 3œ &kwa«doèvi;deRo u«&vjaddZaèto:Re3 3 &keveèni;va in'na;«tsi2 avèvO;lto &n™lma«ètE;llo3 3|| i&duelitièga;«ti32 det'Si:ﬁeRo2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &keßa&R™bbeß'ta;to pjuèfO;Rte32| ki&foßßeRiu'Si:to2 ale'va;Re ilma«'tE;llo2 al&vjadZaèto:Re3 3|| ilève«to di&tRamo«'ta:na2 &komi«'tSO aßofèfja:Re3 3 ì&ko«vjoèle;«tsa3 3œ| ma'pju ßofèfja:va32| &pjuilvjaddZa'to:Re2 &ßißtRi«èdZe;va &n™lma«ètE;llo3 3\ 'ta;«to2 ìke&allaèfi:ne32œ ilèpO;veRo 've;«to2 doèvEtte deèﬁi;ßteRe3 3 ìdal&ßuopRoèpO:ﬁito3 3œ|| il'ßo:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &ßimoß'tRO n™¬ètSe:lo3 3| e&pøko'dO:po2 il&vjaddZaèto:Re32 ì&keße«èti;va 'ka;ldo2œ ˚ßiètO;lße3 3 ˚ilma«ètE;llo3 3| &ela&tRamo«èta:na32 &fukoß'tRE;tta2 ìko'ﬁi;2œ| a&Rikoèno:SeRe32| keil'ßo:le2\ &eRapjuèfO;Rte3 3 ìdièlE;i3 3œ|| ¿&tj™pjaètSu:ta21 ¿&laßto'RjE;lla2| ¿&lavo¬èja;mo Rièpe:teRe21|||) Central mediatic pronunciation (Roman) 3.4.7. (sib&bistic'ca:vano2 ìu~'Go;rno2œ| il'vEnto di&∂Ramon'ta:na2| eil'qo:le23 ì'lu:no2 &ÊRe∂en'dEndo &d™sseRpãuf'fO;rte2 de'la;ltRo2œ &âwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'∂o:Re23 &âevve'ni;va in'na;nqi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tE;llo23|| i&dueli∂i5ga;nti2 2 de'Si:seRo2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &âessa&Rebbes'ta;∂op pãuf5fO;rte2 2| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:∂o2 alle'va;Re ilman'tE;llo2 alvi&aGGa'∂o:Re23|| il'vEnto di&∂Ramon'ta:na2 &âomi~'cO assof'fãa:Re23 ì&âoMvio'lE;nqa23œ| map'pãus sof5fãa:va2 2| &pãuilvi&aGGa'∂o:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tE;llo23\ 'ta;nto2 ìâe&ala5fi:ne2 2œ il'pO;veRo 'vE;nto2 do'vette de'si;steRe23 ìdal&quoÊRo'ÊO:si∂o23œ|| il'qo:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trO ne¬'cE:lo23| ep&pøâo'dO:Êo2 ilvi&aGGa5∂o:Re2 2 ì&âessen'ti;va 'âa;ldo2œ ˚si'tO;lqe23 ˚ilman'tE;llo23| &ela&∂Ramon5ta:na2 2 &fukkos'tre;tta2 ìâo'si;2œ| a&Riâo5noS:SeRe2 2| âeil'qo:le2\ &™Rappãuf'fO;rte23 ìdi'lE;i23œ|| ¿&t™ppãa'Su:∂a21 ¿&lasto'rãE;lla2| ¿&lavoj'ja;mo Ri'ÊE:∂eRe21|||) A‡ected pronunciation (Ô § 3.4.0) 3.4.8. §(ˇ)@ (si&bisti&'&a;aÑa&co2 ìu~'1oo¸coo2œ| il'vEnto di&t◊amon'ta;acaa2| eil'so;oVe23 ì'lu;ucø2 &p◊eten'dEEndo &d™sse◊pjuf'fOO¸te2 del'laaVt¸o23œ &kwando'vi;ide&◊o uMvi&a11a'to;o¸e23 &kevve'ni;iva in'naacqi2 av'vOOlto &nelman'tEEVVo23|| i&dueliti5gaacti12 de'&i;iëe¸ø2 ìal'lo;o¸a2œ &kessa&◊™bbes'taato pjuf5fOO¸tee12| kif&fosse◊iu«'«i;itø2 alle'va;a◊e ilman'tEEVVo2 alvi&a11a'to;o¸e23|| §(ˇ)@ il'vEEnto di&t◊amon'ta;aca2 &komi~'&OO assof'fja;a¸e23 ì&koMvio'lEEcqa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja;aÑaa12| &pjuilvi&a11a'to;o¸e2 &sist◊i~'1e;eva &nelman'tEEVVo23\ 'taacto2 ìke&alla5fi;ic™12œ il'pOOve◊o 'vEEcto2 do'veette de'ziiste¸™23 ìdal&suop◊o'pO;Oëito23œ|| il'so;oVe2

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ìal'lo;o¸a2œ &simos't◊OOn ne¬'&E;EVo23| ep&pøko'do;opo2 ilvi&a11a5to;o¸e12 ì&kessen'ti;iva 'kaaVÃo2œ ˚si'tOOVse23 ˚ilman'tEEVVo23| &ela&t◊amon5ta;aca12 &fukkos't◊eetta2 ìko'zii2œ| a◊&◊iko5noo««e¸ee12| keil'so;oVe2\ &™◊apjuf'fOO¸te23 ìdi'lEEi23œ|| §(ˇ)@ ¿&t™ppja'&u;uta21 ¿&lasto'◊jEEVVaa2| ¿&lavoL'La;amo ◊i'pE;Ete¸ee21|||) British pronunciation (of Italian) 3.4.9. (s¤&bIisT¤5chA;vÈ&n‘¨2 ì¯u~'Gø;[>]n‘¨2œ| ¤ı5v™nT‘¨ D¤&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå2| ™¤ı's‘¨l™I3 3 ì5l¯un‘¨2 &p>™IT™n'D™nD‘¨ &D™sÈ'phj¯;u 'fø;[>]T™I2 D™'lA;ı˛>‘¨23œ &kwA;nD‘¨5vIiDÈ&>‘¨ ¯uMvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I23 &k™IvÈ5nIivÈ ¤'nA;ntsi2 È5vØıT‘¨ &n™ımån'Th™l‘¨23| Ii&D¯u™Il¤T¤'gA;nTi32 DÈ'chIizÈ>‘¨2 ìÈ'lø;>å2œ &k™IsÈ&>™b™I5sTA;T‘¨ &pj¯u'fø;[>]T™I32| khIi&fØs™I>i¯u'SIiT‘¨2 &ål¤5vA;>™I &¤ımån'Th™l‘¨2 &√ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I3 3|| ¤ı5v™nT‘¨ D¤&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå2 &kØm¤~5ch‘;¨ åsÈ'fjA;>™I3 3 ì&kØMvi‘¨'l™ntså3 3œ| mÈ5phj¯u sÈ'fjA;vå32| 'phj¯;u ¤ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I2 &sIis˛>¤~5G™IvÈ &n™ımån'Th™l‘¨23\ 'ThA;nT‘¨2 ìk™I&ålÈ'fIin™I32œ ¤ı5phØvÈ>‘¨ 'v™nT‘¨2 DÈ5v™T™I D¤'z¤sTÈ&>™I23 ìD√ı&s¯u‘¨p>È'phØz¤&T‘¨3 3œ|| ¤ı's‘¨l™I2 ìÈ'lø;>å2œ &sIimØ5s˛>‘;¨ n™ı'ch™l‘¨3 3| ™I&p‘¨k‘¨'D‘¨p‘¨2 &¤ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I32 ì&kh™IsÈn5ThIivÈ 'khA;ıD‘¨2œ ˚s¤'ThØıs™I3 3 ˚&¤ımån'Th™l‘¨3 3| &™IlÈ&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå32 &f¯ukØ's˛>™Tå2 ìk‘¨'zI;i2œ| å&>Iikû'n‘¨SÈ&>™I32 kh™¤ı's‘¨l™I2\ &™>È'phj¯;u 'fø;[>]T™I3 3 ìD¤'l™;I3 3œ|| ¿&Th™pjÈ'ch¯uTå21 ¿&låsTÈ>i'™lå2| ¿&låvÈli5A;m‘¨ >¤'ph™TÈ&>™I21|||) American pronunciation (of Italian) 3.4.10. (s¤&bIisTÈ'chA;vÈ&nø¨2 ìUu~'Gø;
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Italian dictionaries “ grammars and their (non) care for pronunciation 3.5.0. It is important to see how Italian dictionaries indicate pronunciation and whether they are accurate and provide variants or not. In addition, a sure clue to ascertain whether they care for pronunciation or assign it to hasty incompetents (who follow di‡erent criteria — do not take the trouble to verify what they are doing) consists in looking up the entry gliommero /'LOmmero/ (a kind of poem in endecasyllabics originally written in the Neapolitan dialect). ˛ere are three kinds of dictionaries: those which do not include the word or do not take care to distinguish between /L/ and /gli/, for the trigraph gli, as in glioma /gli'Oma/; then come those which, because of false philological and etymological deductions, çinventÇ */gli'Ommero/, or copy it from some mistaken previous sources; lastly, there are the dictionaries whose pronunciation characteristics are assigned to true experts, who –obviously– give /'LOmmero/. In the dialect of Naples, a çball (of wool)/skein (of cotton)Ç is a gliòmmero /'LOmmÈrÈ/, although it comes from Latin glomerum, with /gl/, as –on the other hand– çglandÇ is gliànnola /'LannÈla/, from Latin glandulam (in Italian they are gomitolo and ghiandola, respectively, /go'mitolo, 'gjanda/, with /òg/). Even most grammars are not to be trusted excessively: it is su‚cient to thumb through them with critical eyes. Besides, our judgment should not in any way be inﬂuenced by the fact that these texts are very widely used and well-known, even abroad. However, when they deal with phonology and phonetics only because they feel duty bound to do so, unfortunately we cannot be too optimistic. In fact, some of them tend to çinventÇ nonexistent possibilities, which are frankly absurd, as happens with some supposed di‡erences for such ﬁrst-person plural forms as alleviamo or spariamo. In actual fact, their pronunciation is identical, although they belong to di‡erent verbs: allevare çto breedÇ or alleviare çto alleviateÇ, and sparare çto shootÇ or sparire çto disappearÇ, ¤ always /alle'vjamo, spa'rjamo/ (whereas certain authors try to argue that the second words in each pair are pronounced as */allevi'amo, spari'amo/). It would be equally absurd to follow those who hypothesize the existence of di‡erent pronunciations for the numbers sei, sette, otto çsix, seven, eightÇ, if compared to (tu) sei çyou areÇ, (le) sette (religiose) çthe religious sectsÇ, and Otto (a male name)…

4. French 4.0. As well as the çmodern neutralÇ accent, we will be presenting the çinternationalÇ accent, as an alternative teaching proposal. Lastly, we will also consider the çmediaticÇ accent (¤ from television), based on current Parisian, and two types of accents which are very di‡erent from these, in so far as they are structurally very di‡erent: southern pronunciation, represented by Marseilles, and Canadian, from Québec. Vowels 4.1.1.1. French vowels, even those represented in spelling by çdiphthongsÇ, are phonically, all short (or long, in certain contexts) monophthongs. Right from the start one should avoid, the mistake many make (even authors of grammar books), of confusing the written word with the phonic structure of a language: two very di‡erent aspects. Contrary to opinion, which is as widespread as it is wrong, sounds are the real essence of a language, not the trivial graphic signs used to ﬁx it in writing. Before looking at their qualities, we will immediately demonstrate the mechanisms for their duration: in an intoneme, vowels followed by ﬁnal /v, z, Z÷ K, vK/ are lengthened, as are nasalized V followed by at least one phonic C (¤ pronounced, not only written); lastly, even /°, o/ are lengthened when followed by one or more phonic C. In a preintoneme, in all of these cases, there is a simple half-lengthening. Speciﬁc examples will not be given now, but will certainly be dealt with later: therefore one should analyze each case, in the light of this knowledge. In çtraditionalÇ pronunciation, and in Parisian (and çmediaticÇ) /A/ also comes under this category, but with many exceptions and ﬂuctuations, as well as analogic forms, which makes it impossible to try to establish complete and reliable lists; however, dictionaries still show (obviously without agreeing) words with /A/, as does Fouché (1959); whereas, Lerond (1980) adds them but with the label çvielli ParisÇ. If it is absurd to want to ﬁnd such words for traditional neutral pronunciation, which is decidedly out-dated today, it could be interesting to do so for Parisian/mediatic (with some di‡erences for the suburbs). In the professionally used çmediaticÇ accent, there may rightly be the tendency to reduce the use of /A/, but, not yet total substitution. 4.1.1.2. û 4.1 shows the French vowel articulations, which have to be compared to those of the other languages to show the similarities and, above all, the di‡erences. In our transcriptions, we use twenty-three elements (plus another less impor-

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tant one). ˛e front series presents ﬁve vocoids: (i, I, e, ™, E), for three phonemes: /i, e, E/. Although these three, and even (™), have the same symbols as in other languages, they di‡er slightly: (mi'_i) /mi'di/ midi˚ (e'te) /e'te/ été˚ ('fEt) /'fEt/ fête˚ ('E) /'E/ e®÷ note: (s™'m°Å) /sE'mwa/ c'e® moi˚ (v™Æ'+Û) /vEK'ty/ vertu˚ (_I˜'lP) /diK'lo/ dirlo (with unstressed /E/, and with unstressed /i/ in a checked syllable in /K/). ˛e French /a/ is deﬁnitely fronter than in Spanish, Italian, German, Â: (bÅ'áÅ:\) /ba'gaZ/ bagage˚ ('Åm) /'am/ âme (traditional ('A:m), mediatic/Parisian ('å:m)); furthermore: (påÆ'+i:˜) /paK'tiK/ partir˚ (&påÆ+i'ºÚ) /paKti'KÚ/ partirons˚ (på˜'lÅ) /paK'la/ par là˘ ˛e phoneme /A/ of neutral traditional pronunciation was mentioned, which is no longer up-to-date; for this reason it is not in û 4.1 (however, its tongue position is slightly fronter than that of /Õ/ (ú), in the vocogram of the çinternationalÇ accent, Ô § 4.4.1). ˛e çbackÇ (and rounded; actually, back-central as can easily be seen in û 4.1) series is evidently di‡erent from that in most languages, although the phonemic symbols are the same ((¯, ¨, P, Ö, ∏) for three phonemes /u, o, O/): (t¯'\¯:˜) /tu'ZuK/ toujours˚ (dP'dP) /do'do/ dodo˚ ('k∏m) /'kOm/ comme÷ note: (kÖ'm∏d) /kO'mOd/ commode˚ (\Ö'li) /ZO'li/ joli˚ (k¨Æ's¿e) /kuK'sje/ coursier˚ (p¨˜'v¯) /puK'vu/ pour vo¨ (with unstressed /O/, and with unstressed /u/ in checked syllable in /K/). û 4.1. Vowel elements of modern neutral French. /i/ (i[:], ’I˜˘) /y/ (y[:], ’Y˜˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /ù/ (#°) /E/ (E[:], E[:]/˜˘, ’™), /í/ (ì[:], ’3) /§/ (§í[:], §[:]/˜˘, ’#°), /^/ (^/[:], ’}/) /a/ (Å[:], ’å˜˘)

/u/ (¯[:], ’¨˜˘) /o/ (P[:]), /Ú/ (Ú[:]) /O/ (∏[:], ∏[:]/˜˘, ’Ö) /Õ/ (Œ[:])

Front rounded vowels 4.1.1.3. ˛e çfrontÇ rounded series (actually, front-central, û 4.1) (y, Y, °, #, §), for three phonemes /y, °, §/, besides çschwaÇ or, rather, çunstable eÇ (badly represented as /È/, and wrongly deﬁned as çmute eÇ), which is realized as (#), like (an unstressed) /’§/ and which we represent with /ù/ (#): (fy'+y:˜) /fy'tyK/ futur˚ (°'º°) /°'K°/ hSrSx˚ ('§:˜) /'§K/ hSre˚ ('s§l) /'s§l/ sSl÷ note: (#Æ'te) /*§K'te/ hSrté˚ (s#l'mŒ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (&pYÆpy'ºì) /pyKpy'Kí/ purpurin˚ (sYÆ'púÅs) /syK'plas/ sur place˚ (l#'püi) /lù'pKi/ le prix˚ (m#'s¿°) /mù'sj°/ monsiSr˘ Indeed, as far as the çunstable eÇ is concerned, one could adopt di‡erent phonemic strategies and transcriptions. For example, instead of the still prevalent phonemic /È/, one could simply resort to /§/, however, in theory, the possibility of distinguishing between déjSner (&de\#'ne) and déjeter (&de\#'te, d™/'te), or jSdi (\°'_i) and je d¤ (\#'_i, \'_i), would nearly be lost, as one would have /deZ§'ne/, and /deZ§'te/ or /deZ'te/ for déjeter˚ but /Z°'di/, and /Z§'di/ or /Z'di/ for je d¤.

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˛e real di‡erence lies in the fact that normally, forms with çunstable eÇ are expressed with the çzeroÇ phone and possible voicing assimilations, as seen in the second transcriptions. ˛e solution of the çzeroÇ phone might even leave natives in doubt (for rarer words), who are frequently undecided, about the proper spelling too, between /§, °/ e˚ S˚ even if /°/ S cannot be dropped and should not give rise to confusion. For the moment, having avoided the unrealistic çsolutionsÇ, ™ /È/, and /ê, +/ too, which are less improbable diaphonemically, to play safe we will adopt /ù/ (#), before transforming it deﬁnitively into /§/, with the possibility of indicating its presence or absence with /[§]/ – or /ù/, in opposition to an unstressed çstable eÇ, represented by /’§/. ‹en /ù/ is stressed, as in d¤-le˚ le çeÇ, it actually becomes the phoneme /°/ (reinforcing further what has just been said): (_i'l°) /di'l°/, (l#'°) /lù'°/ (it is the writing that is capricious, not the phonic structure). In stressed checked syllables in /K/, the articulation of /E, §, O/ can be more or less back and lowered (((E/, §/, ∏/)), but they are transcribed in the same way): ('mE:˜) /'mEK/ mère˚ ('s§:˜) /'s§K/ sœur˚ ('f∏:˜) /'fOK/ fort˘ 4.1.1.4. Modern neutral pronunciation keeps the opposition /'eò/ >-é˚ -ée˚ -er˚ -ez≥ V /'Eò/ >-ès˚ -et˚ -Pe˚ -a¤˚ -P(en)t≥, which, however, is rather tiring, structurally, given that the others are neutralized: actually, there is no (longer) di‡erence between p› and pot˚ they are both ('pP) /'po/, nor between pS and pSx\ ('p°) /'p°/, and now, not even between bat and bø\ ('bÅ) /'ba/. We have, for example, ('kúe) /'kle/ clé V ('kúE) /'klE/ clPe˚ ('püe) /'pKe/ pré V ('püE) /'pKE/ près˚ ('fe) /'fe/ fée V ('fE) /'fE/ fPt˚ (vÅ'le) /va'le/ vallée V (vÅ'lE) /va'lE/ vallet˚ (på˜'le) /paK'le/ parler V (på˜'lE) /paK'lE/ parla¤˚ (sÅ've) /sa've/ savez V (sÅ'vE) /sa'vE/ savPt˘ It is prevalently through school and writing that such oppositions persist, as it is above all useful to distinguish certain verb forms: (&\#på˜'le, /p-) /ZùpaK'le, Sp-/ je parlP (past: çI spokeÇ) V (&\#på˜'lE, /p-) /ZùpaK'lE, Sp-/ je parla¤ (imperfect: çI spokeÇ) and (\#&på˜l#'ºe, /&p-) /ZùpaKlù'Ke, Sp-/ je parlerP (future: çI will speakÇ) V (\#&på˜l#'ºE, /&p-) /ZùpaKlù'KE, Sp-/ je parlera¤ (conditional: çI would speakÇ). As far as -ai is concerned, we have: ('\e) /'Ze/ j'P (but ('\E) /'ZE/ j'Pe]÷ ('áe, 'áE) /'ge, 'gE/ gP˚ ('©e, '©E) /'ke, 'kE/ quP÷ ('bE÷ -e) /'bE÷ -e/ bP˚ ('mE÷ -e) /'mE÷ -e/ mP˚ ('vºE÷ -e) /'vKE÷ -e/ vrP÷ furthermore, we ﬁnd ('mE) /'mE/ ma¤ (with (m™, me) /mE, me/ in a preintoneme), as also for ('E) /'E/ tu π [il e®]˚ ('fE) /'fE/ je fa¤ [il fPt]˚ ('sE) /'sE/ je/tu sa¤ [il sPt]˚ ('vE) /'vE/ je va¤˚ with (™, e÷ f™, fe÷ s™, se÷ v™, ve) /-E, -e/ in a preintoneme: (&il™'lÅ, -e-) /ilE'la, -e/ il e® là˚ (m™'sÅ2 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’) {(me-)} /mE'sa, ‘a'lOK,’/ {/me-/} ma¤ ça, alors! Nasalized vowels 4.1.1.5. Obviously, the four çnasalÇ vowels remain (which are more precisely deﬁned as nasalized]˚ with their six taxophones, ('ì, ’3) /í/, ('^, ’}) /^/, (Œ) /Õ/, (Ú) /Ú/: (&3s™Æ'tì) /ísEK'tí/ incertPn˚ (}'bº^) /^'bK^/ un brun˚ (pŒ'dŒ) /pÕ'dÕ/ pendant˚ (mÚ'nÚ) /mÚ'nÚ/ mon nom÷ in stressed and checked syllables, we have:

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('pì:dX) /'pídK/ pRndre˚ ('^:ba) /'^bl/ humble˚ ('lŒ:p) /'lÕp/ lampe˚ ('nÚ:bX) /'nÚbK/ nombre˘ A çfunnyÇ example: (}'bÚ 'vì 'blŒ) /^'bÚ 'ví 'blÕ/ un bon vin blanc˘ ˛ese phonemes can even be followed by N\ (Œ'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui˚ (nÚ'nEtX) /nÚ'nEtK/ non-être˚ (Œm'ne) /Õm'ne/ emmener. It must be pointed out that, in current dictionaries and manuals, only four symbols are used (the same, for both phonemic or phonetic use): ç/í, ^, ˙, Ó/Ç; of these, for modern neutral pronunciation, only /^/ can be used; the others reﬂect a pronunciation which is over a century old (exactly when the International Phonetic Association was founded), and lasted until the 1950's, as the neutral pronunciation. As the neutral pronunciation is di‡erent today, it can still be found in various regional pronunciations, even if, as we will see, ç/í, ^, ˙, Ú/Ç can be useful as representatives of an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is less tied to Paris and to the neutral pronunciation of Parisian origin (Ô 4.2). Certain texts (and some dictionaries), for the ﬁrst three, even use ç/e, J, Å/Ç. In the transcriptions in the French Dictionary (by R. Boch: Zanichelli, 1995’), the present writer put /í, ^, Õ, Ú/, as here. In books which only use one kind of transcription (often a hybrid of phonetic and phonemic), it is probably more suitable to give ç/π, ^, Õ, Ú/Ç. Modern neutral pronunciation ﬁrmly keeps these four nasalized vowel phonemes, as do most regional pronunciations (even if with di‡erent, more traditional timbres). Instead, for Paris (for the center and the west) /^/ merges with /í/, so, there, /'bKí/ corresponds to brin and even to brun (neutral ('bºì, 'bº^), respectively). Consequently, even the çmediaticÇ accent loses a phoneme, merging both these forms and other similar ones. ˛is will all be dealt with later (§ 4.4.2.1-2 “ § 4.5.2.3). Other peculiarities of French vowels 4.1.2.1. As far as unstressed V are concerned, it would be best to give some indications to follow, in order to obtain the most ﬁtting results. Transcriptions in dictionaries and in manuals do not actually tally completely, as there are various factors to be considered. In order to simplify the description, let us say that –independently of writing and dictionary transcriptions– there are the following çvowel adjustmentsÇ: for /’E/ (¤ the archiphoneme of /e, E/), we have (e) /e/, in an unchecked pretonic syllable, if it is followed by a çclose(r)Ç V (¤ /i, y, u÷ e, °, o÷ Ú/}: (e'te) /e'te/ été˚ (me'zÚ) /me'zÚ/ ma¤on˚ (le'z,°) /le'zj°/ lπ ySx˚ (&ºepe'te) /Kepe'te/ répéter˘ On the other hand, we have (™) /E/, in an unchecked pretonic syllable, when it is followed by an çopen(er)Ç V (¤ /E, §, O÷ a÷ í, ^, Õ/) and in checked syllables (independently of the context) too: (™'tE) /E'tE/ éta¤˚ (™'tŒ) /E'tÕ/ étant˚ (l™'z∏m) /lE'zOm/ lπ hommπ˚ (&ºep™'tE) /KepE'tE/ répéta¤÷ and (&ev™n'mŒ) /evEn'mÕ/ événement˚ (m™t'sì) /mEt'sí/ médecin˚ (p™ú'te) /pEl'te/ pelleter˚ (p™˜'_y) /pEK'dy/ perdu˚ (™d'mi) /Ed'mi/ et demi˚ (t™Æ'p∏:˜) /tEK'pOK/ tπ reports˚ (s™ú'sÚ) /sEú'sÚ/ sπ leçons˚ (&l™sp™©'tÅka) /lEspEk'takl/ lπ spectaclπ˚ (d™p'n°) /dEp'n°/ dπ pne¨˘ For (initial) ex-˚ esC- there is

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a strong tendency to have /e/: (™á'zŒ:pa, e-) /Eg'zÕpl, e-/ exemple˚ (&™s©Å'¬,e, &e-) /Eska'lje, e-/ πcaliers˘ ˛e examples of checked syllables, (intentionally) show, in these two cases, that the timbre of the V that follows is of no importance (as it is, here, quite the opposite). One must always recall that spelling (which is not in any way a true transcription of phonic structure) can play dirty tricks… For -err-˚ we have /’EK/, but we can also ﬁnd the adjustment: (t™'ºiba, te-) /tE'Kibl, te-/ terrible˚ (s™'ºe, se-) /sE'Ke, se-/ serrer˚ but (&p™˜Ö'©E) /pEKO'kE/ perroquet÷ furthermore, (&Ppü#&m,™ ˜™'tÅ:\) /opKù'mjE KE'taZ/ au premier étage˚ (&}l™'\™ ˜Œ'~¥i) /^lE'ZE KÕ'n¥i/ un léger ennui (despite (pü#'m,e, le'\e) /pKù'mje, le'Ze/ premier˚ léger]˘ ˛ere are possible ﬂuctuations for -er + V- and for the spelling é (towards /e/): (&}le'\e ˜Œ'~¥i, &Ppü#&m,e ˜e'tÅ:\)÷ and for P˚ Z (towards /E/): (púe'zi:˜, pú™-) /ple'ziK/ pla¤ir˘ 4.1.2.2. On the other hand, the isolated forms often inﬂuence the contextualized ones, even in checked syllables, as in (&\evizi't™l nÅ'vi:˜, -tel) /Zevizi'tEl na'viK, -tel/ j'P v¤ité le navire˚ also for -ez: (&v¯lÅ'v™Æ kÖ'ny) /vula'vEK kO'ny, -eK/ vo¨ l'avez reconnu, and even for the proclitic -es monosyllables: (t™Æ'p∏:˜, teÆ-) /tEK'pOK, teK-/ tπ reports˚ (s™ú'sÚ, seú-) /sEl'sÚ, sel-/ sπ leçons˚ (&l™sp™©'tÅka, les-) /lEspEk'takl, les-/ lπ spectaclπ˚ (d™p'n°, dep-) /dEp'n°, dep-/ dπ pne¨÷ also (™d'mi, ed-) /Ed'mi, ed-/ et demi˘ Lastly, it is evident that the e‡ects of vowel adjustment, in unchecked syllables, can go back further than the pretonic syllable, as long as syllables with di‡erent V timbres do not intervene: (&ºepe'te) /Kepe'te/ répété˚ (&º™p™'tÅ) /KEpE'ta/ répéta÷ (&beáe',e) /bege'je/ bégZer˚ (&b™á™'mŒ) /bEgE'mÕ/ bégPement˘ For /’◊/ too, (not to be confused with (`), çzeroÇ), in unchecked syllables (phonically of course, and always independently of transcriptions easily found), we have (°) /°/ + a çclose(er)Ç V and (#) /§/ + an çopen(er)Ç V\ (pú#'v°Å:˜) /pl§'vwaK/ plSvoir˚ (pú°'ºe) /pl°'Ke/ plSrer; whereas for /’O/ in unchecked syllables, we generally have (Ö) /O/, unless it is immediately followed by /z/, or by a syllable with /o/, or it does not derive from /o/ and in -otion: (&mÖnÖ't∏n) /mOnO'tOn/ monotone˚ (&sÅlÖ'pEt) /salO'pEt/ salopette˚ (bÖ'se) /bO'se/ bosser˚ but (\P'zEf) /Zo'zEf/ Josè#e˚ (bP'bP) /bo'bo/ bobo˚ (ºP'ze) /Ko'ze/ rosée˚ (&gºPs¿™Æ'te) /gKosjEK'te/ grossièreté˚ (&emP's¿Ú) /emo'sjÚ/ émotion˘. Even for the (unstressed) V spelt ô, au, the more frequent pronunciation is /O/: (&Öpi'tÅl) /Opi'tal/ hôpital˚ (Ö'º∏:˜) /O'KOK/ aurore˚ (mÖ'ºis) /mO'Kis/ Maurice˚ (Ö˜'v°Å:˜) /OK'vwaK/ au revoir˘ In aujourd'hui˚ the preposition combined with the deﬁnite article [au˚ èà+le¶] holds; instead, it is the second syllable that gives more, due to /’uK˘/, as well: (&P\¨˜'_¥i, -\Ö˜-) /oZuK'd¥i, -OK-/; but we can hear (&Ö\Ö˜-, &¯\¨˜-) ç/OZOK-, uZuK-/Ç too. For b›coup [b› + coup]˚ obviously, we have (bP'k¯) /bo'ku/, but the tendency to have /’O/, is so strong that, as it would be quite absurd to have */bO'ku/, we very often end up with having, (b¯'k¯) ç/bu'ku/Ç. Even surtout and au fur et à mesure present us with the frequent colloquial pronunciation (s¨˜'tU, P&f#˜Åm'zy:˜), for (sY˜'tU, P&fy˜eÅm'zy:˜) /syK'tu, ofyKeam[ù]'zyK/. Likewise, for /°, §/, the base form is quite important: (d°'z,Em) /d°'zjEm/ dS-

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xième˚ (b#'ºe) /b§'Ke/ bSrrer˘ In both cases, in checked syllables, we ﬁnd (#) /§/, (Ö) /O/: (s#l'mŒ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (pÖs'te) /pOs'te/ po®er˘ Above, we have already dealt with /’^, ’Õ/ and /’iK˘, ’yK˘, ’uK˘/ (§ 4.1.1: see given examples). In all other cases, in modern neutral pronunciation, in unstressed syllables, we have, (i, y, ¯÷ Å÷ Œ, Ú) /i, y, u÷ a÷ Õ, Ú/. 4.1.2.3. Another interesting peculiarity of modern neutral French pronunciation is the tendency to devoice /i, y, u/, in certain contexts; this tendency is even more consistent for the C, as will presently be shown. ˛erefore, between voiceless C, or between them and a subsequent pause, we quite frequently ﬁnd (i, Û, U): (&püÖfi'te) /pKOfi'te/ proﬁter˚ (påÆ&+i©y'¬,e) /paKtiky'lje/ particuliers˚ (m™Æ'si) /mEK'si/ merci˚ (tŒ'pi) /tÕ'pi/ tant p¤˚ (pÛ't#Å) /py'twa/ puto¤˚ (&ÅkUs'+i©) /akus'tik/ acou®ique˚ (påÆ'tU) /paK'tu/ partout˚ as well as the colorful ('°i, '°î, '°îâ) /'wi/ (ç/'wih/Ç) oui!˚ ('°îâ2 '\Em 5b,ì1 1 füŒ's#Å; %zÅ˜'_îâ2) /'wi, 'ZEm 'bjí÷ fKÕ'swa zaK'di,/ oui, j'Pme bien Franço¤e Hardy˘ Before a pause, devoicing can occur even after a voiced C, but only partially, (î, ÿ, û): (må˜'_î) /maK'di/ mardi˚ (&ŒtŒ'_ÿ) /ÕtÕ'dy/ entendu˚ (d#'bû) /dù'bu/ debout˘ Even between a voiceless and a voiced C, /i, y, u/ frequently become devoiced: (&l#påÆ'+î d[#]) /lùpaK'ti d[ù]/ le Parti de…˚ (Å©&+îvi'te) /aktivi'te/ activité˚ (&kÚfÿ'z,Ú) /kÚfy'zjÚ/ conf¨ion˚ (&dekû'pÅ:\) /deku'paZ/ découpage˘ Albeit more rarely, even between a voiceless C and a pause, /e, °, o/ can become devoiced: (&ºÅkÚ'tE) /KakÚ'te/ raconté˚ (le'd‚) /le'd°/ lπ dSx˚ (pÅú't≥) /pal'to/ paletot˘ Consonants

n (n) ö m F pb t d (T D) ƒ f v _ s z ß ó (l) l ‹

(n)

(~) N (+ _) (© á) (,)

uvular

velar

provelar rounded

postpalatal rounded

palatal

prepalatal

alveo-velar

alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 4.2. Table of French consonants.

postalveo-prevelar protuded

4.2.0. ˛e table of û 4.2 shows the French consonant articulations, which are necessary for the right pronunciation of that language. û 1.9-15, instead, give the orograms, grouped for manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional, or regional variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.

{˙} kg (X º)

/ \ (â) /j/ ¥ (¬)

°

(˜) /K/

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Nasals 4.2.1. In French there are three traditional phonemes: /m, n, N/. It is worth keeping the last phoneme, even though it has lost most of its phonemicity, merging with /nj/ (as did /L/, which does not exist in French anymore, having merged with /j/): (mÅ'mŒ) /ma'mÕ/ maman˚ (nÅ'nŒ) /na'nÕ/ nanan˚ (pÅ'~,e) /pa'nje/ panier˚ (Å'NP, Å'~,P) /a'No/ agn›˚ (&Œs™N'mŒ÷ -~,#-) /ÕsEN'mÕ/ ensRgnement˚ (mÚ'tÅN÷ -Å~,) /mÚ'taN/ montagne˘ ˛e transformation into /nj/ is more frequent (and for many, by now, quite normal) in front of a V˘ If /N/ is losing ground, there is a xenophoneme (for English -ing]˚ which is taking root (and, in theory –possibly, given its limited use– the balance of the phonological system could be restored, with the substitution between these two N]˚ however, at the moment, the pronunciation of the English -ing, as in camping, varies substantially; the most recommendable pronunciations are velar, (-i˙) (in an English-like way), or prevelar, (-i”) (by partial assimilation): (kŒ'pi˙, -”); or even palatal, (-iN) (above all for the elderly); we also ﬁnd (-i˙g, -i”Ò, -iNá) (a more autochtonous version). For (tautosyllabic) /nj, n¥/, we have (~,, ~¥): (pÅ'~,e) /pa'nje/ panier˚ (y'~,∏l) /y'njOl/ une yole˚ (Œ'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui. (Popularly, we ﬁnd that /nj/ and /N/ tend to merge into (N): (mÅ'~,E:˜) /ma'njEK/ manière becomes (må'NE:‰, mÅ-), but should not be copied.) Normally, /n/ does not assimilate a heterosyllabic C following it (as happens, instead, in most other languages), so we have (including ((yn$-)), nearly (&yn#-), with quite an evident break): (yn'p∏m) /yn'pOm/ une pomme˚ (yn'bŒ:©) /yn'bÕk/ une banque˚ (yn'mE:˜) /yn'mEK/ une mère˚ (&ynp™Æ's∏n pÅ's¿Œ:t) /ynpEK'sOn pa'sjÕt/ une personne patiente˚ (yn'fi,) /yn'fij/ une ﬁlle˚ (&ynvÅ'li:z) /ynva'liz/ une val¤e˚ (yn'/E:z) /yn'SEz/ une >a¤e˚ (yn'No:l) /yn'Nol/ une gnôle˚ (mÅn'©ì) /man'kí/ mannequin˚ (&yn©Å'ºEs) /ynka'KEs/ une carπse˚ (yn'g¯t) /yn'gut/ une goutte÷ and (&yn+y'lip) /ynty'lip/ une tulipe˚ (yn&_,ÅgÖ'nÅl) /yndjagO'nal/ une diagonale˚ (&ynºe'pÚ:s) /ynKe'pÚs/ une réponse. Only in (what is often considered to be) non-neutral pronunciation, or nearly, is it possible to have coarticulations for /n/ before a dorsal C: (~) (with raised tip of the tongue) + (N, ©, á) and (n) + (k, g÷ º, ˜): (y~'No:l, mÅ8'©ì, &y8©Å'ºEs, yn'g¯t, &ynºe'pÚ:s). Near a voiceless C, as already seen in some examples, the N undergo devoicing, and they reach total voicelessness before a pause: (}p'n°) /^p'n°/ un pnS˚ ('püis)) /'pKism/ pr¤me˘ Stops 4.2.2. ˛ere are three (diphonic) pairs of phonemes: /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, with important pairs of taxophones: prepalatal, /t, d/ (+, _), before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (and, less systematically, before /e, °/ too); a further (less important) one, is alveolar, for /t, d/ (T, D), before /S, Z/ (whereas, before /s, z/ they remain dental); and one palatal, or

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rather, postpalatal, for /k, g/ (©, á) (more appropriate symbols are ((£, 8)), but it is not absolutely necessary to use them), before front V (including /a, ù/), before /j, ¥/ and even at the end of syllables or rhythm groups, before a pause. In the other cases, the çvelarÇ articulation, (k, g) can also be prevelar, ((´, Ò)), but, again, it is not necessary to use special symbols. Let us take a look at some examples: (p¯'pe) /pu'pe/ poupée˚ (be'be) /be'be/ bébé˚ ('t¯t) /'tut/ toute˚ (d¯'d¯n) /du'dun/ doudoune˚ (+y'_i) /ty'di/ tu d¤˚ ('+¿ì) /'tjí/ tiens˚ (kÚ'_¥i:˜) /kÚ'd¥iK/ conduire˚ (e'te÷ e'+e) /e'te/ été˚ ('d°÷ '_°) /'d°/ dSx˚ (©Å¯T'/U) /kaut'Su/ caout>ouc˚ (&ÅD\™©'+if) /adZEk'tif/ adjectif˚ (&s3mÖ'ºits) /símO'Kits/ SPnt-Moritz˚ (pid'zÅ) /pid'za/ pizza˚ (pi©'ni©) /pik'nik/ pique-nique˚ ('k∏©) /'kOk/ coq˚ (áÅ'áÅ) /ga'ga/ gaga˚ ('lŒ:á) /'lÕg/ langue˚ ('gºP) /'gKo/ gros˚ ('gºi) /'gKi/ gr¤˚ ('kúÅ©) /'klak/ clac! Before tautosyllabic C˚ (k, g) remain unchanged ({pro}velar), as can be seen in some of these examples. We ﬁnd complete voicing assimilation to the second element (if diphonic), in cases such as: (&Ån™á'd∏t) /anEk'dOt/ anecdote˚ (&º™T/P'se) /KEdSo'se/ rez-de->a¨sée˚ (m™t'sì) /mEd'sí/ médecin˚ (&ÅpsÖ'ly) /absO'ly/ absolu˚ (&s™d'dÅm) /sEt'dam/ cette dame˚ ('k¯b d#/Œ'pÅN) /'kup dùSÕ'paN/ coupe de >ampagne˚ (/Åg'\¯:˜) /Sak'ZuK/ >aque jour˚ (&Åv™á'v¯) /avEk'vu/ avec vo¨. In these cases, a slowing down of the rate of speech can lead to only partial assimilation: (&Ån™ˆ'd∏t, &º™ﬂ/P'se, m™∂'sì, &ÅÊsÖ'ly, &s™∂'dÅm, 'k¯Ê d#/Œ'pÅN, &Åv™ˆ'v¯). ˛is is the reason why, in phonemic transcriptions, we keep etymologic phonemes, whereas for V we indicate the actual timbres, as we use more precise symbols (despite dictionary –even pronunciation-dictionary– transcriptions which do not, however, consider intermediate articulations!). On the other hand, if the second segment is not diphonic (including /j/), the aforementioned voicing assimilation does not occur: (&Åv™©'n¯) /avEk'vu/ avec no¨˚ (&Åv™©'1¥i) /avEk'l¥i/ avec lui˘ Constrictives 4.2.3.1. ˛ere are three (diphonic) pairs, /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z/, as well as two isolated voiced phonemes, /j, K/ (instead of ç/J, º/Ç, the more çlegitimateÇ symbols), which we will see presently. We can observe that, usually, /s, z/ are articulated with the tip of the tongue raised, therefore, if we wanted to highlight this aspect, for discussion and teaching, we could resort to supplementary symbols, ((s, z)); but, the most important characteristic concerns /S, Z/, which, are generally, prevelarized postalveolar protruded, (/, \) (with a deeper timbre, caused by the lowering of the back of the tongue between the two articulatory strictures, postalveolar and prevelar). Examples: ('fE:˜) /'fEK/ fPre˚ ('vif) /'vif/ vif˚ ('sŒ) /'sÕ/ cent˚ ('vÅ:z) /'vaz/ vøe˚ ('/Å) /'Sa/ >at˚ ('pÅ:\) /'paZ/ page˘ Voicing assimilation (to the second element) also concerns diphonic pairs of constrictives: (n¯v'zÚ) /nuf'zÚ/ no¨ fa¤ons˚ ('ºP;s påÆfy'me) /'Koz paKfy'me/ rose parfumée˚ ('vÅ\ 'v,E,) /'vaS 'vjEj/ va>e viRlle˚ (/'sE) /Z'sE/ je sa¤÷ but we have (/f) /Sv/: (/'fÅl) /S'val/ >eval˚ (Å/'fe) /aS've/ a>evé˘ Slowing down, we can even have (n¯Ñ'zÚ,

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'ºP;Ω påÆfy'me, 'vÅ? 'v,E,, ?'sE÷ /'ÑÅl, Å/'Ñe). On the other hand, speaking quickly, we can ﬁnd cases such as: (/™'pÅ) /Z{ùn}sE'pa/ je (ne) sa¤ pø. About /j/, it must be said immediately that, more than a real constrictive, it is a çsemi-constrictiveÇ, (,), indeed, it is placed half-way between the approximant, (j), and the truly (voiced) constrictive, (J) (deﬁnitely rarer in world languages): (',E:˜, i',E:˜) /'jEK, i'[j]EK/ hier˚ (©Å',e) /ka'je/ cahier˚ ('p¿e) /'pje/ pied˚ (,P',P) /jo'jo/ yo-yo˚ (&Åt#'¬,e) /at§'lje/ atelier˚ (fÅ'mi,) /fa'mij/ famille˚ (sÖ'lE,) /sO'lEj/ solRl˚ (f#¿'tÚ) /f§j'tÚ/ fSilleton˘ Before a pause, we often have (¿): (fÅ'mi¿, sÖ'lE¿). French phonotactics, contrary to that of other languages, also has /Sj, Zj/: ('/¿ì) >ien˚ (ºe'\,Ú) région˘ Sequences such as //0Ki'é, 0li'é// are given with (i',é), and therefore even the most appropriate and most modern phonemic transcription gives /i'jé/: (püi',e) prier˚ (püi',§:˜) priSr˚ (púi',Å) plia˚ (&sÅbli',e) sablier˘ Hence, (bºi',Œ) stands for both brillant and Briand÷ but we could –possibly– have (bºi'Œ) /bKi'Õ/ for Briand˚ in controlled pronunciation. Furthermore, we have: (pe'i, pe',i) /pe'[j]i/ pZs˚ (&Åbe'i, -e',i) /abe'[j]i/ abbZe˘ 4.2.3.2. As far as /K/ is concerned, neutral pronunciation has two taxophones (with devoicing, and other possibilities, which we will point out): the voiced uvular constrictive (º), before a stressed V˚ after a (tauto- or hetero-syllabic) consonant and after a pause; and the (voiced) uvular approximant, (˜), before an unstressed V˚ before a (heterosyllabic) consonant and before a pause. Some examples of the constrictive: (ºÅ'_,P) /Ka'djo/ radio˚ ('ºy) /'Ky/ rue˚ (pÅ'ºi) /pa'Ki/ Par¤˚ ('tüE) /'tKE/ très˚ (&püevi'z,Ú) /pKevi'zjÚ/ prév¤ions˚ (&p™lºi'nÅ:\) /pElKi'naZ/ pèlerinage˚ ('©ÅtX) /'katK/ quatre˚ ('s¯fX) /'sufK/ soufre˚ (º#'püŒ:dX) /Kù'pKÕdK/ reprendre˘ ˛ese examples demonstrate typical devoicing and complete voicelessness, too, in (X), between (even voiced) C and a pause. Slowing down, or enunciating, we can even have (ºï): ('li:vX, -vºï) /'livK/ livre˘ Some examples of the approximant: (&Å˜i've) /aKi've/ arriver˚ (&lÅ˜Å'_,P) /laKa'djo/ la radio˚ (påÆ'+i:˜) /paK'tiK/ partir˚ (Ö˜'v°Å:˜) /OK'vwaK/ au revoir˘ It must be immediately added that a frequent variant of (º) is the voiced uvular trill, (K) (and this may explain why we use /K/, which generally indicates the uvular place of articulation, to help to avoid foreign pronunciation): ('Ky, pÅ'Ki, 't»E, &p»evi'z,Ú, &p™lKi'nÅ:\, '©Åt', K#'p»Œ:d', 'li:v', -Kï); this is frequent after tautosyllabic C, above all /p, t, k/, ('k»°Å:˜) /'kKwaK/ croire˚ whereas after /b, d, g/ we also have the (voiced) uvular tap: ('bº^÷ 'br-÷ 'bK-) /'bK^/ brun˚ (dºÅ'pP÷ dr-÷ dK-) /dKa'po/ drap›˚ ('gºŒ÷ 'gr-÷ 'gK-) /'gKÕ/ grand˘ For emphasis (º, K) can substitute (˜) too: ('fE:˜÷ -º÷ -K) /'fEK/ fPre˘ Sometimes we can have the uvular constrictive trill, or tap, (˜, Í) (and the voiceless (º)), especially after /p, t, k/: ('g˜Œ, 'gÍŒ, 'tÜE, '©Åtº). On the other hand, we can also ﬁnd a voiced velar semi-constrictive (with a voiceless velar constrictive, in a devoicing context): ('gyŒ, 't@E, '©Åtx).

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Approximants 4.2.4. Apart from the taxophone (˜) of /K/ (just treated with the constrictives), we have two central approximant phonemes, (¥) /¥/ (postpalatal rounded) and (°) /w/ (provelar rounded, for which the symbol (w) of velar rounded phone could quite easily be used, as in other kinds of pronunciation, treated at the end of this chapter; but the opportunity to demonstrate not negligible gradation would be lost): ('s¥i) /'s¥i/ su¤˚ ('~¥i) /'n¥i/ nuit˚ ('¬¥i) /'l¥i/ lui˚ ('l°i) /'lwi/ Lou¤˚ ('m°Å) /'mwa/ mo¤˚ ('p#Å) /'pwa/ po¤˚ ('s#Å:˜) /'swaK/ soir˘ ˛ese examples also show assimilation of voicing and place of articulation, as well as the important fact that /¥/ and /w/ are two di‡erent phonemes, di‡erent from /j/ too. Regarding /lw/, we can have by assimilation, (]°), with /l/ realized as semi-velar. ˛e /0K, 0l/ + /y, u/ sequences remain the same, with no insertion of approximants (contrary to what happens for //é'i, i'é//, which normally become /é'ji, i'jé/, § 4.2.3): (&Öpstüy'e) ob®ruer˚ (gly'Œ) gluant˚ (kú¯'e) clouée˚ (tü¯'Œ) trouant˘ Laterals 4.2.5. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme (today, Ô § 4.2.1), (l) /l/, which assimilates for voicing (and, before /j, ¥/, for place of articulation): ('lyn) /'lyn/ lune˚ ('p#Ål) /'pwal/ poil˚ (Å'le) /a'le/ aller˚ ('bl°) /'bl°/ blS˚ ('kúe) /'kle/ clef˚ ('fúy) /'fly/ ﬂux˚ (Åú'pì) /al'pí/ alpin˚ (™á'zŒ:pa) /Eg'zÕpl/ exemple˚ ('Ú:ka) /'Úkl/ oncle˚ ('Ú:ga) /'Úgl/ ongle˚ ('s¯fa) /'sufl/ sou·e˘ Slowing down, or enunciating, we can also have (lï): ('Ú:ga÷ -lï), between a voiced C and a pause. Sometimes, we can hear something in between, with (Í): ('ÚkÍ, 'Ú:gÍ). In /lj, l¥/ the articulation is prepalatal: (s¯'¬,e) /su'lje/ soulier˚ ('¬,°) /'lj°/ liS˚ ('¬¥i) /'l¥i/ lui. Often, in non-neutral pronunciation, /lj/ and /j/ tend to merge into /j/: (mi'¬,Ú÷ mi',Ú) million˚ (mi'¬,°÷ mi',°) miliS˚ therefore (s¯'¬,e) soulier and (&fyzi'¬,e) f¨ilier can correspond to (s¯',e) souiller˚ (&fyzi',e) f¨iller˘ Structures 4.3.0. ˛e greatest problems for segments are caused by the unstressed vowel phoneme graphically expressed by e (apart from some exceptional cases, as monsiSr˚ fa¤ons); whereas, with regard to phone groups –or connected speech– the phenomenon of lia¤on is typical (§ 4.3.3.1-3). ˛e (unstable) /ù/ phoneme 4.3.1.1. In neutral modern pronunciation, /ù/ is realized as an unstressed /§/ (û 4.1). ˛ere are various terms to indicate it, some less suitable than others, like: çschwa, e caduc, e muetÇ. Its use and distribution constitutes one of the main characteristics of the French phonological system, even if its phonemic status could be

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debatable. More often than not, it seems that /ù/ (#) is introduced, in pronunciation, to avoid long sequences of C which turn out to be di‚cult to pronounce. ˛erefore from a phonemic transcription such as //msj°, ddÕ, at'lje//, Â, we could actually have: (m#'s¿°, d#'dŒ, &Åt#'¬,e) monsiSr˚ dedans˚ atelier˚ as isolated forms; in connected speech, the most common forms are, for instance: (}≈'s¿°) /^m'sj°/ un monsiSr˚ (lÅd'dŒ) /lad'dÕ/ là dedans˚ whereas atelier remains the same. We could, on the other hand, start from a çfullÇ or çisolatedÇ form, that retains all these unstable e (which is the most common in the traditional reading of verse, and is even stronger in the way of speaking in the south of France, the Midi]˚ dropping all the possible /ù/, without complicating the pronunciation with di‚cult or impossible groups: //bOnù'tKi// bonnetrie˚ //ZùtùlùKù'di// je te le red¤˚ for the normal (bÖn'tüi, &/t#lº#'_i÷ &\#tú#˜'_i). Generally, in phonemic transcriptions in dictionaries, the /ù/ that do not drop in isolated forms are retained, omitting the others; hence, we can now see when, even those which are normally indicated, can drop. 4.3.1.2. In practice, the dropping of one or more /ù/ can occur if the consonant groups, which come in contact, can occur within the word, ™ /lst, ksj, kskl, kspK, ksplw, Kkw, Ks¥, KstK, Kmn/, Â, as in: (sÖús'tis) /sOls'tis/ sol®ice˚ (&™ázÅ©'s¿Ú) /Egzak'sjÚ/ exaction˚ (&™kskúÅ'me) /Ekskla'me/ exclamer˚ (&™kspüi'me) /EkspKi'me/ exprimer˚ (™ks'pú°Å) /Eks'plwa/ exploit˚ (p¨Æ'k#Å) /puK'kwa/ pourquoi˚ (p¨Æ'sÎit) /puK's¥it/ poursuite˚ (&syp™Æs'tüÅ) /sypEKs'tKa/ super®rat˚ (&ip™˜mne'zi) /ipEKmne'zi/ hypermnésie. It is generally possible to increase the number of C in contact, if when dropping /ù/, constrictives, approximants, laterals and nasals (but also stops) are added – before or after: (©is'sE;Æt 'sÅ÷ &©is#'s-) qui se sert de ça?˚ (\#n&l#˜_i'pÅ, \&n#lº#-) je ne le red¤ pø˚ (&ynp+it'fi,) une petite ﬁlle˚ (&+ynsüÅ'pÅ) tu ne serø pø˚ ([&i¬],Å&bPk¯d'mÚ:d) il y a b›coup de monde˚ (&Únpå˜'lE ©#t'sÅ) on ne parlPt que de ça˚ (&™s©#&\#úsÅ'vE, ™zá&\#ú-) e®-ce que je le sava¤?˚ (\mŒ'fi/) je m'en ﬁ>e! Furthermore: (/&kü°Å'b,ì) je cro¤ bien˚ (s&n™pÅ'sy:˜) ce n'e® pø sûr˚ (s&©i[ú]t#'fP, s©it'fP) ce qu'il te faut˚ (s&tü3'lÅ) ce trPn là˚ (/&sÎikÚ'tŒd lÅ'v°Å:˜) je su¤ content de la voir [de l'avoir]˚ (/t#ld'mŒ:d, /&t#ld#'m-) je te le demande˚ (&s™á\#n&t#ldv™'pÅ, -d#v™-, s™©/&t#l) c'e® que je ne te le deva¤ pø˚ (lve'v¯, &l#-) levez-vo¨!˚ (m&nem°Å'lÅ, m#&ne-) menez-moi là!˚ (\'_i kúemÖ'+iv dlŒ'fŒn sÚpÅ'bÚ, -+if) je d¤ que lπ motifs de l'enfant ne sont pø bons˚ (&sY˜l#'bŒ, syl-) sur le banc˚ (si&\#nt#l_i'pÅ, &si/t#l-) si je ne te le d¤ pø˚ (il&m#ldmŒt'pÅ, in&m-, &inm#l&d#-) il ne me le demande pø. ©thin a word, we can ﬁnd: (bÖn'tüi) bonneterie˚ (©Ås'ü∏l) cøserole˚ (Åm'ne) amener˚ (Å'púe) appeler˚ (\¯'ºe) jouerP˚ (pú™n'mŒ) plRnement÷ but: (&Œgl#'tE:˜) Angleterre˚ (&m™Ækü#'_i) mercredi˚ (&på˜l#'mŒ) parlement˚ (&fÖÆt#'mŒ) fortement˚ (&Œpú#'mŒ) amplement˘ For parle-m'en, we often have (på˜l'mŒ), which we can also hear for parlement˚ in fast or slow speech. 4.3.1.3. It is important to bear in mind the di‡erence that exists in French, for the /0/ + /m, n, K, l/ + /j/ sequences, that would be too heavy, hence, a stable /ù/ is inserted: (&sÖm#'¬,e) sommelier˚ (&n¯s#'m,Ú) no¨ semions˚ (&sŒt#'~,e) centenier˚

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(&v¯t#'~,e) vo¨ teniez˚ (&n¯s#'º,Ú) no¨ serions˚ (&v¯/Œt#'º,e) vo¨ >anteriez˚ (&ºi/#'¬,°) Ri>eliS˚ (&n¯zÅp#'¬,Ú) no¨ appelions˚ but (©Ås'p¿e) cøse-pieds˚ (s™t'p¿Es) cette pièce˚ (bÖn'+¿e) bonnetier˚ (/åÆ'+¿e) >arretier˚ (p™ú'+¿e) pelletier˘ ˛e same happens for /¥, w/: (/e&s#¬¥i'si) >ez celui-ci˚ (}&b¯d#'l°Å) un bout de loi÷ even if it is not unusual to hear: (&/es¥i'si) >ez celui-ci˚ (&}b¯'dl°Å), (&l#\°'dl°Å) le jS de l'oie˚ and similar phrases. ˛e /ù/ does not generally drop in the ﬁrst syllable of names: ('l°i ˜#'nP) /'lwi Kù'no/ Lou¤ Renault˚ (&Å˜#'nÅ:˜) /aKù'naK/ à Renard˚ not even for de\ (&d#lÅ'ºi:v) /dùla'Kiv/ De la Rive˚ (m#&s¿°d#'gP:l) /mùsj°dù'gol/ M. De Gaulle÷ but if it is possible to simplify, it is done, on the radio and television too, even if it is a little stigmatized, as in: de De Gaulle which is nearly always (d#d'gP:l). Surnames usually resist better than ﬁrst names, indeed, Renaud and Den¤, in appropriate contexts are often: (˜'nP, d'ni). However, we regularly ﬁnd: (}˜'nÅ:˜) /^K'naK/ un renard˚ (snÚ'lÅ2 &v,ìd'gP:l) {(s#n-)} /sùnÚ'la, vjíd'gol/ ce nom-là vient de "Gaule&˚ (\&nepÅd'gP:l) /Znepad'gol/ je n'P pø de gaulπ (in a real or ﬁgurative sense), (P&bÖ˜dlÅ'ºi:v) /obOKdla'Kiv/ au bord de la rive÷ but: (ºi/'lE) /KiS'lE/ Ri>elet (obviously in the case of (&ºi/#'¬,°) /KiSù'lj°/ Ri>eliS, it is di‡erent). ˛e same happens before /*é/ (¤ çdisjunctiveÇ initial V˚ usually represented by the so called çaspirateÇ h and by the names of numbers): (l#e'ºP) /lùe'Ko/ le héro˚ (l#'Ú:z) /lù'Úz/ le onze˘ Taxophonics 4.3.2.1. In a sentence, the way in which /ù/ behaves, ¤ retained or inserted or dropped, makes its position within a word peculiar. Doubtlessly, in these cases, pronunciation is inﬂuenced by spelling, as well, with its internal e; whereas word-ending e, which are not usually pronounced in isolated forms, can make one (think one should) prefer to drop it even in syntagms, compounds and common phrases. In certain words, /ù/ does not drop, even if the result of the drop would give a rather simple consonant group: (&n¯p#'zÚ) no¨ pπons˚ but (n¯v'zÚ) no¨ fa¤ons÷ (&lÅ©#'ºEl) la querelle˚ but (&}púÖ'tÚ) un peloton÷ (&def#'mEl) dπ femellπ˚ but (l™f'nEtX) lπ fenêtrπ˘ Furthermore, because of the disjunctive h, (&yns©yú'+y:˜) une sculpture˚ but (&yn#'Ú:t) une honte÷ (&s™tspúŒ'd§:˜) cette splendSr˚ but (&s™t#å˜'_,Es) cette hardiπse (we can have (&s™t-å˜'_,Es), too). ˛ere are also cases such as (d™'bEús 'üi:z) dπ bellπ cer¤π˚ (&d#nº#v'ni;Æ ©#ú's#Å:˜) de ne revenir que le soir÷ on the other hand, spelling without -e makes the pronunciation of the following seem superior: ('pÅ˜á d™'püì:s, 'pÅÆ©) Parc dπ Princπ˚ ('Å˜á d#tüi',Ú:f, 'ÅÆ©) arc de triom#e˚ (&¯˜z'blŒ) ours blanc˚ ('fil≈ pÖlÖ'nE) ﬁlm polona¤˚ (+i'/§˜D '\P:n) T-shirt jaune˚ instead of the more natural ('pÅÆ©# d™'püì:s, 'ÅÆ©# &d#tüi',Ú:f, '¯Æs# 'blŒ, 'film# &pÖlÖ'nE, +i'/§ÆT# '\P:n), which are thus often considered less good, because of the spelling, while, above all ('¯Æs# 'blŒ), for rhythmic reasons too, is more than legitimate; ('ÅÆ©#t tüi',Ú:f) (with -C Ce (0#0)) is at times stigmatized as uneducated. Normally, the following cases can be seen in slow, careful

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pronunciation; otherwise, in fast pronunciation, dropping prevails: ('p∏st ü™s'tŒ:t, -t# ˜-) /'pOst KEs'tÕt/ po®e re®ante˚ ('Åúp ≈Å˜i'+im, -p# mÅ-) /'alp maKi'tim/ Alpπ Maritimπ˚ ('/Å˜l d#'gP:l, -l# d#-) /'SaKl dù'gol/ ≥arlπ de Gaulle˘ Let us further consider examples (due to rhythmic reasons) such as: (&pÖÆt≈ŒtP, -Æt#m-) /pOKt[ù]mÕ'to/ porte-mant›˚ (&pÖÆtküe',Ú, -Æt#k-) /pOKt[ù]kKe'jÚ/ porte-crZon˚ with /[ù]/, but (&pÖÆt#'púym) /pOKtù'plym/ porte-plume÷ and, hence, even (&©ÅÆt#'d∏:˜) /kaKtù'dOK/ carte d'or˚ and certainly not *(kaR'dO:r) (also) in the Italian advertisements for Carte d'Or (which in French, would be car d'or (&©Å˜'d∏:˜)); however, (&©Å˜d'd∏:˜) is possible, too. ˛e cases are increasing where, before a pause, one pronounces a non-etymologic /ù/, which is not present in spelling, above all after voiced C, in particular the sonants: (P'tEl, -l#, Ö-) /o'tEl, O-/ hôtel˚ (s™˜'vi:˜, -˜#) /sEK'viK/ servir˚ (bÚ'\¯:˜, -˜#) /bÚ'ZuK/ bonjour! 4.3.2.2. ‹en, in connected speech, a word ends in /0Kò, 0lò/ and is then followed by another which begins with /ò0/, in slow and wary pronunciation, /ù/ is inserted; but normally, even /K, l/ are dropped: ('©Åt 'fÅm÷ '©Åtü#) /'katK 'fam/ quatre femmπ˚ (&ynPt'f#Å÷ y&nPtü#-) /ynotK'fwa/ une autre fo¤˚ (&m™ddP'tEl÷ 'mEtü# d-) /mEtKdo'tEl/ maître d'hôtel˚ (l#'pP;v bÖ'n∏m, ú'p-÷ l#'pP;vº#) /lù'povK bO'nOm/ le pauvre bonhomme˚ (i≈'sŒ;p ©#'nÚ÷ &ilm#'sŒ;bl#) /ilmù'sÕbl kù'nÚ/ il me semble que non˚ (&3pÖ'sib d#ú'fE:˜÷ -ibl#) /ípO'sibl dùl'fEK/ impossible de le fPre˚ (ú'p§b _itÅ'li÷ l#'p§pú#) /lù'p§pl dita'li/ le pSple d'Italie˘ In cases such as /vOtKùp'n°/ votre pnS˚ apart from a slow and wary (&vÖtü#p'n°), we also have (vÖp'n°, -t'n°, vÖtp'n°), and (&vÖtp#'n°), considered rather uneducated because of the di‡erence with its spelling. Decidedly uneducated (and intentionally joky) is (&™©s#'püE, -e) for (™ks'püE) exprès˚ whereas (™s'püE, -e) is rather fast colloquial. As seen (in the previous section), we have to have /0ùùj/ in a word (/ù/ refers to sonants: /m, n, K, l/), but it is not valid in sentences: (s™l'm,ì) c'e® le mien˚ (&i[ú]fPl'~,e, fP-) il faut le nier˚ (&i[l]zŒ'+¿En '¬,°) ils en tiennent liS˚ (in'vÅl 'º,ì, &iln#-) ils ne valent rien˘ However, one can deﬁnitely also have: (&d#n#'º,ì 'fE:˜) de ne rien fPre˚ (&\#nd#'mŒ;d# 'º,ì) je ne demande rien˚ and even: (&s™l#'m,ì), (&i[ú]fPl#'~,e, fP-), (&i[l]zŒ'+¿En# '¬,°), (in'vÅl# 'º,ì, &iln#-). Let us also consider: (&bÖnÅpåÆt#'mŒ '/P) bon appartement >aud˚ (&bÖnÅ'pÅÆt ≈Œ'/P, -t#) Bonaparte man>ot˘ If the context does not create any ambiguity, we can easily have bon appartement >aud (&bÖnÅpåÆt'mŒ '/P). 4.3.2.3. For sequences of monosyllabic words with /ùò/ [le˚ je˚ me˚ te˚ se˚ ce˚ de˚ ne]˚ there are often clear, general preferences, but not absolute, such as: (\#n÷ \n#) je ne˚ (\#m, \m#) je me˚ (\#l, \l#) je le˚ (d#l) de le˚ (d#n) de ne˚ (d#m) de me˚ (d#t) de te˚ (d#s) de se˚ (d#s, ts#) de ce˚ (©#l) que le˚ (©#n) que ne˚ (©#m) que me˚ (©#s) que se/ce˚ (©#t) que te˚ (s©#) ce que\ (&d#nº#v'ni;Æ ©#ú's#Å:˜) de ne revenir que le soir˚ (&m°Å\#n&s™©#d'_i:˜) moi je ne sa¤ que te dire˚ (&\#ns™'º,ìt s#tüy'kúÅ) je ne sa¤ rien de ce truc là˘ For /Z/ in je me le demande˚ we ﬁnd (&\#ml#d'mŒ:d) and (\&m#ld#'mŒ:d)÷ the lat-

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ter is at times considered less advisable; similarly, for the second forms in: (\l#'v°, \#l'v°) je le vSx˚ (\#≈'+¿ì, \m#-) je me tiens˚ (/&tÅv™'_id v#'ni;˜, -'_i d#v'ni:˜) je t'ava¤ dit de venir (spelling inﬂuences the çchoiceÇ of preferably retaining word-internal /ù/). ˛e second forms here are, thus, also çuneducatedÇ: (/'kü°Å÷ #/'kü°Å) je cro¤˚ (\mŒ'fU÷ &#\-) je m'en fo¨˚ (l™'mEá d#lÅ'ºy, l™'mE ©#dlÅ'ºy) lπ mecs de la rue˚ (&dek¯'vºi;˜ l#'mÚ:d, &dek¯'vºi; ˜#l'mÚ:d) découvrir le monde˚ ('püŒd l#me'tüP, 'püŒ d[º]#l-) prendre le métro˚ (i'mEt ú#'püi, i'mEt [ü]#ú'püi) y mettre le prix (if it could be confused with ils mettent le prix (i'mEt ú#'püi), the /K/ does not drop), (i[ú]'/EÆ/ s#©i[l]'v°, i[ú]'/EÆ/#s ©i[l]'v°) il >er>e ce qu'il vSt÷ actually, the second forms are often more çnaturalÇ, but –alas– di‡erent from the spelling! In the case of forms such as (&Åb°Å'mŒ) aboiement˚ (\n™'t#Å) je nettoie˚ (i[l]'v°Å) ils voient˚ (/pe'ºe) je pZerP [pPerP]˚ (©i[ú]'s#Å) qu'ils soient˚ (&©#+y'E, ©#'+ÎE, ©#'tE) que tu Pπ÷ forms such as (&Åb°Å,'mŒ, \n™'t#Å,, i[l]'v°Å,, /p™,'ºe, ©i[ú]'s#Å,) and (&©#+y'E,, ©#'+ÎE,, ©#'tE,) are certainly çuneducatedÇ. 4.3.2.4. In some cases, in French, we have geminated C in derived words: (&tü°Åz¿™m'mŒ) tro¤ièmement˚ (n™t'te) netteté˚ (&ekú™˜'ºÅ, &™-) éclPrera (Ô (&ekú™'ºÅ, &™-) éclPra]÷ in the future and conditional of courir˚ mourir˚ quérir (and preﬁxed forms, but not other verbs with -rr-): (/k¯˜'ºE) je courra¤ (Ô imperfect (/k¯'ºE) je coura¤˚ and also, (/p¯'ºE) je pourra¤]÷ furthermore, in cases such as: (lÅd'dŒ) là-dedans (Ô (lÅ'dŒ) la dent], (+ym'mŒ) tu me mens (Ô (+y'mŒ) tu mens˚ (&+ynmŒ'pÅ) tu ne mens pø], (&™llÅ'_i) elle l'a dit (Ô (&™lÅ'_i) elle a dit]÷ obviously, even: (&p#+it'tÅba) petite table˚ (&p#+itÅ'blP) petit tabl›˘ Lastly we have gemination (or lengthening) to give emphasis: (˚1s™pÌpÅÆ£fE3 3, ˚1s™Ìp:Å-) c'e® parfPt! Gemination is possible, to maintain distinction, in the case of the imperfect indicative and the present subjunctive, compared to the present indicative: (&n¯kü°Å,',Ú) no¨ croyions˚ (&v¯kü°Å,',e) vo¨ croyiez (Ô (&n¯kü°Å',Ú) no¨ croyons˚ (&v¯kü°Å',e) vo¨ croyez]÷ to avoid ambiguity in cases such as: (&lÅssi'ºi) l'Assyrie˚ (&lÅsi'ºi) la Syrie÷ to insist on a preﬁx (especially negative): (&illi'ziba) ill¤ible˘ Gemination can even be found where it is not needed, for graphic geminates, in bookish words (but spontaneous and not a‡ected pronunciation carefully avoids such geminations): (vi'lÅ, -l'lÅ) villa˚ (gºÅ'mE:˜, -m'm-) grammPre˚ (&Å_i's¿Ú, &Åd_i-) addition˚ (i'lystX, il'l-) illu®re÷ it is equally improper, though common, to geminate the pronoun l' (which neutral pronunciation –obviously– avoids) in cases such as: (&\#lle'vy, &+yllÅ'_i, n¯l&lÅvÚ'sÛ), for: (\le'vy) je l'P vu˚ (&+ylÅ'_i) tu l'ø dit˚ (n¯&lÅvÚ'sÛ) no¨ l'avons su˘ 4.3.2.5. French presents consonant sequences with di‡erent places of articulation, which present considerable problems for many foreign people; it is useful to look at the example we have just seen of (&Å_i's¿Ú, &Åd_i-) addition˚ as well as (&Ån™á'd∏t) anecdote˚ (Å©&+ivi'te) activité˚ (/'kü°Å) je cro¤˚ and many other previous examples and future ones. ˛e assimilation of voiced stops, between (either oral or nasalized) V and C, which become N (except in very controlled pronunciation, dominated by spell-

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ing) is considerable and typical: (}n&mi©i'lP) /^dmiki'lo/ un demi kilo˚ (Ån'mì) /ad'mí/ à demPn˚ (t¯n'mEm) /tud'mEm/ tout de même˚ (Œ&tü3nmŒ'\e) /ÕtKídmÕ'ZE/ en trPn de manger˚ (yn'gºŒ;n me'zÚ) /yn'gKÕd me'zÚ/ une grande ma¤on˚ (lŒn'mì) /lÕd'mí/ lendemPn˚ (d™'gºŒ;n 'dÅm) /dE'gKÕd 'dam/ dπ grandπ damπ˚ (lÅ'/Œ;m dÅ'mi) /la'SÕb[K] da'mi/ la >ambre d'am¤˚ (kÚ'm,ì) /kÚ'bjí/ combien˚ (&intÚ;≈'pÅ, &iút-, il&n#-) /ilnùtÚb'pa/ il ne tombe pø˚ (l™'lŒ;˙ mÖ'dE˜n) /lE'lÕg mO'dEKn/ lπ languπ modernπ˚ (yn'lÚ;˙ 'áE:˜) /yn'lÚg 'gEK/ une longue guerre˘ For voiceless stops, we have assimilation of places of articulation in the same way, while we can have voicing, devoicing, or voicelessness, for the type of phonation (again, as well as a slower or more controlled possibility, which corresponds to the phonemic transcription ): (&}≈+i'k¯, &})-) /^pti'ku/ un petit coup˚ (m3n'nŒ, -n'nŒ, -£'nŒ, m3'nŒ) /mít'nÕ/ mPntenant˚ (v3n'd°, -n'd°, -£'d°) /vít'd°/ vingt-dSx˚ ('bŒ;~ pe&˜ife'ºi©, -) p-) /'bÕk peKife'Kik/ banque péri#érique˚ (\#n&m#tüÚm'pÅ, -≈'pÅ, -)'pÅ) /ZùnmùtKÚp'pa/ je ne me trompe pø˘ Lastly, this assimilation can occur even before a V\ (pŒ'nŒ) /pÕ'dÕ/ pendant˚ (t¯l&mÚn™'lÅ) /tulmÚdE'la/ tout le monde e® là˚ as even before a pause: (t¯l'mÚn) /tul'mÚd/ tout le monde˚ (mÅ'lŒ:˙) /ma'lÕg/ ma langue˘ It can also be found between a non-nasalized V and N\ (&mÅnm°Å'zEl) /madmwa'zEl/ mademo¤elle˚ (&m™nm°Å'zEl) /mEdmwa'zEl/ mπdemo¤ellπ˚ (&º#nmŒ'de) /KùdmÕ'de/ redemander˚ (&Ånmi'ºe) /admi'Ke/ admirer˚ (&_,ÅNnÖs'+i©, -˙n-) /djagnOs'tik/ diagno®ic˚ (&Œ\Œm'mŒ) /ÕZÕb'mÕ/ enjambement˚ and adverbial -ment: (fü°Ån'mŒ) /fKwad'mÕ/ froidement˚ (vÅ˙'mŒ) /vag'mÕ/ vaguement˚ (&kÚpú™n'mŒ, -n'mŒ, -£'mŒ) /kÚplEt'mÕ/ complètement˘ Let us also note cases such as (l°i'©Em püÖ'/ì, -mp p-) /lùwi'kEnd pKO'Sí/ le week-end pro>Pn˘ 4.3.2.6. In ﬂuent, familiar speech, there are certain reductions (even for stress), which simplify speech, without compromising communication; instead, by slowing down speech, pronunciation can correspond to the phonemic transcription: (s't∏m) /sE'tOm/ cet homme˚ (st#'fÅm) /sEt'fam/ cette femme˚ (Ås't§:˜) /asE't§K/ à cette hSre˚ (stÅ'_i:˜) /sEta'diK/ c'e®-à-dire˚ ({m™}p&t™t, -tX) /{mE}p°'tEtK/ [ma¤] pSt-être˚ (Å&°Å:˜) /a'vwaK/ avoir˚ (°Å'lÅ, v'lÅ) /vwa'la/ voilà˚ (vlÅPT'/P:z, &°ÅlÅ-) /vwalaotK'Soz/ voilà autre >ose˚ (≈&s¿°, )'s-, p's-) /mù'sj°/ monsiSr˚ (&k¯te'm°Å) /ekute'mwa/ écoutez-moi˚ (s©yz™'m°Å) /Ekskyze'mwa/ exc¨ez-moi˚ (s¿¯&púE) /silvu'plE/ s'il vo¨ plaît˘ In a preintoneme, /swa'sÕt/ soixante is currently reduced to ('s#Œ;t), especially in compounds: (s#Œt'sis, &s#Œd_iz'n§f, -n_-) 66˚ 79˘ Furthermore: (pÅs'©#, &pÅs©#, &pÅs©, &Ås©, s©#, s©, sk) /paKs[ù]kù/ parce que˚ (&™s©#, s©#) /Eskù, skù/ e®-ce que {(p¨Æ'k#Ås ©#&+y_i'sÅ) pourquoi e®-ce que tu d¤ ça?]˚ (sÎi'si) /sùl¥i'si/ celui-ci˚ (&pi) /'p¥i/ pu¤˚ (&pis©#, -s©, -sk) /'p¥isk/ pu¤que˚ ([™]'bì) ç/[E]'bí/Ç [eh] bien (bin˚ bi'n would be better), ('pÛ) /'ply/ pl¨ (possibly: p'¨]˚ (mŒ&fì) /mEÕ'fí/ ma¤ enﬁn [m'enﬁn]˚ (mÅ&l∏;˜) /mEa'lOK/ ma¤ alors [m'alors]˚ (&bŒ) ç/'bÕ/Ç bon! (ban! would be better), (&nŒ) ç/'nÕ/Ç non! (nan! would be better), ('°™, -E, -e, -É) /*'wE, -e/ oua¤!˚ (&k∏;˜) /Õ'kOK/ encore˚ (st#&mŒ, /t#-) /Zystù'mÕ/ ju®ement˘ Other examples: (dmÅ&~,E;˜, t≈-) /dùtutma'njEK/ de toute manière˚ (tfÅ&sÚ) /dùtutfa'sÚ/ de toute façon˚ (Æ&k#Å) /puK'kwa/ pourquoi˚ (+y˜™l&mŒ) /natyKEl'mÕ/ naturellement˚ (s&≈Œ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (D&\¯:˜) /tu'ZuK/ toujours˚ (s&pÅ, &pÅ) /nEs'pa/

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n'e®-ce pø?˚ (D&\Å) /de'Za/ déjà˚ (D\°'ne) /deZ°'ne/ déjSner˚ (™s&púi©Å's¿Ú, s&p-) /Eksplika'sjÚ/ explication˚ (\™'s¿Ú) /ZEs'tjÚ/ ge®ion˚ (&©Åt) /'katK/ quatre˚ (©™©'f#Å) /kElkù'fwa/ quelquefo¤˚ (©™©'/P:z) /kElkù'Soz/ quelque >ose˚ (†tÅ'kU) /tuta'ku/ tout à coup˚ (†tÅ'l§:˜) /tuta'l§K/ tout à l'hSre˚ (†tP'púy[s]) /tuto'ply[s]/ tout au pl¨˚ (Å™á'v¯) /avEk'vu/ avec vo¨˘ More still: (/Îi'lÅ, /sÎi-, //i-) /Zùs¥i'la/ je su¤ là˚ (\¥ie'_i÷ \,e-) /Zùl¥ie'di/ je lui P dit˚ (&tÅ˜e'zÚ) /tyaKe'zÚ, t¥a-/ tu ø ra¤on˚ (t™'f¯, te-) /tyE'fu, t¥E-/ tu π fou˚ (t&s™) /ty'sE/ tu sa¤˚ (&+yÅv™'_i, &+¥Å-, &tÅ-) /tyavE'di, t¥a-, ta-/ tu ava¤ dit˚ (l™'b,ì) /ilE'bjí/ il e® bien˚ (v&zÅve'vy) /vuzave'vy/ vo¨ avez vu˚ (v*&zÅ˜e'te) /vuvuzaKe'te/ vo¨ vo¨ arrêtez?˚ (nó&zŒnÅ'lÚ) /nunuzÕna'lÚ/ no¨ no¨ en allons˚ (&isÚ'bÚ) /ilsÚ'bÚ/ ils sont bons˚ (&izÚ'püi) /ilzÚ'pKi/ ils ont pr¤˚ (,Å) /ilja, ja/ il y a˚ (&,ŒnÅ'vE) /iliÕna'vE, ilj-, j-/ il y en avPt (uneducated even (&,ÅnÅ'vE)). In fast speech, y˚ si˚ ni˚ tu˚ ou, oú˚ before a V˚ often and usually, have consonant variants (often condemned by schools, all because of disguising spelling): (si™l'v°, s¿™-) /siEl'v°, sjE-/ si elle vSt˚ (niÅ'n¯, ~,Å-) /nia'nu, nja-/ ni à no¨˚ (¯Å'¬,Ú, °Å-) /ua'ljÚ, wa-/ ou à Lyon˚ (¯™'tEl, °™-) /uE'tEl, wE-/ oú-e®-elle?˚ (i[ú]&fPiÅ'le, -P,Å-, -P+-) /ilfoia'le, -oja-, -ot-/ il faut y aller˘ In rapid speech, between nasalized V, continuous C can be nasalized a little, but it is not worth transcribing as it is barely perceptible: (&mÚ\Œ'bÚ) /mÚZÕ'bÚ/ mon jambon˚ (Œ'vì) /Õ'ví/ en vPn; the same occurs for oral V preceded and followed by N\ (nÖ'nEt) /nO'nEt/ nonnette˚ (y&nÅnimi'te) /ynanimi'te/ unanimité˘ On the other hand, in other languages, such as English, Spanish, Italian, the nasalization –of V between N– is more obvious, but this too, is hardly worth mentioning as it occurs quite automatically. An alveolar semi-lateral, /l/ (¬), is possible for the grammemes (articles or pronouns) le˚ la˚ les˚ lui (non-ﬁnal) preceded by the grammemes par˚ pour˚ sur˚ vers: (&på˜l™f'nEtX, -˜¬™-÷ &p¨˜¬¥i'_i:˜, -˜¬¥i-÷ &sY˜lÅ'tÅba, -˜¬Å-÷ &v™˜l#'s°Å:˜, -˜¬#-) /paKlef'nEtK, puKl¥i'diK, syKla'tabl, vEKlù'swaK/ par les fenêtres˚ pour lui dire˚ sur la table˚ vers le soir˘ çLiaisonÇ 4.3.3.1. For the all-important lia¤on, it must be said that it concerns, to di‡erent degrees, all types of pronunciation: from a minimum of linking in familiar speech, to a maximum which can be found in classic poetry (a certainly more elaborate language). More or less in between, we can ﬁnd current conversation (real language). Lia¤on only occurs within rhythm groups, between words which are linked from a morphosyntactic and semantic point of view. Some are obligatory, others impossible, some optional, depending on the style of diction and the choices of the speaker. ˛e most normal and frequent linking occurs with: /z/ [s˚ x˚ z]˚ /t/ [t˚ d]˚ /n/ [n]\ (&lezÅ'mi) lπ am¤ (“ mπ˚ tπ˚ sπ˚ dπ˚ cπ]˚ (&d°'z§:˜) dSx hSrπ˚ (™&+ilÅ'le) e®-il allé?˚ (&}gºŒ't∏m) un grand homme˚ (&p¿etÅ'tE:˜) pied-à-terre˚ (&Œne'te) en été˚ (&mÚnÅ'mi) mon ami (“ ton˚ son÷ once (&mÖnÅ-) was neutral, but today it is no longer so, although this pronunciation is still widely used), (&ÚnÅ'tŒ) on attend˚ (&}nP'tEl) un hôtel (“ aucun hôtel]˚ (&º,3nÅ'fE:˜) rien à fPre˚ (&b,3nÅ'se) bien øsez˘

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Other forms with nasalized V do not link, except bon and adjectives such as plRn˚ vPn˚ ancien˚ certPn˚ pro>Pn˚ soudPn˚ vilPn (but they lose their nasality): (&bÖnÅ'mi) bon ami˚ (&Œpú™'nE:˜) en plRn Pr˚ (l#&m°Å,™'nÅ:\) le Moyen-Âge˘ We never ﬁnd lia¤on after et, or before the names of numbers or a çdisjunctiveÇ h, (or çaspiratedÇ h, because it was pronounced like that… centuries ago!) and generally, before w˚ y\ (eÅ'l∏:˜) et alors˚ (¬¥ie'El) lui et elle˚ (&iúsÚ'Ú:z) ils sont onze˚ (l#'^) le un˚ (l#'¥it) le huit˚ (dee'ºP) dπ héros˚ (Œ'P) en haut˚ (&}°is'©i) un wh¤ky˚ (}',P:t, }',∏t, }',Å©) un ya>t÷ and (}'°i) un oui, as well. Even in current conversation, it is obligatory to link a noun with the çdeterminantsÇ that precede it: (le'z∏m) lπ hommπ˚ (&sez°Å'zP) cπ o¤›x˚ (te'z,°) tπ ySx˚ (le&zPtü#'z∏m, &lezPd'z∏m) lπ autrπ hommπ˚ (&l#˜zÅ'mi) lSrs amiπ˚ (&d°zÅ'mi) dSx am¤˚ (°ºŒ'z∏m) dπ grands hommπ˚ (}&gºŒtÅ'mi) un grand ami˘ Subject pronouns and verbs are linked: (&n¯zÅ'vÚ) no¨ avons˚ (&v¯zÅ'le) vo¨ allez˚ (il'zEm, i'zEm) ils Pment (Ô (i'lEm) il Pme]˚ (&ÚnÅ'vE) on avPt˚ (\Œ&nepå˜'le) j'en P parlé˚ (™&+ilv#'ny, &™+iv'ny) e®-il venu?˚ (&Ú+il'vy, &Ú+i'vy) ont-ils vu?˚ (p°'tÚ) pSt-on? 4.3.3.2. ˛ere is a case in which pronunciation does inﬂuence spelling, and this should be remembered. It occurs in nearly all imperatives, without -s when isolated, but with /z/ for the pronouns y and en: vø-y (vÅ'zi), pensπ-y (&pŒs#'zi), mangπ-en (&mŒ\#'zŒ)… As well as forms such as va-t'en! (with elision of the pronoun te) we ﬁnd analogical çeuphonicÇ t's in questions whith subject-auxiliary inversion: e®-il?˚ but Pme-t-on?˚ viendra-t-elle?˚ convPnc-t-il?… Similarly, the adverbs très˚ tout˚ bien are linked to adjectives (or adverbs) modiﬁed by them: (&tü™zy'+il) très utile˚ (&t¯tŒ'+¿e) tout entier˚ (b,3&nÅtŒ'+if) bien attentif˘ Instead, pø˚ pl¨˚ moins˚ trop˚ fort˚ øsez˚ jama¤ can link or not; but in normal conversation they do not usually do so: (&pÅ[z]Œ'k∏:˜) pø encore˚ (&tüPetü°Åt'≈Œ, tüÖ&pe-) trop étroitement˘ In ﬁxed expressions they obviously link; for instance, pl¨˚ as in (&púyz¯'m°ì) pl¨ ou moins˚ which is always so. (Monosyllabic) prepositions and conjunctions link to the forms that follow them: (&Œni'vE:˜) en hiver˚ (&dŒz}'m°Å) dans un mo¤˚ (sŒ'zEl) sans elle˚ (/e'z°) >ez Sx˚ (/e&z}nÅ'mi) >ez un ami÷ (kŒ&+il™v'ny) quand il e® venu (but linking is only possible with the interrogative adverb, as in (kŒ&[t]™s©il™v'ny) quand e®-ce qu'il e® venu?÷ but not in ('kŒ ™+ilv#'ny, ™+iv'ny) quand e®-il venu?˚ so as to avoid /tété/). If the prepositions and conjunctions are polysyllabic, a lia¤on is equally only possible: (&Åpü™Å&v°ÅÆ/Œ'te, Å&pü™zÅ&v°ÅÆ/Œ'te) après avoir >anté˚ (d#&vŒynme'zÚ, -Œ+y-) devant une ma¤on˘ ˛ere is linking with dont˚ en, too: (l#/'fÅl dÚ+i&lÅpå˜'le) le >eval dont il a parlé÷ and en˚ y have a çpre-liaisonÇ: (&pü#nÚ'zŒ) prenons-en˚ (&n¯zi's∏m) no¨ y sommπ˘ ©th auxiliaries and semiauxiliaries, lia¤on, though possible, is becoming more and more unusual in current conversation. It nearly always occurs between e® (and often sont˚ ont] and a following adjective or past participle, especially with allé\ (s™&t3pÖ'siba) c'e® impossible˚ (i[ú]&sÚtÅ'le) ils sont allés˚ (&i[l]lÚ'+Û) ils l'ont S (e ils l'ont tu). ˛ere are even some ﬁxed expressions which require linking: (le&/Œzeli'ze) lπ ≥amps-Élyséπ˚ (&leze&tÅzy'ni) lπ États-Un¤˚ (&vizÅ'vi) v¤-à-v¤˚ (d#&tŒzŒ'tŒ) de temps en temps˘

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4.3.3.3. On an uneducated level, lia¤on behaves in a particular fashion, in as much as it is less frequent, but with analogical non-neutral extensions; furthermore, it generally marks the plural. ˛erefore, monosyllables link with /z/: (le'z,°) lπ ySx (and so ySx is çnormallyÇ ('z,°), even when isolated), (&izÅ'ºi:v) ils arrivent˘ Among the monosyllabic verbs, ont˚ sont do not link, whereas su¤ and e® optionally do: (&izÚ'y) ils ont S˚ (™[ú]&sÚÅ'le) ellπ sont alléπ˚ (i&l™Å˜i've, -™tÅ-) il e® arrivé˚ (/Îie'te, -ize-) je su¤ été (which is uneducated, for j'P été÷ but (/Îi&Åbºy'+i) je su¤ abruti]÷ an adjective links with the noun: (&bÚzÅ'mi) bons am¤˚ but sans may link or not: (sŒÅ'v°Å:˜, &sŒzÅ-) sans avoir÷ tout and on˚ mon˚ ton˚ son link: (&t¯t™'b,ì) tout e® bien˚ (Ú'nÅ) on a˚ (&mÚnÅ'mi) mon ami˘ ˛ere are even analogical improper cases such as: *(&p°za'p°) /p°a'p°/ pS à pS˚ *(i&vÅte'v,ì) /ilvae'vjí/ il va et vient˚ *(&ifP&dºÅtÅ'le) /ilfodKaa'le/ il faudra aller˚ *(le&zÅ˜i'kP) /leaKi'ko/ lπ haricots˚ *(&s™tÚ't°) /sEÚ't°/ c'e® hontSx˚ *(/Îi&te˜3'te) /Zùs¥ieKí'te/ je su¤ érRnté˚ *(t™l'mŒ zÅmy'zŒ) /tEl'mÕ amy'zÕ/ tellement am¨ant˚ *('vì 'z∏m) /'ví 'tOm/ vingt hommπ˚ *('©Åd zÖfi's¿e) /'katK Ofi'sje/ quatre o‚ciers˚ *('sŒ 'z§f) /'sÕ 't°/ cent œufs˘ Considerations on stress 4.3.4.1. It is merely in theory that French only has a primary stress at the end of each rhythm group. ˛e previous examples have quite thoroughly shown the use of secondary stress in French rhythm groups; they generally alternate, moving back from the primary stress. Let us now consider some other examples and some structural di‡erences. We normally ﬁnd: (&mŒ\eŒ'k∏:˜) mangez encore˚ (yn&p#+it'fi,) une petite ﬁlle˚ (&lÅmit'p¿E:˜) l'ami de Pierre˚ unless there are two rhythm groups (to emphasize the ﬁrst part, for a particular reason): (mŒ'\e Œ'k∏:˜, &ynp#'+it 'fi,, lÅ'mi d#'p¿E:˜). Let us also note such as cases: (&lÅmÖÆ'sy:˜) la morsure˚ (lÅ&mÖÆ'sy:˜, lÅ'm∏;Æ 'sy:˜) la mort sûre÷ (Ú&sŒde'g¯t) on s'en dégoûte˚ (Ú'sŒ de'g¯t) on sent dπ gouttπ÷ (&lÅk¯'l§:˜) la coulSr˚ (&_yv3'º¯:\) du vin rouge˚ (&lÅk¯'l§;˜ _yv3'º¯:\) la coulSr du vin rouge˚ (\v¯'dºE _y'vì 'º¯:\) je voudra¤ du vin rouge˘ Traditional teaching describes the French stress in rhythm groups as follows: with no emphasis, there is a primary stress on the last syllable, and, for the rest of the rhythm group, the lexemes reduce their stress to secondary, whereas grammemes lose it completely. To native speakers, this distribution sounds a bit too çpreciseÇ, çtext-bookÇ; it is actually, a kind of mid-way between two kinds of transcriptions for the examples, seen above, respectively with one or more intonemes: (mŒ&\eŒ'k∏:˜, ynp#&+it'fi,, lÅ&mit'p¿E:˜). In reality, as we have seen, there are certain rhythmic needs, for which the use of secondary stresses is quite di‡erent. 4.3.4.2. Besides, an emphatic stress is shown by the addition (rather than by the çshiftÇ) of a strong stress on the ﬁrst syllable of the word (which is di‡erent from the stressed syllable) and the gemination (or lengthening, especially between V] of the initial C; even if the word is spelled with an initial V, the C is there any-

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way, inasmuch as we have V (öé). Traditionally, we speak of çaccent d'insistance a‡ectiveÇ (¤ with an imperative preintoneme and a half-high ﬁrst stressed syllable in the preintoneme): (¡1s™fÌfÖ˜%mi£dÅba3 3, ¡1s™Ìf:Ö-) c'e® formidable!˚ (¡Ìm:Å%Ni£fi©3 3, ¡1mÌmÅ-) magniﬁque!˚ (¡1s™tÌtÖ£_,°3 3, ¡1s™öÌöÖ£_,°3 3, -™Ìt:-, -™Ìö:-) c'e® odiSx!˚ (¡1©™úÌk:üe£tì3 3÷ -úkÌkü-) quel crétin!˚ and of çaccent d'insistance intellectuelleÇ (¤ with an emphatic preintoneme): (˚yn'ºEga2\ 'ö:Åp%sÖ£ly3 3) une règle absolue!˚ (˚s#&si™p'pÅÆf™%t#"mŒ %k∏£ºEkt3 3, -™'p:Å-) ceci e® parfPtement correct! In cases such as c'e® odiSx! we can also hear (¡1s™tÌöÖ-), above all as a ridiculous çhabitÇ which is typical of people in the media. Intonation 4.3.5. û 4.3 gives the preintonemes and the four intonemes of neutral French. It can be noted that, compared to other languages (and variants of French itself), instead of four preintonemes, there are ﬁve. Indeed, for partial questions, as well as the normal (echo-like) anticipation of the interrogative rise, we ﬁnd a general falling movement, from half-high (similar to that of an imperative preintoneme, except for the obvious and correct di‡erence of echo anticipation). A more çstructuredÇ solution, rather than adding a ﬁfth preintoneme, would be a split in two (something like ç/»¿/Ç and ç/”¿/Ç, or even ç/¿/Ç and ç/¿¿/Ç, or ç/¿¡/Ç, or ç/¡¿/Ç), leaving the task of clarifying the çoddityÇ to observation — explanations. We prefer a more concrete approach (Ô § 11.9). A careful examination of all the preintonemes (and intonemes), as well as of the symbols is revealing. It is worth carefully observing the position of the pretonic syllable of the continuative and conclusive intonemes: although it does not manage to be really high, it is signiﬁcantly raised, and the auditory e‡ect is noteworthy, as well (even if not immediate), so much so that it contributes to giving the utterance a sort of prominence, (too) often mistaken for stress. As we will see, for the çmediaticÇ accent, such prominence is increased by the half-lengthening of the V in the pretonic syllable (again, without any particular û 4.3 Modern neutral French preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (% ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 • 1 1)

/& / (& 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/¡ / (¡ 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (% ' 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

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stress). We only give examples of the three marked intonemes (referring the imperative and emphatic preintonemes to § 4.3.4). As can be seen in the transcriptions of the text (§ 4.5), there is the çmidÇ parenthesis, as well (Ô § 13.24 of NPT/HPh): /./: (\v°Å'le Psi%neçmÅ3 3) /Zv°a'le osine'ma./ Je vSx aller au cinéma. /?/: (¿[&™s©#]v¯&på˜%le'b,ì füŒ•sE1 1) /¿[Eskù]vupaKle'bjí fKÕ'sE?/ [E®-ce que] vo¨ parlez bien frança¤? – (¿på˜&le%v¯'b,ì füŒ•sE1 1) /¿paKlevu'bjí fKÕ'sE?/ Parlez-vo¨ bien frança¤? – (&1kÖÌmŒ tÅleçv¯3 3) /&kO'mÕ tale'vu./ Comment allez-vo¨? /÷/: (Ú&p°i%Å'le Œv°Å5+y:˜1 1 %¯Å'p¿e3 3) {(-°%,Å-, %°Å-)} /Úp°ia'le Õvwa'tyK÷ ua'pje./ On pSt y aller en voiture, ou à pied. Other accents 4.4.0. It will be interesting to compare what has just been said –about neutral pronunciation– to other pronunciations which present more or less di‡erent characteristics. çInternationalÇ accent 4.4.1.1. For teaching purposes, the çinternationalÇ accent could be even more appropriate than the neutral accent seen so far, inasmuch as it is considerably less inﬂuenced by Paris and, therefore, undoubtedly nearer to many other varieties of pronunciation, once any marked peculiarities have been eliminated. ˛erefore, an çinternationalÇ pronunciation might even be more advisable (and, generally, easier to pick up and command), giving unquestionably valuable results, as long as there is coherence within all elements and no improvisation or variation among di‡erent types (including the usual interference, not only phonological, but due to spelling). ˛e vocogram in this section gives the çinternationalÇ vowel articulations which, as can be observed immediately from the comparison with û 4.1, are less marked; in particular, this refers to (u, o, O) which are back and not back-central; even (a) is less peculiar, as it is central, even if fronted. ˛e nasalized vowels are still four, (í, ^, ú, Ú). In the ﬁgure there are two grey markers, for /’E, ’í, ’O/ (¤ unstressed – a third would be for /’§, ’^/, which, however, coincides with /ù/); but could be removed to simplify the structure. As a matter of fact, there are two satisfactory practical solutions, as, given the lack of stress, either quite spontaneously we already have the lower-mid timbre ((™, ™, #, }, ø), which we prefer to use); or the higher-low timbre ((E, í, §, ^, O)), if weakened, could be acceptable. ˛erefore, it is better not to introduce less important taxophones, keeping (i, y, u, a) in the context /’éK˘/: (&oZu˜'d¥i) aujourd'hui÷ avoiding devoicing too. Let us look at some examples, only for the cases in which there is a phonetic di‡erence with the neutral (given in round brackets): ('lu) {('l¯)n} loup˚ ('o) {('P)n}

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›˚ ('nOt) {('n∏t)n} note˚ ('la) {('lÅ)n} là˚ (d#'dú) {(d#'dŒ)n} dedans˚ ('bjí) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ (bj™'to) {(b,3'tP)n} bientôt˚ (pa˜'ti) {(påÆ'+i)n} parti˘ 4.4.1.2. ˛e çinternationalÇ accent presents more general and natural simpliﬁcations for consonants as well; indeed, the preconsonantal nasals can be homorganic, and we can do without all the peculiar taxophones, such as the stop taxophones; furthermore, /j, K/ could always be approximants, (j, ˜) (or perhaps, even (K); while substantial use of (º) is not as good; /w/ is velar rounded, (w). Even for /S, Z/, of course, (S, Z) su‚ce (instead of (/, \)). ˛e frequent devoicing of sonants is not necessary either, whereas for the devoicing of diphonic pairs something in between would do: (yM'fam) {(yn'fÅm)n} une femme˚ (&y˙k˜a'vat) {(&ynküÅ'vÅt)n} une cravate˚ (ty'di) {(+y'_i)n} tu d¤˚ (kaut'Su) {(©Å¯T'/U)n} caout>ouc˚ ('kOk) {('k∏©)n} coq˚ ('gid) {('áid)n} guide˚ ('pje) {('p¿e)n} pied˚ ('kij) {('©i,)n} quille˚ ('˜a:˜÷ 'Ka:K) {('ºÅ:˜)n} rare˚ ('t˜u, 'tKu) {('tü¯)n} trou˚ ('mwa) {('m°Å)n} mo¤÷ (m™∂'sí, &an™â'dOt) {(m™t'sì, &Ån™á'd∏t)n} médecin˚ anecdote˘ ˛e length of vowels and consonants corresponds to the neutral accent, but can be more attenuated, aiming at, above all, avoiding the di‡erences in length due to interference from the mother tongue. Liaisons may be less frequent and intonation, less peculiar, is shown in the given tonogram. /u/ (u[:])

/i/ (i[:]), /y/ (y[:]) /e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /ù/ (#) /E, í/ (E[:], í[:]) {(’™, ’™)} /§, ^/ (§[:], ^[:]) {(’#, ’})} /a/ (a[:])

/o, Ú/ (o[:], Ú[:]) /O/ (O[:]) {/’O/ (ø)} /Õ/ (ú[:]) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

çMediaticÇ accent 4.4.2.1. ˛is accent is spread by television and radio. It is based on the Parisian accent, and shares quite a few characteristics with modern neutral, although it shows further evolution which moves it further away from the çinternationalÇ accent (§ 4.4.1).

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It also manifests some ﬂuctuation both towards and away from neutral; however, we show it here in its most typical form, indicating some internal di‡erences too, for instance of an uneducated or suburban level (a peculiarity of the Parisian banliSe). In this section the vocogram is given of the vowels for which there are deﬁnitely gradations (comparing it to ﬁg 4.1, of neutral); here, we bring your attention to the major di‡erences. ˛e fronting of /u, O/ (%, @) (and /’O/ (ê), ¤ unstressed) is evident; the (anti-clockwise) rotation of /í, Õ, Ú/ (a, _, œ), (and /’Õ/ (Ô)), is just as evident, as is the absence of /^/ which merges with /í/ (a), or varies between the two, even with an intermediate realization (not shown explicitly in the vocogram) (8), with slight rounding. (In the ﬂuctuations towards the neutral accent, we have (£), as well; or (Õ), ¤ with a slight derounding). ˛e /EK, §K, OK/ sequences often shift back one box: (Ä[:]‰, ’É‰÷ @[:]‰, ’ê‰÷ ∏[:]‰ ’Ö‰÷). Furthermore, note in the vocogram the values for a\ (even if with individual ﬂuctuations) the distinction is generally maintained between /a/ and /A/, which traditional neutral had adopted. However, the timbres (of Parisian and) of the çmediaticÇ accent are: /a/ (å), but (Ä) for /aK[0]é, wa/, and /'A[0]ò/ (å), but /’A/ (A) (in the banliSe˚ we have /wa/ (’°A, '°å), often /aKò/ (å:‰) ar(C)˚ even more often /ajò/ (å:,), but (ås¿œò) for /AsjÚ/ -ation˚ of traditional neutral). Some examples follow (where t indicates traditional neutral): ('t°) {('tU)n} tout˚ ('n@t) {('n∏t)n} note˚ (bê'n@:‰) {(bÖ'n§:˜)n} bonhSr˚ (&P\T‰'_¥i, -ê‰-) {(&P\¨˜'_¥i)n} aujourd'hui˚ ('b,a) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ (\Ô't_) {(\Œ'tŒ)n} j'entend˚ ('bœ) {('bÚ)n} bon˚ (P'©a, -8) {(P'©^)n} aucun˘ Others: ('pÄ:‰) {('pE:˜)n} père˚ ('p@:‰) {('p§:˜)n} pSr˚ ('p∏:‰) {('p∏:˜)n} port˚ ('p@ú 's∏:‰) {('p∏ú 's∏:˜)n} Paul sort˚ (pÄ'‰i) {(pÅ'ºi)n} Par¤˚ (pÄ”'+i:‰) {(påÆ'+i:˜)n} partir˚ (v°Ä'lå) {(v°Å'lÅ)n} voilà˚ ('s#Ä:‰) {('s#Å:˜)n} soir˚ ('©å:‰) {('©Å:˜)n} car˘ Also: (på'på) {(pÅ'pÅ)n} papa˚ (pA'så:\) {(pÅ'sÅ:\)n} pøsage˚ ('g‰å) {('gºÅ)n, ('gºA)t} grø˚ ('g‰å:s) {('gºÅs)n, ('gºA:s)t} grøse˚ ('_,å:ba) {('_,Åba)n, ('_,A:ba)t} diable˘ For the banliSe accent; (v°A'lå) {(v°Å'lÅ)n} voilà˚ ('s#A:‰) {('s#Å:˜)n} soir˚ ('kå:‰) {('©Å:˜)n} car˚ ('på:,) {('pÅ,)n} pPlle˚ (t”å'vå:,) {(tüÅ'vÅ,)n, (-A:,)t} travPl˚ (p”ê&nœs¿å's¿œ) {(püÖ&nÚs¿Å's¿Ú)n, (-s¿A-)t} prononciation˘ ˛ere is a strong tendency to merge /eò, Eò/ into /e/ (but with many oscillations due to hypercorrection and undecidedness; some even use the intermediate timbre, (™), always or above all for -P): (p%'le) /pu'lE/ poulet˘ 4.4.2.2. For the C, as well as for /K/ (as seen in some examples), which is typically (‰), but can be –as well as in neutral– even (˜), especially to give emphasis: ('‰y) {('ºy)n} rue˚ ('t”%) {('tü¯)n} trou˚ ('©åtx) {('©ÅtX)n} quatre÷ we must add that on an uneducated level, the çpalatalizationÇ of /t, d÷ k, g/ is much more evident, with articulations going from stops to stopstrictives, (⁄, Á÷ ›, k): (⁄y'Ái) {(+y'_i)n} tu d¤˚ ('mEk) {('mE©)n} mec˚ ('›id) {('áid)n} guide; /w/ is provelar rounded, (°): ('m°Ä) /'mwa/ mo¤. ˛e length in the mediatic accent, apart from what has already been said for the neutral one, presents a typical half-lengthening of the vocoid of the unchecked pretonic syllable, ¤ the syllable that precedes the stressed syllable of an intoneme (of-

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ten this prosodic phenomenon is incorrectly described as a shift of stress from the last syllable to the penultimate in a rhythm group): (%pÄ;'‰i) {(%pÅ'ºi)n} Par¤˚ (&pÄ%‰i;'z,a) {(&pÅ%˜i'z,ì)n} par¤ien (in these examples, even for neutral French, we explicitly highlight the marked height of the pretonic syllable, which is almost half-high in the two accents, but in the çmediaticÇ one there is also the half-lengthening, seen above). ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of the çmediaticÇ accent: make all the necessary considerations, paying a (fair) bit of attention. /i/ (i[:], ’I‰˘) /u/ (%[:], ’T‰˘) (+/’OK˘/) /y/ (y[:], ’Y‰˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /o/ (P@[:]), /Ú/ (œ#[:]) /’§, ù/ (#) /O/ (@[:], ’ê) {/OK/+(∏[:]‰, ’Ö‰)} /E/ (E[:], ’™) {/EK/+(Ä[:]‰, ’É‰)} /Õ/ (_@[:], ’Ô@) /§/ (§[:], ’#) {/§K/+(@[:]‰, ’ê‰)} /A/ (å[:0]ò, ’A) /aK{0}é, wa/ (Ä[:]), /a/ (å[:]), /í, ^/ (a[:]) /Eò/ (E, ≠e), -aiò (vb.) (e, ±≠™, ≠E) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (% ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/& / (& 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 2 2)

/¡ / (¡ 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (% ' 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

Southern accent (Marseilles) 4.4.3.1. We will now look at one of the accents which is furthest from the neutral accent (but also from the çinternationalÇ and çmediaticÇ ones): Marseilles French as a good representative of the pronunciation of the Midi˘ As can be seen from the vocogram, the V are few: seven plus /ù/. ˛ere is no phonemic opposition between /e, E÷ °, §÷ o, O/; least of all between /a, A/. For /E, ◊, O/ we always have (e, °, o) (even in unstressed syllables), except in stressed syllables followed by C (with or without /ù/), where we ﬁnd (™, #, ø). For /a/ there is a central timbre, (a). ˛e articulation of /ù/ is unrounded central, (È), except in contact with /K/, where there is rounding, (+); it corresponds to every e in the spelling (except for Ve\ amie = ami˚ (a'mi)}, and it often appears between C. Furthermore, the nasalized V, /í, ^, Ú, Õ/, are nothing but a sequence of oral vowels and a nasal contoid homorganic to the following C÷ but, before a pause,

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we ﬁnd the semi-provelar, («). ˛e timbre of the çnasalizedÇ vowels is: (e, °, o, å) in unstressed syllables, (™, #, ø, a) in stressed syllables, but (™e, #°, øo, aå) in absolute ﬁnal (stressed) syllables. ˛e only kind of normal lengthening, apart from emphasis, is the half-lengthening, in an intoneme, of the V (followed by a C, with or without /ù/), and the diphthongization of the çnasalizedÇ V in absolute ﬁnal position before a pause. In less broad pronunciation, the lengths can be more similar to those of neutral pronunciation (as the timbres and the distribution of /'E, '§, 'O÷ ’E0, ’§0, ’O0/, as well). Some interesting examples follow: ('tu) {('tU)n} tout˚ ('tre) {('tüE)n} très˚ (te'r™e«) {(t™'ºì)n} terrPn˚ (s°l'maå«) {(s#l'mŒ)n} sSlement˚ (&promÈ'nadÈ) {(püÖm'nÅd)n} promenade˚ ('v™e«) {('vì)n} vin˚ (&bjene'me) {(&b,3ne'me)n} bien-Pmé˚ ('m™ns) {('mì:s)n} mince˚ (o'k#°«) {(P'©^)n} aucun˚ (l°n'di) {(l}'_i)n} lundi˚ ('#mblÈ) {('^:ba)n} humble˚ (mo«'nøo«) {(mÚ'nÚ)n} mon nom˚ ('nømbr+) {('nÚ:bX)n} nombre˚ (òån'taå«) {(\Œ'tŒ)n} j'entend˚ ('lampÈ) {('lŒ:p)n} lampe˚ ('di;r) {('_i:˜)n} dire˚ ('vwa;r) {('v°Å:˜)n} voir˚ (pÈ'n°) {(p'n°)n} pnS˚ (&òÈtÈ&lÈdÈ'mandÈ) {(/&t#ld#'mŒ:d)n} je te le demande˚ (&òÈnÈ&tÈl+&r+dÈ'mandÈ 'pa) {(\#n&t#lº#d&mŒn'pÅ)n} je ne te le redemande pø˘ A less broad accent can have some partially nasalized V in stressed syllables: ('m™ens) {('mì:s)n} mince˚ (ëi'™e«) {('/¿ì)n} >ien˚ ('#JmblÈ) {('^:ba)n} humble˚ ('br#J«) {('bº^)n} brun˚ ('laAmpÈ) {('lŒ:p)n} lampe˚ ('baA«) {('bŒ)n} banc˚ ('nøÚmbr+) {('nÚ:bX)n} nombre˚ ('bøÚ«) {('bÚ)n} bon. 4.4.3.2. For the consonants, we can observe that all the taxophones of neutral pronunciation are not present; furthermore: /n/+/0/ (m, M, n, ~, N, ˙), /nm, nK/ («m, «r), /S, Z/ (ë, ò), /j/ (j), /w/ (°), /N, nj/ (~j), /Ni/ (ni), /lj, l¥/ (¬j, ¬¥), /'[0]/+/jé, ¥é, wé/ ([0])+(i'é, y'é, u'é), /K/ (r) (even (‰), especially before a consonant; and, in less broad accent, also (K, ˜)}: (åM'v™;r) {(Œ'vE:˜)n} envers˚ ('ba˙kÈ) {('bŒ:©)n} banque˚ (å«'ri) {(Œ'ºi)n} Henri˚ (òÈ'ë™rëÈ) {(\#'/EÆ/)n} je >er>e˚ (&trava'je) {(&tüÅvÅ',e)n} travPller˘ ˛e banlieu accent has /t, d/ (+, _) + /i, j, y, ¥/, and /K/ tendentially voiceless (3) (and (x, ', ˜)). Furthermore: (mon'ta~jÈ) {(mÚ'tÅN)n} montagne˚ (&ma~je'rizmÈ) {(&mÅ~,e'ºis))n} maniér¤me˚ (¬je'zøo«) {(¬,e'zÚ)n} lia¤on˚ (k¥i'zi;nÈ) {(©Îi'zin)n} cu¤ine˚ (&òÈsy'i) {(\#'sÎi, /'sÎi)n} je su¤˚ (ly'i) {('¬¥i)n} lui˚ (lu'i) {('l°i)n} Lou¤˚ (bi'™e«) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ ('ra;r+, '‰a;‰+) {('ºÅ:˜)n} rare˘ Hence, (j) is maintained well only before a non-ﬁnal V; indeed, we generally have: ('p™i) {('pE,)n} pZe˚ (pe'i) {(pe',i)n} pZs˘ Consonant clusters are simpliﬁed, as in: (di'r™;k) {(_i'ºEkt)n} direct˚ (di'r™;t) {(_i'ºEkt)n} directe˚ (os'ky;r) {(Öp's©y:˜)n} obscur˚ (&aòek'ti;f) {(&ÅD\™©'+if)n} adjectif˚ (se'tambr+) {(s™p'tŒ:bX)n} septembre÷ (a've) {(Å'vE©)n} avec÷ but: (sò) in words such as: dix˚ six˚ alors˚ lors˚ gens˚ Sx˚ cSx˚ cours˚ vers˚ jad¤˚ av¤˚ moins˚ Roux˚ Poux˚ †iers˚ Arno¨˘ ˛ere is no devoicing, as can be seen in the examples given, neither for V, nor for C. Lia¤on is rare, as a matter of fact, it only occurs with /z/ in articles, pronouns and plural masculine adjectives; however, there is no concept of a çdisjunctive hÇ, hence, the use of linking and elision, ™: (le'zø;mÈ) {(l™'z∏m)n} lπ hommπ˚ (&meza'mi) {(&mezÅ'mi)n} mπ am¤˚ (&noza'mi) {(&nPzÅ'mi)n} nos am¤˚ (&l°rza'f™;r+)

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{(&l#˜zÅ'fE:˜)n} lSrs a‡Prπ˚ (&vuzi're) {(&v¯zi'ºe)n} vo¨ irez˚ (&i[l]za've) {(&i[l]zÅ'vE)n} ils avPent˚ (&diza'mi) {(&_izÅ'mi)n} dix amiπ˘ Furthermore: ('gro zani'mo) {('gºP zÅni'mP)n} gros animaux˚ ('gran zåM'faå«) {('gºŒ zŒ'fŒ)n} grands enfants˚ (i[l]&nuzåm'parlÈ) {(i[l]&n¯zŒ'pÅ˜l)n} il no¨ en parlent÷ besides: (le&zari'ko) {(&leÅ˜i'kP)n} lπ haricots˚ (&°ne'ro) {(}e'ºP)n} un héro˘ ˛e identity of lexemes in sentences remains distinct, with no resyllabiﬁcation, contrary to what happens with grammemes: (°m'b™l wa'zo) {(}'bE l°Å'zP)n} un bel ois›˚ ('bø« ape'ti) {('bÖ nÅpe'+i)n} bon appétit˚ (&°«-wa'zo) {(&}-n°Å'zP)n} un ois›˚ (™&laòy're) {(™&lÅ\y'ºe)n} elle a juré˘ ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of Marseilles accent. /i/ (i), /y/ (y)

/u/ (u)

/e, E/ (eò, ™0, ™0È, ’e) /°, §/ (°ò, #0, #0È, ’°) /í/ (™ö0, ™e«ò, ’eö) /^/ (#ö0, #°«ò, ’°ö) /a/ (a)

/o, O/ (oò, ø0, ø0È, ’o) /ù/ (È, r+, +r) /Ú/ (øö0, øo«ò, ’oö) /Õ/ (aö0, aå«ò, ’åö) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Canadian accent (Québec) 4.4.4.1. ˛e accent we describe here is the normal, or rather çneutral CanadianÇ pronunciation. ˛ere are quite a few other variants (which ﬁll two other vocograms, given in § 4.6.3), which are both broader (and decidedly broader, or uneducated), and even less broad, that aim for neutral European or international French; there could be many (and quite di‡erent) things to add, but it seemed better to simplify and present this accent homogeneously, as done with the others. However, the variants will be included in a speciﬁc book on French pronunciations. Before examining the timbres of the vowels, it must be said that in Canada both /A/ and /E:/ still exist, and /e:/ can even be found. For /A/, apart from traditional cases (still transcribed thus in dictionaries), as: ('på∏t) {('pÅt)n, ('pA:t)t} pâte˚ ('tå∏/)n {('tÅ/), ('tA:/)t} tâ>e˚ ('må∏l) {('mÅl)n, ('mA:l)t} mâle, compared to ('pÅt) {('pÅt)n} patte˚ ('tÅ/) {('tÅ/)n} ta>e˚ ('mÅl) {('mÅl)n} malle÷ (&påqi'sªe) {(&pÅ+i's¿e)n,

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(&pA-)t} pât¤sier÷ we also have an expansion of its frequency, to practically all cases of /a|, wa|, av|, az|, as|, aZ|, aj|, aö|, aK|, ’aK/ (with possible ﬂuctuation, especially for /av|, az|/ and -ation˚ which have both /A/ and /a/). ˛ere is actual neutralization too, as for: ('kå) which goes for both ('©Å) {('kA)t} cø and ('©Å) {('©Å)t} k÷ however, the contextual distribution –with ç/A/Ç in an intoneme– leads to situations such as: ('sÅ '\E≈ 'så) ça… j'Pme ça˘ ˛ere is ﬂuctuation between (wå|) and (wÅ|) (the latter is generally considered to be more uneducated), up to (w™), decidedly dialectal: ('mwå÷ 'mwÅ÷ 'mw™) moi˘ ˛e çoldÇ opposition between /E/ and /E:/ is stable, we have for example: ('mEt5) /'mEtK/ mettre˚ ('mE™t5) /'mEtK/ {/'mE:tK/t} maître÷ ('fEt) /'fEt/ fPte˚ ('fE™t) /'fEt/ {/'fE:t/t} fête˚ ('sEn) /'sEn/ sPne˚ ('sE™n) /'sEn/ {/'sE:n/t} scène (which now, in neutral European French, is only: ('mEtX, 'fEt, 'sEn)n); whereas for the çnewÇ opposition constituted by ç/e:/Ç, we have examples such as: ('neI\) ç/'ne:Z/Ç nRge˚ ('bReI©) ç/'bKe:k/Ç bréque (or brake] (/'nEZ, 'bKEk/n ('nE:\, 'bºE©)n). 4.4.4.2. In checked stressed syllables in /v, z, Z, K, vK/, all recurring V are realized as diphthongs (here are only some examples): ('lIiv5) /'livK/ livre˚ ('pYyR) /'pyK/ pur˚ ('RUu\) /'KuZ/ rouge˚ ('Rå∏\, 'RÅå\) /'KaZ/ rage (('li:vX, 'py:˜, 'º¯:\, 'ºÅ:\)n). ˛e same occurs for /E:, e, °, o, A/ in an intoneme for any checked syllables (without repeating examples): ('f°Yt5) /'f°tK/ fStre˚ ('\oUn) /'Zon/ jaune (('f°:tX, '\P:n)n), and even in a preintoneme for unchecked syllables (again, without repetition): (&ÅR™e'te) /aKe'te/ arrêter˚ (neI'\e) /ne'Ze/ nRger˚ (f°Y'tÍe) /f°'tKe/ fStré˚ (\oU'nå∏t5) /Zo'natK/ jaunâtre˚ (få∏'/e) /fa'Se/ fâ>é ((&Å˜e'te, ne'\e, f°'tüe, \P'nÅtX, fÅ'/e)n). In the broader or more uneducated accent, there is even the fusion of these two characteristics, whereby for an unchecked syllable in a preintoneme, the V often diphthongize if followed by /v, z, Z, K, vK/ (the ﬁrst vocogram of § 4.6.3 shows (™e', #°', øo')): (&ÅqIi'Re) /ati'Ke/ attirer˚ (\Yy\'mÅA) /ZyZ'mÕ/ jugement˚ (&epUu'ze) /epu'ze/ épo¨ée˚ (t™e'R™e) /tE'Kí/ terrPn˚ (b#°'Re) ç/b§'Ke/Ç bSrrée˚ (°Y'R°) /°'K°/ hSrSx˚ (&øRløo'\E™R) /OKlO'ZEK/ horlogère˚ (&ekÍÅå'ze, -å∏-) /ekKa'ze/ écrøé÷ or if they are /e, °, o/ (even when non-derived or in syntagms): (leI'pªe) /le'pje/ lπ pieds˚ (d°Y'm™e) /d°'mí/ dSx mPns˚ (soU'få) /so'fa/ sofa˘ Nasalized V diphthongize in an intoneme (¤ both in tonic and pretonic syllables), but they are short in a preintoneme: ('f™e) /'fí/ ﬁn˚ (s™e'qYyR) /sí'tyK/ cRnture˚ (o'©}J) /o'k^/ aucun˚ (}J'\UuR) /^'ZuK/ un jour˚ (mÓ9'nÓ9) /mÚ'nÚ/ mon nom˚ (\ÅA'tÅA) /ZÕ'tÕ/ j'entends÷ (&™fi'ni) /ífi'ni/ inﬁni˚ (&}nÅ'mi) /^na'mi/ un ami˚ (&mÓnÅ'mi) /mÚna'mi/ mon amie˚ (Å&nÅtÅA'dÅA) /ÕnÕtÕ'dÕ/ en entendant (('fì, s3'+y:˜, P'©^, }'\¯:˜, mÚ'nÚ, \Œ'tŒ÷ &3fi'ni, &}nÅ'mi, &mÚnÅ'mi, Œ&nŒtŒ'dŒ)n). 4.4.4.3. Another notable peculiarity is that /i, y, u/ in a checked syllable (stressed or not), are lower-high: ('vIf) /'vif/ vif˚ ('lYn) /'lyn/ lune˚ ('tUt) /'tut/ toute {('vif, 'lyn, 't¯t)n), as even in the ﬁrst unchecked syllable of a word or a rhythm group: (fI'lIp) /fi'lip/ Philippe˚ (Y'nI©) /y'nik/ unique˚ (kU'zIn) /ku'zin/ co¨ine˚ and also in other subsequent unchecked syllables, in words or rhythm groups that end in checked syllables: (&pÍImI'qIiv, pÍI≈'q-) /pKimi'tiv/ primitive˚ (&\YRI'QI©, \YR'Q-) /ZyKi'dik/ juridique÷ other examples: (&mInIs'tE™R, mIns-) /minis'tEK/ mini®ère˚ (&Å-

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k.s'qI©) /akus'tik/ acou®ique {(fi'lip, y'ni©, k¯'zin÷ &püimi'+i:v, &\y˜i'_i©÷ &minis'tE:˜, &Åk¯s'+i©)n). ˛e less broad accent can limit the occurrence of (I, Y, U) only in checked syllables, or only in stressed checked syllables, as well; the decidedly less broad accent, and more controlled, could have no (I, Y, U) at all. Again, /i, y, u/ present two other peculiarities (except in slow or controlled speech); indeed, when unstressed, they are devoiced between voiceless C, in checked or unchecked syllables: (&kÓfN'qYyR) /kÚfi'tyK/ conﬁture˚ (&åÍqNs'qI©) /aKtis'tik/ arti®ique˚ (&QIspÛ'te) /dispy'te/ d¤puté˚ (&deku'på∏\) /deku'paZ/ découpage {(&kÚfi'+y:˜, &ÅÆ+is'+i©, &_ispy'te, &dek¯'pÅ:\)n). ˛ey can be dropped between a constrictive or sonant and another C, or between a stop and a non-stop (even other V˚ above all, /e/): (&pÍøfe's§#R, pÍøf's-) /pKOfE's§K/ profπsSr˚ (&Yniv™Ísi'te, &Ynv™Ís'te) /ynivEKsi'te/ université˚ (&Åbili'te, &ÅbIú'te) /abili'te/ habilité˚ (&mÅNI'fI©, mÅ˚'-, mÅJ'-, mÅ9'-) /maNi'fik/ magniﬁque˚ (bI'zå∏R, b'z-) /bi'zaK/ bizarre˚ (pø&pylå∏'sªÓ9, &pøpúå∏-) /pOpyla'sjÚ/ population˚ (e&pyRå∏'sªÓ9, &epÍå∏-) /epyKa'sjÚ/ épuration˚ (&bujø'ne, bjø-) /bujO'ne/ bouillonner˚ (&pinÅ'je, pnÅ-) /pina'je/ pinPller˚ (&øRe'je, øR'je) /OKe'je/ orRller˚ (&lÅkø'mOd, lÅ©'≈Od) la commode {(&püÖf™'s§:˜, &yni&v™Æsi'te, Å&bili'te, &mÅNi'fi©, bi'zÅ:˜, pÖ&pylÅ's¿Ú, e&py˜Å's¿Ú, &b¯,Ö'ne, &pinÅ',e, &Ö˜e',e, &lÅkÖ'm∏d)n). Even /ù/ drops more often than in European French: ('lY© s+pÍø'mEn, 'lYks p-) Luc se promène {('ly© s#püÖ'mEn)n}, and presents even distributions which are often considered uneducated, like: ('fE™R+ú 'f¨) fPre le fou {('fE;˜ l#'fU)n}. Furthermore, there is generally no vowel adjustment: (™'me, ™'mE) –in a broader accent (™e-)– {(e'me, ™'mE)n} Pmé˚ Pma¤˘ /i/ (i, I, Ii), /y/ (y, Y, Yy)

/u/ (u, U, Uu)

/e/ (e, eI), /°/ (°, °Y) /í/ ('™e, ™e', ’™), /ù/ (+) /E/ (E, E™, ’™) /§/ (§, §#, ’#), /^/ ('}J, }J', ’}) /a/ (Å, Åå), /Õ/ ('ÅA, ÅA', ’Å)

/o/ (o, oU) /O/ (O, @ @Oø, ’ø) @ /Ú/ ('/Ó9, Ó9' / , ’Ó) / /A/ (å, å∏)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

4.4.4.4. For the C, besides the examples already given, we can observe that /nj, n¥/ are (~j, ~¥) (on a broad, uneducated level /nj/ becomes /N/): (pÅ'~je) /pa'nje/ panier˚ (ÅA'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui {(pÅ'~,e, Œ'~¥i)n); /N/ varies between (N) and (J): (mÓ9'tå∏N, -'tå∏J) /mÚ'taN/ montagne˚ (&Ås™N'mÅA, &Ås™J'-) /ÕsEN'mÕ/ ensRgnement

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{(mÚ'tÅN, &Œs™N'mŒ)n). Furthermore, /w/ is (w): ('mwå) /'mwa/ mo¤˘ Of all the stops, /t, d/ present a typical stopstrictive realization, (q, Q), before /i, y÷ j, ¥/: ('qIp) /'tip/ type˚ ('QYyR) /'dyK/ dur˚ ('qª™e) /'tjí/ tiens˚ (kÓ9'Q¥IiR) /kÚ'd¥iK/ conduire {('+ip, '_y:˜, '+¿ì, kÚ'_¥i:˜)n)˘ It is possible for this articulation not to extend beyond the rhythm group or word: (s™'tIl, s™'qIl) /sE'til/ Sept-Îlπ (® ('sE 'tIl) /'sE 'til/ sept îlπ]˚ (dI'må∏\, QI-, -Åå\) /di'maZ/ d'imagπ (® ('Qi 'må∏\, -Åå\) /'di 'maZ/ dix magπ]˘ On an uneducated level we can ﬁnd (+, _) also before /e, E, a, í, Õ/: (dÅ'te, _Å'+e) dater {(dÅ'te)n), and even (⁄, Á) before /j, ¥/: ('⁄ª™e, kÓ9'Á¥IiR). In Canadian French too, we ﬁnd /k, g/ (©, á) (with (k, ›) on an uneducated level) before front V (up to /Õ, ù/) and before a pause: ('á§l) /'g§l/ guSle˚ ('kO©) /'kOk/ coq˘ Before a pause, stops can be unreleased: ('©Åp, -pæ) /'kap/ cap˚ ('dÅt, -tæ) /'dat/ date˚ ('RO©, -©æ) /'KOk/ roque˚ ('lÅAá, -áæ) /'lÕg/ langue˚ ('RYd, -dæ) /'Kyd/ rude˘ At times, /p, t, k/ can be çaspiratedÇ, after a pause or if initial in stressed syllables (which we mark here with (0·)): (p·÷'p·It5) /py'pitK/ pupitre˚ (t·ø&tÅli't·e, &t·øtÅú't·e) /tOtali'te/ totalité˚ (&k·åRÅ'k·Ol) /kaKa'kOl/ caracole {(py'pitX, tÖ&tÅli'te, &©Å˜Å'k∏l)n). Even in the many English words, currently used in Canadian French, /tS, dZ/ remain as sequences (T/, D\): (T'/Iip, T'/Ip) /t'Sip/ >eap˚ (D'\Iin, D'\In) /d'Zin/ jeans÷ the second variants are more assimilated, as also occurs with: ('qIim, 'qIm) /'tim/ team˘ In Canadian French, /j/ is an approximant; /K/ is typically an alveolar tap, (R): ('Rå∏R) /'KaK/ rare, which constitutes traditional and neutral Canadian pronunciation; however, it is often uvular (approximant, trill or constrictive, (˜, K, º), especially in less broad pronunciation, or in the mediatic one, or even verging on modern, spreading from the city of Québec). In English words, we often ﬁnd the uvularized velar (or the prevelar one – both with a slight postalveolarization and labialization, as in the Canadian English pronunciation), (<, <): (itecte˚ (&søsªÅ'lis) /sOsja'lism, -ist/ social¤me˚ -i®e˚ ('mYs©) /'myskl/ m¨cle˚ ('Ó9á, 'Ó9˙) /'Ú:gl/ ongle˚ (øÍ'©Es) /OK'kEstK/ or>e®re˚ ('Ó9b, 'Ó9m) /'ÚbK/ ombre÷ on the other hand, especially on an uneducated level, we can have /`/ = /t/: (\¥i'jEt, \¥I-) /Z¥i'jE/ juillet˚ (qi'©Et, qI-) /ti'kE/ ticket˚ (d+'bUt) /dù'bu/ debout˚ ('pÍEt) /'pKE/ prêt˚ ('~¥It) /'n¥i/ nuit˚ ('lIt) /'li/ lit˚ (kÓ9'púEt) /kÚ'plE/ complet˚ (bRy'nEt) /bKy'nE/ Brunet˚ (&møRi'sEt) /mOKi'sE/ Mor¤set˚ (tÅl'bOt) /tal'bo/ Talbot˘ Cases such as (p'qi tÅ'mi) /pù'ti ta'mi/ petit ami and (p'qI tÅ'mi, p'qIt Å'mi) /pù'ti ta'mi/ petite amie maintain the distinction of the V in a checked syllable (of petite]. ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of Canadian French.

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Text 4.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in seven di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) French pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e French translation follows, in its neutral version; then the çinternationalÇ accent, followed by the çmediatic/ParisianÇ one and, lastly, the Marseilles and Canadian versions. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of French, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in French (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version of the French pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of French, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). French pronunciation (of English) 4.5.1. (z#'n∏Æ 's°in2 dÅnz#'s^n2 °#˜_is'p¿¯+i˙ '°i\ °Öz#sçtüÚ˙g#˜3 3| '°E n#'tüÅvl#Æ2 'kE m#'lÚ˙2 ì'ºEp +in#'°∏˜≈ çkú∏k3 3œ| ze#'gºid2\ zÅdz#'°Å n¯'f§Æ s#k'si_i2 _i'mE©i˙ z#'tüÅvl#Æ2 'tE ©is'kúÖ 5k∏f1 1| &/¯bikÚn'sid#Æts "tüÚ˙g#˜ &zÅnziç§z#˜3 3|| 'zìn2 z#'n∏Æ 's°ind#2 'bl¯2 Å'zÅ˜2 dÅziçk¯d3 3| &b#dz#'m∏ ˜i5bl¯1 1| z#'m∏Æ 'kú∏zli2 &_idz#'tüÅvl#Æ2\ 'f∏l _is'kú∏ k#çºÅ¯n_im3 3| ì&ÅndÅt'úÅst2œ\ z#'n∏Æ 's°in2 á™'v§b zi#çtìmt#3 3|| ì'zìn2œ z#'s^n /Ö'nÅ¯t3 3 ìç°∏˜mli3 3œ| &Ån_i'mi_,#túi2\ ˚z#'tüÅvl#ü T¯çk∏f3 3 ˚isçkú∏k3 3|| ìÅn'sP2œ z#'n∏Æ 's°ind#2 &°Öz#'blÅi\d# t¯kÚn'fEs2| &zÅdz#çs^n3 3 °Öz#sçtüÚ˙g#3 3 ì&˜Övz#çt¯3 3œ|| ¿&_i_,¯•lÅiá1 1 ¿z#s't∏˜i2| ¿_,¯'°Ún t°i˜it#•áEn1 1|||)

French Text 4.5.2. La b¤e et le solRl se d¤putPent˚ un jour, prétendant l'un comme l'Qtre être le pl¨ fort, lorsqu'ils virent s'avancer un voyagSr, enveloppé dans son mant›. Lπ dSx adversPrπ décidèrent, alors, que serPt déclaré vPnquSr celui qui, le premier, parviendrPt à le lui fPre ôter.

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La b¤e se mit, alors, à sou·er de toutπ sπ forcπ; ma¤, pl¨ elle sou·Pt, pl¨ le voyagSr se serrPt dans son manteQ, tant et si bien, qu'à la ﬁn, la pQvre b¤e dut renoncer à sπ intentions. Le solRl se montra, alors, dans le ciel, et le voyagSr, qui Q bout d'un moment commençPt à avoir >Qd, retira son manteQ. C'e® Pnsi que la b¤e dut reconnaître que le solRl étPt le pl¨ fort dπ dSx. Tu ø Pmé cette hi®oire? Tu vSx la réentendre? Neutral French pronunciation 4.5.3. (lÅ'bi; z™ú%sÖ'lE,2\ s#&_ispy'tE2 ‘}'\¯:˜2’| &püe%tŒ'dŒ2 ‘'l^ kÖm'lP:tX2’| &™tú#%púyçf∏:˜3 3| &lÖÆs©i[l]'vi;Æ &sÅ%vŒ'se2 }&v°Å%,Åç\§:˜3 3| &Œv%lÖ'pe dŒ&sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| le&d°zÅd%v™Æ'sE:˜2 &de%si'dE:Æ3 3 ‘tÅ'l∏:˜2’| ©#s&ü™de%kúÅ'ºe v35©§:˜1 1| s#'¬¥i2 ‘©iú%pü#'m,e2’ på˜%v,3'dºE Ål[#]&¬¥if™%˜Pçte3 3|| lÅ'bi:z2 s#çmi3 3 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’\ Å%s¯'fú™t2 t¯t%seçf∏üs3 3| m™&púy™ús¯5fúE1 1| 'púyl v°Å%,Å'\§:˜2 s#s™'ºE dŒ&sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| &tŒtesi5b,ì1 1| ‘&©Å%lÅ'fì2’ &lÅ%pP;v'bi:z2\ &_Y˜%nÚ'se Åse&z3%tŒçs¿Ú3 3|| &l#%sÖ'lE,2 s#mÚ'tüÅ2 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’\ %dŒúçs¿El3 3| ™l&v°Å%,Å'\§:˜2 ‘©iP&b¯d}%mÖ'mŒ2’ &kÖmŒ'sE Å[Å]v°ÅÆ5/P1 1| ˚&º#%+içºÅ3 3 ˚sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| &s™t3'si kúÅ'bi:z2\ &_YÆkÖ'nEt ©#ú%sÖ'lE,2 ™&t™úpúyçf∏:˜3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ|| ¿+ÎÅe•me1 1 ‘¿s™%+is't#Å:˜2’| ¿+y&v°lÅ˜eŒ•tŒ:dX1 1|||) çInternationalÇ French pronunciation 4.5.4. (la'bi; z™lsø'lEj2\ s#&dispy'tE2 ‘}'Zu:˜2’| &p˜etú'dú2 ‘'l^ køm'lo:t˜2’| &™tl#plyçfO:˜3 3| &lø˜ski[l]'vi;˜ &savú'se2 }&vwajaçZ§:˜3 3| &úvlø'pe dú&sÚmúçto3 3|| le&d°zadv™˜'sE:˜2 &desi'dE:˜3 3 ‘[t]a'lO:˜2’| k#s&˜™dekla'˜e v™5k§:˜1 1| s#'l¥i2 ‘kilp˜#'mje2’ pa˜vj™'d˜E al[#]&l¥if™˜oçte3 3|| la'bi:z2 s#çmi3 3 ‘a'lO:˜2’\ asu'fl™∂2 tutseçfO˜s3 3| m™&ply™lsu5flE1 1| 'plyl vwaja'Z§:˜2 s#s™'˜E dú&sÚmúçto3 3|| &tú[t]esi5bjí1 1| ‘&kala'fí2’ &lapov[˜#]'bi:z2\ &dy˜nÚ'se ase&z™túçsjÚ3 3|| &l#sø'lEj2 s#mÚ't˜a2 ‘a'lO:˜2’\ dúlçsjEl3 3| ™l&vwaja'Z§:˜2 ‘kio&bud™mø'mú2’ &kømú'sE a[a]vwa˜5So1 1| ˚&˜#tiç˜a3 3 ˚sÚmúçto3 3|| &s™t™'si kla'bi:z2\ &dY˜kø'nEt[˜#] k#lsø'lEj2 ™&t™lplyçfO:˜3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ|| ¿t¥ae'me21 ‘¿s™tis'twa:˜2’| ¿ty&v°la˜eú'tú:d˜21|||) çMediaticÇ, Parisian French pronunciation 4.5.5. (lå'bi; z™ú%sê;'lE,2\ s#&_is%py;'te2 ‘%a;'\%:‰2’| &p”e%tÔ;'d_2 ‘'la %kêm'lP:tx2’| &™tú#%púy;çf∏:‰3 3| &lê”s©i[l]'vi;” &så%vÔ;'se2 a&v°Ä%,å;ç\@:‰3 3| &Ôvlê'pe dÔ&sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| le&d°zåd%vÉ”'sÄ:‰2 &de%si;'dE:”3 3 ‘%tå;'l∏:‰2’| ©#s&”™dekúå'‰e %va;5©@:‰2 2| %s#;'¬¥i2 ‘©iú%p”#;'m,e2’ pÄ‰v,a'd‰e ål&¬¥if™%‰P;çte3 3||

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%lå;'bi:z2 %s#;çmi3 3 ‘%å;'l∏:‰2’\ å%s%;'fú™t2 t%t%se;çf∏”s3 3| m™&púy™ús%;5fúe2 2| 'púyl v°Ä%,å;'\@:‰2 s#s™'‰e dÔ&sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| &tÔtesi;5b,a2 2| ‘&©å%lå;'fa2’ &lå%pP;v'bi:z2\ &_Y‰%nœ'se åse&za%tÔ;çs¿œ3 3|| &l#%sê;'lE,2 s#%mœ;'t”å2 ‘%å;'l∏:‰2’\ %dÔúçs¿El3 3| ™l&v°Ä%,å;'\@:‰2 ‘©iP&b%da%mê;'m_2’ &kêmÔ'se å[å]v°Ä”5/P2 2| ˚&‰#%+i;ç‰å3 3 ˚sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| &s™ta'si %kúå;'bi:z2\ &_Y”kê'nEt ©#ú%sê;'lE,2 ™&t™ú%púy;çf∏:‰3 3 ì%de;çd°3 3œ|| ¿+Îåe;'me21 ‘¿s™%+is't#Ä:‰2’| ¿+y&v°lÄ‰eÔ;'t_:dx21|||) Southern pronunciation: Marseilles 4.5.6. (la'bi; zelÈso'l™;j2\ sÈ&dispy'te2 ‘°~'òu;r2’| &pretån'daå«2 ‘'l#°˙ komÈ'lø;tr+2’| &™t[r+]lÈply'fø;r3 3| &lorski[l]'vi;r+ &savån'se2 °M&vwaja'ò#;r3 3| &aMvÈlo'pe dån&so«mån'to3 3|| le&d°[z]adver's™;r+2 &desi'd™;r3 3 ‘ta'lø;r[s]2’| kÈs+&redekla're ve˙Ìk#;r2 2| sÈ'l¥i2 ‘ki&lÈpr+'mje2’ parvjen'dre alÈ&l¥if™ro'te3 3|| la'bi;zÈ2 sÈ'mi3 3 ‘a'lø;r[s]2’\ 2asu'fle2 dÈ&tutÈse'førsÈ3 3| &meply&™lÈsuÌfle2 2| 'ply lÈvwaja'ò#;r2 sÈse're dån&so«mån'to3 3|| &tåntesiÌbj™e«2 2| ‘&kala'f™en2’ la&pøvr+'bi;zÈ2\ dy&r+non'se ase&zentån'sjøo«3 3|| &lÈso'l™;j2 sÈmon'tra3 3 ‘a'lø;r[s]2’\ &dånlÈ'sj™l3 3| elÈ&vwaja'ò#;r2 ‘kio&bude«mo'maå˙2’ &komån'se a[a]vwarÌëo2 2| ˚&r+ti'ra3 3 ˚so«mån'to3 3|| &seten'si kÈla'bi;zÈ2\ &dyr+ko'nEt[r+] kÈ&lÈso'l™;j2 e&telÈply'fø;r3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ|| ¿t¥ae'me21 ‘¿s™tis'twa;r+2’| ¿ty&v°lareån'tandr+21|||) Canadian pronunciation 4.5.7. (lÅ'bIi z™úsø'lEj2\ s+&QIspÛ'tE2 ‘}J'\UuR2’| &pÍetÅA'dÅA2 ‘'l}J køm'loUt52’| &™tú+púÛ'fOøR3 3| &løÍs©i'vIiÍ &sÅvÅA'se2 }&vwÅjÅ'\§#R3 3| &Åvlø'pe dÅ&sÓmÅA'to3 3|| le&d°zÅdv™Í'sE™R2 &desi'dE™R2 ‘tÅ'lOøR2’| ©+s&Í™dekúÅ'Re v™eÌ©§#R2 2| s+'¬¥i2 ‘©IúpÍ+'mje2’ pÅRvj™e'dRE Ål[+]&¬¥if™RoU'te3 3|| lÅ'bIiz2 s+'mi3 3 ‘Å'lOøR2’\ Ås¨'fú™t2 t.tse'fOÍs3 3| m™&púy™ús¨ÌfúE2 2| 'púYl vwÅjÅ'\§#R2 s+s™'RE dÅ&sÓmÅA'to3 3|| &tÅ[t]esiÌbj™e2 2| ‘&©ÅlÅ'f™e2’ &lÅpoUv'bIiz2\ &QYRnÓ9'se Åse&z™tÅA'sªÓ93 3|| &l+sø'lEj2 s+mÓ9'tÍÅ3 3 ‘Å'lOøR2’\ dÅú'sªEl3 3| ™l&vwÅjÅ'\§#R2 ‘©io&budJmø'mÅA2’ &kømÅA'sE Å[Å]vwåÍÌ/o2 2| ˚&R+qi'RÅ3 3 ˚sÓmÅA'to3 3|| &s™t™e'si kúÅ'bIiz2\ &QYÍkø'nEt ©+úsø'lEj2 ™&t™úpúÛ'fOøR3 3 ìdeçd°Y3 3œ|| ¿qÎÅe'me21 ‘¿s™qNs't‹å∏R2’| ¿qy&v°lÅReÅA'tÅAd521|||) English pronunciation of French 4.5.8. (lÈ5bI;iz2 &™¤ısÈ'l™;I2\ sÈ&D¤spj¯'Th™;I2 ‘‘;~'Z¨;å2’| &ph>™ITØ˙'DØ;˙2 ‘5l‘:˙ &khØm'l‘¨˛>å2’| &™˛>ÈlÈ5phl¯;u 'fø:3 3| 5lø;sk ¤ı'v¤;å sπvØ˙'s™;I2 ‘;˙&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:3 3| &Ø˙vÈlØ5ph™;I DØ˙-

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&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| l™I'D‘: πDvÈ's™;‘3 3 &D™Is¤'D™;‘3 3 ‘È'lø:2’| &kh™IsÈ5>™;I D™IklÈ'>™;I vπ˙'kh‘:32| sÈl¯'I;i2 ‘5khI;i lÈp>È'mj™;I2’ &phA;vjπn'Ã>™;I A;lÈl¯'I;i &f™‘>‘¨'Th™;I3 3|| lÈ5bI;iz2 sÈ'mIiT3 3 ‘È'lø:2’\ &πsÈ'fl™;I2 DÈ5Th¯uT s™I'fø;s3 3|| &m™I5phl¯;u ™ısÈ'fl™;I32| 5phl¯;u lÈ&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:2 sÈsÈ5>™;I DØ˙&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| 5ThØ;˙ ™I&sIibi'π;˙32| ‘&khπlÈ'fπ;˙2’ lÈ5ph‘¨v>È 'bI;iz2\ 5Dj¯u >Ènø;˙'s™;I È&s™Izπ˙TØ˙si'Ø;˙3 3|| lÈsÈ'l™;I2 sÈmø;˙'˛h>A:2 ‘È'lø:2’\ &DØ˙lÈsi'™ı:3 3| ™IlÈ&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:2 ‘&khIiÈ5b¯;u D‘;˙m‘¨'mØ;˙2’ &khØmØ˙5s™;I A;v¯'A: 'S‘;¨32| ˚>ÈT¤'>A:3 3 ˚&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| &s™ITπ˙5sI;i kh™Ilå'bI;iz2\ 'Dj¯;u >ûkû5n™˛>û &kh™IlÈsÈ'l™;I2 ™5T™;I lÈ'phl¯;u 'fø:3 3 ìD™I'D‘:3 3œ|| ¿&Thj¯A;™I'm™;I21 ‘¿&s™T¤sT¯'A:2’| ¿Thj¯u'v‘: lÈ&>™IØ˙'ThØ˙Ã>å21|||) Appendix: further accents 4.6.0. We would like to add some further information: about the a‡ected Parisian accent, in the form of phonosynthesis; and about the Parisian variants of the banliSπ˚ compared to mediatic Parisian (Ô § 4.4.2.1-2 “ § 4.5.2.3); lastly about Canadian variants (Ô § 4.4.4.1-5 “ § 4.5.2.5). In NPT/HPh, you can ﬁnd the phonosyntheses of Acadian French (acadien˚ east Canada, § 21.10) and cadien, Cajun (from Louisiana, § 21.16). A‡ected Parisian 4.6.1. ˛is accent can be heard from representatives of the aristocracy and upper classes, but is not usually highly valued. We give the realizations of the vowels /i/ (i{:}, ’I˜˘) /y/ (y{:}, ’Y˜˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°{:})

/u/ (u{:}, ’U˜˘) /Ú/ (Ú{:}), /o/ (oï{:}) /O/ (O{:}, ’ø) /Õ/ (Õ{:}) (“ ('aò, ’a˜, ’˜a, ’˜wa))

/E/ (E{:}, ’™), /í, ^/ (π{:}) /§/ (§{:}, ’#), /ù/ (#) /a/ ('Aò, 'A0ò, a', ’Å) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ì 2)

/./ (% ç 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ì 2)

/?/ (2 • 2 1)

/& / (& 1 1 5 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/¡ / (¡ 1 1 5 1 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (% ' 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 Ì 2)

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and intonation, which should be carefully compared to the neutral realizations (and, possibly, to the others). Generally, the articulation has less tension than normal, above all in a preintoneme, which also has a higher speed than average, contrary to what happens in an intoneme, which gives a lengthening of the initial contoid of the tonic syllable (¤ stressed in an intoneme), ('0:), and also for V˚ there is often a doubling, in an intoneme, which adds to the normal length: (é, é;, é:) = (éé, é;é, é:é). ˛e tonograms show the characteristics of intonation; the utterance is quite emphatic, with paraphonic expansions. On the whole, the V are a little further back than the neutral (especially the front and back ones, as the approximant /w/ (w), as well, instead of the neutral (°)), and the traditional pronunciation /E:/ can be maintained; furthermore, for /a/, we have ('Aò, 'A0, a', ’Å) (but often we have (a) even in ('aò, ’a˜, ’˜a, ’˜wa)); /í, ^/ are (π); /K/ (˜) (and (˜), for (Æ, ü, X)), often /t, d/ = (4, 7) and /lò/ = (ı). In unstressed syllables, for /p, t, k÷ f, s, S/ we have (p, Ï, k÷ É, s, S); /N, j/ (N, ,) are maintained; we do not ﬁnd (+, _÷ ©, á), but (4, 7÷ ´, Ò). Parisian variants of the çbanlieuesÇ 4.6.2. Compared to mediatic Parisian, the major vowel di‡erences concern: /í ˙ ^, Õ, Ú/ (Å÷ Ô, ’œ÷ Ú); /O/ (,, ’∑); /EK, §K, OK/ with an intermediate timbre, even in stressed syllables, (™, #, ∑); /a/ (å), in all contexts, and /A/ (å, ’∏), including the changes /wa/ (°å, ’°∏), often also /aKò/ (å:‰) >ar[C]≥, very often /ajò/ (å:,), but (å's¿Úò) -ation˘ ˛e lengthening of a V in a pretonic syllable is less marked or less systematic: (2éò') (or even (2é')), instead of (2é;'). /i/ (i[:], ’I‰˘) /y/ (y[:], ’Y‰˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°) /E/ (E, ’™, ™[:]‰) /ù/ (ê), /§/ (@, ’ê, ê[:]‰) /a/ (å[:]) /í, ^/ (Å[:])

/u/ (%[:], ’T‰˘) /o/ (P), /Ú/ (Ú[:]) /Õ/ (Ô[:], ’œ[:]) /O/ (,[:], ’∑, ∑[:]‰) /A/ (å[:], ’∏)

Canadian variants 4.6.3. As well as what has already been given in § 4.4.4.1-5 “ § 4.5.2.5, we add both some broader variants (≠, ≠≠, ≠≠≠) and less broad variants (±): /e, °, o, A/ (±ee', ±°°', ±PP', ±AA'); /wA/ (wå, ≠wù, ±wÅ) (çdialectalÇ (≠≠≠w™)); as also /EK0/ = /≠≠≠aK0/ is çdialectalÇ; /u/ (±¯, ±¨¯, ±¨, ±P, ±P¨), /O/ (±’Ö, ±∏, ±∏Ö). We can observe the use of (≠≠¤, ≠≠T, ≠≠¨) (considerably centralized), which is independent from the moderate systematic advancement of back phonemes (of ç±Ç type). We also indicate the uvulo-postalveolarized velar rounded realization of /Kò/ (= (<)) and its çvocaliza-

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tionÇ through (Ù, +, P÷ Ä, §, ∏÷ √) (as the last element at the end of the diphthongs e triphthongs), in /iK, yK, uK÷ EK, §K, OK÷ aK/, given in the ﬁrst vocogram (which will be dealt with and illustrated with examples in the book in progress indicated in the bibliography). Naturally, the vocograms will be less grouped up, and more numerous, to properly demonstrate the various peculiarities (it was not possible to place the variant (O÷P°) of /O(:)0ò/). In rural accents, and above all for speakers who are not so young, /S, Z/ (/, \) have di‡erent, peculiar and broad realizations, as well as (S, Z): (», «÷ S, q÷ ¢, Ú÷ '·, ’h, 'â, ’H). On an uneducated level, before a rounded V˚ /f/ = (å). ˛e French may have di‚culties in understanding Canadian French, especially if the accent is very broad and uneducated. /i(:)Kò/ (≠≠Ii<, ≠≠IiÙ), /i/ (≠¤) /y(:)Kò/ (≠≠Yy<, ≠≠Yy+), /y/ (≠T) /E:0ò/ (≠π™), /E˘'/+/v, z, Z, [v]K/ (™e) /E(:)K/ (≠πÄR, ≠≠π™<, ≠≠π™Ä) /§(:)0ò/ (π#), /§˘'/+/v, z, Z, [v]K/ (#°) /§(:)K/ (≠π§R, ≠≠π#<, ≠≠π#§) /a/ (±a), /a(:)Kò/ (≠≠Åå<, ≠≠Åå√)

/u(:)Kò/ (≠≠Uu<, ≠≠UuP), /u/ (≠¨) /O(:)0ò/ (≠Øø0ò), /O˘'/+/v, z, Z, [v]K/ (øo) /O(:)Kò/ (≠ù∏R, ≠≠ùø<, ≠≠ùø∏) /A/ (±A, ±A√0ò, ≠ù) /A(:)Kò/ (≠≠ùø<, ≠≠ùø∏) /u/ (±¯, ±¨¯, ±¨, ±P, ±P¨)

/í/ (±í™, ≠ì/ò ≠a3), /^/ (±^}) /Eò/ (≠Ä÷), /E:0ò/ (≠≠ÅÉ, ≠≠≠aÙ) /a(:)0/ (≠≠å¨) /Õ/ (≠ÅÚ, ≠ìíò, ≠≠As0ò, ±Œ_, ±úÕ)

/Ú/ (±9Ú) /O/ (±’Ö, ≠’ê, ≠’+, ±∏, ±∏Ö) /O(:)0/ (≠≠åø) /A(:)0/ (≠åø, ≠≠ùø, ≠≠å¨)

5. German 5.0. ˛e neutral pronunciation of (Germany) German is provided in this chapter. Afterwards (§ 5.4.1), we will concisely present the accent of north-east Germany (¤ former East Germany, ex-∂∂®), as used in professional †√ and radio broadcastings, which di‡ers only in a few nuances. We will also add the accents of Austria (§ 5.4.2), Switzerland (§ 5.4.3) and South Tyrol or Alto Adige (in north-eastern Italy, § 5.4.4), including some clearly non-neutral indications, which have been chosen (because of their frequency and di‡usion) among those that will be given in a speciﬁc monograph –German Pronunciation*– which will deal with the various regional accents of the whole German-speaking territory in greater detail. Vowels 5.1.1. û 5.1 shows the neutral articulations of modern neutral German, which presents seven pairs of opposing short and long vowels in stressed syllables, with the important addition of a timbric di‡erence too (except for /a, a:/, whose timbric di‡erence is now regional). As can be seen from û 5.1, too, long vowels are realized by closer vocoids, and a modern phonemic transcription must obviously reﬂect this characteristic: /i:, I÷ e:, E÷ a:, a/, /y:, Y÷ °:, §/, /u:, U÷ o:, O/. But we have to add another çinconvenientÇ long phoneme, /E:/, which opposes both /e:/ (because of timbre) and /E/ (because of length). Frequently, it merges with /e:/, mainly in the North, but this pronunciation is not recommendable as neutral, all the more so as current spelling clearly shows it. Indeed, for a modern neutral pronunciation, the most appropriate realization is an intermediate one, (™:), in fact in û 5.1 the other variants are shown as separate ones. û 5.1. German monophthongs. /i:, ’i/ (i:, i), /y:, ’y/ (y:, y) /I/ (I), /Y/ (Y) /e:, ’e/ (e:, e), /°:, ’°/ (°:, °) /E:/ (™:, ’™;) {(E:÷ e:÷ ’e;)} /E/ (E, ’™), /§/ (§, ’#)

/u:, ’u/ (u:, u) /U/ (U) /o:, ’o/ (o:, o) /È/ (¢, È˘º, ºÈ, º¢ò) /O/ (O, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (√)}

/a/ (a), /a:/ (a:)

In addition, we ﬁnd the typical unstressed phoneme, /È/ (¢), which is realized di‡erently when close to /K/: (È) (/È˘K, KÈ/ (Èº, ºÈ), except for word-ﬁnal /KÈò/ (º¢)), and in checked syllables with /K/ (as we will see shortly after, in the examples), where we actually have /Ú/ (…); although it derives from //ÈK//).

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Let us now see some examples: ('mi:t¢) /'mi:tÈ/ M¤te˚ ('mIt¢) /'mItÈ/ Mitte÷ ('ve:k) /'ve:k/ Weg˚ ('vEk) /'vEk/ weg÷ ('Sta:t) /'Sta:t/ Staat˚ ('Stat) /'Stat/ Stadt÷ ('hy:t¢) /'hy:tÈ/ Hüte˚ ('hYt¢) /'hYtÈ/ Hütte÷ ('h°:l¢) /'h°:lÈ/ Höhle˚ ('h§l¢) /'h§lÈ/ Hölle˘ In addition, ('ö™:º¢÷ 'öE:-) /'E:KÈ/ ∏hre˚ ('öe:º¢) /'e:KÈ/ Ehre and ('th™:l…÷ 'thE:-) /'tE:lÚ/ Täler˚ ('thEl…) /'tElÚ/ Teller÷ ﬁnally, ('zOn¢) /'zOnÈ/ Sonne˚ (â¢'thüU˙kô) /gÈ'tKU˙kô/ getrunken˚ (âÈ'ºa:d¢) /gÈ'Ka:dÈ/ gerade˚ ('öUnzÈº¢) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere˚ ('öUnzÈº…) /'UnzÈKÚ/ unserer˘ ˛e last example (as well as a previous one – Täler] shows (…) /Ú/ -er˚ which is more traditionally rendered phonemically as //ÈK// (and even as //Èr//); but /Ú/ is more convenient, since its most normal and frequent realization is as an intense faryngealized uvular approximant (…). It is a fact that a çvocalizationÇ is also possible, as (√) (and this symbol is certainly more appropriate than ç(å)Ç, which however is found in many publications), that is represented by a broken-line white marker (û 5.1); but it does not occur in a systematic way. As a matter of fact, more often we ﬁnd (…), or even (1, &); occasionally, even something like ((√‰, √˜, √º)) (¤ a back-central vocoid with traces of the contoids shown) is surely apter than a simple and pure vocoid. 5.1.2. We must add that, in unstressed syllables, /E, §, O/ are realized as closer vocoids, (™, #, ø) (Ô û 5.1): (ö™nt'SUldIgU,) /Ent'SUldIgU˙/ En˛uldigu«˚ (öøk'tho:b…) /Ok'to:bÚ/ Oktober˚ ('ph§‰k#lt) /'p§Kk§lt/ Pörkölt˘ Again, in unstressed syllables, also /i, e÷ y, °÷ u, o/ are to be added, even in phonemic transcriptions: (&miküo'fo:n) /mikKo'fo:n/ Mikro#on˚ (&ºeali'th™:t÷ -E:t) /Keali'tE:t/ Realität˚ (&∂yna'mi:t) /dyna'mi:t/ Dynamit˚ (&ö°kolo'gi:) /°kolo'gi:/ Ökolog¤˚ (&öuni&v™‰zi'th™:t÷ -E:t) /univEKzi'tE:t/ Universität˚ (&fonolo'gi:) /fonolo'gi:/ Phonolog¤˘ We must say at once that, in current or familiar pronunciation, unstressed /i, e÷ y, °÷ u, o/ easily become /I, E÷ Y, §÷ U, O/ (I, ™÷ Y, #÷ U, ø) (except when word-ﬁnal): (&mIküø'fo:n, &º™alI'th™:t {-E:t}, &∂Yna'mi:t, &ö#kølø'gi:, &öUnI&v™‰zI'th™:t {-E:t}, &fønølø'gi:), and (ö™nt'SUldI&gU,, ¢n-), but: ('âUmi) /'gUmi/ Gummi˚ ('zi:mi&le, -I-) /'zi:mile/ Simile˚ ('phúa:ty) /'pla:ty/ Platy˚ ('qhe:bu) /'qe:bu/ Zebu˚ ('mEksi&ko, -I-) /'mEksiko/ Mexiko˘ Unstressed /a, a:/ pose no problems to modern neutral pronunciation, since they always become (a): (öa'ga:v¢) /a'ga:vÈ/ Agave˚ (öa'me:ºi&ka, -I-) /a'me:Kika/ Amerika˚ ('öa:füi&ka, -I-) /'a:fKika/ Afrika˚ (&öafüi'kha:t¢, -I-) /afKi'ka:tÈ/ A‡rikate˘ Instead, in certain transcriptions of traditional neutral pronunciation, we may ﬁnd ç/A/Ç, which somehow corresponds to ç/A:/Ç; but there is not much coherence at all among di‡erent dictionaries and textbooks: (öa'ga:v¢, öA'gA:-÷ öa'me:ºi&ka, öA'me:ºi&kA, -I-÷ 'öa:füi&ka, 'öA:füi&kA, -I-÷ &öafüi'kha:t¢, -A:t¢). Except for some loanwords, the Ÿ∑∂å systematically gives ç/A/Ç (¤ /’A/) for unchecked grapho-syllables (a çstrangeÇ criterion indeed, to be frank), whereas Langenscheidt's dictionaries still using /A:/ mark /’a/. 5.1.3. û 5.2 shows the diphthongs of neutral German: three basic and two secondary ones (the latter are marked in grey and are used in English loanwords). ˛eir neutral duration, both in stressed and unstressed syllables, is always intermediate between the short (('öal¢) /'alÈ/ alle) and the long (('öa:l¢) /'a:lÈ/ Ahle) ones. ˛e three genuine diphthongs are (ae, ao, OY) /ae, ao, OY/ (often badly represented as

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ç/ai, au, oy˙oi/Ç): ('Êaen) /'baen/ BRn˚ ('öael¢) /'aelÈ/ Eile˚ ('mae) /'mae/ MP÷ ('Êaom) /'baom/ BQm˚ ('öaog¢) /'aogÈ/ Auge˚ ('thao) /'tao/ TQ÷ ('lOYtó) /'lOYtó/ lTten˚ ('öOYl¢) /'OYlÈ/ Eule˚ ('nOY) /'nOY/ nS˘ ˛e two additional ones, in grey, in the most spontaneous pronunciation type, merge into /e:, o:/ (but this depends on words and speakers, too): ('le:di, 'l™Idi) /'leIdi/ Lady˚ ('âe:, 'â™I) /'geI/ gay˚ (&no:'hao, &nøU'hao) /noU'hao/ Know-how˚ ('So:, 'SøU) /'SoU/ Show˘ ˛e broken-line white markers show two possible realizations of /ae, ao/, in reduced forms (Ô § 5.3.1), (åe, åo), as in: (åen) /aen/ Rn˚ (åos) /aos/ Qs (also (ÖY) /OY/: (ÖYÂ) /OYÂ/ S>). ˛e marker corresponding to (å) is also valid for reduced forms with /a/, as a possible variant: (∂ås) /das/ das. We have intentionally not placed it in the monophthong vocogram (û 5.1), also to avoid confusion with the –quite frequent, but not recommendable– use of ç(å)Ç to indicate our (‰, …) (or, at best, (√), see û 5.1 and the ﬁrst part of § 5.1, and the second part of § 5.2). û 5.2. German diphthongs.

/eI/ (e:, ±™I)

/ae/ (ae) {(’åe)}

/oU/ (o:, ±øU) /OY/ (OY) {(’ÖY)} {/’a/ (å)} /ao/ (ao) {(’åo)}

5.1.4. In French loanwords with original nasalized vowels, we more normally ﬁnd regular German timbres of /E, §, a, O/ (according to stress force) followed by /˙/: ('thE˙) /'tE˙/ TRnt˚ (pha‰'f§˙) /paK'f§˙/ Parfum˚ (öa˙'sa˙bÍ) /a˙'sa˙bÍ/ Ensemble˚ (Êø˙'bO˙) /bO˙'bO˙/ Bonbon˘ Assimilation is possible, too, as in (öan'sambÍ, Êøm'bO˙)); although in more careful pronunciation real nasalized vocoids are possible, but generally followed by /˙/: ('thí˙, pha‰'f^˙, öÅ˙'sÅ˙bÍ, Ê9˙'bÓ˙). In a more careful –but less frequent– kind of pronunciation, actual nasalized vocoids may occur, without any N. ˛ey are long or half-long if stressed, and short if unstressed: ('thí:, pha‰'f^:, öÅ'sÅ:bÍ, Ê9'bÓ:); in words ending in -on and -an˚ even a completely Germanized pronunciation is frequent with /o:n, a:n/: (Êal'khO˙, -o:n÷ -Ó˙÷ -Ó:) /bal'kO˙, -o:n/ Balkon˚ (e'khüa˙, -a:n÷ -Å˙÷ -Å:) /e'kKa˙, -a:n/ Ekran. In addition, when nasalization is present, words with /a˙/ can show timbres that are closer to the French ones: (ö˙'s˙:bÍ, öŒ'sŒ:bÍ, ö˙˙'s˙˙bÍ, öŒ˙'sŒ˙bÍ), ('Sans[¢], -a˙-, -˙˙-, -Œ˙-, -˙:-, -Œ:-) /'Sa˙s[È]/ ≥ance (in words such as this, /Èò/ can drop). Consonants 5.2. û 5.3 shows the necessary consonant articulations which are needed for a good German pronunciation, including taxophonic variants. ˛e examples will even show the devoicing of voiced stops, after pauses or voiceless consonants and of voiced constrictives only after voiceless consonants.

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û 1.9-15, instead, give the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional, or regional variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.

(n) n ö m (M) F pb 47 ∫ q c Ô ƒ (6) f v _ s z S Z ß ([) ó ‹ (R) l

(~)

(À)

˙ kg Â (,) /x/ /j/

pharyngealized uvular laryngeal

uvular

velar

palatal

prepalatal

postalveo-palatal protruded

alveolar

denti-alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 5.3. Table of German consonants.

(,) (ö) (X º) (‰) h /K/

(¬) +(º, ¸, n) “ /õ, ó/ (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?÷ :, !, õ, ò, ô, /, ¡, |, ˘) (Ô û 1.9.1)

Nasals 5.2.1.1. ˛ere are three phonemes for this manner of articulation, /m, n, ˙/, with a certain number of taxophones by assimilation ((m), (m, M, n, n, ~, ˙, ,), and (˙, ,)): ('man) /'man/ Mann˚ ('hEmt) /'hEmt/ Hemd˚ ('ve:m) /'ve:m/ wem˚ ('naen) /'naen/ nRn˚ (k'ni:) /k'ni:/ Kn¤˚ ('qhe:n) /'qe:n/ zehn˚ ('thüI˙kô) /'tKI˙kó/ trinken˚ ('öam&bi;tó) /'anbi:dó/ anb¤ten˚ ('fYMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('öUns) /'Uns/ uns (strictly (('öU˙s)), but (n) is su‚cient), (∂i'thant¢) /di'tantÈ/ d¤ Tante (strictly ((ﬂi'4han4¢))), ('vYnSó) /'vYnSó/ wün(en, (khøn'ºa:d¢) /kOn'Ka:dÈ/ Konrade, ('mY~Â«) /'mYnÂó/ Mün>en˚ ('öa˙Ín) /'a˙Ín/ a«eln˚ ('lE˙st) /'lE˙st/ lä«®˚ ('lE˙…) /'lE˙Ú/ lä«er˚ ('zI˙ô) /'zI˙ó/ si«en˚ ('qhU˙¢) /'qU˙È/ Zu«e˚ (Ê¢'dI˙U,) /bÈ'dI˙U˙/ Bedi«u«˚ ('qhaetU,) /'qaetU˙/ ZRtu«˚ ('qhaetU,?) /'qaetU˙ó/ ZRtu«en˘ (For /U˙ò, U˙óò/ we have (U,ò, U,?).) Please, note that the sequence /nj/ –and /lj/ as well– has two di‡erent realizations in stressed syllables, for tautosyllabic (after /é:/) or heterosyllabic (after /é/) elements: ('li:n,¢) /'li:njÈ/ Lin¤˚ (Sam'pha~,…) {((-a~-,…))} /Sam'panjÚ/ ≥ampagner. In lexical compounding, even for the negative preﬁx un-, in slow — accurate pronunciation, people try to maintain (n), whereas –currently– it is assimilated to the place of articulation of the following C˘ As an actual compromise, here we will show that it is possible to have articulations which maintain an apical contact but add secondary coarticulations (without full contacts). ˛ese coarticulations are: bilabial (º), labiodental (¸), velar (n): ('öUm&b™ndIÂ, 'öUº-) /'UnbEndIÂ/ unbändig˚ ('öUM&vI‰kúIÂ, 'öU¸-) /'UnvIKklIÂ/ unwirk-

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li>˚ ('öU˙g¢&ºe;gÍt, 'öUn-) /'UngÈKe:gÍt/ u«eregelt˘ Below, we will ﬁnd that a couple of these phones occur as intense too, (/, ¡). In other cases, with less di‡erent coarticulations, assimilation (which is often considered to be less recommendable, on pure graphical and morphological bases) appears to be less noticeable, thus it is applied in a spontaneous though unconscious way. 5.2.1.2. Including two intense nasal phonemes too, /õ, ó/ (instead of //Èm, Èn//), we have ﬁve of them, with all their various taxophones ((õ) for /õ/, and (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?) for /ó/) ('öa:tõ) /'a:tõ/ Atem˚ ('zi:bõ) /'zi:bó/ s¤ben˚ ('ne:mõ) /'ne:mó/ nehmen˚ ('Sa‰fè) /'SaKfó/ (arfen˚ ('hO∫ès) /'hO∫ós/ Hoπens˚ ('khaqó) /'kaqó/ Ka˛en˚ ('∂u:dó) /'du:dó/ Duden (rigorously (('ﬂu:7~))), ('phancó) /'pancó/ pan˛en˚ ('öap&ÊºEnó) /'apbKEnó/ abbrennen˚ ('m™:+Â«÷ 'mE:+-) /'mE:tÂó/ Mäd>en˚ ('fúi:gô) /'fli:gó/ ﬂ¤gen˚ ('za:gô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('qhaetU,?) /'qaetU˙ó/ ZRtu«en˚ ('ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ó/ bri«en˚ ('vIº?, -º¡, -I‰,, -I‰n) /'vIKó/ wirren˚ ('qha:ló) /'qa:ló/ zahlen˚ ('âe:ó) /'ge:ó/ gehen˘ Let us observe, however, that there are cases where intense nasals are less favored, as results from such forms as ('ÊIndód¢n) /'bIndódÈn/ bindenden (with theoretical sequences of (M), ('ÊIndódó), which are possible in faster speech, but mostly not in intonemes). As can be seen, it is more convenient to distinguish between /M/ and /Èö/. It is su‚cient to know that, if pronunciation becomes slower or more controlled, it is easy to go back to (ó), or (¢n): from ('zi:bõ, 'za:gô) to ('zi:bó, 'za:gó) and ('zi:b¢n, 'za:g¢n), or from ('qha:ló, 'âe:ó) to ('qha:l¢n, 'âe:¢n). However, generally, except in intonemes, forms such as gehen can even become ('âe:n). 5.2.1.3. In the previous section, we have shown up to six taxophones for the two intense nasals, /õ, ó/. At ﬁrst sight, they might seem to be excessive; nevertheless, by concretely considering actual phonetic reality, it is clear that only in quite approximate transcriptions could it be possible to renounce them. Besides, in order not to complicate things çwithout reasonÇ, even nine could be useful, indeed: (:, !, õ, ò, ô, /, ¡, |, ˘). (All this without considering a denti-alveolar ((~)), for which a simple (ó) is su‚cient, as in (&öaen¡'gu:tó 'tha˙k) ((&öaen¡'gu:4~ '4ha˙k)) /aenó'gu:tó 'ta˙k/ Rnen guten Tank.) However, we will show them only here, since these examples belong to actual sentences taken from passages of connected speech, and we will put them in double square brackets that indicate an objective precision, but perhaps a less pressing one. We are dealing with sequences where /ó, õ/ and the tautosyllabic C before them, /˘0M˘/, determine their exact place of articulation, (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?), just as in the examples seen above. Even the initial C of following syllables a‡ect the result, by coarticulation, in a more or less evident way, according to the places of articulation directly involved. ˛is happens every time two phones come into contact with one another; and, of course, this is done to render pronunciation more ﬂuent and natural (certainly not to further complicate life!). Among the taxophonically relevant actual cases in German, after experiencing

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all possibilities, the following instances are worthwhile mentioning and exemplifying. As a matter of fact, should they not be applied, the result would be articulatory straining, indeed. 5.2.1.4. For practical reasons, we will start from /0ó/ (0õ). We can see that when they are followed by labiodentals (/∫, f, v/), the coarticulation of (õ) and (∫, f, v) produces an intense labiodentalized bilabial ((:)): (('zi:b: '∫he:‰7¢)) /'zi:bó '∫e:KdÈ/ s¤ben Pferde˚ (('zi:b: 'fE4…)) /'zi:bó 'fEtÚ/ s¤ben Vetter˚ (('zi:b: 'va:gô)) /'zi:bó 'va:gó/ s¤ben Wagen˘ ‹en /0ó/ (0õ) is followed by laminal C, /t, d, q, z, n, l/, we have a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): (('zi:b! '4ha:g¢)) /'zi:bó 'ta:gÈ/ s¤ben Tage˚ (('zi:b! '7e:&ma‰k)) /'zi:bó 'de:maKk/ s¤ben DM˚ (('zi:b! 'qhIm…)) /'zi:bó 'qImÚ/ s¤ben Zimmer˚ (('zi:b! 'nEÂ4¢)) /'zi:bó 'nEÂtÈ/ s¤ben Nä>te˚ (('zi:b! 'lEn7…)) /'zi:bó 'lEndÚ/ s¤ben Länder˘ ≈nally, for /0ó/ (0õ) + /k, g, K/, we ﬁnd an intense velarized bilabial nasal ((ò)): (('zi:bò 'khaqó)) /'zi:bó 'kaqó/ s¤ben Ka˛en˚ (('zi:bò 'gE˙¢)) /'zi:bó 'gE˙È/ s¤ben Gä«e˚ (('zi:bò 'º™:7…÷ 'ºE:-)) /'zi:bó 'KE:dÚ/ s¤ben Räder˘ 5.2.1.5. As far as /0õ/ (0õ) -em is concerned (which is not derived by assimilation, but is original, for //0Èm//), three groups deserve careful attention. In fact, for /0õ/ (0õ) + /∫, f, v/, we ﬁnd a labiodental (è): (mIt&∂i;zè'∫he:‰t) /mItdi:zõ'∫e:Kt/ mit d¤sem Pferd˚ (öIn&di;zè'valt) /Indi:zõ'valt/ in d¤sem Wald˘ For /0õ/ (0õ) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, once again, we have a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): ((qhu&7aen!'qhIm…)) /qudaenõ'qImÚ/ zu dRnem Zimmer˚ ((bae&7i;z!'lIÂt)) /baedi:zõ'lIÂt/ bR d¤sem Li>t˘ For /0õ/ (0õ) + /k, g, K/, a velar–bilabial ((õ)): ((fo‰&maenõ'khO∫)) /fo:Kmaenõ'kO∫/ vor mRnem Koπ˚ ((mI4&ﬂaenõ'ºI˙)) /mItdaenõ'KI˙/ mit dRnem Ri«˘ 5.2.1.6. For /0ó/ (0ó) + /p, b, m/, for the third time we ﬁnd a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): (('âu:4! 'phüaes)) /'gu:tó 'pKaes/ guten PrRs˚ (('âu:4! 'bal)) /'gu:tó 'bal/ guten Ball˚ (('âu:4! 'mO‰gô)) /'gu:tó 'mOKgó/ guten Morgen˘ For /0ó/ + /∫, f, v/, we have a labiodentalized alveolar ((/)): (('âu:4/ '∫hle:g…)) /'gu:tó '∫le:gÚ/ guten Pﬂeger˚ (('âu:4/ 'fa˙)) /'gu:tó 'fa˙/ guten Fa«˚ (('âu:4/ 'vaen)) /'gu:tó 'vaen/ guten WRn˘ For /0ó/ + /k, g, K/, we ﬁnd a velarized alveolar ((¡)): (('âu:4¡ 'khEl…)) /'gu:tó 'kElÚ/ guten Keller˚ (('âu:4¡ 'gas4)) /'gu:tó 'gast/ guten Ga®˚ (('âu:4¡ 'ºo:4&Ñaen)) /'gu:tó 'Ko:tvaen/ guten RotwRn˘ Besides, for /0ó/ (0ô) + /p, b, m/, we again find a velar–bilabial ((õ)): ((&âe;gõ'pho:ló)) /ge:gô'po:ló/ gegen Polen˚ ((&âe;gõ'bElg,«, -jó)) /ge:gô'bElgjó/ gegen Belg¤n˚ ((&âe;gõ'mEksi&ko)) /ge:gô'mEksiko/ gegen Mexiko˘ For /0ó/ (0ô) + /∫, f, v/, we ﬁnd a labiodentalized velar ((|)): ((&âe;g|'∫han4)) /ge:gô'∫ant/ gegen Pfand˚ ((&âe;g|'füa˙k&üaeÂ)) /ge:gô'fKa˙kKaeÂ/ gegen FrankrR>˚ (('âe:g|&va‰4)) /'ge:gôvaKt/ Gegenwart˘ For /0ó/ (0ô) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, we have a denti-alveolarized velar ((˘)): (('âe:g˘&4hael)) /'ge:gôtael/ GegentRl˚ ((&âe;g˘'7ºae)) /ge:gô'dKae/ gegen drR˚ ((&âe;g˘'qhñae)) /ge:gô'qvae/ gegen zwR˚ ((&âe;g˘'zEks)) /ge:gô'zEks/ gegen se7˚ ((&âe;g˘'nOYn)) /ge:gô'nOYn/ gegen nSn˚ (('âe:g˘&laes4U,)) /'ge:gôlaestU˙/ GegenlR®u«˘

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5.2.1.7. In the case of /0ó/ (0è) + /∫, f, v/, obviously, things do not change: (m¢t'Sa‰fè 'fo:tos) /mIt'SaKfó 'fo:tos/ mit (arfen Fotos÷ equally, for /0ó/ (0è) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/: (m¢t'Sa‰fè 'qh™:nó÷ 'qhE:-) /mIt'SaKfó 'qE:nó/ mit (arfen Zähnen˘ Instead, for /0ó/ (0è) + /k, g, K/, we have a velarized labiodental ((ô)): ((m¢t'Sa‰fô 'khúI˙ô)) /mIt'SaKfó 'klI˙ó/ mit (arfen Kli«en˘ For /0ó/ (0«) + /p, b, m/, for the fourth time we ﬁnd a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): (('m™:+Â!&p™nz,o&na;4, -a˙-, -Å˙-, -Å-, -s,-÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂópenzjona:t, -a˙-, -sj-/ Mäd>enpensionat÷ besides, + /∫, f, v/, we have a labiodentalized alveolar ((/)): (('m™:+Â/&füOYntúIÂ÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂófKOYntlIÂ/ mäd>enfrSndli>÷ then, + /k, g/, we have a velarized alveolar ((¡)): (('m™:+Â¡&khúas¢÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂóklasÈ/ Mäd>enklasse˘ For /0ó/ (0?) + /p, b, m/, we ﬁnd for the third time a velar–bilabial ((õ)): (('qhae4U˙õ &publi'qhi:º?, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n)) /'qaetU˙ó publi'qi:Kó/ ZRtu«en publiz¤ren˘ For /0ó/ (0?) + /∫, f, v/, we again have a labiodentalized velar ((|)): (('qhae4U˙| f…'khaofè)) /'qaetU˙ó fÚ'kaofó/ ZRtu«en verkQfen˘ Lastly, for /0ó/ (0?) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, once again we ﬁnd a denti-alveolarized velar ((˘)): (('qhae4U˙˘ 'le:zó)) /'qaetU˙ó 'le:zó/ ZRtu«en lesen˘ In grammemes (and frequent lexemes), as in˚ Rn˚ von˚ ins˚ uns˚ dann˚ (on˚ Montag, in current speech, it is not at all rare that /én/ + /[0]˘, [0]˘/ becomes (◊n, –n, –) (with progressively stronger nasalization, up to a complete dropping of /n/): (öIns'khi:no, öIs-) /Ins'ki:no/ ins Kino… Stops 5.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs, /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, which are peculiar because in word-ﬁnal position (and in postnuclear position, but with some çodditiesÇ that we will see) only the voiceless elements occur. In addition, /p, t, k/, after pauses and in stressed syllables (not preceded by /s, S/ that belong to the same lexeme), are çaspiratedÇ. Besides, /t, d/ are denti-alveolar (and rigorously the most appropriate symbols would be ((4, 7)), but it is su‚cient to use (t, d), unless it is thought to be important to insist on this nuance). Here are some examples: (pha'phi:‰) /pa'pi:K/ Pap¤r˚ ('phúaq) /'plaq/ Pla˛˚ ('SpüEÂ«) /'SpKEÂó/ spre>en˚ ('halp) /'halp/ halb˚ ('öapt) /'apt/ Abt˚ (öIÂ'pha‰k¢) /IÂ'paKkÈ/ i> parke˚ ('öUnt) /'Unt/ und˚ ('lu:p¢) /'lu:pÈ/ Lupe˚ ('öEb¢) /'EbÈ/ Ebbe˚ ('ÊIt¢) /'bItÈ/ bitte÷ ('tho:t) /'to:t/ Tod˚ ('thüe:tó) /'tKe:tó/ treten˚ ('Stüa:s¢) /'StKa:sÈ/ Stra•e˚ ('laet) /'laet/ LRd˚ (¢s'thüI˙kt) /Ès'tKI˙kt/ es trinkt˚ ('laed…) /'laedÚ/ lRder˚ ('∂a˙kô) /'da˙kó/ danken˚ ('khInt) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('khüaes) /'kKaes/ KrRs˚ (∂ås'khi:no) /das'ki:no/ das Kino˚ ({öae˙}k'nal) /{aen}k'nal/ (Rn) Knall˚ (â¢'bI‰g¢) /gÈ'bIKgÈ/ Gebirge˚ ('âI˙) /'gI˙/ gi«˘ 5.2.2.2. ‹at is too often described as çaspirationÇ of stops before pauses, is actually nothing but the çexplosionÇ of the phones (that we will show only here with ($)), not çaspirationÇ, which is a di‡erent thing: ('skalp$) /'skalp/ Skalp˚ ('tha:t$) /'ta:t/ Tat˚ ('khEk$) /'kEk/ ke$˘ Some authors go as far as to indicate something like

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ç('thaphth¢, 'ºYthl¢)Ç, for ('thapt¢) /'taptÈ/ tappte˚ ('ºYtú¢) /'KYtlÈ/ rüttle˚ when they simply want to hint at the fact that the transition from one stop to another, or to any other phone, can be audible, that is çexplodedÇ (('4hap$4$¢, 'ºY4$ú¢)); but there is certainly no need to mark such things. By assimilation, in /pf, pv/, we have (]) + /f, v/: ('öa]&fal) /'apfal/ Abfall (di‡erent from (∫) /∫/)˚ ('öa]&Ñe;‰tó) /'apve:Któ/ abwerten˘ In addition, as we have seen for /n/ (§ 5.2.1), even /t, d/ assimilate to a following C: ('mIk&âIft) /'mItgIft/ Mitgi⁄˚ ('mIk&kømõ) /'mItkOmó/ mitkommen˚ ('mIp&ÊºI˙ô) /'mItbKI˙ó/ mitbri«en˚ ('mIp&≈™nS) /'mItmEnS/ Mitmen(˚ ('Êºo:k&khaofè) /'bKo:tkaofó/ Brot kQfen˚ ('Êºo:p&ÊºI˙ô) /'bKo:tbKI˙ó/ Brot bri«en˘ Note that we have (+) in: ('m™:+Â«÷ 'mE:+-) /'mE:tÂó/ Mäd>en˘ 5.2.2.3. Let us also consider: ('öap&úaot) /'aplaot/ AblQt˚ ('öapúa&ti;f) /'aplati:f/ Ablativ˚ ('öap&üu;f) /'apKu:f/ Abruf˚ (öat'ÑE‰p) /at'vEKp/ Adverb˚ (&öat≈i'ºa:l) /atmi'Ka:l/ Admiral˚ ('Sto:f&úaen) /'Sto:flaen/ StovlRn˚ ('li:p&úo;s) /'li:plo:s/ l¤blos˚ ('ºe:k&úo;s) /'Ke:klo:s/ reglos˚ ('m°:kúIÂ) /'m°:klIÂ/ mögli>˚ ('ni:túIÂ) /'ni:tlIÂ/ n¤dli>˚ ('hantúU,) /'hantlU˙/ Handlu«˚ ('öy:púIÂ) /'y:plIÂ/ übli>˚ ('va:knIs) /'va:knIs/ Wagnis˚ but: ('laebnIq) /'laebnIq/ LRbniz˚ ('ºe:dn…) /'Ke:dnÚ/ Redner˚ ('âe:gn…) /'ge:gnÚ/ Gegner˚ ('va:gn…) /'va:gnÚ/ Wagner˚ ('öa:dl…) /'a:dlÚ/ Adler˚ ('öa:dlIÂ) /'a:dlIÂ/ adlig˚ ('öa:dlIg¢) /'a:dlIgÈ/ Adlige˚ ('O‰dnU,) /'OKdnU˙/ Ordnu«˚ ('ºe:gl…) /'Ke:glÚ/ Regler˚ (zIg'na:l) /zIg'na:l/ Signal˚ (&zIgna'thu:‰) /zIgna'tu:K/ Signatur˚ ('öe:bn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ ('öy:bºIÂ) /'y:bKIÂ/ übrig˘ Actually, in this second group of forms, the consonantal sequences are voiced because they belong to the same lexeme (with a possible diachronic drop of /È/ -e-]\ reden˚ gegen˚ Wagen˚ Adel˚ Regel˚ Orden˚ eben˚ über˘ On the contrary, in the ﬁrst group we have combinations (which may be clear or opaque) with grammemes (¤ preﬁxes or su‚xes), so we will consider only three cases: Ab-[lQt]˚ [üb]-li>˚ from üben˚ and [Wag]-nis˘ Words of lofty or foreign origin generally maintain a voiced stop before sonants: /bl/ Double˚ mobl¤ren˚ Problem˚ publik˚ Republik˚ sublim˚ Tablett˚ Variable÷ /bK/ Algebra˚ Fabrik˚ Kabrio˚ Kobra˚ Libretti®˚ Soubrette˚ Vibration˚ Zebra÷ however /bK, pK/ Abrasion˚ Abrasit and /pK, bK/ abrupt÷ /dK/ Adresse˚ Hydrant˚ Madrider˚ Madrigal˚ Melodrama˚ Quadrant˘ Other cases: /gm/ Dagmar˚ Dogma˚ Egmont˚ Fragment˚ Magma˚ Paradigma˚ Phlegma˚ Pigment˚ Pragmatik˚ Pygmäe˚ Segment˚ Sigma˚ Stigma÷ /gn/ Agno®iker˚ Diagnose˚ ignor¤ren˚ indign¤rt˚ kognitiv˚ Magnat˚ Magnol¤˚ Magnus˚ Physiognom¤˚ prägnant˚ Stagnation˚ and /gn, ˙n/ inkognito˚ Magnesit˚ Magnesium˚ magneti(˚ Signal˚ signikant÷ /gl/ eglomis¤ren˚ H¤rogly#e˚ Iglu˚ Negligé˚ and /˙l/ e«li(˚ Jü«li«˚ lä«li(˚ and /˙Í/ Si«le÷ /gK/ agrari(˚ Agronom¤˚ Allegro˚ Diagramm˚ Emigrant˚ Migräne˚ Regress˚ Sa«ria˚ Telegraf˘ But we have: /tm/ Admiral˚ Kadmium˘ In addition: /p, b/ Abort [= Abtritt]˚ aboral˚ abort¤ren˚ and /kn, gn/ ErRgnis˚ in spite of /kn/ Befugnis˚ Wagnis˚ ZSgnis˘ 5.2.2.4. From the examples provided, we see that German has a çglottalÇ stop too (or çglottal catchÇ, but laryngeal stop is better) (ö): (&öyb…'öal, &öY-) /y[:]bÚ'al/ ü-

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berall˚ (â¢'öO‰k) /gÈ'OKk/ Georg (more frequently, ('âe:ø‰k) /'ge:OKk/), (Ê¢'öaeló) /bÈ'aeló/ beRlen˚ (the'öa:t…) /te'atÚ/ †eater˚ (f…'öaen) /fÚ'aen/ VerRn˚ ('vael [ö]IÂ'öaos&öa‰baet¢) /'vael IÂ'aosaKbaetÈ/ wRl i> QsarbRte˚ ('öIs 'öaoX &öaen[ó]'öa∫Í) /'Is 'aox aenó'a∫Í/ iss Q> Rnen Aπel˘ ˛is phone precedes every V which is syllable-initial (thus with no C before that, always in the same syllable), either in stressed or unstressed position, either in lexemes or grammemes, even in sentences. It is mostly noticeable after pauses and in stressed syllables; if pronunciation becomes more relaxed, (ö) may be missing but only in completely unstressed syllables (and we indicate it here as ([ö])), provided composition is not evident. As can be seen, it also occurs within lexemes, in the context /é'é/ (é'öé), but not if the stress is weak: ('öaf¢) /'afÈ/ A‡e˚ ('öap&öa;‰t) /'apa:Kt/ Abart˚ (f…'öaXtó) /fÚ'axtó/ vera>ten˚ (Ê¢'öaXtó) /bÈ'axtó/ bea>ten˚ (d™s&öavu'öi:º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) /dEsavu'i:Kó/ desavou¤ren˚ (∂e'öEMfazIs) /de'EmfazIs/ Deem#asis˚ (öant'öa:qidUm) /ant'a:qidUm/ Antacidum˚ (&öant[ö]a'qhi:t) /anta'qi:t/ Antacid˚ ('öaosö…≤zó) /'aosÚle:zó/ Qserlesen˚ ('mUnt&öa;‰tó) /'mUnta:Któ/ Mundarten˘ ˛us we have: (thea'thüa:lIS) /tea'tKa:lIS/ theatrali(˚ but (&theöa-) only in a kind of… theatrical pronunciation. In addition, we ﬁnd (ö) even if the V is çdeepÇ or assimilated, as in (…) /Ú/, for //ÈK//, provided it is an initial syllabic nucleus: ({qhu}ö…'fa:º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) /{qu}Ú'fa:Kó/ [zu] erfahren˘ But we have: (öae'nand…) /ae'nandÚ/ Rnander˚ with non-morphemic syllabiﬁcation, which is acknowledged by the new orthography as well. Further useful examples: (&ö…'öa‰&baetó) /ŒK'aKbaetó/ erarbRten˚ ('öaofö…&Ste;U,) /'aofŒKSte:U˙/ Aufer®ehu«˚ ('vi:d…ö…&öo;b…,, -…n) /'vi:dÚŒKo:bÚn/ w¤dererobern˚ ('âlat&öaes) /'glataes/ GlattRs˚ (la˙'ne:z¢&öaes) /la˙'ne:zÈaes/ La«neseRs˚ ('âa˙&öa;‰t) /'ga˙a:Kt/ Ga«art˚ ('qhOlö…&h°;U,) /'qOlÚh°:U˙/ Zollerhöhu«˚ (khlo'öa:k¢) /klo'a:kÈ/ Kloake˚ (&öide'öa:l) /ide'a:l/ ideal˘ 5.2.2.5. ˛e existence of pairs such as (f…'öaezó) /fÚ'aezó/ verRsen and (f…'ºaezó) /fÚ'Kaezó/ verrRsen could lead one to think that (ö) is a phoneme, /ö/; but it is not so, even because it can be omitted, as generally happens in Switzerland, South Tyrol/Alto Adige, Austria, and Bavaria. Even in neutral familiar speech, it is maintained better in fully stressed syllables: (∂i[ö]…'gEnqU,) /diÚ'gEnqU˙/ d¤ Ergänzu«˚ ('StU‰m [ö]Un'dºa˙, [ö]¢n-, -'∂-) /'StUKm Unt'dKa˙/ Sturm und Dra«˚ (&öIÂ[ö]…'öa‰&baet¢) /IÂÚ'aKbaetÈ/ i> erarbRte˘ However, normally (ö) never occurs before postverbal pronouns: ([öI]Â'vaes¢s) /IÂ'vaesÈs/ i> wR• es˚ ('le:zIÂ, -Ω-) /'le:z[È]IÂ/ les' i>˘ On the other hand, in ﬁnal half-stressed syllables, after V˚ it is certainly possible to have: ('mIÂa&ö™l, -&öe;l). ˛e banal mistake of not considering (ö) a çsoundÇ, simply because it does not correspond to any grapheme, is to be avoided completely! For good phonetics, clear ideas are needed, and above all it is necessary to use one's ears, not one's eyes… ˛erefore, it is wrong to talk about a çvocalic onsetÇ for (öé), in opposition to an çaspirated onsetÇ for (hé), as for instance, in: (f…'öaltó) /fÚ'altó/ veralten˚ (f…'haltó) /fÚ'haltó/ verhalten˘ Phonetically, they are not di‡erent from (f…'faló) /fÚ'faló/ verfallen\ they are all

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(0é), although the phonemic transcriptions do not use ç/ö/Ç, but just for the sake of simplicity. Actually, for teaching purposes, it could be more useful to write it, especially if no real phonetic transcription is added to the phonemic one. However, if only one type of transcription is used, it is decidedly more recommendable to also write (ö) or /ö/, especially for important cases. A possible variant of (öé{:/0}, ö…) is (ü, ü:, üó, 0): (&öIÂö…'öa‰&baet¢, &öIÂö™‰'ö-), (&IÂ0'aé&baet¢, &IÂ™é'aé-) /IÂŒK'aKbaetÈ/ i> erarbRte˚ (öIÂ'öant&Ñø‰t¢), (IÂ'act-) /IÂ'antvOKtÈ/ i> antworte˚ (&ide'a:l) /ide'a:l/ ideal˘ ˛erefore, we have (ö) which fuses with the voiced segments of a syllable, and realizes them as creaky. For native speakers, this phonation type sounds similar to the sequences we have seen. (In Danish, something similar occurs, although in the opposite direction: ®@d {Ô § 17.36 of NPT/HPh} entails a distinctive use of creaky voice for voiced phonemes, (ü, ó); however, certain speakers change these phones into (éö, 0ö) sequences, with (ö) in second place.) 5.2.2.6. It is interesting to note that (ö) can also occur mainly as a substitute of /t/ (but of /d, p, k/ as well), when preceded — followed by /ö, M/. Even variants with creaky intense nasal segments occur ((≠, =, ±)), which represent a frequent compromise, as we will see. ˛e cue and most examples are taken from Kohler (1994), with integrations and changes, both for the transcriptions and contexts of occurrence: ('öaeMf…&Standó, -nn=, -nöó) /'aenfŒKStandó/ Rnver®anden˚ ('fo:‰&handó, -nn=, -nöó) /'fo:Rhandó/ vorhanden˚ ('StUndó, -nn=, -nöó) /'StUndó/ Stunden˚ ('öEndó, -nn=, -nöó) /'Endó/ Enden˚ ('öEntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'Entó/ Enten˚ ('kh§ntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'k§ntó/ könnten˚ ('∂a˙kô, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'da˙kó/ danken˘ Further examples: ('lOYÂp&pU˙któ, -˙tó, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'lOYÂtpU˙któ/ LS>tpunkten˚ ('qhEntn…, -nön…) /'qEntnÚ/ Zentner˚ ('khlEmpn…, -mön…) /'klEmpnÚ/ Klempner˚ ('thaozõp '≈e;t…, -õö '≈-, -≠ 'm-) /'taozótme:tÚ/ tQsend Meter˚ (Ê¢'öamtó, -mptó, -möõ, -m≈≠) /bÈ'amtó/ Beamten (not for (Ê¢'öamt¢, -mpt¢) /bÈ'amtÈ/ Beamte]˘ More: (&öInöaen'nOYÈs 'öamt 'öaeM&fy;º?, -ampt, -amp, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n) /Inaen'nOYÈs 'amt 'öaenfy:Kó/ in Rn mSes Amt Rnführen˚ ('phU˙któ, -˙tó, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'pU˙któ/ Punkten˚ ('lOYtnant, -ön-) /'lOYtnant/ LStnant˚ (mIp'≈Ind¢stós, mIö-) /mIt'mIndÈstós/ mit minde®ens˚ ('hIntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'hIntó/ hinten˚ (&mItnõ, -önõ) /&mItnõ/ mit 'nem˚ ('öaX&qhe;ntó, -öó, -n=, -&qen-, -q™n-, -q¢n-, -qó-) /'axqe:ntó/ a>˛ehnten˘ 5.2.2.7. In addition: ('khOmt ∂aeM'füOYnt&≈It, -mp&≈It, -mö&≈-) /'kOmt daen'fKOYntmIt/ kommt dRn FrSnd mit?˚ (öe‰'khOmt 'nIÂt, -mö, ö™‰'-, ö…'-) /e:K'kOmt 'nIÂt/ er kommt ni>t˚ (&zInt≈aen¢'Su:¢ 'hi:‰, -mp≈-, -mö≈-) /zIntmaenÈ'Su:È 'hi:K/ sind mRne S>uhe h¤r?˚ (&vI‰zót'nu:‰ 'qhñae, -óö'n-) /vIKzInt'nu:K 'qvae/ wir sind nur zwR˘ ˛erefore, we add the /tó/ context, not preceded by /n/, but by another voiced (or even voiceless) phoneme: ('ható, -öó) /'ható/ hatten˚ ('ÊItó, -öó) /'bItó/ bitten˚ ('Êi:tó, -öó) /'bi:tó/ b¤ten˚ ('va‰tó, -‰öó) /'vaKtó/ warten˚ ('vOltó, -löó) /'vOltó/ wollten˚ ('vUstó, -öó) /'vUstó/ wus®en˚ ('lYftó) /'lYftó, -öó/ lü⁄en˘ ‹en (=òö) combine, they can become (öòö): (öUnt&öIlUstüa'qh¿o:nó, öUnö&öI-) /UntIlUstKa'qjo:nó/ und Illu®rationen˚ ('füae&tha;k 'öa:bõt, -a;ö 'öa:-) /'fKaeta:k 'a:bót/

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FrRtag abend˚ (mIt&öInt…'sIti, mIö&öIn-) /mItIntÚ'sIti/ mit Intercity˚ (mIt&öi‰,'öElt…,, mIö&ö-) /mIt'i:Kó 'EltÚn/ mit ihren Eltern˘ Stopstrictives 5.2.3.1. German has three voiceless stopstrictives, (∫, q, c) /∫, q, c/. From a descriptive and teaching point of view, it is not a good thing to exclude them from the phonemic inventory and consider them as phonemic sequences such as ç/pf, ts, tS/Ç; also because these sequences do exist in the language (as we will see)! More often, /q/ is articulated with lowered tip of the tongue, whereas /c/ is with raised tip (but it is not necessary to use a special symbol (c)). ˛e three of them are all çaspiratedÇ after pauses or in stressed syllables, except after a tautomorphemic /s/: ('∫hEf…) /'∫EfÚ/ Pfe‡er˚ ('∫húanq¢) /'∫lanqÈ/ Pﬂanze˚ ('SIM∫è) /'SIm∫ó/ (imπen˚ ('khO∫) /'kO∫/ Koπ÷ ('qhaet) /'qaet/ ZRt˚ (na'qh¿o:n) /na'qjo:n/ Nation˚ ('nIÂq) /'nIÂq/ ni>_˚ ('sqe:n¢) /'sqe:nÈ/ Szene÷ ('chEÂ¢) /'cEÂÈ/ T(e>e˚ ('chElo÷ 'SE-) /'cElo÷ 'SE-/ Cello˚ ('∂OYc) /'dOYc/ dS˛˚ ('phac¢) /'pacÈ/ Pa˛e˘ Let us now see some cases of /pf, tS/ (]f, tS): ('öa]f…&la˙ô) /'apfÚla˙ó/ abverla«en˚ (ö™nt'SpInó, ö¢n-) /Ent'SpInó/ en_pinnen˚ (ö™nt'SúUs, ö¢n-) /Ent'SlUs/ En˛luss˘ However, in fast speech they can become (∫, c): ('öa∫…&la˙ô, ö™nc'pInó, ö¢n-, ö™nc'úUs, ö¢n-) (generally without çaspiratingÇ the following stopstrictives or stops, as also in: (ö™nt'SUldIgU,, -n'cU-, ö¢n-) /Ent'SUldIgU˙/ En˛uldigu«˚ Ô § 5.3.2.5 as well). Instead, German has no ç/G/Ç, but /tZ/, which occurs in loanwords: (t'Ëi:ns) /t'Zi:ns/ Jeans˚ (&khilimant'Ëa:ºo) /kilimant'Za:Ko/ KilimanÃaro˚ ([öIm]t'ËU˙Í) /[Im]t'ZU˙Í/ [im] D(u«el÷ especially in current pronunciation, (tË) /tZ/ can alternate with /tS, c/. Constrictives 5.2.4.1. ˛ere are ﬁve diphonic pairs: (f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ Â, ,÷ º, X). Generally, /s, z/ are articulated with lowered tip of the tongue, whereas /S, Z/ are with raised tip (but it is not necessary to use special symbols as (x, ç)). Strictly speaking, (Â) could be considered not to be a phoneme (by çsimplyÇ introducing a çjuncture phonemeÇ, as we will see shortly). In addition, (,) is actually a çsemi-constrictiveÇ phone (even if it were indicated with (J)). On the other hand, functionally, (º) belongs to the particular category of sonants, and to the çvibrantÇ group; as a matter of fact, one possible realization is exactly (K) /K/. ˛us it is important to clearly know the relations among the various constrictive elements. ˛erefore, it is not di‚cult –in this case, thanks to spelling as well– to see that (Â, X) are in (almost) complementary distribution. On the other hand, even (,) has close relationships (mostly in northern speech) with (Â) and also (X, k) (even with (g, Ÿ) as well, which in the North realize /g/ together with (,), that belongs to the phoneme /j/ too).

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But let us see some examples: ('fYMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('vas) /'vas/ was˚ ('ºaesó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en˚ ('ºaezó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen˚ ('zo:n) /'zo:n/ Sohn˚ ('S°:n) /'S°:n/ (ön˚ ('Staen) /'Staen/ StRn˚ ('thIS) /'tIS/ ‰(˚ (Ze'ni:) /Ze'ni:/ Gen¤˚ (e'tha:Z¢) /e'ta:ZÈ/ Etage˚ ('Êu:X) /'bu:x/ Bu>˚ ('Êy:Â…) /'by:ÂÚ/ Bü>er˚ ('ÊaX) /'bax/ Ba>˚ ('ÊEÂ¢) /'bEÂÈ/ Bä>e˚ ('ºu:IÂ) /'Ku:IÂ/ ruhig˚ ('ºaoºIs) /'KaoKIs/ RQris˘ 5.2.4.2. ˛ere are three more approximant taxophones for slit constrictives, which occur before /s, S/, and we will notate them with their çcommittedÇ variants as well (which are more demanding), because they are not really necessary, although very frequent and çtypifyingÇ. It would not be useless to acquire them to obtain a smoother pronunciation: (&, â, ˜) /f, Â, x/: ('öao&&Sibõ, 'öaof&Sibõ) /'aofSi:bó/ Qf(¤ben˚ ('h°:âst, 'h°:Âst, -ÂÀt) /'h°:Âst/ hö>®˚ ('ºaoX&Sp™k, 'ºao˜&Sp™k) /'KaoxSpEk/ RQ7pe$˘ In preintonemes (¤ not in intonemes), forms such as Qf˚ i>˚ mi>˚ di>˚ si>˚ -ig˚ -i>˚ -li>˚ -zig˚ S>˚ Q>˚ do>˚ no>˚ in current speech, often have (&, â, ˜) /f, Â, x/, irrespective of the context just seen. Quite rightly, German pronouncing dictionaries clearly indicate both (Â) /Â/ and (X) /x/ – it is necessary to provide precise indications, not mysterious algebraic formulae. In fact, unless through an appropriate morphonological knowledge, there would be no way to tell the di‡erence between ('thaoÂ«) /'taoÂó/ TQ>en [->en] çsmall ropeÇ and ('thaoX?) /'taoxó/ tQ>en çto plungeÇ, or ('khu:Â«) /'ku:Âó/ Kuh>en [->en] çcalfÇ and ('khu:X?) /'ku:xó/ Ku>en çcakeÇ. 5.2.4.3. ˛e su‚x -ig is (IÂ) /IÂ/, even when followed by C (except for those belonging to su‚xes which contain (Â)): ('kh°:nIÂ) /'k°:nIÂ/ König˚ ('öaenIâst, -Âst, -ÂÀt) /'aenIÂst/ Rnig®˚ (f…'öaenIÂt) /fÚ'aenIÂt/ verRnigt˚ ('qhñanqIâst¢, -Âst¢, -ÂÀt¢) /'qvanqIÂstÈ/ zwanzig®e÷ but: ('kh°:nIkúIÂ) /'k°:nIklIÂ/ königli>˚ ('kh°:nIk&üaeÂ) /'k°:nIkKaeÂ/ KönigrR>˚ ('kh°:nIgIn) /'k°:nIgIn/ Königin˘ However, it is possible to ﬁnd ('kh°:nIÂ&üaeÂ), and even –fairly systematically– (Ik) /Ik/: ('kh°:nIk, 'öaenIkst, f…'öaenIkt, 'qhñanqIkst¢), which is the only pronunciation really accepted in southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, in initial position too: ('Âe:mIS, 'k[h]-) >emi(˚ ('Âi:na, 'k[h]-) ≥ina˘ ˛e graphic sequence 7 has two di‡erent phonic structures: within lexemes we ﬁnd (ks) /ks/: ('vEksÍn) /'vEksÍn/ we7eln˚ ('vaeksÍ) /'vaeksÍ/ WR7el˚ ('öOks¢) /'OksÈ/ O7e˚ ('zEks) /'zEks/ se7˚ ('fUks) /'fUks/ Fu7˚ (∂…'daks) /dÚ'daks/ der Da7 çbadgerÇ, while we have: (Xs) and (âs, Âs, ÂÀ) /xs, Âs/, when s is a grammeme: (∂¢s'∂aXs) /dÈs'daxs/ des Da7 çof the roofÇ, (∂¢s'phEâs, -Âs, -ÂÀ) /dÈs'pEÂs/ des Pe7 ç(black) pitchÇ. /s, z/ are mostly articulated with lowered tip of the tongue; but, for /sÂ/, we have (ÀÂ): ('ÊIÀÂ«) /'bIsÂó/ bis(en÷ and, except in slow speech, for /sS, sZ/, we have (SS, SË): ('öaeS&Süa˙k) /'aesSKa˙k/ Eis(rank˚ ([öI]Â≈US'SnEl 'vEk) /IÂmUs'SnEl 'vEk/ i> muss (nell weg˚ (&∂aSËe'ni:) /dasZe'ni:/ das Gen¤. /S, Z/ are with raised tip (((x, ç))). In addition, in the /kv, qv, Sv/ sequences, /v/ is more often realized as bilabial, (6): ('khñac) /'kvac/ Qua˛˚ ('qhñae) /'qvae/ zwR˚ ('SñEst…) /'SvEstÚ/ S>we®er˘ In neutral German, /j/ is semi-constrictive, in all contexts: (',a:‰) /'ja:K/ Jahr˚ (&ma,o-

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'n™:z¢÷ -E:-) /majo'nE:zÈ/ Majonäse/MayonnPse˚ (öIn&tona'qh¿o:n) /Intona'qjo:n/ Intonation˘ 5.2.4.4. For /K/, it is necessary to add a few observations, both on our notation and phonemic interpretation. ˛e çgenericÇ phonemic symbol seems to be useful in indicating its normal place of articulation, which is uvular – and the most recommendable, for teaching purposes. As far as its manner (of articulation) is concerned, the voiced constrictive one, (º), is normal (and the most recommendable as well). For emphasis, or for individual peculiarities, it is certainly possible to have a (voiced) uvular trill: (K). On the other hand, among native speakers it is not rare to ﬁnd (voiced) alveolar articulations: a tap, (R), or a trill, (r) (mostly in the South, and Austria and Switzerland). However, before stressed or unstressed V˚ we will transcribe only (º) /K/: ('ºaoºIs) /'KaoKIs/ RQris˚ ('ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ó/ bri«en. After tautosyllabic V˚ instead, we will always transcribe (‰) (voiced pharyngealized uvular approximant) for /K/, which is intense after C or diphthongs, (…) /Ú/: ('vi:‰) /'vi:K/ wir˚ ('vI‰) /'vIK/ wirr˚ ('mae…) /'maeÚ/ MRr (like MRer˚ Meyer]˚ ('ÊEs…) /'bEsÚ/ besser˚ (h…'fo:‰) /hÚ'fo:K/ hervor. Many phonemic traditions have considered //ÈK//, mostly in parallel with //Èn, Èm, Èl//, which we prefer to transcribe and interpret as (ó, õ, Í) /ó, õ, Í/, although we are perfectly aware that, in slower or emphatic speech, (¢n, ¢m, ¢l) are possible, and (Èº÷ ÈK÷ È˜) as well – even ç(¢R)Ç, or rather (ÙR, ÙR) (in Switzerland) and (Ù‰, Ùº, Ù˜) (in Austria). Contrary to what we do –and Kohler (1977, 1995”) and others as well– several authors distinguish between (éº) and (é:‰) (¤ ç/ér/Ç and ç/é:å/Ç, above all in teaching textbooks), but we do not think it is the best proposal, also because it is more complex and far from being the most widespread pronunciation (Ô § 5.1.1 too). For the preﬁxes er-˚ her-˚ ver-˚ zer-˚ we will transcribe ({0}…) /{0}Ú/, since it is the normal and most recommendable pronunciation, although in pronouncing dictionaries (except the Ÿ∂∑å) we still ﬁnd ç/{0}Er, {0}Eå/Ç. A slow, careful, or emphatic, pronunciation –with ({0}™‰) /{0}EK/– can be safely inferred from our notation as well. Diaphonemically, though, we might use /{0}Œ‰/. Approximants 5.2.5. For this manner of articulation, the most important German phoneme is certainly (h) /h/, which often has the voiced variant, among voiced phones (especially in non-primary-stressed syllables): ('haos) /'haos/ HQs˚ (â¢'haem) /gÈ'haem/ gehRm˚ ('da:&ha;b/vI‰, -H-) /'da:ha:bóvi:K/ da haben wir…˚ ('öUn&hael, -H-) /'Unhael/ UnhRl˚ ('vIlh™lm, -H-) /'vIlhElm/ Wilhelm˘ Notice, however, cases like: ('âe:ó) /'ge:ó/ gehen˚ ('ºu:IÂ) /'Ku:IÂ/ ruhig˚ ('za:) /'za:/ sah˘ Graphically, h is a device often used to indicate that the preceding V is long, mostly before m˚ n˚ l˚ r (the so-called çDehnungs-hÇ): ('ne:mõ) /'ne:mó/ nehmen˘ In addition to the variant of /v/, (6), occurring in the sequences /kv, qv, Sv/ (§

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5.2.4.3), we will brieﬂy say something about other possible variants for /0j, yé, u'öé, o'a/: ('fe:º,«, -ºjó) /'fe:Kjó/ Fer¤n˚ (na'qh¿o:n, -'qhªo:n, -qi'o:n) /na'qjo:n/ Nation˚ (qhya'no:z¢, qh¥a-) /qya'no:zÈ/ Zyanose˚ (&manu'öEl, -u'El, -'njEl, -'nwEl) /manu'El/ manuell˚ (thoa'lEt¢, thja-, thwa-) /toa'lEtÈ/ Toilette˘ Laterals 5.2.6. In German neutral pronunciation we ﬁnd only (l) /l/ (with the corresponding intense one, (Í) /Í/) and the variant (¬), before (Â, ,) (the last one is heterosyllabic only): ('lant) /'lant/ Land˚ ('fOl) /'fOl/ voll˚ (fa'mi:l,¢) /fa'mi:ljÈ/ Famil¤˚ (va'nI¬,¢) {((-nI¬-,¢)) and (-Il¢)} /va'nIl[j]È/ Vanille˚ ('mI¬Â) /'mIlÂ/ Mil>˚ ('hElt) /'hElt/ Held˚ ('öe:zÍ) /'e:zÍ/ Esel˚ ('∂u:dÍn) /'du:dÍn/ dudeln˘ Structures 5.3.0. In this part, we will make the necessary observations for pronouncing words in actual sentences. ˛us, we will deal with assimilation, reduction, stress, and intonation. Reduced forms 5.3.1.1. In spontaneous speech, grammemes, in addition to gradually reducing their stress, may even attenuate vowel timbres and lose some consonants or syllables. Grammemes include: articles, personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, particles, a‚xes, prepositions, short conjunctions and adverbs – and some other similar forms, such as geworden˚ spaz¤ren˚ and greetings. We will give some examples, mostly taking them from Kohler (1977, 1995”, § 6.3.2), by modifying and completing both their inventory and variants, including the transcriptions. In the original publications, these are limited to the segments in question, whereas we will adapt them to our own style. ˛e examples come in useful to show mechanisms and possibilities, rather than absolute necessities. (&mI[t]∂õ'hUnt) mit dem Hund (∂ó'gu:tó 'gast) den guten Ga® (&Inõ'ga‰tó) in dem Garten (&öIst#'vI‰kúIÂ) i® es wirkli>? (&has∂¢sâ¢'ze:ó) ha® du's gesehen? (…&hatódI'qhaetU˙ g¢'Saot) er hat in d¤ ZRtu« ge(Qt (…&zøldó'fa:t…&ºu;fè) er soll den Vater rufen (∂…'man [ö]¢ndI'füao) der Mann und d¤ FrQ ([I]Â'úasó 'ºe:dó) i> lass ihn reden ([I]Â&[h]abõ g¢'ze:ó, Âamg-) i> hab' ihn gesehen

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([I]Â'phakôm…&ma;l) i> pa$ ihn mir mal ('las« ',U,? &døX'üe:dó) lass den Ju«en do> reden ('âi:põ 'khInd…n&døX våsqU'öEsó) gib den Kindern do> was zu essen ('phakô 'khInd…n&døX våsqU'öEsó&öaen) pa$ den Kindern do> was zu essen Rn ([I]Â&kanó nIÂ[t]'se:ó, -'Ω-) i> kann ihn ni>t sehen (…Is'öalb…n, -…,) er i® albern˚ (…"öIs 'öalb…n, -…,) er ì® albern (…Is&nIÂIn…'la:g¢) er i® ni>t in der Lage˚ (…Is"nIÂ[t ö]In…'la:g¢) er i® nì>t in der Lage (vås&[h]as[t]∂¢g¢'za:kt) was ha® du gesagt? (&hå[t]∂…'le:º… g¢'SpüOX?) hat der Lehrer gespro>en? (zI'vo:nt &öIn[d]…'Stat) s¤ wohnt in der Stadt (&vI‰zó&öIn[d]I'Statâ¢&fa;º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) wir sind in d¤ Stadt gefahren (&vI‰zó&öaof[∂]…'Stüa:s¢) wir sind Qf der Stra•e ('mo:ni&kas â¢'khOmõ) Monika i® gekommen ('phe:t…s â¢'khOmõ) Peter i® gekommen (&™…sâ¢'khOmõ) er i® gekommen ('khU‰tIs â¢'khOmõ, -t#) Kurt i® gekommen ('haenºIÂIs â¢'khOmõ, -Â#) HRnri> i® gekommen (zo;&hat…g¢'SpüOX?) so hat er gespro>en˚ (zo;&hat¢™‰g¢'SpüOX?) so hatte er gespro>en (zo;&ha;pt…g¢'za:kt) so habt ihr gesagt˚ (zo;&hat…I‰g¢'za:kt) so hat er ihr gesagt (&hapt…M&vasâ¢'h°:‰t) habt ihr denn was gehört? (&has∂¢&I‰dè&vasâ¢'ge:bõ) ha® du ihr denn was gegeben? (&has∂ó&d™˙g¢'ze:ó) ha® du ihn denn gesehen? (&has∂õd™M&vasâ¢'ge:bõ) ha® du ihm denn was gegeben? ('ve:‰ håtó&d™˙g¢'ze:ó) wer hat ihn denn gesehen? (&vas'ÑOlóz¢&d™n, &vas'ÑOlózó) was wóllen S¤ denn?˚ (&vas'ÑOló 'zi:&d™n) was wollen Sìe denn? (&vas'ÑOlóz¢d™n&da;, &vas'ÑOlózó&da;) was wóllen S¤ denn da?˚ (vås&Ñøló'zi:dó&da;, vås&Ñøló'zi:n&da;) was wollen Sìe denn da? (vås'≈aX∂ó 'phe:t…) was ma>t denn Peter?˚ (vås'≈aX[p] 'phe:t…&d™n) was ma>t Peter denn? (vås'ÑOlt…m d™˙'ge:bõ) was wollt ihr ihm denn geben? (vås'sOlIÂI‰ d™˙'ge:bõ, vås'ΩOlIÂ‰˙ 'ge:bõ, -s'Ω-, -'s-) was soll i> ihr denn geben? (™‰&ha∂åsâ¢'maXt) er hat das gema>t (zI&ha∂åsâ¢'maXt) s¤ hat das gema>t (&hat…&∂asâ¢'maXt) hat er das gema>t? (&hats¢&∂asâ¢'maXt) hat s¤ das gema>t? (∂…'le:º… &hatós'hOYt¢ 'nIÂq 'öaofâ¢≥bõ) der Lehrer hat uns hSte ni>_ Qfgegeben (∂ó'thIS 'StElèvI‰ öIndI'öEk¢2| ∂ó'Süa˙kô dI'öandÈº¢3 3) den ‰( ®ellen wir in d¤ E$e, den S>rank in d¤ andere (∂…'thIS ‘∂™‰öódI'öEk¢&Ste;t’) der ‰(, der in d¤ E$e ®eht… (∂ó'thIS ‘∂¢MvI‰ódI'öEk¢ g¢'StElt&haõ’) den ‰(, den wir in d¤ E$e ge®ellt haben…

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(vås'≈aX?&did™n&da;) was ma>en d¤ denn da? (∂ås'≈Us∂e;‰&zaen, &∂as≈Us'∂e:‰&zaen) das muss der sRn (öI‰&hapt'So:˙ g¢'tha:n) ihr habt (on getan ('ha;pt… &dasâ¢'maXt) habt ihr das gema>t? ([I]&ÂapI‰dåsâ¢'ge:bõ, [I]&Âap…-) i> hab' ihr das gegeben ([I]&ÂabõI‰'fo:‰g¢&St™lt) i> hab' ihn ihr vorge®ellt (zI&hatI‰'khúaetâ¢&vaSó) s¤ hat ihr KlRd gewa(en ('h°:º?vI‰ns '≈O‰gô 'füy:, 'h°:ºèv-, -ós) hören wir uns morgen früh ('vOlózi [z]IÂ'thüEfè) wollen S¤ si> tre‡en? (vi'ge:ts, -q) w¤ geht's? [-t es?] (ö™‰&[ö]IstIndô'khEl…&öae~g¢&dºU,?, &ö™‰s[ö]I˙ô-) er i® in den Keller R«edru«en (ö™‰&[ö]IstIn¢ô'khEl…&öae~g¢&dºU,?, &ö™‰s[ö]Iôô-, -˙ô-) er i® in Rnen Keller R«edru«en (ö™‰&ha∂…&,a;g¢'za:kt2 ∂ås…'khOmt) er hat dir ja gesagt, dass er kommt (∂ås&hat…g¢'thüOYmt) das hat er getrTmt (&∂a;hå∂…&öapa'ºa:tâ¢&Stüaekt) da hat der Apparat ge®rRkt (∂a&hapt…&vasÑ…'zOYmt) da habt ihr was versTmt ('thy:‰n 'tho:‰) Tür und Tor ('le:bõõ 'tho:t, -õó) Leben und Tod ('vaen¢˙ g¢'za˙) WRn und Gesa« (∂ås'ha:põ 'gu:t) das Hab und Gut ('öE∫Íõ 'bI‰nó) ∏πel und Birnen (öaen'thIS¢n [ö]aem'bEt, -Un) Rn ‰( und Rn Bett ('fYMf¢n 'qhñanqIÂ, -Mvè, -mõ) fünfundzwanzig ('nOYn¢n 'qhñanqIÂ, -nó) nSnundzwanzig ('zi:bõm 'qhñanqIÂ, -mõ) s¤benundzwanzig ('qhñae HUn…'qhñanqIÂ, n¢-) zwRhunder˛wanzig (&v™n¢s5üe:gn¢t1 1 ∂¢M'fa:ºèvI‰2 &mI∂…'ba:n3 3) (v¢ns-) wenn es regnet, dann fahren wir mit der Bahn˘ 5.3.1.2. Here is a list of reduced forms; it is fairly complete, which could even seem to be too analytical. However, it is of paramount importance to carefully examine all the modiﬁcations given, in order to grasp the mechanism. It is obvious that the most çnormalÇ forms, in this list, are not the ﬁrst given, but some of the succeeding ones, in suitable conditions. aber ('öa:b…, &öa;b…, &öab…, &ab…, &a6…) also ('öalzo, &öalzo, &alzo, &azo) an ('öan, &öan, an, ån), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) am˚ an dem ('öandõ, &öandõ, &adõ, 'öaõ, 'öam, &öam, am, åm) ans˚ an's˚ an das ('öandås, &öandås, &andås, 'öans, &öans, ans, åns) an'n˚ an den ('öandó, &öandó, &andó,

'öanó, &öanó, &anó, aó, an:, ån:) an'r˚ an der ('öand…, &öand…, &and…, 'öan…, &öan…, &an…) an die ('öandi, &öa-, &a-, -ani, -I, -¢) auf ('öaof, &öaof, &aof, aof, åof) aufs˚ -f's˚ -f das ('öaof∂as, 'öaof∂ås, &öaof¢s, &öaof#, &öaofs, &aofs, öaofs, aofs, åofs) aufm˚ auf'm˚ -f dem ('öaof∂õ, 'öaofõ,

5. german

&öaofõ, &aofõ) aufn˚ auf'n˚ -f den ('öaof∂ó, 'öaofè, &öaofè, &aofè) auf der˚ -f'r ('öaof∂…, 'öaof…, &öaof…, &aof…) auf die˚ -f'ie ('öaof∂i, -fi, &öao-, &ao-, -I, -¢) auf Wiedersehen! (öaof'Ñi:d…&ze;ó, -&ze;n, -zen, öåof-, ≥'Ñid…-, 'Ñid…-, 'Ñi‰-) aus ('öaos, &öaos, &aos, aos, åos) ausm˚ -s'm˚ -s dem ('öaos∂õ, 'öaosõ, &öaosõ, &aosõ) ausn˚ -s'n˚ -s den ('öaos∂ó, 'öaosó, &öaosó, &aosó) aus der˚ -s'r ('öaos∂…, 'öaos…, &öaos…, &aos…) bR ('Êae, &Êae, Êae, Êåe), (b-) bRm˚ -i dem ('Êaedõ, &Êaedõ, 'Êaeõ, 'Êaem, &Êaeõ, &Êaem, Êaem, Êåem), (b-) bR'n˚ -i den ('Êaedó, &Êaedó, &Êaeó, &Êaen, Êaeó, &Êaen, Êaen, Êåen), (b-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) bR'r˚ -i der ('Êaed‰, &Êaed‰, 'Êae‰, &Êae‰, Êae‰, Êåe‰, Êå‰), (b-) bin ('ÊIn, &ÊIn, ÊIn, Ê¢n, Êõ), (b-) bist ('ÊIst, &ÊIst, ÊIs, Ê¢s, Ê#, 6Is, 6¢s, 6#), (b-) da ('∂a:, &∂a;, &∂a, ∂a, ∂å), (d-) da- (∂a-, ∂å-, ∂¢-), ('∂a:&-, 'da:&-), (d-) [-bR˚ -na>˚ -von˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) (∂a'º-, ∂å'º-, ∂È'º-), ('∂a:&º-, 'da:&º-), (d-) [-ran˚ -rauf˚ -raus˚ -rin˚ -rum˚ …) dann ('∂an, &∂an, ∂an, ∂ån, ∂¢n), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) das˚ 's ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås, ∂¢s, ¢s, #, s), (d-), ([-) (only after V] das (rel.) ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås, ∂¢s), (d-) das (dim.) ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as), (d-) dass ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås), (d-) dRn ('∂aen, &∂aen, ∂aen, ∂åen), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) dRne ('∂aen¢, &∂aen¢, &∂åen¢, &∂ån¢), (d-) dRnem˚ dR'm ('∂aenõ, &∂aenõ, &∂aemõ, &∂åenõ, &∂åemõ, &∂ånõ, &∂å-

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mõ, ∂aem:, ∂åem), (d-) dRnen˚ dR'n ('∂aenó, &∂aenó, ∂aen:, ∂aen, ∂åen), (d-÷ -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) dRner ('∂aen…, &∂aen…, &∂åen…, &∂ån…, &∂¢n…, &∂ó…), (d-) dRnes ('∂aen¢s, &∂aen¢s, &∂åen¢s, &∂ån¢s, &∂¢n¢s, &∂ó¢s), (d-) dem˚ 'm ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em, ∂™m, ∂¢m, ∂õ, öõ, õ), (d-), ([-) (only after V] dem (rel.) ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em, ∂™m, ∂¢m, ∂õ), (d-) dem (dim.) ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em), (d-) den˚ 'n ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó, öó, ó), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,), ([-) (only after V] den (rel.) ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) den (dim.) ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) denen ('∂e:nó, &∂e;nó, &∂enó, ∂en:, ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n), (d-÷ -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) denn ('∂En, &∂™n, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó, ó, n), (d-÷ m, M, ~, ˙, ,) (the most reduced forms are not used when preceded by words in N÷ whereas, in ﬁnal position, they are used when they occur after unstressed pronouns; instead, in non-ﬁnal position˚ they occur after stressed pronouns too) der˚ 'r ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰, ∂™‰, ∂…), (d-), ([-) (only after V] der (rel.) ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰, ∂™‰), (d-) der (dim.) ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰), (d-) deren ('∂e:º?, &∂e;º?, &∂eº?, -º¡, ∂e‰,, ∂™‰,, -‰n, ∂…,, ∂…n), (d-, -m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) des˚ 's ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s, ∂¢s, ∂#, ∂s, #, s), (d-), ([-) (only after V] des (rel.) ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s, ∂¢s), (d-) des (dim.) ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s), (d-) dessen ('∂Esó, &∂™só, &∂¢só), (d-) desto ('∂Esto, &∂™sto, &∂™so), (d-) di> ('∂IÂ, &∂IÂ, ∂IÂ, ∂Iâ), (d-), ([-) (on-

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ly after V] die ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i, ∂I, ∂¢), (d-), ([-) (only after V] die (rel.) ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i, ∂I), (d-) die (dim.) ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i), (d-) diese ('∂i:z¢, &∂i;z¢, &∂iz¢, &∂Iz¢), (d-) diesem ('∂i:zõ, &∂i;zõ, &∂izõ, &∂Izõ), (d-) diesen ('∂i:zó, &∂i;zó, &∂izó, &∂Izó), (d) dieser ('∂i:z…, &∂i;z…, &∂iz…, &∂Iz…), (d-) dieses ('∂i:z¢s, &∂i;z¢s, &∂iz¢s, &∂Iz¢s), (d-) dir ('∂i:‰, &∂i;‰, &∂i‰, ∂I‰, ∂…), (d-), ([-) (only after V÷ the most reduced forms do not occur in ﬁnal position) do> ('∂OX, &∂øX, ∂øX, ∂¢X), (d-) du ('∂u:, &∂u;, &∂u, ∂u, ∂U, ∂¢), (d-), ([-) (only after V÷ the most reduced forms do not occur in ﬁnal position) dur> ('∂U‰Â, &∂U‰Â, ∂U‰Â), (d-) dur>s˚ -h das ('∂U‰Â∂ås, '∂U‰Â∂¢s, '∂U‰Â#, '∂U‰Âs, &∂U‰Âs, ∂U‰Âs, -ÂÀ, -âs), (d-) dur>'n˚ -h den ('∂U‰Â∂ó, &∂U‰Â∂ó, '∂U‰Â«, &∂U‰Â«), (d-) dur> die ('∂U‰Â∂i, &∂-, -I, -¢), (d-) eben ('öe:bõ, &öe;bõ, &öebõ, öeõ, öem, em) Rn˚ 'n ('öaen, &öaen, aen, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) Rne˚ 'ne ('öaen¢, &öaen¢, &aen¢, &ån¢, &¢n¢, ó¢, n¢) Rnem˚ R'm˚ 'nem ('öaenõ, &öaenõ, &aenõ, &aemõ, &ånõ, &åmõ, öaem:, aem:, aem, åem, åm, n¢m, ¢m, õ) Rnen˚ R'n˚ 'nen ('öaenó, &öaenó, &aenó, öaen:, öaen, aen, åen, ån, n¢n, nó, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) Rner˚ 'ner ('öaen…, &öaen…, &aen…, &åen…, &ån…, &¢n…, ó…, n…) Rnes˚ 'nes ('öaen¢s, &öaen¢s, &aen¢s, &åen¢s, &ån¢s, &¢n¢s, ó¢s, n¢s) Rnmal ('öaen&ma;l, &öaenmal, -ål, -å, -mm-, &óm-, &õm-) ent- (ö™nt-, ™nt-, ¢nt-, ót-) [-wi$eln˚

a handbook of pronunciation

-gegen˚ …) er ('öe:‰, &öe;‰, &öe‰, e‰, ™‰, …) ((…) only when not preceded by (¢, ‰, …) /È, K, Ú/÷ the most reduced forms do not occur in ﬁnal position) er- (ö™‰'ö-, ™‰'ö-, …'ö-) [-arbRten˚ -übrigen˚ …) (ö™‰'-, ™‰'-, …'-) [-klären˚ -saufen˚ …) es˚ 's ('öEs, &ö™s, ™s, ö¢s, ¢s, #, s) (the most reduced forms occur in ﬁnal position too, in many cases) eu> ('öOYÂ, &öøYÂ, öøYÂ, øYÂ, øYâ, ÖYÂ, ÖYâ) euer ('öOY‰, &öøY‰, öøY‰, øY‰, ÖY‰) eure ('öOY‰, &öøY‰, öøY‰, øY‰, ÖY‰) eurem ('öOYºõ, &öøY-, &öøY‰m, öøY-, öøYõ, øY-, ÖY-) euren ('öOYº?, -º¡, &öøY-, &öøY‰,, -‰n, öøY-, øY-, ÖY-) eurer ('öOYº…, &öøY-, öøY…, øY…, ÖY…) eures ('öOYº¢s, &öøY-, &öøY‰s, öøY‰s, øY-, ÖY-) für ('fy:‰, &fy;‰, &fy‰, fY‰, fY, f…) fürs˚ -r's˚ -r das ('fy:‰dås, 'fy:‰d¢s, 'fy:‰d#, 'fy:‰s, &fy;‰s, &fy‰s, fY‰s, fYs, f…s) für den˚ -r'n ('fy:‰dó, 'fy:‰?, 'fy:‰,, &fy;‰,, &fy‰,, fY‰,, f…,, fYn), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) für die ('fy:‰di, &fy;-, &fy-, &fY-, -I, -¢) gar ('âa:‰, &âa;‰, &âa‰, âa‰, âa, â…), (g-) gegen ('âe:gó, -gô, ≥-, &ge-, âeô), (g-) gegens˚ -n's˚ -n das ('âe:gódås, 'âe:gód¢s, 'âe:gós, -gôs, ≥-, &ge-, âeôs), (g-) gegen die ('âe:gódi, -ón-, -ó-, ≥-, &ge-, -I, -¢), (g-) geworden (â¢'vO‰dó, â¢&vø‰dó, â¢&vø‰,), (g-÷ -m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) guten Abend! ('âu:tó 'öa:bõt, &âu;tó'ö-, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, âUn'ö-, âô'ö-, ô'ö-, ó'ö-, [-]'öa:mt, [-]'öamt), (g-) guten Morgen! ('âu:tó 'mO‰gô, &âu;tó'm-, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, -õ'm-, âUn'm-, -m'm-, âô'm-, ô'm-, ó'm-, õ'm-, 'm-, [-]'mO‰,, [-]'mO,), (g-) guten Tag! ('âu:tó 'tha:k, &âu;tó'tha:k, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, âUn'th-, âô'th-, ô'th-,

5. german

ó'th-, 'th-, -ak, -aö), (g-) habe˚ -b' ('ha:b¢, &ha;b¢, &hab¢, &ha6¢, hab, håb, &a6¢, ab, åb) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position) haben ('ha:bõ, &ha;bõ, &habõ, haõ, ham, am, åm, õ, m) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position; the last, more reduced, forms occur after wir] habt ('ha:pt, &ha;pt, &hapt, hapt, håpt, apt, åpt) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position) hast ('hast, &hast, hast, has, ast, as, åst, ås) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position) hat ('hat, &hat, hat, håt, at, åt, t) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position; the last, more reduced, form occurs after er] her- (h™'º-, hÈ'º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -Rn˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) (h™‰'-, h…'-) [-bR˚ -na>˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) Herren˚ mRne Damen und (&maen¢'da:mó öUnt'hEº?, -º¡, måen¢-, m¢n¢-, ¢n'hE‰,, -‰n) hin- (hI'n-, h¢'n-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -Rn˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) ('hIn&ö-) [-arbRten˚ …) (hIn'-, h¢n-') [-zu˚ …)˚ (-M'-) [-weg˚ …) ('hIn&-) [-rR>en˚ …)˚ (-m&-) [-passen˚ …)˚ (-˙&-) [-kommen˚ …) hier- (hi'º-), ('hi:&º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -in˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) (hi‰'-), ('hi:‰&-) [-bR˚ -dur>˚ -her˚ -mit˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) hier ('hi:‰, &hi;‰, &hi‰, &hI‰, hi‰, hI‰) hinter ('hInt…, &hInt…) hinterm˚ -r dem ('hInt…dõ, 'hInt…õ, 'hInt…m, &hInt…m) hintern˚ -r den ('hInt…dó, 'hInt…?, 'hInt…,, &hInt…,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) hinters˚ -r das ('hInt…dås, 'hInt…d¢s,

203

'hInt…d#, 'hInt…s, &hInt…s) hinter die ('hInt…di, -I, -¢) -hundert (-&hUnd…t, -hUn…t, -HUn…t, -HUn…t, -Un…t) -hundert- (-&hUnd…t-, -hUn…t-, -HUn…t-, -HUn…-, -Un…-, -¢n…-, -n…-, -n¢-) i> ('öIÂ, &öIÂ, IÂ, Â) ((Â) + verb: i> wR•; verb + (IÂ): wR• i>) ihm ('öi:m, &öi;m, &öim, im, Im, ¢m, õ) (the most reduced forms do not occur in ﬁnal position) ihn ('öi:n, &öi;n, &öin, in, In, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) (the most reduced forms do not occur in ﬁnal position) ihnen˚ I- ('öi:nó, &öi;nó, &öinó, öin:, öin, in, In), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) ihr ('öi:‰, &öi;‰, &öi‰, I‰, …) ((…) only when not preceded by (¢, ‰, …) /È, K, Ú/; in addition, (…) only when enclitic, immediately after verbs; the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation) ihr (poss.) ('öi:‰, &öi;‰, &öi‰, I‰) ihre ('öi:º¢, &öi;º¢, &öiº¢, &Iº¢) ihrem ('öi:ºõ, &öi;ºõ, &öiºõ, &Iºõ, öi‰m, I‰m) ihren ('öi:º?, &öi;º?, &öiº?, &Iº?, -º¡, öi‰,, i‰,, I‰,, -‰n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) ihrer˚ I- ('öi:º…, &öi;º…, &öiº…, &Iº…) ihres ('öi:º¢s, &öi;º¢s, &öiº¢s, &Iº¢s) in ('öIn, &öIn, In, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) im˚ in dem ('öIndõ, &öIndõ, &öInõ, &öImõ, 'öIõ, 'öIm, &öIm, Im, ¢m, õ) ins˚ in das ('öIndås, 'öInd¢s, 'öInås, 'öIn¢s, 'öIn#, 'öIns, &öIns, Ins, ¢ns, ós) in den˚ in'n ('öIndó, &öIndó, &Indó, 'öInó, &öInó, &Inó, Ió, In:, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) in der˚ in'r ('öInd…, &öInd…, &Ind…, 'öIn…, &öIn…, &In…, I…, ¢…) in die ('öIndi, &öI-, &I-, &Inni, &Ini, -I, -¢, óI) ist ('öIst, &öIst, öIst, Ist, Is, ¢s, #, s) (only V or intense C + (s)) ja (',a:, &,a;, ,a, ja, jå)

204

jedo> (,e'dOX, ,™-, ,¢-, j-) je˛t (',Eqt, &,™qt, ,™q, ,¢q, j-) mal ('ma:l, &ma;l, &mal, mal, mål, ma, må) -mal (-ma;l, -mal, -mål, -ma, -må) mehr ('me:‰, &me;‰, &me‰, m™‰) mRn ('maen, &maen, maen, måen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) mRne ('maen¢, &maen¢, &måen¢, &mån¢) mRnem˚ mR'm ('maenõ, &maenõ, &maemõ, &måenõ, &måemõ, &månõ, &måmõ, maem:, måem) mRnen˚ mR'n ('maenó, &maenó, maen:, maen, måen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) mRner ('maen…, &maen…, &måen…, &mån…, &m¢n…, &mó…) mRnes ('maen¢s, &maen¢s, &måen¢s, &mån¢s, &m¢n¢s, &mó¢s) mi> ('mIÂ, &mIÂ, mIÂ, mIâ) mir ('mi:‰, &mi;‰, &mi‰, mI‰, m…) (the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation, not even when they are enclitic after verbs) mit ('mIt, &mIt, mIt, m¢t) mit dem˚ -t'm ('mIt∂õ, 'mItõ, &mItõ, &mI∂õ, &mIdõ, &mI[õ, &mIpõ, &mIÊõ, &mIbõ, mIõ, mIm) mit den˚ -t'n ('mIt∂ó, 'mItó, &mItó, &mI∂ó, &mIdó, &mI[ó, mIó, mIn), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) mit der˚ -t'r ('mIt∂…, 'mIt…, &mIt…, &mI∂…, &mId…, &mI[…, mI…, mI‰) musste ('mUst¢, &mUst¢, &mUs¢) na> ('na:X, &na;X, &naX, naX, nåX) na> dem˚ -h'm ('na:X∂õ, 'na:Xõ, &na;Xõ, &naXõ) na> den˚ -h'n ('na:X∂ó, 'na:X?, &na;X?, &naX?) na> der˚ -h'r ('na:X∂…, 'na:X…, &na;X…, &naX…) neben ('ne:bõ, ≠bõ, &nebõ, &neõ, nem) nebens˚ -n's˚ -n das ('ne:bõdås, 'ne:bõd¢s, 'ne:bõd#, 'ne:bõs, ≠bõs, &ne-

a handbook of pronunciation

bõs, &neõs, nems) neben dem˚ -n'm ('ne:bõdõ, 'ne:bõbõ, 'ne:bõõ, 'ne:bõm, ≠bõm, &nebõm, &neõm, neõ, nem) neben den˚ -n'n ('ne:bõdó, 'ne:bõõ, 'ne:bõn, ≠bõn, &nebõn, &neõn, neõm, neõ, nem), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) neben der˚ -n'r ('ne:bõd…, 'ne:bõ…, ≠bõ…, &nebõ…, &neõ…, &nem…) neben die ('ne:bõdi, ≠bõdI, &nebõI, &neõI, &nemI, -¢) nRn ('naen, &naen, naen, nåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) ni>t ('nIÂt, &nIÂt, nIÂ) ni>_ ('nIÂq, &nIÂq, &nIÂs) (nix ('nIks) /'nIks/ is a familiar lexical variant, not a reduced form of ni>_) nie ('ni:, ∋, &ni, ni, nI) nun ('nu:n, νn, &nun, nun, nUn, n¢n, nU), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) nur ('nu:‰, ν‰, &nu‰, nu‰, nU‰) oder ('öo:d…, &öo;d…, &öod…, &od…, &ød…, &¢d…, -[…) ohne ('öo:n¢, &öo;n¢, &öon¢, &on¢) (on ('So:n, &So;n, &Son, Son, Søn, S¢n, Só), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) sRd ('zaet, &zaet, zaet, zået) sRn ('zaen, &zaen, zaen, zåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) sRne ('zaen¢, &zaen¢, &zåen¢, &zån¢) sRnem˚ sR'm ('zaenõ, &zaenõ, &zaemõ, &zåenõ, &zåemõ, &zånõ, &zåmõ, zaem:, zaem, zåem) sRnen˚ sR'n ('zaenó, &zaenó, zaen:, zaen, zåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) sRner ('zaen…, &zaen…, &zåen…, &zån…, &z¢n…, &zó…) sRnes ('zaen¢s, &zaen¢s, &zåen¢s, &zån¢s, &z¢n¢s, &zó¢s) sRt ('zaet, &zaet, zaet, zået) si> ('zIÂ, &zIÂ, zIÂ, zIâ, IÂ, Iâ) (the last two forms are used after sie/Sie] sie˚ S- ('zi:, &zi;, &zi, zI, z¢) sind ('zInt, &zInt, zIn, z¢n, zó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)

5. german

so ('zo:, &zo;, &zo, zo, zø, z¢) soll ('zOl, &zøl, zøl, zø) sonst ('zOnst, &zønst, zøns, z¢ns) -tägigen (-&th™;gIgô, -t™g-, -g¢g-, -ggô, -gô) [zwR-˚ drR-˚ …) über (unstressed) (&öyb…-, &öY-, -6-) überm˚ -r'm˚ -r dem ('öy:b…dõ, &öy;b…dõ, 'öy:b…õ, 'öy:b…m, &öy;b…m, &öyb…m, &Yb…m, -6…m) übern˚ -r'n˚ -r den ('öy:b…dó, &öy;b…dó, 'öy:b…?, 'öy:b…,, &öy;b…,, &öyb…,, &Yb…,, -6…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) übers˚ -r's˚ -r das ('öy:b…dås, 'öy:b…d¢s, 'öy:b…d#, 'öy:b…s, &öy;b…s, &öyb…s, &Yb…s, -6…s) über die ('öy:b…di, -I, -¢, &öy;-, &öy-, &Y-, -6…-) um ('öUm, &öUm, Um) ums˚ um's˚ um das ('öUmdås, 'öUmd¢s, 'öUmd#, 'öUms, &öUms, Ums) um'n˚ um den ('öUmdó, 'öUmõ, &öUmõ, Uõ, Um:, Um) um die ('öUmdi, &öU-, U-, -I, -¢) und ('öUnt, &öUnt, &öUn, Un, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) -und- (-&öUnt-, -&öUn-, -Unt-, -Un-, -¢n-, -ó-), (-m-, -M-, -~-, -˙-, -,-) uns ('öUns, &öUns, &Uns, ¢ns, ós, ns) (the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation) unser ('öUnz…, &öU-, &U-) unsere ('öUnzÈº¢, &öU-, &U-, -zº¢) unserem ('öUnzÈºõ, &öU-, &U-, -zº-, -…m, -zõ) unseren ('öUnzÈº?, -º¡, &öU-, &U-, -zº-, -…,, -zó) unserer ('öUnzÈº…, &öU-, &U-, -zº…, -…‰) unseres ('öUnzÈº¢s, &öU-, &U-, -zº¢s, -z¢s) unter ('öUnt…, &öUnt…, &Unt…) untern˚ -r den ('öUnt…dó, 'öUnt…,, &öUnt…,, &Unt…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) unterm˚ -r'm˚ -r dem ('öUnt…dõ, 'öUnt…m, &öUnt…m, &Unt…m) unters˚ -r's˚ -r das ('öUnt…dås, 'öUnt…d¢s, 'öUnt…d#, 'öUnt…s, &öUnt…s, &Unt…s)

205

ver- (f™‰'ö-, f…'ö-) [-Rsen˚ -arbRten˚ …) (f™‰'-, f…'-) [-rRsen˚ -lassen˚ …) von ('fOn, &føn, føn, f¢n, fó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) vom˚ -n dem ('fOndõ, 'fOnõ, 'fOmõ, 'fOm, &føm, føm, f¢m, fõ) von'n˚ -n den ('fOndó, 'fOnó, &fønó, føó, føn:,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) von'r˚ -n der ('fOnd…, 'fOn…, &føn…) vor ('fo:‰, &fo;‰, &fo‰, fo‰, fø‰, f…) vorn˚ -r den ('fo:‰dó, 'fo:‰,, &fo;‰,, &fo‰,, fo‰,, fø‰,, f…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) (Ô adv. ('fO‰n, &fø‰n)} vors˚ -r das ('fo:‰dås, 'fo:‰d¢s, 'fo:‰d#, 'fo:‰s, &fo;‰s, &fo‰s, fo‰s, fø‰s, f…s) vor'm˚ -rm˚ -r dem ('fo:‰dõ, 'fo:‰nõ, 'fo:‰mõ, 'fo:‰m, &fo;‰m, &fo‰m, fo‰m, fø‰m, f…m) vor'r˚ -r der ('fo:‰d…, 'fo:…, &fo;…, &fo…, fo…, fø…) vor die ('fo:‰di, &fo;-, &fo-, -I, -¢) vor- (fo'º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -in˚ -über˚ …) (fo‰'ö-) [-ab˚ -Rnst÷ -arbRten˚ -Rlig˚ …) (fo‰'-) [-bR˚ -weg˚ …) (fo‰'-), ('fo:‰&-) [-her˚ -hin˚ -zu˚ …) während ('v™:º?t, &v™;-, -º¡t, 'v™:‰,t, -‰nt, &v™;-, v™-÷ 'vE:-) was (non-interrogative) ('vas, &vas, vas, vås) wegen ('ve:gô, &ve;gô, &vegô, veô) wRl ('vael, &vael, vael, våel, vål) wem ('ve:m, &ve;m, &vem, vem, v™m) wen ('ve:n, &ve;n, &ven, ven, v™n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) wenn ('vEn, &v™n, v™n, v¢n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) wer ('ve:‰, &ve;‰, &ve‰, ve‰, v™‰) werden ('ve:‰dó, &ve;‰dó, &ve‰dó, &ve:‰n, ve‰n, v™‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) werde ('ve:‰d¢, &ve;‰-, &ve‰-, ve‰t) werdet ('ve:‰d¢t, &ve;‰-, &ve‰-) wider ('vi:d…, &vi;d…, &vid…, &vId…) wider- (unstressed) (&vid…-, &vId…-)

206

wie ('vi:, &vi;, &vi, vi, vI) wie viel ('vi:fil, vi'fi:l, &vifIl, vI&fil, &vifÍ) wieder ('vi:d…, &vi;d…, &vid…, &vId…) wieder- (unstressed) (&vid…-, &vId…-) will ('vIl, &vIl, vIl, vI) wir ('vi:‰, &vi;‰, &vi‰, vI‰, v¤‰, v¢‰, v…) (the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation, not even when they are enclitic after verbs) wird ('vI‰t, &vI‰t, vI‰t, v¤‰t, v¢‰t, v…t) wirst ('vI‰st, &vI‰st, vI‰st, v¤‰st, v¢‰st, v…st, -s) wo ('vo:, &vo;, &vo, vo, vø) wo- (vo'-, vø'-, v¢'-) [-bR˚ -her˚ -hin˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) (vo'º-, vø'-, vÈ'-), ('vo:&º-) [-ran˚ -rauf˚ -raus˚ -rüber˚ -runter˚ …) worden ('vO‰dó, &vø‰dó, vø‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) wurden ('vU‰dó, &vU‰n, vU‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) wurde ('vU‰d¢, &vU‰-, &v…-) wurdest ('vU‰d¢st, &vU‰-, &v…-, -s) wurdet ('vU‰d¢t, &vU‰-, &v…-) würden ('vY‰dó, &vY‰n, vY‰n, vT‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙)

a handbook of pronunciation

würde ('vY‰d¢, &vY-, vY‰t, vT‰t) würdest ('vY‰d¢st, &vY-, -s) würdet ('vY‰d¢t, &vY-) -zehn (-qe:n, -qe;n, -qen, -q™n, -q¢n, -qó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) -zehnte (-qe:nt¢, -qe;n-, -qen-, -q™n-, -q¢n-, -qó-) zer- (q™‰-, q…-) [-fahren˚ -rinnen˚ …) zu ('qhu:, &qu;, qu;, qu, qU, q¢) zum˚ zu dem ('qhu:dõ, &qu;dõ, &qudõ, &qUõ, 'qhUm, &qUm, qUm, q¢m, qõ) zur˚ zu der ('qhu:d…, &qu;d…, &qud…, 'qhu:‰, &qu;‰, qu;‰, qu‰, qU‰, qw…, q…) zu'n˚ zu den ('qhu:dó, 'qu;dó, 'qudó, 'qhu:ó, 'qhu:n, &qu;n, qu;n, qun, qUn, q¢n, qó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) -zu- (-qu-, -qU-, -q¢-) [ab…holen˚ …) zusammen (qhu'zamõ, qu-, qU-, q¢-) zwar ('qhña:‰, &qña;‰, &qña‰, qña‰, qña, qñ…) -ren˚ -r'n (after –short or long– stressed V˚ where /Kó/ (º?, º¡) becomes /Kn/ (‰,), through ç/Ún/Ç) (-'é[:]º?, -'é[:]º¡, -'é[:]‰,, -'é[:]‰n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙).

Taxophonics 5.3.2.1. ˛ere are various other ways of simplifying words –and above all sentences– which make speech easier and more ﬂuent, but less çclearÇ to foreigners. It is important, thus, to know the mechanisms implied, both to understand better and move closer to the native speakers' genuine pronunciation, and to be understood better. Following Kohler (1977, 1995”, § 6.3.1), we will give several cases, by appropriately integrating and completing them. We have already seen that sequences of (MM) /MM/, in fast speech, are possible only in preintonemes: (∂I'öapâ¢S&nItóó 'ºo:zó) d¤ abge(nittenen Rosen˚ but: ('nIm dI'öapâ¢S&nItó¢n) nimm d¤ abge(nittenen˘ 5.3.2.2. Often -e (¢) /È/ of the present-tense ﬁrst person singular is dropped, provided this does not produce any (M) (¤ intense nasal): ([öI]Â'≈aX) /IÂ'max[È]/ i> ma>'˚ ('maXIÂ) /'max[È]IÂ/ ma>' i>˚ ([öI]Â'hab¢s â¢'ze:ó, -Ê-) /IÂ'hab[È] ÈsgÈ'ze:ó/ i>

5. german

207

hab' es gesehen˚ ('ha:bIÂ, -ÊIÂ) /'ha:b[È]IÂ/ hab' i>˚ ('le:zIÂ, -ΩIÂ) /'le:z[È]IÂ/ les' i>˚ and ('ö§fnIÂ) /'§fn[È]IÂ/ ö‡n' i>, ('öa:t≈IÂ) /'a:tm[È]IÂ/ atm' i>˚ but: ([öI]Â'ö§fn¢) /IÂ'§fnÈ/ i> ö‡ne, ([öI]Â'öa:t≈¢) /IÂ'a:tmÈ/ i> atme; in the past tense, -e (¢) /È/ may be dropped, before an enclitic i>, provided the verb does not end in -ete (¢t¢) /ÈtÈ/: ('maXtIÂ) /'maxt[È]IÂ/ ma>t' i>˚ ('∂U‰ftIÂ) /'dUKft[È]IÂ/ dur⁄' i>˚ but: ('ö§fn¢t¢&öIÂ) /'§fnÈtÈIÂ/ ö‡nete i>˚ ('öa‰&baet¢t¢&öIÂ) /'aKbaetÈtÈIÂ/ arbRtete i>˘ Even -e (¢) /È/ belonging to nouns may often be dropped while maintaining the C voiced or half-voiced: ('li:bUn 'laet, -Ê-) /'li:b[È] Unt'laet/ L¤b' und LRd˘ We have already dealt with the assimilation of place of articulation to a following C for /t, d, n, ó, s/ (§ 5.2.1-2 “ 5.2.4). We have also mentioned some alternations, especially for approximants and /K/ (§ 5.2.4-5). 5.3.2.3. As already seen, /ó/ assimilates to a preceding C÷ but /n/ remains unchanged when -e- /È/ (¢) is dropped (and a voiced syllable-ﬁnal –but lexeme-internal– C does not become voiceless): ('khOmõ) /'kOmó/ kommen˚ ('le:bõt) /'le:bót/ lebend˚ ('öe:bõ) /'e:bó/ eben (but: ('öe:bn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ unchanged); ('fa˙ô) /'fa˙ó/ fa«en˚ (',u:gôt) /'ju:gót/ Jugend˚ (f…'lo:gô) /fÚ'lo:gó/ verlogen (but: (f…'lo:gn¢) /fÚ'lo:gnÈ/ verlogne˚ unchanged). Even double assimilation occurs (but not in intonemes): (öaof'öe:bõõ 'Stüa:só) /aof'e:bóÈn 'StKa:só/ Qf ebenen Stra•en˚ (∂I'öae˙g¢&Súa:gôô 've:g¢) /di'ae˙geSla:góÈn/ d¤ R«e(lagenen Wege˘ Even after nasals (which may be intense or not), /t, d/ can assimilate, if they are unexploded: ('hEmt, -mpæ) /'hEmt/ Hemd˚ ('hEmdó, -mbõ) /'hEmdó/ Hemden˚ (∂I',u:gót 'öaM&fOY…n, ∂I',u:gôkæ) /di'ju:gót 'anfOYÚn/ d¤ Jugend anfSern˚ (∂I'ge:gót 'öan&ze:ó, ∂I'ge:gôkæ) /di'ge:gót 'anze:ó/ d¤ Gegend ansehen˚ (∂I'ge:gódó 'öan&ze:ó, ∂I'ge:gôgô) /di'ge:gódÈn 'anze:ó/ d¤ Gegenden ansehen˚ (Ê¢'öamtó, -mpõ) /be'amtó/ Beamten˚ (Ê¢'haoptó, -ppõ, -põ) /bÈ'haoptó/ behQpten˚ (∂I'le:bódó 'laedó, -bõbõ) /di'le:bódÈn 'laedó/ d¤ Lebenden lRden˘ 5.3.2.4. Frequently, the sequence /gn/ assimilates as well (and also /bn, dn/, even if preceded by N˚ with a subsequent reduction): (#'üe:gn¢t, #'üe:˙n¢t) /Ès'Ke:gnÈt/ es regnet˚ ('öagn™s, 'öa˙n™s) /'agnEs/ Agnes˚ (mag&nifi'qhEnq, ma˙&n-, -IfI-) /magnifi'qEnq/ Magniﬁzenz˚ (zIg'na:l, zI˙'na:l) /zIg'na:l/ Signal, ('va:gn…, 'va:˙n…) /'va:gnÚ/ Wagner÷ ('öe:bn¢, 'öe:mn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ ('le:bót, -mõt) /'le:bót/ lebend˚ ('ºe:dn…, 'ºe:nn…) /'Ke:dnÚ/ Redner˚ ('ve:‰dó, -nó) /'ve:Kdó/ werden˚ ('fIndó, 'fInó) /'fIndó/ ﬁnden˚ ('hEmdó, -mbõ, -mõ) /'hEmdó/ Hemden (Ô above). Even sequences of N + a voiced stop can undergo nasal assimilation: (no'vEmb…, -mm…) /no'vEmbÚ/ November˚ ('öUmb¢&haltó, 'öUmm¢-) /'UmbÈhaltó/ umbehalten˚ (qhUm'bae&Spi;l, -m'm-) /qUm'baeSpi:l/ zum BRsp¤l˚ ('ÊUnd¢s&Êa˙k, 'ÊUnn¢s-) /'bUndÈsba˙k/ Bundesbank˚ ('vandÈº…, 'vannÈ-) /'vandÈKÚ/ Wanderer˚ ('vUnd…&ba;‰ 'vUnn…-) /'vUndÚba:K/ wunderbar˚ (qhU'mInd¢st, -Inn¢st) /qu'mIndÈst/ zuminde®˚ ('öU˙g¢&vIs, 'öU˙˙¢-) /'UngÈvIs/ u«ewiss˚ ('öa˙g¢≥bõ, 'öa˙˙¢-) /'a˙gÈge:bó/ a«egeben˚ ('öa˙≥bõ, 'öa˙&˙e;-) /'a˙ge:bó/ a«eben˚ ('öU˙ga‰, 'öU˙˙a‰) /'öU˙gaK/ U«ar˘ 5.3.2.5. A /t/ occurring between C˚ in non-slow speech, is generally dropped: ('ºEsúIÂ) /'KEstlIÂ/ re®li>˚ ('SüIfúIÂ) /'SKIftlIÂ/ (ri⁄li>˚ ('ºEÂúIÂ) /'KEÂtlIÂ/ re>tli>˚

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(Ê¢'öaXúIÂ) /bÈ'axtlIÂ/ bea>tli>˚ ('öEnlIÂ) /'EntlIÂ/ endli>˚ ('vEl&khu;gÍ) /'vEltku:gÍ/ Weltkugel (but: ('halp&khu;gÍ) /'halpku:gÍ/ Halbkugel˚ ('halp&qhaet) /'halpqaet/ HalbzRt]˚ ('vI‰tSaf ö¢Mfi'nanqó) /'vIKtSaft Untfi'nanqó/ Wir˛a⁄ und „nanzen˚ ('öEM&vU‰f) /'EntvUKf/ Entwurf˚ ('öaens 'StüItó, -nS 'S-, -n 'S-) /'aenst 'StKItó/ Rn® ®ritten˚ (qhU'mInd¢s 'qhñae) /qu'mIndÈst 'qvae/ zuminde® zwR˚ (',Eq qU'haoz¢) /'jEqt qu'haozÈ/ je˛t zu HQse˚ (ÊÈ'ºEÂtIÂt¢, -ÂIÂ¢) /bÈ'KEÂtIÂtÈ/ bere>tigte˘ In unstressed positions, we frequently ﬁnd reduced forms (Ô § 5.3.1.2) without /tò/ for i®˚ ni>t˚ und˘ Even /q/, after C˚ can become (s): ('glanq, -ns) /'glanq/ Glanz˚ (…'hElqt, -lst) /Ú'hElqt/ erhält®˚ ('sqe:n¢, 'sse:-, s'se:-) /'sqe:nÈ/ Szene˚ (qhU'mInd¢s 'sñae) /qu'mIndÈst 'qvae/ zuminde® zwR˚ (',Eq sU'haoz¢) /'jEqt qu'haozÈ/ je˛t zu HQse˚ (&∂asqU'StEndIg¢, &∂assU-) /dasqU'StEndIgÈ/ das zu®ändige˚ ('h°:Âst qU'füi:dó, -Âs sU-) /'h°:Âst qu'fKi:dó/ hö>® zufr¤den˘ ˛e most frequent case occurs after /ö/, for stops and stopstrictives: (…'hEltst, -lqt, -lst) /Ú'hEltst/ erhält®÷ in addition: ('khaM∫, -M]f, -Mf) /'kam∫/ Kamπ˚ ('glanq, -nts, -ns) /'glanq/ Glanz˚ ('ganq, -nts, -ns) /'ganq/ ganz˚ (ö™M'∫ha˙ô, ö™M]'fa-, ö™M'fa-) /Em'∫a˙ó/ emπa«en˚ ('thüEnc, -nS) /'tKEnc/ Tren>÷ more: ('mUmps, -ms) /'mUmps/ Mumps˚ ('phüOmpt, -mt) /'pKOmpt/ prompt˚ (ö™nt'SUldIgô, ö™n'S-) /Ent'SUldIgó/ en˛uldigen (Ô § 5.2.3.1, too), ('sfI˙ks, -˙s) /'sfI˙ks/ S#inx˚ ('phU˙kt, -˙t) /'pU˙kt/ Punkt˘ 5.3.2.6. In fast speech, between vowels and in unstressed syllables, /b, g/ can be realized as (6, Ÿ): ('ha:b¢, -6¢) /'ha:bÈ/ habe˚ ('le:g¢, -Ÿ¢) /'le:gÈ/ lege÷ /t/ can become ([): ('ÊIt¢, 'ÊI[¢) /'bItÈ/ bitte˘ Under the same conditions, voiceless stops and constrictives may become half-voiced or totally voiced: (∂ås&hat…'dOX â¢'maXt, -∂-, -d-) /dashatÚ'dOx gÈ'maxt/ das hat er do> gema>t˚ (∂åS'Sa:fIÂ '∂OX&nIÂt, -Ñ-, -v-, ∂å'S-) /das'SafIÂ 'dOxnIÂt/ das (a‡' i> do> ni>t˚ (∂ås&≈UsIÂ'≈aX?, -Ω-, -z-) /dasmUsIÂ'maxó/ das muss i> ma>en˚ (∂ås'≈aXIÂ '∂OX&nIÂt, -ü-, -º-) /das'maxIÂ 'dOxnIÂt/ das ma>' i> do> ni>t (obviously, because of ambiguity for native speakers –which, however, does not coincide with foreigners' ambiguity!– this typical fast-speech neutralization is avoided). After pauses, voiced constrictive phonemes remain unchanged; whereas, after voiceless C they become half-voiced (but more often /z/ becomes voiceless): ('vi:n) /'vi:n/ W¤n˚ (∂ås'Ñas…) /das'vasÚ/ das Wasser˚ ('qhñanqIÂ) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig˚ ('zi:bõ) /'zi:bó/ s¤ben˚ ('ºa:t&sa;m, -t'Ω-) /'Ka:tza:m/ ra_am˚ (&ZU‰na'lIst) /ZUKna'lIst/ Journali®˚ (t'ËU˙Í) /t'ZU˙Í/ D(u«el˚ (',a:) /'ja:/ ja˚ (∂ås'¿a:‰) /das'ja:K/ das Jahr˚ ('ºo:t) /'Ko:t/ rot˚ ('Süa˙k) /'SKa˙k/ 6rank˘ After voiceless stops, /K/ may become (X) (while phonotactically remaining /FK/): ('phüaes, 'phXaes) /'pKaes/ PrRs˚ ('thüe:tó, 'thXe:tó) /'tKe:tó/ treten˚ ('khüaes, 'khXaes) /'kKaes/ KrRs˘ Voiced stops are realized as half-voiced, both after pauses and after voiceless C: ('ÊU‰k) /'bUKk/ Burg˚ ('mEs&Êa;‰) /'mEsba:K/ messbar˚ ('∂e:nU,) /'de:nU˙/ Dehnu«˚ (&∂as∂u'öEt) /dasdu'Et/ das Duett˚ ('âu:t) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('öaos&âe:ó) /'aosge:ó/ Qsgehen˘ 5.3.2.7. Geminates, whether normal or with an intense element, can be simpliﬁed. ˛us, N in ﬁnal position: ('khOmõ, -m:, -m) /'kOmó/ kommen˚ ('öe:bõ, -mõ,

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-m:, -m) /'e:bó/ eben˚ ('nEnó, -n:, -n) /'nEnó/ nennen˚ ('hE˙ô, -˙:, -˙) /'hE˙ó/ hä«en˚ ('le:gô, -˙ô, -˙:, -˙) /'le:gó/ legen˘ Please, note that kommen and nennen can become identical with komm! and nenn! – however, in case of ambiguity, obviously, distinct forms are used. Geminates derived by assimilation can be reduced when they occur between stressed and unstressed syllables: ('li:bõs&Ñe;‰t, -mõ-, -õ-, -m-) /'li:bósve:Kt/ l¤benswert˚ ('ÊUnd¢s≈inIs&te;º,Um, -nn-, -n-, -mI-) /'bUndÈsminIste:KjUm/ Bundesmini®erium˚ ('öand…s, -nn-, -n-) /'and…s/ anders˚ ('öa˙g¢≥bõ, -˙˙-, -˙-) /'angÈge:bó/ a«egeben˘ In addition to ('Stüo:&m™˙¢) /'StKo:mE˙È/ Strohme«e˚ we can also have ('Stüo:m&m™˙¢, -&m-) /'StKo:mmE˙È/ Stromme«e˚ with possible reduction; however, in case of ambiguity, no reduction occurs. Geminate stops can be reduced to their second element, when they are very similar: ('öap&ÊIlt, 'öa&ÊIlt) /'apbIlt/ Abbild˚ ('ºa:t&∂aM∫…, 'ºa:&∂-) /'Ka:tdam∫Ú/ Raddamπer˚ ('mIt&thaeló, 'mI&th-) /'mIttaeló/ mittRlen˚ ('mIt&qh™;ló, 'mI&qh-) /'mItqE:ló/ mi˛ählen˚ ('vEk&khømõ, 'vE&kh-) /'vEkkOmó/ wegkommen˚ ('vEk&âe:ó, 'vE&â-) /'vEkge:ó/ weggehen˘ ˛e same holds for grooved constrictives: (∂ås'sElb¢, ∂ås'Ω-, ∂å's-) /das'zElbÈ/ dasselbe˚ (∂ås'SIf, ∂åS'S-, ∂å'S-) /das'SIf/ das 6i‡˚ ('öaes&Süa˙k, -S&S-, -&S-) /'aesSKa˙k/ Eis(rank˘ Instead, the /Âs/ sequence, as we have already seen, has a couple of possible variants: ('h°:Âst, -âst, -ÂÀt) /'h°:Âst/ hö>®˚ whereas /sÂ/ is only slightly modiﬁed: ('ÊIÀÂ«) /'bIsÂó/ bis(en˘ 5.3.2.8. From the above, a phonation-type di‡erence can become almost functional in three ways: ('öap&ÊIlt, 'öa&ÊIlt) /'apbIlt/ Abbild˚ in comparison with ('öa:pÍ) /'a:pÍ/ Apel and ('öa:bÍ) /'a:bÍ/ Abel˘ Let us also consider: ('mEndÍ&zo;n) /'mEndÍzo:n/ Mendelsohn˚ ('mEndÍs&so;n, -Ís&Ω-, -Í&s-) /'mEndÍszo:n/ Mendelssohn˘ If the geminates are produced by assimilation of place (of articulation), they can be reduced (provided the syllable of the ﬁrst element is unstressed): (&öImmu'ze:ó, &öImu-) /Immu'ze:ó/ in Museen˚ (mIk'kha‰l, mI'kh-) /mIt'kaKl/ mit Karl˚ (&magnifi'qhEnq, &ma˙n-, &ma˙˙-, &ma˙-, -IfI-) /magnifi'qEnq/ Magniﬁzenz˚ (qhUm'bae&Spi;l, -m'm-, -'m-) /qUm'baeSpi:l/ zum BRsp¤l˚ (qhu&mInd¢s'∂as&∂a;, -Inn-, -In-) /qu'mIndÈst 'dasda:/ zuminde® das da˘ We have, though: ('öam&m™ldó) /'anmEldó/ anmelden˚ ('mIk&khømõ) /'mItkOmó/ mitkommen˚ ('Êºo:k&khaofè) /'bKo:tkaofó/ Brot kQfen˚ ('ºa:kâ¢&fa:º?, -º¡, -&fa;‰,, -‰n) /'Ka:tgÈfa:Kó/ Rad gefahren˚ ('öam&bIndó, 'öam&m-) /'anbIndó/ anbinden˚ ('öagn™s, -˙n-, -˙˙-) /'agnEs/ Agnes˚ ('öa˙≥bõ, 'öa˙&˙-, -e;mõ, -e;õ, -e;m) /'ange:bó/ a«eben˚ ('ÊUnd¢s, -nn-) /'bUndÈs/ Bundes˚ ('vandÈº…, -nn-) /'vandÈKÚ/ Wanderer˘ 5.3.2.9. In sequences of /n, l/ + voiceless constrictives, homorganic (and homo-phonic) stops can be inserted (although this characteristic denotes a less careful pronunciation which it is better not to follow): ('öamt, -mpt) /'amt/ Amt˚ ('âams, -mps) /'gams/ Gams˚ ('ºamS, -mpS) /'KamS/ Ram(˚ ('zEMf, -M]f) /'zEnf/ Senf˚ ('âans, -nts, -nq) /'gans/ Gans, ('∂i:nst, -ntst, -nqt) /'di:nst/ D¤n®˚ ('mEnS, -ntS, -nc) /'mEnS/ Men(˚ ('ma~Â, -~+Â, -~k) /'manÂ/ man>˚ ('hE˙t, -˙kt) /'hE˙t/ hä«t˚ ('hE˙st, -˙kst) /'hE˙st/ He«®˚ (…'hElst, -ltst, -lqt) /Ú'hElst/ erhell®˘ ˛is frequently occurs for /nz, lz/ as well: ('öUnz…, -ndz…, -nQ…) /'UnzÚ/ unser˚ ('öalzo, -dzo, -Qo) /'alzo/ also˘

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5.3.2.10. Certainly, the transcriptions seen thus far are useful to conveniently separate German spelling from its phonic structure, which might seem rather strange to foreigners. But this is reality. Here are some examples for reﬂection: ('öap&üaez¢) AbrRse˚ ('th™:kúIÂ÷ 'thE:k-) tägli>˚ ('mUnt&öa‰tó) Mundarten˚ ('öUn&öaofüIÂtIÂ, -f&üIÂ-) unQfri>tig˚ (f…'öap&üe;dU,) Verabredu«˚ (Ê¢'öa:p≈õ, -t≈õ) beatmen… It is obvious then that German has very complex consonant sequences; here we will give just one example: ('hE‰ps[t]&Êl™t…) Herb®blätter˘ Please, note carefully even the spelling sh /s˘h/: ('land¢s&haos÷halt) /'landÈshaoshalt/ LandeshQshalt. Stress 5.3.3.1. In long words and in sentences, there are unstressed syllables that alternate with stressed or half-stressed ones. Even rhythm groups follow the same principle; and all this is already clear from the transcriptions we have given. German compounds have particular patterns. ˛e most normal and widespread one shows a primary stress on the prominent syllable of the ﬁrst lexeme and reduced stresses on the ex-prominent syllables of succeeding lexemes. Here are some examples of two-lexeme compounds: ('SIf&fa;‰t) 6i‡fahrt˚ ('∂aM∫&SIf) Damπ(i‡˚ ('Êa:n&ho;f) Bahnhof˚ ('öaezó&ba;n) Eisenbahn˚ ('ho:X&∂OYc) Ho>dS˛˚ ('füy:&StYk) Früh®ü$˚ ('öaoto&ba;n) Autobahn˚ (fa'mi:l,ó&na;m¢) Famil¤nname˚ ('mUnt-ha‰&mo;ni&ka) Mundharmonika˚ ('Su:&maX…) 6uma>er˘ It is useful to note that phonemic transcriptions, which do not mark secondary stresses, naturally imply such a reality. ˛erefore, pronunciations as the following for four of the compounds just seen are typically foreign-like (in this case Italian): ç('Sif:faRt, 'dam:Sif, 'ba:nof, 'Ok:døic)Ç. We cannot help ending with an observation on the compound 6uhma>er and its derived family name 6uma>er˚ which is generally pronounced by Spanish-, Portuguese-, and Italian-speaking people with peculiar stress patterns that we will illustrate here using the Italian ones: currently ç(Su'ma:keR), up to an ugly hybrid, which is neither German nor Romance: ç('Su:maxeR)Ç. 5.3.3.2. Let us also consider: (Âe'mi:&fa;z…) ≥em¤faser˚ (Âe'mi:&v™‰k) ≥em¤werk˚ ('â°:t¢&öInsti&thu;t) GoethRn®itut˚ ('fa:‰&phúa;n) Fahrplan˚ ('öan&Stalt) An®alt˚ ('mIt&tha;k) Mittag˚ ('fa:t…&lant) Vaterland˚ ('fElt&≈a‰Sal) Feldmar(all (and often ('fElt≈a‰&Sal, &fElt'≈a‰Sal) for rhythmic reasons). With three lexemes (paying attention that the kind of stress we mark here as (÷) is weaker than (&) and is not normally written, even because it can be completely reduced, although its syllable maintains the original characteristics of length, vowel timbre, and consonant consistency, including possible çaspirationÇ): (Âe'mi:÷fa;z…&v™‰k) ≥em¤faserwerk˚ ('mIt÷tha;ks&qhaet) MittagszRt˚ ('fa:t…÷lants&li;b¢, -nq-) Vaterlandsl¤be˘ More: ('vIlt÷Sñae˙s&khø∫) Wild(wRnskoπ˚ ('SñIm&öan÷Stalt) 6wimman®alt˚ ('na:X&≈It÷tha;k) Na>mittag˚ ('öalt&ho;X÷∂OYc) Altho>dS˛˚ ('haopt&öaof÷âa;b¢)

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HQptQfgabe˚ ('StOY…&öaen÷ne;m…) StSerRnnehmer˚ ('vElt&öan÷SaoU,) Weltan(Qu«˚ ('âElt&öan÷la;g¢) Geldanlage˚ ('na:X&öa‰÷baetó) na>arbRten˘ 5.3.3.3. However, rhythm often produces changes, especially in intonemes. ˛us, stress patterns as the following are actually more frequent, although they are not always fully perceived (or accepted): ('SñIm÷öan&Stalt, 'na:X÷≈It&tha;k, 'öalt÷ho:X&∂OYc, 'haopt÷öaof&âa;b¢, 'StOY…÷öaen≠m…, 'vElt÷öan&SaoU,, 'âElt÷öan&la;g¢, 'na:X÷öa‰&baetó), and (&vIlt'Sñae˙&khø∫), too. With four lexemes we can have: ('öaezó÷ba;M&fa;‰÷phúa;n) Eisenbahnfahrplan˚ ('na:X÷≈It÷tha;ks&qhaet) Na>mittagszRt÷ but rhythm often makes ('na;X÷≈It&tha;ks÷qhaet), or even (na;X'≈It÷tha;ks&qhaet) preferable. With ﬁve or six (lexemes): ('khüaft&fa;‰&qhOYk 'haft&∫húIÂtf…&zIÂÈºU,) Kra⁄fahrzSgha⁄pﬂi>tversi>eru«˚ ('Spi:l&va;º? 'öaosó&handÍsâ¢&z™l÷Saft) Sp¤lwarenQ•enhandelsgesell(a⁄˚ ('ho:X&ÑakuUm 'lIÂt&Êo;gô&S≈™lq÷öo;fè) Ho>vakuum-Li>tbogen-6melzofen˘ ˛ey generally attenuate the beginning, becoming: (&khüaft÷fa;‰'-, &Spi;l÷va;º?'-, &ho;X÷ÑakuUm'-). 5.3.3.4. ˛ere are even cases where secondary stresses actually determine the meaning of certain compounds: ('∂aM∫÷SIf&fa;‰t) Damπ(i‡fahrt çsteamboat voyageÇ, ('∂aM∫&SIf÷fa;‰t) Damπ(i‡fahrt çsteam navigationÇ. In cases such as these, of course, rhythmic ﬂuctuations are less frequent, although context must (and can) help very much. We also ﬁnd some compounds which do not bear primary stress on their ﬁrst lexeme, as: (&,a;‰'qhe:nt) Jahrzehnt˚ (&öo;st…'mo:n&ta;k) O®ermontag˚ (&Sña‰q'Ñaes) (warzwR•˚ (&ºo;t'khüOYq&Sñ™st…) RotkrSz(we®er˚ (&za;‰'bºYkô) Saarbrü$en˘ Others have more than one primary stress: ('Êlao 'gºy:n) blQ-grün, ('∂Um 'StOlq) dumm-®olz˚ ('Súe:sñIÂ 'hOlStaen) 6leswig-Hol®Rn÷ however, they can become (&Êlao'gºy:n, &∂Um'StOlq, &Súe;sñIÂ'hOlStaen), mostly in preintonemes. Let us observe: ('Êlao 'gºy:n) blQ-grün çblue and green (¤ two colors put alongside, as in a ﬂag or sports †-shirt)Ç and ('Êlao&gºy:n) blQgrün çbluish green, water green (¤ two colors blended together, as painters do)Ç. 5.3.3.5. ˛e faster speech becomes, the more non-primary stresses can be reduced — dropped, mostly in preintonemes. On the contrary, if speech becomes slower, the stresses can be restored. In particular in intonemes, the last non-strong stress can often be strengthened (we will mark it only here with (“)): ('öaoto“ba;n÷ 'öan“Stalt÷ 'öalt&ho;X“∂OYc÷ 'haopt&öaof“âa;b¢)÷ besides, ('öaezó÷ba;M&fa;‰“phúa;n, -“fa;‰÷phúa;n÷ &Spi;l&va;º?'öaosó&handÍsâ¢&z™l“Saft, -â¢“z™l÷Saft÷ &ho;X&ÑakuUm'lIÂt&Êo;gô&S≈™lq“öo;fè, -“S≈™lq÷öo;fè). ˛ere are frequent cases of (homographic) compounds with (stressed or unstressed) preﬁx grammemes, which (in their unitary –non-inﬂected– forms) is the most important element of semantic di‡erentiation: überse˛en »('öy:b…&z™qó) çto pass overÇ, ”(&öyb…'zEqó, &öY-) çto translateÇ, umfahren »('öUM&fa;º?, -º¡, -a;‰,, -a;‰n) çto run downÇ, ”(öUM'fa:º?, -º¡, -a:‰,, -a:‰n) çto drive/sail roundÇ. Generally, compounds with unstressed monosyllabic su‚xes have /I, È, ó, õ, Í,

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Ú/, even without secondary stresses (except for rhythmic reasons, when several unstressed syllables are arranged in sequence, as happens for (-laen) -lRn˚ (-U,) -u« as well): ('v§Â«túIÂ) wö>entli> (('v§Â«t&úIÂ«, -÷úIÂ«) wö>entli>en]. 5.3.3.6. Other unstressed monosyllabic su‚xes always bear a secondary stress: [(-&ba;‰) -bar˚ (-&haft) -ha⁄˚ (-&haet) -hRt˚ (-&kaet) -kRt˚ (-&la˙) -la«˚ (-&lI˙) -li«˚ (-&lo;s) -los˚ (-&ma;l) -mal˚ (-&za;l) -sal˚ (-&za;m) -sam˚ (-&Saft) -(a⁄˚ (-&tu;m) -tum˚ (-&føl) -voll˚ (-&v™‰q) -wär_]÷ for example: ('ºaen&haet) RRnhRt˚ ('öEnt&úo;s) endlos˘ Let us further consider (and notice that not fully stressed grammemes have no çaspirationÇ): (-IÂ&kaet) -igkRt˚ (-&haftIÂ÷kaet) -ha⁄igkRt˚ (-&lo;zIÂ÷kaet) -losigkRt˘ ˛ere are further rhythmic oscillations: ('öam&m™‰kU,?, 'öamm™‰&kU,?) Anmerku«en˚ ('öa‰&baetÈ&ºInó, 'öa‰baetÈ&-) ArbRterinnen÷ mostly with un-\ ('öUn&öan÷St™ndIÂ, 'öUn÷öan&St™ndIÂ) unan®ändig˚ ('öUM&fo‰÷zIÂtIÂ, 'öUM÷fo‰&zIÂtIÂ) unvorsi>tig˚ as for unQfri>tig (at the end of § 3.2), for which emphasis or emotion often produce: (&öUnöan'St™ndIÂ, &öUnöaof'üIÂtIÂ, &öUMfo‰'zIÂtIÂ). Let us ﬁnally recall that German words are not all stressed on their ﬁrst syllable (as too hastily certain textbooks çdescribeÇ or çprescribeÇ), mostly for preﬁxed forms or (even old) loanwords: (zo'fO‰t) sofort˚ (â¢'nao) genQ˚ (â¢'fUndó) gefunden˚ (mo'mEnt) Moment˚ (ma'Si:n¢) Ma(ine÷ (phüo'fEso‰) Professor (with its çtroublesomeÇ (&phüof™'so:º?, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n) Professoren]˘ In addition, we ﬁnd forms such as: (∂a'bae) dabR˚ (hI'naos) hinQs˚ (vo'he:‰) woher˚ which for emphasis become: ('∂a&bae, 'hI&naos, 'vo&he;‰). 5.3.3.7. Another characteristic of German stressing is ﬁnal çdestressingÇ of verbal forms, mainly auxiliaries and modals (and suchlike), inﬁnitives and past participles. As a matter of fact, instead of an çexpectableÇ stress pattern, which can normally be found –in various languages– at the end of intonemes, we ﬁnd this kind of çdestressingÇ which corresponds to the following typology. With compound verbal forms (thus including: future, conditional, passive, modals with dependent inﬁnitives): das 'dür⁄e 'ri>tig &sRn÷ s¤ 'mag 'Re>t &haben÷ s¤ 'soll &sehr 'tü>tig &sRn÷ i> &habe 'Cola be&®ellt÷ er i® '(lafen ge&ga«en÷ i> &habe es 'ni>t ge&wollt÷ i> &bin na> 'Rom ge&fahren÷ er wird 'wohl zu 'HQse &sRn÷ er &i® ver'ha⁄et &worden˘ Also: er &hat ihn 'fahren &lassen÷ s¤ &hatten mir den 'Br¤f '(rRben &helfen÷ das 'Auto &wird bis 'morgen repa&r¤rt÷ i> muss 'je˛t na> 'HQse &gehen÷ i> &würde 'gern 'Rot&wRn &trinken÷ i> &habe ihn 'fahren ge&lehrt÷ &will® du ins 'Kino &gehen? Naturally, the çstrangeÇ e‡ect of destressing increases when there is more than one inﬁnitive form: 'Karin hat den 'Br¤f &(rRben &müssen÷ s¤ &hätten 'ni>t &kommen &sollen÷ i> &habe um '3 &Uhr '(lafen &gehen &müssen˘ 5.3.3.8. Cases such as the following are interesting too: 'ma>en S¤ d¤ 'Re>nu« &fertig˚ 'halten s¤ d¤ 'Pässe be&rRt˚ where the non-conjugated form of the verb is an indeclinated adjective; the old orthography used to give: fertigma>en˚ berRthalten˚ instead of: fertig ma>en˚ berRt halten˘ For subordinate clauses, we have conjugated forms in the last position, inﬁnitive

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ones with um … zu: s¤ 'kann 'ni>t &kommen, &wRl s¤ 'morgen &sehr 'früh 'Qf&®ehen &muss (except when dependent inﬁnitives are more than two: s¤ i® &sehr 'müde, &wRl s¤, 'hSte 'Morgen, 'sehr &früh hat 'Qf&®ehen &müssen÷ i> 'ho‡e, &dass er d¤ 'Re>nu« &hat be'zahlen &können÷ i> 'ho‡e, &dass s¤ &Rne 'nSe 'Wohnu« hat 'ﬁnden &können]÷ i> 'für>te, &dass er 'Re>t &hat÷ der 'Arzt &wollte 'wissen, &ob er '‡ber ge&habt &habe÷ s¤ 'sagt, dass &ihre 'Kinder im 'Garten &sp¤lten÷ i> 'glQbe, &dass s¤ 'ni>t 'h¤r &i®÷ i> 'wR•, dass er vor &zwR 'Jahren &ope'r¤rt &worden &i®÷ i> 'brQ>e 'ni>t zu &antworten÷ es i® 'immer 'besser, 'pünktli> &anzu&kommen÷ um 'pünktli> &anzu&kommen, &müssen wir d¤ 'U-&Bahn &nehmen˘ ˛e constructions with modals and inﬁnitives in the last position are to be noticed too: du 'sollte® zum 'Arzt &gehen˘ With inﬂected separable verbs, postponed particles generally bear primary stresses ((')); however, it is often weaker (up to a secondary degree), thus we will indicate it here with (“): s¤ 'kommt 'morgen {an˚ i> 'lege es {bR˚ du 'ruf® {an˚ er 'gab den 'Kamπ {Qf˚ das 'Da> 'spri«t {über˘ Let us add some typical examples, since the concepts expressed by some words can (or must) come out: 'Anna darf 'ni>t &mitkommen÷ der 'Br¤f &wurde von 'mir ge&(r¤ben. More: &kann man 'h¤r 's>wimmen? (two concepts), however: 'können S¤ Kla'v¤r &sp¤len? something like… çto pianoÇ; 'morgen˚ &muss i> 'ﬂ¤gen÷ i> muss 'morgen &ﬂ¤gen [¤ ﬂ¤gen is already known). ‹en no complement or predicate is present, destressing certainly does not occur, as in the following sentences, where verbs are preceded only by words (and concepts) with very low information power: 'kann i> 'mal telefo'n¤ren?÷ er 'fuhr in d¤ 'Fer¤n, um &si> zu er'holen÷ er 'l¤• das Re®Q'rant, 'ohne zu be'zahlen÷ 'bitte, 'blRben S¤ &do> 'si˛en˘ Let us further consider the following examples: das i® be'®immt 'unab&si>tli> ge&(ehen÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&(ehen &i®÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden &i®÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden sRn &kann÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden sRn &könnte˘ Here, the particular syntactic structure of German subordinate clauses, with verb phrases at the end of sentences, makes it possible for the last primary stress to be followed by a considerable number of syllables. Intonation 5.3.4. û 5.4 shows neutral German intonation. Each tonogram must be analyzed very carefully. Here we will simply provide examples for the three marked intonemes. In § 5.3.1.1, the third and fourth utterance (of the second group of examples, before the reduced-form list) show mid-pitch parentheses (Ô § 13.24 of NPT/HPh), which is also typical of German and French. Here is another example: … und, &wenn es 'mögli> zu 'ma>en &wäre, … Others may be found in the transcriptions of the text (§ 5.5): /./: (öIÂ'su:X¢ öaem'm°:bÍg¢&S™ft3 3) /IÂ'zu:xÈ aen'm°:bÍgÈSEft./ I> su>e Rn Möbelge(ä⁄. /?/: (¿'khOmõzi öaos'ö°:st…&ºaeÂ1 1) /¿'kOmózi aos'°:stÚKaeÂ?/ Kommen S¤ Qs Ö®errR>?

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/÷/: (¿'fa:º?zi naX5∂YsÍ&dø‰f1 1| {ö&o;d…'mak∂¢&bU‰k3 3}) /¿'fa:Kózi na:x'dYsÍdOKf÷ {o:dÚ'makdÈbUKk.}/ Fahren S¤ na> Düsseldorf oder Magdeburg? û 5.4. German preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 1 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Other accents 5.4.0. As we have already said, we think it important to present, in addition to neutral pronunciation, at least some accents, not only for useful comparisons, but also to be ready to grasp the pronunciation characteristics of German outside the former çWest GermanyÇ. We will start from former çEast GermanyÇ (ex ∂∂®, ¤ the present-day north-eastern part of reuniﬁed Germany), to Austria, Switzerland, and South Tyrol (or Alto Adige), to understand di‡erent accents better and more quickly. ˛ese observations could even be useful in order to acquire a more typical accent among the last three, mainly if somebody wanted (or had) to be in preferential contact with those inhabitants, more than with those of Germany. It could also be interesting to see –in NPT/HPh– the phonosyntheses of Pennsylvania German˚ or çPennsylvania DubÇ (as it is called, § 21.12) and various Germanic dialects spoken in Germany (NPT/HPh § 17.27), Austria (NPT/HPh § 17.28), Switzerland (NPT/HPh § 17.20), Luxembourg (NPT/HPh § 17.22), France (NPT/HPh § 17.21), and Italy (NPT/HPh § 16.2, 16.12, 16.15-6, 16.18). North-eastern-Germany German 5.4.1.1. ˛e ﬁrst vocogram shows the vowels of the ex-∂∂® mediatic (and neutral) accent. It is not the local pronunciation of Berlin or of Saxony. As will be seen shortly, by comparing this vocogram with that of û 5.1, long stressed V are actually monotimbric diphthongs, or vocalic doublings, with a slight upward movement. Besides, /E, E:, §, O/ are slightly closer (su‚ciently so to use di‡erent phonetic symbols: (™, ™™, #, ø)). We just give some examples to directly show the di‡erence, thanks to phonetic transcriptions: ('fi;il) /'fi:l/ v¤l˚ ('ze;eó) /'ze:ó/ sehen˚ ('Sp™;™t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ and: ('Êa;an) /'ba:n/ Bahn˚ ('zo;o) /'zo:/ so˚ ('âu;ut) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('thy;y‰) /'ty:K/ Tür˚ ('S°;°n) /'S°:n/ (ön˘

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˛e two realizations of /È/ are slightly lower: ('öUnz‘ºÈ, -ndz-, -nQ-) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere÷ whereas, the possible vocalization of /K, Ú/ is closer: ('vas…, -x‰, -x˜, -xº, -x) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ 5.4.1.2. By comparing the vocogram provided, it can be seen that the second elements of /ae, ao, OY/ are more central (and even lower for /OY/): (aÙ, aP, ø+). In addition, especially the ﬁrst element of /ao/ is slightly backer and the ﬁrst of /OY/ is slightly higher, and indeed it crosses the edge towards the upper box: ('öaÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('ÊlaP) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nø+) /'nOY/ nS˘ ˛ere is little di‡erence for the two xenophonemes /eI, oU/; while, for the possible ﬁrst-element variants of /’ae, ’ao, ’a÷ ’OY/ they coincide. We add for C that there is quite a frequent change of voiceless constrictives (and /z/), after /n, l/, into homorganic sequences of stops + constrictives, or even into real stopstrictives (Ô § 5.3.2.9). ≈nally, before pauses, /kò/ can be realized as a (pre)velar stopstrictive (w, ∞): ('khüi;ik, -w, -∞) /'kKi:k/ Kr¤g˚ ('tha;ak, -w, -∞) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ ('qhu;uk, -w, -∞) /'qu:k/ Zug˘ However, all these realizations are not at all recommendable. ˛e tonogram shows intonation, which sounds slightly less peculiar than the çwesternÇ neutral one, approaching what may be called çinternationalÇ. /u:, ’u/ (u;u, u) /U/ (U) /o:, ’o/ (o;o, o) /È/ (È, ‘˘º, º‘, ºÈò) /O/ (ø, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (x)}

/i:, ’i/ (i;i, i), /y:, ’y/ (y;y, y) /I/ (I), /Y/ (Y) /e:, ’e/ (e;e, e), /°:, ’°/ (°;°, °) /E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#)÷ /E:/ (™;™, ’™;) /a/ (a), /a:/ (a;a)

/oU/* (o;o, ±øU) /OY/ (ø+) {(’Ö+)} {/’a/ (å)} /ao/ (aP) {(’åP)}

/eI/* (e;e, ±™I) /ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)} / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 2 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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Austrian German 5.4.2.1. ˛is accent is the çmediaticÇ one, which prevails in radio and television broadcastings and is half-way between the slightest and broadest accents. ˛ese observations are drawn from our (growing) sound archives. çLongÇ monophthongs are realized as geminate or doubled vocoids and have a shorter duration although gemination gives an impression of greater fullness, which almost equalizes true length: not (é:), but (éé). It is at once clear even that the articulations corresponding to /I, Y, U÷ E[:], §, O/ are closer than in neutral German, so much so that they are represented as (i, y, u÷ ™[™], #, ø) (in less broad accents we ﬁnd (I°, Y°, U°÷ E[E]°, §°, O°), with the unstressed variants (™, #, ø), slightly closer than in neutral pronunciation): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hunt) /'hUnt/ Hund˚ ('™lf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('Sp™™t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ ('q6#lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('øft) /'Oft/ o⁄˘ Certain words have /e:/ (ee) for /E:/. 5.4.2.2. Both /a/ and /a:/ are back-central: ('StAt) /'Stat/ Stadt˚ ('StAAt) /'Stat/ Staat (in less broad accents we ﬁnd (a, aA) (and (Å, ÅÅ) in reﬁned, or a‡ected, ones), whereas in broader ones we have: (å, åå) and (Ø, ØØ) as well (which will certainly be noted at once). Austrian traditional dialects generally present phonemic opposition between a back a and a fronter one, both short and long. It is possible to ﬁnd this timbre distinction in language too, where the back timbre is used in traditional words, whereas the fronter one is used in loanwords and neologisms, as happens for instance in Bank\ /'bA˙k/ ('ÊA˙k) çbenchÇ, /'ba˙k/ ('Êa˙k) çbank, gambling tableÇ. A very broad accent has /e:, °:, o:/ (eÙ, #°, øo): ('vee, ≠'veÙ) /'ve:/ weh˚ ('Ê°°, ≠'Ê#°) /'b°:/ Bö˚ ('soo, ≠'søo) /'zo:/ so˘ 5.4.2.3. /È/ is realized as (Ù, È), with the possible vocalization of /K, Ú/ (å) (with consonantal accompaniments too); thus we have: ('unsÈºÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere and ('vAs…, -å‰, -å˜, -åº, -å) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ ˛e symbol (å) corresponds to the one currently used, though less rigorously, in neutral German as well, for (√), which on the contrary is appropriate for less broad Austrian accents that have (√ï) (and even (x÷)); whereas the broadest accents have (a[í]). It is to be noted that (Ù) /È/ is front-central, ¤ considerably fronter than in neutral German. ˛e most reﬁned or a‡ected accents may reach (Ùº, Ù√) for /ÈK, Ú/ (Ô the last vocogram but one). Moving to diphthongs, we can see that /OY/ has just a higher ﬁrst element, while /ae, ao/ are decidedly di‡erent, (ÄÙ, åø): ('ÄÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('Êlåø) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nøY) /'nOY/ nS˘ Less broad accents have, (ÅÙ, Aø, O°), respectively, while the broadest ones have (EÙ, ∏ø, √Y) (as in Vienna, where even (πÉ, Øø, ∏ê) occur, and even (O,), as a compromise, and (@°, §°) as well). Xenophonemes are slightly closer than in neutral German: /eI, oU/ (ee, ™i÷ oo, øu). 5.4.2.4. In the second vocogram, two further typical diphthongs are evident (although marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ, uÙ) /iÈ, uÈ/: ('∂iÙks, '∂iiks) D¤x˚ ('ºuÙq, 'ºuu™q) Rue˛˘ No variant of /ae, ao, OY/ in

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reduced forms are given, because they tend to remain as indicated; nevertheless, we have shown /’a/ (√), which is possible in reduced forms. In comparison with neutral German, there are some di‡erences in phonemic length too, as in: ('Alt…&tum) /'altÚtu:m/ Altertum˚ ('Spiil&Êa‰) /'Spi:lba:K/ sp¤lbar˚ ('hA‰q) /'ha:Kq/ Harz˚ ('ÊA‰S) /'ba:KS/ Bar(˚ ('Sust…) /'Su:stÚ/ 6u®er÷ (âÙ'Sloos) /gÈ'SlOs/ Ge(loss/-o•˘ /u:, ’u/ (uu, u) /U/ (u) f /o:, ’o/ (oo, o) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, ºÈ, È˘º) /O/ (ø, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (å)} /a/ (A), /a:/ (AA)

/i:, ’i/ (ii, i), /y:, ’y/ (yy, y) f /I/ (i), /Y/ (y) /e:, ’e/ (ee, e), /°:, ’°/ (°°, °) /E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#), /E:/ (™™, ’™;)

/uÈ/* (uÙ)

/iÈ/* (iÙ)

/oU/* (oo, ±øu) /OY/ (øY) {/’a/ (√)} /ao/ (åø)

/eI/* (ee, ±™i) /ae/ (ÄÙ)

/i:, ’i/ (±ii, ±i), /y:, ’y/ (yy, y) /I/ (±I), /Y/ (Y) /e:, ’e/ (±ee, ±e), /°:, ’°/ (±°°, ±°) /E/ (±E, ±’™), /§/ (±§, ±’#) /E:/ (±EE, ±’™;)

/e:/ (≠≠eÙ, ee), /°:/ (≠≠#°) /ae/ (±ÅÙ, ≠EÙ, ≠≠πÉ) /…/ (±±Ù√, ±x, ≠a)

/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/?/ (2 Ç 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2) /u:, ’u/ (±uu, ±u) /U/ (±U) /o:, ’o/ (±oo, ±o) /È/ (±Ù, ±ºÙò, ±Èº, ±ºÈ) /O/ (±O, ±’ø) /Ú/ {(…) “) (±√) /a/ (±a), /a:/ (±aA)

/ÈK-/ (±±Ùº-) /o:/ (≠≠øo) /OY/ (O°, O,, ≠√Y, ≠≠∏ê, ≠≠@°, ≠≠§°) /ao/ (±Aø, ≠∏ø, ≠≠Øø) /a[:]/ (±±Å[Å], ≠å[å], ≠≠Ø[Ø])

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˛e last two vocograms show both less broad ((±)) vowel realizations (up to some a‡ected ones, (±±)), and –on the contrary– some of the broadest realizations ((≠)). 5.4.2.5. Moving to C˚ we ﬁnd that often /˙ò, ˙0/ become /˙kò, ˙k0/ (but they are not recommendable): ('qÄÙtu˙, -˙k) /'qaetU˙/ ZRtu« (however, even without (k), the nasal is always velar, not uvular, in /Kó/ as well: (SpA'qiiºô, -ii‰˙, -ii‰n)). /t, d/ are more dental than denti-alveolar: (∂e't™kto‰) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ often /kò, kl, gl/ can be prevelar or retracted palatal (and /kò/ may even become stopstrictive, but these variants are best avoided): ('tAAk, -´, -∞, -©, -k) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ ('∂u˙kl…, -”´l-, -N©-) /'dU˙klÚ/ dunkler˚ ('ºeeâl…, -"l-, -ˆl-) /'Ke:glÚ/ Regler˘ Voiceless stops and stopstrictives are not çaspiratedÇ (except in less broad pronunciations), as we have just seen for /q/: ('pool) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('toon) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kint) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('∫unt) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('cAko) /'cako/ T(ako˘ Voiced stops are half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â); but they can also be (b, d, g), between voiced phones, again in less broad accents; however, in the broadest ones, we generally ﬁnd (p, t, k): ('ÊuuÊÙ, -6Ù) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube (often we have (é6é) /ébé/), ('∂uu∂ó) /'du:dó/ Duden˚ ('âeeâô) /'ge:gó/ gegen. On the other hand, within words, b˚ d˚ g followed by heterosyllabic /n, l/ can become /b, d, g/ (instead of /p, t, k/, as in neutral German pronunciation, which has neutralization): ('ø‰∂nu˙) /'OKdnU˙/ Ordnu«˚ ('m°°âliÂ) /'m°:klIÂ/ mögli>. No glottal stop is used, except in less broad accents: (iÂ'™sÙ) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse˚ (te'AAt…) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˘ 5.4.2.6. Among constrictives, we ﬁnd a greater variation (than in neutral German) for v˚ mostly when initial: ('v™‰s, 'f-) /'fEKs/ Vers˚ ('fiip…, 'v-) /'vi:pÚ/ Viper˘ Normally, /z/ is /s/ (s) (while we ﬁnd (Ω, z) only in less broad accents, and more easily after C]\ ('sAAgô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('Also) /'alzo/ also˚ ('ºÄÙsó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen (then identical to ('ºÄÙsó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en]˘ In words such as Stil˚ Strateg¤˚ unlike neutral German, /st/ is preferred to /St/: ('stiil) /'Sti:l/˚ (&stºAte'gii) /StKate'gi:/ (although they are both used, in both accents). In addition, /j/ is an approximant, (j): ('jAA) /'ja:/ ja; generally, /x/ is velar, (x): ('nAAx) /'na:x/ na>. For /KÂ/ we have /Kx/: ('∂u‰x) /'dUKÂ/ dur>; for /-IÂ/ we have /-Ik/: ('q6Anqik) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig˚ for /òÂ/ we ﬁnd /k/: ('kiinA) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina˚ but: (me&lA~Âo'lii) /mela˙ko'li:/ Melan>ol¤˘ Often /Â/ is realized as a postpalatal, (…), mostly in Vienna. ˛e most widely used articulation for /K/ is a uvular constrictive, (º), with the possibility of postnuclear vocalization (as seen in the ﬁrst part of this section), which coexists with a fairly widespread alveolar trill or tap, (R, r) (even velarized, (R, 5)). ˛is is mainly a non-urban characteristic (but also widespread in Vienna, although alternating with (º, K)), which is best avoided, even if it does not sound peculiar: ('ºAA‰÷ 'RAAR, 'rAAr, -AAå) /'Ka:K/ rar˘ Although, of course, it is certainly not recommendable, we want to mention that the typical broad cennese l is a velarized alveolar unilateral, (÷), which may occur in every position, although it normally alternates with (l), even in the broad-

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est and most typical speakers. In the broadest accents (as in the traditional local dialect – see the cennese phonosynthesis, § 17.28 of NPT/HPh]˚ we ﬁnd velar (ı, ”), in the sequences /kl, gl÷ kÍ, gÍ/. In cennese pronunciation again, in addition to (“) (and (”)), we often ﬁnd it vocalized in (,) (as in the dialect): ('Spiiâ”, -â,, 'ees“, -s,) /'Spi:gÍ, 'e:zÍ/ Sp¤gel˚ Esel. 5.4.2.7. In non-neutral pronunciation, simple word-internal voiceless intersyllabic /0/, after (short) stressed V, are realized as restrained (but evident) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the ﬁrst element, in the variant form notated only here, (00): ('Støpõ÷ 'Støppõ) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('v™t…÷ 'v™tt…) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('tA∫…÷ 'tA∫∫…) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqó÷ 'siqqó) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('vAs…÷ 'vAss…) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('vASó÷ 'vASSó) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siÂ…÷ 'siÂÂ…) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('mAxô÷ 'mAxxô) /'maxó/ ma>en˘ ˛e insertion of a homorganic stop between /n, l/ and voiceless constrictives or /z/ (Ô § 5.3.2) is possible, although not particularly widespread. ˛ere are some di‡erences in stressing: (kA'fee) /'kafe÷ ka'fe:/ Ka‡ee˚ ('lAAÊø‰, lA'Êoo‰) /la'bo:K/ Labor˚ (tA'ÊAk) /'ta[:]bak÷ ta'bak/ Tabak˚ (pø‰'tii‰, pø‰'tjee) /pOK'tje:/ Port¤r÷ Motor ('mootø‰, mo'too‰) /'mo:to:‰, mo'to:‰/˘ Austrian intonation is easily recognized because of its (slightly rising) half-low stressed syllables and (falling) mid unstressed syllables, occurring between them in preintonemes; mostly the interrogative intoneme (and the suspensive one too) have particular movements, which can be seen in the tonogram. Swiss German 5.4.3.1. Even for this accent we will add, when relevant but without further ﬁgures, some more non-neutral characteristics, taken from our sound archives. ˛e main accent illustrated is the mediatic one – something in between the broadest “ most local ones and a neutralized, unmarked, accent – expressly acquired. ˛e ﬁrst vocogram shows the short and long çmonophthongsÇ; actually, in this accent çlongÇ vowels are diphthongs with narrow movements: ('fiil) /'fi:l/ v¤l˚ ('f5yy) /'fKy:/ früh˚ ('âuut) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('Êeet) /'be:t/ Beet˚ ('°°l) /'°:l/ Öl˚ ('Ñoo) /'vo:/ wo˚ ('SpEEt) /'SpE:t/ spät (which is very stable and typical) ('StaAt) /'Sta:t/ Staat˘ ˛e last two have non-neutral broad variants: (πE) and (åå) (or (åA) as well, which is typical of Bern, and (ù∏), typical of Zurich). (˛e phonosynthesis in § 17.20 of NPT/HPh shows the characteristics of Zurich 6wyzertü˛ {which is Alemannic}, with still more di‡erent realizations.) Among short V, /I, Y, U/ have closer realizations (i, y, u): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hun∂) /'hUnt/ Hund÷ /E, §, O/ are relatively open: ('Elf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('q6§lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('Oft) /'Oft/ o⁄ (with unstressed taxophones (™, #, ø)). For the spelling ä˚ we can also ﬁnd a broad non-neutral realization (π): ('fElt, ≠'fπlt) /'fElt/ fällt÷ /a/ is back-central (A) (which, in broad marked pronunciation, is rounded too, (ù), or fully back, (å)): ('StAt) /'Stat/ Stadt˘

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5.4.3.2. For /È/ we have (Ù), in every context, since /K/ is not uvular: (âÙ'5aA∂Ù) /gÈ'Ka:dÈ/ gerade˚ ('unsÙRÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere˚ ('unsÙR) /'Unz…/ unser˘ Besides, we generally ﬁnd (-Ùn, -Ùm, -Ùl) for /ó, õ, Í/: ('faARÙn) /'fa:Kó/ fahren˚ ('looΩÙm) /'lo:zõ/ losem˚ ('eeΩÙl) /'e:zÍ/ Esel˘ Only in very careful pronunciation, can we ﬁnd (ó, õ, Í), and (…, √‰, √˜, √º) as well, even for speakers lacking /K/ (º). Neutral Swiss diphthongs are /ae, ao, OY/ (aÙ, Ao, OI): ('aÙΩ) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('ÊlAo) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nOI) /'nOY/ nS÷ in the broadest accents we ﬁnd: /ae/ (EI, ÄI), /ao/ (ÄU, ∏U), /OY/ (êI, oÙ). Xenophonemes are decidedly closer than in neutral German: /eI, oU/ (ee, ei÷ oo, ou). /i:, ’i/ (ii, i), /I/ (i) /y:, ’y/ (yy, y), /Y/ (y)

/u:, ’u/ (uu, u), /U/ (u) /o:, ’o/ (oo, o)

/e:, ’e/ (ee, e), /°:, ’°/ (°°, °) /È/ (Ù, ÙR, RÙ), /Ú/ (ÙR) /E/ (E, ’™), /§/ (§, ’#), /E:/ (EE, ’™;)

/O/ (O, ’ø) /a:/ (aA), /a/ (A) /uÈ/ (uÙ)

/iÈ/ (iÙ), /yÈ/ (yÙ) /eI/* (ee, ±ei)

/oU/* (oo, ±ou) /OY/ (OI) {(’ÖI)} {/’a/ (√)} /ao/ (Ao) {(’åo)}

/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)}

/I/ (±I), /Y/ (±Y) /E/ (≠™), /§/ (≠#) /ae/ (≠EI, ≠ÄI, ≠Åi) /E:, E/ >ä≥ (≠πE, ≠π)

/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/?/ (2 Ì 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

/U/ (±U) /OY/ (≠êi, ≠∏i, ≠øI, ≠oÙ) /O/ (≠ø) /ao/ (≠ÄU, ≠å¯, ≠åo, ≠∏U) /a:/ (≠ù∏, ≠åå, ≠åA) /a/ (≠ù, ≠å)

In the second vocogram again, three further typical diphthongs are evident (although marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ, yÙ, uÙ) /iÈ, yÈ, uÈ/: ('∂iÙt) D¤th˚ ('5yÙâ) Rüegg˚ ('huÙp) Huep˘ Except in less marked

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–or a‡ected– accents, often /y:, y, yÈ/ become /i:, i, iÈ/. In the same ﬁgure, possible realizations of reduced forms of /ae, ao, OY, a/ are given: (åÙ, ao, Ö¤, √). In comparison with neutral German, there are some words with short V, as in: ('A5t) /'a:Kt/ Art˚ ('flOs) /'flo:s/ √o• [√oss\ in Switzerland • is not used], ('jAâ∂) /'ja:kt/ Jagd˚ ('nun) /'nu:n/ nun˚ ('∫E5∂) /'∫e:Kt/ Pferd˚ ('fO5) /'fo:K/ vor˚ ('ÑE5∂Ùn) /'ve:Kdó/ werden˚ ('E5∂Ù) /'e:KdÈ/ Erde˚ ('Ñuks) /'vu:ks/ Wu7˚ ('qE5tliX, -á) /'qhE:‰tlIÂ/ zärtli>˘ ˛e last vocogram shows broad realizations of /E, E:, a, a:÷ ae, ao, OY/ (and less broad ones of /I, Y, U/). 5.4.3.3. Moving to C˚ we have to say that /t, d/ are decidedly dental: (∂e'tEktoR) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ whereas, /k/ is (k, w, ∑, k): ('kin∂, 'w, '∑-, 'k-) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('sAk, -w, -∑, -k) /'zak/ Sa$; please, note that in the transcription of § 5.5.2.4 (and § 5.5.1.2), we write (∑), to insist on this typical realization (although it tends to be avoided in neutral-like pronunciations, perhaps resorting to a velar stop-semi(con)strictive, (˜), which is half-way between (k) and the other stopstrictives indicated). /p, t, k÷ ∫, q, c/ are not çaspiratedÇ (unless çaspirationÇ is voluntarily used): ('pool) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('toon) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kuu, 'w, '∑-, 'k-) /'ku:/ Kuh˚ ('∫un∂) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('qeen) /'qe:n/ zehn˚ ('cAkko) /'cako/ T(ako. Furthermore, (ö) is lacking, except in less marked and less typical accents: (te'aAtÙR) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˚ (iX'EssÙ, iá-) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse÷ as can be seen, though, lexeme and grammeme boundaries are respected; only in very broad pronunciations resyllabiﬁcation is possible: (i'XEssÙ, i'á-). Voiced C of diphonic pairs are actually half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â÷ Ñ, Ω, Ë), even before pauses or when syllable-ﬁnal (where, in neutral German, they are neutralized and change to /p, t, k÷ f, s, S/). ˛erefore, we generally ﬁnd /s/ for /z/, after pauses or C\ ('ÊuuÊÙ) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube˚ ('ÊuuÊ) /'bu:p/ Bub˚ ('∂uu) /'du:/ du˚ ('un∂) /'Unt/ und˚ ('5ee∂Ùn) /'Ke:dó/ reden˚ ('ÊooâÙn) /'bo:gó/ Bogen˚ ('taAâ) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ (âÙ'Ñin) /gÈ'vIn/ Gewinn˚ ('leeΩÙn) /'le:zó/ lesen˚ ('saAâÙn) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('ÊinsÙ) /'bInzÈ/ Binse˚ ('paAËÙ) /'pa:ZÈ/ Page˘ 5.4.3.4. Often, /f/ occurs instead of (neutral) /v/: (no'fEmÊÙR) /no'vEmbÚ/ November˚ (f™n'tiil) /vEn'ti:l/ Ventil˚ (ful'kaAn, -w, -∑-, -k-) /vUl'ka:n/ Vulkan˘ For sp˚ ®˚ internal or ﬁnal we have /sp, st/, but in broad accents we ﬁnd /Sp, St/: (k'nOspÙ, ≠-SpÙ) /k'nOspÈ/ Knospe˚ (Êist, ≠-iSt) /bIst/ bi®˚ ('âEstÙRn, ≠-St-) /'gEstÚn/ ge®ern˘ Generally, for internal /S/ (after stressed short V, like for the other C] we have (SS): ('muSSÙl) /'mUSÍ/ Mu(el÷ for 7 /ks/, in marked pronunciation it is fairly possible to have ç/xs/Ç: ('fuks, ≠-Xs, ≠-ás) /'fUks/ Fu7˘ Only in less broad speech, can we ﬁnd /Â/ (but articulated as postpalatal (…), or prevelar (¢)); whereas, normally, we have /x/ (X, á): ('milX, -á÷ ±-…, -±-¢) /'mIlÂ/ Mil>˚ ('AoX, -á) /'aox/ Q>˘ -ig is regularly /Ik/ (¤ ç/Ig/Ç; while /IÂ/ is decidedly rare and only voluntarily used): ('q6Anqiâ) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig÷ and /òÂ/ is normally /k/: ('kiinA, 'w-, '∑-, 'k-) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina÷ /j/ is an approximant, /j/: ('jaA) /'ja:/ ja˘

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5.4.3.5. ˛e typical articulation of /K/ is uvularized alveolar, a trill in stressed syllables (5), and a tap in unstressed syllables (R), in every context, even after V\ ('5aA5) /'Ka:K/ rar˚ (Re'Akto[o]R) /Ke'akto:K/ Reaktor˘ In regional pronunciation (or, on the contrary, intentional pronunciation, under the inﬂuence of neutral German pronunciation), uvular realizations are possible: (º, K, ˜). In neutral pronunciation /l/ is always alveolar (whereas in non-neutral pronunciation we often ﬁnd (], ı), before pauses or C]\ ('AllÙ) /'alÈ/ alle˚ ('leeÊÙn) /'le:bó/ leben˚ ('ÑOlf) /'vOlf/ Wolf˚ ('hEl) /'hEl/ hell˘ 5.4.3.6. In word-internal position, in neutral Swiss pronunciation, simple intersyllabic /0/, after short stressed V (both voiceless and voiced, and spelled as geminates >pp˚ bb÷ tt˚ dd÷ gg÷ ‡÷ ss÷ mm˚ nn÷ rr÷ ll≥, or represented with digraphs >$÷ π÷ ˛÷ >÷ «≥ or tri-/quadri-graphs >(˚ ˛≥), are realized as restrained (but perceptible) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the second element, (00), thus: ('immÙR) /'ImÚ/ immer˚ ('innÙn) /'Inó/ innen˚ ('hu˙˙ÙR) /'hU˙Ú/ Hu«er÷ and ('StOppÙn) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('k5AÊÊÙ) /'kKabÈ/ Krabbe˚ ('ÑEttÙR) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('Ñi∂∂ÙR) /'vIdÚ/ Widder˚ ('5OââÙn) /'KOgó/ Roggen˚ ('sOkkÙn, -˜˜-, -ww-, -∑∑-, -kk-) /'zOkó/ So$en÷ ('tA∫∫ÙR) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqqÙn) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('â5EccÙn) /'gKEcó/ grä˛en÷ ('AffÙ) /'afÈ/ A‡e˚ ('ÑAssÙR) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('ÑASSÙn) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siXXÙR) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('mAXXÙn) /'maxó/ ma>en÷ ('hA5RÙ) /'haKó/ harren÷ ('k6EllÙ) /'kvElÈ/ Quelle˘ For stressing, we have cases such as: ('AotooR, Ao'too5) /'aoto:K/ Autor˚ ('lAÊoo‰, lA'Êoo‰) /la'bo:K/ Labor˚ ('mootøR, mo'too5) /'mo:to:‰, mo'to:‰/ Motor˚ ('Êuff™t, Êuf'fEt) /bY'fe:/ Bu‡et˚ ('hOtt™l, ho'tEl) /ho'tEl/ Hotel˚ (nOI'jaA5) /'nOYja:K/ NSjahr˘ In addition, there are interesting words such as: (A&ÊønnÙ'mEnt) /abOnÈ'ma˙, -Å:/ Abonnement˘ Swiss intonation is easily recognized because of its (slightly rising) low stressed syllables and mid unstressed syllables, which continue the pitch movement at least in normal preintonemes; even the marked intonemes have particular movements – a close examination of the tonogram is highly recommended. South-Tyrol/Alto-Adige German 5.4.4.1. ˛e ﬁrst vocogram shows the short and long monophthongs of South-Tyrolese mediatic pronunciation. Even for this accent it is immediately clear that the articulations corresponding to /I, Y, U÷ E[:], §, O/ are closer than in neutral German – so they are represented with (i, y, u÷ ™[:], #, ø) (in less broad accents we ﬁnd (I°, Y°, U°÷ E[:]°, §°, O°), and unstressed (™, #, ø) only slightly closer than in neutral pronunciation): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hunt) /'hUnt/ Hund˚ ('™lf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('Sp™:t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ ('qV#lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('øft) /'Oft/ o⁄˘ 5.4.4.2. /a:/ is diphthongized: ('Stat) /'Stat/ Stadt˚ ('StaAt) /'Stat/ Staat (in less broad accents /a, a:/ are more similar to one another: (a, a:); whereas, in the broadest accents, near the dialects, we can also have (ù, Ø:) (which will certainly be noted at once; Ô § 16.15 of NPT/HPh, where the phonosynthesis of the South-Tyrolese

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dialect koiné is given). Generally, Tyrolese traditional dialects have phonemic opposition between a non-back a and a back rounded one, both short and long. It is possible to ﬁnd this timbre distinction in the language too, where the back timbre is used in traditional words, whereas the non-back one is used in loanwords and neologisms, as happens for instance in Ball\ /'pØl/ ('pùl, 'pAl) çballÇ, /'pal/ ('pal) çdanceÇ. Very broad accents have /e:, o:/ (eI, oU) (as in the dialect): ('ve:, ≠'veI) /'ve:/ weh˚ ('soo, ≠'soU) /'zo:/ so (to these /°:/ (°Y) is added: ('p°°, ≠'p°Y) /'b°:/ Bö˚ which does not belong to the genuine dialect that has historically merged the front-central rounded series with the front one). On the other hand, the bourgeois dialect of Bolzano (Bozen) has restored /y:, Y, °:, §, OY/ (y:, y, °:, #, øY), under the inﬂuence of neutral German pronunciation, including /yÈ/ (yÙ, iÈ), by structural analogy. 5.4.4.3. /È/ is realized as (Ù, É), with the vocalization of /K, Ú/ (√) (with consonantal accompaniments too), and in the most broad pronunciations even (∏), as in the dialects (Ô the phonosynthesis); thus we have: ('unsÉºÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere and ('vas…, -√‰, -√˜, -√º, -√÷ 'vùss∏, -∏‰, -∏˜, -∏º) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ It is important to note that (Ù, É) /È/, in less broad accents, given in the last vocogram, are realized slightly di‡erently (as other V are too) although they are represented by the same symbols. ≈nal -e (not only of verbs) and the ﬁrst one in -ere(C)ò tend to be dropped (except in Val Pusteria, or Pustertal), especially in non-controlled pronunciation: ('ty:pÙ, 'ty:p) /'ty:pÈ/ Type (which can coincide thus with ('ty:p) /'ty:p/ Typ]˘ ˛e second vocogram shows the diphthongs of South Tyrolese German. ‹ile /OY/, in comparison with neutral German, di‡ers mostly in its second element that is unrounded, (O¤); /ae, ao/ are decidedly less wide, (aÙ, aP): ('aÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('plaP) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nO¤) /'nOY/ nS˘ In the dialect, for /ae, ao/, we have (aÙ, AP), but also (aP), which are even less wide; only in Bolzano the same is true for /OY/ (ø¤), since in traditional dialects it has merged into /ae/ (aÙ), or it is represented by /ui, oi/: ('nui) /'nui/ nui {= nS}, ('foiR) /'foiK) foir {= FSer}. ˛e xenophonemes are quite rarely used (and, if they are, it is in a completely intentional way): /eI, oU/ (e:, ±ei÷ o:, ±ou). 5.4.4.4. In the second vocogram, two further typical diphthongs are evident (although marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ, uX) /iÈ, uÈ/: ('tiÙtÍ, ±'∂iitÍ) D¤tl˚ ('wuXns, ±'ku:ns) Kuens˘ In the same diagram, the possible realizations of /ae, ao, OY, a/ (åÙ, åP, Ö¤, å), in reduced forms, have been marked. As already said, the last vocogram shows less broad vowel realizations ((±)), which are rather similar to the neutral German ones; however, this pronunciation is still recognizable, since the prosodic characteristics have typical di‡erences. ˛ere are di‡erent distributions too, as for instance /E/ in ('™‰st, 'E-÷ ≠'™∏St) /'e:Kst/ er®˚ ('∫™‰t, 'E-÷ ≠'∫™∏t) /'∫e:Kt/ Pferd (which in neutral German have /e:/: ('öe:‰st, '∫he:‰t)).

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a handbook of pronunciation ff /i:, ’i/ (i:, i), /I/ (i) /y:, ’y/ (y:, y), /Y/ (y)

/u:, ’u/ (u:, u), /U/ (u) f

/e:, ”e/ (e:, e), /°:, ’°/ (°:, °)

/o:, ’o/ (o:, o) /O/ (ø, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {//ÈK// “ (√)} /a/ (a), /a:/ (aA)

/E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#), /E:/ (™:, ’™;) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, Éº-, ºÉ-)

/uÈ/* (uX)

/iÈ/* (iÙ) /eI/* (e:÷ ±ei)

/oU/* (o:÷ ±ou)

{/’a/ (å)}

/OY/ (O¤) {(’Ö¤)}

/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)}

/ao/ (aP) {(åP)}

/i:, ’i/ (±i:, ±i), /y:, ’y/ (±y:, ±y) /I/ (±I), /Y/ (±Y) /e:, ’e/ (±e:, ±e), /°:, ’°/ (±°:, ±°) /E/ (±E, ±’™), /§/ (±§, ±’#) /E:/ (±E:, ±’™;) /a/ (±a)÷ ƒ /a:/ (±a:) ‡

/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2) /u:, ’u/ (±u:, ±u) /U/ (±U) /o:, ’o/ (±o:, ±o) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, ±Éº-, ±ºÉ-) /O/ (±O, ±’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (±Éº, ±√)}

5.4.4.5. Moving to C˚ we ﬁnd that generally internal /˙/ becomes /˙g/ (but it is not so in less broad accents): ('pºi˙âÙn, ±'ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ô/ bri«en (however, even without (g), as in less broad accents, the nasal is always velar, not uvular). Especially in checked syllables with N (above all in stressed positions), V are nasalized in broad accents: ('vi:n, 'vi:n) /'vi:n/ W¤n˚ ('fa˙, 'fÅ˙) /'fa˙/ Fa«˘ /t, d/ are dental: (te't™kto‰) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ often /òk, kò, kô/ are stopstrictives, or even stop-semi(con)strictives, velar (or postpalatal, near front V]\ ('kømõ, 'w-, '˜-) /'kOmõ/ kommen˚ ('søkô, 'søwÙn, -˜-) /'zOkô/ So$en˚ ('tik, -w, -˜, -k, -%) /'dIk/ di$˘ Voiceless stops and stopstrictives are not çaspiratedÇ (generally even in less broad accents) as we have just seen for /k/: ('po:l) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('to:n) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kint, 'w-, 'k-) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('∫unt) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('cako) /'cako/ T(ako˘ Phonemic voiced stops are voiceless in typical pronunciation, but half-voiced,

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(Ê, ∂, â) in less broad accents. However, between voiced phones, they are half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â) (except, usually, in the dialects which –mostly– have (p, t, k/w), as in the broadest accents. Instead, in less broad accents they are voiced, (b, d, g)): ('pu:ÊÙ, ±-bÈ) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube˘ Half-voiced realizations are possible before internal /n, l/, too: ('O‰∂nu˙, 'm°:âliÂ) /'OKdnU˙, 'm°:klIÂ/ Ordnu«˚ mögli>. (In Bolzano, we can ﬁnd (éBé, éƒé, éŸé) /ébé, édé, égé/: ('Êu:BÙ).) ˛ere is no (ö), except in less broad accents, where however it is less evident than in neutral German (and, in this case, we could mark it with a special symbol, (,)): (iÂ'™sÙ, ±,IÂ',EsÈ) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse˚ (te'a;At…, ±te',a:-) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˘ 5.4.4.6. For constrictives, it is to be noted that /z/ is normally /s/ (s) (generally, even in less broad accents, in Bolzano as well): ('sa;Aâô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('also) /'alzo/ also˚ ('ºaÙsó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen (which becomes identical to ('ºaÙsó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en]˘ In initial position, before C˚ /s/ practically never occurs (substituted by /S/); and, as far as internal and ﬁnal /st/ is concerned, in broad accents, as in the dialects, we typically ﬁnd /St/: ('li:pstó, ≠-Stó) /'li:pstó/ l¤b®en˚ ('sønst, ≠-nSt) /'zOnst/ son®˘ However, in case they are heterolexemic, we have /st/: ('sams&taAw) /'zamsta:k/ Sam®ag (as in the dialects: ('sams&tiw, 'sùms&tik) /'samstik/ sam®ig]˘ For (tautosyllabic) /˘0v/, we have (0V): ('SV™st…) /'SvEstÚ/ 6we®er˚ ('qVaÈ) /'qvae/ zwR˚ ('kV™l) /'kvEl/ Quell÷ for /f/, it is possible to have /v/, besides in forms such as Vize (which, even in neutral German, may have the variant with /v/, although not prevailing), even for vò˚ against neutral phonemic rules, in cases such as positiv\ ('vi:qÙ, &posi'tiÑ). In addition, /j/ is approximant (j): ('ja;A) /'ja:/ ja; generally, /x/ is velar (x): ('na;Ax) /'na:x/ na>; /Â/ is maintained (even before /K/, contrary to what happens in Austria): ('tu‰Â) /'dUKÂ/ dur>; but, for /-IÂ/ we have /-Ik/ (except in less broad accents) ('qVanqik, -w, -k) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig÷ for /òÂ/ we systematically ﬁnd /k/: ('ki:na, 'w-, 'k-) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina˘ However, in the dialects, except in Bolzano, (Â) /Â/ does not exist at all. ˛e most widely used articulation for /K/ is a uvular constrictive, (º), which coexists with a fairly widespread uvular trill, (K), with the possibility of postnuclear vocalization (that, as we have already seen, is back-central (√) (or back, (∏), in the dialects and in the broadest accents). In absolute ﬁnal position, after stressed V, in the dialects and in the broadest accents we have (R): ('ºa;A‰÷ -a;A√÷ ≠-a;AR÷ ≠-Ø:R) /'Ka:K/ rar˚ ('hi:‰÷ 'hi:√÷ ≠'hi:R) /'hi:K/ h¤r˘ 5.4.4.7. In non-neutral South-Tyrolese pronunciation, simple word-internal intersyllabic (voiceless, nasal and lateral) /0/, after (short) stressed V˚ are realized as restrained (but fairly evident) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the ﬁrst element, in the variant form notated only here, (00): ('im…÷ 'imm…) /'ImÚ/ immer˚ ('Støpõ÷ 'Støppõ) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('v™t…÷ 'v™tt…) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('ta∫…÷ 'ta∫∫…) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqó÷ 'siqqó) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('vas…÷ 'vass…) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('vaSó÷ 'vaSSó) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siÂ…÷ 'siÂÂ…) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('maxô÷ 'maxxô) /'maxó/ ma>en˚ ('kV™lÙ÷ 'kV™llÙ) /'kvElÈ/ Quelle˘ ˛e insertion of a homorganic stop between /n, l/ and voiceless constrictives or /z/ (Ô § 5.3.2) is possible, although not particularly widespread.

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In lofty or foreign words, there is a frequent use of Italian –or Italian-like– structures: /gn/ = /nj/: (pºo~'jo:sÙ) /pKog'no:zÈ/ Prognose˚ (si~'ja;Al) /zIg'na:l/ Signal˚ (&ºesi~'ji:ºô, -º¡, -'ji:‰n, -‰n) /KezIg'ni:Kó/ resign¤ren÷ /t/ = /q/: (ti&ploma'qi:) /diploma'ti:/ Diplomat¤˚ (&kaºan'qi:) /gaKan'ti:/ Garant¤÷ /q/ = /c/: (m™‰'ce:∂™s) /mEK'qe:dEs/ Mercedes˚ (&pa‰ce'lo:na) /baKqe'lo:na/ Barcelona÷ /S/ = /sk/: ('ske:ma) /'Se:ma/ S>ema˚ (&skiqo'fºe:n) /Siqo'fKe:n, sÂi-/ S>izo#ren÷ /Z/ = /dZ/: (&tËu‰na'list) /ZUKna'lIst/ Journali®÷ /kv/ = /kw/ (kj) (in addition to (kV)): (kja‰'t™t) /kvaK'tEt/ Quartett˘ For V˚ we ﬁnd: /y/ = /u/: (pu&ºokºa'qi:) /byKokKa'ti:/ Bürokrat¤÷ /Oy/ = /eu/: (eu'ºo:pa) /OY'Ko:pa/ Europa˚ (neu'tºa;Al) /nOY'tKa:l/ nStral˘ South-Tyrolese intonation is easily recognized because of its half-low stressed syllables, except the ﬁrst one which is half-high; mostly the interrogative intoneme (and the suspensive one too) have particular movements, which can be seen in the tonogram. Text 5.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in some di‡erent (çnormalizedÇ) versions. We start with the (neutral) German pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e German translation follows, in its neutral version; then the north-eastern accent, followed by the Austrian, Swiss, and South-Tyrolese ones. ˛ese transcriptions would have been (visually) more di‡erent, if we had used the çspecialÇ (denti-alveolar) symbols ((4, 7, ﬂ)), and instead of (‰, …) (for /K, Ú/) respectively the following possible variants: (√) (neutral), (x) (north-eastern), (å, a) (Austrian), (5, R) (Swiss), (√, ∏) (South Tyrolese). At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of German, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in German (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the German pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of German, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). German pronunciation (of English) 5.5.1. (z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 ö™ntΩ¢'zan2 v#‰dI'sp¿u:tI˙ 'vIc ÑøsΩ¢'StºO˙g…3 3| 'v™n öe'thºEf¢l…2 'khe:m ö™'lO˙2 ì'ºEpt öInöe'vO‰m 'khlo:k3 3œ| &zeö™'gºi:t2\ &z™tΩ¢'van hu'f§‰st Ωak'si:d¢t2

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öIm'me:kI˙ z¢'thºEf¢l…2 'the:k hIs'khlo:k 5öOf1 1| &SUtÊikøn'zi:d…ﬂ "StºO˙g… &z™nzi'öaz…3 3|| 'z™n2 z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 'Êlu:2 ö™Ω'ha‰t2 ö™shi'khUt3 3| &ÊatΩ¢'mO‰ hi5blu:1 1| z¢'mO‰ 'khlo:sli2 &dItΩ¢'thºEf¢l…2\ 'fo:lt hIs'khlo:k ö™'ºaonthIm3 3| ì&ö™nö™t'la[:]st2œ\ z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 'âe:f 'öap Ωiö™'thEmpt3 3|| ì'zEn2œ z¢'zan 'SOn 'öaot3 3 ì'ÑO‰mli3 3œ| &ö™ntöI'mi:d,¢tli2\ ˚z¢'thºEf¢l… 'thUk 'öOf3 3 ˚hIs'khlo:k3 3|| ìö™nt'Ωo:2œ z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 Ñøsöo'blaec tukøM'fEs2| &z™tΩ¢'zan3 3 vøsΩ¢'StºO˙g…3 3 ì&öøfΩ¢'thu:3 3œ|| ¿&∂It¿u'laek1 1 ¿z¢'StOºi2| ¿∂ju'vOn tu'hi:ºIt ö™'ge:n1 1|||) German text 5.5.2. Ein® ®ritten si> Nordwind und Sonne, wer von ihnen bRden wohl der Stärkere wäre, als Rn Wanderer, der in Rnen warmen Mantel gehüllt war, des Weges daherkam. S¤ wurden Rnig, dass derjenige für den Stärkeren gelten sollte, der den Wanderer zwi«en würde, sRnen Mantel abzunehmen. Der Nordwind bl¤s mit aller Ma>t, aber je mehr er bl¤s, de®o fe®er hüllte si> der Wanderer in sRnen Mantel Rn. Endli> gab der Nordwind den Kamπ Qf. Nun erwärmte d¤ Sonne d¤ Lu⁄ mit ihren frSndli>en Strahlen, und (on na> wenigen Augenbli$en zog der Wanderer sRnen Mantel Qs. Da mus®e der Nordwind zugeben, dass d¤ Sonne von ihnen bRden der Stärkere war. Hat dir d¤ Ge(i>te gefallen? Wollen wir s¤ w¤derholen? Neutral German pronunciation 5.5.3. ('öaenS2 'StüItózIÂ 'nO‰t&ÑInt2 öUn'zOn¢2| &ve‰f¢nöi!'baed/&vo;l d…'StE‰kÈº¢&v™;º¢3 3| &öalsåeM'vandÈº…2 ‘&de‰öInöaen/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ g¢'hYlt&Ña;‰2’ ∂¢s'Ñe:g¢s2 ∂å'he:‰&kha;m3 3|| zI&vU‰dó'öaenIÂ2| ∂as'∂e:‰&,e;nIg¢2 ‘&fY[‰]dó'StE‰kÈºô 'gEltó&zølt¢2’ &de‰d/'vandÈº… 'qhñI˙|&vY‰d¢2 &zaen!'mantÍ 'öapq¢≠mõ3 3|| ∂…'nO‰t&ÑImp 'Êli:s2\ mIt'öal…2 'maXt3 3|| &öab…,e'me:‰ ö™‰5bli:s1 1| &∂™sto'fEst…2 'hYlt¢zIÂ d…'vandÈº…2 ˚öIn&zaen!'mantÍ 'öaen3 3|| 'öEntúIÂ2 'âa:p ∂…'nO‰t&ÑIn2 ∂¡'khaM∫ 'öaof3 3|| 'nu:n2\ …'vE‰mt¢ dI'zOn¢2 dI'lUft2| mIti‰M'füOYntúIÂ«2 'Stüa:ló3 3|| öUn'So:n2 ‘na;X'Ñe:nIgô 'öaogõ&blIkô2’| ˚'qho:k3 3 ∂…'vandÈº…2 ˚&zaen!'mantÍ 'öaos3 3|| '∂a:2\ &mUst¢d…'nO‰t&ÑIn2 'qhu:≥bõ2\ &das∂I'zOn¢2| ‘&fønöi!'baedó2’| ∂…'StE‰kÈº¢&va;‰3 3|| ¿hat&∂I‰dIg¢'SIÂt¢2 ¿g¢'faló1 1| ¿'vOl/vI‰ zI'vi:d…&ho;ló1 1|||) Neutral north-eastern German pronunciation 5.5.4. ('öaÙnS2 'StüItózIÂ 'nø‰t&ÑInt2 öUn'zønÈ2| &ve‰fÈnöi!'baÙd/&vool d…'St™‰k‘ºÈ&v™™ºÈ23| &öalsåÙM'vand‘º…2 ‘&de‰öInöaÙn/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ gÈ'hYlt&Ñaa‰2’ ∂Ès'Ñe;egÈs2 ∂å'he;e‰&khaam23|| zI&vU‰dó'öaÙnIÂ2| ∂as'∂e;e‰&,eenIgÈ2 ‘&fY[‰]dó'St™‰k‘ºô 'g™ltó&zøltÈ2’

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&de‰d/'vand‘º… 'qhñI˙|&vY‰dÈ2 &zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öapqÈ&neemõ23|| ∂…'nø‰t&ÑImp 'Êli;is2\ mIt'öal…2 'maXt23|| &öab…,e'me;e‰ ö™‰5bli;is21| &∂™sto'f™st…2 'hYltÈzIÂ d…'vand‘º…2 ˚öIn&zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öaÙn23|| 'ö™ntúIÂ2 'âa;ap ∂…'nø‰t&ÑIn2 ∂¡'khaM∫ 'öaPf23|| 'nu;un2\ …'v™‰mtÈ dI'zønÈ2 dI'lUft2| mIti‰M'füø+ntúIÂ«2 'Stüa;aló23|| öUn'So;on2 ‘naaX'Ñe;enIgô 'öaPgõ&blIkô2’| ˚'qho;ok23 ∂…'vand‘º…2 ˚&zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öaPs23|| '∂a;a2\ &mUstÈd…'nø‰t&ÑIn2 'qhu;u&geebõ2\ &das∂I'zønÈ2| ‘&fønöi!'baÙdó2’| ∂…'St™‰k‘ºÈ&vaa‰23|| ¿hat&∂I‰dIgÈ'SIÂtÈ2 ¿gÈ'faló21| ¿'vøl/vI‰ zI'vi;id…&hooló21|||) Neutral Austrian pronunciation 5.5.5. ('ÄÙnS2 ÇStºitósiÂ 'nø‰t&vint2 un'sønÙ2| &ve‰fÙni!'ÊÄÙ∂/&vool ∂…'St™‰kÈºÙ&v™™ºÙ23| &AlsÄÙM'vAn∂Èº…2 ‘&∂e‰inÄÙn/ÇvA‰mõ ÇmAntÍ âÙ'hylt&vAA‰2’ ∂Ùs'veeâÙs2 ∂√'hee‰&kAAm23|| si&vu‰∂ó'ÄÙnik2| ∂As'∂ee‰&jeeniâÙ2 ‘&fy[‰]∂óÇSt™‰kÈºô 'â™ltó&søltÙ2’ &∂e‰∂/ÇvAn∂Èº… 'q6i˙|&vy‰∂Ù2 &sÄÙn!ÇmAntÍ 'ApqÙ&neemõ23|| ∂…Çnø‰t&vimp 'Êliis2\ mit'Al…2 'mAxt23|| &AÊ…jeÇmee‰ ™‰'Êliis21| &∂™sto'f™st…2 ÇhyltÙsiÂ ∂…'vAn∂Èº…2 ˚in&sÄÙn!'mAntÍ 'ÄÙn23|| '™ntliÂ2 ÇâAAp ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 ∂¡'kAM∫ 'åøf23|| 'nuun2\ …Çv™‰mtÙ ∂i'sønÙ2 ∂i'luft2| miti‰M'fºøYntliÂ«2 'StºAAló23|| un'Soon2 ‘nAAxÇveeniâô 'åøâõ&Êlikô2’| ˚'qook23 ∂…'vAn∂Èº…2 ˚&sÄÙn!'mAntÍ 'åøs23|| '∂AA2\ &mustÙ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 'quu&âeeÊõ2\ &∂As∂i'sønÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊÄÙ∂ó2’| ∂…'St™‰kÈºÙ&vAA‰23|| ¿hAt&∂i‰∂iâÙ'SiÂtÙ2 ¿âÙÇfAló12| ¿Çvøl/vi‰ siÇvii∂…&hooló12|||) Neutral Swiss pronunciation 5.5.6. ('aÙnS2 çSt5ittósiX 'nO5t&vint2 un'sOnnÙ2| &veRfÙni!'ÊaÙ∂/&vool ∂ÙRçStE5∑ÙRÙ&v™™RÙ23| &AlsåÙM'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ‘&∂eRinaÙn/çvA5mõ çmAntÍ âÙ'hylt&vaAR2’ ∂Ùs'veeâÙs2 ∂√çhee5&∑aAm23|| si&vuR∂ó'aÙni∑2| ∂As'∂ee5&jeeniâÙ2 ‘&fyR∂óçStE5∑ÙRó 'âEltó&søltÙ2’ &∂eR∂/çvAn∂ÙRÙR 'q6i˙|&vyR∂Ù2 &ΩaÙn!çmAntÍ çApqÙ&neemõ23|| ∂ÙRçnO5t&vimp 'Êliis2\ mit'AllÙR2 çmAXt23|| &AÊÙRjeçmee5 ™RçÊliis2 2| &∂™sto'fEstÙR2 çhyltÙΩiX ∂ÙR'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ˚in&saÙn!çmAntÍ 'aÙn23|| 'EntliX2 çâaAp ∂ÙR'nO5t&vin2 ∂¡ç∑AM∫ 'Aof23|| 'nun2\ ÙRçvE5mtÙ ∂i'ΩOnnÙ2 ∂i'luft2| mitiRM'f5OIntliX?2 çSt5aAló23|| un'Soon2 ‘naAXçveeniâô 'Aoâõ&Êli∑∑?2’| ˚çqoo∑23 ∂ÙR'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ˚&saÙn!çmAntÍ 'Aos23|| '∂aA2\ &mustÙ∂ÙR'nO5t&vin2 'quu&âeeÊõ2\ &∂As∂i'ΩOnnÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊaÙ∂ó2’| ∂ÙRçStE5∑ÙRÙ&vaAR23|| ¿hAt&∂iR∂iâÙ'SiXtÙ2 ¿âÙÌfAlló12| ¿çvOll/viR siÌvii∂ÙR&hooló12|||)

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Neutral South Tyrolese pronunciation 5.5.7. ('aÙnS2 'StºitósiÂ 'nø‰t&vint2 un'sønÙ2| &ve‰fÙni!'ÊaÙ∂/&vo;l ∂…'St™‰wÉºÙ&v™;ºÙ3 3| &alsåÙM'van∂Éº…2 ‘&∂e‰inaÙn/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ âÙ'hylt&vaA‰2’ tÙs've:âÙs2 tå'he:‰&waAm3 3|| si&vu‰∂ó'aÙnik2| tas'te:‰&je;niâÙ2 ‘&fy[‰]∂ó'St™‰wÉºô 'â™ltó&søltÙ2’ &∂e‰∂/'van∂Éº… 'qVi˙|&vy‰∂Ù2 &saÙn!'mantÍ 'apqÙ≠mõ3 3|| t…'nø‰t&vimp 'pli:s2\ mit'al…2 'maxt3 3|| &aÊ…,e'me:‰ ™‰5Êli:s1 1| &t™sto'f™st…2 'hyltÙsiÂ ∂…'van∂Éº…2 ˚in&saÙn!'mantÍ 'aÙn3 3|| '™ntliÂ2 'wa;Ap t…'nø‰t&vin2 t¡'waM∫ 'aPf3 3|| 'nu:n2\ …'v™‰mtÙ ∂i'sønÙ2 ∂i'luft2| miti‰M'fºøYntliÂ«2 'Stºa;Aló3 3|| un'So:n2 ‘naAx've:niâô 'aPâõ&Êlikô2’| ˚'qo:w3 3 t…'van∂Éº…2 ˚&saÙn!'mantÍ 'aPs3 3|| 'ta;A2\ &mustÙ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 'qu:&âe;Êõ2\ &∂asti'sønÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊaÙ∂ó2’| t…'St™‰wÉºÙ&vaA‰3 3|| ¿hat&ti‰∂iâÙ'SiÂtÙ2 ¿âÙ'faló1 1| ¿'vøl/vi‰ si'vi:∂…&ho;ló1 1|||) English pronunciation of German 5.5.8. ('aÙnsT2 5s˛>¤TÈnz¤S 'nø;D&v¤nD2 ¨nD'zØnå2| 5v™;‘ fØn&IinÈm'baÙDÈM&vÖ¨ı D™‘'sT™‘kû>È&v™‘3 3| &A;ısaÙM'vA;nDÈ>å2 ‘&D™‘>¤naÙnÈM5vA;mÈm 'månT® gû'h‘;ıT&vA;2’ DÈs'v™Igûs2 DÈ'h™;‘&khA;m3 3|| zIi&v¨ÈDÈn'aÙn¤S2| Dås'D™;‘&j™In¤gû2 ‘&f‘;DÈn5sT™‘kû>û˙ 'g™ıTó&zØıTå2’ &D™‘DÈM5vA;nDÈ>È 'thsv¤˙ûM&v‘;Då2 &zaÙnÈm5månT® 'åÊts¯&n™ImÈn3 3|| D™‘5nø;D&v¤mb 'blIis2\ m¤T'ålå2 'mA;xT3 3|| &A;bÈjÈ5m™;‘> ™‘'blIis32| &D™sT‘¨'f™sTÈ2 5h‘;ıTz¤S D™‘'vA;nDÈ>È2 ˚¤n&zaÙnÈm'månT® 'a;Ùn3 3|| '™nDl¤S2 'gA:b D™‘'nø;D&v¤n{D}2 Dû˙5khA;mpf 'aÖf3 3|| 'n¯;un2\ ™‘'v™‘mTÈ D¤'zØnå2 D¤'l¨fT2| m¤T&¤È'f>øÙnTl¤Só 's˛>A;lÈn3 3|| ¨n'S‘;¨n2 ‘nA;x5v™In¤gûn 'aÖgûm&bl¤kûn2’| ˚'tsh‘¨k3 3 D™‘'vA;nDÈ>È2 ˚&zaÙnÈm5månT® 'aÖs3 3|| 'DA:2\ &m¨sTÈD™‘'nø;D&v¤nD2 'ts¯u&g™IbÈn2\ &DåsD¤'zØnå2| ‘&fØnIinÈm'baÙDÈn2’| D™‘'sT™‘kû>È&vA;3 3|| ¿&håTD¤ÈD¤gû'S¤STû2 ¿gû'fålÈn21| ¿5vØlÈMv¤È zIi'vIiDÈ&h‘¨lÈn21|||)

6. Spanish 6.0. ˛e Spanish accents that will be dealt with are the neutral Iberian and the (central-southern) American versions. ˛ere are really very few di‡erences in neutral pronunciation; therefore a diaphonemic transcription is not necessary (whereas for Portuguese and English it is); the American variant simply has two phonemes less: /†, L/, which become /s, J/. ˛e former two symbols, however, are used diaphonemically, as they distinguish the two accents. Requiring informative symbols, to recall this phenomenon more clearly, one could resort to /†, L/, or –if inclined to a more international type of transcription– to /s, J/. On the other hand, again, to help foreigners, it is worth indicating the phonemes /b, d, g/ with /b, ò, g/, in contexts where they are realized as (B, ƒ, Ÿ). Placing /B, ∑, Ÿ/ (as seen in some text-books and dictionaries with transcriptions) is no good usage at all: because they are not phonemes, and because in the inﬂection of lemmata things do not remain constant. Although, even for Spanish, the number of speakers with çAmericanÇ accents is decidedly more consistent than for the Iberian ones, we prefer to consider the latter çprimaryÇ, because it is closer to the written word; therefore it is more advisable, for teaching purposes too, also for more coherent spelling, which, on the other hand, is a safer guide to pronunciation. Obviously, even the American accent has many internal variants, which we here consider to be non-neutral, even if, they are often more widespread than neutral pronunciation, which (as happens in every language) is decidedly minimal. Generally, these variants are not stigmatized in the way easily localized pronunciations are, nor do they have negative connotations, as each nation has its own çnationalÇ accent as well as regional variants. A more in-depth study of Spanish pronunciation will give the macro-koinés (at least seven for America), to be considered çneutralÇ, as well as more speciﬁc, regional variants. On the other hand, the non-neutral characteristics of Spanish are shared by most Hispanic American nations, and in Europe as well, so as to make the non-neutral accents more alike, even if they remain recognizable. For this reason, regarding Spanish, other accents will not be presented, other than the two neutral ones (as done, instead for German, which has more distinct accents, above all in Switzerland and Austria). However, recordings are being collected for a systematic description of the actual Spanish accents. In the meantime, the phonosynthesis of eastern Andalusian can be seen (in § 17.9 of NPT/HPh).

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Vowels 6.1.1.1. Spanish has only ﬁve vowel phonemes realized as shown in the ﬁrst vocogram in û 6.1 (i÷ '™, ’e÷ a÷ 'ø, ’o÷ u) /i, e, a, o, u/. For e, o in the neutral Iberian-American accent, in stressed syllables, (™, ø) are normal, but, in unstressed syllables, we ﬁnd (e, o). We therefore have examples such as: ('ßi)i ('si)a /'si/ sì˚ ('kRi;ßiß)i (-sis)a /'kRisis/ cr¤¤˚ ('mil) /'mil/ mil˚ (†eR'n™R)i (s-)a /†eR'neR/ cerner˚ (pa'p™l) /pa'pel/ papel˚ ('tj™Rr:a) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra˚ ('ß™iß)i ('s™is)a /'seis/ se¤˚ ('r:™ßto)i ('r:™s-)a /'r:esto/ rπto˚ ('t™;Xa)i (-xa)a /'texa/ teja˚ (de'XaR)i (-x-)a /òe'xaR/ dejar˚ ('ßj™mpRe)i ('s-)a /'sjempRe/ siempre˚ (a't™nto) /a'tento/ atento˚ (uß't™‡)i (us-)a /us'teò/ ¨ted˚ ('p™†)i (-s)a /'pe†/ pez˚ ('d™ﬁƒe)i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ ('k™;ßo)i (-so)a /'keso/ ¢πo˘ And: ('p™;Co) /'peco/ pe>o˚ (kom'pR™) /kom'pRe/ compré˚ ('anda) /'anda/ anda˚ (pa'ta;ta) /pa'tata/ patata˚ ('gøRr:a) /'goRr:a/ gorra˚ ('øi) /'oi/ hoy˚ ('r:ø;ßa)i (-sa)a /'r:osa/ rosa˚ ('ø;Xa)i (-xa)a /'oxa/ hoja˚ (mo'XaR)i (-x-)a /mo'xaR/ mojar˚ (fa'BøR) /fa'boR/ favor˚ ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ (r:a'†øn)i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ ('gølpe) /'golpe/ golpe˚ ('pø;Lo)i (-,o)a /'poLo/ poıo˚ (La'mø)i (,a-)a /La'mo/ ıamó˚ (de'kø;Ro) /òe'koRo/ decoro˚ ('tu;Bo) /'tubo/ tuvo˚ (r:u'møR) /r:u'moR/ rumor˘ 6.1.1.2. More çsophisticatedÇ descriptions, as those by Navarro Tomás, are, in actual fact, excessive; indeed, even acoustic data (which, often indicate di‡erences not heard by the human ear {not even natives'}), generally agree that there are only ﬁve realizations. In the pre-phonemic time, Navarro Tomás represented the stressed and unstressed vocoids with di‡erent symbols, including gradations dependent on their position in a checked or unchecked syllable, or because of contextual inﬂuences, leading back to only ﬁve elements. Normally, however, the hyper-di‡erentiated gradations come under the stressed ((i, ™, a, ø, u)) and unstressed ((i, e, a, o, u)) phones (Ô û 6.1 again). û 6.1. Spanish vowels (see text for the second vocogram). /i/ (i) /e/ (™, »™, ’e) /a/ (a)

/u/ (u) /o/ (ø, »ø, ’o)

/i/ (i) {((I))} /e/ (™) {((e, E))} /a/ (a) {((a, q÷ å))}

/u/ (u) {((u))} /o/ (ø) {((o, O))} /we/ (w™, wÉ, w‘, jê, ê÷ ’we, ’wÙ, ’wÈ, ’j+, ’+)

Resorting to special symbols (Ô û 8.12 of NPT/HPh), which indicate the intermediate gradations between our fundamental vocoids, however, we could usefully proﬁt from some important indications, not only with reference to the second vocogram given (for which they would be undoubtedly more useful), but also for (i§, u§) ((I, u)) and for (a@, a#÷ a°) ((a, q÷ å)) (as it would be excessive to use (I, U÷ Å, A÷ å), and, for those which follow, (e, E÷ o, O)). For the articulation of e, o, stressed in pronunciation, there is considerable varia-

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tion (for speakers — words; Ô the second vocogram of û 6.1); indeed, sometimes (E°÷ O°) ((E, O)) can be found, especially in checked syllables, or in the /ei, oi÷ r:e, r:o÷ ex, ox/ sequences; or, (™°/e§) ((e)), (ø°/o§) ((o)), above all in unchecked syllables; and also for /e/ in checked syllables in /m, n÷ d÷ †, s/. However, it is not necessary to point these out, as their regular timbre, in a stressed position, (™, ø), is normal and safe, used by real natives (despite the variations). In unstressed syllables, in the same contexts, instead of ((E, O)), we obviously ﬁnd (™, ø). For the sake of curiosity, and only here, we give some adapted cases which are pertinent to the aforementioned examples: ((†™R'nER)) /†eR'neR/ cerner˚ ((pa'pEl)) /pa'pel/ papel˚ (('tjERr:a)) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra˚ (('ßEiß))i (('sEis))a /'seis/ se¤˚ (('r:Eßto))i (('r:Es-))a /'r:esto/ rπto˚ (('tE;Xa))i (-xa)a /'texa/ teja˚ ((d™'XaR))i (-x-)a /òe'xaR/ dejar˚ (('ßjempRe))i ('s-)a /'sjempRe/ siempre˚ ((a'tento)) /a'tento/ atento˚ ((uß'te[‡]))i (us-)a /us'teò/ ¨ted˚ (('pe†))i (-s)a /'pe†/ pez˚ (('deﬁƒe))i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ (('ke;ßo))i (-so)a /'keso/ ¢πo˘ And: (('pe;Co)) /'peco/ pe>o˚ ((kOm'pRe)) /kom'pRe/ compré˚ (('gORr:a)) /'goRr:a/ gorra˚ (('Oi)) /'oi/ hoy˚ (('r:O;ßa))i (-sa)a /'r:osa/ rosa˚ (('O;Xa))i (-xa)a /'oxa/ hoja˚ (mø'XaR)i (-x-)a /mo'xaR/ mojar˚ ((fa'BOR)) /fa'boR/ favor˚ (('ßOl))i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ ((r:a'†On))i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ (('gOlpe)) /'golpe/ golpe˚ (('po;Lo))i (-,o)a /'poLo/ poıo˚ ((La'mo))i (,a-)a /La'mo/ ıamó˚ ((de'ko;Ro)) /òe'koRo/ decoro˚ ((r:u'mOR)) /r:u'moR/ rumor˘ Also for /i, a, u/: ((ßen'tIR)) (ßen'tiR)i (s-)a /sen'tiR/ sentir, ((&aßIŸ'naR)) (&aßiŸ'naR)i (-s-)a /asig'naR/ øignar, (('I;Xo)) ('i;Xo)i (-xo)a /'ixo/ hijo, (('mIRr:å)) ('miRr:a) /'miRr:a/ mirra, (('r:I;ko)) ('r:i;ko) /'r:iko/ rico; (('ka;Nå)) ('ka;Na) /'kaNa/ caña, (('ma;Co)) ('ma;Co) /'maco/ ma>o, (('ma;,o)) ('ma;,o) /'maJo/ mayo, (('ka;Le)) ('ka;Le)i (-,e)a /'kaLe/ caıe, (('baile)) ('baile) /'baile/ baile; (('qlto)) ('alto) /'alto/ alto, (('mq;Xå)) ('ma;Xa)i (-xa)a /'maxa/ maja, ((kq'XOn)) (ka'Xøn) /ka'xon/ cajón, (('kqußå)) ('kaußa)i (-sa)a /'kausa/ ca¨a, ((q'un)) (a'un) /a'un/ aùn, ((bIl'Bqo)) (bil'Bao) /bil'bao/ Bilbao, ((q'O;Rå)) (a'ø;Ra) /a'oRa/ ahora; (('tuRko)) ('tuRko) /'tuRko/ turco, (('Xuntå)) ('Xunta)i ('x-)a /'xunta/ junta, (('lu;Xo)) ('lu;Xo)i (-xo)a /'luxo/ lujo, ((tuR'r:On)) (tuR'r:øn) /tuR'r:on/ turrón, ((r:u'mOR)) (r:u'møR) /r:u'moR/ rumor. 6.1.1.3. After /'i, 'u/, /eò|, oò|/ remain (e, o), even if at times we can ﬁnd (’™, ’ø) (in neutral pronunciation too): (fe'li;†eß)i (-ses)a /fe'li†es/ felicπ˚ ('r:i;ko) /'r:iko/ rico˘ Even in an unstressed syllable, above all next to /x, r:/, we can have the (™, ø) timbres, but, for neutral pronunciation, (e, o) are regular and adequate: (&Xela'ti;na)i (&x-)a /xela'tina/ gelatina˚ (koR'r:™o) /koR'r:eo/ correo. We also indicate a pronunciation which can be heard, above all in words of frequent usage, in not slow speech, the sequence /we/ can be pronounced (wÉ) (realizing a front-central vocoid); whereas in faster or less controlled speech, the sequence can be reduced to a single vocoid (¤ a central rounded (ê)), through progressive shifts: ('pw™;Blo, 'pwÉ;-÷ 'pw‘;-÷ 'pjê;-÷ 'pê;-) /'pweblo/ pueblo˚ ('nw™;Be, 'nwÉ;-÷ 'nw‘;-÷ 'njê;-÷ 'nê;-) /'nwebe/ nueve˚ (&aßta'lw™;Ÿo, -wÉ;-÷ -w‘;-÷ -jê;-÷ -ê;-)i (&as-)a /asta'lwego/ høta luego˚ (kweß'tjøn, -wÙ-÷ -wÈ-÷ -j+-÷ -+-)i (-s-)a /kwes'tjon/ cuestión. However, it is not appropriate to actively adopt this particular kind of pronunciation (which is shown in the central part of the second vocogram in û 6.1).

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Diphthongs 6.1.2.1. ˛e various possible diphthongs are biphonemic, with phonetic realizations corresponding to those of monophthongs, joined together (as in Italian): ('l™i) /'lei/ ley˚ (pei'na;ƒo) /pei'naòo/ peinado˚ ('øiŸo) /'oigo/ oigo˚ (&boiko't™o) /boiko'teo/ boicoteo˚ ('baile) /'baile/ baile˚ ('aula) /'aula/ aula˚ (au'ƒa†)i (-s)a /au'òa†/ audaz˚ ('d™uƒa) /'òeuòa/ deuda˚ (eu'X™;njo)i (-x-)a /eu'xenjo/ Eugenio˚ ('bøu) /'bou/ bou˚ including (di'Ria) /òi'Ria/ dirìa˚ (na'Bioß)i (-s)a /na'bios/ navìos˚ (&konti'nuo) /konti'nuo/ continùo… As far as diphthongs are concerned, we must be absolutely resolute because (strange though it may seem, in the third millennium), there are deep-rooted incorrect convictions, dragged through centuries, which are particularly çvaluedÇ even by Hispanic phoneticians. A look at how things really are, would (— could) be easy, by simply considering what is phonetic, exclusively in phonetic terms. Instead, the range of mixtures of omnipresent (and interfering) spelling and grammatical (not to speak of metrical and diachronic) considerations, still loom, resulting merely in the creation of chaos of a subject which sets itself apart in being clear and objective. 6.1.2.2. As said, Hispanic literature (not that it is alone – ¡unfortunately!) dedicates too much e‡ort in complicating what is quite simple. Indeed, instead of three very common structures, ¤ real diphthongs (('éé, &éé, ’éé)), hiatuses ((é'é, é&é)), and heterophonic sequences ((0é), such as, (jé), (wé), and the like), they continue to consider only two of them: çdiphthongsÇ (with fusion: çsyneresisÇ) and çhiatusesÇ (with separation: çdieresisÇ) but with strained interpretations of medieval origin, of a graphic-grammatical and graphic-metrical nature. Indeed (unless one is a çmagicianÇ and can do phonetics based on graphic-grammatical categories), in phonetic terms, it is absurd to speak about çdiphthongsÇ in the case of (—jé, —wé) (('bj™n) /'bjen/ bien˚ ('gwa;pa) /'gwapa/ %apa]. As a matter of fact, only (—éi, —éu) (('aiRe) /'aiRe/ aire˚ ('kaußa)i (-sa)a /'kausa/ ca¨a] are real diphthongs, as any ('éé, &éé, ’éé) sequences are (('auto) /'auto/ auto˚ (&auto'Buß)i (-s)a /auto'bus/ autobùs˚ (au't™ntiko) /au'tentiko/ auténtico]˚ and it is just as absurd to speak of çhiatusesÇ for ('ié, 'ué), given that only (i'é, u'é) are real hiatuses, as any other (é'é, é&é) sequence ((pa'iß)i (-s)a /pa'is/ paìs]˚ compared to (pai'ßa;no)i (-s-)a /pai'sano/ pa¤ano˚ a real diphthong. One can, therefore, not trust literature that only uses two categories (¤ diphthong and hiatus) and, what is more, who dangerously mix them, so as to include heterophonic sequences in çdiphthongÇ, and the real diphthong in çhiatusÇ… Obviously, (real) triphthongs are sequences of three vocoids ('ééé), with prominence on the ﬁrst element (certainly not (é'éé, éé'é), nor –even– ('jéé, 'wéé), or (éjé, éwé)), which, instead, occur in ('bw™i) /'bwei/ buey˚ (&paRa'Ÿwai) /paRa'gwai/ Para%ay˘

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Consonants 6.2.0. û 6.2 gives the consonant articulations, of the two neutral accents, which are necessary for satisfactory Spanish pronunciation. Instead, û 1.9-15, give orograms, grouped by manners of articulation of all the contoids given in the chapters of this volume, even as secondary, occasional or regional variants of the 12 languages dealt with.

C {‚}

†i (∑)i sa (z)a (ß)i (ﬁ)i (ƒ) R|r: (l) l

(˙) k g

(›) /J/|(,)

uvular

velar round.

N

velar

(~)

prevelar

alveolar

n

palatal

(n) t d

postalveopalatal

ö m (M) F pb Ô ƒ f _ ß (B) ó ‹

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 6.2. Table of Spanish consonants.

(,)i

xa (Ÿ)

(X)i

(ò) j|(ã) (¬)

(F)

w|(j)

Li

+ (N, M, M, º, ∫) Ô text

Nasals 6.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, N/, with various taxophones for /n/ (m, M, n, ~, N, «, ˙, ,) (û 1.9.1-2; («) is semi-provelar without full contact; we could add dental ((˙)), before /t, d÷ †/, for which, however, (n) is su‚cient; below, we add ﬁve more taxophones, (N, M, º, M, ∫), for nasal heterorganic sequences): ('ma;no) /'mano/ mano˚ ('ni;No) /'niNo/ niño˚ (um'p™Rr:o) /um'peRr:o/ un perro˚ (im'bj™Rno) /im'bjeRno/ invierno˚ (iM'fj™l) /in'fjel/ inﬁel˚ (&konten'd™R) ((-˙te˙-)) /konten'deR/ contender˚ (kon'†™ñto) ((-˙'†-))i (-s-) ((-˙'s-))a /kon'†ebto/ concepto˚ (kon'ß™;Xo)i (-s™;xo) ((-˙'s-))a /kon'sexo/ consejo˚ ('ønr:a) /'onr:a/ honra˚ ('a~Co) ((-nC-)) /'anco/ an>o˚ ('køN›uXe)i (-xe)a /'konJuxe/ cónyuge˚ (uN'›u˙ke) /un'Junke/ un yun¢e˚ (&koNLe'BaR)i (-N›-, -NJ-)a /konLe'baR/ conıevar˚ (u«'w™;Bo) /un'webo/ un huevo˚ ('ba˙ko) /'banko/ banco˚ ('t™˙go) /'tengo/ tengo˚ ('fRa,Xa)i (-˙xa)a /'fRanxa/ franja˘ ˛e articulation of /N/ is palatal, as in Italian, but short (not self-geminant, as in neutral Italian; even if, at times, it can geminate a little (NN), after a stressed V˚ which is then short): ('ba;No÷ 'baNNo) /'baNo/ baño (Ô Italian ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ bagno]˘ As for /nòw/, even with the preﬁxes cons-, ins-, trans-, the most normal and suitable articulation is with («): (&ko«ßtRu◊'†jøn)i (-«stRu◊'sj-)a /konstRug'†jon/ construcción˚ (i«ß'tante)i (-s-)a /ins'tante/ instante˚ (&tRa«ßfoR'maR)i (-s-)a /tRansfoR'maR/ transformar÷ obviously forms such as (&†iRku«ß'tan†ja)i (&siRku«s'tansja)a /†iRkuns'tan†ja/ circunstancia are included in this case. For the ﬁrst elements of /mn, nm/ sequences, we ﬁnd some further taxophones,

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with double articulations ((N), alveolar–bilabial, in a more precise pronunciation style, whereas a performance corresponing to the phonemic structure would sound extremely pedantic, "˝&), or with coarticulations ((M, º), respectively alveolarized bilabial and labialized alveolar) or with semi-articulations ((M, ∫)), in a more spontaneous and less controlled kind of pronunciation (û 1.9.1-2): ('iNno, 'iMno, 'iMno÷ ˝'imno) /'imno/ himno˚ (koN'mi;Ÿo, koM-, koº-, ko∫-÷ ˝kon-) /kon'migo/ conmigo˘ For /nò/, neutral pronunciation gives (n), even if the velar realization, which remains non-neutral, is very common, above all in America; for word-ﬁnal written -m, we can also ﬁnd (N, M, M, º, ∫) (the labialized taxophones are due to the spelling), even if (n) is neutral and considered more traditional (probably because of the spelling): (a◊'†jøn)i (-sj-)a /ag'†jon/ acción˚ ('alBun, -uN, -uM, -uM, -uº, -u∫) /'albun/ álbum˘ It is important to note that before, a pause, the vibrations of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the o‡set of the tip of the tongue from the alveolar ridge (therefore, something like (-nÈ, -n…, -nO) is not at all acceptable). Stops 6.2.2.1. Spanish has three diphonic pairs of stops, (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/: ('pa;ßo)i (-so)a /'paso/ pøo˚ ('b™;ßo)i (-so)a /'beso/ bπo˚ (um'b™;ßo)i (-so)a /um'beso/ un bπo˚ (tu't™o) /tu'teo/ tuteo˚ (do'løR) /òo'loR/ dolor˚ (&kondo'løR) /kondo'loR/ con dolor˚ ('kaldo) /'kaldo/ caldo˚ ('kø;Ce) /'koce/ co>e˚ (go'Ri;la) /go'Rila/ gorila˚ (&u˙go'Ri;la) /ungo'Rila/ un gorila˘ However, the voiced stops, are realized as such only after a pause, after a nasal, and in the (homorganic) sequence /ld/, as the previous examples demonstrate. As a matter of fact, in all other contexts, the çnormalÇ realization is approximant, (B, ƒ) /b, d/, or constrictive, (Ÿ) /g/ (unless one speaks slowly, with precision or emphasis): ('lø;Bo) /'lobo/ lobo˚ (eß&ta'Bj™n)i (es-)a /es'ta 'bjen/ πtá bien˚ ('b™RBo) /'beRbo/ verbo˚ ('alBa) /'alba/ alba˚ ('pø;BRe) /'pobRe/ pobre˚ (&añßo'lu;to)i (-ñs-)a /abso'luto/ absoluto˚ (ßu'Bli;me)i (s-)a /su'blime/ sublime˚ (&ßuB-le'BaR)i (&s-)a /sub-le'baR/ sublevar (in this example, the preﬁx still sounds as if it is separate), (oñ'taR) /ob'taR/ optar (both b and v are always /b/ (b, B): Spanish does not have ç/v/Ç). More examples: ('tø;ƒo) /'toòo/ todo˚ (peR'ƒ™R) /peR'òeR/ perder˚ ('ma;ƒRe) /ma'òRe/ madre˚ ('d™ﬁƒe)i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde÷ (loﬁ'ƒ™;ƒoß)i (loz'ƒ™;ƒos)a /los'òeòos/ los dedos˚ (&aƒmi'RaR) /aòmi'RaR/ admirar˚ (aƒ'møßfeRa)i (-s-)a /aò'mosfeRa/ atmósfera˚ (&a‡Xe'ti;Bo)i (&a‡xe-)a /aòxe'tibo/ adjetivo÷ ('i;Ÿo) /'igo/ higo˚ (la'Ÿ™Rr:a) /la'geRr:a/ la %erra˚ ('a;Ÿwa) /'agwa/ a%a˚ (el'Ÿølpe) /el'golpe/ el golpe˚ ('kaRŸo) /'kaRgo/ cargo˚ ('ßi;Ÿlo)i ('s-)a /'si-glo/ siglo˚ ('diŸno, 'di˙no) /'òig-no/ digno˚ ('t™Ÿnika, -˙n-) /'tegnika/ técnica (for /gn, kn/, (-«n-) is also possible), (a◊'tøR) /ag'toR/ actor˚ (&di◊†jo'a;Rjo)i (-◊s-)a /òig†jo'naRjo/ diccionario˘ Before a front V and /j/, /k, g, g/ realize as prevelar, by normal assimilation, but it is not necessary to systematically use the special symbols ((´, Ò, Ú)): (ki'taR) /ki'tar/ ¢itar˚ ('kj™;Ro) /'kjeRo/ ¢iero˚ ('gia) /'gia/ %ìa˚ ('a;Ÿila) /'agila/ á%ila˘ In a true intervocalic position, we currently have a semi-constrictive articulation, ((y)) (and ((g))): ('a;Ÿo) (('a;yo)) /'ago/ hago (and ('a;Ÿila) ((-gi-)) /'agila/ á%ila]˘

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6.2.2.2. In word-ﬁnal position, (‡) /ò/ is weak (¤ articulated with less tension, ((d)), as well as devoiced, ((D)), unless it is followed by voiced phones): ('ß™‡)i ('s-)a /'seò/ sed˚ (a'Bla‡) /a'blaò/ hablad÷ often it drops in: (uß't™[‡])i (us-)a /us'te[ò]/ ¨ted˚ (ma'ƒRi[‡]) /ma'òRi[ò]/ Madrid, and in nouns with /éòò/ (not monosyllabic nouns): (beR'ƒa[‡]) /beR'òaò/ verdad˚ (biR'tu[‡]) /biR'tuò/ virtud˘ Furthermore, in the masculine ending -ado(s)˚ the articulation is just as attenuated (up to (`), çzeroÇ, in familiar pronunciation, above all the Iberian one, but not systematically; generally, in American pronunciation, the drop is considered to be non-neutral): (Le'Ÿa[;ƒ]o)i (,e'Ÿa;ƒo)a /Le'gaòo/ ıegado˚ (ßol'da[;ƒ]oß)i (sol'da;ƒos)a /sol'daòos/ soldados˘ As seen, before a voiceless C (or before a possible pause), /b, ò, g/ are devoiced: (oñ'taR, &a‡Xe'ti;Bo, a◊'tøR) (from the previous section). Due to an excessive inﬂuence of writing, above all in the American accent, some articulate /b, ò, g/ as (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) (with voicing in relation to the spelling), before heterosyllabic C (which, instead, represent a completely normal neutralization): (oñ'taR, op-), (&ßuB-le'BaR, -b-)i (&s-)a, (&aƒmi'RaR, &ad-), (aƒ'møßfeRa, at-)i (-s-)a, (&a‡Xe'ti;Bo, &ad-)i (-xe-)a÷ ('diŸno, 'dig-), (a◊'tøR, ak-). Again, for the same reason, with a further (and more serious) removal from the real phonic structure, due to improper spelling inﬂuence (or because of regional accents, ™ from Valencia, (v), and from Paraguay, (V)), especially in American pronunciation, some introduce the ç/v/ phonemeÇ in Spanish, which has not existed for centuries: (&embi'aR÷ ≠&eMvi'aR) /embi'aR/ enviar˘ It is evident that the use we make of /b, ò, g/ is not diaphonemic, as the two accents substantially coincide; it is moreover, interphonemic, because it is supposed to show where their realization is not a stop, to help foreigners use it correctly, without strained deductions (and, often, incorrect – and therefore, the source of endless problems). Stopstrictives 6.2.3. ˛ere is only one stopstrictive phoneme, voiceless postalveo-palatal, (C) /c/ (which, compared to postalveo-palatal protruded (c) /c/, of English or neutral Italian does not have labial protrusion: ('l™;Ce) /'lece/ le>e˚ (mu'Ca;Co) /mu'caco/ mu>a>o˚ (&CaCa'Ca) /caca'ca/ >a->a->á˘ ˛e regional change from /c/ to (ë) is typically Andalusian and Caribbean. Phonetically, there is another palatal stopstrictive, (›), which is voiced, and realizes the constrictive phoneme /J/, which only occurs after a pause or after /n, l/: ([koN]'›™Rr:o) /[kon]'JeRr:o/ (con] hierro˚ (&iN›™◊'†jøn)i (-sjøn)a /inJeg'†jon/ inyección˚ ([eL]'›u˙ke) /[el]'Junke/ (el) yun¢e˘ Often, in familiar (and neutral) pronunciation, after pauses, we also ﬁnd (J) (real constrictive) or a semi-stopstrictive, (W), or even a stop-semi-strictive, (Ÿ): ('J™Rr:o, 'Ju˙ke÷ 'W-, 'Ÿ-); the same can occur, in the order (›, Ÿ, W, J), after /n, l/: (koN'›™Rr:o, koN'Ÿ-, koN'W-, koN'J-), (&iN›™◊'†jøn, &iNŸ™-, &iNW™-, &iNJ™-)i (-sjøn)a, (eL'›u˙ke, eL'Ju-).

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Constrictives 6.2.4.1. ˛ere are ﬁve constrictive phonemes; four are voiceless: (f) /f/, (†i, sa) /†/, (ßi, sa) /s/ and (Xi, xa) /x/; whereas (,) /J/ is voiced (palatal) and, if the truth be told, only semi-constrictives, as it is half-way between an approximant, (j), and the real constrictive ((J); but rarer in various languages). (f) /f/ does not pose any problems, even if, often, American and Iberian speakers realize it as a bilabial (constrictive, (å), or approximant, (F)): ([&uM]fa'BøR÷ [&um]åa-÷ [&um]Fa-) /[un]fa'boR/ (un) favor˘ 6.2.4.2. ˛e others need further explanations. Indeed, (†) /†/i is neutral only in the Iberian accent, whereas in the American accent it becomes /s/: (†a'pa;to)i (sa-)a /†a'pato/ zapato˚ ('†j™;lo)i ('sj-)a /'†jelo/ cielo˚ ('di;†e)i (-se)a /'òi†e/ dice˚ ('lu†)i ('lus)a /'lu†/ luz˘ Starting from an American, or international type of transcription, it could be more appropriate to use the diaphoneme /s/: /sa'pato, 'sjelo, 'òise, 'lus/. Before voiced C˚ the articulation becomes voiced: (Xu∑'ŸaR)i (xuz'ŸaR)a /xu†'gaR/ juzgar˚ ('lu∑ ƒo'Ra;ƒa)i ('luz)a /'lu† òo'Raòa/ luz dorada÷ naturally before sonants, in the American accent, (s) is preferred (as for /s/; Ô the following section): ('dj™∑mo)i (-smo)a /'òje†mo/ diezmo˘ 6.2.4.3. For /s/ the place of articulation changes, from one accent to another, as /s/ is (apico-)alveolar in Iberian Spanish, (ß)i, but, (lamino-)dental in American Spanish, (s)a: (eß'ta;ƒoß)i (es'ta;ƒos)a /es'taòos/ πtados˚ ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ ('pi;ßo)i (-so)a /'piso/ p¤o˘ (After a stressed V˚ as well as the normal –and more appropriate– ('é;ßé)i ('é;sé)a, one can also have ('éßßé)i ('éssé)a: ('pißßo)i ('pisso)a.) Before voiced diphonic heterosyllabic C (/b, d, g/), /s/ becomes voiced, (ﬁ)i (z)a: (loﬁ'BuRr:oß)i (loz'BuRr:os)a /los'buRr:os/ los burros˚ ('d™ﬁƒe)i ('d™zƒe)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ (diﬁ'Ÿußto)i (-z'Ÿus-)a /òis'gusto/ d¤g¨to˘ In the /st, sò/ sequences, in neutral Iberian pronunciation, (ß, ﬁ) remain, as can be seen in the given examples; only the denti-alveolar articulation (dental with a raised tip, ((s, z))) is possible, while it is necessary in the (still Iberian) pronunciation of the sequence /s†/: (es'†™;na) /es'†ena/ πcena (which in American pronunciation is (e's™;na) /e'sena/, from //es'sena//). However, before heterosyllabic non-diphonic C (/m, n, N÷ J÷ w÷ l, L/; for /s/ + /r:/, see the end of this section), the behavior pattern is di‡erent, even if complementary: in the Iberian accent voicing prevails, (ﬁ, Ü, ß); whereas in the American accent voicelessness prevails, (s, Ω, z) (even if we transcribe only the ﬁrst realization for each accent): ('miﬁmo)i (-s-)a /'mismo/ m¤mo˚ ('iﬁla)i (-s-)a /'isla/ ¤la˚ (loﬁ'w™;ßoß)i (-s'w™;sos, -'sw-)a /los'wesos/ los huπos˚ ('døò ',™Rr:oß)i ('døë)a /'òos 'JeRr:os/ dos hierros˘ ˛e last example shows the normal articulation of the postalveo-palatal kind, (ò)i (ë)a, before /J/, as also before /L, N/: (laò'Lu;Bjaß)i (laë',u;Bjas)a /las'Lubjas/ lø ıuviø˚ (loò'Nø;Noß)i (loë-, -os)a /los'NoNos/ los ñoños. If the voiced C that follow are tautosyllabic (¤ when they are part of the same syllable), /s/ remains voiceless, as even before V˚ /sòé/ (being initial in the phono-syllable): ('ßj™ßta)i ('sj™s-)a /'sjesta/ siπta˚ ('ßw™;lo)i ('s-)a /'swelo/ suelo˚ (&loßa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a /losa'migos/ los amigos˚ (&mißeR'ma;noß)i (-seR'ma;nos)a /miseR'manos/

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m¤ hermanos˘ (In the Catalan pronunciation of Spanish, instead, it is voiced, as in the Catalan language: (&loﬁa'mi;Ÿoß, &miﬁeR'ma;noß).) For /sòr:/ (also /s˘r:/) the most normal articulations are (Ír:, Rr:, §r:, ¸r:, Í¸:, R¸:) (however, we only transcribe (Ír:), but /sr:/, even if its actual pronunciation with (ßi, sa) is decidedly excessive, as if spoken by a çforeignerÇ {both non-Hispanic and Hispanic}): (laÍ'r:w™;ƒaß)i (-s)a /las'r:weòas/ lø ruedø˚ (&iÍr:a'™l) /isr:a'el/ Israel˘ In the phonemic transcription, we use /s/, since, when speaking in a slow or emphatic manner, for (ﬁi, za), the actual pronunciation can undoubtedly be voiceless even in Iberian pronunciation. 6.2.4.4. ˛e criterion adopted here, only considers two kinds of neutral pronunciation; however, while describing the pronunciations of each single nation, we will inevitably broaden our criteria so as to adequately include the characteristics of every single country (though, with all the non-neutral variants, which obviously each area presents). ˛erefore, let us mention a non-neutral variant, for (American, Canary, and Andalusian Spanish) /s˘/, ¤ a very weak laryngeal approximant ((h), voiceless; and (H), voiced before voiced phones), which is generally found together with what is traditionally (but incorrectly), deﬁned as çaspirate(d)Ç /s/ (which, from a strictly phonetic point of view would mean (sh), as (th)…), before a pause, or a C˚ or even before a V˘ It is realized as if it were ç/h/Ç. For example: (lah'kw™htah) /las'kwestas/ lø cuπtø˚ ('d™Hƒe) /'òesòe/ dπde˚ ('ihlah, 'iH-) /'islas/ ¤lø˚ (&loha'mi;Ÿoh) /losa'migos/ los amigos (in neutral pronunciation: (laß'kw™ßtaß)i (las'kw™stas)a, ('d™ﬁƒe)i (-z-)a, ('iﬁlaß)i ('islas)a, (&loßa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a]˘ Such pronunciation can even get to transform (h, H) into (`), çzeroÇ. 6.2.4.5. Again, referring to non-neutral pronunciation, there can also be çcoloringsÇ of (h) (voiceless), depending on the timbre of the preceding vowel. ˛is often happens, in Argentinian Spanish (where the phenomenon is normally heard; and, only in more formal conversation, can one avoid it; but, before a pause, it is considered very uneducated and, thus, more carefully avoided): ('liâta) (palatal) /'lista/ l¤ta˚ ('kw™hta) (laryngeal) /'kwesta/ cuπta˚ ('pa∆ta) (velar) /'pasta/ pøta˚ ('tø∆ta) (laryngeal rounded) /'tosta/ tosta˚ ('guWta) (velar rounded) /'gusta/ %sta÷ ('iHla, 'd™Hƒe, 'aHma, 'øHmosis, tuH'ƒj™ntes) /'isla, 'òesòe, 'asma, 'osmosis, tus'òjentes/ ¤la˚ dπde˚ øma˚ ósmos¤˚ t¨ dientπ˘ In neutral pronunciation we have: ('lißta, 'kw™ßta, 'paßta, 'tøßta, 'gußta)i (-s-)a and ('iﬁla, 'd™ﬁƒe, 'aﬁma, 'øﬁmoßiß, tuﬁ'ƒj™nteß)i ('is-)a˘ In Argentinian neutral pronunciation, however, only rarely is /s/ fully (s, z), in /s˘, sò/ contexts, but it is rather a dental grooved semi-constrictive, (∂, d): ('d™dƒe, lo∂'p™Rr:o∂) /'òesòe, los'peRr:os/ dπde˚ los perros. (˛e two neutral pronunciations treated here, have (ﬁ, ß)i (z, s)a. A less neutral but controlled Argentinian pronunciation has (≈) for (∂, d) – Ô û 1.9-18.) Another, even more marked characteristic, which is typical, above all, of parts of Andalusia and America (in particular, in the Caribbean and southern areas), /sÊ/ fuse together into (=): (miz'ƒ™;ƒos÷ miH'ƒ™;ƒoh÷ mi+'ƒ™;ƒoh÷ mi'Ï™-÷ mi'†™-÷ -o∆) /mis'òeòos/ m¤ dedos˚ (&tRez'Bailes÷ &tReH'Baileh÷ &tRe='Bai-÷ &tRe'åai-÷ &tRe'Fai-) /'tRes 'bai-

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les/ trπ bailπ˚ (laz'Bø;tas÷ laH'Bø;tah÷ la´'Bø-÷ la'åø-÷ la'Fø-÷ -a∆) /las'botas/ lø botø˚ (loz'Ÿa;,os÷ loH'Ÿa;,oh÷ lo≠'Ÿa-÷ lo'xa-÷ lo'∆a-÷ -o∆) /los'gaJos/ los gaıos˚ (tuz'Ÿa;tos÷ tuH'Ÿa;toh÷ tu±'Ÿa-÷ tu'xa-÷ tu'∆a-÷ -o∆) /tus'gatos/ t¨ gatos ((=) and derivatives have an intermediate type of phonation between (h) and (H)). Neutral pronunciation is: (miﬁ'ƒ™;ƒoß, &tReﬁ'Baileß, laﬁ'Bø;taß, loﬁ'Ÿa;,oß, tuﬁ'Ÿa;toß)i (-z-, -s)a˘ Otherwise, before son(or)ants (/m, n÷ l÷ r:/), /s/ can change into (Ò0, =0): ('mizmo, 'miΩ-, 'mis-÷ 'miH-, 'mi+-÷ 'mi≈-, 'mi)-) /'mismo/ m¤mo˚ ('azno, 'aΩ-, 'as-÷ 'aH-, 'a´-÷ 'an-÷ 'a£-) /'asno/ øno˚ ('izla÷ 'iΩ-, 'is-÷ 'iH-÷ 'i+-÷ 'iú-÷ 'ia-) /'isla/ ¤la˚ (&iÍr:a'™l, &i-5) /isr:a'el/ Israel˘ Neutral pronunciation: ('miﬁmo, 'aﬁno, 'iﬁla)i (-s-)a (&iÍr:a'™l)˘ 6.2.4.6. ˛e voiced palatal semi-constrictive, (,) /J/ (already introduced in § 6.2.4.1; Ô 6.2.4.3, as well), occurs between vowels, in words or sentences (¤ in contexts which are di‡erent from the çstrongÇ ones in § 6.2.3, but, as said there, it is also possible in those contexts): ('ba;,a) /'baJa/ vaya˚ ('ø;,e) /'oJe/ oye˘ For /J/, there is a pronunciation which could come under the neutral one (from a familiar to an energetic kind), which is very common in both accents: (‚). Articulatorily it corresponds to (C) /c/, which comes to form a diphonic pair, thus rendering the consonant system more natural and coherent. Although it is still not completely neutral, it can be used in a kind of çinternationalÇ accent, simpler and more functional (even with (s, ,) /s, J/ for /†, L/; therefore indicated by the diaphonemes /s, J/, Ô § 6.0); this pronunciation is justiﬁed and supported by the actual use of many Iberian (including Madrilenian) and American speakers: ('ba;‚a, 'ø;‚e). According to the criteria adopted in this chapter, the transformation of /J/ to (ë, ò) is doubtlessly regional (and typical, for example, of Argentinian pronunciation, whose neutral local pronunciation has, however, (ò) for /J, L/). Again, in American and Andalusian pronunciations, above all, /J/ can often be realized as an approximant, (j), but such pronunciation barely comes under neutral (however small the di‡erence may be, since (,) is only a semi-constrictive); a systematic use of (j) is regional or foreign. 6.2.4.7. For /x/ too, the place of articulation changes from one accent to another (even within the neutral accent), as /x/ is, respectively, uvular, (X)i, and velar, (x)a: (Xa'møn)i (xa-)a /xa'mon/ jamón˚ (Xe'miR)i (xe-)a /xe'miR/ gemir˚ ('di;Xe)i (-xe)a /'òixe/ dije÷ when word-ﬁnal it is weaker, as it becomes an approximant of the same place of articulation, or even laryngeal: ('bø˜, -h)i ('bø∆, -h)a /'box/ boj÷ it is currently lost in: (r:e'lø[˜], -ø[h])i (r:e'lø[∆], -ø[h])a /r:e'lox/ reloj˘ In the two accents, there can be some variants for /x/, which are included in neutral pronunciation: respectively, a more vigorous articulation ((º)i, voiceless uvular constrictive trill), or less vigorous, ((∆)a, voiceless velar approximant), which we refer to here only. On the other hand, its transformation into (h) (laryngeal), which is very common in America and Andalusia, cannot be considered neutral, according to the criteria adopted here.

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Approximants 6.2.5.1. ˛e Spanish approximants are /j, w/: ('†j™;lo)i ('sj™-)a /'†jelo/ cielo˚ ('w™;Bo) /'webo/ huevo˚ (&awe'kaR) /awe'kaR/ ahuecar÷ devoiced realizations after voiceless C are dialectal (or foreign): ('tj™;ne÷ ≠'tª-) /'tjene/ tiene˚ ('kwa;tRo÷ ≠'k‹-) /'kwatRo/ cuatro˘ Generally, /j/ only occurs after a tautosyllabic C˚ as in the previous examples, and in ('r:j™;Ÿo) /'r:jego/ riego. Instead, at the beginning of a syllable, we have /J/ exclusively (§ 6.2.4.6, 6.2.4.1, 6.2.3), except in certain areas of America, such as Argentina, where it is found for hiV-: ('›™;lo, ',-)i ('›-, ',-÷ 'j-)a /'Jelo/ hielo˚ ('›™RBa, ',-)i ('›-, ',-÷ 'j-)a /'JeRba/ hierba˚ against ('›™RBa, ',-)i ('›-, ',-)a /'JeRba/ yerba (independently of the –non-neutral– reduction of /J/ to (j), in certain areas). For /é[ò]bwé, é[ò]gwé/, in familiar pronunciation, there can be a simpliﬁcation, through a velarized bilabial approximant, (ñ), for the ﬁrst case; or a constrictive, ()) (or (Ÿ), Ô § 9.14 of NPT/HPh), or a semi-constrictive, (m), up to the approximant (w) (both velar rounded): (a'Bw™;lo, a'm™-, a'ñ™-, a'w™-) /a'bwelo/ abuelo˚ (la'Bw™lta, la'm™-, la'ñ™-, la'w™-) /la'bwelta/ la vuelta˚ ('a;Ÿwa, 'a;)a, 'a;ma, 'a;wa) /'agwa/ a%a˚ (la&Ÿwape'tø;na, la&)a-, la&ma-, la&wa-) /lagwape'tona/ la %apetona˘ Instead, for /òw, éw/, in familiar pronunciation, a more vigorous realization is more frequent (compared to the phonemic transcription): (')™;Bo, 'm™-, 'ñ™-) /'webo/, (&a)e'kaR, &ame-, &añe-) /awe'kaR/. Even in the /nòw/ combination (Ô § 6.2.1.1), we can have this more vigorous articulation: (u«'w™;Bo, u«')™-, u«'m™-, u«'ñ™-) /un'webo/ un huevo˘ In all these cases, we can hear even syntagmatically divided realizations, (Ÿw, Bw) (and even, (˙gw, mbw), for the last case), however it is doubtlessly better to avoid them. 6.2.5.2. As well as (j, w) and (B, ƒ) (/j, w/, /b, ò/), there are three more approximant (taxo)phones, which, in –normal, not at all slovenly– spontaneous conversation, are the realization of /e, o, a/, in the sequences /0eé, 0oé, 0aé/; therefore we have, (semi-palatal) /e/ (ã), (semi-velar rounded) /o/ (j) and (semi-prevelar) /a/ (F): ('pãøR) /pe'oR/ peor˚ ('tãa;tRo) /te'atRo/ teatro˚ ('pj™;ta) /po'eta/ poeta˚ (&kjaŸu'laR) /koagu'laR/ coa%lar˚ (u'nFø;Xa)i (-xa)a /una'oxa/ una hoja˚ ('lFø;tRa pa'Ra;ƒa) /la'otRa pa'Raòa/ la otra parada˘ In slower, or more solemn speech, we doubtlessly have (pe'øR, te'a;tRo, po'™;ta, &koaŸu'laR, &una'ø;Xa, la'ø;tRa pa'Ra;ƒa)i (-xa)a, as the phonemic transcription indicates. Furthermore, there are pronunciations which are currently considered to be uneducated: ('pjøR, 'tja;tRo, 'pw™;ta, &kwaŸu'laR); there is a di‡erence, and it is more than enough to distinguish the three di‡erent realizations, even if the di‡erence between (ã, j) and (j, w) might seem negligible (not only for foreigners, but also for natives who write articles and books, limiting themselves to only two extreme possibilities, also because of the lack of adequate symbols).

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Trills 6.2.6.1. Spanish has an alveolar trill /r:/ (r:), with three rapid tappings of the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (so, (r;) would be enough, but experience prefers (r:)), and a tap /R/ (R), with a single rapid alveolar contact: ('r:a;Ro) /'r:aRo/ raro˘ In interphonemic transcriptions (concerning several languages), it is important to mark the chron(em)e, because otherwise its nature could be hidden, and Spanish /r:/ might seem to be a simple trill (with two tappings, as Italian /r/ in stressed syllables: ('ra:Ro)it /'raro/ raro]˘ ˛e two Spanish types ((R, r:)) join together too, giving, for examples: ('tj™Rr:a) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra (Ô Italian ('tEr:Ra) /'tErra/ terra]˚ (laR'r:a;ƒjo) /laR'r:aòjo/ la radio (Ô Italian (la'ra:djo)it /la'radjo/ la radio]˘ Furthermore, in Spanish, the two types are distinctive, between V (even if with length di‡erences, for vowels too): ('ka;Ro) /'kaRo/ caro˚ ('kaRr:o) /'kaRr:o/ carro÷ ('p™;Ro) /'peRo/ pero˚ ('p™Rr:o) /'peRr:o/ perro÷ (&en†e'RaR)i (-s-)a /en†e'RaR/ encerar˚ (&en†eR'r:aR)i (-s-)a /en†eR'r:aR/ encerrar˘ In our phone(ma)tic analysis, (Rr:) /Rr:/ are heterosyllabic sequences, constituted by (syllable-ﬁnal) (R˘) /R˘/ or (word-ﬁnal) (Rò) /Rò/ + (r:) /r:/, with one + three (or four, to give more emphasis) tappings. ˛ey are not simple segments such as ç/R, r/Ç (or çr˚ rÇ in the Hispanic tradition). 6.2.6.2. We now (systematically) examine the distribution of the two types. Apart from intervocalic context (just seen), with (Rr:) /Rr:/, where the use is phonemic, we also ﬁnd (r:) after a pause or after heterosyllabic C (/n, l, s/): (r:a'tøn) /r:a'ton/ ratón˚ ('ønr:a) /'onr:a/ honra˚ (un'r:a;mo) /un'r:amo/ un ramo˚ (al&r:eƒe'ƒøR) /alr:eòe'òoR/ alrededor˚ (el'r:™i) /el'r:ei/ el rey˚ (&iÍr:ae'li;ta) /isr:ae'lita/ ¤raelita˚ (miÍ'r:ø;paß)i (-s)a /mis'r:opas/ m¤ ropø˘ In the other contexts, (R) is normal, even before a pause, where the vibrations of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the tip of the tongue is removed from the alveolar ridge (therefore the following are not at all acceptable (-RÈ, -R…, -RO)): ('mi;Ra) /'miRa/ mira˚ ('miRlo) /'miRlo/ mirlo˚ ('øRƒen) /'oRòen/ orden˚ ('tR™n) /'tRen/ tren˚ (a'BRiR) /a'bRiR/ abrir˚ (&ofRe'†™R)i (-s™R)a /ofRe'†eR/ ofrecer˚ (peR'ƒ™R) /peR'òeR/ perder˚ (&poRfa'BøR) /poRfa'boR/ por favor˚ ('iR po'Ra;Ÿwa) /'iR po'Ragwa/ ir por a%a˘ In familiar pronunciation, (R) /R/ can be weakened in all cases, substituting it with (¸): ('mi;¸a, 'mi¸lo, 'ø¸ƒen, 't¸™n, a'B¸i§, &of¸e'†™§)i (-s™§)a, (pe¸'ƒ™§, &po§fa'Bø§, 'i§ po'¸a;Ÿwa). On the contrary, in a more energetic or emphatic pronunciation, /R˘, Rò/ can be strengthened into (r): ('mirlo, 'ørƒen, a'BRir, &ofRe'†™r)i (-s™r)a, (per'ƒ™r, &porfa'Bør, 'ir po'Ra;Ÿwa). However, neither of these two phones are indispensable for çgenuineÇ pronunciation. Laterals 6.2.7. ˛ere are two lateral phonemes in neutral Iberian Spanish, (l, L)i /l, L/; whilst in neutral American Spanish, the second merges with /J/ – (l, ,)a /l, L/; moreover, /l/ has taxophones which are appropriately used, (¬, L) (it is not necessary to

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mark explicitly ((l)), as long as the articulation is dental): ('la;ƒo) /'laòo/ lado˚ (ka'løR) /ka'loR/ calor˚ (kol'ŸaR) /kol'gaR/ colgar˚ ('alto) {((-lto))} /'alto/ alto˚ (el'†i;ne)i {((el'†-))} (el'si;ne)a {((el's-))} /el'†ine/ el cine˚ (ko¬'Cøn) ((-L'C-)) /kol'con/ col>ón˚ (eL'Nø;No) /el'NoNo/ el ñoño˚ (eL'›u˙ke, eL'J-) /el'Junke/ el yunke˚ ('kla;ße)i (-se)a /'klase/ cløe˚ ('dø;Ble) /'òoble/ doble˚ (e'la;Ÿwa) /e'lagwa/ el a%a˚ (La'maR)i (,a-)a /La'maR/ ıamar˚ ('ba;Le)i (-,e)a /'baLe/ vaıe˚ (&koNLe'Bando)i (-N›-, NJ-)a /konLe'bando/ conıevando˘ Phonetically, before palatals, even the American accent has (L), although it does not have the phoneme /L/. In the same context, /J/ is articulated as a real constrictive, (J), or as a stopstrictive, (›). Before a pause, even for /l/ (as for /n, R/ and for /ò/), the vibrations of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the tip of the tongue is removed from the alveolar ridge (therefore, the following are not at all acceptable (-lÈ, -l…, -lO)): ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ (lau'R™l) /lau'Rel/ laurel˘ Structures 6.3. We treat the characteristics of the combination of words in connected speech, and then, above all, sentence-stress (as Spanish writing is quite explicit about word-stress, though not exactly without doubts and uncertainties, including possible oscillations). Taxophonics 6.3.1.1. ©th regard to consonant assimilations, they have been dealt with in the sections of the respective parts. ˛e combination of vowels within words, and between words in sentences, will be dealt with above all here. Within a word, two same vowels tend to be reduced to only one, except in formal, slow or controlled speech: (&alBa'a;ka, al'Ba;ka) /alba'aka/ albahaca˚ (a†a'aR, -'†aR)i (-s-)a /a†a'aR/ azahar˚ (&akRee'ƒø;Reß, &akRe'-) /akRee'òoRes/ acreedorπ˚ (bee'm™n†ja, be'-)i (-sja)a /bee'men†ja/ vehemencia˚ (nii'lißta, ni'-) /nii'lista/ nihil¤ta˚ (&alko'øl, al'køl) /alko'ol/ alcohol˚ (&koope'RaR, ko&o-, &kope-) /koope'RaR/ cooperar˚ (&†oolo'Xia, &†olo-)i (&so-, -'xia)a /†oolo'xia/ zoologìa˘ However, certain words, that otherwise would not be easily recognized, are not reduced:(kRe'™n†ja)i (-sja)a /kRe'en†ja/ creencia˚ (mo'ø;ßo)i (-so)a /mo'oso/ mohoso˚ (lo'øR) /lo'oR/ loor÷ other words can be reduced except in an intoneme: (le'™R, 'l™R) /le'eR/ leer˚ ('l™e, 'l™) /'lee/ lee˚ (kRe'™, 'kR™) /kRe'e/ creé˚ (paße'™;moß, pa'ßã™;-, pa'ß™;-) /pase'emos/ pøeemos˘ ©th di‡erent V˚ we have: (ko&aŸu'la;ƒo, &kja-) /koagu'laòo/ coa%lado˚ (aR'X™nteo, -tão)i (-x-)a /aR'xenteo/ argénteo˚ (leo'paRƒo, lão-) /leo'paRòo/ leopardo˘ 6.3.1.2. On the contrary, in formal, slow or controlled speech, (j, ã÷ w, j) can change into the vocoids (i, e÷ u, o): ('bja;Xe÷ bi'a-)i (-xe)a /'bjaxe/ viaje˚ ('ßwa;Be÷ ßu'a-)i ('swa-)a /'swabe/ suave˚ ('bju;ƒa÷ bi'u-) /'bjuòa/ viuda˚ ('r:wi;ƒo÷ r:u'i-) /'r:wiòo/

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ruido÷ (al'dãa;no÷ &alde'a-) /alde'ano/ aldeano˚ (lãal'ta‡÷ leal-) /leal'taò/ lealtad˚ ('li;nãa÷ -nea) /'linea/ lìnea˚ ('tja;La÷ to'a-)i (-,a)a /to'aLa/ toaıa˚ (&kjaŸu'laR÷ ko&a-÷ &koa-) /koagu'laR/ coa%lar˚ ('r:ãal÷ r:e'al) /r:e'al/ real˘ It must be remembered that there is a di‡erence between normal pronunciation (not slow): ('tãa;tRo, &empão'RaR, 'pj™;ta, &kjaŸu'laR) {/te'atRo, empeo'RaR, po'eta, koagu'laR/ teatro˚ empeorar˚ poeta˚ coa%lar] and çuneducatedÇ pronunciation: ('tja;tRo, &empjo'RaR, 'pw™;ta, &kwaŸu'laR), in addition to slow pronunciation: (te'a;tRo, &empeo'RaR, po'™;ta, &koaŸu'laR, ko&a-). Except in particular cases, for rhythmic reasons (as will soon be seen), the pronunciation with çunauthorizedÇ diphthongs is decidedly uneducated (although it is very widespread, especially in Latin America): (pa'iß, ≠'paiß)i (-s)a /pa'is/ paìs˚ (ma'i†, ≠'mai†)i (-s)a /ma'i†/ maìz˚ (ba'ul, ≠'baul) /ba'ul/ baùl˘ ˛e transformation from /ae, ao/ to /ai, au/ is equally uneducated: ('kaen÷ ≠'kain) /'kaen/ caen˚ (tRae'Ran÷ ≠tRai-) /tRae'Ran/ traerán˚ (bil'Bao÷ ≠-au÷ ≠-aU) /bil'bao/ Bilbao˚ (&baka'lao÷ ≠-au÷ ≠-aU) /baka'lao/ bacalao÷ in cases such as (&e[◊]ßtRa&oRƒi'na;Rjo, e[◊]ß&tRaoR-)i (-s-)a /e[k]stRaoRòi'naRjo/ extraordinario˚ we also have the possibility of: (&e[◊]ßtRFoR-, e[◊]ß&tRFoR-)i (-s-)a. 6.3.1.3. It is not easy to assess the vocalic (/i, u/) or consonantal value (/j, w/) of i˚ u in CiV˚ CuV sequences; /i, u/ are deﬁnitely more probable near a stress and at the end of a word: (r:eß'fRio)i (-s-)a /r:es'fRio/ rπfrìo˚ (&r:eßfRi'aR)i (-s-)a /r:esfRi'aR/ rπfriar˚ but: (&eMfRja'm™nto) /enfRja'mento/ enfriamento (and also: (r:eß'fRja;ƒo)i (-s-)a /r:es'fRjaòo/ rπfriado]˚ (flu◊'tuo) /fluk'tuo/ ﬂuctùo˚ (&flu◊tu'aR) /fluktu'aR/ ﬂuctuar (and also: (&flu◊tu'ø;ßo)i (-so)a /fluktu'oso/ ﬂuctuoso as well as suntuoso˚ virtuoso˚ which have only (-'twø;ßo)i (-so)a /-'twoso/) but: (&flu◊twa'†jøn)i (-'sj-)a /fluktwa'†jon/ ﬂuctuación˘ ˛e inﬁnitives with /i, u/ (which are prevalently short, and their derivatives, even when there is no longer the simple, original form) are: (re-, mal-)criar˚ ﬁar˚ rπfriar˚ enfriar˚ liar˚ (ex-)piar˚ (π-, ¤-)triar˚ %iar˚ (dπ)viar˚ enviar˚ reenviar÷ puar˚ ruar˚ ﬂuctuar÷ concluir˚ excluir˚ incluir˚ ocluir˚ recluir˚ (a-, in-, re-)ﬂuir˚ diluir˚ (re)huir˚ (π)muir˚ (re)construir˚ instruir˚ πtatuir˚ (re)constituir˚ dπtituir˚ instituir˚ rπtituir˚ s¨tituir˚ intuir˘ For ui˚ the pronunciation with /'wi/ is frequent, as well. Other cases of /i, u/ appear for short or compound forms: (&aBi'øn) /abi'on/ avión˚ (bi'™;njo) /bi'enjo/ bienio˚ (biu'ni;Boko) /biu'niboko/ biunìvoco˚ (tRi'™;njo) /tRi'enjo/ trienio˚ (tRi'a˙gulo) /tRi'angulo/ trián%lo˚ (&dje†i'ø;Co, &dj™-)i (-si-)a /òje†i'oco/ diecio>o˚ (&beinti'ø;Co, &b™i-) /beinti'oco/ veintio>o˚ (gi'øn) /gi'on/ %ión˚ (i'a;to) /i'ato/ hiato˚ (pRi'øR) /pRi'oR/ prior˚ (kRi'an†a)i (-sa)a /kRi'an†a/ crianza˚ (fi'an†a)i (-sa)a /fi'an†a/ ﬁanza˚ (fi'a;ƒo) /fi'aòo/ ﬁado˚ (fi'ambRe) /fi'ambRe/ ﬁambre˚ (pi'a;no) /pi'ano/ piano˚ but: (&tRja˙gu'laR) /tRjangu'laR/ trian%lar˚ (kRja'tu;Ra) /kRja'tuRa/ criatura˚ (fja'ƒøR) /fja'òoR/ ﬁador˚ (koM'fjan†a)i (-sa)a /kon'fjan†a/ conﬁanza˚ (fjam'bR™;Ra) /fjam'bReRa/ ﬁambrera˚ (pja'nißta)i (-sta)a /pja'nista/ pian¤ta˘ Let us note, logically: ('Cja;paß)i (-s)a /'cjapas/ ≥iapø (with no dropping of /j/ after /c/). We also have: (u'i;ƒa) /u'iòa/ huida (as huir]˚ (di'uRno, 'dju-) /òi'uRno, 'òju-/ diurno (but: (dju'tuRno) /òju'tuRno/ diuturno]˚ (Xu'i;†jo, 'Xwi-)i (xu'i;sjo, 'xwi-)a /xu'i†jo, 'xwi-/ juicio (but: (Xwi'†jø;ßo, 'Xw™†)i (xwi'sjø;so, 'xw™s)a /xwi'†joso, 'xwe†/ juicioso˚ juez]˚ (tRi'uMfo) /tRi'unfo/ triunfo˚ (tRiuM'fal, tRju-) /tRiun'fal, tRju-/ triunfal˘ For

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muy˚ we normally have ('mwi) /'mwi/, but also ('mui) /'mui/ is frequent (even if it is often considered as dialectal). Preferably, words like the following have /'wi/, but pronunciation with /u'i/ is common, too: circuito˚ fortuito˚ gratuito˚ suizo˚ cøu¤ta˚ ruido˚ ruin˚ ruina˚ arruino˘ However, in fast speech, forms with /u'é, i'é/ easily become /'wé, 'jé/: (&deßtRu'iR, deß'tRwiR)i (-s-)a /òestRu'iR/ dπtruir˚ (&ko«ßtRu'i;ƒo, ko«ß'tRwi;ƒo)i (-s-)a /konstRu'iòo/ construido˚ (fi'a;moß, 'fja;moß)i (-s)a /fi'amos/ ﬁamos˚ (&a◊tu'aR, a◊'twaR) /agtu'aR/ actuar˚ (&kaRi'a~Co, ka'Rja~Co) /kaRi'anco/ carian>o˚ (&beinti'u;no, bein'tju;no) /beinti'uno/ veintiuno˘ 6.3.1.4. Between words˚ clusters of V are more varied and more numerous, but the criteria are the same. ©th identical V˚ reduction is greatly favored: (laaR'r:™;Ÿlo, lFaR-, laR-) /laaR'r:eglo/ la arreglo˚ (lee[◊]ß'pli;ko, lãeß-, leß-)i (-s-)a /lee[k]s'pliko/ le explico˚ (&loolBi'ƒ™, &ljo-, &lo-) /loolbi'òe/ lo olvidé˚ ('a˙gulo oñ'tußo) /'angulo ob'tuso/ án%lo obt¨o˚ (&impla'ka;Ble e˙'kø;no, &impla'ka; Ble˙-) /impla'kable en'kono/ implacable encono÷ (la'pR™;ßa 'a;†e u'na~CoR r:e'manßo, la'pR™; 'ßa;†e)i (-sa, -se, -so)a /la'pResa 'a†e u'nancoR r:e'manso/ la prπa hace un an>o remanso˚ (e'laiRe 'entRa ßil'Bando, e'lai 'Ren-)i (sil-)a /e'laiRe 'entRa sil'bando/ el aire entra silbando˚ (&maﬁ'B™˙2 'kwa;tRo 'ø;Xoß2 ke'ƒøß, &kwa'tRø;-)i (&maz-, -xos, -øs)a /mas'ben 'kwatRo 'oxos ke'òos/ más ven cuatro ojos ¢e dos˘ If the V are di‡erent, we have: (loaR'r:™;Ÿlo, ljaR-) /loaR'r:eglo/ lo arreglo˚ (la&oñßeR'B™, &lFo-)i (-s-)a /laobseR'be/ la observé˚ (loe[◊]ß'pli;ko, ljeß-)i (-s-)a /loe[k]s'pliko/ lo explico˚ (lae[◊]ß'pli;ko, lFeß-)i (-s-)a /lae[k]s'pliko/ la explico˚ (loim'pli;ko, ljim-) /loim'pliko/ lo implico˚ (laim'pli;ko, lFim-) /laim'pliko/ la implico˚ ('tø;ƒo a'k™;Lo, 'tø; ƒja-)i (-,o)a /'toòo a'keLo/ todo a¢eıo˚ ('tRißte o'ka;ßo, 'tRiß tão-)i (-is-, -so)a /'tRiste o'kaso/ tr¤te ocøo˚ (&entReilu'ßjø;neß, &entRi-)i (-sjø;nes)a /entReilu'sjones/ entre il¨ionπ˚ ('pu;ƒo außen'taRße, 'pu; ƒjau-)i (-sen'taRse)a /'puòo ausen'taRse/ pudo a¨entarse˚ ('™;Roe iNmoR'tal, '™;Rje, iº-, i∫-, '™; Rjãi-) /'eRoe inmoR'tal/ héroe inmortal˚ (pa'la;†jo au'Ÿußto, pa'la; †jjau-)i (-sjo, -sto)a /pa'la†jo au'gusto/ palacio au%sto÷ (ße'Ÿun ße&ano'ta;ƒo, ßãano-)i (s-, s-)a /se'gun seano'taòo/ segùn se ha notado˚ (de'amboﬁ 'mø;ƒoß, 'dãam-)i (-s)a /òe'ambos 'moòos/ de ambos modos˘ Obviously, the function of the vocalic elements that come into contact also count. In fast speech, a grammeme-ﬁnal V seems rather redundant; thus, it can be dropped, even where its morphological function may seem important (however, there are all the other elements which compensate adequately). ˛us, one could quite easily achieve even çzeroÇ, even with di‡erent V\ (la&aBRi'R™, &lFa-, &laB-) /laabRi'Re/ la abriré˚ (lo'ø;ƒjo, 'ljø;-, 'lø;-) /lo'oòjo/ lo odio˚ (mi'i;Xo, 'mãi;-, 'mi;-)i (-xo)a /mi'ixo/ mi hijo˚ (laeß'pø;ßa, lFeß-, leß-)i (-s'pø;sa)a /laes'posa/ la πposa˚ (la'ø;Ra, 'lFø;-, 'lø;-) /la'oRa/ la hora˚ (lai'Xi;ta, lFi-, li-)i (-x-)a /lai'xita/ la hijita˚ (lo'u;niko, 'lju;-, 'lu;-) /lo'uniko/ lo ùnico˚ (lou'nj™;Ron, lju-, lu-) /lou'njeRon/ lo unieron˚ (me'i;Ba, 'mãi;-, 'mi;-) /me'iba/ me iba˚ (me&ima'Xi;no, &mei-, &mãi-, &mi-)i (-x-)a /meima'xino/ me imagino˘ 6.3.1.5. Even clusters of various V are frequent in these examples (taken from Navarro Tomás, but retranscribed and completed): (&eßka'l™;Ra aR'r:i;Ba, -'l™; RaR'r:i-)i

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(&eska-)a /eska'leRa aR'r:iba/ πcalera arriba˚ (a'ma;ƒa eß'pø;ßa, a'ma; ƒFeß-, ƒeß-)i (-s-)a /a'maòa es'posa/ amada πposa˚ (o'f™Rta i,'Xußta, o'f™R tFi,-, -ti,-)i (-˙'x-)a /o'feRta in'xusta/ oferta inj¨ta˚ (pa'la;BRa o'ßa;ƒa, pa'la; BRFo-, BRo-)i (-s-)a /pa'labRa o'saòa/ palabra osada˚ ('ka;ßa u'milde, 'ka; ßFu-, ßu-)i (-s-)a /'kasa u'milde/ cøa humilde˚ ('kj™;Re a'BlaR, 'kj™; Rãa-, -Ra-) /'kjeRe a'blaR/ ¢iere hablar˚ ('pw™;ƒe eßkRi'BiR, 'pw™; ƒãeß-, ƒeß-)i (-s-)a /'pweòe eskRi'biR/ puede πcribir˘ Also: ('nømbRe i'lußtRe, 'nøm bRãi-, bRi-) /'nombRe i'lustRe/ nombre il¨tre˚ ('tj™;ne oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'tj™; não-, no-)i (-,o)a /'tjene or'guLo/ tiene or%ıo˚ ('X™nte u'milde, 'X™n tãu-÷ tu-)i ('x-)a /'xente u'milde/ gente humilde˚ ('ka;ßi apa'Ÿa;ƒo, 'ka; ßja-)i (-si, sj-)a /'kasi apa'gaòo/ cøi apagado˚ (mi&eßpe'Ran†a, &mieß-, &mjeß-)i (-es-, -sa)a /miespe'Ran†a/ mi πperanza˚ ('ka;ßi impo'ßi;Ble, 'ka; ßim-)i (-si, si-)a /'kasi impo'sible/ cøi imposible˚ (mio&BliŸa'†jøn, mjo-)i (-'sj-)a /miobliga'†jon/ mi obligación˚ (&niuna'B™†, ni&u-, &nju-)i (-™s)a /niuna'be†/ ni una vez˘ And also: ('gRi;to a'Ÿu;ƒo, 'gRi; tja-) /'gRito a'guòo/ grito a%do˚ ('pø;ko eß'fw™R†o, 'pø; kjeß-÷ keß-)i (es-, -so)a /'poko es'fweR†o/ poco πfuerzo˚ ('n™;ŸRo iM'fj™Rno, 'n™; ŸRjiM-, ŸRiM-) /'negRo in'fjeRno/ negro inﬁerno˚ ('kwaRto oß'ku;Ro, 'kwaR tjoß-, toß-)i (-s-)a /'kwarto os'kuRo/ cuarto oscuro˚ (e˙'ga;No u'ma;no, e˙'ga; Nju-, Nu-) /en'gaNo u'mano/ engaño humano˚ (&ßuamiß'ta‡, &ßwa-)i (&s-, &s-)a /suamis'taò/ su am¤tad˚ ('impetu &eßpan'tø;ßo, -&tu eß-, -pe &tweß-)i (-es-, -so)a /'impetu espan'toso/ ìmpetu πpantoso˚ ('tRi;Bu i˙'gRa;ta, 'tRi; Bwi˙-) /'tRibu in'gRata/ tribu ingrata˚ (&poRßuo'nøR, -ßwo-)i (-s-)a /poRsuo'noR/ por su honor˚ (eß'pi;Ritu u'ma;no, -Ri tu-)i (-s-)a /es'piRitu u'mano/ πpìritu humano˚ ('L™;Ÿa aaƒo'RaR, 'L™;Ÿa aƒo-, 'L™; Ÿaƒo-)i (',™-)a /'Lega aaòo'RaR/ ıega a adorar˚ ('i;Ba aen†en'd™R, 'i;Ba en-)i (-s-)a /'iba aen†en'deR/ iba a encender˘ Further examples still: (be˙'gan†a ai'Ra;ƒa, -an †Fai-, -an †ai-)i (-sa, s-)a /ben'gan†a ai'Raòa/ venganza airada˚ (eß'ta;Ba ao'Ÿa;ƒa, -eß'ta; BFao-, Bao-)i (es-)a /es'taba ao'gaòa/ πtaba ahogada˚ (r:o'ßa;ƒa au'Rø;Ra, r:o'ßa; ƒFau-, ƒau-)i (-s-)a /r:o'saòa au'RoRa/ rosada aurora˚ ('kulta eu'Rø;pa, 'kul tFeu-, teu-) /'kulta eu'Ropa/ culta Europa˚ (a'pR™nde aa'BlaR, a'pR™n dãaa-, dãa-) /a'pRende aa'blaR/ aprende a hablar˚ ('auRea eß'pa;ƒa, 'auRãa, &au RãFeß'pa;ƒa)i (-s-)a /'auRea es'paòa/ áurea πpada˚ ('mw™Rte ai'Ra;ƒa, 'mw™R tãai-, tai-) /'mweRte ai'Raòa/ muerte airada˚ (pRe'ßu;me aon'daR, pRe'ßu; mãaon-)i (-s-)a /pRe'sume aon'daR/ prπume ahondar˚ ('fR™nte au'Ÿußta, 'fR™n tãau-, tau-)i (-s-)a /'fRente au'gusta/ frente au%sta˚ (biR'Xi;neo e˙'kanto, -nãjo, -não)i (-x-)a /biR'xineo en'kanto/ virgìneo encanto˘ 6.3.1.6. Examples of vowel clusters in sentences continue: (no'ti;†ja a'l™;ŸRe, no'ti; †ja'l™-)i (-s-)a /no'ti†ja a'legRe/ noticia alegre˚ ('r:™Xja eß'tiRpe, 'r:™; XjFeß-, Xjeß-)i (-x-, -s-)a /'r:exja es'tiRpe/ regia πtirpe˚ ('glø;Rja iNmoR'tal, iº-, i∫-, 'glø; RFi-) /'gloRja inmoR'tal/ gloria inmortal˚ (eß'tan†ja o'kulta, eß'tan †jFo-, †jo-)i (es-, -sja)a /es'tan†ja o'kulta/ πtancia oculta˚ (Xuß'ti;†ja u'ma;na, Xuß'ti; †jFu-, †ju-)i (xus'ti;s-)a /xus'ti†ja u'mana/ j¨ticia humana˚ ('na;ƒje a'ku;ƒe, 'na; ƒja-) /'naòje a'kuòe/ nadie acude˚ ('X™;njo aß'tu;to, 'X™; njjaß-)i ('x™-, -s-)a /'xenjo as'tuto/ genio øtuto˚ (ßi'l™n†jo elo'kw™nte, ßi'l™n †jje-)i (si-, -sjo)a /si'len†jo elo'kwente/ silencio elocuente˚ ('ø;†jo i'nu;til, 'ø; †jji-)i (-sjo)a /'o†jo i'nutil/ ocio inùtil˘ Also: ('n™;†jo oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'n™; †jjoR-, '†joR-)i (-sj-, -,o)a /'ne†jo oR'guLo/ necio or%ıo˚ ('ßi;tjo um'bRø;ßo, 'ßi; tjjum'-)i ('si-, -so)a /'sitjo um'bRoso/ sitio umbroso˚ ('bw™lBo aa-

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'taRlo, -Bo a't-, 'bw™l Bja't) /'bwelbo aa'taRlo/ vuelvo a atarlo˚ ('b™˙go aempe'†aR, 'b™˙ gjaem-, gjFem-, gjem-)i (-saR)a /'bengo aempe'†aR/ vengo a empezar˚ ('kw™Rpo ai'Rø;ßo, 'kw™R pjFi-, pjai-) /'kweRpo ai'Roso/ cuerpo airoso˚ (diß'pw™ßto ao&Beƒe'†™R, diß'pw™ß tjFo-, tjao-)i (-s'pw™s-, -s™R)a /òis'pwesto aobeòe'†eR/ d¤puπto a obedecer˚ ('faußto auß'pi;†jo, 'fauß tjFuß-, tjauß-)i (-st-, -s'pi;sjo)a /'fausto aus'pi†jo/ fa¨to a¨picio˘ And also: (an'ti;Ÿwa alti'B™†, an'ti; Ÿwal-)i (-™s)a /an'tigwa alti'be†/ anti%a altivez˚ ('l™˙gwa e[◊]ß'tRa;Na, 'l™˙ gwFe-)i (-s-)a /'lengwa e[k]s'tRaNa/ len%a extraña˚ (eß'ta;twa iN'mø;Bil, iº-, i∫-, eß'ta; 'twFi-)i (es-)a /es'tatwa in'mobil/ πtatua inmóvil˚ ('a;Ÿwa olo'Rø;ßa, 'a; ŸwFo-) /'agwa olo'Rosa/ a%a olorosa˚ ('fa;twa u&mani'ƒa‡, 'fa; twFu-) /'fatwa umani'òaò/ fatua humanidad˚ ('mu;two a'møR, 'mu; twja-) /'mutwo a'moR/ mutuo amor˚ ('aRƒwo em'p™;No, 'aR ƒwjem-) /'aRdwo em'peNo/ arduo empeño˚ (peR'p™;two im'p™;Rjo, peR'p™; twjim-) /peR'petwo im'peRjo/ perpetuo imperio˚ (kon'ti;nwo e'lø;Xjo, kon'ti; nwje-)i (-xjo)a /kon'tinwo e'loxjo/ continuo elogio˘ Lastly: ('fa;two oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'fa; twjoR-, twoR-)i (-,o)a /'fatwo oR'guLo/ fatuo or%ıo˚ ('mønßtRwo u'ma;no, 'mønß tRwju-, tRwu-)i (-s-)a /'monstRwo u'mano/ monstruo humano˚ ('r:™;Xja au&toRi'ƒa‡, 'r:™; XjFu-, Xjau-)i (-x-)a /'r:exja autoRi'òaò/ regia autoridad˚ (koR'r:jø aeßpe'RaRlo, Feß-, eß-)i (-s-)a /koR'r:jo aespe'RaRlo/ corrió a πperarlo˚ (pa'la;†jo au'Ÿußto, pa'la; †jjau-, †jjFu-)i (-sjo, -us-)a /pa'la†jo au'gusto/ palacio au%sto˚ (i'ni;kwo au'Ÿu;Rjo, i'ni; kwjau-, kwjFu-) /i'nikwo au'guRjo/ inicuo au%rio˚ (em'bi;ƒjo aeu'ß™;Bjo, em'bi; ƒjjaeu-, ƒjaeu-, ƒjFeu-, ƒjjeu-)i (-s-)a /em'biòjo aeu'sebjo/ envidio a E¨ebio˘ 6.3.1.7. ˛e conjunctions y˚ o (and their variants e˚ u], between V in di‡erent words (even if with /wé/), are normally realized as (j, w) /j, w/ (but also with (ã, j)): ('ka;ßa 'jw™Rta, 'ãw™-)i (-sa)a /'kasa 'jwerta/ cøa y huerta˚ ('a;Ÿwa 'jaiRe, 'ãa-) /'agwa 'jaiRe/ a%a y aire˚ (ßa˙'gRj™nta 'ja~Ca, 'ãa-) /san'gRjenta 'janca/ sangrienta y an>a˚ (a'pa;Ÿa jen'†j™nde, ãe-)i (-sj-)a /a'paga jen'†jende/ apaga y enciende˚ ('ka;Le jeß'ku;Ce, ãe-)i (-,e jes-, ãe-)a /'kaLe jes'kuce/ caıe y πcu>e˚ (ßo'BRi;na 'ji;Xa, 'ãi-)i (so-, -xa)a /so'bRina 'jixa/ sobrina e hija˚ (r:i'k™;†a jin'dußtRja, ãin-)i (-sa, -st-)a /r:i'ke†a jin'dustRja/ ri¢eza e ind¨tria˚ ('™ßta wa'k™;La, ja-)i ('™s-, -,a)a /'esta wa'keLa/ πta o a¢eıa˚ ('bla˙ka wa'†ul, ja-)i (-sul)a /'blanka oa'†ul/ blanca o azul˚ ('ßj™;te 'wø;Co, 'jø-)i ('sj-)a /'sjete u'oco/ siete u o>o˚ ('u ;no 'wø;tRo, 'jø-) /'uno u'otRo/ uno u otro˘ ˛e real language (¤ the spoken language) shows how grammar futilely complicates things, given that the normal pronunciation of the four written forms [y˚ e÷ o˚ u] is the same (for e there is (ã), too). Naturally, schools have then reinforced the çneedÇ for distinction, imposing it on pronunciation too; thus slowing down emission, or paying attention (to spelling), or for the sake of clarity, /i, e÷ o, u/ can come up again. 6.3.1.8. Usually (except in slow speech), a ﬁnal C˚ followed by an initial V˚ in words without breaks, resyllabiﬁes: (e'lø;Ro) /e'loRo/ el oro˚ (u'nømbRe) /u'nombRe/ un hombre˚ ('muCo ßo'nø;Reß)i (so-, -es)a /'muco so'noRes/ mu>os honorπ˚ ('lu †ama'Ri;La)i (sa-, -,a)a /'lu †ama'RiLa/ luz amariıa˘ Hence, there is no di‡erence between: helado and el hado (e'la;ƒo) /e'laòo/, elegi-

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do and el ejido (&ele'Xi;ƒo)i (-x-)a /ele'xiòo/, hele>o and el he>o (e'l™;Co) /e'leco/, heleno and el heno (e'l™;no) /e'leno/, la sabπ and lø avπ (la'ßa;Beß)i (la'sa;Bes)a /la'sabes/, ena%ø and en a%ø (e'na;Ÿwaß)i (-s)a /e'nagwas/, enojo and en ojo (e'nø;Xo)i (-xo)a /e'noxo/˘ In emphatic or vigorous pronunciation, or in singing, after stressed V˚ the continuous non-diphonic C (voiced: /m, n, N÷ l, L/, and voiceless: /f, †, s, x/ – but not /R, Rr:/, for which length is essential), instead of the normal structure, with ('é;0é), often have ('é00é): ('u ;mo, "ummo) /'umo/ humo˚ ('a;na, "anna) /'ana/ Ana˚ ('ba;le, "balle) /'bale/ vale˚ ('X™;fe, "X™ffe)i (x™-)a /'xefe/ jefe˚ ('di;†e, "di††e)i (-se, -sse)a /'òi†e/ dice˚ ('ka;ßa, "kaßßa)i (-sa, -ssa)a /'kasa/ cøa˚ ('i;Xo, "iXXo)i (-xo, -xxo)a /'ixo/ hijo˘ 6.3.1.9. Phonetically, two same C are realized as a contained gemination, /00/ (00): (i&nnume'Ra;Ble) /innume'Rable/ innumerable˚ (&ßinne&†eßi'ƒa‡)i (&sinne&se-)a /sinne†esi'òaò/ sin necπidad˚ ('øBBjo) /'obbjo/ obvio˚ (&ßuBBen'†jøn)i (&su-, -'sj-)a /subben'†jon/ subvención˚ (e'ƒaƒ ƒi'Cø;ßa)i (-sa)a /e'òaò òi'cosa/ edad di>osa˚ (&XuBen'tuƒ ƒo'Ra;ƒa)i (xu-)a /xuben'tuò òo'Raòa/ juventud dorada˚ (koR'†™l li'X™;Ro)i (-'s™l li'x™-)a /koR'†el li'xeRo/ corcel ligero˚ (el'lø;Bo) /el'lobo/ el lobo˚ ('lu† †eni'tal)i (-s s-)a /'lu† †eni'tal/ luz cenital˚ ('dj™† †i'ŸaRr:oß)i (-s s-, -os)a /'òje† †i'gaRr:os/ diez cigarros˚ (&loß ße'Nø;Reß)i (-s s-, -es)a /losse'NoRes/ los señorπ˚ ('døß ßo'BRi;noß)i (-s s-, -os)a /'òos so'bRinos/ dos sobrinos˘ ˛e di‡erence between (0) and (00) is more than enough (and what is necessary) to distinguish cases such as: (&uno'Bi;Lo)i (-,o)a /uno'biLo/ un oviıo and (&unno'Bi;Lo)i (-,o)a /unno'biLo/ un noviıo˚ (ßo'nømbReß)i (s-, -s)a /so'nombRes/ son hombrπ and (ßon'nømbReß)i (s-, -s)a /son'nombRes/ son nombrπ˚ (a&k™'lø;Ro) /a'ke 'loRo/ a¢el oro and (a&k™l'lø;Ro) /a'kel 'loRo/ a¢el loro˚ ('ma 'ßø;BRan)i ('s-)a /'ma 'sobRan/ más obran and ('maß 'ßø;BRan)i (-s 's-)a /'mas 'sobRan/ más sobran˘ ˛e preﬁx /sub/ sub-˚ before /r:/, is obviously heterosyllabic: (&ßuB-r:a',aR) /subr:a'JaR/ subrayar÷ the same occurs, with other C˚ when the a‚x is clearly perceived: (&ßuB-limi'nal)i (&s-)a /sub-limi'nal/ subliminal˘ For -dl-˚ the syllabiﬁcation is /ò-l/: (mi'Raƒ-lo) /mi'Raòlo/ miradlo÷ for -tl-˚ ç/t-l/iÇ (¤ /ò-l/i) and /-tl/a prevail: ('a‡laß)i ('a;tlas)a /'aòlas, 'atlas/ atlø˚ (a‡'l™;ta)i (a'tl™;ta)a /aò'leta, a'tle-/ atleta˘ 6.3.1.10. As has already been mentioned, spontaneous and normal pronunciation –for heterosyllabic (voiced or voiceless) stops– has non-stopped realizations: voiced before voiced C˚ and half-voiced before voiceless ones: ('añto) /'abto, -pt-/ apto˚ (do◊'tøR) /òog'toR, -k't-/ doctor˚ (&oñte'n™R) /obte'neR/ obtener˚ (&a‡ki'RiR) /aòki'RiR/ ad¢irir˚ (&aBƒi'kaR) /abòi'kaR/ abdicar˚ (&aƒBeR'tiR) /aòbeR'tiR/ advertir˚ (&ekliñ'ßaR)i (-s-)a /eklib'saR, -p's-/ eclipsar˚ (&kon†eñ'†jøn)i (-señ'sjøn)a /kon†eb'†jon, -p'†-/ concepción˚ (&ßuB-,u'ŸaR)i (s-)a /subJu'gaR/ subyugar˚ (&aƒ-,a'†™nte)i (-s-)a /aòJa'†ente/ adyacente˚ (a◊'†jøn)i (-s-)a /ag'†jon, ak-/ acción˚ (e◊'ßa;men)i (-s-)a /eg'samen, ek-/ examen˚ (aB&neŸa'†jøn)i (-sjøn)a /abnega'†jon/ abnegación˚ (aƒ'møßfeRa)i (-s-)a /aò'mosfeRa, at'm-/ atmósfera˚ (&aƒmi'Ra;Ble) /aòmi'Rable/ admirable˚ ('t™Ÿnika, -«n-) /'tegnika, -kn-/ técnica˚ ('diŸno, -«no) /'òigno/ digno˚ (&ßuBma'Ri;no) /subma'Rino/ submarino÷ (fully voiced or, respectively, voiceless) stop realizations are typical of

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emphasis — attention (to spelling). Lastly, we see some cases of complex consonant clusters: (oñß'ta;kulo)i (-s-)a /obs'takulo/ obstáculo˚ (a‡ß'kRi;to)i (-s-)a /aòs'kRito/ adscrito˚ (ko«ß'tante)i (-s-)a /kons'tante/ constante˘ Stress 6.3.2.1. Spanish spelling is quite satisfactory regarding the indication of word stress; however, some doubts remain concerning clusters of graphic VV˚ above all with i˚ u÷ furthermore, there are possible oscillations, and di‡erences with respect to Portuguese or Italian. ˛e position of stress is distinctive (and we can also ﬁnd threefold phonemic contrasts, the ﬁrst of which are nouns, indicated graphically too), as in: ('a;nimo) /'animo/ ánimo˚ (a'ni;mo) /a'nimo/ animo and (&ani'mø) /ani'mo/ animó; (kon'ti;nwo) /kon'tinwo/ continuo˚ (&konti'nuo) /konti'nuo/ continùo and (&konti'nwø) /konti'nwo/ continuó; ('li;mite) /'limite/ lìmite˚ (li'mi;te) /li'mite/ limite˚ (&limi't™) /limi'te/ limité÷ (de'pø;ßito)i (-s-)a /òe'posito/ depósito˚ (&depo'ßi;to)i (-s-)a /òepo'sito/ deposito˚ (de&poßi'tø)i (-s-)a /òeposi'to/ depositó˘ For stress oscillations, some examples follow: acné˚ acne÷ aeróstato˚ aerostato÷ ambrosìa˚ ambrosia÷ atmósfera˚ atmosfera÷ a¨triaco˚ a¨trìaco÷ bala¨tre˚ balaùstre÷ cartomancia˚ cartomancìa (but only farmacia]÷ cìclope˚ ciclope÷ conclave˚ cónclave÷ dinamo˚ dìnamo÷ elixir˚ elìxir÷ etìope˚ etiope (but only miope]÷ gladìolo˚ gladiolo÷ ìbero˚ ibero÷ m¤il˚ mìsil÷ olimpiada˚ olimpìada÷ orgìa˚ orgia÷ ósmos¤˚ osmos¤÷ pelìcano˚ pelicano÷ pensil˚ pénsil÷ pentagrama˚ pentágrama÷ perìodo˚ periodo÷ policromo˚ polìcromo÷ polìgloto˚ poligloto÷ radar˚ rádar÷ reptil˚ réptil÷ reuma˚ reùma÷ termostato˚ termóstato÷ utopìa˚ utopia÷ varicπ˚ váricπ˘ 6.3.2.2. Lexical compounds and adverbs ending in -mente˚ keep quite a strong stress even on the ﬁrst element (according to the scale: ('), (“), (&)): (“køRta'Bølßaß)i (-sas)a /'koRta'bolsas/ cortabolsø (Ô (&koRta'ƒø;Ra) /koRta'òoRa/ cortadora), (“i˙ka'pj™) /'inka'pje/ hincapié˚ (“entRe'ƒøß)i (-s)a /'entRe'òos/ entredós (Ô (&entRe'ƒøﬁ mu'Ca;Coß)i (-os)a /entRe'òos mu'cacos/ entre dos mu>a>os), (r:e&al'm™nte) /r:e'al'mente/ realmente˚ (&beRƒa“ƒ™Ra'm™nte) /beRòa'òeRa'mente/ verdaderamente˚ (“fa†il'm™nte)i (-s-)a /'fa†il'mente/ fácilmente˘ Also: (“tøƒa'Bia) /'toòa'bia/ todavìa˚ (a&ßi'miﬁmo)i (a&si'mis-)a /a'si'mismo/ øim¤mo (as can be seen in the last example, if a ﬁrst /'/ is immediately followed by another /'/, it becomes (&); on the other hand, however, if the form were with only one /'/, ç/asi'mismo/Ç, we should have ç(&aßi'miﬁmo)i (&asi'mis-)aÇ). To begin to acknowledge the di‡erent stress patterns, compared –for instance– to Italian, we give some useful examples: (ﬁnal stressed) acentùo˚ amplìo˚ varìo˚ (stressed on the last but one syllable) abdico˚ altero˚ animo˚ celebro˚ certiﬁco˚ computo˚ convoco˚ denomino˚ deposito˚ d¤puto˚ ediﬁco˚ indico˚ integro˚ interrogo˚ limito˚ medito˚ modiﬁco˚ modulo˚ penetro˚ signiﬁco /signi'fiko/, termino˚ venero˚ violo /'bjolo/, v¤ito /bi'sito/, limpio /'limpjo/. Furthermore: (a'n™;mja) /a'nemja/ anemia˚ (bi'Ÿa;mja) /bi'gamja/ bigamia˚ (&kaRam'bø;la) /kaRam'bola/ carambola˚ (diß'pu;ta)i

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(-s-)a /òis'puta/ d¤puta˚ (e'l™;na) /e'lena/ Elena˚ (en&†iklo'p™;ƒja)i (-&si-)a /en†iklo'peòja/ enciclopedia˚ (faR'ma;†ja)i (-s-)a /faR'ma†ja/ farmacia˚ ('mjø;pe) /'mjope/ miope˚ (pa'Rø;ƒja) /pa'Roòja/ parodia˚ (te'Ra;pja) /te'Rapja/ terapia÷ obviously, forms such as (a'p™ndi†e)i (-se)a /a'pendi†e/ apéndice are less risky, at least when reading. Let us also note: (r:a'†øn)i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ (r:a'†ø;neß)i (-'sø;nes)a /r:a'†ones/ razonπ˚ ('biRXen)i (-x-)a /'biRxen/ virgen˚ ('biRXeneß)i (-xenes)a /'biRxenes/ vìrgenπ˚ and lastly: (ka'Ra◊teR) /ka'RagteR, -kt-/ carácter˚ (&kaRa◊'t™;Reß)i (-s)a /kaRag'teRes, -k't-/ caracterπ˚ ('r:™;Ximen)i (-x-)a /'r:eximen/ régimen˚ (r:e'Xi;meneß)i (-x-, -s)a /r:e'ximenes/ regìmenπ˘ 6.3.2.3. Even in Spanish, in connected speech, there are normally words which are destressed; the articles are among these: (e'lømbRe) /e'lombRe/ el hombre˚ (&elal'kalde) /elal'kalde/ el alcalde˚ (la'ka;ßa)i (-sa)a /la'kasa/ la cøa˚ (laß'Ci;kaß)i (-s'Ci;kas)a /las'cikas/ lø >icø˚ (&una'mi;Ÿo) /una'migo/ un amigo˚ (&unaß'tR™inta peR'ßø;naß)i (&unas-, -'sø;nas)a /unas'tReinta peR'sonas/ unø treinta personø˘ We then have forms (plurisyllabic too), such as salvo˚ excepto˚ mediante˚ durante÷ and phrases such as rπpecto a˚ junto a˚ encima de˚ delante de\ (a'ma;laŸa) /a'malaga/ a Málaga˚ (ko'n™;La)i (-,a)a /ko'neLa/ con eıa˚ (&empa'Riß)i (-s)a /empa'Ris/ en Parìs˚ (&ßinßom'bR™;Ro)i (&sinsom-)a /sinsom'bReRo/ sin sombrero˚ (&ante'tø;ƒo) /ante'toòo/ ante todo˚ (&baXolo'ßaRBoleß)i (-xolo's-, -es)a /baxolo'saRboles/ bajo los árbolπ˚ (&kontRa&mißa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a /kontRamisa'migos/ contra m¤ amigos˚ (&deﬁƒe'øi)i (-z-)a /òesòe'oi/ dπde hoy˚ (&entRelo'ßø;Xoß)i (-'sø;xos)a /entRelo'soxos/ entre los ojos˘ Furthermore: (&aßta'ki, -Fa-, -aa-)i (&as-)a /astaa'ki/ høta a¢ì˚ (&a†jael'pw™Rto, -†jFel-)i (-sj-)a /a†jael'pweRto/ hacia el puerto˚ (&paRa&nweßtRoﬁ'w™ßpeƒeß)i (-stRos'w™speƒes)a /paRanwestRos'wespeòes/ para nuπtros huéspedπ˚ (&ßoBRel'ßø;BRe)i (&soBRel's-)a /sobReel'sobRe/ sobre el sobre˚ (e◊&†eñto'ƒøß)i (-&señto'ƒøs)a /eg†ebto'òos, ek†epto-/ excepto dos˚ (&Xuntoala'pw™Rta, -tja-)i (&xu-)a /xuntoala'pweRta/ junto a la puerta˘ Also: (en&†ima&ƒela'ka;ßa)i (-si-, -sa)a /en†imaòela'kasa/ encima de la cøa˚ (de&lanteƒe'mi) /òelanteòe'mi/ delante de mì˘ Even in more or less long series: (&paRa&entReno'ßø;tRoß, pa&RFen-)i (-'sø;tRos)a /paRaentReno'sotRos/ para entre nosotros˚ (&poRen&†imaƒe'tø;ƒo)i (-'si-)a /poRen†imaòe'toòo/ por encima de todo˚ (&poRƒe&lante&ƒelXaR'ƒin)i (-x-)a /poRòelanteòelxaR'òin/ por delante del jardìn˚ (&deﬁƒepo&RentRelo'ßaRBoleß)i (&dez-, -'saRBoles)a /òesòepoRentRelo'saRboles/ dπde por entre los árbolπ˘ Generally, conjunctions too are destressed (even in phrases, such as en cuanto (¢e)˚ puπto ¢e˚ supuπto ¢e), except with ora˚ ya˚ bien (disjunctive), øì (consecutive), no obstante˚ con todo˚ fuera de (adversative), en efecto˚ por tanto˚ por consi%iente˚ øì ¢e (consecutive), apenø˚ aùn no˚ no bien˚ ya ¢e˚ luego ¢e˚ dπpués ¢e˚ en tanto ¢e (temporal), a no ser ¢e˚ dado ¢e˚ con tal ¢e (conditional), por más ¢e˚ a pπar de ¢e˚ mal ¢e˚ ya ¢e (concessive), (&pweßtoke&noloßa'Bia)i (-sto-, -sa-)a /pwestokenolosa'bia/ puπto ¢e no lo sabìa˘ At the beginning of elliptic questions y is stressed: (¿'i tuçpa;ƒRe21)i (-'pa;-)a /¿'i tu'paòRe?/ ¿Y tu padre? 6.3.2.4. It will not be superﬂuous to observe that there is a di‡erence, in stress too, between: (e&koße'Ca;ƒo)i (-s-)a /ekose'caòo/ he cose>ado and ('™;ko ßo'nø;Ro) /'e-

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ko so'noRo/ eco sonoro˚ (&aLe'Ÿa;ƒo)i (&a,-)a /aLe'gaòo/ ha ıegado and ('a;No 'ma;lo) /'aNo 'malo/ año malo˚ (&eßto'ma;ƒo)i (&es-)a /esto'maòo/ π tomado and ('™ßto 'pi;ƒo)i ('™s-)a /'esto 'piòo/ πto pido˚ (ßo&naƒmi'Ra;ƒoß)i (s-, -s)a /sonaòmi'Raòos/ son admirados and ('ßø naRmo'njø;ßo)i ('s-, -so)a /'so naRmo'njoso/ son armonioso˘ Object pronouns are destressed, la˚ le˚ lo˚ lø˚ lπ˚ los˚ me˚ nos˚ os˚ se˚ te\ (me'pa;Ro ami'RaR, me'pa; Rja-) /me'paRo ami'RaR/ me paro a mirar˚ (oﬁ'Bi;moﬁ Be'niR)i (oz'Bi;moz)a /os'bimos be'niR/ os vimos venir˚ (ße&leßpeR'ƒjø)i (se&les-)a /selespeR'òjo/ se lπ perdió÷ instead, subject pronouns and indirect pronouns are stressed:('›ø 'ß™)i ('s™)a /'Jo 'se/ yo sé˚ ('tu 'pw™;ƒeß)i (-s)a /'tu 'pweòes/ tù puedπ˚ ('™l 'di;†e)i (-se)a /'el 'di†e/ él dice˚ (poR'mi) /poR'mi/ por mì˚ (&paRa'ti) /paRa'ti/ para ti˘ Possessive adjectives are destressed: (&mißeR'ma;noß)i (-se-, -os)a /miseR'manos/ m¤ hermanos˚ (tu'ßø;Xoß)i (-'sø;xos)a /tu'soxos/ t¨ ojos˚ (ßu'ma;ƒRe)i (s-)a /su'maòRe/ su madre˚ (&nweßtRo'tj™mpo)i (-s-)a /nwestRo'tjempo/ nuπtro tiempo˘ Generally demonstrative adjectives, are destressed (but, from a pragmatic point of view, they can be considered potentially stressable): (&eßte'li;BRo, “™ß-)i (-s-)a /este'libRo/ πte libro˚ (&eße'p™Rr:o, “™-) /ese'peRr:o/ πe perro˚ (a&keLamu'X™R, a“k™-)i (-,amu'x-)a /akeLamu'xeR/ a¢eıa mujer˘ 6.3.2.5. Relative pronouns [¢e˚ ¢ien{π}˚ cual{π}˚ cuyo{s}] are destressed (contrary to interrogative and exclamatory ones): (e'lømbRe ke'Bi;moß)i (-s)a /e'lombRe ke'bimos/ el hombre ¢e vimos˚ (e˙&ku,o'ka;ßo)i (-so)a /enkuJo'kaso/ en cuyo cøo÷ cual˚ cualπ (with the article) and tal˚ talπ are stressed: ('t™˙go uneR'ma;no2 el'kwaL 'L™;Ÿa 'øi2 ke)i (-L ',-)a /'tengo u'neRmano, el'kwal 'Lega 'oi/ tengo un hermano, el cual ıega hoy, ¢e…˚ (le'ƒi;Xo 'tal 'kø;ßa)i (-xo, -sa)a /le'òixo 'tal 'kosa/ le dijo tal cosa˘ Relative adverbs [como˚ cuando˚ cuanto˚ donde] are also destressed, contrary to interrogative and exclamatory ones: (&kwandoe'laiRe ße'kalma, -dje-) /kwandoe'laiRe se'kalma/ cuando el aire se calma˚ (la'pla;†a &ƒondeß&tatu'ka;ßa)i (-sa, -s&t-, -sa)a /la'pla†a òondeestatu'kasa/ la plaza donde πtá tu cøa˘ ‹ereas the indeﬁnites [algo˚ algùn˚ al%no˚ al%ien˚ nadie˚ ningùn˚ nin%no˚ otro] are stressed, cada generally is not: (&kaƒa'ƒia) /kaòa'òia/ cada dìa˘ Even tan is not stressed, contrary to tanto˚ tanta˘ ‹en used as conjunctions, the following adverbs are destressed: luego˚ mientrø˚ aùn (which becomes /'aun/), más˚ menos˚ cøi÷ the adverb medio is too (contrary to its corresponding adjective). 6.3.2.6. ˛e forms of çtratamientoÇ, don˚ doña˚ fray˚ sor˚ san˚ santo˚ santa˚ are always destressed before a name: (do˙'kaRloß)i (-s)a /òon'kaRlos/ don Carlos˚ (&doNaƒo'lø;Reß)i (-s)a /òoNaòo'loRes/ doña Dolorπ˚ (&ßantoƒo'mi˙go)i (&s-)a /santoòo'mingo/ santo Domingo÷ vocative forms are destressed too, señor˚ señora˚ señorita˚ padre˚ madre˚ hermano˚ hermana˚ tìo˚ tìa\ (ße&NoRmaR'ti;ne†)i (s-, -s)a /seNoRmaR'tine†/ señor Martìnez˚ (ße&NoRama'Ria)i (s-)a /seNoRama'Ria/ señora Marìa˚ (&paƒRean'dR™ß, -ƒRãan-)i (-s)a /paòRean'dRes/ padre Andrés˚ (tio'Xwan)i (-x-)a /tio'xwan/ tìo Juan÷ however, when not used in forms of çtratamientoÇ, we have the regular: (&una'ßanta mu'X™R)i (-s-, -x-)a /una'santa mu'xeR/ una santa mujer˚ ('bi;no elße'NøR maR'ti;ne†)i (-s-, -s)a /'bino else'NoR maR'tine†/ vino el señor Martìnez˚ (aeß'kRi;to el'tio 'Xwan)i (aes-, 'x-)a /aes-

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'kRito el'tio 'xwan/ ha πcrito el tìo Juan˘ Even in vocative phrases, there is destressing: (bwe'nømbRe) /bwe'nombRe/ ¡buen hombre!˚ (&mala'l™˙gwa) /mala'lengwa/ ¡mala len%a!˚ (gRam'pi;kaRo) /gRam'pikaRo/ ¡gran pìcaro!˚ (djoﬁ'mio)i (-s-)a /djos'mio/ ¡Dios mìo! Even in compound names (of people or places), there is attenuation of the ﬁrst element: (Xwa˙'kaRloß)i (x-, -s)a /xwan'kaRlos/ Juan Carlos˚ (ma&RiaXo'ß™;fa)i (-xo's-)a /ma&Riaxo'sefa/ Marìa Josefa˚ (&ßantoƒo'mi˙go)i (&s-)a /santoòo'mingo/ Santo Domingo˚ (&toRr:eƒel'kønde) /toRr:eòel'konde/ Torre del Conde˘ 6.3.2.7. Certain common phrases are also destressed: (&boka'BaXo)i (-xo)a /boka'baxo/ boca abajo˚ (&pataßaR'r:i;Ba) /patasaR'r:iba/ patø arriba˘ In numbers formed with y˚ the ﬁrst element is destressed: (&tReintai'†i˙ko)i (-'s-)a /tReintai'†inko/ treinta y cinco˚ (kwa&Rentai'ßj™;te)i (-'s-)a /kwaRentai'sjete/ cuarenta y siete÷ also cien(to) before mil is destressed: (†jeN'mil, -M'm-, -º'm-, -M'm-, -∫'m-)i ('s-)a /†jen'mil/ cien mil˚ (&oCo&†jentaﬁ'mil pe'ß™;taß)i (-&sj-, -as-, -'s™;tas)a /oco†jentas'mil pe'setas/ o>ocientø mil pπetø˘ Simple numbers are stressed, even if monosyllabic and near a stress: ('døﬁ 'Ÿa;toß)i (-z 'Ÿa;tos)a /'òos 'gatos/ dos gatos˚ ('tR™ß ka'Ba;Loß)i (-s ka'Ba;,os)a /'tRes ka'baLos/ trπ cabaıos˚ ('un 'li;BRo) /'un 'libRo/ un libro (compared to the article: (un'li;BRo) /un'libRo/ un libro). 6.3.2.8. Obviously in long words, as in sentences, some secondary stresses are introduced, for rhythmic reasons: ('kømpRame&lo) /'kompRamelo/ cómpramelo˚ (a'Na;ƒaße&le)i (-s-)a /a'Naòasele/ añádøele˚ (&entRe'Ÿandoße&lo)i (-s-)a /entRe'gandoselo/ entregándoselo˘ Words such as aun¢e˚ con¢e˚ por¢e˚ sino˚ are normally /'aunke, a'unke÷ 'konke÷ 'poRke÷ 'sino/, however, in sentences, their composition can also bring to stress patterns such as: (&au˙ke, a&u˙ke, au˙&ke, au˙'k™÷ &ko˙ke, ko˙&ke, ko˙'k™÷ &poRke, poR&ke, poR'k™÷ &ßino, ßi&no, ßi'nø)i (s-)a, although, they are often considered incorrect, for spelling reasons. Emphasis, particularly in imperatives with enclitic pronouns, can modify the structure considerably (above all, for stresses), as in: ('da;melo, "da:melo, "da;me&lo, "da;me'lø, 'da;me'lø, &dame'lø) /'òamelo/ ¡dámelo! 6.3.2.9. ˛e words (a'ø;Ra) /a'oRa/ ahora˚ (a'i) /a'i/ ahì˚ (a'un) /a'un/ aùn/aun˚ when they are not in an intoneme and are linked to what follows, have the frequent variants ('aoRa, 'ai, 'aun): (a'ø;Ra 'Bj™;ne, 'aoRa) /a'oRa 'bjene/ ahora viene˚ (a'i eß'ta, 'ai)i (-s-)a /a'i es'ta/ ahì πtá˚ (a'um mi 'pa;ƒRe, 'aum) /a'un mi'paòRe/ aun mi padre˚ (a'un no'ßale, 'au)i (-s-)a /a'un no'sale/ aùn no sale˘ In the case of /'jé[s]ò/, in an intoneme (more often when followed by a pause), it is quite frequent to ﬁnd, even in the neutral accent, a pronunciation which, often, seems as if it were ç/'ié[s]ò/Ç, while, it is generally only /i'é[s]ò/: (paR'tjø, &paRti'ø) /par'tjo/ partió˚ (a'ƒjøß, &aƒi'øß)i (-s)a /a'òjos/ adiós˚ (lim'pj™, &limpi'™) /lim'pje/ limpié˚ (em'pj™, &empi'™) /em'pje/ en pie÷ however, occasionally, we can doubtlessly have the structure ('i&é), even in neutral pronunciation: (paR'ti&ø, a'ƒi&øß, lim'pi&™, em'pi&™)i (-s)a.

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6.3.2.10. In fast and familiar speech, common words and proper names in a preintoneme with ('ia) /'ia/ ìa frequently become ('ja) /'ja/: (al'dia ßi'Ÿj™nte, al'dja, al&djaßi'-) /al'dia si'gjente/ al dìa si%iente˚ ('pø;koﬁ 'ƒiaﬁ ƒeß'pw™ß, 'ƒjaﬁ, 'pø;koﬁ&ƒjaﬁ)i (-z, -z, -s-, -s)a /'pokos 'òias òes'pwes/ pocos dìø dπpués˚ (ßu'tia ƒo'lø;Reß, ßu'tja, ßu&tjaƒo'-)i (s-, -s)a /su'tia òo'loRes/ su tìa Dolorπ˚ (&doNama'Ria maR'ti;ne†, &doNama'Rja, &doNama&RjamaR'-)i (-s)a /doNama'Ria maR'tine†/ doña Marìa Martìnez˚ (gaR'†ia Ÿu'tj™Rr:e†, gaR'†ja, gaR&†jaŸu'-)i (-s-, -s)a /gaR'†ia gu'tjeRr:e†/ Garcìa Gutiérrez˚ (&noßeR'Bia paRa'na;ƒa, -'Bja, -&BjapaRa'-)i (-s-)a /noseR'bia paRa'naòa/ no servìa para nada˘ Other examples: (ßea&Bia'pw™ßto ƒe'pj™, ßea&Bja'-, ßãa-)i (s-)a /seabia'pwesto òe'pje/ se habìa puπto de pie˚ (&eßta'Ria˙ kan'ßaƒoß, -'Rja˙, -&Rja˙kan'-)i (&es-, 'sa;ƒos)a /esta'Rian kan'saòos/ πtarìan cansados˚ (&nopo'ƒRiaN Le'Ÿa; Ra'tj™mpo, -'ƒRjaN, -&ƒRjaNLe'-)i (,-)a /nopo'òRian Le'gaR a'tjempo/ no podrìan ıegar a tiempo˘ Intonation 6.3.3. û 6.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of the neutral Iberian and American Spanish language. ˛erefore, let us simply look at the fundamental examples. It is important to make comparisons both between them and with those of other languages: /./: (me'Bøi ma'Na;na poR&lama'Na;na3 3)i (me'Bøi ma'Na;na poR&lamaÇNa;na3 3)a /me'boi ma'Nana poRlama'Nana./ Me voy mañana por la mañana. û 6.3. Iberian-Spanish preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ç 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 1 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

û 6.4. American-Spanish preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 Ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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/?/: (¿eß'ta nuß't™;ƒeß konçt™ntoß21)i (¿es'ta nus't™;ƒes kon't™ntos21)a /¿es'ta nus'teòes kon'tentos?/ ¿Están ¨tedπ contentos? /÷/: (&ßima'Na;na &noRr:e'†i;Bo no'ti;†ja1 1| leß&kRiBi'R™ ƒe'nw™;Bo3 3)i (&sima'Na;na &noRr:e'si;Bo noÌti;sja2 2| les&kRiBi'R™ ƒeÇnw™;Bo3 3)a /sima'Nana noRre'†ibo no'ti†ja÷| leeskRibi'Re òe'nwebo./ Si mañana no recibo noticia, le πcribiré de nuevo. Text 6.4.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun˚ is given in four çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Iberian pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Spanish translation follows, in its neutral version. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Spanish, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Spanish (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Spanish pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Spanish, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Iberian Spanish pronunciation (of English) 6.4.1. (de'nøR† 'wind2 ande'ßan2 w™Rdi'ßpju;tin˙ 'gwiC wøﬁƒeß'tRø˙geR3 3| 'w™n a'tRa;BeleR2 'k™im a'lø˙g2 ì'r:añ tina'wøRm 'kløuk3 3œ| d™ia'ŸRi{ƒ}2\ ƒaƒi'wa˙ xu'f™R ßa◊'ßi;ƒeƒ2 iN'm™ikin de'tRa;BeleR2 't™i kiß'køu 'køf1 1| &ßjuBikan'ßi;ƒeR ƒeß"tRø˙geR &ƒandi'aƒeR3 3|| 'd™n2 de'nøR† 'win2 'blu2 aß'xaR2 ƒaßi'ku‡3 3| &ba{‡}ƒe'møR xi'Blu1 1| de'møR 'kløuﬁli2 &ƒiƒe'tRa;BeleR2\ 'føul diß'kløuk a'Rau˙xin3 3| ì&an[d]a‡'laß{t}2œ\ de'nøR† 'win˙2 'g™i 'Bañ ƒja't™mt3 3|| ì'd™n2œ de'ßan 'ßjø 'naut3 3 ì'wøRmli3 3œ| &andi'mi;ƒja‡li2\ ˚de'tRa;BeleR 'tu 'køf3 3 ˚xiß'køuk3 3|| ìan'ßøu2œ ƒe'nøR† 'win{d}2 &wøßo'Blaiß tukoM'f™ß2| &daƒe'ßan3 3 wøﬁƒeß'tRø˙geR3 3 ì&øBƒe'tu3 3œ|| ¿&diƒjuçlaik21 ¿deß'tø;Ri2| ¿dju'wøn tu'xi;Ri taçŸ™n21|||)

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Spanish Text 6.4.2. El viento norte y el sol porﬁaban sobre cuál de eıos era el más fuerte, cuando acertó a pøar un viajero envuelto en an>a capa. Convinieron en ¢e ¢ien antπ lograra obligar al viajero a ¢itarse la capa serìa considerado más poderoso. El viento norte sopló con gran furia, pero cuanto más soplaba, más se arrebujaba en su capa el viajero; por ﬁn el viento norte abandonó la emprπa. Entoncπ briıó el sol con ardor, e inmediatamente se dπpojó de su capa el viajero; por lo ¢e el viento norte hubo de reconocer la superioridad del sol. ¿Te ha %stado el cuento? ¿Vamos a repetirlo? Neutral Iberian pronunciation 6.4.3. (el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 jel'ßøl2\ poR'fja;Ban2 &ßoBRe'kwal 'd™;Loß2\ &eRael'maß 'fw™Rte3 3| &kwandoa†eR'tø apa'ßa; Rumbja'X™;Ro2 em'bw™lto e'na~Ca 'ka;pa3 3| &kombi'nj™;Ron2 e˙&kekje'nanteﬁ lo'ŸRa;Ra2 oBli'Ÿa; RalBja'X™;Ro2 aki'taRße la'ka;pa1 1| ße'Ria kon&ßiƒe'Ra;ƒo2 'maß poƒe'Rø;ßo3 3|| el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2\ ßo'plø ko˙'gRaM2 'fu;Rja3 3| &peRo'kwanto 'maß ßo'pla;Ba1 1| 'maß ßãaR&r:eBu'Xa;Ba2 enßu'ka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBja'X™;Ro3 3œ|| poR'fin2\ el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 a&Bando'nø lFem'pR™;ßa3 3|| en'tøn†eﬁ1 1\ BRi'Lø el'ßøl3 3 ìkonaR'ƒøR3 3œ| eiNme“ƒjata'm™nte2 ˚ße&ƒeßpo'Xø3 3 ˚ƒeßu'ka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBja'X™;Ro3 3œ|| &poRlo&kel'Bj™nto 'nøRte1 1\ 'u;Bo ƒeR&r:ekono'†™R3 3 la&ßupe&RjoRi'ƒaƒ ƒel'ßøl3 3|| ¿&tãaŸußçta;ƒo21 ¿el'kw™nto2| ¿'ba;mo ßaR&r:epeçtiRlo21|||) Neutral (central-south-) American pronunciation 6.4.4. (el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 jel'søl2\ poR'fja;Ban2 &soBRe'kwal 'd™;,os2\ &eRael'mas Çfw™Rte3 3| &kwandoaseR'tø apa'sa; Rumbja'x™;Ro2 em'bw™lto e'na~Ca Çka;pa3 3| &kombi'nj™;Ron2 e˙&kekje'nantes lo'ŸRa;Ra2 oBli'Ÿa; RalBja'x™;Ro2 aki'taRse laÌka;pa2 2| se'Ria kon&siƒe'Ra;ƒo2 'mas poƒeÇRø;so3 3|| el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2\ so'plø ko˙'gRaM2 Çfu;Rja3 3| &peRo'kwanto 'mas soÌpla;Ba2 2| 'mas sãaR&r:eBu'xa;Ba2 ensuÇka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBjaÇx™;Ro3 3œ|| poR'fin2\ el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 a&Bando'nø lFemÇpR™;sa3 3|| enÌtønses2 2\ BRi',ø elÇsøl3 3 ìkonaRÇƒøR3 3œ| eiNme“ƒjata'm™nte2 ˚se&ƒespoÇxø3 3 ˚ƒesuÇka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBjaÇx™;Ro3 3œ|| &poRlo&kel'Bj™nto ÌnøRte2 2\ 'u;Bo ƒeR&r:ekonoÇs™R3 3 la&supe&RjoRi'ƒaƒ ƒelÇsøl3 3|| ¿&tãaŸus'ta;ƒo21 ¿el'kw™nto2| ¿'ba;mo saR&r:epe'tiRlo21|||)

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English pronunciation of Spanish 6.4.5. (&™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2 i™ı'sø:ı2\ &phø;fi'A;vån2 5sø;b>™I 'khwA:ı 'D™¬jØs2\ &™>Èı5mås f¯'™‘T™I3 3| 5khwA;nD‘¨ ås™‘'Th‘;¨ A;pÈ'sA: ¯uMviÈ'h™‘>‘¨2 &™Mv¯5™ıT‘¨ ™n'A;~cû 'khA;på3 3| &khØMv¤ni'™‘>Øn2 ™˙5kh™;I ki'™n 'A;nT™s lû'g>A;>È2 &Øbl¤5gA:> åıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨2 ûk¤5ThA;s™I lû'khA;på2| sÈ5>Iiû kûn&s¤DÈ'>A;D‘¨2 5mås pØDÈ'>‘¨s‘¨3 3|| &™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2\ sÈ5phl‘;¨ kû˙'g>A;M2 'f¨È>iå3 3| 5ph™‘>‘¨ 'khwA;T‘¨ 'mås sÈ'phlA;vå32| 5mås siÈ>¤b¨'hA;vå2 ™ns¯u'khA;på3 3 ì&™ıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨3 3œ|| phø;'fI;in2\ &™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2 È&bånDÈ5n‘;¨ lA;¤m'ph>™så3 3|| ™n'Thø;ns¤s32\ b>¤5j‘;¨ ™ı'sø:ı3 3 ìkhØnA;'Dø:3 3œ| &™Inm¤Di&A;TÈ'm™nT™I2 ˚s™I&D™spÈ'h‘;¨3 3 ˚D¤s¯u'khA;på3 3 ì&™ıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨3 3œ|| &phø;lû5kh™;I ™ıvi'™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I32\ 5¯uv‘¨ D¤&>™kûnÈ's™;‘3 3 lÈ&s¯upÈ>iÈ>¤5DA;D D™ı'sø:ı3 3|| ¿&Th™Iûg¨'sTA;D‘¨21 &™ı'khw™nT‘¨2 ¿5vA;mØs È&>™pÈ'Th¤Èl‘¨21|||)

7. Portuguese 7.0.1. We present both Brazilian and Lusitanian neutral Portuguese, in this order, although not separated, for various good reasons. ˛e most suitable interphonemic transcription (and useful for both accents), as far as V are concerned, has to use seven phonemes and four (or ﬁve) diaphonemes. ˛erefore, the seven Brazilian phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/, plus /e, È, A, ì, ™/. ©th this transcription, if we ignore or delete the dots under the diaphonemes (even for given C]˚ we also obtain the transcription for an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is closer to the spelling and without the speciﬁc Brazilian or Lusitanian peculiarities, as we will see. †e examples show pronunciation, not usage. It seems correct to prefer neutral Brazilian Portuguese (which has its regional variants, as Lusitanian Portuguese also has, but they will not be treated here), since it is simpler, ¤ with fewer phonemes and fewer çsurprisesÇ, closer to spelling and, therefore, more easily çunderstandableÇ, as well as decidedly more widespread, in a ratio of 18 to 1! On the other hand, the Brazilians themselves may ﬁnd it di‚cult to understand the Lusitanian pronunciation. 7.0.2. Should we –instead– proceed inversely, preferring Lusitanian pronunciation, again for the V˚ we would need nine phonemes: ç/i, e, E, a, O, o, u, …, å/Ç, including ç/E, a, O/Ç, even in unstressed syllables, and with a massive occurrence of ç/…, å/Ç, almost exclusively –above all ç/…/Ç– in unstressed syllables. ‹at is traditionally merged into ç/å/Ç, for e (¤ /e˘/ + /N, L, S, Z, j/, and for ei /ei/ as well) albeit very similar (particularly for some people), actually has a çtinyÇ di‡erence. ˛is can clearly be seen in our vocogram, where –on the contrary– it does not appear to be so tiny (contrary to traditional practice with a rougher quadrilateral: /e/ –in these contexts– ('É, ’Ù) and /å/ ('å, ’‘)). ˛erefore, central Lusitanian –by now neutral– has /e/ ('3Iö, ’’Iö, 'ÉI, ’ÙI÷ 'Éã, 'ÉN, 'ÉL, 'ÉS, 'ÉZ) (compared to /e/ ('™Iö, ’eIö÷ 'eI÷ 'eJ), in the rest of Portugal and in Brazil), that foreigners too often render as /E/, losing a functional opposition, which is not negligible for native speakers of both accents. Let us conclude these preliminary remarks (necessary to deﬁne the problem well), underlining the absurd and pointlessly complicated steps made trying to explain pronunciation, above all Lusitanian pronunciation (we restrict ourselves to this language {obviously avoiding talking about English, or Danish, or even French}), making use of graphemes instead of transcriptions, as is still done. On the other hand, it must be said that no real pronouncing dictionary for Portuguese has been written; therefore, one must… make the best of it. 7.0.3. As can be seen from phonemic transcriptions, our analysis does not consider V nasalization distinctive, although it must be marked since it is clearly perceptible (above all in Brazilian pronunciation) and typical of Portuguese (but, in

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Lusitanian pronunciation, only in checked syllables in N]˘ However, if nasalization is lacking –as is often the case in foreigners' pronunciation– comprehension is not compromised; all the more so because, not rarely, in Portugal vowel nasalization may be hardly perceptible, while the nasal contoid is surely there. As a matter of fact, we always have sequences of a (nasalized) V plus N÷ the latter may be missing (phonetically, but not phonemically) only when a word-ﬁnal (–) is followed by a word-initial (é) or (–), instead of being dropped, since the word ends in C\ /ö/. ˛e nasal contoid is homorganic in the case of stops ((m, n, ˙), and of stop-strictives; in Brazilian pronunciation we also ﬁnd (~)+(C, ‚), which are taxophones of /t, d/), while it is semi-provelar ((«)) before other contoids or before a pause (as will be seen systematically in the sections on N˚ § 7.2.1). Vowels 7.1.1.1. û 7.1 shows the vocalic realizations of neutral Brazilian Portuguese. ˛is language also has several diphthongs, but, since their starting and ﬁnishing points correspond to some vocoids already present, it may be su‚cient to list them and give some suitable examples. However, /ei, o™/ have been put in the vocogram, with their stressed and unstressed variants, not because they are considered monophonemic, but owing to their movements which are a little particular. ˛erefore, there are seven phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (i, e, E, a, O, o, u), with some taxophones, such as (Au, A∞˘, ’å[s]ò) for /'au, 'aı˘, ’Au, ’Aı˘, ’a[s]ò/ and (iö÷ ’eö, '™ö÷ Aö÷ '9ö, ’Úö÷ uö) for /iö, eö, aö, oö, uö/ – ¤ for VN sequences, both in checked syllables (/éö˘0é/) and in unchecked ones (/é˘öé/). As to /’a[s]ò/, it is to be noted that (’å[s]ò) holds for -a(s) in ﬁnal rhythm groups, due to a sort of attenuation, with or without a following pause. On the other hand, however, the variant (a°) is even possible, although it is more typical of traditional pronunciation (which is possible as well, provided it is not realized too low). Anyway, (å) is more recommendable, and this is what we use in this chapter. ˛ere are three broken-line white markers as well, to show possible –but not necessary– articulations, also belonging to the neutral accent, for /i, a, u/ (I, x, U), occurring in rhythm-group ﬁnal unstressed syllables (with or without -s). Besides, in the same position of (x), there may additionally be (≈ö), as a possible variant of (stressed or unstressed) (Aö) /aö/. 7.1.1.2. Here are some ﬁrst examples (for the time being, let us ignore the diaphonemic undersigned dots): (‚i'fi;si∞)b /òe'fisiı/ di˙cil˚ ('e;]i)b /'eıe/ ele˚ ('E;]å)b /'Eıa/ ela˚ (ba'ta;tå)b /ba'tata/ batata˚ ('nO;vå)b /'nOva/ nova˚ ('no;vu)b /'novu/ novo˚ ('ëu;vå)b /'Suva/ >uva˘ However, it is worthwhile reﬂecting upon (A): ('pAu) /'pau/ pau˚ (Au'das)b {(Au'ƒaS)l] /Au'òas/ audaz˚ ('mA∞)b {('mAı)l] /'maı/ mal˚ (A∞'tu;Rå)b {(AÓ'tu;R‘)l] /Aı'tuRa/ altura˘ It is important to distinguish: seca ('se;kå)b /'seka/» çdry (f.)Ç and ('sE;kå)b /'sEka/” çdries, drought, nuisanceÇ, cerco ('se˜ku)b /'seKku/» çsiegeÇ and ('sE˜ku)b /'sEKku/” çI encloseÇ, lobo (']o;bu)b /'ıobu/» çwolfÇ and (']O;bu)b /'ıObu/” çlobeÇ, fosso ('fo;su)b

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/'fosu/» çtrenchÇ and ('fO;su)b /'fOsu/” çI digÇ. ©th nasalization, we have: ('si«)b /'sin/ sim˚ (&]e˙ga']™˙gå)b /ıenga'ıenga/ lengalenga˚ ('b™I«)b /'bein/ bem˚ ('9;meI«)b /'ìmein/ homem˚ (&AmA'NA«)b /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ (bÚm'b9U«)b /bom'boun/ bombom˚ ('9«˜å)b /'onKa/ honra˚ (A∞'gu«s)b /Aı'guns/ al%ns÷ (kA'mi;Nu)b /ka'miNu/ camiˆo˚ (fe'n9;menu)b /fe'nìmenu/ fenômeno˚ (&te]efÚ'n™;må)b /te]efo'nema/ telefonema˚ ('u;niku)b /'uniku/ ùnico˘

û 7.1. Brazilian vowel elements. /i/ ({'}i) {(’I)}, /i{˘}ö/ (iö) /e/ (e), /e{˘}ö/ (™ö, ’eö) /ei/ (eI), /eiö˘/ (™Iö, ’eIö) /E/ (E, »™) /a/ (a, Au, Aı, ’å[s]ò) {/’a/ (å)}

/u/ ({'}u) {(’U)}, /u{˘}ö/ (uö) /o/ (o), /o{˘}ö/ (9ö, ’Úö) /o™/ (oU, o), /oö˘/ (9Uö, ’ÚUö) /O/ (O, »ø) /a[i/u]{˘}ö/ (A[i/u]{˘}ö) {(≈[i/u]{˘}ö)}

7.1.1.3. Notice that nasalization slightly changes some timbres according to the diaphonemic symbols used: in particular /aö/ (Aö) (for which, as already seen, (≈ö) is possible as well), and /'eö, 'Èö, 'oö, 'ìö/ (™ö, 9ö) (when stressed, sometimes, (eö, Úö) may be heard too). Besides, in word-ﬁnal position, we have real diphthongs for what –too often and too hurriedly– is transcribed simply as ç/e, Ú/Ç, ¤ /ein, oun/ ('™I«, ’eI«÷ '9U«, ’ÚU«). Instead, in the same position, /anò/ opposes the diphthong /aunò/: ('O˜fA«) /'OKfan/ órfã˚ ('O˜fAu«) /'OKfaun/ órfão˘ Later on, we will see other diphthongs, too, both oral and (phonetically) nasalized. It has to be noted that in modern neutral Brazilian pronunciation, the nasalization of vocoids is more and more evident (even in diphthongs). As already said, nasalization occurs when a V is followed by a nasal consonant [N), in the same syllable or not, ¤ both in checked and unchecked syllables; and, above all, both in stressed and unstressed syllables: (&AmA'NA«)b /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu)b /'baNu/ baˆo˚ ('fi;nu)b /'finu/ ﬁno˘ ‹ereas, in traditional neutral Brazilian pronunciation, nasalization occurs only in checked syllables (in N]˚ either stressed or not; but a çtroublesomeÇ occurrence of nasalization is possible (or not), in unchecked stressed syllables followed by /N/ (and with /'aöé/ ('åöé) as well): (&ama'NA«)b;t /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu, 'bå;Nu)b;t /'baNu/ baˆo˚ ('fi;nu)b;t /'finu/ ﬁno˘ Lastly, in mediatic pronunciation, nasalization occurs, in addition to (stressed or unstressed) checked syllables (in N), even in unchecked stressed syllables followed by N÷ but, again, a çtroublesomeÇ occurrence of nasalization is possible even in /’éNé/ (¤ an unchecked, unstressed syllable, followed by /N/): (&amA'NA«, &ama-)b;m /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu)b;m /'baNu/ baˆo˚ ('fi;nu)b;m /'finu/ ﬁno˘

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Lusitanian peculiarities 7.1.2.1. Let us now consider û 7.2 to see the vocalic realizations of neutral Lusitanian Portuguese. It is a good idea to make a close comparison of the two ﬁgures; as a matter of fact (neglecting the broken-line white markers, of the unnecessary Brazilian variants, (I, U, x÷ ≈): ('e;]i, -I÷ 'E;]å, -x÷ 'no;vu, -U÷ &AmA'NA, &≈m≈'N≈)b]˚ it is clear that Lusitanian Portuguese has a higher number of both taxophones and phonemes: at least two more (which, in an exclusively Lusitanian phonemic transcription, would be ç/…, å/Ç –or, deviating from o‚cial symbols, they should rather be ç/¢, å/Ç; but, more traditionally rendered as ç/È, å/Ç)– for (’¢, ’Û÷ '¢ò), ('å, ’‘)÷ in addition to (Åö) /—Aö/ and (Aö˘) /'aö˘/, with occasional oppositions between them (that, in a Lusitanian way, we ought to mark as ç/aö, åö/Ç). Besides, (’™, ’a, ’ø) /È, A, ì/ are needed, above all, but not only, in some pre-stress syllables (by diachronic fusion, which is no longer visible in present-day spelling: /éé/ = /é/, deriving from a prior /é0é/ structure, with C dropping), in addition to /’Èı˘, ’ìı˘, ’Aı˘; ’ÈKò, ’ìKò, ’AKò/, as we will see (and /’Au/, and /’Ai/ as well). Furthermore, /’-Èe2÷ ’-ì™2÷ ’-e, ’-È/ are special cases, as in: (ab'd9;meI«)b (‘B'ƒO;m’I«, ±-™n)l /ab'òìmÈe2/ abdômenb˚ -ómenl˚ ('ipsi]ÚU«)b (-î]ÚU«, ±-øn)l /'ipsiıì™2/ ìpsilon˚ (&i˙k]u'zi;vi)b (&i~k9u-, -v[¢], ±-v™)l /inkıu'zive, -È/ incl¨ive˘ û 7.2. Lusitanian vowel elements. /e, ’e/ (¢), (Û) in contact with (N, L, S, Z, ã) “ (ãÛò, ã¢ò), but /e/ (¢) between (], º) “ (S, Z) /i/ (i), /iö˘/ (iö)

/u, ’o/ (u), /uö˘/ (uö)

/'e/ (e), /È/ (’™), /eö˘/ (™ö, ’eö) /o/ (o), /ì/ (’ø), /oö˘/ (9ö, ’Úö) /ei/ (ÉI, ’ÙI), /eiö˘/ (3Iö˘, ’’Iö) /o™/ (o, oU), /ouöò/ (9Uö, ’ÚUö) /'e˘/+/N, L, S, Z, j/ (É) /O/ (O, »ø) /E/ (E, »™) /’a, a'é, a%é/ (‘÷), /’aò/ (‘, å|), /'a˘ö/ (åö) /a[i/u]ö˘/ (A[i/u]ö, ’4[i/u]ö) /A˘ö/ ('a˘ö), /Aö/ ({'}Åö), /A/ (’a, {'}ai, {'}Au, {'}Aı)

7.1.2.2. ˛e conspicuous Lusitanian reduction of timbres is striking in unstressed syllables, where we have (¢, Û) /e, e/ (or, in the exclusively Lusitanian phonemic transcription, ç/…/Ç)÷ (u) /u/÷ (‘, å|) /a/ (Ô § 7.4.0); and, more rarely, (i) /i/ (which, however, has the complication of oscillating with (’¢, ’Û), as we will see). If we thoroughly analyze the phonemic transcription, it becomes clear that the contradiction between the diaphonemes with underwritten dots and actual phonemes is only outward; as a matter of fact, in Lusitanian pronunciation, for /a/ we ﬁnd (‘), in unstressed syllables, but (å), in stressed syllables, when it is followed by N˚ in checked syllables (with nasalization (Aö˘)) or unchecked (without nasalization (å˘ö)). Every exception is marked with /A/ (besides its other –not fundamental, though deducible– use, in contact with /u, ı/, seen above): ('E;]‘)l /'Eıa/ ela˚ (b‘'ta;t‘)l /ba'tata/ batata˚ ('nO;v‘)l /'nOva/ nova÷ (‘'su;kaR, -‘R)l /a'sukAK/ {(a'su;ka˜)b} açùcar˚ (&am‘-

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'NA«)l /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('sAmb‘) /'samba/ samba˚ ('kå;m‘) /'kama/ cama˘ However, there is one exceptional case where ('a;öé) /'Aöé/ opposes normal /'aöé/ ('å;öé), as in: (f‘']å;m¨S) /fa'ıamus/ falamos çwe speakÇ (f‘']a;m¨S) /fa'ıAmus/ falámos çwe spokeÇ; of course, in Brazilian pronunciation, they are both (fa']A;mus). 7.1.2.3. Here are some other remarkable cases of /A/, in Lusitanian pronunciation, by contraction: (a) /A/ à [èa a¶]˚ (a'ke;]¢) /A'keıe/ à¢ele˚ (ka'vÉIR‘) /kA'veiRa/ caveira ((a, a'ke;]i, ka'veIRå)b]÷ after CC (simpliﬁed or not in their pronunciation – and in spelling): (a'sAu«)l /A'saun/ a(c)ção˚ (fa'tu;R‘)l /fA'tuRa/ fa(c)tura ((a'sAu«, fa'tu;Rå)b]˘ Also (ka'm9i”S)l /kA'moins/ Camões. Before looking at the two çfurtherÇ phonemes, let us consider the Lusitanian pronunciation of the examples already given in Brazilian pronunciation: (d¢'fi;siı)l /òi'fisiı/, ('e;]¢)l /'eıe/, ('E;]‘)l /'Eıa/, (b‘'ta;t‘)l /ba'tata/, ('nO;v‘)l /'nOva/, ('no;vu)l /'novu/, ('Su;v‘)l /'Suva/÷ ('pAu)l /'pau/, (Au'ƒaS)l /Au'òas/, ('mAı)l /'maı/, (AÓ'tu;R‘)l /Aı'tuRa/÷ ('se;k‘)l /'seka/», ('sE;k‘)l /'sEka/”, ('seÍku)l /'seKku/», ('sEÍku)l /'sEKku/”, (']o;Bu)l /'ıobu/», (']O;Bu)l /'ıObu/”, ('fo;su)l /'fosu/», ('fO;su)l /'fOsu/”. Furthermore (for both accents): (ka'da;ve˜)b (k‘'ƒa;v™R)l /ka'davÈK/ cadáver˚ ('sO;Ro˜)b (-øR)l /'sORìK/ sóror˚ (a'ma;ve∞)b (‘'ma;v™ı)l /a'mavÈı/ amável˚ ('A∞kjo∞)b ('AÓkˆøı)l /'aıkwìı/ álcool˚ (vo∞'ta˜)b (vøÓ'taR)l /vìı'taK/ voltar˘ Of course, if only Brazilian pronunciation were taken into account, even in these cases, no diaphoneme with underwritten dots would be necessary, since there is no di‡erence in the realization of /e, È÷ o, ì/ (e) and (o). 7.1.2.4. Bearing in mind that nasalization, in Lusitanian pronunciation, is found only in checked syllables (but, sometimes, it is so slight and hardly perceptible that it could be marked as (◊ö), instead of (–ö)), we have: ('si«)l /'sin/ sim, (&]e˙g‘']™˙g‘)l /ıenga'ıenga/ lengalenga, ('b3I«)l /'bein/ bem, ('O;m’I«)l /'ìmein/ homem, (&am‘'NA«)l /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã, (bÚm'b9U«, -ÚU«)l /bom'boun/ bombom, ('9«º‘)l /'onKa/ honra, (Aı'Ÿu”S)l /Aı'guns/ al%ns÷ (k‘'mi;Nu)l /ka'miNu/ camiˆo, (f¢'nO;m¢nu)l /fe'nìmenu/ fenómenol˚ (&t¢]¢f¨'ne;m‘)l /teıefo'nema/ telefonema, ('u;niku)l /'uniku/ ùnico˘ One further Lusitanian çtroubleÇ, by diachronic assimilation of two V˚ adds ç/Å/Ç (besides ç/A/Ç), in stressed or unstressed syllables: ('A;”f¨R‘)l (a'A«foRå)b /a'anfoRa/ a ânfora˚ (Å;n'ti;Ÿ‘)l (aA~'Ci;gå)b /aan'tiga/ à antiga˘ 7.1.2.5. Here are some speciﬁc examples to show the di‡erences between the two accents more clearly. In order to account for the pronunciation of central Portugal, with Lisbon as its focal point, therefore as a model of neutral Lusitanian pronunciation, it is important to know that /e/, in stressed syllables followed by /N, S, Z, L, j, i/, takes on the pronunciation (É), which is close to the realization of the Lusitanian phoneme ç/å/Ç (but we must lay great stress on the fact that they are not alike {even if, occasionally, for some words or speciﬁc speakers, the di‡erence is only very slight}). However, we must point out that even the –more regular and etymological– pronunciation corresponding to the Brazilian one, is neutral (¤ acceptable neutral]˚ with /e, ei/ (e, eI), which is kept quite well outside the areas in-

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ﬂuenced by Lisbon, with Coimbra leading the way. Some examples: ('vÉ;Nu)l ('v™;Nu)b /'veNu/ veˆo˚ ('fÉ;Su)l ('fe;ëu)b /'feSu/ fe>o˚ ('vÉ;Zu)l ('ve;òu)b /'veZu/ vejo˚ ('tÉ;Zu)l ('te;òu)b /'teZu/ Tejo˚ (?S'pÉ;Lu)l (is'pe;Lu)b /es'peLu/ πpeºo˚ ('sÉ;ãu)l ('se;ãu)b /'seju/ seio˚ ('sÉIS)l ('seIs)b /'seis/ se¤÷ besides ('s3I«)l ('seI«)b /'sein/ sem÷ ('kÉ;Zu kÚU']ÉIt¢ ƒø'vÉ;L‘)l ('ke;òu kÚU']eICi ‚ão've;Lå)b /'keZu koun'leite òeo'veLa/ ¢eijo com leite de oveºa˘ In unstressed syllables /ei/ (ÙI)l (eI)b remains: (']ÉItu)l (']eItu)b /'ıeitu/ leito˚ (]ÙI'toR)l (]eI'to˜)b /ıei'toK/ leitor˘ 7.1.2.6. ˛e other pre-eminently Lusitanian characteristic, in purely Lusitanian transcription, would resort to the phoneme ç/…/Ç for (¢), with the taxophone (Û) in contact with /N, L, S, Z, j/ or followed by /s, a/. However, in our diaphonemic interpretation, we have word-internal /’e/ corresponding to Brazilian /’e/ and to written -e- (but neither for initial e- {= /i/}, in both accents, nor for ﬁnal -e {= /e/ (¢)l (i)b}): (nÛ'Nu«)l (ne-)b /ne'Nun/ neˆum˚ (mÛ'LOR)l (me'LO˜)b /me'LOK/ meºor˚ (f?'SaR)l (fe'ëa˜)b /fe'SaK/ fe>ar˚ (SZ'ŸaR)l (ëe'ga˜)b /Se'gaK/ >egar˚ (&tZZ‘'ƒi;Lu)l (&teòa'‚-)b /teZa'òiLu/ tejadiºo˚ ('o;ZÛ)l ('o;òi)b /'oZe/ hoje˚ (]Û'ãå;m¨S)l (]e'ãA;mus)b /ıe'jamus/ leiamos˚ (&i]¢'ŸAnt˙)l (&i]e'gA~Ci)b /iıe'gante/ elegante˚ (dÛZ&v¢Ít¢'BRaR)l (dez&ve˜te'bRa˜)b /òeaveKte'bRaK/ dπvertebrar˚ ('pi;RZS)l ('pi;Ris)b /'piRes/ pirπ˚ (i'E;]‘, 'ãE;]‘)l (i'E;]å, 'ãE;]å)b /i'Eıa/ e ela˘ However, if the sequences /’e/ (Û) + /N, L, S, Z÷ s, a/ are preceded by /ı, K/ (]÷ º, ˜) (given their dorsal component), the taxophone that should be used is (¢): (&i]¢'ZeR)l (&i]e'òe˜)b /iıe'ZeK/ eleger˚ ('to;º¢S)l ('to;˜is)b /'toKes/ torrπ˘ In these contexts, /’i/ -i- generally remains the same (/i/, but it currently becomes /e/): (]iZ'Bo‘, ]Û-)l (]iz'boå)b /ıia'boa/ L¤boa˚ ('fE;]îS, -]ZS, -]îks)l ('fE;]is, -ks)b /'fEıis/ Félix˚ (mi'LAu«, mÛ-)l (mi'LAu«)b /mi'Laun/ miºão˚ (di'NÉIRu, dÛ-)l (‚i'NeIRu)b /di'NeiRu/ diˆeiro˘ We have /’e˘ö/ for (¢˘ö) as well, while /’eö˘/ is (eö˘): (&t¢n¢'BRo;zu)l (&tene'bRo;zu)b /tene'bRozu/ tenebroso˚ (&te≈p¢'Ra;ƒu)l (&tempe'Ra;du)b /tempe'Raòu/ temperado˘ 7.1.2.7. Another Lusitanian çoddityÇ consists of the change of /’i/ (i) -i- sequences (not /iö˘/ (iö)) into ç/…/Ç, ¤ /e/, in adjacent syllables (except for the last one, whether stressed or not, and the ﬁrst one, if absolute initial, with no C-]\ (&d¢v¢'ƒiR, d¢v'-)l (&‚ivi'‚i˜)b /òeve'òiK/ dividir˚ (m[¢]'niStÍu)l (mi'nistRu)b /me'nistRu/ min¤tro˚ (&in[¢]'mi;Ÿu)l (&ini'mi;gu)b /ine'migu/ inimigo˚ (pÍ¢&vi][Û]'Zãa;ƒu)l (pRi&vi]e'òãa;du)b /pReviıÈ'Zjaòu/ privilegiado (in the very last example, the sequence (-]Û'Z-) /-ıÈ'Z-/ results from what has just been said previously). However, we ﬁnd the following exceptions, where i /’i/, corresponding to an original /'i/, remains /’i/ in derivatives, as in the conditional mood of verbs in -ir: (d[¢]&v¢ƒi'Ri‘m¨S)l (‚i&vi‚i'RiAmus)b /òeveòi'Riamus/ dividirìamos÷ and in superlatives: (&d¢fî'si;]imu)l (&‚ifi'si;]imu)b /òefi'siıimu/ diﬁcìlimo˘ For rare /u/ sequences, the same is true, so we have to resort to the diaphoneme /™/ to be able to account for this –possible– Lusitanian phenomenon: (f˙'tu;Ru, f¢-, f¢-, fu-, f¨-, fu-)l (fu'tu;Ru)b /f™'tuRu/ futuro˘ 7.1.2.8. In Lusitanian pronunciation, /’o/ (not /’oö˘/ (Úö˘)) corresponds to /’u/: (&upÍu'BRão;zu, &ø-)l –actually, [h]o[CV]- can be either (u)l or (ø)l– (&opRo'bRão;zu)b /opRo'bRjozu/ oprobrioso˚ (&munut¨'ni‘)l (&mÚnotÚ'niå)b /monoto'nia/ monotonia˚

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(mÚ”'sAu«)l (mÚ«'sAu«)b /mon'saun/ monção÷ however, in bureaucratic lexical compounding, for -o-˚ we ﬁnd /’ì/: (&mønøsî']a;Bîku)l (&mÚnosi']a;biku)b /mìnìsi'ıabiku/ monossilábico˚ (']uzø fÍ4”'seS)l (']uzo fRA«'ses)b /'ıuzìfRan'ses/ l¨o-francês˘ 7.1.2.9. A diaphonemic use of /È, ì/ regards the Lusitanian possibility to have distinct timbres, (™, ø), before the stressed syllable; as already seen for a˚ this mainly occurs for diachronic contraction or after CC (simpliﬁed or not {in pronunciation or writing}): (vø'se)l (vo'se)b /vì'se/ você (from vossemecê˚ vossa mercê {as in some southern Italian dialects vossìa˚ from vos(tra) signorìa çyour LordshipÇ}), (kÍ™'ƒoR)l (kRe'do˜)b /kRÈ'òoK/ credor˚ (&‘k™'seR)l (&ake'se˜)b /akÈ'seR/ a¢ecer˚ (&‘f™'ti;vu)l (&afe'Ci;vu)b /afÈ'tivu/ afe(c)tivo˚ (f9™k'sAu«)l (f]ek'sAu«)b /fıÈk'saun/ ﬂexão˚ (kø'Ra;ƒu)l (ko'Ra;du)b /kì'Raòu/ corado˚ (møR'ƒo;mu)l (mo˜'d9;mu)b /mìK'òomu/ mordomo˚ (&‘ƒø'ti;vu)l (&ado'Ci;vu)b /aòì'tivu/ ado(p)tivo˚ (øp'sAu«)l (op'sAu«)b /ìp'saun/ opção÷ also: (bo'ãaR)l (bo'ãa˜)b /bì'jaK/ boiar (from /oi/). Besides, this phenomenon arises in compounds and some derivatives, with semantically more distinct elements (as seen above for o as well): (pÍ™'tO;nîku)l (pRe't9;niku)b /pRÈ'tìniku/ pretónicol˚ pretô-b, but also in (more) scholarly words: (º™'tO;Rîk‘)l (˜e'tO;Rikå)b /KÈ'tORika/ retórica˘ ≈nally, note the following Lusitanian minimal pairs: (pÍ¢'ŸaR)l /pRe'gaK/ çto nailÇ˚ (pÍ™'ŸaR)l /pRÈ'gaK/ çto preachÇ both pregar ((pRe'ga˜)b) and (&k¨R‘'sAu«)l /koRa'saun/ çheartÇ, (&køR‘'sAu«)l /kìRa'saun/ çcoloringÇ coração ((&koRa'sAu«)b]˘ Diphthongs 7.1.3.1. As far as grammatical or traditional çdiphthongsÇ are concerned, let us clarify that we consider them biphonemic, and not as unitary phonological entities, since their extreme points generally coincide with the usual Portuguese vocalic elements. Furthermore, we want to specify, right from the start, that true diphthongs are only those formed by two vocoids, /éé/, as /ai/, in ('pai) /'pai/ pai – certainly not sequences of contoid plus vocoid, /0é/, as /ja/, in ('pãa˜)b ('pªaR)l /'pjaK/ piar˘ On the other hand, sequences like /é'é/ are not diphthongs either: (pa'is)b (p‘'iS)l /pa'is/ paìs˚ against ('pais)b ('paiS)l /'pais/ pa¤˘ After conﬁrming this, let us also stress the fact that it is not good to transcribe çtrueÇ diphthongs as if they were sequences of a vowel and a consonant, /é0/, as ç/aj/Ç, since they are not at all comparable with sequences like /as, aı, aK, an/, which are structurally very di‡erent. Least of all, are we allowed to consider sequences of vowel and consonant plus vowel, /é0é/, as çdiphthong + vowelÇ, or çvowel + diphthongÇ, like /aja/, in (ka'ãa˜)b (k‘'ãaR)l /ka'jaK/ caiar˚ ('sa;ãå)b (-‘)l /'saja/ saia˘ 7.1.3.2. ˛erefore, with constant reference to û 7.1-2 (for both accents ¤ Brazilian and Lusitanian), we now show the Portuguese diphthongs, even if in the vocograms only /ei, o™/ appear as (eI, eI, ™I, oU, ÚU, 9U)b (ÉI, ÙI, 3I, ’I÷ oU, 9U, ÚU÷ 4i,

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4u)l. As a matter of fact, their second elements are (I, U), which are not the exact realization of the phonemes /i, u/; for the Lusitanian accent, even (4i, 4u) are placed in the vocogram, because their ﬁrst element is closer, as occurs however for /’aö/ (4ö) as well). ≈rst of all, we list them phonetically and diaphonemically: (eI)b (ÉI, ’ÙI)l /ei/, (Ei, ’™i) /Ei/, (ai) /ai/÷ (ui) /ui/, (oi) /oi/, (Oi, ’øi) /Oi/÷ (iu) /iu/, (eu) /eu/, (Eu, ’™u) /Eu/, (Au) /au/, (oU, o)b (o, oU)l /o™/ ((o) unstressed /ì™/). Here are some actual examples: ('˜eIs)b ('ºÉIS)l /'Keis/ re¤˚ (]eI'ë9i«s)b (]ÙI'S9i”S)l /ıei'Soins/ Leixõπ˚ ('˜Eis)b ('ºEiS)l /'KEis/ ré¤˚ (&˜™i'zi;tus)b (&º™i'zi;tuS)l /'KEi'zitus/ reizitos˚ ('vai) /'vai/ vai÷ ('fui) /'fui/ fui˚ ('sois)b ('soiS)l /'sois/ so¤˚ ('sOis)b ('sOiS)l /'sOis/ só¤˚ (i“RøikA'm™~Ci)b (i“Røik‘'m™nt˙)l /i'ROika'mente/ heroicamente÷ ('viu) /'viu/ viu (and vi-o as well, since the supposed di‡erence between the two is not at all phonic –in neutral pronunciation– but derives exclusively from a wish to keep di‡erent morphological forms separate), ('seu) /'seu/ seu˚ (&ëap™u'zi;Nu)b (&S‘p™u'zi;Nu)l /SapEu'ziNu/ >apeuziˆo÷ (ëa'pEu)b (S‘-)l /Sa'pEu/ >apéu˚ ('mAu) /'mau/ mau˚ ('voU, —vo) /'vo™/ vou÷ Lusitanian pronunciation prefers the reverse order, ('vo, 'voU), for the last one. Instead, the simpliﬁcation of ('eI)b ('ÉI, ’ÙI)l /ei/ changing into ('e) does not belong to neutral pronunciation, although it is quite widespread, mainly in Brazilian (and southern Lusitanian) pronunciation. Of course, there are other actual diphthongs, as the following: (i«'f]uu)b (i”'f9-)l /in'fıuu/ inﬂuo˚ ('mou) /'mou/ moo˚ (']uå)b (-‘)l /'ıua/ lua˚ ('˜iå)b ('ºi‘)l /'Kia/ ria˚ ('boå)b (-‘)l /'boa/ boa÷ including combinations as in the true triphthongs resulting from /i+ei, i+au/: ('vieIs)b ('viÙIS)l /'vieis/ vìeis, ('˜ieIs)b ('ºiÙIS)l /'Kieis/ rìeis, ('˜ieI«)b ('ºi’I«)l /'Kiein/ riem, and ('˜iAu«)b ('ºi4u«)l /'Kiaun/ riam. 7.1.3.3. ˛e diaphonemic transcription has to adequately show the characteristics in unstressed syllables as well, seen that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, the diphthong elements do not undergo reduction. Note (besides reizitos˚ heroicamente˚ >apeuziˆo]\ ('faseIs)b (-ÙIS)l /'faseis/ fáce¤˚ (pai'zi;Nu)b (pai'zi;Nu)l /pAi'ziNu/ paiziˆo˚ (f]ui'des)b (f9ui'ƒeS)l /fıui'òes/ ﬂuidez˚ (oi'ta;vu) /ìi'tavu/ oitavo˚ (miu'di;Nu)b (miu'ƒi;-)l /miu'òiNu/ miudiˆo˚ (&adeu'zi;Nu)b (&‘ƒeu'zi;-)l /aòeu'ziNu/ adeuziˆo˚ (kAu'tE;]å)b (-]‘)l /kAu'tEıa/ cautela÷ in Lusitanian pronunciation, for /ì™/ the monophthong (o) is preferred, without reduction to (u): (˜o'ba˜)b (ºo'BaR)l /Kì™'baK/ roubar˘ ˛e only seeming exception is proclitic ao(s)˚ which is not ç/Au[s]/Ç, but simply /a u[s]/÷ its actual nature is a little hidden by the spelling that uniﬁes the two grammemes, which could even be ça o(s)Ç; on the other hand, it is not *au(s)! ˛is goes for both Lusitanian and Brazilian Portuguese; as a matter of fact, pronunciations like (Au) are excessive and pedantic, against the normal realization (au)b (åu)l. Even in its Lusitanian nasalized form we have (Auö, ’4uö), by coarticulation; or rather, in current Luso-Brazilian pronunciation, we generally ﬁnd (ø) /O/: (au']a;du, ao-, ø-)b (åu']a;ƒu, åo-, ø-)l /au'ıaòu/ ao lado˚ (&auzA'mi;gus, &ao-, &ø-)b (&åuz‘'mi;Ÿ¨S, &åo-, &ø-)l /auza'migus/ aos amigos˘ ˛erefore, it is important to mark /'au, ’Au÷ 'ai, ’Ai/, so as to be mistaken no lon-

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ger and avoid people believing that, in unstressed syllables, in Lusitanian pronunciation they can be reduced to ç/åu, åi/Ç (as some texts say). Let us brieﬂy observe (and without showing it in vocograms {although, of course, this is unavoidable in a book entirely dedicated to the pronunciation of Portuguese}), that when /E, O/ are half-lengthened in unchecked syllables (or, for emphasis, even in checked syllables), besides as being realized as normal monophthongs, (E;, O;), they can also be realized as doubling, or as very narrow diphthongs – more frequently so in Brazilian pronunciation. In comparison with the articulations shown in û 7.1-2, these may start from slightly raised points and reach the indicated ones, (EE§, OO§), or else they may start from those and lower themselves a little, crossing the border of the phone below (in the vocogram), ((Eπ°, OØ°)) – including intermediate shifts (however, again of the opening type, although limited), that is ((Ep, OQ)). 7.1.3.4. Moving on to the nasalized versions, instead, we ﬁnd (Aiö)b ('Aiö, ’4iö)l /aiö/, (Auö)b ('Auö, ’4uö)l /auö/: ('mAi«)b ('mAi«)l /'main/ mãe˚ (&mAi«'zi;Nå)b (&mAi«'zi;N‘)l /'main'ziNa/ mãeziˆa˚ (&fa]a'RAu«)b (&f‘]‘'RAu«)l /faıa'Raun/ falarão˚ (fa']a;RAu«)b (f‘']a;R4u«)l /fa'ıaRaun/ falaram˘ (©th regard to the vocalic timbres in nasalized diphthongs, note that –in compounds– (&) as a realization of /'/, followed by another stress, corresponds to /'/, while a rhythmic (&) / / corresponds to /’/.) As already seen (§ 7.1.1.3), the diphthong /aunò/ opposes /anò/: ('O˜fAu«)b ('OÍf4u«)l /'OKfaun/ órfão˚ ('O˜fA«)b ('OÍf4«)l /'OKfan/ órfã˘ It is to be noted that, in Lusitanian pronunciation as well, there is a (not slight) di‡erence between /aiö/ and /eiö/; and it is more remarkable in unstressed syllables (even if /aiö/ is never completely unstressed, since it has a low occurrence in the Portuguese vocabulary, and always in lexemes, not in grammemes): ('kAi«s)b ('kAi”S)l /'kains/ cãπ˚ (&mAi«'zi;Nå)b (&mAi«'zi;N‘)l /'main'ziNa/ mãeziˆa˚ ('s™I«)b ('s3I«)l /'sein/ sem˚ (seI«'vi˜)b (s’I«'viR)l /sein'viK/ sem vir˘ In its stressed Lusitanian form, the di‡erence between /aiö/ and /eiö/ is not only in the ﬁrst elements, ¤ (A) (higher-low central) and (3) (lower-mid front-central) respectively, but also in the second (front) ones: (i) (high) and (I) (lower-high). Instead, for /’eiö/ and /'eiö/, only the ﬁrst (front-central) elements are di‡erent, ¤ (’’) (higher-mid) and ('3) (lower-mid); in Brazilian pronunciation, the latter is (’e) or ('™), which have the same height, but are front, instead of front-central, while for the ﬁrst element of Brazilian /aiö/ we ﬁnd (A) (higher-low, with the possible variant (≈)), against Lusitanian (A, ’4) (lower-mid when unstressed), which are both central (but (≈) is back-central). 7.1.3.5. ˛e other nasalizable diphthongs (besides ('Aiö) /aiö/, ('™Iö, ’eIö)b ('3Iö, ’’Iö)l /—eiö/) are\ ('uiö) /'uiö/, ('9iö) /'oiö/, ('9Uö, ’ÚUö) /—ouö/: ('v™I«s)b ('v3I”S)l /'veins/ vens˚ ('vãa;òeI«s)b ('vãa;Z’I”S)l /'vjaZeins/ viagens˚ ('muintu)b ('muintu)l /'muintu/ muito (just one example, varying with ('mäi-)), (]i's9i«s)b (-”S)l /ıi'soins/ liçõπ˚ ('s9U«) /'soun/ som˚ (&kÚU˙ka']o˜)b (-~k‘']oR)l /kounka'ıoK/ com calor˘ We have already seen marginal cases as: (ab'd9;meI«)b (‘B'ƒO;m’I«, ±-™n)l /ab'òìmÈe2/ abdômenb˚ -ómenl˚ ('ipsi]ÚU«)b (-î]ÚU«, ±-øn)l /'ipsiıì™2/ ìpsilon˘

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˛e following forms, with true triphthongs and quadriphthongs, are a bit çoddÇ: ('p9ieI«, 'p9i«)b ('p9i’I«, 'p9i«)l /'poi[ei]n/ põem˚ ('v™IeI«, 'v™eI«, 'v™I«)b ('v3I’I«, 'v3’I«, 'v3I«)l /'vei[ei]n/ vêm˚ ('veIeI«, 'veeI«, 'v™I«)b ('veI’I«, 've’I«÷ 'v3I«)l /'v[ei]ein/ vêem˘ Of course, the other çtriphthongsÇ of grammars and teaching tradition are simply sequences of the two types /0éé, é0é/ (even + /ö/), as for instance: ('fãeIs)b ('fªÉIS)l /'fjeis/ ﬁe¤˚ (']ãais)b (']ãaiS)l /'ıjais/ lea¤˚ ('pjeIRå)b ('pˆÉIR‘)l /'pweiRa/ poeira˚ ('sa;ãu) /'saju/ saio˚ ('me;ãå)b ('mÉ;ã‘)l /'meja/ meia÷ (']qAu«)b (']qAu«)l /'ıjaun/ leão˚ ('pq9i«s)b ('p'9i”S)l /'pjoins/ peõπ˘ Consonants 7.2.0. û 7.3 is the table of the Luso-Brazilian consonants, which we will examine systematically, according to manners of articulation. Instead, û 1.9-15 give the orograms, equally grouped by manners, of all the contoids given in this book, even as secondary, occasional, or regional variants, for the 12 languages dealt with.

uvular

velar rounded

velar

provelar

palatal

postalveo-palatal protruded

postalveo-palatal

velarized alveolar velarized alveolar rounded

alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 7.3. Table of Portuguese consonants.

(~) N («) (˙) (n) n ö m F pb (© á)b t d kg (C ‚)b Ô ƒ f v (Ÿ)l (º)l _ s z (ë ò)b Sl Zl /w/(j) (˜)b ß (B)l (ƒ)l /j/(ã) R /K/ ó ‹ (])|ı (∞)b L /b/ (b, Bl), /t, d/ (t, Cb÷ d, ‚b, ƒl), /k, g/ (k, ©b÷ g, áb, Ÿl), /K/ (˜b, ºl)

Nasals 7.2.1.1. Portuguese has three nasal phonemes: (m, n, N) /m, n, N/: ('kA;mås)b ('kå;m‘S)l /'kamas/ camø˚ ('kA;nås)b ('kå;n‘S)l /'kanas/ canø˚ ('kA;Nås)b ('kå;N‘S)l /'kaNas/ caˆø˘ In addition, there are some taxophones for /ö0, ö˘, öò/, and it is useful to linger over them, since too many descriptions keep on ignoring them completely or in part. As a matter of fact, the only result of transcriptions like ç('Ki, 'ıesu, 'ıA, 'bRAku, 'sÚ, 'us/'uS)Ç is to make people think that Portuguese sounds almost like French –which is decidedly misleading– since they persist in groundless phonological characteristics.

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As we have already said, Portuguese vowel nasalization is an important phonetic aspect; it is stronger in the Brazilian accent (so much so that it even occurs in unchecked syllables followed by NV] than in the Lusitanian accent, which presents nasalization only in checked syllables in N˚ where it is very slight and sometimes very hard to perceive (although instruments may nevertheless indicate it, as happens in languages for which nobody would ever imagine to mark it, being automatic). 7.2.1.2. ˛erefore, transcriptions like those just mentioned are not trustworthy, unless they presume that foreigners will inevitably add a nasal consonant (although it is hard to believe), producing something similar to what is expected (excluding northern French people, who would then have other problems indeed). On the other hand, this would be a very shoddy way of teaching phonetics. ˛erefore, taxophones are absolutely necessary for exact transcriptions of Portuguese (and for satisfying phonic reproductions), including devoiced variants especially for the Lusitanian accent (in front of voiceless C]\ (m) + /p, b/: ('t™mpu)b ('t™≈pu)l /'tempu/ tempo˚ ('s9mbRå)b ('s9mbR‘)l /'sombRa/ sombra÷ (n) + /t, d/ (dental, which could be transcribed with ((˙)), but the normal symbol is quite su‚cient) and (~) (for Brazilian Portuguese, before (C, ‚) + (i, ã), /t, d/ + /i, e, j/): ('A~Cis)b ('Ant?S)l /'antes/ antπ˚ ('v™ndå)b ('v™nd‘)l /'venda/ venda˚ ('9~‚i)b ('9nd¢)l /'onde/ onde÷ (˙) + /k, g/: ('nu˙kå)b ('nu~k‘)l /'nunka/ nunca˚ (']i˙gjå)b (']i˙gj‘)l /'ıingwa/ lìn%a˘ 7.2.1.3. Lastly, the çsemi-provelarÇ taxophone is very important; it occurs before any other consonant (among the phonotactically permissible ones, from which /R/ is excluded). ˛ey are realized as constrictives˚ (f, v÷ s, z÷ ëb, Sl, òb, Zl÷ º): (i«'fi«÷ e«-)b (-”'f-)l /in'fin÷ en-/ enﬁm˚ ('d™«su)b ('d™”su)l /'densu/ denso˚ ('kAi«s)b ('kAi”S)l /'kains/ cãπ˚ ('9«˜å)b ('9«º‘)l /'onKa/ honra (possibly even before the traditional or regional –alveolar– trill realization of /K/: ('9«r[:]å)b ('9«r[:]‘)l]÷ approximants˚ (ã÷ j÷ ˜): (']A« ãA∞gu'dAu«)b (']A« ãAıŸu'ƒAu«)l /'ıan iAıgu'òaun/ lã e algodão˚ (&seI«jA'mi;gu)b (&s’I«j‘'mi;Ÿu)l /sein-ua'migu/ sem o amigo (“ Ô honra]÷ and laterals˚ (]): (u«']a;du)b (-ƒu)l /un'ıaòu/ um lado÷ it is the same before a pause as well\ ('si«) /'sin/ sim˚ ('nAu«) /'naun/ não˘ Instead, for /[é]éöò/ followed by N or V(N)˚ the actual realization is (–òö, –òé, –ò–), where («ò) is dropped, but there is no vowel elision (Ô § 7.3.2.2, Taxophonics]˘ Stops 7.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs, already seen in various examples, (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, with dental (t, d) which, in Brazilian pronunciation, becomes stop-strictives ((C, ‚), seen previously), before /i, e, j/: ('p9mbå)b (-‘)l /'pomba/ pomba˚ ('kA˙gå)b ('kA˙g‘)l /'kanga/ canga˚ ('t™ndå)b (-‘)l /'tenda/ tenda˚ ('Ci;midu)b ('ti;miƒu)l /'timiòu/ tìmido˚ (sAu'da;‚i)b (sAu'ƒa;ƒ¢)l /sAu'òaòe/ saudade˚ ('Cãa;tRu)b ('tªa;tÍu)l /'tjatRu/ teatro˘ Before front V or /j/, /k, g/ are realized as pre-

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velar, ((´, Ò÷ Úl)), by coarticulation, but it is not necessary to use these symbols, except for Brazilian pronunciation before /i, e, j/, where we ﬁnd (©, á): ('©intu)b ('kintu)l /'kintu/ ¢into˚ ('tO;©i)b ('tO;k˙)l /'tOke/ to¢e˚ (iN'©ãE;tu)b (i~'kªE;tu)l /in'kjEtu/ in¢ieto˚ ('áiå)b ('gi‘)l /'gia/ %ia˘ ˛e most interesting Lusitanian peculiarity (which is more complicated for foreigners, but also for Brazilans who might try to speak like Lusitanians) is constituted by voiced stops, /b, d, g/, which are realized as actual stops, (b, d, g), only after pauses, after N (as can be seen in previous examples), and for /ıd/ (ıd), with an apical contact (since both of them are homorganic articulations), or for emphasis or precision: ('b9U«) /'boun/ bom˚ ('da) /'òa/ dá˚ ('ga;tu)l (-u)b /'gatu/ gato˚ ('kAıdu)l (-∞-)b /'kaıdu/ caldo÷ (p¢'ƒi;ƒu)l (pe'‚i;du)b /pe'òiòu/ pedido÷ with emphasis: (p¢"di:du)l… 7.2.2.2. In all other cases, continuous realizations occur, (B, ƒ, Ÿ): two approximants and a constrictive respectively. ˛e diaphonemic transcription shows /òb, òò, òg/, just to underline the di‡erence and to make their distribution adequately understood (avoiding forced inferences, which risk strengthening wrong concepts). Of course, in Lusitanian Portuguese, the (word-initial) notation /b, ò, g/ is çpotentialÇ, since it corresponds to (b, d, g) or (B, ƒ, Ÿ) according to actual contexts, not in absolute terms. In addition, we must admit that in the case of /ıb, ıg/, and of /Rb, Rò, Rg/, and of (more) scholarly consonant clusters as well, stop realizations are not rare, (ıb, ıg÷ Rb, Rd, Rg), even without emphasis or desire for precision. Some examples: ('a;B‘)l ('a;bå)b /'aba/ aba˚ (u'BRi~ku)l (u'bRi˙ku)b /u'bRinku/ o brinco˚ (]iZ'Bo‘, ]ÛZ-)l (]iz'boå)b /ıia'boa/ L¤boa˚ ('AıBu«, 'Aıb-)l ('A∞bu«)b /'aıbun/ álbum˚ (‘R'Bi;tÍªu, ‘R'b-)l (a˜'bi;tRãu)b /aK'bitRju/ arbìtrio˚ (&‘Bƒi'kaR, &‘bd-)l (&ab‚i'ka˜)b /abòi'kaK/ abdicar˚ (&um‘ƒ¢'ƒa;ƒ‘)l (&umade'da;då)b /umaòe'òaòa/ uma dedada˚ (p‘'ƒRAu«)l (pa'dRAu«)b /pa'òRaun/ padrão˚ ('aRƒju, 'aRd-)l ('a˜dju)b /'aKòwu/ árduo˚ (dÛZ'ƒ3I«)l (dez'd™I«)b /òea'òein/ dπdém˘ More: (™'Ÿa;Ÿu)l (™'ga;gu)b /E'gagu/ é gago˚ (Aı'ŸOS, Aı'g-)l (A∞'gOs)b /Aı'gOs/ algoz˚ ('veZŸu)l (-zgu)b /'veagu/ vπgo˚ (‘'ŸRa;s‘)l (a'gRa;så)b /a'gRasa/ a graça˚ (&‘RŸ‘'ma;s‘, &‘Rg-)l (&a˜gA'ma;så)b /aKga'masa/ argamøsa˘ 7.2.2.3. Besides, in Brazilian (even neutral) pronunciation, /e/ (i÷ I) is typically added in order to separate word-ﬁnal stops, or stops + C (di‡erent from /R, ı/): (op'ta˜, &opi'ta˜, &opî-)b (øp'taR)l /ìp'taK/ optar˚ (&advo'ga;du, &a‚iv-)b (&‘ƒvu'Ÿa;ƒu)l /aòvo'gaòu/ advogado˚ ('˜itmu, '˜i;Cimu)b ('ºit≈u)l /'Kitmu/ ritmo˚ (p'neus, pi'-)b (p'neuS)l /p'neus/ pne¨˘ Other examples: ('kaƒmãu, -dm-)l ('kadmãu, -‚imãu)b /'kaòmju/ cádmio˚ (‘'miŸƒ‘]‘, -gd-)l (A'migda]å÷ -áid-)b /a'migòaıa/ amìgdala˚ ('diŸnu, -gnu)l ('‚ignu, -áinu)b /'òignu/ digno˚ ('dOŸm‘, -gm‘)l ('dOgmå÷ -áimå)b /'òOgma/ dogma˚ (iŸ'ze;m‘, ig-)l (ig'z™;må, &iái-)b /ig'zema/ eczema˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, there are some similar cases: (ob'òE;tu, &obi-)b (øB'ZE;tu÷ &øBÛ'Z-)l /ob'ZEtu/ obje(c)to˚ (bi']ak, -']a;©i, -©î)b (bi']ak÷ -k˙)l /bi'ıak/ Bilac. Lastly, among complicated consonant clusters for Brazilians, we also ﬁnd cases like: ('aftå, 'afitå, -fîtå)b ('aft‘)l /'afta/ afta˚ but ('k]a;Ru, ©i']-)b ('k9a;Ru)l /'kıaRu/ claro as well (due to di‡erences in the primary place of articulation).

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Constrictives 7.2.3.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of constrictive phonemes, plus a couple of diaphonemes (/s, a/, which we will see presently): (f, v÷ s, z÷ ëb, Sl, òb, Zl) /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z/: ('fa;su)b (-su)l /'fasu/ faço˚ ('po;vu) /'povu/ povo˚ ('su∞)b (-ı)l /'suı/ sul˚ (te«'sAu«)b (-”-)l /ten'saun/ tensão˚ ('vA∞så)b (-Ós‘)l /'vaısa/ valsa˚ ('pE˜så)b ('pEÍs‘)l /'pERsa/ persa˚ (pa'se;ãu)b (p‘'sÉ;ãu)l /pa'seju/ pøseio˚ ('va;zu) /'vazu/ vøo˚ (a'za˜)b (‘'zaR)l /a'zaK/ azar˚ (u'zi~‚ãus)b (u'zindã¨S)l /u'zindjus/ os ìndios˚ (ëe'Res)b (SÛ'ReS)l /Se'Res/ xerez˚ ('ëE˜ëis)b ('SERS?S)l /'SEKSes/ Xerxπ˚ ('o;òi)b ('o;ZÛ)l /'oZe/ hoje˘ In neutral Brazilian, the diaphonemes /s, a/ behave as /s, z/, with distribution: /s|, s[ò]=, z[ò]Ê, zòé/, while, in neutral Lusitanian, they correspond to /S|, S[ò]=, Z[ò]Ê, zòé/ (as well as in the çCariocaÇ accent, of Rio de Janeiro, but of course realized as (ë|, ë[ò]=, ò[ò]Ê, zòé)): ('tRas)b ('tÍaS)l /'tRas/ trás˚ (us'pais)b (uS'paiS)l /us'pais/ os pa¤˚ (i'sE∞su)b (?S'sEÓsu)l /is'sEısu/ excelso˚ (bas'ta˜)b (b‘S'taR)l /bas'taK/ bøtar˚ (pes'ka;då)b (p?S'ka;ƒ‘)l /pes'kaòa/ pπcada˚ (az'mAi«s)b (‘Z'mAi”S)l /aa'mains/ ø mãπ˚ ('azmå)b ('aZm‘)l /'aama/ øma˚ (az']A«s)b (‘Z']A”S)l /aa'ıans/ ø lãs (further examples occur in other parts of this chapter). Approximants 7.2.4.1. ˛ere are two approximants, (ã, j) /j, w/ (semi-palatal, and semi-velar rounded), corresponding to prevocalic unstressed >i˚ e≥ and >u˚ o≥: ('mão;]u) /'mjoıu/ miolo˚ ('g]O;Rãå)b (-‘)l /'gıORja/ glória˚ ('pq9;nãå)b ('pªO;nã‘)l /'pjìnja/ peôniab˚ peó-l˚ ('pqAu«)b ('p'Au«)l /'pjaun/ peão˚ (i'dE;ãå)b /i'òEja/ idéia (i'ƒÉ;ã‘)l /i'òeja/ ideia˚ (ko'˜e;ãu)b (k¨'ºÉ;ãu)l /ko'Keju/ correio˚ (kÚm'bO;ãu) /kom'bOju/ comboio˚ (sAm'pa;ãu)b (sA≈-)l /sam'paju/ Sampaio÷ ('a;gjå)b ('a;Ÿj‘)l /'agwa/ á%a˚ ('pjE;tå)b ('pˆE;t‘)l /'pwEta/ poeta˚ ('va;kju)b (-kˆu)l /'vakwu/ vácuo˚ (a˜'gji˜)b (‘R'ŸjiR, ‘R'g-)l /aK'gwiK/ ar$irb˚ -%irl˚ ('käimbRå)b ('kîimbR‘)l /'kwimbRa/ Coimbra˘ If pronunciation is slowed down, either for clarity or emphasis, (ã, j) /j, w/ may change (through (j, w)) to (i, u) (and to (e, o) as well, according to spelling): ('g]O;Riå)b (-i‘)l, (pi'9;niå, pe-)b (pi'O;ni‘, pe-)l˚ (pi'Au«, pe-), (i'dE;iå)b (i'ƒÉ;i‘)l, (ko'˜e;Iu)b (k¨'ºÉ;Iu)l, (kÚm'bO;iu), (sAm'pa;iu)b (sA≈-)l÷ ('a;guå)b ('a;Ÿu‘)l, (pu'E;tå, po-)b (-‘), ('va;kuu, -¨u), (&a˜gu'i˜)b (&‘RŸu'iR, -g-), (ku'im-, ko-). Several examples show that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, by assimilation, we have devoicing after voiceless C˚ and nasalization before nasalized V˚ (ª, ˆ÷ ', î÷ q, ä); in Brazilian pronunciation, we generally ﬁnd only nasalization, (q, ä). Trills 7.2.5.1. Under this manner of articulation, in addition to the alveolar tap, (R) /R/, we will treat the theoretical uvular trill, /K/, and the diaphoneme /K/ as well. For the former, there is not much to say, except that it has a single alveolar contact, in fact it may even become an alveolar approximant (¸); in Luso-Brazilian pro-

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nunciation, it occurs between V (in the same word), where it distinctively opposes /K/ and after tautosyllabic C\ ('ka;Ru) /'kaRu/ caro (Ô ('ka;˜u)b (-ºu)l /'kaKu/ carro]˚ ('bRa;su)b (-su)l /'bRasu/ braço˚ ('fRiu)b ('fÍ-)l /'fRiu/ frio˘ Besides (as a realization of /K/) (R) occurs, in Brazilian pronunciation, in word-ﬁnal position too, when followed by a subsequent word-initial V˚ with resyllabiﬁcation and behavior as if in word-internal position (¤ /éKòé/=/é˘Ré/), while in Lusitanian pronunciation it also occurs in ﬁnal position, even before a pause or a C\ (']e 'RA∞gu)b (']e 'RAıŸu, -gu)l /'ıeK 'aıgu/ ler algo˚ (']e˜ 'poUku, 'po-)b (']eÍ 'poku, 'poU-)l /'ıeK 'po™ku/ ler pouco˚ (nAu«']e˜)b (n4u«']eR)l /naun'ıeK/ não ler˘ 7.2.5.2. ˛e phoneme /K/ occurs in word-initial position, even after C or V˚ and word-internally after /é÷ n, ı, s/ (¤ heterosyllabic C]÷ in neutral Brazilian, it is realized as a voiceless uvular approximant (˜), independently from context, with the following variants, again independent from neighboring phones, shown in order of frequency: voiced uvular constrictive (º), or voiced uvular trill (K), even devoiced (ü, »). In addition, there are two further variants, which are less neutral: voiceless uvular constrictive trill (º) and, at last, voiced alveolar trill (r:), which after /é[ò]/ may become (Rr:): ([éR]r:). In Lusitanian pronunciation, this phoneme is (º), with the following variants (again in order of frequency): (˜, K, », ü, Ü) (where (˜) is the voiced counterpart of (º)), in addition to ([éR]r:), which a little more than a century ago was the only neutral pronunciation (while it is in the minority today, either provincial or rural). Some examples: ('˜uå)b ('ºu‘)l /'Kua/ rua˚ (az'˜uås)b (‘Z'ºu‘S)l /aa'Kuas/ ø ruø˚ (u«'˜a;tu)b (u«'ºa;tu)l /un'Katu/ um rato˚ ('tE;˜å)b ('tE;º‘)l /'tEKa/ terra˚ ('mE∞˜u)b ('mEıºu)l /'mEıKu/ melro˚ ('t™«˜u)b ('t™«ºu)l /'tenKu/ tenro˘ Speakers who have (r[:]) /K/ may also have /sòK, aòK/ (Rr[:]), and (zz) as well: (‘R'r[:]u‘S, ‘z'zu‘S)l ø ruø; assimilation or dropping of /s, a/ is frequent with neutral /K/ too: (a[˜]'˜uås)b (‘[º]'ºu‘S)l. 7.2.5.3. ˛e diaphoneme /K/ also occurs in word-internal syllable-ﬁnal position and corresponds to /K/, in Brazilian pronunciation, but to /R/, in Lusitanian pronunciation (where it can be realized as (r) before /m, n, ı/); also in the Brazilian accent /K/ can have the variant (R), which is acceptable (or even (¸), which however is not neutral): (']a˜gu÷ ']aR-)b (']aRŸu÷ -gu)l /'ıaKgu/ largo˚ ('pO˜tå÷ 'pOR-)b ('pOÍt‘)l /'pOKta/ porta˚ ('a˜må÷ 'aR-)b ('aRm‘÷ 'ar-)l /'aKma/ arma˚ ('ka˜ni÷ 'kaR-)b ('kaRn¢÷ 'kar-)l /'kaKne/ carne˚ ('ka˜]¨s÷ -R]-)b ('kaR]uS÷ -r]-)l /'kaKıus/ Carlos˘ In current –rather uneducated– Brazilian Portuguese, /Kò/ (˜) may drop (possibly lengthening a little the preceding vocoid), above all in inﬁnitives; instead, in Lusitanian Portuguese, /Kò/ is /R/, often devoiced, (Í, §), or followed by (¢) (more or less short — devoiced): (fa'ze˜÷ -e;÷ -e)b (f‘'zeR, -Í, -§, -R¢, -R¢)l /fa'zeK/ fazer˚ ('ma˜)b ('maR, -Í, -§, -R¢, -R¢)l /'maK/ mar˘ Several examples show that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, we have (Í) in contact with voiceless C˘

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Laterals 7.2.6.1. ˛ere are two lateral phonemes, in both accents, /ı, L/. For the former we prefer the symbol /ı/, to a more generic /l/, since even before V it is realized as a semi-velarized alveolar, (]) (or (ı) as well, ¤ completely velarized alveolar, even if it can also be (l), which used to be the traditional neutral Lusitanian pronunciation, but only optional nowadays). After V˚ before a pause or a C˚ in the Brazilian accent, velarized alveolar rounded (∞) occurs; it has a frequent vocalized variant, (u) –which, however, is hardly neutral– often mistaken for (∞). In the Lusitanian accent, we have (ı) (with the possible uvularized variant, (l)): (']eICi)b (']ÉIt˙)l /'ıeite/ leite˚ ('k]a;Ru)b ('k9a;-)l /'kıaRu/ claro˚ (a'zu ]is'ku;Ru)b (‘'zu ]ZS'ku;Ru)l /a'zuı is'kuRu/ azul πcuro˚ ('sA∞tu÷ 'sAutu)b ('sAÓtu)l /'saıtu/ salto˚ (òe'RA∞÷ -Au)b (ZÛ'RAı)l /Ze'Raı/ geral˚ ('ta;Lu) /'taLu/ taºo˘ ‹ile in Brazilian pronunciation, as already said, /ıò, ı0/ may become (u); in Lusitanian pronunciation, /ıò/ may be followed by a more or less short — devoiced (¢) in contact with voiceless C˘ Structures 7.3.0. ˛e interesting subjects, for this part, are: metaphony, words in connected speech, stress and intonation. Taxophonics 7.3.1.1. In the Portuguese vowel system, there is an important phenomenon to consider: vowel adjustment (or çmetaphonyÇ), which concerns the timbre of stressed vowels according to the vowels occurring in the endings. It is a phenomenon of diachronic origin, going back to the archaic phase of Portuguese, under the inﬂuence of Latin endings. ˛e native speakers, either Brazilian or Lusitanian, use it automatically and coherently, even if it operates in an incomplete and sectorial way, further complicated by a number of exceptions. For foreigners, it is one of the major obstacles to achieving a good Portuguese pronunciation; actually, it would be of fundamental importance to be able to rely on a pronouncing dictionary, with diaphonemic transcriptions (in order to deal with both accents simultaneously), considering metaphony as well. 7.3.1.2. Simplifying our exposition a little, we may say that metaphony operates in partially di‡erent ways with verbs and non-verbs (¤ nouns˚ adjectives and some pronouns)˘ Furthermore, a distinction is to be made between e and o˘ For non-verbs with stressed e˚ the endings -o˚ os /-u, -us/ may cause the closing of timbres: (ka'pe;]u[s])b (k‘'pe;]u, -¨S)l /ka'peıu[s]/ capelo(s)˚ but (ka'pE;]å[s])b (k‘'pE;]‘[S])l /ka'pEıa[s]/ capela(s)˘

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However, not all feminine forms have /E/; actually, very often it is not so: ('ze;bRå)b (-BR‘)l /'zebRa/ zebra˚ ('se;då)b (-ƒ‘)l /'seòa/ seda÷ on the other hand, not all masculine forms have /e/ either, so we ﬁnd: ('bE;]u) /'bEıu/ belo˚ compared to ('ne;gRu)b (-Ÿ-)l /'negRu/ negro (plural and feminine as well). 7.3.1.3. For nouns with stressed o˚ only -o /-u/ (m. sg.) may cause closing: ('po˜ku)b ('poÍku)l /'poKku/ porco˚ while we have ('pO˜kus)b ('pOÍkuS)l /'pOKkus/ porcos and ('pO˜kå[s])b ('pOÍk‘[S])l /'pOKka[s]/ porca(s) as well; besides: ('no;vu) /'novu/ novo˚ but ('nO;vus)b (-¨S)l /'nOvus/ novos and ('nO;vå[s])b (-‘[S])l /'nOva[s]/ nova(s)˚ (fo˜'mo;zu)b (f¨R-)l /foK'mozu/ formoso˚ but (fo˜'mO;zus)b (f¨R-, -¨S)l /foK'mOzus/ formosos and (fo˜'mO;zå[s])b (f¨R-, -‘[S])l /foK'mOza[s]/ formosa(s)÷ however, we ﬁnd: (is'po;zu[s])b (?S-, -u, -¨S)l /es'pozu[s]/ πposo(s) and (is'po;zå[s])b (?S-, -‘[S])l /es'poza[s]/ πposa(s)˚ but (is'pO;zus)b (?S-, -¨S)l /es'pOzus/ πposos for the çcoupleÇ. Nevertheless, we also ﬁnd several cases with no variation, such as: (a'do;bu[s])b (‘'ƒo;Bu, -¨S)l /a'òobu[s]/ adobo(s)˚ ('go˜du[s], -å[s])b (-Rƒu[S], -‘[S])l /'goKòu[s], -a[s]/ gordo(s)˚ -a(s)˘ Of course, there are cases with /O/ as well: ('mO;du[s])b ('mO;ƒu, -¨S)l /'mOòu[s]/ modo(s)˚ ('fO;ku[s])b (-ku[S])l /'fOku[s]/ foco(s)÷ and even feminine forms with /o/: ('go;tå[s])b (-‘[S])l /'gota[s]/ gota(s)˚ ('fo˜så[s])b ('foÍs‘[S])l /'foKsa[s]/ força(s)˘ 7.3.1.4. For verbs˚ the endings which cause closing are -o˚ -a˚ -ø˚ -am /-u, -a, -as, -aun/ (for second-conjugation forms with stress on the stem): ('de;vu, 'mo;vu {-å, -ås, -Au«})b ({-‘, -‘S, -4u«})l /'òevu, 'movu {-a, -as, -aun}/ devo˚ movo… In checked syllables in N˚ the e‡ect is neutralized: ('v™ndu, 'v™~‚i)b ('v™ndu, 'v™nd¢)l /'vendo, 'vende/ vendo˚ vende÷ however, in unchecked syllables, Lusitanian pronunciation maintain the di‡erence (contrary to Brazilian pronunciation due to nasalization): ('t™;mu, 't™;mi)b ('te;mu, 'tE;m¢)l /'temu, 'tÈme/ temo˚ teme˚ ('k9;mu, 'k9;mi)b ('ko;mu, 'kO;m¢)l /'komu, 'kìme/ como˚ come˘ For the same reason, nouns behave in the same way: ('s™;não˜)b ('sE;nãøR)l /'sÈnjìK/ sênior/sénior˚ ('k9;miku)b ('kO;mîku)l /'kìmiku/ cômico/cómico (with far from unquestionable consequences on spelling, which is still overestimated). Lastly, we have the pronouns ('e;]i[s], 'E;]å[s])b (-¢, -¢S, -‘[S])l /'eıe[s], 'Eıa[s]/ ele(s) ela(s)˚ ('esCi[s], 'Estå[s])b ('eSt˙, -?S, 'ESt‘[S])l /'este[s], 'Esta[s]/ πte(s)˚ πta(s) and their derivatives. For other indications, and exceptions, good grammars answer the purpose quite exhaustively (especially if they are less recent). 7.3.1.5. In colloquial Brazilian Portuguese (in common –not lofty– words), another type of vowel adjustment is frequent; it is a synchronic phenomenon which may cause pre-stressed e˚ o to be realized as /i, u/ (i, u), often (I, U) (Ô û 7.1), when the next stressed vowel is /i, u/: (me'ni;nu, mi-, mI-)b (m¢'ni;nu)l /me'ninu/ menino˚ (&a]e'gRiå, &a]i-, &a]I-)b (&‘]¢'ŸRi‘)l /aıe'gRia/ alegria˚ (so'˜i;zu, su-, sU-)b (s¨'ºi;zu)l /su'Kizu/ sorr¤o˚ (ve']u;du, vi-, vI-)b (v¢']u;ƒu)l /ve'ıuòu/ veludo˘ However, the same vowels may be realized as (™, ø) when the stress is on opener V\ (˜e']O;òãu, ˜™-)b (º¢']O;Zãu)l /Ke'ıOZju/ relógio˚ (ko'˜E;tu, kø-)b (k¨'ºE;tu)l /ko'KEtu/ correto/correcto˘ A systematic use of /e, o/ may give the impression of meticulous attention (or,

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perhaps, formality); on the other hand, a methodical use of (i/I÷ u/U÷ ™, ø) would certainly produce something çexcessiveÇ, and strange or foreign, since lofty or rare words must remain unchanged. Furthermore, we have for instance: foºiˆa /fo'LiNa/ (fu'Li;Nå)b (f¨'Li;N‘)l çcalendarÇ, but (fo'Li;Nå)b (f¨'Li;N‘)l çsmall leafÇ, which is felt as a derivative, contrary to the other. Words in connected speech 7.3.2.1. Clusters such as /éòé/ (where the ﬁrst V is word-ﬁnal {even in unstressed monosyllables: me˚ te˚ se˚ ºe˚ ¢e˚ e˚ de˚ o˚ do, no} + initial V] produce some simpliﬁcations within intonation groups, not only in rhythm groups. Generally, /e, i/ and /u/ are realized as /j, w/, respectively, or are dropped: (en'tRe;]is)b (en'tÍe;]¢S)l /entRe'eıes/ entre elπ˚ ('da;gjå, '‚ãa;-)b ('da;Ÿj‘)l /òe'agwa/ de á%a˚ ('ãoUtRå 'koizå, 'ão;-)b ('ão;tÍ‘ 'koiz‘, 'ãoU-)l /i'o™tRa 'koiza/ e outra co¤a˚ (si˙'k]i;nå)b (sí~'k9i;n‘)l /sein'kıina/ se inclina˘ Further examples: ('to; d[j]esCi't™mpu)b ('to; ƒ[j]eSt˙'t™≈pu)l /'toòu este'tempu/ todo πte tempo˚ (sãa'vi;Ris)b (sª‘'vi;RZS)l /sia'viRes/ se a virπ˚ (&ist[j]™u«'˜oUbu, -'˜o;-)b (?St[ˆ]™u«'ºo;Bu, -oU-)l /estuEun'Ko™bu/ ¤to é um roubo˚ (äA'mi; gjita']ãA;nu)b (j‘'mi; Ÿjît‘']ãå;nu)l /ua'migu ita'ıjanu/ o amigo italiano˘ More: (nAum'po; '‚[ã]i˜)b (n4u≈'po; 'ƒ[ã]iR)l /naumpoòe'iK/ não pôde ir˚ (©ã™'muin t[j]a']E;gRi)b (kª™'muin t[ˆ]‘']E;ŸR¢)l /keE'muintu a'ıEgRe/ ¢e é muito alegre˚ ('‚i;si L[ã]a'e;]i)b ('di;sZ L[ã]‘'e;][¢])l /'òiseLe a'eıe/ d¤se-ºe a ele˚ ('deIë[is] 'ta˜)b ('dÉIS[?S] 'taR)l /'òeiSe is'taK/ deixe πtar˚ ('òu; R[ã]i'd9;nãu)b ('Zu; R[ã]i'ƒO;nãu)l /'ZuRi i'òìnju/ jùri idôneo/idóneo˘ Besides: ('be;b[j]u 'to;du)b ('be;B[j]¨ 'to;ƒu)l /'bebuu 'toòu/ bebo-o todo˚ ('t[j]u;zåz 'muin 't[j]i;su)b ('t[ˆ]u;z‘Z 'muin 't[ˆ]i;su)l /tu'uzas 'muintu 'isu/ tu ¨ø muito ¤so˚ ('gRA~ ‚ão'˜o˜, -n do-)b ('gRAn d[ã]ø'ºoR)l /'gRande o'KoK/ grande horror˚ (äAn't9;nãu)b (j4n'tO;nãu, ä4n-)l /uan'tìnju/ o Antônio/António˘ 7.3.2.2. ‹en the V in contact are two /a/, in Lusitanian pronunciation we have /aa/ = (’a) ç/A/Ç (with greater lengthening, especially if one of them is stressed; however it is kept only for clarity): ('to;då [a]'ò™~Ci)b ('to;ƒa 'Z™nt˙)l /'toòa a'Zente/ toda a gente˚ (aA'mi;gå, A;'m-, Å;'m-)b (a'mi;Ÿ‘)l /aa'miga/ a amiga˚ (a'a;gjå)b ('a:Ÿj‘, ‘'a;-)l /a'agwa/ a á%a˚ (a[;]'a;gjå)b ('a:;Ÿj‘, a'a:-)l /A'agwa/ à á%a˚ ('vi[å] An'da˜)b ('vi Ån'daR)l /'via an'daK/ vi-a andar˚ (a'A∞må)b ('A;ım‘, ‘'Aı-)l /a'aıma/ a alma˚ (a'A∞må, a;'A∞-)b ('A:ım‘, a'A;ı-)l /A'aıma/ à alma˘ Further cases: (&™]a'E;Rå, ™']E;Rå)b (&™]‘'E;R‘, ™']E;R‘)l /Eıa'ERa/ ela era˚ (u'mO;Rå, &uma'O-)b (u'mO;R‘, &um‘'O-)l /uma'ORa/ uma hora˚ (&aoRa'sAu«, &øRa-)b (&åøR‘'sAu«, &øR‘-)l /auRa'saun/ a oração˚ ('da;vau, -vø)b ('da;våu, -vø)l /'òavau/ dava-o˚ ('p9;Nå u&seuëa'pEu, 'p9; Nø&seu-)b ('po;N‘ u&seuS‘'pEu, 'po; Nø&seu-)l /'poNa useuSa'pEu/ poˆa o seu >apéu˚ ('nu˙kå o'vi fa']a˜ 'ni;su, 'nu˙ kø'vi)b ('nu~k‘ o'vi f‘']aR 'ni;su, 'nu~ kø'vi)l /'nunka ì™'vi fa'ıaK 'nisu/ nunca ouvi falar n¤so˘ As already mentioned (§ 7.2.1), /[é]éöò/ followed by /ö, éö˘, é/ are –respectively– realized as ([–]–òö, [–]–ò–, [–]–òé), where («ò) is dropped but nevertheless protects the V from elision: (']A natu'RA∞)b (']A n‘t¨'RAı)l /'ıan natu'Raı/ lã natural˚ (&kÚU-

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ni˙'g™I«)b (-3I«)l /kounnin'gein/ com nin%ém÷ (']A A~'Ci;gå, ']A;~ 'C-)b (']A 4n'ti;Ÿ‘, ']A;n 't-)l /'ıan an'tiga/ lã antiga˚ (kÚU'A«sãå)b (kÚU'A”sª‘)l /koun'ansja/ com ânsia÷ (']A a'zu∞, ']A; 'z-)b (']A ‘'zuı, ']A; 'z-)l /'ıan a'zuı/ lã azul˚ (kÚU'i;su)b (-su)l /koun'isu/ com ¤so˚ (u'9;meI 'A∞tu, 'ä9;-)b (u'O;m’I 'AÓtu, 'äO;-)l /un'ìmein 'aıtu/ um homem alto÷ (se'qE;]å)b (s’'qE;]‘)l /sein'Eıa/ sem ela˚ (nA'äE)b (n4'äE)l /naun'E/ não é˘ 7.3.2.3. ‹en the syllables in contact have identical or similar C˚ we can ﬁnd some geminate, due to the dropping of the vowel element: ('fi;©[i] kÚ'mi;gu)b ('fik[˙] k¨'mi;Ÿu)l /'fike ko'migu/ ﬁ¢e comigo (da&ke][i]']a;du)b (d‘&ke][¢]']a;ƒu)l /òa'keıe 'ıaòu/ da¢ele lado˚ ('k9;m[i] 'muintu)b ('kO;m[¢] 'muintu)l /'kìme 'muintu/ come muito˚ ('k9mpRuCi 'tu;du, -t 't-)b ('k9≈pÍut[˙] 'tu;ƒu)l /'kompRute 'tuòu/ compro-te tudo˚ ('kAmp[u] peRi'go;zu)b ('kA≈p[u] p¢Ri'Ÿo;zu, -p pÍi-)l /'kampu peRi'gozu/ campo perigoso˘ More: (us'peIëi zis&tAuna'dAndu, -eIë ëis-)b (uS'pÉISZ zZS&t4un‘'ƒAndu, -ÉIS S?S-)l /us'peiSe zistaunna'òandu/ os peixπ πtão nadando˚ ('oUv[i] 'vO;zis, 'o;-)b ('o;v[¢] 'vO;zZS, 'oU-)l /'o™ve 'vOzes/ ouve vozπ˚ ('pa;s[i] 'se;du)b ('pa;s[˙] 'se;ƒu)l /'pase 'seòu/ pøse cedo˚ ('pE;‚[i] 'tu;du, -∂ 't-)b ('pE;ƒ[¢] 'tu;ƒu, -‡ 't-)l /'pEòe 'tuòu/ pede tudo˚ ('s™~C[i] 'bu;Lå, -n∂ 'b-)b ('s™nt[˙] 'Bu;L‘, -n∂ 'b-)l /'sente 'buLa/ sente buºa˘ Chieﬂy when the syllables contain /t, ò/, one of them may drop completely: (&faku∞'da;[‚i] ‚i']e;tRås, -a‚ ‚i-)b (&f‘k¨ı'da;[ƒ¢] ƒ¢']e;tÍ‘S, -aƒ ƒ¢-)l /fakuı'daòe òe'ıetRas/ faculdade de Letrø˚ ('pO;[‚iz &]dez]i'ga˜, 'pOd d-)b ('pO;[ƒÛZ &]ƒÛZ]i'ŸaR, 'pOƒ ƒ-)l /'pOòea òeaıi'gaK/ podπ dπligar˚ ('kA∞[du] ‚i'kA;nå)b ('kAı[du] d¢'kå;n‘)l /'kaıdu òe'kana/ caldo de cana˘ More examples: ('ò™~[Ci] ‚i'fO;Rå)b ('Z™nt¢ ƒ¢'fO;R‘, -n d¢-)l /'Zente òe'fORa/ gente de fora˚ ('ò™~[Ci] ‚i'ReItå)b ('Z™nt¢ ƒ¢'RÉIt‘, -n d¢-)l /'Zente òe'Reita/ gente direita÷ also: ('ba;[Ci]Ci, -CCi)b ('ba;[t˙]t˙, -tt˙)l /'batete/ bate-te˚ ('vEs[Ci]Ci, -sCCi)b ('vES[t˙]t˙, -tt˙)l /'vEstete/ vπte-te˘ 7.3.2.4. Most of all, in Lusitanian pronunciation, even in connected speech, /eò/ tends to drop, after voiced C as well: (f˙']i;p[˙])l (fi']i;pi)b /fe'ıipe/ Filipe˚ (']a;v[¢])l (']a;vi)b /'ıave/ lave÷ on the other hand, /uò/ has the same tendency: ('ti;p[u])l ('Ci;pu)b /'tipu/ tipo˚ (']a;v[u])l (']a;vu)b /'ıavu/ lavo˘ However, generally a fairly perceptible di‡erence is maintained between forms like /'ıave/ and /'ıavu/, since /u/, although dropped, labializes the preceding C˚ even if it is bilabial or labiodental. In actual fact, strictly speaking, we have: (']a;ç, 'ti;()l; the same is true of all other admitted C˚ including /s, z/, which –phonetically– may then occur even before a pause (with or without lip rounding): ('sint¢z[¢])l ('sintezi)b /'sinteze/ sìntπe˚ (ºu'mA”s[˙])l (˜o'mA«si)b /Ko'manse/ romance˚ (&duvi'ƒo;z[u], -z)l (&duvi'do;zu)b /òuvi'òozu/ duvidoso˚ ('pa;s[u], -s)l ('pa;su)b /'pasu/ pøso˚ compared to ('pa;s[˙])l ('pa;si)b /'pase/ pøse… Of course, we generally use a çsimplerÇ transcription, except when we want to lay special stress on the fact. ˛e sequences /0jeò, éjeò/, in the Lusitanian accent, in addition to having a pronunciation which corresponds to its spelling, preserve the –once, more systematic– possibility of blending the last two elements: ('sE;RãÛ, -Rã¢, -RÛ, -Ri)l ('sE;Rãi)b /'sERje/ série˚ ('ka;ãÛ, -ã¢, -a;Û, -a;i)l ('ka;ãi)b /'kaje/ caie (where lengthening may be the only

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di‡erence as to ('kai) /'kai/ cai]˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, again, the rare instances of /’iò/ oscillate between /i/ (which is more modern and closer to spelling) and (the more traditional) /e/: ('taksi, -s˙)l ('taksi)b /'taksi/ táxi÷ forms like /'ZuRi/ jùri and /'ZuRe/ jure (which are alike in Brazilian pronunciation: ('òu;Ri)b], in the Lusitanian one, may either be alike: ('Zu;R¢)l, or di‡erent: ('Zu;Ri)l (-R¢)l (respectively). 7.3.2.5. ‹en, at word boundaries, /KòK, ıòı/ come together, they normally simplify: ('ma[˜] '˜ãA∞)b ('ma[R] 'ºãAı)l /'maK 'Kjaı/ mar real˚ ('ma[˜] ˜umo'Ro;zu)b ('ma[R] ºumu'Ro;zu)l /'maK Kumo'Rozu/ mar rumoroso˚ (kA'nA[∞] ']impu)b (k‘'nA[ı] ']i≈pu)l /ka'naı 'ıimpu/ canal limpo˚ (kA'nA[∞] ]imi'ta;du)b (k‘'nA[ı] ]¢mî'ta;ƒu)l /ka'naı ıemi'taòu/ canal limitado˘ ˛e same occurs to /sòs, aòz, sòS, aòZ/, when they are alike: ('dE[s] 'sE;ku]us)b ('dES 'sE;k¨]¨S)l /'òEs 'sEkuıus/ dez séculos˚ ('dEs 'ëa;]is)b ('dE[S] 'Sa;]¢S)l /'òEs 'Saıis/ dez xalπ˚ (a[z]'z9;nås)b (‘Z'zo;n‘S)l /aa'zonas/ as zonø˚ (&azòA'nE;]ås)b (&‘[Z]Z‘'nE;]‘S)l /aaZa'nEıas/ ø janelø÷ however, we ﬁnd (Ss)l (s)b /ss/ in cases such as: (&?Ss¢']™nt˙)l (&ise']™~Ci)b /isse'ıente/ excelente˚ (kÍZS'seR)l (kRe'se˜)b /kRes'seK/ crπcer˘ 7.3.2.6. In the Lusitanian accent, the sequences /0ı, 0R/ are often realized as (0¢], 0¢R) (even if it is better to avoid such a pronunciation): ('f9oR÷ f¢']-÷ ≠f¢']-)l ('f]o˜)b /'fıoK/ ﬂor˚ ('k9a;Ru÷ k¢']-÷ ≠k¢']-)l ('k]a;Ru)b /'kıaRu/ claro˚ ('g]O;Rã‘÷ g¢']-÷ ≠g¢']-)l ('g]O;Rãå)b /'gıORja/ glória÷ on the other hand, the sequences /0eı, 0eR, 0oı, 0oR/, while behaving in exactly the opposite way, produce similar results, even if –in this case– one can use that pronunciation without hesitation (provided one's speech rate is not slow). Some examples: (k¢'Ri‘÷ k'Íi‘÷ 'kÍi‘)l (ke'Riå)b /ke'Ria/ ¢eria˚ (ko'Ro‘÷ k'Ro‘÷ 'kÍo‘)l (ko'Roå)b /ko'Roa/ coroa˚ (f¢'ROS, f'ÍOS, 'fÍOS)l (fe'ROs)b /fe'ROs/ feroz˚ (&m¢R¢'seR, m¢Í'seR)l (&meRe'se˜)b /meRe'seK/ merecer÷ in current speech it is normal to reduce the prepositions combined with the deﬁnite article pelo(s)˚ pela(s) to /pıé, pé/, also in Brazilian Portuguese [èp'lo˚ po¶]\ (p]A'mAi«, &pe]A-)b (p9‘'mAi«, &p¢]‘-)l /p[e]ıa'main/ pela mãe˚ ('p]ja˜, p]u'a˜, &pe]u-)b ('p9jaR, p9u'aR, &p¢]u-)l /p[e]ıu'aK/ /p[e]ıu'aK/ pelo ar˘ Compare also: pára ('pa;Rå)b (-‘)l /'paRa/ and para (&paRa, pRaò0, paò0, paRòé, pRòé)b (&p‘R‘, pÍ‘ò0, p‘ò0, p‘Ròé, pÍòé)l /&paRa, pRaò0, paò0, paRòé, pRòé/: (&paRa'ka, pRa'ka÷ &paRa'©i, pRa'©i)b (&p‘R‘'ka, pÍ‘'ka÷ &p‘R‘'ki, pÍ‘'ki)l /para'ka, pRa'ka÷ para'ki, pRa'ki/ para cá˚ para aqui; besides, cada is generally (&kada)b (&kåƒ‘)l /&kaòa/. ˛ese are restressed forms, when they occur in isolation (as it happens in metalinguistic usage), in comparison with normal forms, which have no primary stress, but secondary or weak ones. ˛e same holds true for a(s)˚ da(s), na(s)… (a{s}, da{s}, na{s})b (‘{S}, d‘{S}, ‘{S})l /a{s}, òa{s}, na{s}/, and even for mas (mas)b (m‘S)l /mas/ (with a possible secondary stress for rhythmic reasons, (&måS)l). In Lusitanian pronunciation again, also /0es, 0es/, mainly in the ending -π˚ may be quite reduced, up to becoming intense –çsyllabicÇ– (however the dropping of the V is an uneducated feature): ('f9o;RZS, -R°÷ -ÍS)l ('f]o;Ris)b /'fıoRes/ ﬂorπ; combining what we have just seen above, in a fairly uneducated type of Lusitanian pronunciation, we may also ﬁnd (f¢']o;ÍS)l), (ºu'mA”s?S, -”s°)l (˜Ú'mA«sis)b /Ko'manses/ romancπ˚ (&º¢StAu'RAnt?S, &º°t-, -nt°)l (&˜estAu'RA~Cis)b /Kestau'Rantes/ rπtaurantπ˘

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In the Lusitanian accent, the sequences /peK, pRe/ often receive an intense C and confuse with one another (as has happened to per%ntar˚ in comparison to Spanish pre%ntar]˚ therefore (p”'fÉItu)l may stand for (pe˜'feItu, pRe'feItu)b /peK'feitu, pRe'feitu/ perfeito˚ prefeito (with additional variants (p¢Í'fÉItu, pÍ¢'fÉItu)l]. 7.3.2.7. In both accents, the preposition com /koun/, followed by the articles, is reduced to /kon-/ (kÚ), and to (ku, kj, kä) as well: (kÚu'pai, käu-, kju-)b (kÚu'pai, kîu-, kˆu-)l /kon-u'pai/ com o pai˚ (kÚ&umAmu'LE˜, käu-)b (kÚ&um‘mu'LER, kîu-)l /kon-umamu'LEK/ com uma muºer˚ (kÚaz'mAu«s, käaz-, kjaz-)b (kÚ‘Z'mAu”S, kî‘Z-, kˆ‘Z-)l /kon-az'mauns/ com ø mãos˚ (kÚuz']o;bus, kuz-)b (-Z']o;B¨S, k¨-)l /kon-uz'ıobus/ com os lobos˘ Even em is considerably reduced, up to ç/in/Ç: (eIm&pu˜tu'ges, im-)b (’I≈&p¨Ít¨'ŸeS, i≈-)l /ÈimpuKtu'ges/ em portu%ês˚ (eI˙'ka;zå, i˙-)b (’I~'ka;z‘, i~-)l /Èin'kaza/ em casa˚ (&eqAu'si;]ãu, iAu-, q-)b (’qAu'si;]ãu, iAu-, q-)l /Èin-Au'siıju/ em auxìlio˘ ˛e dash put before a V˚ in the diaphonemic transcription, could even be dispensed with, without creating problems, since those forms are recognizable, somehow, thanks to the dot under the symbols too, /ko™n, Èin/. Otherwise, we could use /«/, as a diaphoneme (but in a systematic way, then, ¤ for all cases of /éöò/); however, this would make the transcription heavier and the phonemic analysis more complicated. In rhythm groups, sequenze /ééòé/ = (éò0é): (u&mejA'mi;gu)b (u&mej‘'mi;Ÿu)l /umeua'migu, umewa-/ o meu amigo. 7.3.2.8. In the neutral Lusitanian accent, as the various examples have shown, we systematically ﬁnd (in addition to (≈, n, ~, ”, Ó, 9, Í, ª, ˆ), except in slow and very precise pronunciation) even (˙, ?÷ u), when between voiceless C, or between them and pause, and vice versa. It is quite common to hear things like: (uS&pÍ¨f˙'so;RZS &p¨Ít¨'Ÿe;zZS)l (us&pRofe'so;Ris &po˜tu'ge;zis)b /uspRofe'soRes poKtu'gezes/ os profπsorπ portu%ππ˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, /eò, uò/ are fairly regularly devoiced, even completely, up to their dropping (after voiced C as well) which occurs, for /’e/, even within words or rhythm groups: (∂S'kuÓp, d?S'kuÓp˙)l (‚is'ku∞pi)b /òes'kuıpe/ dπculpe˚ (&t–vi'zAu«, &t¢ıv-, &t¢]¢-)l (&te]evi'zAu«)b /teıevi'zaun/ telev¤ão˚ (‘p'tE;s, &‘p˙'tE;s˙)l (&ape'tE;si)b /ape'tEse/ apetece˚ (∂°'pOÍt°, ∂?S'pOÍtuS)l (‚is'pO˜tus)b /òes'pOKtus/ dπportos˘ More: (S'pÍaR, &?Sp¢'RaR)l (&espe'Ra˜)b /ispe'RaK/ πperar˚ (St‘'tAı, &?S-)l (&ista'tA∞)b /ista'taı/ πtatal˚ (Sk‘'seR, &°k-, &?S-)l (&iska'se˜)b /iska'seK/ πcøser˚ (&'Bå;Nu, º¢)l (˜e'bA;Nu)b /Ke'baNu/ rebaˆo˚ (‘&supÍãuRi'ƒa[ƒ] ƒu'sOı, ‘&s¨p¢&Rãu-)l (a&supeRãoRi'da[‚i] du'sO∞, -'dad du-)b /asupeRjoRi'òaòe òu'sOı/ a superioridade do sol˚ (u'fin ∂s'≈å;n‘, ∂s¢-, d¢s¢-)l (u'fi~ ‚ise'mA;nå)b /u'fin dese'mana/ o ﬁm-de-semana˚ (p‘'RE;s ≈um‘'Bo‘ i'ƒÉ;ã‘, p‘'RE;s ≈u-, p‘'RE;s¢ m-, p‘'RE;s¢ mãu-)l (reading: (pa'RE;semi uma'boa i'dE;ãå, -se mqu-)b} /pa'REseme uma'boa i'òEja/ parece-me uma boa ideial/idéiab˘ 7.3.2.9. We will now consider some examples of /0uò/ = (±ò) (the symbols for /0eò/ are more normal, as in ('k™nt)l ('k™~Ci)b /'kente/ ¢ente]\ ('a;tî[[°])l ('a;Cimu[s])b /'atimu[s]/ átimo(s)˚ ('p9å;“[°])l ('p]A;nu[s])b /'pıanu[s]/ plano(s)˚ ('bå;”[°])l ('bA;-

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Nu[s])b /'baNu[s]/ baˆo(s)˚ ('t™≈([°])l ('t™mpu[s])b /'tempu[s]/ tempo(s)˚ ('tÍi;Ì[°])l ('tRi;bu[s])b /'tRibu[s]/ tribu(s)˚ ('paÍT[°])l ('pa˜tu[s])b /'paKtu[s]/ parto(s)˚ ('sa;k[°])l ('sa;ku[s])b /'saku[s]/ saco(s)˚ (']a;)[°])l (']a;gu[s])b /'ıagu[s]/ lago(s)˘ Furthermore: ('tu;5[°])l ('tu;fu[s])b /'tufu[s]/ tufo(s)˚ ('po;ç, 'pO;ç°)l ('po;vu, 'pO;vus)b /'povu, 'pOvus/ povo(s)˚ ('po;s, 'pO;s°)l ('po;su, 'pO;sus)b /'posu, 'pOsus/ poço(s)˚ ('ka;z[°])l ('ka;zu[s])b /'kazu[s]/ cøo(s)˚ ('ºo;«[°])l ('˜o;ëu[s])b /'KoSu[s]/ roxo(s)˚ ('bÉI»[°])l ('beIZu[s])b /'beiZu[s]/ beijo(s)˚ ('mÉ;’[°])l ('me;ãu[s])b /'meju[s]/ meio(s)˚ ('ka;∂[°])l ('ka;Ru[s])b /'kaRu[s]/ caro(s)˚ ('ka;R[°])l ('ka;˜u[s])b /'kaKu[s]/ carro(s)˚ ('ºo;3[°])l ('˜o;]u[s])b /'Koıu[s]/ rolo(s)˚ ('fi;¯[°])l ('fi;Lu[s])b /'fiLu[s]/ ﬁºo(s)˘ In neutral Brazilian pronunciation, devoicing is quite rare; nevertheless, it may occur, mainly after voiceless C before a pause, in particular for /e, u/: ('k™~Ci, Cî, -Ci)b ('k™nt˙)l /'kente/ ¢ente˚ ('po;su, -s¨, -su)b (-su)l /'posu/ poço˘ 7.3.2.10. An oral V followed by a nasalized V˚ may be nasalized, especially in current pronunciation: (&åimpRe'sAu«, &Aim-)b (&‘i≈pÍ¢'sAu«, &4i≈-)l /aimpRe'saun/ a imprπsão˚ (™'impãu, ™im-)b (-≈pªu)l /E'impju/ é ìmpio˘ Stress 7.3.3.1. ˛e position of stress is fairly well indicated in spelling, once we know its rules, which are explained in all grammars. From a phonetic point of view, some secondary stresses occur. ˛ey are distributed alternatively, for rhythmic reasons, in a similar way as they occur in Spanish or Italian. Generally, monosyllabic grammemes (and the like) are unstressed (except for rhythmic secondary stresses, of course): articles [o˚ a˚ os˚ ø˚ um˚ uns]˚ personal pronouns [me˚ te˚ se˚ o˚ a˚ ºe˚ nos˚ vos˚ os˚ ø˚ ºπ˚ and combinations mo˚ ta˚ ºos {…}; eu˚ tu as well, if weak), possessive adjectives [meu˚ te¨˚ sua {…}), prepositions [a˚ com˚ de˚ em˚ por˚ sem˚ sob]˚ prepositions with articles [à˚ ao˚ da˚ do˚ na˚ no˚ num {…}, pro/prò = çpara oÇ {…}, plo/p'lo = çpeloÇ {…}), conjunctions [e˚ ou˚ mø˚ nem˚ ¢e˚ se]˚ the relative pronoun ¢e˚ auxiliaries [sou˚ és˚ é˚ so¤˚ são˚ tens˚ tem˚ têm˚ (es)tou˚ (es)tás˚ (es)tá]˚ forms of çtratamentoÇ [dom˚ frei˚ são˚ seu = çsenhorÇ), others [cem˚ grão˚ ¢ão˚ tão÷ impersonal há]˘ 7.3.3.2. ˛en there are (actual) lexical compounds, which maintain a fairly strong stress on their ﬁrst element, ﬂuctuating between a primary and a strengthened secondary one (according to the scale ('), (“), (&)); so we have a ﬁrst /'/ followed by another which is realized as (“) (or (&), if adjacent to the primary stress): (“gja˜da'˜oUpå, -o;-)b (-Rƒ‘'ºo;p‘, -oU-)l /'gwaKòa'Ko™pa/ %arda-roupa˚ (“agja'fO˜Ci)b (“aŸj‘'fOÍt˙)l /'agwa'fOKte/ á%a-forte˚ (“A∞Ci'baiëu)b (“AÓtî'BaiSu)l /'aıti'baiSu/ altibaixo˚ (&mA∞'kRãa;du)b (&mAÓ'kÍãa;ƒu)l /'maı'kRjaòu/ malcreado˚ (“pAu~‚i']O)b (“pAund¢']O)l /'paunde'ıO/ pão-de-ló˚ (“]uzobRazi']eIRu)b (-øBR‘zi']ÉI-)l /'ıuzìbRazi'ıeiRu/ l¨o-brøileiro˘ ˛ere are even some particular compounds, still considered as such (rather than crystallizations), which maintain the two elements fairly independent; ﬁrst of all, we ﬁnd adverbs in /-'mente/ -mente: (“òustA'm™~Ci)b (“ZuSt‘'m™nt˙)l /'Zusta'mente/ j¨-

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tamente˚ (“]indA'm™~Ci)b (“]ind‘'m™nt˙)l /'ıinda'mente/ lindamente˚ (&fRiA'm™~Ci)b (&fÍi‘'m™nt˙)l /'fRia'mente/ friamente˚ (ko˜&tez'm™~Ci)b (k¨Í&teZ'm™nt˙)l /koK'tea'mente/ cortesmente˚ (“fasi∞'m™~Ci)b (“fasîı'm™nt˙)l /'fasiı'mente/ facilmente˘ 7.3.3.3. In addition, nouns with the diminutive inﬁx /-z-/ -z- follow the same pattern: (mu&L™˜'zi;Nå)b (mu&L™R'zi;N‘)l /mu'LEK'ziNa/ muºerziˆa˚ (ku&L™˜'zi;Nå)b (k¨&L™R'zi;N‘)l /ku'LEK'ziNa/ coºerziˆa˚ (“ø˜fA«'zi;Nå)b (“øÍf4«'zi;N‘)l /'OKfan'ziNa/ orfãziˆa˚ (“ëavena'zi;Nå)b (“Sav¢n‘'zi;N‘)l /'Savena'ziNa/ >avenaziˆa˚ (a&vø'zi;Nå)b (‘&vø'zi;N‘)l /a'vO'ziNa/ avoziˆa˚ (a&vo'zi;Nu)b (‘&vo'zi;Nu)l /a'vo'ziNu/ avoziˆo˚ (&pai'zi;Nu)b (-'zi;Nu)l /'pai'ziNu/ paiziˆo˚ (“9meI«'zi;Nu)b (“øm’I«'zi;Nu)l /'ìmein'ziNu/ homenziˆo˚ (“9meI«za'˜Au«)b (“øm’I«z‘'ºAu«)l /'ìmeinza'Kaun/ homenzarrão˚ (˜a&pa'ze;Lu)b (º‘&pa'zÉ;Lu)l /Ka'pa'zeLu/ rapazeºo˚ (]e«&sø∞'zi;tu)b (]e”&søı'zi;tu)l /ıen'sOı'zitu/ lençolzito˘ (Once, a graphic grave accent was used in such compounds.) As to the (phonic) stressing of verbs, it is important to examin the following examples well; they are very signiﬁcant and certainly not free from serious doubts when consideredmerely from an orthograﬁc point of view; they are given in simple diaphonemica transcription: /li'mitu, li'mita{s}, li'mitaun/ limito, limita(s)˚ limitam; /'bailu, 'baila{s}, 'bailaun/ bailo, baila(s), bailam; /'kauzu, 'kauza{s}, 'kauzaun/ causo, causa(s), causam. Besides: /aK'kwaK/ arcuar, /aK'kuu/ arcuo, /aK'kua{s}/ arcua(s); /in'flwiK/ inﬂuir, /in'fluu/ inﬂuo, /in'flui{s}/ inﬂui(s), /in'flwi/ inﬂuì, /in'flwiu/ inﬂuiu, /in'flwia{s}/ inﬂuìa(s); /pa'sjaK/ passear, /pa'seju/ passeio, /pa'seja{s}/ passeia(s), /pa'sejaun/ passeiam; /'KiK/ rir, /'Kiu/ rio, /'Kiu/ riu, /'Kia{s}/ ria(s), /'Kiein/ riem, /'Kiaun/ riam; /òi'zia/ dizia, /òi'Ria/ diria, /òi'Rei/ direi. Now, let us observe very carefully the following: /sa'iK/ sair, /sa'iòu/ saìdo, /sa'indu/ saindo, /'sai{s}/ sai(s), /sa'i{s}/ saì(s), /'saju/ saio, /'saja{s}/ saia(s), /sa'iu/ saiu, /sa'ia{s}/ saìa(s), /sa'iaun/ saìam, /'saein/ saem, /sa'iRaun/ saìram, /sai'Riaun/ sairiam, /sai'Raun/ sairão, /sai'Ria{s}/ sairia(s), /sai'Rei{s}/ sairei(s), /sa'iReis/ saìreis, /sai'Rieis/ sairìeis. Lastly, we ﬁnd çinﬁxedÇ futures and conditionals (which are quite çoddÇ {for foreigners or Brazilians, too}): (&se']jÉI)l /'se'ıwei/ sê-lo-ei˚ (tÍ‘&taÍ'sªa)l /tRa'taK'sja/ tratar-se-á˚ (&diR'LjaS)l /'òiK'Lwas/ dir-ºo-ás˚ (kÚn&ta']jAu«)l /kon'ta'ıwaun/ contá-lo-ão˚ (&faR'L[ã]i‘)l /'faK'Ljia/ far-ºe-ia˚ (pu&ƒeÍ's[ª]i‘)l /po'òeK'sjia/ poder-se-ia˚ (&di']ji‘S)l /'òi'ıwias/ di-lo-iø˚ (kÚn&ta']äi4«)l /kon'ta'ıwian/ contá-lo-iam (reading: (&se']jeI, tRa&ta˜'sãa, &‚i˜'Ljas, kÚn&ta']jAu«, &fa˜'L[ã]iå, po&de˜'s[ã]iå, &‚i']jiås, kÚn&ta']äiA«)b). Intonation 7.3.3.4. û 7.4-5 show the preintonemes and intonemes of the two neutral Portuguese accents. It is important to make comparisons both between them and with those of other languages: /./: (çt™;Nu äAçmi;gu çmuintu simçpa;Ciku3 3)b ('tÉ;Nu ä‘'mi;Ÿu Çmuintu si≈Çpa;tiku3 3)l /'teNu un-a'migu 'muintu sim'patiku./ Teˆo um amigo muito simpático.

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/?/: (¿&useçNo; R™¶mE;‚iku12)b (¿&usZ'No; R™'mE;ƒîku21)l /¿use'NoK E'mEòiku?/ O seˆor é médico? /÷/: (¿&AmAçNA ™çsa;badu2 2| ¿odÚçmi˙gu3 3)b (¿&am‘'NA ™'sa;B‘ƒu2 2| ¿oƒuÇmi˙gu3 3)l /¿Ama'Nan E'sabaòu÷ ¿o™òo'mingu./ Amaˆã é sábado, ou domingo? û 7.4. Brazilian preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/?/ (2 ¶ 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

û 7.5. Lusitanian preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 Ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

£International∞ accent 7.4.1. We will now provide the èinternational¶ pronunciation of Portuguese. Of course, it is based more on the Brazilian accent (rather than on the Lusitanian one, with all its phonetic idiosyncrasies), also if we consider the actual number of its native speakers. However, even in respect of the Brazilian accent, its most peculiar characteristics are to be put aside (within Brazil itself), from a more international point of view – or, rather, point of èhearing¶. ˛erefore, an International pronunciation of Portuguese does not relate to the èCarioca¶ pronunciation of Rio de Janeiro, but more generally to that of São Paulo City and other cities in the southern states of Brazil. As a matter of fact, this kind of pronunciation moves less away from spelling, which is a great advantage internationally. 7.4.2. Obviously, native speakers (Lusitanian as well) will understand it without problems. But it is not the same to foreigners faced with Lusitanian pronuncia-

7. portuguese

279 /i/ (i, iö)

/u/ (u, uö)

/e/ (e, eö)

/o/ (o, Úö)

/E/ (E, »™)

/O/ (O, »ø)

/a/ (a, Aö)

/ai, au/ (ai, au÷ Aiö, Auö)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/?/ (2 ' 1 2)

/÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

tion. However, in teaching and learning, it is important to have the opportunity to be able to show a kind of pronunciation which is not the mere result of approximative and partial study (subject to so many interferences from other languages, also because of very di‡erent orthographic èrules¶, as generally happens when foreigners study the Portuguese language with no adequate phonic method). On the contrary, this results from a long reﬂection, based on phonic naturalness, but also from true typicalness (which does not èsound foreign¶). Perhaps, this accent might add some local peculiarities from the two neutral accents (either Brazilian or Lusitanian, including some regional variants), thus making it more native-like, although many native speakers do not ﬁnd the èinternational¶ one to be strange at all. To Lusitanians it might sound rather Brazilian-like, but with no typical Southern, Central, or Northern peculiarities. 7.4.3. As shown in the ﬁgure, the vowels are (i÷ e÷ 'E, »™÷ a÷ 'O, »ø÷ o÷ u) /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (we still use the diaphonemic transcription as in the preceding chapters): ('vi, 'e;li, &™la'dE;vi, 'ga;ta, 'pO;su, &pøsu'daR, 'o;ku, 'u;va) /'vi, 'eıe, Eıa'òEve, 'gata, 'pOsu, pOsu'òaK, 'oku, 'uva/ vi˚ ele˚ ela deve˚ gata˚ posso˚ posso dar˚ oco˚ uva; including their nasalized taxophones (i, e, A, Ú, u): ('si˙, pen'denti, 'kAntu, 'kÚnta, 'mundu) /'sin, pen'dente, 'kantu, 'konta, 'mundu/ sim˚ pendente˚ canto˚ conta˚ mundo. Of course, the phonemes /e, E÷ O, o/ must be keep distinct, although they are ètroublesome¶ for foreiners, including the other thorny vocalic problem –metaphony– otherwise, we would really have a èforeign¶ pronunciation. Written e˚ o, in unstressed syllables, always correspond to /e, o/ (even for esC-); while, only for ﬁnal -e(s)˚ -o(s), we have /e, u/: ('lentis, 'mu;Rus) /'ıentes, 'muRus/ lentes˚ muros˘ 7.4.4. ˛e diphthongs are simpler, as well. In fact, they all have (i, u) as second elements: (ei, Ei, ai, Oi, oi, ui÷ iu, eu, Eu, au, ou), /ei, Ei, ai, Oi, oi, ui÷ iu, eu, Eu, au, ou, o™/: ('rei, 'vou) /'Kei, 'vo™/ rei˚ vou; with their nasalized taxophones (ei, Ai, Úi, ui÷ Au): ('bei˙, 'mAi˙, 'pÚi˙, 'muintu, 'nAu˙) /'bein, 'main, 'poin, 'muintu, 'naun/ bem˚ mãe˚ põe˚ muito˚ não. Certainly, (Å) would not be a feasible proposition for the nasalized diphthongs, or for nasalized /a/. ˛ey are too far away from native-speaker's reality (although this would certainly not prevent understanding). On the other hand, a kind of pronunciation which is still international, but a little less ègenuine¶, might easily renounce the nasalization caused by /ö/ in checked

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syllables – all the more so that, in many types of Lusitanian pronunciations, this nasalization is really very reduced, so that it corresponds to the merely phonetic one which is present in /éö/ sequences, in most languages without distinctive/phonemic nasalization. Normally, this slight degree of nasalization is not indicated. 7.4.5. Beside the èo‚cial¶ phonemic diphthongs, we ﬁnd a new series of diphthongs, derived from the vocalized realizations of //él0, élò// sequences (diaphonemically indicated as /éı0, éıò/). By explicitly adding only the one which does not already coincide with the èo‚cial¶ diphthongs, we have (Ou): as in (bRa'ziu, 'feutRu, 'mEu, 'sau, 'sOu, 'soutu, 'suu) /bRa'ziı, 'feıtRu, 'mEı, 'saı, 'sOı, 'soıtu, 'suı/ Brasil˚ feltro˚ mel˚ sal˚ sol˚ solto˚ sul. Actually, these diphthongal realizations are more convenient, for their articulatory simplicity and for better understanding spoken Portuguese, because they prepare foreigners for the interpretation èdilemma¶ of /éı/ as (éu) (coinciding with many phonological /éu/ diphthongs). 7.4.6. As to consonants, as already said, our international pronunciation does not make use of particular taxophones, which are peculiar of native accents of Portuguese, but are not sustained by a su‚ciently widespread ènatural universality¶. ˛us, we regularly ﬁnd the assimilation of /n0/, always with full nasal contoids (not attenuated, as neutral semi-nasals are, instead), before any consonants: ('sAmba, 'fRA~Za, 'fRAngu) /'samba, 'fRanZa, 'fRangu/ samba˚ franja˚ frango. In addition, in word-ﬁnal position, (˙) is normal, even before vowels or nasals at the beginning of a following word: (nAu˙'E, 'lA˙ a'zuu, u˙'o;vu, u˙'mau) /nau˙'E, 'ıa˙ a'zuı, un'ovu, un'maı/ não é˚ lã azul˚ um ovo˚ um mal˘ Note that in this only case the neutral pronunciations, both Brazilian and Lusitanian, have (–ò). Compare also ('wo;vu, u'mau) /u'ovu, u'maı/ o ovo˚ o mal. 7.4.7. In the international pronunciation of Portuguese, we do not have either the Brazilian taxophones of /t, d÷ k, g/ + /i, j/, (C, ‚÷ ©, á): (di'kinta) /de'kinta/ de quinta; nor the continuous taxophones of /b, d, g/ (of Lusitanian, (B, ƒ, Ÿ), indicated as /b, ò, g/): (&obRi'ga;du) /obRi'gaòu/ obrigado. Even more so, /s{ò}0, z{ò}0/ e /sò/ (diaphonemically /s, a/) are exactly realized as (s, z), without changing their articulations: ('pas, 'dezdi) /'pas, 'òeaòe/ paz˚ desde (which are so remarkable in Lusitanian: ('paS, 'deZƒ¢) and in Carioca: ('paë, 'deò‚i)). ˛us, we only have (S, Z) /S, Z/ for written ch˚ x˚ j˚ g: ('Sa, 'Si;kaRa, 'Za, Ze'Rau) /'Sa, 'SikaRa, 'Za, Ze'Raı/ chá˚ xìcara˚ já˚ geral˘ 7.4.8. Also the approximants, more naturally, are such, (j, w) /j, w/ (not semi-approximants, (ã, j)): ('glO;Rja, 'li˙gwa) /'gıORja, 'ıingwa/ glória˚ lìngua˘ As to /R/, of course, we have (R) (even in word-ﬁnal position before a pause or C, where in neutral Bazilian we ﬁnd (˜) /K/). ‹ile, for /K/, a more ènatural¶ (r) is better (after C\ /n, l, s/, diaphonemically /n, ı, s/): ('Únra, &u˙ra'pas, 'biuru, ra'laR) /'onKa, unKa'pas, 'biıKu, Ka'ıaK/ honra˚ um rapaz˚ bilro˚ ralar, and (Rr), after V: ('kaRru, &uRra'pas) /'kaKu, uKa'pas/ carro˚ o rapaz˘ ˛en, it occurs even in word-initial position;

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while we have (˜)b, (º)l (with so many other variants, Ô § 7.2.5.2). Besides, /L/ is maintained ('vE;Lu) /'vELu/ velhu; but, more naturally, we have both (lé) and (éu) (as already seen), which diaphonemically are /ıéı/): ('ljau) /'ıjaı/ leal. Stress(es) and duration coincide with the neutral ones; while intonation is a compromise between the two neutral types. To simplify a little, the ﬁgure gives only the unmarked preintoneme and the three marked intonemes. Text 7.5.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun, given in six di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (Brazilian and Lusitanian) neutral pronunciations of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Portuguese translation follows, in its neutral Brazilian, Lusitanian, and international Portuguese versions. ˛e variants given in brackets might need slight adjustments, on which the reader is invited to reﬂect, according to the occurring segments. In the text, for the Lusitanian accent, we indicate (å|) /’aò/, before a pause (even though in the isolated examples given we simply put (‘ò), in order to better show the di‡erence with the Brazialian accent). At the end, as usual, the version showing the English pronunciation of Portuguese is given; it represents the habits of neutral British speakers, who are ﬂuent in Portuguese (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Portuguese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Portuguese, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Brazilian pronunciation (of English) 7.5.1. (‚i5nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 ™~‚i'sA«2 j™˜‚is'pãu;Ci« 'j¤ë jøz‚isçtR9˙ge˜3 3| 'j™n A'tRE;ve]e˜2 'k™I mA']9«2 ì'˜Epi CinA'jO˜m çk]oU©i3 3œ| deãå'gRid2\ d™‚i5jAn u'fE˜ såk'si‚i2 ‚i'meI©i~ ‚i'tRE;ve]e˜2 'teI ©is'k]oU çkOf2 2| &ëUbikÚn'side˜ ‚is£tR9˙ge˜ d™~ç‚ãa;ze˜3 3|| 'd™~2 ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 'b]u2 å'za˜‚i2 åziçku‚i3 3| &bå‚i'mO Riçb]u2 2| ‚i'mO˜ 'k]oUz]i2

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&‚i‚i'tRE;ve]e˜2\ 'foU∞ ‚is'k]oU kåçRAun‚i«3 3| ì&™nd™t']asCi2œ\ ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 5geI 'vap ‚iaçt™mpiCi3 3|| ì'd™~2œ ‚i'sA~ 'ë9U çAuCi3 3 ìçjO˜m]i3 3œ| &™~‚i'mi;‚ãat]i2\ ˚‚i'tRE;ve]e˜ 'tu çkOf3 3 ˚isçk]oU©i3 3|| ì™n'soU2œ ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 &jøzob]ais tukÚM'fEs2| &d™‚içsA«3 3 jøz‚isçtR9˙geR3 3 ì&øv‚içtu3 3œ|| ¿&‚i‚ãu¶]ai©i12 ¿‚is'tO;Ri2| ¿‚ãu'j9n 'tji;Ri ta¶g™«12|||) Lusitanian pronunciation (of English) 7.5.2. (d¢'nOÍs 'jind[¢]2 ™nd¢'sA«2 j¢RƒZS'pªu;tí« ÇjiS j¢ZƒZSÇtÍ9˙g¢R3 3| 'j™n ‘'tÍE;v¢]¢Í2 'kÉI m¢']9«2 ì'ºEp tîn‘ÇjOR≈ Çk9oUk3 3œ| dÉã‘'ŸRiƒ2\ dEƒ¢'jAn ¨ÇfEÍS s˙k'si;ƒ¢2 ƒi'mÉIkín d¢'tÍE;v¢]¢Í2 'tÉI k?SÇk9oU 'kOf2 2| &S¨bîkÚ”'si;ƒ¢R ƒZS∞tÍ9˙g¢R ƒ™nÇdãa;ƒ¢R3 3|| 'd™n2 d¢'nOÍs 'jim2 'b]u2 ‘'zaR2 ƒ¢zîÇkuƒ3 3| &baƒ¢'mO Ri'B]u2 2| d¢'mOÍ 'k9øUZ]i2 &ƒiƒ¢'tÍE;v¢]¢R2\ 'føUı dZSÇk9oUk ‘ÇRAundi«3 3| ì&™nd¢'t9aSt2œ\ d¢'nOÍs 'ji˙2 'gÉI Çvap ‡i‘Çt™mpt˙3 3|| ì'd™n2œ d¢'sA” ÇS9U ÇAut3 3 ìÇjORm]i3 3œ| &™ndi'mi;ƒã‘t9i2\ ˚d¢'tÍE;v¢]¢Í Çtu ÇkOf3 3 ˚?SÇk9oUk3 3|| ì™”'soU2œ ƒ¢'nOÍs 'jind[¢]2 &jøzu'B]aiS tukÚõ'fEs2| &d™ƒ¢ÇsA«3 3 jøZƒZSÇtÍ9˙g¢R3 3 ì&øvƒ¢Çtu3 3œ|| ¿&diƒãu']aik21 ¿dZS'tO;Ri2| ¿&dãuj9n'tˆi;Rî t‘'Ÿ™«21|||) Portuguese text 7.5.3. O vento norte e o sol porﬁavam sobre ¢al dos do¤ era o ma¤ forte, ¢ando sucedeu pøsar um viajante envolto numa capa. Ao vê-lo, põem-se de acordo em como a¢ele ¢e primeiro conse%¤se obrigar o viajante a tirar a capa seria considerado o ma¤ forte. O vento norte começou a soprar com muita fùria, mø ¢anto ma¤ soprava, ma¤ o viajante se embruºava na sua capa, até ¢e o vento norte dπ¤tiu. O sol briºou então com todo o πplendor, e imediatamente o viajante tirou a capa. E øsim o vento norte teve de recoˆecer a superioridade do sol. Você gostou da h¤toriˆa? Queremos repetì-la? Brazilian pronunciation 7.5.4. (uçv™ntu çnO˜Ci ãu'sO∞2 po˜çfãa;vAu« &sobRiçkjA∞ duz'dois2\ ™R9&maisçfO˜Ci3 3| çkäAndu &suseçdeu paçsa; Ru«vãa'òA~Ci2\ e«çvo∞tu &numaçka;på3 3| ø've;]u2 'p9i[’I]«si ‚ãa'ko˜du2 eI˙çk9; mjaçke;]i &©ipRiçmeIRu2 &kÚ«seçái; sãobRiçga; Ruvãa'òA~Ci2 aCiçRa; Raçka;på2 2 se&RiakÚ«&sideçRa;du2 u&maisçfO˜Ci3 3|| uçv™ntu 'nO˜Ci2 &kÚmeçsoU aso'pRa˜2 kÚçmuintå çfu;Rãå3 3| masçkäAntu çmai[s] soçpRa;vå2 2| çmai zuvãa'òA~Ci2 &sãimbRuçLa;vå &nasjaçka;på3 3| a'tE2 ©ãuçv™ntu 'nO˜Ci2 &‚izisçCiu3 3|| uçsO∞ bRiçLoU en'tAu«2 kÚnçto;du [u]sp]ençdo˜3 3| &ãime“‚ãatA'm™~Ci2 uvãaçòA~[Ci] CiçRoU3 3 açka;på3 3| ãa'si2 uçv™ntu çnO˜Ci2 2\ çte;vi &‚i˜e&kÚNe'se˜2\ a&supe&RãoRiçda;[‚i]3 3 duçsO∞3 3||) ¿vo'se gos¶toU12 ¿&daisto'Ri;Nå2 ¿keçR™;mu[s] &˜epe¶Ci;]å12|||)

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Lusitanian pronunciation 7.5.5. (u'v™nt¨ ÇnOÍt¢ ã¨'sOÓ2 p¨Í'fªa;v4u” &soBR¢ÇkˆAı duZ'ƒoiS2\ ™Rø&maiSÇfOÍt˙3 3| 'kîAndu &sus¢'ƒeu p‘Çsa; Ru«vã‘'ZAnt[¢]2\ i«'voÓt¨ &num‘Çka;på3 3| ø've;]u2 'p9i[’I]”s[¢] ƒ‘'koRƒu2 ’I~'ko; mj‘Çke;][¢] &k˙pÍi'mÉIRu2 &kÚ”s[¢]'Ÿi; &sªøBRiÇŸa; Ruvã‘'ZAnt[¢]2 ‘tî'Ra; R‘'ka;p‘2 2 s¢&Ri‘kÚ”&sîƒ¢'Ra;ƒu2 u&maiSÇfOÍt[˙]3 3|| u'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[˙]2 &k¨m¢'so ‘su'pÍaÍ2 kÚ'muint‘ Çfu;Rãå3 3| m‘S'kîAnt¨ ÇmaiS su'pÍa;vå2 2| 'mai zuvã‘'ZAnt[˙]2 &sªimbRu'La;v‘ &n‘sˆ‘Çka;på3 3| ‘'tE2 kªu'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[¢]2 &ƒ¢zZSÇtiu3 3|| ¨'sOı BRiÇLo en'tAu~2 kÚn'to; ƒ[j]¨Sp9enÇdoR3 3| &ãim¢“ƒãat‘'m™nt[¢]2 uvã‘'ZAn[t˙]2 ˚tîÇRo3 3 ˚‘Çka;på3 3| ã‘'si2 u'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[˙]2 2\ 'te;v[¢] ƒ¢º¢&k¨NZ'seR2\ ‘&sup¢&RãoRiÇƒa;[ƒ¢]3 3 ƒ¨ÇsO;ı3 3|| ¿vo'se Ÿ¨S'to21 ¿&ƒ[‘]ZSt¨'Ri;Nå2| ¿k¢'Re;mu[Z] &º¢p˙'ti;]å21|||)

International pronunciation 7.5.6. (u'ventu 'nORti ju'sOu2 poR'fja;vAun &sobRi'kwau duz'dois2\ ™Rau&maisçfORti3 3| 'kwAndu &suse'deu pa'sa; RuMvja'ZAnti2\ eM'voutu &numaçka;pa3 3| au've;lu2 'pÚinsi dja'koRdu2 ei˙'ko; mwa'ke;li &kipRi'meiRu2 &kÚnse'gi; sjobRi'ga; Ruvja'ZAnti2 ati'Ra; RaÇka;pa2 2 se&RiakÚn&side'Ra;du2 u&maisçfORti3 3|| u'ventu 'nORti2 &kome'sou aso'pRaR2 kÚ˙'muinta çfu;Rja3 3| mas'kwAntu 'mais soÇpRa;va2 2| 'mai zuvja'ZAnti2 &sjimbRu'La;va &naswaçka;pa3 3| a'tE2 kju'ventu 'nORti2 &dizisçtiu3 3|| u'sOu bRi'Lou en'tAu˙2 kÚn'to;du usplençdoR3 3| &jime“djata'menti2 uvja'ZAnti2 ˚tiçRou3 3 ˚açka;pa3 3| ja'si˙2 u'v™ntu ÇnORti2 2\ 'te;vi &diRre&koNe'seR2\ a&supe&RjoRiçda;di3 3 duçsOu3 3|| ¿vo'se gos'tou12 ¿&daisto'Ri;Na2| ¿ke'Re;muz &repe'ti;la12|||) English pronunciation of Portuguese 7.5.7. (¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti j¯u'sØ;ı2 phø;fi'A;vån &s‘¨b>i'khwA:ı DÈz'DøÙs2\ &™>¯u&maÙs'fø;Ti3 3| 5khwånD¯u &s¯usÈ'D™I¯ pÈ'sA:> ¯uMv¤È'ZånTi2\ ¤M5vØıT¯u &n¯umû'khA;på3 3| aÖ5v™Il¯u2 'phøÙnsi Diû'khø;D¯u2 ™I˙5kh‘¨m¯ û'kh™Ili &khIip>¤'m™‘>¯u2 &k‘¨nsû5gIisi Èb>¤'gA:> ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 ÈT¤5>A:> û'khA;pÈ32 sÈ&>¤ûkûn&s¤DÈ'>A;D¯u2 ¯u&maÙs'fø;Ti3 3|| ¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti &k‘¨m¤5s‘;¨ ÈsÈ'ph>A:2 kû5m¯u¤nTÈ 'f¯uÈ>iå3 3| mÈs5khwånT¯ 'maÙs sÈ'ph>A;vå32| 5ma;Ùz ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 &s¤mb>¯u5ljA;vÈ &nås¨û'khA;på3 3| È'Th™;I2 k¤¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti2 &D¤s¤'sTIi¯u3 3|| ¯u5sØı b>¤¬'j‘;¨ ™In'ThaÖn2 kûn5Th‘¨D¯ spl™n'Dø:3 3| Ii&m™D¤ÈTÈ'm™nTi2 ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 ˚T¤'>‘;¨3 3 ˚û'khA;på3 3| IiÈ'sI;in2 ¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti32\ 5Th™Ivi DÈ&>¤kû~jÈ's™‘2\ È&s¯upÈ>i&ø;>¤'DA;Di3 3 D¯'sØ;ı3 3|| ¿vÈ5s™;I gû'sT‘;¨21 ¿&DaÙsTÈ'>Iinjå2| ¿khû5>™ImÈs &>™pÈ'ThIilå21|||)

8. Russian 8.0.1. ˛e Russian pronunciation given in this chapter is the modern neutral one, which is decidedly more relevant and less far from spelling (which we certainly cannot deﬁne as çfriendlyÇ, in particular for traditional pronunciation, which had an even greater number of inconsistencies). In any case, we will show the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronunciation as well (§ 8.3.2). ˛e latter mostly coincides with the çold Moscow pronunciationÇ. We will also give other more recent variants, which may be found, in a more or less (un)systematic way, even among people believed to be çneutralÇ speakers, who can oscillate among modern, traditional, and çalternativeÇ variants. However, modern neutral pronunciation is clearly deﬁnable and recognizable, and appreciable indeed, although frequently mixed with the other two types. Furthermore, our own phonemic interpretation di‡ers from Russian-inspired ones, because it looks more to concrete things than to (more) abstract ones, which are further away from the true linguistic intuition of native speakers, unless they are çdeviatedÇ by archaic Soviet preconceived patterns, to the point of accepting inappropriate solutions without questioning. ‹at is more, this analysis of ours is closer to the o‚cial writing, with obvious advantages which compensate for many other discordances between orthography and pronunciation. Obviously, some other authors have preferred this kind of analysis, as Troﬁmov “ Jones (1923), which we had not yet çdiscoveredÇ at the time of our early interpretation, presented for the ﬁrst time in 1975. We maintain it here, with some reﬁnements (even phonetic ones, with respect to previous choices which turned out to coincide with those of Troﬁmov “ Jones – with six vowel phonemes, although they treated even coronal –palatalized– consonants in a phoneme-like way). Unfortunately and strangely, the structuring in Jones “ Ward (1969) is of a çfanta-SovietÇ type (given the direct involvement of Ward with the Soviet/Russian world and an unexplainable –to us– rethink on the part of Jones, who died two years before the publication of the book, about the adequacy of the 1923 analysis). Nevertheless, all in all, Jones “ Ward's book remains the best –extensive– treatise on the subject; it is decidedly better than the very heavy and (almost) unchanging Soviet and Russian productions. Most examples we provide are taken from the various texts given in the bibliography, by retranscribing them (or transcribing them entirely, when they were only graphemic or partial). We always do this both phonetically and phonemically, according to our principles and methods. Let us focus attention on another notational di‡erence, as well: between our transcriptions (which are phonetically and phonemically canIPA) and the oƒIPA (which is o‚cial after the 1993/96 reform): ('Áe8) /'djenj/ {/'dJenJ/oƒ} denì˚ (='ÁeÀ)

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/z'djesj/ {/'zJdJesJ/oƒ} ‘decì˚ (='Á™;ıx⁄) /z'djelatj/ {/'zJdJElÈtJ/oƒ} cdelatì˚ (&⁄i¬i'vi;Ái~i[ã]I) /tili'vidiniji/ {/tJIlJI'vJidJInJIjI/oƒ} teleb$den$e˚ (x&jiÀ⁄Ist'v™;÷ -iÀ⁄'v™;) /ajistist'vje/ {/ajIsJtJI'sJtJvJE/oƒ;t, ¤ o‚cial and traditional) o ectectbe˘ It seems quite obvious to us that an excess of (J) is certainly harmful to readability too. 8.0.2. At the beginning, we think it useful to show the Cyrillic alphabet, both roman and italic. ˛e latter especially, since the shape of some letters can be misleading at ﬁrst, by comparison with the Roman (or Latin) ones typical of certain kinds of transliteration, which are given in brackets. It is not recommendable to use the ambiguous ch for /x/, since kh is decidedly more appropriate, while keeping ch for /c/ (in case the most satisfying choice of using £ /c/ and x /x/ is not made). For Cyrillic writing, it is important to pay particular attention to the roman >b, e, n, p, c, y, x≥, and the italic >e, $, π, p, c, t, y, x≥. a, a [a] ('Fa;) /'a/ ∫, ∫ [b] ('bF™;) /'be/ b, b [v] ('vF™;) /'ve/ g, g [g] ('gF™;) /'ge/ d, d [d] ('dF™;) /'de/ e, e [e˚ je˚ ye] ('j™;) /'je/ e/É, e/É [ë˚ jo˚ yo] ('jø;) /'jo/ µ, µ [`˚ zh] ('qF™;) /'qe/ ‘, ‘ [z] ('zF™;) /'ze/ $, $ [i] ('i;) /'i/ =, = [j˚ ¤] (&ik'RFatkx[ã]I) /“ik'ratkaji/ $ kpatkoe k, k [k] ('kFa;) /'ka/ l, l [l] ('F™1, -Ó) /'el/ m, m [m] ('F™≈) /'em/ n, n [n] ('F™n) /'en/ o, o [o] ('jø;) /'o/ π, π [p] ('pF™;) /'pe/ p, p [r] ('F™Í) /'er/

c, c [s] ('F™s) /'es/ t, t [t] ('tF™;) /'te/ y, y [u] ('ju;) /'u/ f, f [f ] ('F™f) /'ef/ x, x [x˚ 9˚ h˚ >! {® u}) ('∆Fa;) /'xa/ z, z [c˚ _] ('qF™;)/'qe/ u, u [£˚ >] ('Cã™;) /'ce/ w, w [∞˚ ´] ('SFa;) /'Sa/ ∑, ∑ [3˚ (˚ ´>] (ë'ëãa;) /S'Sa/ œ, œ [≤] (t'vøRd¢iz&nak,' j™Í) /t'vjord…iznak, 'jer/ tbepdv= ‘nak v, v [y˚ y] ('F…;, jI'RF…;) /…, ji'r…/ ì, ì ['] ('mÅâ©iiz&nak, 'ma©©ii-, 'jeÌ) /'mjaxkiiznak, 'mjakkii-, 'jerj/ mrgk$= ‘nak <, < [e˚ è˚ “] ('F™;, &F™åbå'Rjøtnx[ã]I) /'e, “eaba'rotnaji/ < o∫opotnoe ù, ù [ju˚ yu] ('ju;) /'ju/ r, r [ja˚ ya] ('ja;) /'ja/

8.0.3. In Russian, the normal phonetic syllabiﬁcation, although not absolutely, considers that /r, l/ preceded by /0[j]/ are heterosyllabic, unless they are preceded by another C (as in (&xåtås'tRa;dx) /aftas'trada/ abtoctpada and other examples in the text). ˛e same occurs for /0j-jé/ (J-jé): (kåp'ıjun) /kap'lun/ kaπlyn, ('jutRx) /'utra/ ytpo, (kvåd'RFat) /kvad'rat/ kbadpat, ('pFak-¬x) /'paklja/ πaklr, (ıåv'Rjø;v¢i) /lav'rov…i/ labpobv=, ('jø∆-Rx) /'oxra/ oxpa, (zviç'jø;) /zvirj'jo/ ‘bepìe˘ ˛is may not be very surprising within words; but perhaps it could seem to be a bit strange in word-initial position. Actually, if we adequately consider not single words but the phrases and sentences which contain them, the logic behind this de-

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cision is (almost) evident. In fact, if we listen carefully, this syllabiﬁcation is generally conﬁrmed, although it is possible to ﬁnd contrary opinions: (t'çi;) /t'ri/ tp$, (s'pjøÍ) /s'por/ cπop, (t'vøRd¢i) /t'vjord…i/ tbepdv=, (&ik'RFatkx[ã]I) /“ik'ratkaji/ $ kpatkoe, (s'tRFa∆) /s'trax/ ctpax, (s'pıFaf) /s'plaf/ cπlab˘ Vowels 8.1.1. Russian orthography is clearly based on morphonological principles, which certainly privilege lexical and grammatical structures (even diachronically!) in comparison with phonic ones. ˛e latter are considered more in the abstract, more in phonological terms, but still chieﬂy morphologically. Nevertheless, di‡erently from most languages, in Russian orthography we ﬁnd that the phonology of vowels and consonants is presented fairly çspontaneouslyÇ, as felt by çnaïveÇ speakers; not in the çsophisticatedÇ way linguists do, with useless complications both for teaching and descriptive purposes. Indeed, the Russian orthography uses six vocalic graphemes which correspond exactly to the number of vowel phonemes of this language: $, <, a, o, y, v /i, e, a, o, u, …/ (clearly, >e, r, É, ù≥ do not indicate çvowelsÇ, but sequences of /j/ + /e, a, o, u/, that is (j) or (J) + (™, a, ø, u), or (e, Å, P, ¯) when they are also followed by Ç = /J, i/). By using these six vowel phonemes (obviously listed in a phonic order), twenty-two consonant phonemes (including /Z/) are su‚cient, in contrast with over thirty (¤ from thirty-three up to thirty-nine) used in other analyses, which persist in positing only ﬁve vowels. Of course, this –excessively– complicates both the whole phonological inventory and the relation between pronunciation and writing. If a comparison is made, the choice is simple and even obvious. In fact, it seems to be more logical and natural to conclude by saying that, in Russian, C have taxophones which are çpatalalizedÇ by /i, j/, rather than to imagine some çsoftÇ C which would (çautomaticallyÇ!) make the Russian speakers produce çsoft(ened)Ç V˚ whereas çhardÇ C would make them produce çhard(ened)Ç V˚ by advancing the false excuse that çRussian-speaking people are unable to pronounce a clear i (i) sound after k (k)Ç. û 8.1. Russian vowel elements. /'i, ’0iJ/ (i), /i'/ (I°), /’i/ (I) /'…/ (…), /…'/ (¢°), /’…/ (¢) /'JeJ/ (e) /'e/ (™) {/'e˘, "e/ (™[Ä])} /'JaJ/ ('Å, "Å{Ä})

/u/ (u), /JuJ/ (¯) /'JoJ/ (P) /'o/ {/’o/} (ø) {/'o˘, "o/ (ø[∏])} /’a/ (x), /a'/ (å) /'a/ (a) {/'a˘, "a/ (a[å])}

/éi/ (éi) diphthongs÷ /éjé/ (é'jé, é’ãé), /éji/ (é'ãi, é’[ã]I), /'i, 'e, 'a, '…, 'o, 'u/ ('i, 'F™, 'Fa, 'F…, 'jø, 'ju)

In modern pronunciation, even the oddity of (©iiò) /kiiò/ >-k$=≥, traditionally pronounced as ç/k…i/Ç, disappears. ˛erefore, by deﬁnitively reversing the çprob-

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lemÇ, everything becomes simple. As a matter of fact, Russian-speaking people say (©i) and (k…) (in stressed syllables ('©i;), ('kF…;)), since phonemically they are /ki, k…/ not ç/©i, ki/Ç; and the same is true of (’bI, 'bi;÷ ’b¢, 'bF…;) /bi÷ b…/ (not ç/bi÷ bi/Ç), Â. In addition, for /Jò, J0/, the very spelling indicates /0j/ through >Cì≥, except in cases where the pronunciation changed centuries ago (whereas the orthography has remained unchanged, still keeping sequences such as wì˚ µì). Furthermore, there are (more or less incomplete) assimilations for /00j/, which become (0J), or (JJ), depending on the type of pronunciation – (more) modern or (more) traditional, as we will soon see (§ 8.3.2.0-11). 8.1.2. In stressed syllables, the six vowel phonemes are realized as the black markers shown in û 8.1. Obviously, those with a white center also correspond to certain unstressed contexts that we will see later on: (t'çi;) /t'ri/ tp$, ('F™;Rx) /'era/ <pa, ('kFak) /'kak/ kak, ('tjøt) /'tot/ tot, ('jum) /'um/ ym, ('bF…t) /'b…t/ ∫vt; besides, we also have: ('qF™∆) /'qex/ zex, ('SFak) /'Sak/ wag, ('qjuk) /'quk/ µyk˘ As some examples have already shown, there are some interesting di‡erences in our phonetic transcriptions in comparison with phonemic ones, apart from symbol variations such as (™) /e/, (ø) /o/. ‹ile (i, I) /i/ remain unchanged (except in the sequences (ãi, ãI) /’ji/, which represent >$≥ after V˚ and >e≥ in unstressed syllables), the most important element is instead the prevelar semi-approximant (F), occurring before stressed /e, a, …/, and the velar rounded semi-approximant (j), before stressed /o, u/ (all of them preceded or not by a di‡erent C from /j, c, SS, ZZ/). ˛erefore, the V which are di‡erent from /i/ are realized as sequences of (F) + (™, a, …), or (j) + (ø, u); in particular this happens in stressed syllables, even in compounds and in sentences where distinct timbres occur; that is with /’e, ’o/ too. Obviously, (F, j) are less çevidentÇ than fully prevelar, or velar rounded, approximants, (j, w); (w) occurs in English ('w¤T, 'khw¤T, 'wø:{<}) /'wIt, 'kwIt, 'wO:≤/ wit, quit˚ war. It is to be noted that (F, j) are quite di‡erent from a phonic zero, (`) (although naïve Russian speakers would swear they cannot hear anything but (`)), as in English ('¤T, 'kh¤T, 'ø:{<}) /'It, 'kIt, 'O:{≤}/ it˚ kit˚ oar). However, in unstressed syllables, the approximants (F, j) do not occur, as will be clear from some examples given below. It is important to explain from the very beginning the palatalizing function of the phonemes /i, j/ on the C which precede them. ˛us we have to pre-empt, here, the triple division of the Russian C. We ﬁnd çnormalÇ C, which are palatalizable\ /m, n÷ r÷ l/ (m, m÷ n, ~÷ R, ç÷ ı, ¬), /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, p÷ b, b÷ t, ⁄÷ d, Á÷ k, ©÷ g, á), /f, v÷ s, z÷ x/ (f, f÷ v, v÷ s, À÷ z, =÷ ∆, â). ˛en there are the palatal ones, in the general sense that they have a real çpalatalÇ component, in spite of their actual realizations: /j, c, S[S], ZZ/ (j, ã÷ C[ã], ‚÷ ë[ë], ëë[ã]÷ òò). ≈nally, we have non-palatal C\ /q÷ S, q/ (q÷ S, q), which are never palatalized (although spelling sequences like >z$, we, µì≥ exist: (S'ju;) /S'ju/ wìù). We must always keep in mind, then, that */qi÷ Si, qi/ do not occur (any longer) but are substituted by /q…÷ S…, q…/, in spite of historical writings with >z, w, µ≥ followed by >$, e, r, ù, ì≥˘ 8.1.3. After all, /i, j/ (and /c÷ S, Z/) would be su‚cient to adequately explain how the Russian phonemic system works, which is so typical because of palatali-

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zation˘ ˛erefore, we can represent (in general, as a functional category, especially in our concise phonemic formulae) those C which have a palatal component (¤ (j) /j/, (C) /c/, (ë[ë]) /S[S]/, (òò) /ZZ/) by means of /J/. In our formulae, this also includes the typical diphthongs, (éi) /éi/ >V=≥]˚ as if they were ç/éj/Ç, which is a more abstract representation, often used but not by us. In fact, our only concession to abstraction is the use of /J/ in our formulae, even for /éi/. Another (more abstract) possibility, which is traditional and frequent in transliterations, would give //Sc// for /S[S]/. So if çnormalÇ C are followed by /i, j/, they are realized as çpalatalizedÇ (and absorb /j/): (m, ~÷ ç÷ ¬), (p, b÷ ⁄/+, Á/_÷ ©, á) ((⁄, Á) occur before V and heterorganic C; (+, _) occur before homorganic C], (f, v÷ À, =÷ â)÷ obviously, without the addition of the semi-approximants (F, j), before V˘ ˛erefore, we have: ('miÍ) /'mir/ m$p, ('vjø;Ài)) /'vosimj/ bocemì, ('~™;bx) /'njeba/ ne∫o, (kå8'©i;) /kanj'ki/ konìk$, ('çis) /'ris/ p$c, ('zjøÌkx) /'zorjka/ ‘opìka, ('kjøÌ) /'korj/ kopì, ('¬™s) /'ljes/ lec, (bå1'Sjøi) /balj'Soi/ ∫olìwo=, ('sjø1) /'solj/ colì, ('p™Ó) /'pjel/ πel, ('tjøp) /'topj/ toπì, ('bust) /'bjust/ ∫ùct, ('⁄™;ıx) /'tjela/ telo, ('mFa⁄) /'matj/ matì, (+'¬a;) /t'lja/ tlr, ('Áe;⁄I) /'djeti/ det$, (d'v™;, Á'-) /d'vje/ dbe, (_¬I'nFa;) /dli'na/ dl$na, ('©it) /'kit/ k$t, (&mx~i'©juÍ) /mani'kjur/ man$kùp, ('njø;áI) /'nogi/ nog$, ('fi;~Ik) /'finik/ f$n$k, (k'Rjøf) /k'rofj/ kpobì, ('veÀ) /'vjesj/ becì, (å'À™;) /f'sje/ bce (also (å'Àø;) /f'sjo/ èbcÉ¶) ('gjuÀ) /'gusj/ gycì, (=I'mFa;) /zi'ma/ ‘$ma, ('⁄i;âii) /'tixii/ t$x$=˘ Naturally, even (C, 'Cãé, ‚) /c/, (ë[ë]) /S[S]/ (and (òò) /ZZ/) have the value of Ç: ('Cã™k) /'cek/ uek, (∆å'Cãu;) /xa'cu/ xouy, (C'¬™n) /c'ljen/ ulen, (åı‚'bFa;) /alc'ba/ alu∫a, (ë'ëit) /S'Sit/ ∑$t, (Ië'ëãu;) /iS'Su/ $∑y, (tå'vFa;çië[ë]) /ta'variS[S]/ tobap$∑˘ ˛e phoneme (òò) /ZZ/ is particular and typical only of a kind of traditional and old-fashioned pronunciation: ('vjøòòI) /'voZZi/ boµµ$, ('jeòòu) /'jeZZu/ e‘µy. ˛e most modern and recommendable pronunciation has (qq) /qq/, in almost all words: ('vjøqq¢, 'j™qqu) /'voqq…, 'jeqqu/. Initial /j/ is Ç par excellence, and even after V (keeping well in mind that >e, r, É, ù≥ –being simply C + V sequences, not çdiphthongsÇ– correspond to /j/ + /e, a, o, u/): (jI'zF…k) /ji'z…k/ r‘vk, ('j™Ó) /'jel/ el, ('ja;) /'ja/ r, ('jøS) /'joS/ eµ, ('juk) /'juk/ ùg, (må'ja;) /ma'ja/ mor, (så'jus) /sa'jus/ coù‘, (d'vjø[;ã]I) /d'voji/ dboe, ('njø;vxãx) /'novaja/ nobar, ('Ài;~i[ã]I) /'siniji/ c$nee˘ 8.1.4. ˛e four vowel phonemes /e, a, o, u/ may occur between Ç˚ and are realized closer — fronter, as indicated by the grey markers, (e, Å, P, ¯) (again in û 8.1): ('je1) /'jelj/ elì, ('pÅ⁄) /'pjatj/ πrtì, ('⁄P;⁄x) /'tjotja/ tetr, (⁄¯'fak) /tju'fjak/ tùfrk˘ ˛e advancement and raising of /[0]iJ/ is decidedly more limited, (iï) (and, in the vocogram, there is no special marker di‡erent from the one for normal (i), so as not to render the ﬁgure too heavy): ('bi⁄) /'bitj/ ∫$tì˘ On the contrary, /…/ does not occur in this context; and this phenomenon has cultivated the myth of the complementarity of (i, …). So they are grouped in the same phoneme, /i/, under the delusion that a çbetterÇ phonological system has been found – while it is exactly the contrary. çDeviantÇ schooling is hard to re-

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move, especially in regard to o‚cial writing (with its known and less known problems) and çrespellingÇ, which is even used in schools in addition to in çscientiﬁcÇ works, with phonemic ambitions. ˛ey would like to ﬁnd –almost alchemist's– solutions, by using complex formulae and esoteric iconograms (which we will be careful not to reproduce). In û 8.1, three çpotentialÇ phonetic diphthongs, (™Ä, aå, ø∏), are also given, which can substitute (™;, a;, ø;) (with an çinterpalatalÇ variant, (ÅÄ), for (Å;)). ˛ey occur mainly in intonemes, in unchecked (ﬁnal or internal) syllables: (å'À™;, å'À™Ä÷ -ø;, -ø∏) /f'sje÷ -jo/ bce, ('F™;∆x, 'F™Ä∆x) /'exa/ <xo, ('dFa;, 'dFaå) /'da/ da, ('Fa;tx≈, 'Faåtx≈) /'atam/ atom, ('ÁÅ;Áx, 'ÁÅÄÁx) /'djadja/ drdr, (d'njø;, d'njø∏) /d'no/ dno, ('gjø;ıxs, 'gjø∏ıxs) /'golas/ goloc˘ ˛ey also occur for emphasis, in which case they are longer; thus we have in unchecked syllables (™;Ä÷ a;å, Å;Ä÷ ø;∏): (å"À™;Ä÷ -ø;∏) /f'sje÷ -jo/ bce, ("F™;Ä∆x) /'exa/ <xo, ("dFa;å) /'da/ da, ("Fa;åtx≈) /'atam/ atom, ("ÁÅ;ÄÁx) /'djadja/ drdr, (d"njø;∏) /d'no/ dno, ("gjø;∏ıxs) /'golas/ goloc; and in checked syllables (™Ä÷ aå, ÅÄ÷ ø∏): ("~™Ät) /"njet/ net!, ("qFaå1) /"qalj/ µalì!, ("pÅÄ⁄) /"pjatj/ πrtì!, ("djø∏≈) /"dom/ dom! 8.1.5. Russian also has some ço‚cialÇ diphthongs, all with a front second element /éi/ (éi). Here we will consider those occurring in stressed syllables: ('©ii) /'kii/ k$=, ('pei⁄I) /'pjeiti/ πe=te, ('mFai) /'mai/ ma=, ('CãÅi) /'cai/ ua=, ('bjøi) /'boi/ ∫o=, (zå'çPi) /za'rjoi/ ‘ape=, ('djui⁄I) /'duiti/ dy=te, ('Á¯i≈) /'djuim/ dù=m, ('vF…idu) /'v…idu/ bv=dy. As can be seen, the orthography uses >=≥ for diphthongs çconsecratedÇ by grammar. However, mainly in loanwords, others occur, as >ay≥: ('fFaust) /'faust/ Fayct˘ In unstressed syllables, we have (again with (éi)): ('ju;¬ii) /'uljii/ yle=, (Cii'kjøås©ii) /cii'kofskii/ Ua=kobck$=, (tåi'gFa;) /tai'ga/ ta=ga, ('Á™;ıxi⁄I) /'djelaiti/ dela=te, (ui'dju;) /ui'du/ y=dy, (Á¯i'mjøåkx) /djui'mofka/ dù=mobka, ('b™;ı¢i) /'bjel…i/ ∫elv=˘ Instead, purely graphemic çdiphthongsÇ like >$$˚ $r˚ e$˚ ee˚ ae˚ ar˚ aù˚ oe˚ ve≥ do not correspond at all to phono-diphthongs, except when the semi-approximant (which is shown in round brackets, (é[ã]é)) falls completely. In this case, however, if the last vocalic element is /i/, the phone (I) is maintained (instead of having (i), as in phonemic diphthongs, unless it is followed –in sentences– by (J) or /i/): (vI'tFa;¬i[ã]I, v¢-) /vi'taliji, v…-/ b *tal$$, (vRåÀ'Ài[;ã]I) /vras'siji/ b Pocc$$, ('¬i;¬i[ã]x) /'lilija/ l$l$r, (mu'=e[;ã]I) /mu'zjeji/ my‘e$/-ee (Ô (mu'=ei) /mu'zjei/ my‘e=], (å'Àe~~i[ã]I) /a'sjenniji/ ocennee, (6'ma[;ã]I) /v'maji/ b mae, (&~IRu'SF…;mxãx) /niru'S…maja/ nepyw$mar, (z'nFa;ãu) /z'naju/ ‘naù, ('njø;vx[ã]I) /'novaji/ noboe˚ ('juqn¢[ã]I) /'juqn…ji/ ùµnve˘ ˛e following examples are bisyllabic: (på'juk) /pa'uk/ πayk, (må'ãi;) /ma'ji/ mo$, (på'F™t) /pa'et/ πo
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out a pause), (å', ò’å, ’x) /a/, (u) /u/, (¢', ’¢) /…/: (CI'sF…;) /ci's…/ uacv, (pi'⁄i;) /pi'ti/ πrt$, (&ãIz¢'kFa;) /jiz…'ka/ r‘vka, (å'bF…;Cii) /a'b…cii/ o∫vua=, (&jIRå'ıFaS) /jira'laS/ epalaw, (&piçimi'¬i;) /pirimi'li/ πepemel$, (&I¬Ik'tçi;CIstvx) /ilik'tricistva/ r≥ in unstressed syllables (and for >Ça≥ too), it is important to explain that neutral pronunciation has only /i/, whereas a transversal use of (‘, È) (or even (x, å) /’a/) is very widespread, although decidedly non-neutral. ˛is occurs both in traditional and alternative pronunciation (and indeed even for speakers who are neutral, one way or another!). ˛is can occur both within lexemes, and in inﬂected forms with >r+C≥ consonantal endings (inﬂuenced by the forms ending in -r, with /’ja/, (Jx, ãx)). ˛us we have: (pIt'njø;, ≠p‘t-, ≠påt-) /pit'no/ πrtno, (jI'zF…k, ≠j‘-, ≠jx-) /ji'z…k/ r‘vk, (&jIz¢'©i;, ≠&j‘-, ≠&jx-) /jiz…'ki/ r‘vk$, (&pxg¬i'Á™Ó, ≠-¬È-, ≠-¬å-) /pagli'djel/ πoglrdel, ('nFa;CIt, ≠-C‘t, ≠-Cxt) /'nacit/ nauat, (å'bF…;Cii, ≠-C‘i, ≠-Cxi) /a'b…cii/ o∫vua=, ('kjøRmIt, ≠-m‘t, ≠-mxt) /'kormit/ kopmrt, ('Áe;⁄I≈, ≠-⁄‘≈, ≠-⁄x≈) /'djetim/ detrm, ('zFa;~IÓ, ≠-‘Ó, ≠-xÓ) /'zanil/ ‘anrl, (&bIspi'⁄i 'pÅ⁄, ≠&bÙspå'⁄i 'pÄ⁄, ≠-pÈ'⁄i) /bispi'ti 'pjatj/ ∫e‘ πrt$ πrtì. (Please note the variants of -$k, as well: (s'pju+~Ik, ≠-~‘k, ≠-~xk) /s'putnik/ cπytn$k.) çNormalÇ traditional pronunciation, for (pretonic) >e', r', Ça'≥ (¤ occurring in syllables immediately before the stressed or tonic one in a intoneme) has ç/’e/Ç (É', Ù'+J), which correspond to modern pronunciation /’i/ (I, iJ): (&bIspÙ'⁄i 'pÄ⁄)t, as also happens in: (bi'çø;zx)m (bÙ-)t /bi'rjoza/ ∫epe‘a. In vowel sequences which contain /’a/, we generally ﬁnd an extension of the use of (å): (&vååb-Rå'qFa⁄) /vaabra'qatj/ boo∫paµatì, (nåu'gFat) /nau'gat/ naygad, (&påådnå'mju;) /paadna'mu/ πo odnomy, (&nååstRå'vFa∆) /naastra'vax/ na octpobax, (u&ådnå'vjø;) /uadna'vo/ y odnogo, (såu'Cãas[t]vxvxÓ) /sau'cas[t]vaval/ coyuactbobal, (sååt'v™s[t]vxvx⁄) /saat'vjes[t]vavatj/ cootbetctbobatì. Consonants 8.2. ˛e phonemic structuring we prefer for Russian only has twenty-two consonant phonemes (including /ZZ/), which combine with the six vowels, as we have already seen in the previous sections. Here we will systematically consider Russian C's according to their manners of articulation. Let us observe that no voiced diphonic C occurs before a pause or a voiceless C: ('bjøp) /'bop/ ∫o∫, ('mjøsk) /'mosk/ mo‘g, (t'Rjup©I) /t'rupki/ tpy∫k$, (åså'dju;) /fsa'du/ b cady. In addition, no voiceless C occurs before a diphonic voiced C (/v/ is a bit particular, Ô § 8.3.1.7): (z'bF…⁄) /z'b…tj/ c∫vtì, (zgå'RF…;) /zga'r…/ c gopv. ≈nally, in general, son(or)ants are partially devoiced before either voiceless C or pauses; usually, between a voiceless C and a pause, they become voiceless, unless they become intense, in which case they are voiced or half-voiced (according

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laryngeal

velar rounded

velar

prevelar

palatal

prepalatal

postalveo-palatal

velarized alveolar

alveolar

dental

palatalized labiodental

labiodental

labio-palatal

bilabial

û 8.2. Table of Russian consonants.

velariz. postalveo-pal. protruded (non-pr.*)

to their phonic context): ('qF…Í) /'q…r/ µ$p, (Í'tFa;) /r'ta/ pta, ('kFaÍtx) /'karta/ kapta, ('bjøbÍ, -;b“) /'bobr/ ∫o∫p, (_'~™p5, -;p”) /d'njepr/ Dneπp. ˛e table in û 8.2 shows the consonantal articulations of Russian, which are necessary for an appropriate pronunciation of this language. Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms of all the contoids treated in the chapters of this book, by grouping them according to manners of articulation, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants, for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is way of displaying them makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent languages more straightforward.

m (m) (M) (“) (n) n (~) (2)* (~) (N) (˙) ö F p b (p b) t d (+ _) (© á) k g Ô q (Q) C (‚) (⁄ Á) ƒ (å 6) f v (f v) _ s z ë {ò} S q (À =) (,|J) (y) ß (â) j|(ã) (F) (∆) (j) {H} R (ç) ó ‹ ı (¬) (L) /c÷ S, Z÷ x÷ r÷ l/ (C÷ ë, ò÷ ∆÷ R÷ ı)÷ /m, n÷ r÷ l/+(), £÷ 5÷ ñ, Ñ) + ((º, ª, ¸, √, n))

Nasals 8.2.1. Russian has only two nasal phonemes, /m, n/, with various taxophones, especially for the latter. ˛us: /m/ (m, m, M, “) and /n/ (m, m, M, “, n, ~, 2, N, ˙) (more speciﬁc symbols like ((˙, n, ˝)) are not necessary, but –as we will shortly see– (º, ¸, n÷ ª, √) can be used, for a less-assimilated kind of coarticulation, which maintains their front lingual contact –alveolar/prepalatal– while adding a secondary articulation with no contact: bilabial, labiodental, velar). For /m/: ('mFa;mx) /'mama/ mama, ('ıFa≈px) /'lampa/ lamπa, ('njøR≈) /'norm/ nopm, ('çit), 'çi;tM) /'ritm/ p$tm, ('çiå), 'çi;åM) /'rifm/ p$fm, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (≈'∆Fa;) /m'xa/ mxa, (mg'ıFa;) /mg'la/ mgla, ('mik) /'mik/ m$g, ('mÅ⁄) /'mjatj/ mrtì, ('Àe)) /'sjemj/ cemì, (Im'biÌ) /im'birj/ $m∫$pì, (åM'vjøn) /am'von/ ambon, ('FaõfxRx) /'amfara/ amfopa. /m/ can occur befor heterorganic C: (m'gıFa;) /m'gla/ mgla, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (≈'∆Fa;) /m'xa/ mxa; however, for /mj/, and /m/ + /i/, we regularly have (m): ('miÍ) /'mir/ m$p, ('Àe)) /'sjemj/ cemì. For /n/: (&jømbi'çøt, &jøª-) /ombi'rjot, on-/ on ∫epet˚ (kåM'vFa;, -¸'v-) /kan'va/ kanba, (åõ'fFas, å∞-) /an'fas/ anfac, ('njøs) /'nos/ noc, (n'RFaf) /n'raf/ npab, (kå'mFa~ÁI) /ka'mandi/ komande, ('~i⁄) /'nitj/ n$tì, ('kjø8) /'konj/ konì˚ (bi~'=in)

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/bin'zin/ ∫en‘$n, (&bxRå'bFa8ëIk) /bara'banSik/ ∫apa∫an∑$k, (©I2'qFaÓ) /kin'qal/ k$nµal, ('RFaNS¢\) /'ranjS…/ panìwe, ('tjø˚©ii, -8©-÷ -~k¢i, -∫k¢i) /'tonkii/ tonk$=, ('bFa~k, -∫k) /'bank/ ∫ank˘ ˛us, /n0, nò0/ regularly assimilate. Also /nj/ becomes (~), but then it keeps its phonetic autonomy (even as a phonemic sequence, with a distinctive value), without neutralizations before other C. It must be said, though, as we have already seen from some examples, that –especially because of spelling inﬂuence (and mainly in less colloquial and more traditional pronunciation)– a complex coarticulated way of pronouncing is widespread, with partial assimilation: (ºb, ¸v, 8©, ∫k) Â, which would try to maintain ç(nb, nv, n©, nk)Ç Â. In these cases, people oscillate considerably; but, on the other hand, should it be important to emphasize a kind of pronunciation with heterorganic ((n0)), the orthography would use >nœ≥, at least within words; but it does not do so… Stops 8.2.2. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs which do not oppose before a pause or a voiceless C: /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, p, b, b÷ t, ⁄, +, d, Á, _÷ k, ©, g, á). ˛e actual articulation of çpalatalizedÇ /t, d/ is prepalatal which are stopstrictives, but stops before homorganic (or similar) C. Sometimes, we ﬁnd (+) before pauses as well): ('pjøt) /'pot/ πot, ('ıjøp) /'lop/ lo∫, ('peC) /'pjec/ πeuì, ('tjøp) /'topj/ toπì, ('gjø;ıup) /'golupj/ goly∫ì, ('bF…t) /'b…t/ ∫vt, (å'bF™;tx≈) /a'betam/ o∫
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Constrictives 8.2.4. For the time being, let us introduce the three constrictive diphonic pairs, (f, f, å÷ v, v, 6) /f, v/, (s, À÷ z, =) /s, z/, (S, q) /S, q/; apart from the palatalized taxophones (of the ﬁrst two pairs, but not of the last one), the labiodentals have a bilabial realization when they do not precede either /j, r, l/ or V (including the voiced approximants –(F, j)– which are added, from a phonetic point of view, in front of stressed vocoids): ('fjøn) /'fon/ fon, ('Rjøf) /'rof/ pob, (&ååtå'mFat) /afta'mat/ abtomat, (f'fi¬mI) /f'filjmi/ b f$lìme, ('v™Íf) /'vjerfj/ bepfì, ('vjøÓk) /'volk/ bolk, (S'kFa6q¢) /S'kavq…/ wkaf µe, ('sjøn) /'son/ con, (Rå'sFa;) /ra'sa/ poca. More examples: (À'~™k) /s'njek/ cneg, ('jøÀ) /'osj/ ocì, ('zjup) /'zup/ ‘y∫, (z'ıjøi) /z'loi/ ‘lo=, (z'b™;ı¢≈) /z'bjel…m/ c ∫elvm, (I'=u≈) /i'zjum/ $‘ùm, (&bi=Ái'⁄ei) /bizdi'tjei/ ∫e‘ dete=÷ ('SF™À⁄) /'Sestj/ wectì, ('ıjøS) /'loS/ loµì, ('qF™st) /'qest/ µect, (q'dFa⁄) /q'datj/ µdatì, (∆å'qju;) /xa'qu/ xoµy˘ Lastly, there is another –quite particular– voiceless constrictive, (ë[ë]) /S[S]/, which is lengthened before /é/, and has a traditional variant constituted by the corresponding constrictive followed by the (sometimes very weak) stopstrictive, (ëC). ˛is is more complicated and not at all necessary in modern pronunciation (indeed, as we have already said, it more aptly belongs to traditional pronunciation). Before a stressed V (when di‡erent from /i/), a (ã) is inserted: (ë'ëit)m (ë'Cit)t /S'Sit/ ∑$t, (påë'ëãa;dx)m (påëC'ã-)t /paS'Sada/ πo∑ada, ('bjøÍë)m (-ëC)t /'borS/ ∫op∑. ˛e possible sequence (ëC) /Sc/ is di‡erent –but quite normal indeed– as in: (ë'ëã™≈÷ ë'Cã™≈) /S'Sem/ c uem (Ô § 8.3.2.5). Approximants 8.2.5.1. From a phonemic point of view, Russian has two approximants. Palatal /j/, which is realized as fully palatal either before a stressed V, ('jé), or in initial position in a rhythm group before a (stressed or unstressed) V, (òjé). Instead, /j/ is realized as a palatal semi-approximant after a (stressed or unstressed) V before another unstressed V\ (é’ãé) (and also in (é'ãi), for /é'ji/ >V$≥\ (må'ãi;) /ma'ji/ mo$]÷ after C˚ it changes the sequence into a çpalatalizedÇ C, /0j/ (J) (Ô § 8.1.2-3): ('jÅ⁄) /'jatj/ rtì, (ji'vi⁄) /ji'vitj/ rb$tì, (&mxãI'kjøås©ii) /maji'kofskii/ Markobck$=, (bå1'SFa;ãx) /balj'Saja/ ∫olìwar˘ For emphasis, or precision, we can have (j) = (,) (semi-constrictive) and, respectively, (ã) = (j). However, it is more important to note that, in non-slow speech, the /ijé, éji/ sequences are realized as (ié, éi): ('FaRmiãx, -mix) /'armija/ apm$r, (må'ãi;, må'i;) /ma'ji/ mo$˘ Sometimes, even in /éjé/ (éãé) sequences (without /i/), it is not easy to adequately perceive (ã), especially in fast speech: (bå1'SFa;ãx, -a[;ã]x) (above all in preintonemes). 8.2.5.2. Current Russian orthography still presents some old-fashioned ways of writing >w˚ µ˚ z≥ followed by >e˚ r˚ É˚ ù˚ $≥˚ and even by >ì≥˘ But in these cases, nowadays, the value of those V is /e, a, o, u, …/ (obviously, ç>É≥Ç is only used in dic-

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tionaries and teaching texts): ('qF™∆) /'qex/ zex, ('SjøÓk) /'Solk/ welk, (&pxRå'Sjut) /para'Sut/ πapawùt, ('qF…Ík) /'q…rk/ z$pk, ('qF…⁄) /'q…tj/ µ$tì, ('ıjøS) /'loS/ loµì˘ However, they can be followed by /j/ (j) inserted before the V (and in writing >ì≥ appears too): (S'jøt) /S'jot/ wìet, (S'ju;) /S'ju/ wìù, ('ıjøqju) /'loqju/ loµìù˘ Besides, the palatal approximant can occur after (J), too, then it is phonemically geminated /jj/, and may have a distinctive value: (s¢ç'jø;) /s…rj'jo/ cvpìe, (p'ju;) /pj'ju/ πìù, (Á'ja;vxÓ) /dj'javal/ dìrbol, (v'jut) /vj'jut/ bìùt, (IL'jiC) /ilj'jic/ *lì$u˘ Even /sjj, zjj/ can occur, but indicated with >œ≥ (although not always, as in cœeµ$tìcr, given at the end of this section): (À'j™;∆x⁄) /sj'jexatj/ cœexatì, (I='jÅ⁄) /izj'jatj/ $‘œrtì˘ ˛e same occurs for /Jj/: (C'ja;) /c'ja/ uìr (Ô ('Cãat) /'cat/ uad, where the di‡erence is clear also because of the di‡erent syllabic structure). ˛e /ljj, njj/ sequences are realized as (Lj, Nj) (or even (¬j, ~j), which are already su‚ciently di‡erent): (L'jøt) /lj'jot/ çs/he poursÇ lìet (Ô ('¬øt) /'ljot/ çiceÇ led or çﬂightÇ let]˚ (L'ju;) /lj'ju/ lìù, (vRåN'jø;) /vranj'jo/ bpanìe, (sviN'ja;) /svinj'ja/ cb$nìr˘ ˛ere are even cases where a (0) remains separated and uninﬂuenced by a following /j/; thus, if no stress sign is already present, it is necessary and su‚cient to introduce a hyphen in the phonemic transcription (as the orthography uses >œ≥): (åb'j™;∆x⁄) /ab'jexatj/ o∫œexatì, (s'jø;q¢qx) /s'joq…qa/ cœeµ$tìcr, (d&vu∆'ja;Rusn¢i) /d“vux'jarusn…i/ dbyxœrpycnv=, (t“RansjI6Rå'peis©ii) /t“rans-jivra'pjeiskii/ tpancœebpoπe=ck$=, (&m™q'ja;Rusn¢i) /“mjeq'jarusn…i/ meµœrpycnv=˘ 8.2.5.3. ˛e other approximant, /x/, in spite of its (constrictive) o‚cial symbol, is realized as (∆, â) (voiceless, velar or palatal, respectively); in addition, by assimilation to a following voiced C, we have (y), (velar) semi-constrictive, which di‡ers from the (less evident and less intrusive) non-phonemic element (F), automatically inserted before /'e, 'a, '…/ in the typical and genuine pronunciation (as happens with (j), before /'o, 'u/, Ô § 8.1.2): ('∆ju;q¢) /'xuq…/ xyµe, ('mjø∆) /'mox/ mox, ('âit-R¢i) /'xitr…i/ x$tpv=, (gå'Rjøyq¢) /ga'roxq…/ gopox µe˘ ˛us, phonetically, Russian has six approximant (or semi-approximant) phones: (j, ã) /j/÷ (∆, â) /x/; (F, j) /`/, and two semi-constrictives: (y) /x/ and (,) (a possible variant of /j/, Ô § 8.2.5.1). £Trills∞ 8.2.6. In the Russian phonemic system we ﬁnd only one çtrillÇ phoneme, which is realized either as an alveolar, (R), or a prepalatal, (ç), tap – according to contexts. For emphasis, or speaking in a slow and clear way, as in teaching, it is possible to hear the corresponding trills, (r, D), which may be used in these situations. But, for a good pronunciation, these are not necessary; instead, it is more important to respect the normal degrees of devoicing (Ô § 8.3.1.7): ('RFat) /'rat/ pad, ('pFaÍk) /'park/ πapk, ('pøt5, -;t”) /'pjotr/ ∏etp, ('çis) /'ris/ p$c, ('çat) /'rjat/ prd, (få'nFaÌ) /fa'narj/ fonapì, (Ài~'⁄abÌ, -;bh) /sin'tjabrj/ centr∫pì, ('vi∆[, -;∆·) /'vixrj/ b$xpì, ('jøbRxs) /'obras/ o∫pa‘, ('Fad-çIs) /'adris/ adpec˘

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Laterals 8.2.7. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme, /l/, with three taxophones, (ı, ¬, L) (independently of devoicing – Ô § 8.3.1.7); (ı) is a velarized alveolar, but it becomes (velarized) dental (which is possible to transcribe with ((Ï))), by assimilation before /t, d÷ q÷ s, z/: ('ıF…;q¢) /'l…q…/ lvµ$, (s'ıjø;vx) /s'lova/ clobo, ('djuÓ) /'dul/ dyl, ('igÓ, 'i;g®) /'igl/ $gl, (s'mF…sñ, -;s∆) /s'm…sl/ cmvcl, ('¬i;qx) /'liqa/ l$za, ('qFa1) /'qalj/ µalì, ('tjø1kx) /'toljka/ tolìko, ('pFa¬mx) /'paljma/ πalìma, ('Rjub1, -;bˆ) /'rublj/ py∫lì, ('mF…ÀÑ, -;À∆) /'m…slj/ mvclì, (&pjøı'¬it-Rx) /“pol'litra/ πol-l$tpa (here, lexical compounding shows how it prevails against phonology, since /l+l/ remain separated, (ı¬), instead of fusing into (¬¬)), (L'jut) /lj'jut/ lìùt˘ Some speakers can have a velarized dental (or denti-alveolar) (ı) in any case, instead of velarized alveolar, not only before dental articulations. Structures 8.3. In these sections we will deal above all with the di‡erences between the phonic structure and writing, which inevitably presents çsurprisesÇ, since pronunciation changes, whereas orthography remains unchanging, except for o‚cial reforms (which however are always insu‚cient and partial, as those of Peter the Great {1708-1710}, the Academy of Sciences {1735, 1738, 1758}, and Lenin {1917} – ('¬e;~In) /'ljenin/ Len$n). We will treat some di‡erent distributions of certain phonemes, in the formation of Russian words. Taxophonics 8.3.1.1. Let us start by contrasting some (similar, but not identical) structures, which foreigners are likely to confuse, thus compromising what they say. Russian grammar considers the division into grapho-syllables to be quite ﬂexible, for instance: /sis'tra/ (ÀIs'tRFa;) ce-ctpa˚ cec-tpa˚ cect-pa˘ ˛us, it is quite surprising that for the division into phono-syllables, instead, the prevailing approach perseveres in proposing (or imposing) */si'stra/, Ô § 8.0.3). In the case of graphic geminates, for instance, we have: An-na /'anna/, but phonetically ('Fannx). 8.3.1.2. Obviously, Russian has its particular phonotactics (¤ the grouping of phonemes). We will give some examples of di‡erent structures: ('vjøtkx) /'votka/ bodka, (g'Á™;) /g'dje/ gde, (s'vFaÁbx) /s'vadjba/ cbadì∫a, (t'kFaC) /t'kac/ tkau, (åp'pFaCkx⁄) /ap'packatj/ o∫πaukatì, (p'⁄i;qx) /p'tiqa/ πt$za, (pIt'njø;) /pit'no/ πrtno, (s'pju+~Ik) /s'putnik/ cπytn$k, (pi+'¬a;, pIt-, 'pe+-¬x) /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, (påd'møtkx) /pad'mjotka/ πodmetka, (À'⁄ep) /s'tjepj/ cteπì, (tk'nju⁄) /tk'nutj/ tknytì, (d'qjut) /d'qut/ dµyt, ('bju⁄kx) /'butjka/ ∫ydì-ka, (t'veÌ÷ ⁄'v-) /t'vjerj/ Tbepì, (+'¬a;) /t'lja/ tlr, (d'v™;÷ Á'v™;) /d'vje/ dbe, (_'~a;) /d'nja/ dnr, (k'v™Í∆u) /k'vjerxu/ kbepxy, (S'kju;Rx) /S'kura/ wkypa, (k'ıFaÀ⁄) /k'lastj/ klactì, ('©ja∆tx)

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/'kjaxta/ Krxta, (t'©jøt) /t'kjot/ tket, (ås'kjø;çI) /fs'kori/ bckope, (å⁄I'nu⁄) /fti'nutj/ btrnytì, (&påÍt'fe¬) /part'fjelj/ πoptfelì, (v'vøÓ) /v'vjol/ bbel, (v'jøt) /vj'jot/ bìet, ('©ju;gu, 'kju-) /'kjugu/ k ùgy, (k'~i;gx) /k'niga/ kn$ga, (6z'g¬at) /vz'gljat/ b‘glrd˘ In traditional (and traditional-like) pronunciation, the palatalization of /k, g/ also spreads to cases such as the last two: (k'~i;gx)m (©'~i-)t /k'niga/ kn$ga, (6z'g¬at)m (-á¬at)t /vz'gljat/ b‘glrd˘ More examples: (s'RFa;zu) /s'razu/ cpa‘y, (s'pRFa;vx) /s'prava/ cπpaba, ('zFaåtRx) /'zaftra/ ‘abtpa, (zRå'Cãøk) /zra'cok/ ‘pauok, (å'ÀÅ;©ii) /f'sjakii/ bcrk$=, (À'j™Ó) /sj'jel/ cœel, (6'=Å⁄) /v'zjatj/ b‘rtì, (='¬iqqx) /z'liqqa/ ‘l$tìcr, (='Á™;ıx⁄) /z'djelatj/ cdelatì, (dRu='ja;) /druzj'ja/ dpy‘ìr, (S'ju;) /S'ju/ wìù, (&åtSå'gFa⁄) /atSa'gatj/ otwagatì, (q'dFa⁄) /q'datj/ µdatì, (q'Áøt) /q'djot/ µdet, (q'qFa⁄) /q'qatj/ cµatì, (C'Cã™tnx) /c'cetna/ t∑etno, (∆'¬PëëI) /x'ljoSSi/ xlectue, (IS'SjøÓkx) /iS'Solka/ $‘ welka, (À⁄i'âi;) /sti'xi/ ct$x$, (∆'vjøst) /x'vost/ xboct, (Rås'qv™t) /ras'qvjet/ paczbet, (C'¬™n) /c'ljen/ ulen, (kåp'Cãø;n¢i) /kap'con…i/ koπuenv=, (CçIz'm™Rnx) /criz'mjerna/ upe‘mepno, (&åCëI'vjø;) /atci'vo/ otuego, (⁄'mFa;) /tj'ma/ tìma˘ Some further examples: (m'gıFa;) /m'gla/ mgla, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (m'ıFatS¢i) /m'latS…i/ mladw$=, (m'~e;~i[ã]I) /m'njeniji/ mnen$e, (≈'ëãe;~i[ã]I) /m'Seniji/ m∑en$e, (m'RFa;mxÍ) /m'ramar/ mpamop, (≈'Cãaqqx) /m'caqqa/ muatìcr, (çIå'¬iz≈, -;zõ) /ria'lizm/ peal$‘m, (ÁIåf'RFag≈, -;gõ) /diaf'ragm/ d$afpagm, ('veÁ≈, -;Áõ) /'vjedjm/ bedìm, (d'RFa∆), -;∆M) /d'raxm/ dpaxm, ('me;ÀIq) /'mjesiq/ mecrz, (å'pçÅm) /f'prjamj/ bπprmì, ('kFa=8, -;=«) /'kaznj/ ka‘nì, ('peÀ}, -;À¯) /'pjesnj/ πecnì, (ı'bFa;) /l'ba/ l∫a, (ı'gFa⁄) /l'gatj/ lgatì, ('igÓ, 'i;g®) /'igl/ $gl, ('RF…∆ñ, -;∆%) /'r…xl/ pvxl, (b'¬™dn¢i) /b'ljedn…i/ ∫lednv=, (S'¬a;px) /S'ljapa/ wlrπa, (Í'tFa;) /r'ta/ pta, (R'qF…;) /r'q…/ pµ$, (R've;~i[ã]I) /r'vjeniji/ pben$e, ('~™gÍ, -;g“) /'njegr/ negp, (åpi'çøt) /fpi'rjot/ bπeped, (ç'ja;nxÀ⁄) /rj'janastj/ pìrnoctì, (6'njut[, -;t·) /v'nutrj/ bnytpì˘ ≈nally, let us also observe: (åspıåk'nju⁄) /fsplak'nutj/ bcπlaknytì˘ 8.3.1.3. Generally, in Russian (but not necessarily, as for instance in quick pronunciation) stops and stopstrictives, in heterorganic sequences, are audibly released ((0$0)), whereas those in homorganic sequences are inaudibly released ((0æ0); only here we will use the special diacritics): (kå'Rjøp$kx) /ka'ropka/ kopo∫ka, (p$'⁄i;qx) /p'tiqa/ πt$za, (kup$'qju;) /kup'qu/ kyπzy, ('jøt$pusk) /'otpusk/ otπyck, (t$'kFaC) /t'kac/ tkau, (ë'ëãøt$kx) /S'Sotka/ ∑etka, (åd$'gFat$kx) /ad'gatka/ otgadka, (s'vFaÁ$bx) /s'vadjba/ cbadì∫a, (åÀig$'dFa;) /fsig'da/ bcegda, (g$'Á™;) /g'dje/ gde, (påd$'møt$kx) /pad'mjotka/ πodmetka, (zåt$'me;~i[ã]I) /zat'mjeniji/ ‘atmen$e, ('áib$nu⁄) /'gibnutj/ g$∫nytì, (k$'~i;gx) /k'niga/ kn$ga, (ÀiÁ$'mjøi) /sidj'moi/ cedìmo=, (d$'veÌ, Á$'veÌ) /d'vjerj/ dbepì˚ (kåg$'dFa;) /kag'da/ kogda, ('⁄øg$b¢) /'tjogb…/ tek ∫v˘ More: (pItæ'njø;) /pit'no/ πrtno, ('b™dæn¢i) /'bjedn…i/ ∫ednv=, (&vxRå+æ'~ik) /varat'nik/ bopotn$k, (pi+'¬a;, pItæ-, 'pe+æ¬x) /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, (fu+æ'¬aÍ) /fut'ljar/ fytlrp. In addition: (åp'pFaC$kx⁄) /ap'packatj/ o∫πaukatì, (åt'tju;dx) /at'tuda/ ottyda, (åq'qFa;) /at'qa/ otza, (&å⁄⁄I'njuÓ) /atti'nul/ ottrnyl, (å⁄'⁄u;dx) /at'sjuda/ otcùda (also (åt'Àu-), and even (åt'su-) /at'su-/), (&åCCI'vjø;) /atci'vo/ otuego (phonemic geminates –and similar homorganic sequences– are realized as phonetic geminates with a limited duration of the second element: ((0æ0))).

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8.3.1.4. In addition to /q, c/ (q, Q÷ C[ã], ‚), we also ﬁnd sequences like /ts, dz÷ tS, dq/ (ts, dz÷ tS, dq) (but generally /ts, dz/ (ts, dz) become /q/ {(q) and (Q)}, except in compounding, especially with preﬁxes): (&åts¢'ıFa;ãu) /ats…'laju/ otcvlaù, (påts'ıju;SxÓ) /pats'luSal/ πodclywal, (nåts'mjøt5, -;t”) /nats'motr/ nadcmotp, ('jødz¢f) /'odz…f/ ot‘vb, (&pxdzxgå'ıjø;vxk) /padzaga'lovak/ πod‘agolobok, (nåd'zjøÍ) /nad'zor/ nad‘op, (åt'SF™¬~Ik) /at'Seljnik/ otwelìn$k, (&åbvIt'SFa;ı¢i) /abvit'Sal…i/ o∫betwalv=, (&pxdq¢'gFa⁄) /padq…'gatj/ πodµ$gatì, ('tjødq¢) /'todq…/ tot µe, (d'qju˙g¬I) /d'qungli/ dµyngl$÷ (&gxRåq'kjøi, -ts'k-) /garats'koi/ gopodcko=, (så'v™q©ii, -ts©-) /sa'vjetskii/ cobetck$=, (ku'pFaqqx, -atsx) /ku'paqqa, -atsa/ kyπatìcr, ('Á™qtvx, -tst-) /'djetstva/ detctbo (only in careful speech the variants given after a comma are possible, and are due above all to the inﬂuence of spelling). Let us notice the di‡erences between /vj, vvj, v-j/ (v, vvj, vj), in: ('vøÓ) /'vjol/ bel, (v'vøÓ) /v'vjol/ bbel, (v'jøÓku, 'vø-) /v'jolku/ b elky; (vj) easily becomes (v). However, they can remain distinct in careful speech – above all in (the most) traditional one. 8.3.1.5. Nowadays, the basic forms with non-palatalizing endings, such as ('ıFa≈px) /'lampa/ lamπa, ('bjømbx) /'bomba/ ∫om∫a, make people produce even ('ıFa≈pI) /'lampi/ lamπe, ('bjømbI) /'bombi/ ∫om∫e, whereas in traditional pronunciation ('ıFa)pI, 'bjømbI) were normal. In any case, we always ﬁnd: (Im'biÌ) /im'birj/ $m∫$pì, (åm'bi;q¢ãx) /am'biq…ja/ am∫$z$r˘ 8.3.1.6. Consonant gemination is phonemic, even though it is realized as a simple –fairly limited– phonetic lengthening, which may be absent in fast(er) speech, unless it is thought important to keep the di‡erence (in the last two examples /n/ (n) corresponds to nn): ('SF…⁄) /'S…tj/ w$tì and (S'SF…⁄) /S'S…tj/ cw$tì, or (på'Á™Rqxn¢i) /pa'djerqan…i/ πodepµannv= and (påÁ'Á™Rqxn¢i) /pad'djerqan…i/ πoddepµannv=˘ ˛is kind of lengthening only occurs in word-initial position (even after a pause) or between V\ (f&fIv-Rå'¬™;) /ffivra'lje/ b febpale, (ss¢'ıFa⁄) /ss…'latj/ ccvlatì, (Iq'qjø;gx) /iq'qoga/ $‘µoga, ('qFa⁄) /q'qatj/ cµatì, (quq'qFa⁄) /quq'qatj/ µyµµatì, ('dFann¢i) /'dann…i/ dannve, ('jø⁄⁄ipi1) /'ottipilj/ otteπelì, (zå'bju⁄⁄I) /za'but[j]ti/ ‘a∫ydìte, (åÁ'Áe¬n¢i) /ad'djeljn…i/ otdelìnv=, ('jødd¢∆) /'odd…x/ otdvx. For /S[S]/ (ë[ë]) we have: (ë'ëit) /S'Sit/ ∑$t, (Ië'ëãu;) /iS'Su/ $∑y, ('bjøÍë) /'borS/ ∫op∑, (tå'vFa;çië[ë]) /ta'variS[S]/ tobap$∑; thus, after C˚ it is short; when ﬁnal after V˚ it is short (or slightly geminated). 8.3.1.7. As we have seen from various examples, the Russian voiced diphonic phonemes are substituted by the corresponding voiceless ones, before a pause, or before voiceless C: (d'Rjuk) /d'ruk/ dpyg, ('vjøtkx) /'votka/ bodka, (&bIskx¬I'ba;~ii) /biskali'banii/ ∫e‘ kole∫an$=˘ On the contrary, the voiceless phonemes are substituted by the corresponding voiced ones (or by voiced phones, in the case of /q, c/ (Q, ‚)), before a voiced diphonic C: (&å~Ig'djøt) /anig'dot/ anekdot, (&å6gx~Is'tFan) /avganis'tan/ Afgan$ctan, (g'djø;mu) /g'domu/ k domy, (å'⁄™Qb¢Ó) /a'tjeqb…l/ otez ∫vl˘ However, >b≥ /v/ alone is not su‚cient to change a preceding voiceless C into a

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voiced one; in fact, it has to be followed by a voiced diphonic consonant (such as /z, d, g/): (åd6'zg¬a;dx) /adv'zgljada/ ot b‘glrda (but (åt'vıFaÀ⁄I) /at'vlasti/ ot blact$]˚ (g6då'v™;) /gvda'vje/ k bdobe (but (k6'nju;ku) /kv'nuku/ k bnyky, (k'vFa≈) /k'vam/ k bam]˘ ˛e only voiced C to occur before a pause, or before voiceless C, are sonants, /m, n, r, l/ (even if partially devoiced, unless they are preceded by voiceless C, in which case they are fully devoiced; but only partially so if they are intense): ('tFa≈) /'tam/ tam, (s'mjøt5, -;t”) /s'motr/ cmotp, ('tF™≈p) /'temp/ temπ, (1'À⁄i⁄) /lj'stitj/ lìct$tì˘ It is useful to insist on the fact that this kind of devoicing is not –and it must not be– complete, if the previous C is voiced. Before a pause, it is important not to pronounce a kind of (È) – so phonation must stop before the hold of the C in question is completed. Another fairly useful device to show this fact could consist in using a çnon-explosionÇ diacritic (æ), in order to counter the fact that a non-phonemic (È) is added, by actually halting the articulation. But this is less frequent among native speakers. Even unstressed V (between voiceless C, or between these and a pause) may be devoiced, but less frequently than C˚ and above all in fast speech. ˛us we will mark them only here (and with only partial devoicing): ('vF…stáåkx, -txåká) /'v…stafka/ bvctabka, (pátå'mjuStá, &pxtå-) /pata'muSta/ πotomy uto, ('Á™;vuS¢k) /'djevuS…k/ debywek. ˛is may happen to /i/ >=≥ in diphthongs as well, before a pause (although a {voiced} V may precede, instead of a voiceless C), as well as to V exclusively followed by voiceless C: ('=im~iî) /'zimnii/ ‘$mn$=, ('Cãe;çÙp) /'cerip/ uepeπ˘ ˛is also occurs in stressed syllables (before a pause): (mu'=eî) /mu'zjei/ my‘e=, (tRåM'vaî) /tram'vai/ tpamba=. 8.3.1.8. Written geminate C (and >∑≥) are phonically short before a pause or before a C: (g'RFa≈) /g'ram/ gpamm, ('vFan) /'van/ bann, (d'qF…n) /d'q…n/ dµ$nn, (k'ıFas) /k'las/ klacc, (p'ıFaë) /p'laS/ πla∑, (pRåg'RFamn¢i) /prag'ramn…i/ πpogpammnv=, ('Rjus©ii) /'ruskii/ pycck$=, (g'Rjupkx) /g'rupka/ gpyππka, ('mjøën¢i) /'moSn…i/ mo∑nv=˘ ©thin lexemes, written geminate C can be realized as phonetically slightly geminated C˚ (00): (&åsså'nFans) /assa'nans/ acconanc, ('vFannx) /'vanna/ banna, ('kFassx) /'kassa/ kacca, ('tjønnx) /'tonna/ tonna˘ However, more often CC are pronounced short: (&å⁄Is'tFat) /atis'tat/ attectat, (bå'ıjøn) /ba'lon/ ∫allon, (bå'Àein) /ba'sjein/ ∫acce=n, (gRå'mFa;⁄Ikx) /gra'matika/ gpammat$ka, (d&çiÀI'Rjøåkx) /drisi'rofka/ dpecc$pobka, (I'¬¯;=i[ã]x) /i'ljuzija/ $llù‘$r, (&kx¬Ik'⁄if) /kalik'tif/ kollekt$b, (&mi¬i'm™t5, -;t·) /mili'mjetr/ m$ll$metp, (&åku'pFa;q¢ãx) /aku'paq…ja/ okkyπaz$r, (&pxRå'¬e1) /para'ljelj/ πapallelì, (pI'Rjøn) /pi'ron/ πeppon, (&çIq¢'ÀøÍ) /riq…'sjor/ peµ$ccep, ('tF™;~Is) /'tenis/ tenn$c, (&⁄içI'tjø;çi[ã]x) /tiri'torija/ tepp$top$r, (tRå'¬eibus) /tra'ljeibus/ tpolle=∫yc, (I'À™nq¢ãx) /i'sjenq…ja/
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del, (mx&ıxdå'qjø;n¢, &mx®då-, &mxıdå-) /malada'qon…/ molodoµenv, (px&∆xRå'~i⁄, &px∆“å-, &px∆Rå-) /paxara'nitj/ πoxopon$tì, (&kxRå'ju;¬i⁄, k“x'j-, kRx'j-) /kara'ulitj/ kapayl$tì, (&kxRå8'⁄in, k“å8-, kRå8-) /karan'tin/ kapant$n, (&pxçIk'mFa;âIÍ, phIk-, pçIk-) /parik'maxir/ πap$kmaxep, (&txRå'kFan, t“å-, tRå-) /tara'kan/ tapakan, (mx&ıxkå'sjøs, &mx®kå-, &mxÓkå-) /malaka'sos/ molokococ, (gx&ıxså'vFa⁄, &gx®så-, &gxÓså-) /galasa'vatj/ golocobatì, (px&RxSu'⁄ist, &px”Su-, &pxÍSu-) /paraSu'tist/ πapawùt$ct, (bi&¬Iså'vFa;t¢i, &biˆså-, &bi1så-) /bilisa'vat…i/ ∫elecobatv=. Other examples: (dx&Rxgå'vFa;t¢i, &dx“gå-, &dxRgå-) /daraga'vat…i/ dopogobatv=, (=i&¬Inå'vFa;t¢i, &=iˆnå-, &=i¬nå-) /zilina'vat…i/ ‘elenobatv=, (pi&çIdå'vjøi, &pihdå-, &piçdå-) /pirida'voi/ πepedobo=, (pi&çivIR'nju⁄, &pihvIR-, &piçvIR-) /pirivir'nutj/ πepebepnytì, (&ådmi&~IstRå'⁄i6n¢i, -«s-, -8s-) /administra'tivn…i/ adm$n$ctpat$bnv=, (I&~Iq¢å'⁄i;vx, &Ióq¢å-, &Inq¢å-) /iniq…a'tiva/ $n$z$at$ba, (I&~Iq¢'FaÓ, &Ióq¢-, &Inq¢-) /iniq…'al/ $n$z$al. More: (ë'ëi;kxıxtkx, -x®tkx, -xÓtkx) /S'Sikalatka/ ∑$kolotka, ('sju;dxRxgx, -dx“gx, -dxRgx) /'sudaraga/ cydopoga, (p'çi;txıxkx, -tx®kx, -txÓkx) /'pritalaka/ πp$toloka, ('qFa;vxRxnxk, -vx“nxk, -vxRnxk) /'qavaranak/ µaboponok, ('∆jø;ıxdnx, -ø®dnx, -øıdnx) /'xoladna/ xolodno, (z'Á™;ıxıx, -™®ıx, -™ııx, -™®x, ='Á-) /z'djelala/ cdelala, (&åbI'zFa;⁄i1stvx, -⁄Istvx, -⁄ˆstvx, -⁄#tvx, -a⁄stvx) /abi'zatiljstva/ o∫r‘atelìctbo, (dås'tFa;txCnx, -atCnx, -aCCnx) /das'tatacna/ doctatouno, (mI'nju;txCkx, -tCkx, -Ckx) /mi'nutacka/ m$nytouka, ('nø;vxvx, -*vx, -vvx) /'novava/ nobogo, (å'sjø;v¢vx⁄, -*vx⁄, -vvx⁄) /f'sov…vatj/ bcobvbatì, (då'mjø;vxvx, -*vx, -vvx) /da'movava/ domobogo, (ëëxs'¬i;vxvx, -i*vx, -ivvx÷ -À'¬-) /SSast'livava/ cuactl$bogo, (nxk'¬ø;v¢vxqqx, -ø*vx-, -øvvx-) /nak'ljov…vaqqa/ naklebvbatìcr, (&zxSpåk'¬ø;v¢vx⁄, -*vx⁄, -vvx⁄) /zaSpak'ljov…vatj/ ‘awπaklebvbatì, ('qFaÍstvxvx⁄, -t*vx⁄, -tvx⁄) /'qarstvavatj/ zapctbobatì. 8.3.1.10. In the formation of words, phrases, and sentences –with preﬁxes or prepositions– there are various particular clusters of V's˚ which otherwise would not be normal in Russian. ˛ere are frequent reductions, since these positions are mainly those before a stress: (påå˙g'¬iis©i, på˙g-, -ng-) /paang'liiski/ πo-angl$=ck$, (zåå'¬e⁄, zå'-) /zaa'ljetj/ ‘aaletì, (nååk'~™;, nåk-) /naak'nje/ na okne, (vååp'ë™;, våp-) /vaap'Se/ boo∫∑e, (sååt'v™qtvxvx⁄, såt-, -t*vx⁄, -tvx⁄) /saat'vjeqtvavatj/ cootbetctbobatì, (nååd'njøi, nåd-) /naad'noi/ na odno=, (zåås'tçi⁄, zås-) /zaas'tritj/ ‘aoctp$tì, (&sååtnå'Ài⁄, &såt-, &sxt-) /saatna'sitj/ cootnoc$tì, (&sååb-Rå'qF™;~i[ã]I, &såb-, &sxb-) /saabra'qeniji/ coo∫paµen$e, (våå&duS¢6'¬e;~i[ã]I, vå-, vx-) /vaaduS…v'ljeniji/ boodyweblen$e. More: (&vIxıå8'Cãe1, &vIıå8-) /vialan'celj/ b$olonuelì, (s&pIq¢'Fa¬n¢i, -'qFa¬-) /spiq…'aljn…i/ cπez$alìnv=, (&sxq¢å'¬iz≈, -qå-, -;zõ) /saq…a'lizm/ coz$al$‘m, (&~Iådnåk'RFatn¢i, &~Ixd-, &~Id-) /niadnak'ratn…i/ neodnokpatnv=, (~Iå&b¢knå'v™nn¢i, ~iI-, ~I-) /niab…kna'venn…i/ neo∫vknobennv=, (&~i[ã]Iz'v™snx, ~Iz-) /nijiz'vjesna/ ne$‘bectno, (&nåugå'ıjøk, &nxu-, &nu-) /nauga'lok/ na ygolok, (&påugå'vjø;Ru, &pxu-, &pu-) /pauga'voru/ πo ygobopy, (&uådvå'ka;tx, &uxd-, &ud-) /uadva'kata/ y adbokata, (&uågå'Rjø;dx, &uxg-, ug-) /uaga'roda/ y ogopoda, (&påImI'nFa≈, &pxIm-, &p¢Im-, &p¢m-) /paimi'nam/ πo $menam.

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8.3.1.11. Some personal pronouns have reduced forms: (⁄i'ba;, ⁄i'ãa;, ⁄i&a, ⁄å, ⁄x) /ti'bja/ te∫r, (⁄i'b™;, ⁄i'ã™;, ⁄i&™, ⁄I) /ti'bje/ te∫e, ('vFas, &vas, vås, vxs) /'vas/ bac, ('vFa≈, &va≈, vå≈, vx≈) /'vam/ bam, ('jÅ ⁄i&b™'dFa≈, 'jÅ ⁄I'dFa≈) /'ja ti'bje 'dam/ r te∫e dam, ('ja &vam'dFa≈, 'ja vxm'dFa≈) /'ja 'vam 'dam/ r bam dam. Certain numbers have reduced forms too (although we only provide the models, which are used for similar forms as well): (&ÁiÀi'⁄i;, ÁiÀ'⁄i;) /disi'ti/ decrt$, (å'Ái;nxqqx⁄, -nxqx⁄, -nqx⁄) /a'dinaqqatj/ od$nnadzatì, (å'Ái;nxqqxt¢i, -nxqxt¢i, -nqxt¢i, -nxqt¢i) /a'dinaqqat…i/ od$nnadzatv=, (d'vFaqqx⁄, d'vFa;qx⁄, d'vFaq$⁄) /d'vaqqatj/ dbadzatì, (d&vFaqq¢'⁄i;, d&vFaq¢'⁄i;, dvaq'⁄i;, dvåq'⁄i;) /dvaqqa'ti/ dbadzat$, (&piÁÁi'Àat, &piÁi'-, pi[ã]i'-) /piddi'sjat/ πrtìdecrt, (pi'⁄i;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'⁄i;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'⁄i[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /pi'tidisiti/ πrt$decrt$, (&S¢=Ái'Àat, &S¢=ãi'-, S¢i'-) /S…zdi'sjat/ wectìdecrt, (S¢À'⁄i;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'⁄i;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'⁄i[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /S…s'tidisiti/ wect$decrt$, ('ÀemÁiÀxt, 'Àe)Àxt) /'sjemdisjat/ cemìdecrt, (Ài'mi;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'mi;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'mi[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /si'midisiti/ cem$decrt$, ('vjø;ÀimÁiÀxt, 'vjø;Ài)Àxt, 'vjø[;ã]i)Àxt) /'vosimjdisjat/ bocemìdecrt, (våÀ'mi;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'mi;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'mi[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /vasj'midisiti/ bocìm$decrt$. 8.3.1.12. ≈rst and patronymic names are usually reduced by frequent use, more than by particular phonemic rules: ('jø;ÀIpxviC, -ÀipiC, -ÀIp¢C, -øÀpviC, -øÀp¢C, -øÀpC) /'osipavic/ Oc$πob$u, (bå'çi;sxviC, -'çiÀviC, -'çi;ÀiC, -'çi;s¢C, -'çiëC, -'çië) /ba'risavic/ Êop$cob$u, ('pFavıxviC, 'pFa;v®viC, -av¬iC, -avı¢C, -a;¬iC, -a;ı¢C, -a1C, -aÓC) /'pavlavic/ ∏ablob$u, (&å¬Ik'sFandRxviC, -and“viC, -andviC, -andçiC, -andR¢C, -a;~iC, -a;n¢C, &å¬Ik'sFa8C, ¬Ik'sFa8C, k'sFa8C) /alik'sandravic/ Alekcandpob$u, (vıå'Ái;mIRx6nx, -mIR6nx, -mIRxnx, -mIRnx) /vla'dimiravna/ Blad$m$pobna, ('fø;dxRx6nx, -dxRxnx, -dR*nx, -dxRnx, -d“nx) /'fjodaravna/ Fedopobna, (bå'çi;sx6nx, -'çisnx) /ba'risavna/ Êop$cobna, (kåR'~e[;ã]i6nx, -'~™6nx) /kar'njejivna/ Kopneebna, (få'Áe[;ã]i6nx, -'Á™i6nx, -'Á™6nx) /fa'djejivna/ Fadeebna, (påÍ'fiç-jI6nx, -'fi;çI6nx, -'fi;çInx, -'fiçnx) /par'firijivna/ ∏opf$pì$ebna, (så've;LãI6nx, -'ve;¬ãI6nx, -'ve;¬I6nx, -'ve;¬Inx, -'ve¬nx) /sa'vjeljjivna/ Cabelìebna˘ In addition: ('Fannx mI'∆Faiıx6nx, -ı*nx, -ıxnx, -ınx) /'anna mi'xailavna/ Anna M$xa=lobna, (&å¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFandRxviC, &å¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFandR¢C, ¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFandR¢C, ¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFa8C, ¬Ik'sFan ¬Ik'sFa8C, ¬Ik'sFan 'sFa8C, 'sFan 'sFa8C) /alik'sandr alik'sandravic/ Alekcandp Alekcandpob$u, (&kxnstå8'⁄i; n¢så'Fa;kxviC, -'⁄i; nI-, &kxns'⁄i; ~I'sFakC) /kanstan'tin …sa'akavic/ Konctant$n *caakob$u, ('pFa;vI ı¢'vFa;nxviC, -vi lI-, -vFa8C, 'pFaı 'vFa8C) /'pavil i'vanavic/ ∏abel *banob$u˘ 8.3.1.13. Currently, /ji/ >e˚ r≥ becomes /i/: (jI'mju;, I-) /ji'mu/ emy, (jI'qF…;, I-) /ji'qi/ eµ$, (jIv'¬aqqx, Iv'¬aqqx, Iv'¬aq[q]) /jiv'ljaqqa/ rblrtìcr, (&~i[ã]iÀ'⁄™stvInnx, ~ii'⁄™svInx÷ -'⁄eÀ⁄v-) /nijis'tjestvinna/ neectectbenno. In general, /ijé/ = ç/ié/Ç (Ô § 8.2.5.1): (vi'⁄i;ãx, -'⁄i;x, -'⁄ix) /vi'tija/ b$t$r, ('FaRmiãx, -mix, -mIx) /'armija/ apm$r, (&pçiã¯'⁄iqqx, &pçi¯-) /priju'tiqqa/ πp$ùt$tìcr, (pçi'jÅ+~iãI, pçi'Å+~iI) /pri'jatniji/ πp$rtnee, (&q¢⁄i'j™;, -⁄i'™;) /q…ti'je/ µ$t$e, (&b¢⁄i'ju;, &b¢⁄i'u;) /'b…tiju/ ∫vt$ù˘ Besides, usually /0j’jé/ = /’0jé/ and /ii’0é/ = /i’0é/: (&piç-jI'vjøi, &piçI'vjøi) /pirjji'voi/ πepìebo=, (b¢'CãÅC-jI∆, -Å;CI∆) /b…'cacjix/ ∫vuauì$x, ('kFa=N-ju, 'kFa=~-ju, 'kFa=~u) /'kaznjju/ ka‘nìù, (¬u'bjøv-ju) /lju'bovjju/ lù∫obìù, (Svii'qFaÍ, Svi'-, SvI'-)

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/Svii'qar/ wbe=zap, (Áiist'vi;⁄i¬nx, ÁIst-÷ ÁiiÀ⁄-÷ ÁiÀ⁄-) /diist'vitiljna/ de=ctb$telìno. In the case of prepositions + /’jé/, we have /’`é/ too: (vjI'vjø 'djø;mI, v¢'vjø) /v-ji'vo 'domi/ b ego dome, (sjI'pjønqxmI, s¢'pjøn-) /s-ji'ponqami/ c rπonzam$; however, by now we frequently hear: (vI'vjø 'djø;mI, ÀI'pjønqxmI), and also: ('©ju;gu) /'kjugu/ k ùgy, instead of ('kju;gu). 8.3.1.14. In traditional pronunciation, /ò’i/ >$-≥ preceded in sentences by C (which is di‡erent from /c, S, 0j/ >u˚ ∑˚ tì…≥) becomes /…/ (less systematically so in the case of /k, g, x/, thus we also ﬁnd (k, g, ∆) + (i, ’I)). However, in modern pronunciation /i/ remains unchanged, even without changing the C (¤, not (J)), but with /k, g, x/ (©, á, â) + (i, ’I)): (s'm™ âI'gjø;çI)m (À'm™ ∆…'gjø;ç‘, ∆i-)t /s'mjex i'gori/ cmex $ gope, ('©i;gxçu)m ('kF…-, 'kji;-)t /'kigarju/ k *gopù, ('dF… mI'Áøt)m (m…-)t /'d…m i'djot/ dvm $det, (å'tjiv¬i[ã]Ivx)m (a'tF…v-)t /a'tivlijiva/ ot *bl$eba, ('kjø tI'pjø;vxÍ)m (t…-)t /'kot i'povar/ kot $ πobap, (&jønIz'djøyb¢)m (&jøn…z-)t /on-iz'doxb…/ on $‘dox ∫v, (ÀI'vFa;nx≈)m (s…-)t /s-i'vanam/ c *banom, (©I'vFa;nu)m (k…-, ki-)t /k-i'vanu/ k *bany, (tå'vFa;çië ëI'vFan)m (-ë C…-)t /ta'variS Si'van/ tobap$∑ *ban. Traditionally, Italia, ¤ *tal$r˚ behaves in the same way, so much so that even for Alitalia (¤ Ali ç©ngsÇ + Italia]˚ we have: (-ı¢-, -ıI-)t rather than (-¬I-)m. Again in traditional pronunciation, even /ò’i/ ><-≥ preceded in sentences by C (which is di‡erent from /c, S, 0j/ >u˚ ∑˚ tì…≥), becomes /…/, although it often remains /i/. In modern pronunciation, instead, we have (I) /’i/ (and, above all in alternative pronunciation, (™) ç/’e/Ç), both in absolute initial position and when preceded by Cò: (å&tI¬I'vFa;txRx, &åt™¬I-)m (&åt¢¬i-, &åtI¬i-)t /at-ili'vatara/ ot =‘enwte=n, we have: (&™i=INS'tF™in, &I-, -z™-) /eizinS'tein, i-, -ze-/; and (&s™i=INS'tF™inx≈, &si=-, &sIz-, -™N-) /seizinS'teinam, si-, -ze-/ c >=‘enwte=nom˘

Pronunciation variants: £modern∞, £traditional∞ and £alternative∞ 8.3.2.0. It is undeniable that Russian pronunciation is in general poorly known, both by native and foreign speakers, even if we refer to çexpertsÇ. In addition, there are di‡erent methods of description and evaluation, apart from dissimilar applications of di‡erent criteria on the subject. As we have already said, even o‚cial çmodelÇ speakers, of the o‚cial radio and television broadcasting corporation too, ﬂuctuate between more or less modern or traditional pronunciations (or alternative as well), most probably because of the lack of speciﬁc information, too. ˛us comparisons and convenient choices are di‚cult to make, since the kind of çtranscriptionÇ used in handbooks and dictionaries (even in o‚cial and çscientiﬁcÇ ones) is nothing but a graphemic respelling mixed with a few other signs. However, and with very good reasons, what has been described thus far, belongs to çmodern neutralÇ Russian pronunciation, which is more and more accepted and

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widespread (and also relatively less far away from spelling). We will now indicate the di‡erences which mainly fall within çtraditionalÇ pronunciation, according to the çold Moscow pronunciationÇ which was acquired orally. It used to include some çstrangeÇ exceptions, which in some respect contributed to di‡erentiate it from (St) Petersburg pronunciation, generally closer to orthography. Since then, this city has been called Petrograd, then Leningrad and now Saint Petersburg: so to say çrename it and you'll get over it!Ç. û 8.3. Vowel elements of traditional (and alternative) Russian. /JuJ/ (%)t, /’JuJ/ (T)t /'i, ’0iJ, i'/ (iï)t, /’i/ (I)t /'u, u'/ (u)t, /’u/ (U)t /'…, …'/ (…)t, /’…/ (¢)t, /…'/ (…)t {/’u/ (û, È, ‘)a} /’…...'/ (‘, È)t:a˚ /'...’…, ’…ò/ (‘)t:a /'JeJ/ (eï)t /'JoJ/ (+)t /'o/ {/’o/} (ø) {/'o˘, "o/ (ø[∏])}t /'e/ (™) {/'e˘, "e/ (™[Ä])}t /a'/ (a°)t, /’a/ (x)t /'JaJ/ (Ä, "Ä[Ä])t /'a/ (a), /'a˘, "a/ (a[å])t >e≥ /’iò/ (‘)t, >e, r, Ça≥ /i'/ (É', JÙ'J)t˚ >e≥ /’i[ò]/ (É)a, /’0iJ/ (Ù)a, ><≥ /ò’i/ (É)a

8.3.2.1. In çinterpalatalÇ contexts, traditional pronunciation presents decidedly fronter and closer articulations (Ô û 8.3 “ § 8.1.4, although the symbols (i, e) are çidenticalÇ, but stand for (iï, eï)): ('bi⁄) /'bitj/ ∫$tì˚ ('je1) /'jelj/ elì, ('pÄ⁄) /'pjatj/ πrtì, ('⁄+;⁄x) /'tjotja/ tetr, (⁄%'fak) /tju'fjak/ tùfrk˘ In pre-tonic syllables (¤ immediately preceding a stressed syllable), traditional pronunciation has closer realizations than the modern ones for unrounded /i, …/. Instead, the rounded /u/ is opener in all unstressed positions, except –again– for pre-tonic syllables (Ô û 8.3, again): /i', …', u'/ (i', …', u')t (I', ¢', u')m: (&åbçi'kjøs)t (-I-)m /abri'kos/ a∫p$koc, (b…'©i;)t (b¢-)m /b…'ki/ ∫vk$, (u'qF™;)t:m /u'qe/ yµe. Pre-tonic /a'/ is (a')t (å')m: (&Uga'ıjøk)t (&ugå-)m /uga'lok/ ygolok. Most typically, traditional pronunciation also has ç/e'/Ç (É', Ù'+J) for pretonic >e, r≥ (including >ua˚ ∑a≥, excepting >$≥, which has /i'/ (iï')). All of these in modern pronunciation have /i'/ (I', i'+J)): (ÁÙ'¬i⁄)t (Ái'¬i⁄)m /di'litj/ del$tì, (~ÙÀ'⁄i;)t (~iÀ'⁄i;)m /nis'ti/ nect$, (tçÙÀ'⁄i;)t (tçiÀ'⁄i;)m /tris'ti/ tprct$, (CÉ'sF…;)t (CI'sF…;)m /ci's…/ uacv˘ Let us thus consider (¬i'sFa;)t (¬I'sFa;)m /li'sa/ l$ca and (¬É'sFa;)t:a (¬I'sFa;)m /li'sa/ leca˘ In /J≤'/ contexts, only another modern phoneme occurs, /u/ (u, ¯): (Àu'dFa;)m:t /sju'da/ cùda, (¬¯'bi⁄)m (¬%'bi⁄)t /lju'bitj/ lù∫$tì˘ Modern pronunciation has /i, òji, éji/ for >e≥ in unstressed syllables, and /i/ for (initial) >ò<≥. In all these cases, çalternativeÇ pronunciation, strengthened by orthography, can have ç/’e/Ç (É, ÙJ): (bÙ'çø;zx)a (bi-)m /bi'rjoza/ ∫epe‘a, (&bÙçÉ'qjø;n¢i)a (&biçI-)m /biri'qon…i/ ∫epeµenv=, (&ÀÙmÉ'na;)a (&ÀimI-)m /simi'na/ cemena, (pÙ&çÙmÙ'¬i;)a (pi&çimi-)m /pirimi'li/ πepemel$, ('be;çÉk)a (-Ik)m /'bjerik/ ∫epeg, (&åbI'zFa;⁄Ù¬nx)a (-⁄i¬-)m /abi'zatiljna/ o∫r‘atelìna, ('vF…;⁄ÙçÙ⁄)a (-⁄içi⁄)m /'v…tiritj/ bvtepetì, (™'tFaS, É-)a (I'tFaS)m /i'taS/ eò≥ an alternative pronunciation with (‘ò)t is particularly frequent for neutral grammatical gender).

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8.3.2.2. Modern pronunciation has (’¢) for /’…/, whereas alternative (and often traditional) pronunciation presents opener variants, (È, ‘). Most frequently, we ﬁnd (È)a:t before a stress; (‘)a:t after it; and (È)a (‘)t in absolute ﬁnal position: (&bÈta'vjøi)t (&bÈtå-)a (&b¢tå-)m /b…ta'voi/ ∫vtobo=, (&vÈ∆a'Ái⁄)t (&vÈ∆å-)a (&v¢∆å-)m /v…xa'ditj/ bvxod$tì, ('vF…;m‘%)ta (-m¢%)m /'v…m…l/ bvmvl, ('jø;p‘t‘)t (-p‘tÈ)a (-p¢t¢)m /'op…t…/ oπvtv˚ (q…'vjøtnxã‘)t (-nxãÈ, -ãÉ)a (q¢'vjøtnx[ã]I)m /q…'votnaji/ µ$botnoe. As we have already said, the timbres of /’…/ (È, ‘) are fairly similar to those of /’a/ (x), thus it is easy to think of them as the same sound and to declare their neutralization (as quite a few authors have done). Actually, in general, there is such a di‡erence, so that they are rarely confused, even in spelling, except for evident cases of poor education. For >’eò≥, in traditional pronunciation we often ﬁnd (‘ò)t even for /’…ò/ (in addition to /’iò/, most surprisingly, as we have seen at the end of § 8.3.2.1): ('ıjuCS¢)m (-‘)t /'lucS…/ lyuwe˚ ('∆ju;q¢)m (-‘)t /'xuq…/ xyµe˘ Here we may actually speak of possible neutralization between /’iò/ and /’…ò/, which was more typical in former times. For /’u/, alternative pronunciation may have (0û, 0È, 0‘÷ JÉ, JI, JÙJ, JiJ) (in û 8.3, (û) is indicated by a thin broken line and glossed in brackets): (&kûv‘Í'kFaqqx, &kÈ-, &k‘-)a (&kuv¢Í-)m /kuv…r'kaqqa/ kybvpkatìcr, (&sûmå'tjø;∆x, &sÈ-, &s‘-)a (&su-)m /suma'toxa/ cymatoxa, ('zFa;mûq‘≈, -mÈ-, -m‘-)a (-uq¢≈)m /'zamuq…m/ ‘amyµem, (kx&mÙ~i'©j™;, -mi-)a (-m¯~i-)m /kamjuni'kje/ kommùn$ke, (I'me;ãÙë&ëiiÀx, -[ã]i&-)a (-ã¯&-)m /i'mjejuSSiisja/ $meù∑$=cr, (ÀÉ'dFa;, ÀI-)a (À¯-)m /sju'da/ cùda˘ In traditional pronunciation, we can even ﬁnd: (mid've;ÁÈmI)t (mId've;ÁimI)m /mid'vjedimi/ medbedrm$˚ (miÁ've;Á‘≈)t (mId've;Ái≈)m /mid'vjedim/ medbedem, ('vF…;~‘s)t (-Is)m /'v…nis/ bvnec÷ and, on the other hand, also: (Ài'vjø_~I)t (ÀI'vjød~x)m /si'vodnja/ cegodnr. 8.3.2.3. Adjectives ending in -k$=, -g$=, -x$=, in traditional pronunciation have /…i/ (¢i), but also (‘i) (usually rendered as ç/Èj/Ç, as if it were (xi) /’ai/ {while being slightly di‡erent, Ô û 8.1}), when they are preceded by (k, g, ∆), instead of the modern rendering as /ii/ (©ii, áii, âii) (according to spelling): (z'vjø~k¢i, -k‘i, -∫k-)t (-˚©ii, -8©ii)m /z'vonkii/ ‘bonk$=, (s'tRjø;g¢i, -g‘i)t (-áii)m /s'trogii/ ctpog$=, ('⁄i;∆¢i, -∆‘i)t (-âii)m /'tixii/ t$x$=˘ Nowadays, this traditional pronunciation sounds non-neutral, or lofty. Also verbs in -$batì behave in this way: (pa'mFaÓk¢vx⁄)t (på'mFaÓ©Ivx⁄)m /pa'malkivatj/ πomalk$batì, (na'⁄a;g¢vx⁄)t (nå'⁄Å;áIvx⁄)m /na'tjagivatj/ natrg$batì, (pa'mFa;∆¢vx⁄)t (på'mFa;âIvx⁄)m /pa'maxivatj/ πomax$batì˘ For unstressed endings with -V=, modern pronunciation has (ii) /ii/ -$=, (ii) /ii/ -e=, (¢i) /…i/ -v=, (xi) /ai/ -o=; the traditional one has ç/Èi/Ç (‘i) for -v=, and the alternative one has ç/ei/Ç (Ùi) for -e= (and, in general, also ç/Èi/Ç (‘i) -v=). ˛ese are often described as neutralization between the ﬁrst two (and it is the same in modern pronunciation) or between the second two (but we have: (¢i)m/(‘i)a V (xi)): ('Ài;~ii) /'sinii/ c$n$=, ('ju;¬ii)m ('ju;¬Ùi)a /'ulii/ yle=, (t'Rjudn¢i)m (-n‘i)t /t'rudn…i/ tpydnv=, (t'Rjudnxi) /t'rudnai/ tpydno=˘ For pretonic wa, µa, za (even with >o≥), modern pronunciation has /0a'/ (0å'), whereas the traditional one had /0…'/ (0…') (which is now lofty): (Så'ái;)m (S…-)t /Sa'gi/

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wag$, (qå'RFa;)m (q…-)t /qa'ra/ µapa, (d&vxqqå'⁄i;)m (-qq…-)t /dvaqqa'ti/ dbadzat$˘ However, for certain words the traditional type of pronunciation is still frequent: µak™t˚ µacm¢n˚ µab™lì˚ ∫ewam™lì˚ dbådzatì˚ tp¢dzatì˚ lowad™=˘ In general, these sequences even have an alternative pronunciation with (‘', È') for /…'/; the same occurs in pretonic we, µe, ze as well (even with >o≥). But modern pronunciation has /…'/ = (¢'): (S¢p'tFa⁄) /S…p'tatj/ weπtatì˚ (q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ µena˚ (q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ zena. 8.3.2.4. Among the greatest di‡erences in comparison with orthography, in traditional pronunciation, we ﬁnd unstressed verbal endings -rt, -r∑$=, which have /u/ (that however nowadays is rightly considered to be lofty or non-neutral) instead of /’a[0]ò, ’ià/ in modern pronunciation: ('∆jø;ÁUt)t ('∆jø;Áxt)m /'xodjat/ xodrt, (s'tRjø;ãTëëii)t (s'tRjø[;ã]iëëii)m /s'trojiSSii/ ctpor∑$=˘ Another non-neutral pronunciation, which is possible to hear (this time with the opposite timbre), concerns feminine nouns such as ('djøb-Ruãu÷ ≠-xãu) /'dobruju/ do∫pyù, ('Ài;~¯ãu÷ ≠-i[ã]u) /'sinjuju/ c$nùù˘ Traditional pronunciation can have (x) for (non-pretonic initial) /ò’a/ (å) and (å) for (ﬁnal) /’aò/ (x): (&xdnå'vjø;)t (&åd-)m /adna'vo/ odnogo, ('pjøznå)t (-nx)m /'pozna/ πo‘dno˘ 8.3.2.5. Traditional pronunciation has (ëC)t (or, as we have already said, (ëC)t or (ëCë)t) for (òëë, éëëé, ëò)m /S[S]/, but in Moscow the latter –more agile– pronunciation has always prevailed: (ëCi'kFa;)t (ëëI-)m /SSi'ka/ ∑eka, (ta'vFa;çiëC)t (tå'vFa;çië[ë])m /ta'variS[S]/ tobap$∑˘ Contrary to the most frequent transliteration type (∞£), the grapheme >∑≥ might seem to suggest a closer articulatory relation with >w≥ (S) /S/; and indeed a constrictive pronunciation is decidedly more recommendable: (ë'ëãÅÀ⁄jI) /S'Sastjji/ cuactìe, (&piçi'piëëIk) /piri'piSSik/ πepeπ$cu$k (the -u$k su‚x is not interpreted as a separation element). However, in modern pronunciation also (ëC) /Sc/ is normal, when a clear morphemic boundary –which is shown in writing too– is present, with >cu˚ ‘u˚ wu˚ µu˚ ctu˚ ‘du≥, never >∑≥: (ë'Cã™≈) /S'cem/ c uem, (&IëCI'vjø;) /iSci'vo/ $‘ uego˘ /SS/ or /Sc/ occurs in: (vIs'njuëëIt¢i, -ëC-) /vis'nuSSit…i, -Sc-/ becnywuatv=, (bå'RjøëëIt¢i, -ëC-) /ba'roSSit…i, -Sc-/ ∫opo‘duatv=. But, between a lexeme and a su‚x, we generally ﬁnd (ëë) /SS/: (Iz'vjøëëIk) /iz'voSSik/ $‘bo‘u$k, (&piçi'beëëIk) /piri'beSSIk/ πepe∫eµu$k, ('qjøëëI) /'qoSSi/ µectue˘ Between a preﬁx and a lexeme, (ëC) /Sc/ is most frequent: (bië&CIıå'veCn¢i) /biScila'vjecn…i/ ∫ecuelobeunv=, (&IëCIÍ'⁄i⁄) /iScir'titj/ $cuept$tì, (&RxëCI'∆aqqx) /raSci'xaqqa/ pacu$xatìcr. In most commonly used words and when a preﬁx is no longer thought of as something separated, we usually ﬁnd (ëë) /SS/: (Rxë'ëãøskx) /raS'Soska/ pacuecka, (ë'ëÅÀ⁄jI) /S'Sastjji/ cuactìe, (ë'ëãøt) /S'Sot/ cuet, (Ië'ëã™s) /iS'Ses/ $cue‘˘ ≈nally, the phoneme /ZZ/ (òò) (which occurs in few words and only within lexemes) is more typical of traditional than modern pronunciation: (ò'òãøt)t (q'qjøt)m /q'qot/ µµet, ('jeòòU)t ('j™qqu)m /'jeqqu/ e‘µy, (&U[ã]iò'òãÄ⁄)t (&u[ã]Iq'qFa⁄)m /ujiq'qatj/ ye‘µatì, ('pjøòòI)t ('pjøqq¢)m /'poqq…/ πo‘µe÷ for derivative forms of ('djøëC)t ('djøë, 'djøS⁄)m /'doS, 'doStj/ doµdì˚ we have: ('djøòòIk)t ('doZZik/ ('djøqÁIk)m

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/'doqdik/, doµd$k, (daò'òi;)t /daZ'Zi/ (dåq'Ái;)m /daq'di/ doµd$, (daò'òãø≈)t /daZ'Zom/ (dåq'Áø≈)m /daq'djom/ doµdem˘ 8.3.2.6. As we have seen, in (even modern) Russian, by voicing assimilation, we have (a voiced semi-constrictive) (y) for /x/: (&jønIz'djøyb¢)m (&jøn…z-)t /oniz'doxb…/ on $‘dox ∫v. In a few words belonging to a particular area, traditional pronunciation has: ('bjø;yx)t ('bjø;gx)m /'boga/ Êoga, (yas'pjø⁄)t (gås'pjø⁄)m /gas'potj/ gocπodì, (buz'yFa1⁄IÍ)t (buz'gFa1⁄IÍ)m /bjuz'galjtir/ ∫ùctgalìtep (besides, /gi/ (JI)t, with a true constrictive): (a'bjø;JI)t (å'bjø;áI)m /a'bogi/ o Êoge). ˛e same occurs for the following forms, which still remain the same even in modern pronunciation: ('bjø∆)t (-∆, -k)m /'box, -k/ Êog, ('yjøspxÁI)t (y-, g-)m /'gospadi/ Gocπod$!÷ however, it is thought that before long, (y) for /g/ will eventually disappear completely (followed by /ZZ/ = /qq, qd/, as we have seen). For the preposition k˚ followed by g-˚ we have: (y'gjø;RxdU)t (g'gjøRxdu)m /g'goradu/ k gopody. Lastly, also in modern Russian we ﬁnd (H, y) for the ç/h/Ç phonostyleme in exclamations and onomatopoeic words: (å'HFa;, å'yFa;) ç/a'ha/Ç aga! In traditional pronunciation /k, g/ are (∆, y) before stops: (tay'dFa;)t (tåg'dFa;)m /tag'da/ togda, (∆'tjø;)t (k'tjø;)m /k'to/ kto, (∆ka'mju;)t (kkå-)m /kka'mu/ k komy˘ For -g˚ before the ending -k$=˚ and derivatives, we have (©, k÷ â, ∆): ('mÅ©©ii)m, ('mÄ∆k¢i)t /'mjakkii, ±-xk…i/ mrgk$=, ('makkxmu)m, ('ma∆kxmU)t /'mjakkamu, ±-xk-/ mrgkomy, ('¬økk¢i)m, (±-∆k-)t /'ljokk…i, ±-xk-/ legkv=, ('makCI)m, (±-∆CI)t /'mjakci, ±-xci/ mrgue, ('¬P©©ii)m, (±'¬ø∆k¢i)t /'ljokkii, ±-xk…i/ legk$=, ('¬™kCI)m (±'¬™∆CI)t /'ljekci, ±-xci/ legue. But (k) will prevail, even though it is often still considered to be a non-neutral pronunciation. In fact, for instance, trgua=w$= is already (⁄Ik'CãÅiS¢i, ≠⁄I∆-) /tik'caiS…i/, and otrgu$tì is (&å⁄Ik'Ci⁄, ≠-∆'C-) /atik'citj/. In gt, kk sequences we have: ('kjøk⁄I)m (-∆⁄I)t /'kokti/ kogt$, ('njøk⁄I)m (-∆⁄I)t /'nokti/ nogt$, ('Áøk⁄x)m (-∆⁄x)t /'djoktja/ degtr˘ ˛e pronoun uto is always (S'tjø;) /S'to/, as its compounds are, except neuto ('~eCtx) /'njecta/; whereas n$uto can have two pronunciations: (~IS'tjø;÷ ~iC'tjø;) /niS'to÷ nic'to/. In addition, >u≥ stands for /S/ in feminine patronymic names: ('v™;Rx IL'ji;~ISnx) /'vjera ilj'jiniSna/ Bepa *lì$n$una, and in: (kå'~™Snx) /ka'njeSna/ koneuno, (nå'RjøSnx) /na'roSnx/ napouno, (s'kjuSn¢i) /s'kuSn…i/ ckyunv=, (ji'[ã]iS~Iqx) /ji'jiSniqa/ r$un$za˘ ˛e graphemic sequence un used to be /Sn/, in the traditional pronunciation of common words. In modern pronunciation, we have /cn/, even though for some words both pronunciations are used. However, in general, we ﬁnd: ('bju;ıxCnxãx)m (-Sn-)t /'bulacnaja/ ∫ylounar, ('lFa;vxC~Ik)m (-S~-)t /'lavacnik/ laboun$k, (må'ıjøCn¢i)m (ma'ıjøSn‘i)t /ma'locn…i/ molounv=˘ 8.3.2.7. In traditional pronunciation, the C's that precede Ç (¤ palatal or palatalized C] are more consistently palatalized than in modern pronunciation: (za⁄'me;~i[ã]I)t (zåt-)m /zat'mjeniji/ ‘atmen$e, (s'kjøÌp)t (s'kjøÍp)m /s'korpj/ ckop∫ì, ('CãeÌ⁄I)t ('Cã™Í⁄I)m /'certi/ uept$. More: ('Áeƒ©I)t ('Á™å©I)m /'djefki/ debk$, (Á'veÌ)t (d'v-)m /d'vjerj/ dbepì, (⁄'min)t (t'min)m /t'min/ tm$n, (Á'mit-çii)t (d'm-)m /d'mitrii/ Dm$tp$=, (À'm™;-

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nx)t (s'm™-)m /s'mjena/ cmena, (À'meÌ⁄)t (s'm™Í⁄)m /s'mjertj/ cmeptì, (Àpi'nFa;)t (s'pI-)m /spin'a/ cπ$na, (À'f™;Rx)t (s'f™-)m /s'fjera/ cfepa, (À'v™t)t (s'v™t)m /s'vjet/ cbet, (©'~i;gx)t (k'~i-)m /k'niga/ kn$ga, (pçI&sxq…a'¬i=mI)t (-¢å'¬izmI)m /prisaq…a'lizmi/ πp$ coz$al$‘me. A pronunciation with a generalized palatalization, although quite widespread, is not at all neutral: (&kxmu'~iz≈, -;zõ, -mm-÷ ≠-=))t (&kxmu-)m /kamu'nizjm, -mm-/ kommyn$‘m˘ Not even in traditional pronunciation is /l/ palatalized by assimilation: ('mjøıvI) /'molvji/ molbe, nor by gemination: (&pjøı'¬it-Rx) /“pol'litra/ πol-l$tpa˘ Traditional palatalization is more tenacious within words than at the beginning: (&nxÀvi'~Ä;Ci⁄)t (&nxsvi'~Å;Ci⁄)m /nasvi'njacitj/ nacb$nru$tì, (ÀviN'ja;, sv-)t (sviN'ja;)m /svinj'ja/ cb$nìr˘ In addition, palatalization due to assimilation is normal, even in modern pronunciation, for homorganic phonemes (except for /l, r/), although a pronunciation without palatalization is spreading. In fact, it further shows that a phonemic approach like the one adopted here is more useful: ('SF™À⁄, -s⁄) /'Sestj/ wectì, (kåÀ'~e⁄, -s'~-) /kas'njetj/ kocnetì, (À'⁄ep, s'⁄-) /s'tjepj/ cteπì, (='ÁeÀ, z'Á-) /z'djesj/ ‘decì, (ÀmiÀ'⁄i;, smis'⁄i;) /smis'ti/ cmect$˘ For heterorganic phonemes, indirect palatalization is no longer current: (Iz'b™;)m (i='b™;)t /iz'bje/ $‘∫e, (Råz'mÅ⁄)m (Ra='mÄ⁄)t /raz'mjatj/ pa‘mrtì, (s'm™∆)m (À'm™∆)t /s'mjex/ cmex˘ ‹en palatalization is required, spelling shows it too: (çi='b™;) /rizj'bje/ pe‘ì∫e, (vå='mi;) /vazj'mi/ bo‘ìm$, (⁄iÀ'm™;) /tisj'mje/ tecìme˘ 8.3.2.8. Please, note the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronunciation, as far as /rJ/ is concerned: ('⁄™RmIn)m ('⁄eçmIn)t /'tjermin/ tepm$n, (⁄IÍ'pit)m (⁄iÌ-)t /tir'pit/ tepπ$t, ('À™Rbi[ã]x)m ('Àeçb-)t /'sjerbija/ Cep∫$r, ('v™Íf)m ('veÌf)t /'vjerfj/ bepfì, ('Cã™RvI)m (-çvI)t /'cervi/ uepb$, ('⁄™R~i[ã]I)m ('⁄eç~-)t /'tjerniji/ tepn$e, ('qF™Í⁄)m (-Ì⁄)t /'qertj/ µepdì, (u'À™RÁi[ã]I)m (-eçÁi[ã]‘, -[ã]È)t /u'sjerdiji/ ycepd$e, (À'⁄™R¬i⁄)m (-eç¬-)t /s'tjerlitj/ cteplrdì, ('v™ÍÀi[ã]x)m ('veÌÀ-)t /'vjersija/ bepc$r, (À'v™R=IÓÀx)m (À'veç=IÓsx)t /s'vjerzilsa/ cbep‘$lcr, (kå'm™ÍCIs©ii)m (ka'meÌCiÀ©ii)t /ka'mjerciskii/ kommepueck$=˘ Even in traditional pronunciation, as in the modern one, we ﬁnd (RJ) after ('0é) (with non-front V]\ ('pFaÍ⁄i[ã]x) /'partija/ πapt$r, ('jøRÁIÍ) /'ordir/ opdep, ('djuR~I) (-‘)t /'durni/ dypne, ('mFaR¬x) /'marlja/ maplr, ('kjuÍÀI) (-‘)t /'kursi/ kypce˘ ˛e same occurs after unstressed V (even if they are front ones): (vIÍ'⁄e⁄) /vir'tjetj/ beptetì, (ÀIR'vis) /sir'vis/ cepb$‘, (vIR'=i;ıx) /vir'zila/ bep‘$la, (=IR'~Ist¢i) /zir'nist…i/ ‘epn$ctv=˘ C + (ç) are not palatalized: (v'çe;mx) /v'rjemja/ bpemr˚ (f'ç™skx) /f'rjeska/ fpecka˚ (påÍ'tç™t) /par'trjet/ πoptpet˚ (∆ån'dçi⁄) /xan'dritj/ xandp$tì˚ (pçIz'çit) /priz'rit/ πpe‘p$t˘ For reﬂexive forms (in -cr˚ -cì]˚ traditional pronunciation has /s/ (not /sj/), except for ﬁnal-stressed gerunds: (ba'jÄÀ)t (bå'jÅÀ)m /ba'jasj/ ∫orcì (against (&sxbi'RFa;ãxs)t (-bI-)m /sabi'rajas/ co∫$parcì]˘ On the contrary, in modern pronunciation reﬂexive verbs have /sj/ (À), except in the third person (in -tcr) and inﬁnitives (in -tìcr): (~i'Àøqqx) /ni'sjotsa, -qqa/ necetcr, (kıå'djuqqx) /kla'dutsa, -qqa/ kladytcr, (u'Ciqqx) /u'citsa, -qqa/ yu$tìcr˘

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In particular, front-lingual C undergo çpalatalizationÇ by assimilation, in modern pronunciation too: ('mjøÀ⁄Ik) /'mostik/ moct$k, (¬iÀ'~ik) /lis'nik/ lecn$k, (u='ÁeCkx) /uz'djecka/ y‘deuka, (Rå'bjø+~Ik) /ra'botnik/ pa∫otn$k, (å_'~i;) /ad'ni/ odn$, ('bFa8ëIk) /'banSik/ ∫an∑$k. Before (¬), after (ı, R), or in preﬁxed words, or in word-initial position, both pronunciations occur (though çpalatalizationÇ is more traditional): (pIt'¬a;, pi+-, 'pe+-¬x)m (pÙ+-, 'pe+-)t /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, ('jøs¬Ik, -À¬-) /'oslik/ ocl$k, (tåÓs'⁄ak, -À'⁄-)m (taÓÀ'⁄-)t /tals'tjak/ tolctrk, ('møRz~It, -=~-) /'mjorznit/ mep‘net, (s⁄I'nFa;, À⁄-)m (À⁄É-)t /sti'na/ ctena, (z'ÁeÀ, ='Á-) /z'djes/ ‘decì, (s'~™k, À'~-) /s'njek/ cneg, (&Rxs⁄I'RFa⁄, -À⁄I-)m (-À⁄i-)t /rasti'ratj/ pact$patì, (påd'~øs, -_'~-)m (pa_'~-)t /pad'njos/ πodnec. 8.3.2.9. ˛e pronouns $x˚ $m˚ $m$ are more regularly /ix, im, 'imi/ ('i∆, i∆, I∆÷ 'i≈, i≈, I≈÷ 'i;mI, &imI, &ImI), whereas traditionally they had an exceptional pronunciation (for >ò$≥) with /ji/, by analogy with ego /ji'vo/, emy /ji'mu/ (but today this is lofty, or non-neutral). A stronghold of traditional pronunciation had >Cò$≥ as /0ò…/: (v…'tFa;¬i[ã]U)t /v…'taliju/ b *tal$ù, ('kF…;çI)t /'k…ri/ k *pe, by distinguishing them from (vi'tFa;¬i[ã]U)t /vi'taliju/ B$tal$ù, ('©i;çI)t /'kiri/ K$pe˘ However, native speakers spontaneously make things natural, by eliminating artiﬁces, thus today a çpalatalizedÇ pronunciation prevails in both pairs of examples, without doubt because of orthography too. ˛is is a further demonstration that Russian actually has six vowel phonemes, indicated in spelling (with the only problem of unstressed-syllable reductions and historical changes). Purists (of course!) still consider this spontaneous pronunciation non-neutral, but they will have to change their minds sooner or later. As a matter of fact, a well-balanced position gives: /'kiri, ±'k…ri/ (where ± indicates a kind of çintentionalÇ pronunciation – used because çit should be usedÇ). 8.3.2.10. O‚cial Russian orthography maintains quite a few letters which do not correspond (any longer) to actual sounds. ˛e most common case is that of >t, d≥ between other C\ ('m™sn¢i) /'mjesn…i/ mectnv=, (u'Cãas~Ik) /u'casnik/ yuactn$k, (S¢s'sjøt) /S…s'sot/ wectìcot, (tu'çiss©ii, -sq©ii) /tu'risskii, -sqkii/ typ$ctck$=, (kçIs'qFa;) /kris'qa/ kpectza, (&pxdus'qF…;) /padus'q…/ πod y‘dzv, (gå'ıFanq¢) /ga'lanq…/ gollandzv, ('À™Íq¢) /'sjerq…/ cepdze, (ÀIÍ'CiSkx) /sir'ciSka/ cepdu$wko, ('pjøznx) /'pozna/ πo‘dno, (p'RFaz~Ik) /p'raznik/ πpa‘dn$k, (ëëIs'¬iåCIk, ëëiÀ-) /SSis'lifcik/ cuactl$bu$k, ('sjø;vIs¬Iv¢i, -viÀ-) /'sovisliv…i/ cobectl$bv=, (áI'gFans©ii÷ -nqs-) /gi'ganskii/ g$gantck$=, (gå'ıFans©ii÷ -nq©ii) /ga'lanskii/ gollandck$=, (gå'ıFa~kx, -∫kx) /ga'lanka/ gollandka, (Såt'ıFa~kx, -∫kx) /Sat'lanka/ wotlandka. Nowadays, indeed, in certain words the graphic C can be restored: ('b™z[d]nx) /'bjez[d]na/ ∫e‘dna, (z'vøz[d]n¢i) /z'vjoz[d]n…i/ ‘be‘dnv=, (kås[t]'¬a;v¢i, -À[+]'¬-) /kas[t]'ljav…i/ koctlrbv=, (pås[t]'ıFa⁄) /pas[t]'latj/ πoctlatì, (Iz'vøs[t]kx) /iz'vjos[t]ka/ $‘bectka, (mås[t]'©i;) /mas[t]'ki/ moctk$, (på'j™s[t]kx) /pa'jes[t]ka/ πoe‘dka, ('qjøs[t]©ii) /'qos[t]kii/ µectk$=. Other words show correspondence between writing and pronunciation: (stu'Á™ntkx) /stu'djentka/ ctydentka, (å&fIq¢'antkx) /afiq…'antka/ of$z$antka.

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Some other particular cases: ('sjønq¢) /'sonq…/ colnze, ('Cãustvx) /'custva/ uybctbo, ('tF…;ÀiCx, 'tF…ëëx) /'t…sica/ tvcrua, (Ài'Cãas, ë'ëãas, ëas) /si'cas/ ce=uac (in the sense of çnow, at onceÇ), (på'qFa;ıustx, -a;ı¢stx, -aÓstx, b'q-) /pa'qalusta, -l[…]sta/ πoµaly=cta, (z'dRFastvui⁄I, -astui-, -asÀ⁄I, -aÀ⁄, z&dRaÀ⁄, zaÀ) /z'drastvuiti/ ‘dpabctby=te. As a useful reminder, and as a drill (thus in the examples we only mark stress, through accents), we can say that >t≥ = (`) in the graphic sequences >ctd˚ ctìd˚ ctl˚ ctn˚ ctc˚ ctck≥ (the last one is /sk/): wectìdec®tì˚ neb™ctka˚ cuactl¢bv=˚ wectnådzatì˚ $‘b™ctnv=˚ wectìcøt /S…s'sot/, typ¢ctck$=; >d≥ = (`) in >‘dk˚ ‘dn≥\ πo™‘dka˚ πpå‘dn$k˚ πø‘dno˘ Besides, the sequences >tc˚ dc≥ correspond to /q/, in the pronominal endings -t(ì)cr: (smi'jøqqx) /smi'joqqa/ cmeetcr, (smi'jaqqx) /smi'jaqqa/ cmertìcr, and when >t˚ d≥ are followed by the endings -ck$=˚ -ctbo˚ -ctb$e\ ('Á™q©ii) /'djeqkii/ detck$=, (åt'sjuqtvi[ã]I) /at'suqtviji/ otcytctb$e, (&pRå[ã]Iz'vjøqtvx) /prajiz'voqtva/ πpo$‘bodctbo, (À'¬™qtvi[ã]I, s'¬-) /s'ljeqtviji/ cledctb$e˘ Lastly, in the genitive endings -ogo, -ego, >g≥ corresponds to /v/: ('b™;ıxvx) /'bjelava/ ∫elogo, (jI'vjø;) /ji'vo/ ego˘ ˛us the oddity of (ÀI'vjø_~x) /si'vodnja/ cegodnr çtodayÇ (= çof this dayÇ) is only seeming. 8.3.2.11. Here we will present the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronunciation, in reference to poststress-syllable V˚ with /’…/ (‘) for /i/ (>e≥˚ generally described as ç/È/Ç, exactly like /’a/, of unstressed >a˚ o≥, greatly falsifying phonetic reality). ˛e –transcribed or retranscribed– examples are taken from Shapiro (1968). Nominative and accusative singular of neuter nouns, -e: ('pjø;¬I)m (-¬‘)t /'poli/ πole, ('mjø;çI)m (-ç‘)t /'mori/ mope, ('ve;CI)m (-C‘)t /'vjeci/ beue, (q¢'¬iëëI)m (-ëC‘)t /q…'liSSi/ µ$l$∑e, (z'dFa;~i[ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'daniji/ ‘dan$e. Genitive, dative, and locative singular of nouns and adjectives, -e-: ('Ài;~Ivx)m (-~‘-)t /'siniva/ c$nego, ('Ài;~Imu)m (-~‘-)t /'sinimu/ c$nemy, (å'Ài;~I≈)m (-~‘≈)t /f'sinim/ b c$nem. Nominative and accusative, singular and plural, of neuter adjectives and pronouns, -e: (z'ljø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'loji/ ‘loe, (z'ıF…[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'l…ji/ ‘lve, (tå'kjø[;ã]I)m (ta'kjø[;ã]‘)t /ta'koji/ takoe, (tå'©i[;ã]I)m (ta'©i[;ã]‘)t /ta'kiji/ tak$e, (¬i'ba;qjI)m (-j‘)t /li'bjaqji/ le∫rµìe, ('vjøÓCjI)m (-j‘)t /'volcji/ boluìe. Collective numerals, -e\ (d'vjø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /d'voji/ dboe, (t'Rjø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /t'roji/ tpoe˘ Comparatives, -ee: (smi'¬e[;ã]I)m (Àmi'¬e;ã‘)t /smi'ljeji/ cmelee, (vIR'~e[;ã]I)m (viR'~e[;ã]‘)t /vir'njeji/ bepnee. Instrumental singular non-feminine and genitive plural, -em, -eb: (u'Ci;⁄i¬I≈)m (-‘≈)t /u'citilim/ yu$telem, ('pıFa;CI≈)m (-‘≈)t /'placim/ πlauem, (q¢'¬iëëI≈)m (q…'¬ië C‘≈)t /q…'liSSim/ µ$l$∑em, (b'RFa;⁄jIf)m (-‘f)t /b'ratjif/ ∫patìeb, ('SF…L-jIf)m (-‘f)t /'S…ljjif/ w$lìeb. Instrumental of plural nouns, -Çam$: ('kFap-¬imI)m (-¬‘mI)t /'kaplimi/ kaπlrm$, ('tju;CimI)m (-‘mI)t /'tucimi/ tyuam$, ('RjøëëimI)m (-ëë‘mI)t /'roSSimi/ po∑am$.

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Stress 8.3.3.1. As far as the actual stess force is concerned on the various syllables of words in Russian sentences, we have to make the situation clear since –on this aspect too– confused and misleading ideas freely circulate. As a matter of fact, the prominence of a certain syllable does not necessarily coincide with its stress(ing)˘ As is well-known, prominence (which makes a given syllable stand out from nearby ones) is not constituted by stress alone. Rather it is a complex play of stress force, length, pitch, and timbres of the various segments of the syllables. Now, in Russian, the vocoids in a pre-tonic syllable (¤ the one that immediately precedes the stressed –or tonic– syllable in a rhythm group, that is the çﬁrst pretonicÇ in Russian texts) are articulated in a fairly clear and distinct way, although slightly less so than in stressed syllables. ˛is fact is most evident for /a/, as a matter of fact we have for instance: (&gxıå'vFa;) /gala'va/ goloba˘ Nevertheless, we must not confuse a vowel timbre with the degree of stress, since for rhythmic reasons a secondary stress falls on the ﬁrst syllable of a word, not on the second one. Each syllable has a peculiar prominence: (&gx) because of rhythmic stress (in spite of a decidedly more attenuated timbre – less peripheral in the vocogram); (ıå) because of its semi-attenuated timbre and a signiﬁcantly di‡erent pitch from that of the tonic (syllable) which follows it, although not marked by a particular symbol (Ô û 8.4). Lastly, (çvFa;) is prominent because of primary stress, a full timbre, and a half-lengthening too (in unchecked syllable, in addition to the insertion of (F)). All too often, even in speciﬁc handbooks, we come across statements which claim that the pretonic syllable, (ıå), would have the second degree of stress, whereas all the others are weaker, above all those after the stress. However, in (s'tFa;Rxãx) /s'taraja/ ctapar˚ for the last two syllables, we have a timbre attenuation (as for (&gx)) and a stress weakening (as for (ıå)), which might make them seem one degree lower in comparison with the other two – but it is not so. ˛eir weakening –if any– is due to the fact that, generally, words given as examples are considered to occur in an intoneme (even if unintentionally), with a consequent reduction of articulatory and intonational intensity on posttonic syllables. 8.3.3.2. In Russian words, stress undergoes variations – even determined by grammar. In fact, the di‡erent paradigms (of nouns, adjectives, and verbs) are certainly di‚cult, especially for foreigners, who can laboriously ﬁnd assistance in grammars and dictionaries. Here are some examples of distinctive stress (¤ phonemic minimal pairs): ('Rju;©I) /'ruki/ çhandsÇ and (Ru'©i;) /ru'ki/ çof the handÇ pyk$, ('Fat-ıxs) /'atlas/ çatlasÇ and (åt'ıFas) /at'las/ çsatinÇ atlac, ('mju;kx) /'muka/ çtormentÇ and (mu'kFa;) /mu'ka/ çﬂourÇ myka, ('pFa;çi⁄) /'paritj/ çto steamÇ and (på'çi⁄) /pa'ritj/ çto planeÇ πap$tì, ('pFa;çu) /'parju/ çI steamÇ and (på'çu;) /pa'rju/ çI planeÇ πapù. ˛e following are sub-minimal pairs (phonemically), but equally functional (linguistically): ('jøRgxn) /'organ/ çorganizationÇ and (åR'gFan) /ar'gan/ çorganÇ opgan, (s'vjøistvx) /s'voistva/ çcharacteristicÇ and (svåist'vjø;) /svaist'vo/ çpropertyÇ

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cbo=ctbo, ('zFa;mxk) /'zamak/ çcastleÇ and (zå'mjøk) /za'mok/ çlockÇ ‘amok, (k'Rjø;ãu) /k'roju/ çI coverÇ and (kRå'ju;) /kra'ju/ çI cut (a dress)Ç kpoù, ('pjø;tx≈) /'potam/ çsweat (instrumental case)Ç and (på'tjø≈) /pa'tom/ çthenÇ πotom, ('ju;q¢) /'uq…/ çnarrowerÇ and (u'qF™;) /u'qe/ çalreadyÇ yµe, ('∆aøs) /'xaos/ çconfusionÇ and (∆å'jøs÷ '∆aøs) /xa'os÷ 'xaos/ çchaosÇ xaoc, ('pFa∆nu⁄) /'paxnutj/ çto smellÇ and (på∆'nju⁄) /pax'nutj/ çto blowÇ πaxnytì. Let us now consider some cases where the stress variation is between neutral and çdialectalÇ or çslangyÇ pronunciation: (då'bF…;Cx) /da'b…ca/ and ('djø;b¢Cx)d /'dob…ca/ do∫vua, (&åb¬Ik'Ci⁄) /ablik'citj/ and (åb'¬™kCi⁄)d /ab'ljekcitj/ o∫legu$tì, (&mi¬i'm™t5, -;t”) /mili'mjetr/ and (mi'¬i;mIt5, -t”)d /mi'limitr/ m$ll$metp; or between neutral and çuneducatedÇ pronunciation: (kRå'Ài;vi[ã]I) /kra'siviji/ and (&kRxÀi've[;ã]I)p /krasi'vjeji/ kpac$bee, (zvå'~iS) /zva'niS/ and (z'vjø;~IS)p /z'voniS/ ‘bon$wì. Otherwise, the di‡erence may be of literary stylistic levels, such as a çfolkÇ one (used in traditional tales and stories): (&mxıå'Á™q) /mala'djeq/ and ('mjø;ıxÁIq)f /'moladiq/ molodez, (Ái'vi;qx) /di'viqa/ and ('Áe;vIqx)f /'djeviqa/ deb$za, (&ÀiçIb'Rjø;) /sirib'ro/ and ('Àe;çIb-Rx)f /'sjeribra/ cepe∫po, ('SjøÓkxv¢i) /'Solkav…i/ and (S¢Ó'kjø;v¢i)f /S…l'kov…i/ welkobv=, ('sFa;∆xRn¢i) /'saxarn…i/ and (så'∆FaRn¢i)f /sa'xarn…i/ caxapnv=, (&bxgå'tF…Ì) /baga't…rj/ and (bå'gFa;t¢Ì)f /ba'gat…rj/ ∫ogatvpì; or a çloftyÇ level: ('nFa;CIt¢i) /'nacit…i/ and (nå'Cãa;t¢i)a /na'cat…i/ nauatv=, ('izbRxnn¢i) /'izbrann…i/ and (Izb'RFann¢i)a /izb'rann…i/ $‘∫pannv=, ('¬¯;biëëii) /'ljubiSSii/ and (¬¯'bÅëëii)a /lju'bjaSSii/ lù∫r∑$=, (∆'vFa;¬iëëii) /x'valiSSii/ and (∆vå'¬Åëëii)a /xva'ljaSSii/ xbalr∑$=, (m¢S'¬e;~i[ã]I) /m…S'ljeniji/ and ('mF…S¬i~i[ã]I)a /'m…Sliniji/ mvwlen$e. Lastly, we also ﬁnd cases of double neutral stress(ing): (t'vjø;Rxk, två'Rjøk) /t'vorak, tva'rok/ tbopog, (I'nFa;CI, 'i;nxcI) /i'naci, 'inaci/ $naue, ('jø;bu∆, å'bju∆) /'obux, a'bux/ o∫yx, (p'Rjø;bIÓ, pRå'biÓ) /p'robil, pra'bil/ πpo∫$l˘ By considering paradigm variation too, we can see: ('Áe;çIvx) /'djeriva/ depebo, (Ái'çev-jx) /di'rjevjja/ depebìr, (&ÁiçI'vFa;) /diri'va/ depeba÷ including less recommendable pronunciations (which appear after ç;Ç), or are marked as çwrongÇ in pronunciation dictionaries (here marked with ç≠Ç only in phonetic transcriptions): ('jøddxÓ, åd'dFaÓ) /'oddal, ad'dal/ otdal, (&åddå'ıFa;, ≠'jøddxıx, ≠åd'dFa;ıx) /adda'la/ otdala, ('jøddxıx, åd'dFa;ıx÷ &åddå'ıjø;) /'oddala, ad'dala/ otdalo, ('jøddx¬I, åd'dFa;¬I) /'oddali, ad'dali/ otdal$˘ 8.3.3.3. In compounds, every element (before the last one, which ﬁrmly maintains its primary stress, /'/ (')) tends to keep a certain degree of stress, which we will mark with /“/ (“) (or (&), if in contact with ('), corresponding to a possible rhythmic stress). Even the vocalic timbre is ﬁrmly maintained, with no neutralizations, which are typical of unstressed syllables): (&sxmå“¬øtxstRå'je;~i[ã]I) /sama“ljotastra'jeniji/ camoletoctpoen$e, (kåÍ“tjøfi¬ikå'pFaÓkx) /kar“tofilika'palka/ kaptofelekoπalka, (“bjøÍtpRxvå_'~ik) /“bortpravad'nik/ ∫optπpobodn$k, (s“pjøÍtkRu'qjøk) /s“portkru'qok/ cπoptkpyµok, (å“F™Rx“fjøtåÀ'~i;mxk) /a“era“fotas'nimak/ a<pofotocn$mok, (I“¬™ktRx“pFaRxpx&dxgçI'vFa;⁄i1) /i“ljektra“parapadagri'vatil/
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'sFa;) /“polci'sa/ πoluaca, (&pjøı'gjø;dx) /“pol'goda/ πolgoda (but ('pjøıÁi8) /'poldinj/ πoldenì has to be noted). 8.3.3.4. Obviously, in actual sentences there are unstressed words too. Mostly they are functional monosyllables (not lexical ones) such as prepositions, conjunctions, and some particles: (&åtstå'ıFa;) /atsta'la/ ot ctola, (&pxdåk'njø≈) /padak'nom/ πod oknom, (kåm'~™;) /kam'nje/ ko mne, (b'RFa⁄-jx i'ÀøstR¢) /b'ratjja i'sjostr…/ ∫patìr $ cectpv, (~Iz'nFa;ãu) /niz'naju/ ne ‘naù, (skå'qF…;kx) /ska'q…ka/ ckaµ$-ka, ('jø2q¢) /'onq…/ on µe, (pçi'Áø+-¬I) /pri'djotli/ πp$det l$. Also pronouns and monosyllabic adjectives can be destressed: (mjøib'RFat) /moib'rat/ mo= ∫pat, (='Á™Àjøn, -xn) /z'djesj-on, -an/ ‘decì on, (ku'dFa v¢bI'qF…;⁄I) /ku'da v…bi'q…ti/ kyda bv ∫eµ$te, (&viÀi'j¯8, &ve-) /visji'junj/ becì $ùnì÷ also
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'~™;b¢ıx) /ji'vo-tam 'njeb…la/ ego tam ne ∫vlo, (&jøntFam'~™;q¢Ó) /on-tam'njeq…l/ on tam ne µ$l. Here are the prepositions that can have this stress pattern (most typical of colloquial speech): ∫e‘, bo, do, ‘a, $‘, na, o/o∫, ot, πo, πod, πp$. However, it is not su‚cient that the noun or number that follows is stressed on its ﬁrst syllable, as happens, for instance, in: (&jømpxıå&qF…Ók'~i;gu nås'tjøÓ, &jøº-) /ompala'q…l k'nigu nas'tol, on-/ on πoloµ$l kn$gy na ctol, (&ånå'À™;ıx nås'tjuÓ) /ana'sjela nas'tul/ ona cela na ctyl. ˛e exact application depends on actual usage, without being possible to provide a precise and absolute rule. A serious pronouncing dictionary, with real transcriptions (at least in o‚cial IPA]˚ ought to show these forms accurately. Intonation 8.3.4. û 8.4 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of neutral Russian – then we just give some illustrative examples, to use for comparisons: /./: (çF™;tx mjøi¬¯çbi;m¢i &kx≈påç=i;txÍ) /'eta moi-lju'bim…i kampa'zitar./ >to mo= lù∫$mv= komπo‘$top. /?/: (¿çvF…; jI&vjø•vi;Ái¬I2 2) /¿'v… jivo'vidili?/ Bv ego b$del$?, (¿&F™tx¬I•kkjø;2 2, -∆•k-) /¿etalik'ko?, -x'ko?/ >to legko? /÷/: (çjeÀ¬I &jø~~Iåtçve;⁄It2 2 &janxpI'Sju; jI&vjøåqçqju;3 3) /'jesli on-niat'vjetit÷ ja-napi'Su jivoaq'qu/ Ecl$ on ne otbet$t, r naπ$wy ego otzy. çElliptic questionsÇ (¤ those without a verb) have the pattern /¿ ÷/: (¿aIgçzFa;mIn¢2 2) /¿aig'zamin…÷/ A
/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/?/ (2 • 2 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Text 8.4.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun, gives the neutral accent; as always, according to the phonetic method, ﬁrst comes the English text (Ô § 2.5.2.0) with a broad Russian accent, then the Russian translation, with neutral pronunciation; then follows the çtraditionalÇ accent (not recommendable any

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longer today). At the end, as usual, the version showing the English pronunciation of Russian is given; it represents the habits of neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Russian (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral Russian (although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Russian pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Russian, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Russian pronunciation (of English) 8.4.1. (ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 åndå'sjøn2 &v™RÁisçpu;⁄I˙k çvic vø=ÁIstçRjø˙gxR3 3| çv™n åtçRFavıxR2 ç©™m å'ıjø˙k2 ìçRFap ⁄InåçvjøRmk çıjøk3 3œ| Á™åg'çit2\ dxÁIçvjøn ∆uçf™Rst såk'Ài;Ái⁄2 i~çme;©I˙ ÁIt'RFavıxR2 ç⁄e© âIskçıjøk çjøf2 2| &SudbIkånçÀi;dxRt £stRjø˙gxR &dxnÁiçjø;dxR3 3|| 'Áe~2 ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 çbıju;2 ås'∆FaRt2 åÀâIçkjut3 3| &bxÁIçmjøR âIbçıju;2 2| ÁIçmjøRk 'ıjøÀ¬i2 &ÁiÁIt'RFavıxR2\ çfjøıt âIskçıjøk åçRFau~⁄âIm3 3| ì&xntåt'ıFast2œ\ ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 çá™v çjøp ÁIåç⁄™mpt3 3|| ì'Áe~2œ ÁIçsjøn çSjøn çaut3 3 ìçvjøRm¬I3 3œ| &å~Ái'mi;Ái+¬I2\ ˚ÁItçRFavıxR çtjuk çjøf3 3 ˚âIskçıjøk3 3|| ìånt'sjø;2œ ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 vøzåbçıFaiC tukåM'f™s2| &dxÁIçsjøn3 3 vø=ÁIstçRjø˙gxR3 3 ì&åvÁIçtju;3 3œ|| ¿&ÁiÁu•ıFaik2 2 ¿ÁIs'tjø;RI2| ¿Ájuçvjøn tuçâi;çIt å•á™n2 2|||) Russian text 8.4.2. Odnaµdv cebepnv= betep $ colnze cπop$l$, kto $‘ n$x c$lìne=. Kak pa‘ b
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Modern Russian pronunciation 8.4.3. (åd'nFaqd¢2 çÀe;vIRn¢i 've;⁄IR2 I'sjønq¢2\ sçpjø;çi¬I2 2 kçtjøIz–~I∆ Ài¬ç~ei3 3| kåkçRFas çvF™;txv ççe;mx2 2 åç~i zå'me;⁄i¬I2 zåçkju;txnxvxå 'pıFaë2 çpju+~Ikx3 3 ìIçdjuëëIvx &pxdå'Rjø;áI2œ I&pxçIçSF…;¬I2 2| S'tjø;2 çtjøt Izç~iy çbju;ÁIt2 ëëÙçtFaqqx çsFa;m¢≈ çÀi¬n¢≈2 2| kå&mu'RFa8S¢2 u'dFasqx2\ zåsçtFa;vi⁄ çpju+~Ikx2 2| Àç~Å⁄ çpıFaë3 3|| çtjut 'Àe;vIRn¢i2 çve;⁄IÍ2 2 &pçi~IÓçÀa; 'dju⁄2| &IzååçÀ™∆ çÀiÓ3 3|| ì&njøçCã™≈ Ài¬ç~ei jønçdjuÓ2 2œ ç⁄™≈ Ài¬'~ei2 çkju;txÓÀx 'pju+~Ik2 ås&vjøiçpıFaë3 3|| takS'tjø2\ ìåkånçqF™ kånçqjøf2 2œ| çÀe;vIRn¢i çve;⁄IR2 2\ 'djøıq¢m&b¢Ó2| &åtsvåçjei zåçdFa;CI2 &åtkåçzFaqqx3 3|| tågçdFa; zxÀiçja;ıx çsjøın¢Skx2 2| çpju+~Ik2 ì&px~Im'njø;gu2œ &åtågçç™ÓÀx2 2| Iåsçkjø;çi Àç~aÓ svjøipçıFaë3 3|| tåç©im çjøb-Rxzx≈2 2\ çÀe;vIRn¢i 've;⁄IR2 çvF…;nuqÁImb¢Ó2 pçIzçna⁄2 2 Støçsjønq¢3 3 Ài¬ç~ei3 3 ìãIçvjø;3 3œ|| ¿⁄içb™ pån•RFa;vIıxÀ2 2 ¿sçkFaskx2| ¿&pxåtå•çi⁄ãi–[ã]ø2 2|||) Traditional Russian pronunciation 8.4.4. (ad'nFaqd‘2 çÀe;vIRn‘i 've;⁄IR2 i'sjønq‘2\ sçpjø;çi¬I2 2 kçtjøIz–~I∆ Ài¬ç~ei3 3| kakçRFas çvF™;txv ççe;mx2 2 aç~i za'me;⁄i¬I2 zaçkju;txnxvxå 'pıFaëC2 çpju+~Ikx3 3 ìiçdjuëCIvx &pxda'Rjø;áI2œ I&pxçiçSF…;¬I2 2| S'tjø;2 çtjøt izç~iy çbju;ÁIt2 ëCîçtFaqqx çsFa;m‘≈ çÀi¬n‘≈2 2| kå&mu'RFaNS‘2 u'dFasqx2\ zasçtFa;vi⁄ çpju+~Ikx2 2| Àç~Ä⁄ çpıFaëC3 3|| çtjut 'Àe;vIRn‘i2 çve;⁄IÍ2 2 &pçi~iÓçsFa; 'dju⁄2| &IzaåçÀ™∆ çÀiÓ3 3|| ì&njøçCã™≈ Ài¬ç~ei jønçdjuÓ2 2œ ç⁄™≈ Ài¬'~ei2 çkju;txÓsx 'pju+~Ik2 ås&vjøipçıFaëC3 3|| takS'tjø2\ ìåkançqF™ kançqjøf2 2œ| çÀe;vIRn‘i çve;⁄IR2 2\ 'djøıq‘ºb‘Ó2| &åtsvaçjei zaçdFa;CI2 &åtkaçzFaqqx3 3|| tagçdFa; zxÀiçja;ıx çsjøın‘Skx2 2| çpju+~Ik2 ì&px~im'njø;gu2œ &åtagçç™Ósx2 2| iåsçkjø;çi Àç~aÓ svjøipçıFaëC3 3|| taç©im çjøb-Rxzx≈2 2\ çÀe;vIRn‘i 've;⁄IR2 çvF…;nuqÁIºb‘Ó2 pçizçna⁄2 2 Støçsjønq‘3 3 Ài¬ç~ei3 3 ìãiçvjø;3 3œ|| ¿⁄içb™ pan•RFa;vIıxs2 2 ¿sçkFaskx2| ¿&pxåta•çi⁄ãi–[ã]ø2 2|||) English pronunciation of Russian 8.4.5. (ÈD'nA;ZDÈ2 si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È2 ¤'sø;ntså2\ 'spø;>¤li32 k5Th‘;¨ ¤z'n¤x sIı'n™;I3 3| khåk5>A;s 'v™TÈ >i'™mjå32 È5nI;i zÈmi'™ts¤li2 zÈ5kh¯uTÈnÈvÈÑ 'phlA;S2 'ph¯uTn¤kå3 3 ì¤5D¯uSc¤vÈ pÈDÈ'>‘¨gi2œ ¤pÈ>¤'S‘;li32| 'ST‘;¨2 5Th‘¨T ¤z'n¤x 'b¯udz¤T2 S¤5ThA;tsÈ 'sA;mÈm 's¤ıniÈm32| &khûm¨'>A;nSÈ2 ¨'DA;stså2\ zes5ThA;v¤ts 'ph¯uTn¤kå32| 5snA;ts 'phlA;S3 3|| 5Th¯uT si'™v¤ÈnIi2 &ph>Iin¤ı5sA: 'D¯uts2| &¤zÈfsi5™x 'si;¤ı3 3|| ì&n‘¨5ch™m s¤ı'n™;I ‘¨n'D¯;uı32œ tsi5™m s¤ıni'™;I2 5kh¯uTÈısÈ 'ph¯uTn¤k2 fÈsvøÙ'phlA;S3 3|| &Thåk'ST‘;¨2\ ìfkûn'ts™;I kûn'tsØf32œ| si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È32\ 'Dø;ıZÈmb®2| &åtsvÈ5j™;I zÈ'DA;ci2 &åTkû'zA;tså3 3|| Thûg5DA:

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zÈsi'A;lÈ 'sø;ınÈSkå32| 'ph¯uTn¤k2 ì&pÈn¤m'n‘¨g¯u2œ &åTûg>i'™ısiå32| ¤f5skø;>i sni'A;ı snøÙ'phlA;S3 3|| Thû5khI;im '‘¨b>ÈzÈm32\ si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È2 'v‘;n¯uZ[d]z¤m&b¤ı2 p>¤z'nA;ts32 ST‘¨'sø;ntså3 3 &s¤ıni'™;I3 3 ìIi'v‘;¨3 3œ|| ¿&ts¤bi5™;I pÈn'>A;v¤lÈS21 ¿'skA;skå2| ¿&phåftÈ'>Iitsi&‘¨21|||)

9. Arabic 9.0.1. In this chapter, we will deal with the çneutral modernÇ pronunciation of Arabic, corresponding to the çsupraregionalÇ language used in o‚cial radio and television broadcastings, free from local characteristics (which are typical of every-day life in each of the Arabic countries). In fact, as for the other languages treated in this handbook, this is the most suitable form for general teaching and learning purposes. It constitutes the basis for local varieties too (which are more or less important from a numerical and socio-cultural point of view), with some simpliﬁcations, modiﬁcations and additions. On the other hand, of course, if substantial contact in particular areas is forseen, it is advisable to take on some local lexical, semantic, and morphosyntactic characteristics, as well as the phonic ones (which mainly regard some phonemes). Our transliteration diverges from the more traditional ones used by Arabists (which are far from being homogeneous, however), especially as far as long vowels and diphthongs are concerned: ii˚ aa˚ uu (not as i˚ a˚ u)˚ ai˚ au (but ay˚ aw only when ﬁnal, or followed by y˚ w÷ therefore, they are not always ay˚ aw). Furthermore, we use ∞˚ ≠˚ É˚ Æ˚ ‚ (for /S÷ †, ∑÷ X, º/, not digraphs: sh˚ th˚ dh˚ kh˚ gh {not even í˚ î˚ for the last two}) and ∆˚ ` (instead of –˚ j˚ for /h, Z/), while keeping =˚ ƒ˚ «˚ „ (for /t, d, †, Ã/)˚ and q˚ '˚ ‘ as well (for /›, ö, H/). Vowels 9.1.1. Neutral Arabic has three short and three long vowels, with some remarkable taxophones, due to the inﬂuence of certain consonants and of syllable structure. ˛ere are more variations for /a[:]/ and less for /u[:]/, while /i[:]/ is in an intermediate position. ˛ere are two çdiphthongsÇ as well, /ai, au/, which are best considered as sequences of /a/ + /i, u/, since their neutral realization is obtained precisely by juxtaposing the two elements, which are subject to the inﬂuence of consonants and syllable structure. ˛e inﬂuence of the local ways of speaking is very strong, even if unintentional, in teaching recordings as well, especially for /ai, au/, but also for the basic V˘ However, the information we will give in this chapter represents the neutral pronunciation, which does not necessarily correspond to everything one may hear even from good native speakers. Nevertheless, the reader who follows exactly what is indicated certainly achieves the çneutralÇ pronunciation (not a regional one), even if –for V– this usage is quite close to that of Levantine Arabic (Ô § 19.2 of NPT/HPh], in particular for /ai, au/, seen that elsewhere they are generally realized as monophthongs ((e:, o:) or, at most, as narrow diphthongs, (™I, øU)); consider also Gulf Arabic and Egyptian Arabic (§ 19.1 “ § 18.25 in NPT/HPh]˚ while

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Maghreb Arabic is di‡erent still (Ô Moroccan Arabic, § 18.2 in NPT/HPh]˘ ˛ese four di‡erent variants of Arabic are not simply çaccentsÇ of the same language, but four partially di‡erent çdialectsÇ, which normally a‡ect the language itself. However, here we will consider only çsupranationalÇ (or çinternationalÇ) Arabic pronunciation (although a few major di‡erences will be dealt with as well). 9.1.2. Always bearing in mind that the unmarked value of /i{:}, a{:}, u{:}/ is (i{:}, Ä{:}, u{:}) (shown by the black markers in the vocogram of û 9.1), we should note well –and constantly recognize– the list of the Arabic realizations, which have the following distributions (besides, /é:/ in unstressed syllables = (é)): /i/

/i:/

1.1 (¢), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/, 1.2 (I), in contact with /h, H, X, º/, 1.3 (I), in checked syllables (with di‡erent C than in 1.1), 1.4 (i), in unchecked syllables (except if 1.1-2); 1.5 (in /ai/) as /i/, for 1.1-4; 1.6 (¢:), between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (in checked or unchecked syllables), 1.7 (I:), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (in checked or unchecked syllables), 1.8 (i:), in all other cases (in checked or unchecked syllables);

/a{:}/ 2.1 (å[:]), between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/, 2.2 (A[:]), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (and (ı)), 2.3 (a[:]), in contact with /h, H, X, º, r/, 2.4 (a[:]), utterance-ﬁnal unstressed (except 2.2), 2.5 (Ä[:]), in contact with other C (also /ö, h/), 2.6 (Ä[:]), utterance-internal word-ﬁnal unstressed –even in monosyllables– (except 2.1-3), 2.7 (Ä) /a[h]/, for -a-h (taa' marbuu=a) in pausal position (with no inﬂuence as in 2.2-4), 2.8 (in /ai, au/) as /a/, for 2.2-3 “ 2.5; /u/

3.1 (U), between (or in contact with) /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H/, 3.2 (U), in checked syllables, 3.3 (u), in unchecked syllables (except 3.1), 3.4 (in /au/) as /u/, for 3.1-3; /u:/ 3.5 (U:), in checked syllables with /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H/, 3.6 (u:), in all other cases.

û 9.1. Arabic vowel elements. /i/ (i, I, ¢) /i:/ (i:, I:, ¢:)

/a/ (Ä, a, A, å)

/u/ (u, U) /u:/ (u:, U:)

/a:/ (Ä:, a:, A:, å:)

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9.1.3. According to the distributions just seen, û 9.1 shows the realizations of the Arabic –short and long– vowels, (i[:], I[:], ¢[:]) /i[:]/, (Ä[:], a[:], A[:], å[:]) {and (Ø[:]), çKoranicÇ variant, Ô û 9.2) /a[:]/, (u[:], U[:]) /u[:]/. Here are some examples: ('›¢f) /'›if/ qif˚ (›¢'›A:n) /›i:'›a:n/ qiiqaan˚ ('†I:ni) /'†i:ni:/ «iinii˚ (†A'dI:›) /†a'di:›/ «adiiq˚ ('bInt) /'bint/ bint˚ ('fi:l) /'fi:l/ ﬁil÷ (†å'›IH÷ †Ø-) /†a'›iH/ «aqi‘˚ ('†Af:) /'†aff/ «a‡˚ ('tA:h) /'ta:h/ =aa∆a˚ ('baHda) /'baHda/ ba‘da˚ ('5a:HIn) /'ra:hin/ raahin˚ ('HÄ:∑a) /'ha:∑a:/ haaÉaa˚ ('wÄlÄd) /'walad/ walad˚ ('bÄ:b) /'ba:b/ baab÷ ('†U:›) /'†u:›/ «uuq˚ ('Huna) /'huna:/ hunaa˚ ('†u:f) /'†u:f/ «uuf˚ (ºU'†u:m) /Xu'†u:m/ Æu«uum˚ ('fUndU›) /'fundu›/ funduq˘ û 9.1 does not show the di‡erent realizations of /ai, au/, which result from the combination (Ä-, a-, A-) + (-i, -I, -¢) or + (-u, -U), according to context: ('bÄIt) /'bait/ bait˚ ('öÄina) /'öaina/ aina˚ ('Haini) /'Haini:/ ‘ainii˚ ('›AIl) /'›ail/ qail˚ ('fÄUz) /'fauz/ fauz˚ ('lÄUn) /'laun/ laun˚ ('HaUdÄ) /'Hauda[h]/ ‘auda-h˚ (mU'›AuwÄm, -AwwÄm) /mu'›awwam/ muqawwam˚ (öÄu'lÄ:d) /öau'la:d/ aulaad˘ û 9.2. Some Arabic vowel variants.

/ai/ (e:, ™I) frequent çcolloquialÇ variants

/au/ (o:, øU) frequent çcolloquialÇ variants

/a[:]/ (Ø[:]) (between (t, d, †, Ã, ›), in the çKoranicÇ kind of pronunciation)

9.1.4. û 9.2 shows some frequent realizations of /ai, au/: (e:, ™I÷ o:, øU), which are very widespread outside neutral and Levantine Arabic. However, one's pronunciation may still be considered neutral, although çcolloquialÇ, even if it uses such variants, provided all other articulations are appropriate; in fact, this pronunciation is quite common indeed: ('be:t, 'b™It) /'bait/ bait˚ ('öe:na, 'ö™I-) /'öaina/ aina˚ ('He:ni, 'H™I-) /'Haini:/ ‘ainii˚ ('›e:l, '›™Il) /'›ail/ qail˚ ('fo:z, 'føUz) /'fauz/ fauz˚ ('lo:n, 'løUn) /'laun/ laun˘ û 9.3. Colloquial variants and neutralizations.

/’i/ (Ù), /’a/ (‘), /’U/ (P) frequent çcolloquialÇ variants

{/’i, ’a, ’u/ (È) ç/È/Ç possible çcolloquialÇ neutralization)

û 9.3 shows further vocalic articulations, all of which are in the intermediate realizational area (typically unused in neutral pronunciation, as can be seen in û 9.1), as happens for the variants of /ai, au/ as well. ˛e white markers indicate unstressed realizations of /i, a, u/, (Ù, ‘, P), which are considerably centralized. ˛e

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broken-line white marker, in turn, indicates the realization of a frequent neutralization of unstressed /i, a, u/ (uniﬁed into (È)), which is more typical of quick and familiar speech (here given as a third realization): (si'jÄ:Z, sÙ-, sÈ-) /si'ja:Z/ siyaa`˚ (tIm'†Ä:l, tÙm-, tÈm-) /tim'†a:l/ tim≠aal˚ (sÄ'lÄ:ma, s‘-, sÈ-) /sa'la:ma/ salaama˚ (sÄH'wÄ:n, s‘H-, sÈH-) /sah'wa:n/ sahwaan˚ (su'Hu:la, sP-, sÈ-) /su'hu:la/ suhuula˚ (mUS'tA›:, mPS-, mÈS-) /muS'ta››/ mu∞taqq˘ Another feature –frequent in some colloquial pronunciations– tends to avoid realizations like (Ä[:]) in whole (even long) words, if they have /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H, X, º, r/: ('mÄH-Rab, 'maH-) /'mahrab/ mahrab˚ ('tAlÄb, -lab) /'talab/ =alab˚ ('tÄmdI, 'tam-) /'tamdi:/ tamƒii˚ (mÄn'†u:b, man-) /man'†u:b/ man«uub˘ ≈nally, û 9.2 also shows the rounded realization of /a[:]/ between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/, which is more typical of çKoranicÇ pronunciation, as already said. Scattered examples of it can be found here and there, and in § 9.1.3. 9.1.5. Actually, not every single realization given in û 9.2-3 is necessary for a good neutral pronunciation of Arabic. Nevertheless, if they are rationed and used in a natural way (speaking ﬂuently), they help to give greater çspontaneityÇ, similar to natives' speech again within a kind of colloquial neutral pronunciation. ˛is will depend on words themselves – for instance, (Ø[:]) is more likely to occur in çloftyÇ words. Furthermore, still within the neutral accent (but slightly more çinternationalÇ), there is another possibility taking a di‡erent approach, ¤ towards a reduction in the number of vowel taxophones, as regards the realizations of /a[:]/. In fact, they may reduce to two articulations, in stressed or unstressed syllables: (Ä[:]), for 2.37, and (A[:]), for 2.1-3; thus with a slight overlapping for 2.3, variably resolved by single speakers. ˛e vocalic realizations belonging to this kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation are shown in û 9.4. ˛is çclearerÇ pronunciation generally uses: (i[:], ¤[:]÷ Ä[:], A[:]÷ U[:]) (it may also have (™:, ø:) for /ai, au/), but not necessarily (Ù, ‘, P) (and least of all (È)), seen in § 9.1.4. ˛e systematic and complete shortening of unstressed long vowels belongs to çmodernÇ and çinternationalÇ pronunciation (and to dialects as well, generally). However, in çKoranicÇ pronunciation, /’é:/ (appearing in phonemic transcriptions) are realized as half-long, (’é;). It is not di‚cult to achieve them, if we consider both types of transcription used in this chapter: (›¢'›A:n, ›¢;-) /›i:'›a:n/ qiiqaan˚ ('†I:ni, -ni;) /'†i:ni:/ «iinii˚ ('HÄ:∑a, -∑a;) /'ha:∑a:/ haaÉaa˚ ('Huna, -na;) /'huna:/ hunaa… û 9.4. International vowels. /i/ (i, ¤), /i:/ (i:, ¤:) {/ai/ (™:)}

/u/ (U), /u:/ (U:) {/au/ (ø:)} /a/ (Ä, A), /a:/ (Ä:, A:)

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Geographic variants 9.1.6. Among the main variations and deviations from the neutral form (Ô § 9.1.3), in certain areas, we ﬁnd that /a:/ never has the (Ä:) timbre, in any context (as often happens in Iraq and northern Lebanon). Furthermore, in an almost general way, in several colloquial variants, the diphthongs /ai, au/ reduce to (e:, ™I÷ o:, øU) (Ô û 9.2), from Maghreb to the Persian Gulf, except in the Levant. However, the diphthongs are kept, generally, when they are in absolute ﬁnal position or followed by /j, w/: ('bÄIt, 'b™It, 'be:t) /'bait/ bait˚ ('lÄUn, 'løUn, 'lo:n) /'laun/ laun˚ ('HaIn, 'H™In, 'He:n) /'Hain/ ‘ain÷ ('sÄijId, 'sÄjjId) /'sajjid/ sayyid˚ (mu'SÄuw¢›, -Äww-) /mu'Sawwi›/ mu∞awwiq˚ ('nÄi, 'nÄj:, -J:) /'nai/ nayy˚ ('lÄu, 'lÄw, 'lÄ)) /'lau/ law˘ Especially in Maghreb, besides (unstressed) /’i, ’u/, even /’a/ may be dropped (with possible consequent stress shifts): ('öÄnta, ó'tÄ, n'tÄ) /'öanta/ anta˚ ('›AlÄm, '›Alm) /'›alam/ qalam˚ (li'sÄ:n, Í'sÄ:n) /li'sa:n/ lisaan˚ (sÄ'lÄ:m, s'lÄ:m) /sa'la:m/ salaam˘ Consonants 9.2.0. û 9.5 gives the articulations of modern neutral Arabic. ˛e main geographical variants of some phonemes are given in round brackets. û 1.9-15, instead, show –gathered in groups according to manners of articulation– the orograms of all contoids treated in the chapters of this book, even as secondary, occasional, or regional, variants for the 12 languages dealt with.

m ö F pb Ô ƒ _ ß ó ˘ ‹

(M) f

n (˙) t d td †∑ s z

(~) {(G)} {(›)}

{(D)} †Ã

(˙) k {(g)}

laryngeal

pharyngeal

uvular

velar rounded

velar

palatal

postalveo-palalatal protruded

postalveopalatal

uvularized alveolar

alveolar

uvularized dental

dental

bilabial

labiodental

û 9.5. Table of Arabic consonants.

(,) ö h

S Z 5|(R)

j

w

H (h) H º˜

l {ı} (¬) (l) /Ã/ (Ã, {D}), /Z/ (Z, {G}), /h/ (h, H), /r/ (5, R), /X, º/ (º, ˜)

Nasals 9.2.1. ˛ere are two nasal phonemes, /m, n/ (m, M, n, ~, ˙, ,): (mu'mÄ††Äl) /mu'ma††al/ muma≠≠al˚ (tÄm'Zi:d, -'Gi:d) /tam'Zi:d/ tam`iid˚ ('SÄms) /'Sams/ ∞ams˚

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('ma5-jÄm) /'marjam/ Maryam˚ (mU'hammÄd) /mu'hammad/ Mu∆ammad˚ ('nImnIm) /'nimnim/ nimnim˚ ('Han-wÄ) /'Hanwa[h]/ ‘anwa-h˚ ('ZÄmb, 'G-) /'Zanb/ `anb˚ (mIm'bÄ:b) /min'ba:b/ min baab˚ ('öÄMf) /'öanf/ anf˚ ('wI~S) /'winS/ win∞˚ ('∑Ä˙k) /'∑ank/ Éank˚ ('ºA,›) /'Xan›/ Æanq˚ (m¢,'›u:wa) /min'›u:wa/ min quuwa˘ However, the çKoranicÇ pronunciation tends to avoid assimilating /n/ to the following C\ ('GÄnb, mIn'bÄ:b, 'öÄnf, 'wInS, '∑Änk, 'ºan›, mIn'›u:wa). Stops 9.2.2.1. Arabic has no ç/p/Ç, but only /b/, which however is realized as (p) when followed by voiceless C\ ('bÄ:b) /'ba:b/ baab˚ ('lÄbÄn) /'laban/ laban˚ ('haps) /'habs/ ∆abs˘ On the other hand, neutral Arabic has no ç/g/Ç, either; while it has two voiceless stops, velar and uvular, /k, ›/ (k, ›) (in phonemic opposition): ('k[h]Uskusu, kUs'k[h]usu) /'kus“kusu/ kuskusu˚ (mIk'†a:5) /mik'†a:r/ mik≠aar˚ ('mÄlIk) /'malik/ malik˚ (›A'di:m) /›a'di:m/ qadiim˚ (öA›'dÄ:m) /a›'da:m/ aqdaam˚ ('sU:›) /'su:›/ suuq˚ (&öAı›UR'öÄ:n) /al›ur'öa:n/ al-Qur'aan˚ (sA›'›å:tA÷ -'›Ø:-) /sa›'›a:ta[h]/ saqqaa=a-h˘ (›) enjoys great prestige, even among speakers who do not use it, although very frequently it is substituted by other articulations (as will be seen in § 9.2.7). Note: ('kÄlb) /'kalb/ kalb çdogÇ and ('›Alb) /'›alb/ qalb çheartÇ. Furthermore, we have the diphonic pairs /t, d/ (t, d) and /t, d/ (t, d) (uvularized), which is quite peculiar. ˛ey are dental; and /t/ may be a little çaspiratedÇ, when at the beginning of a stressed syllable (but we will mark it only here). Often, /t, d/ are denti-alveolar if ﬁnal before a pause (but it is not necessary to use ((4, 7))): (tÄ'dÄ:wUl) /ta'da:wul/ tadaawul˚ (Si't[h]Ä:ö) /Si'ta:ö/ ∞itaa'˚ ('had:) /'hadd/ ∆add˚ (bA'tå:t¢s÷ -'tØ:-) /ba'ta:tis/ ba=aa=is˚ ('dA5t, 'då5t÷ 'dØ5t) /'dart/ ƒar=˚ ('dAZIR, -GIR) /'daZir/ ƒa`ir˘ Although neutral Arabic has no (g), this sound is frequent in di‡erent dialects, as a variant of other phonemes, mainly of /Z/ and /›/. ˛erefore, it is natural that the isolated phonemes may currently be brought to normalization, by changing their articulations, in order to form a more homogeneous and coherent system. Even the shift of /Z/ to (Z) (instead of the more çKoranicÇ –and ancient– (G)), or to (g), is a part of this trend. 9.2.2.2. ˛e last neutral Arabic stop is /ö/ (ö), which may occur in every position, as the other C do, and may be geminated as well. In word-initial position, it automatically occurs when no other C is present: (öÄ'mi:n) /öa'mi:n/ amiin˚ ('sÄ:öIh) /'sa:öih/ saa'i∆˚ ('mÄ:ö) /'ma:ö/ maa'˚ ('zÄnnÄö) /'zannaö/ zanna'˚ (&RuöÄ'sÄ:ö) /ruöa'sa:ö/ ru'asaa'˚ (öÄl'öÄ:n) /öal'öa:n/ al-aan˚ ('5aös) /'raös/ ra's˚ ('bÄdö) /'badö/ bad'˚ (sÄö'öÄ:l) /saö'öa:l/ sa''aal˘ ˛erefore, in Arabic, any word traditionally beginning with a V (¤ vowel), phonically, begins with /ö/ (ö), because in this language all phono-syllables begin with a C\ ('öÄb) /'öab/ ab˚ (öi'dÄ:nÄ) /öi'da:na[h]/ idaana-h˚ ('öUm:) /'öumm/ umm˘ On the other hand, Arabic does not tolerate syllables beginning with more than one C (except rare cases of loanwords not adapted to Arabic phonology). Consequently, in actual pronunciation, a short V is preﬁxed; generally, it is /i/ (but, sometimes, /u,

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a/, in accordance with the following V]˚ and /a/ in neutral pronunciation, for the article – while, in the dialects, we more often ﬁnd (™, I)); of course, in isolated forms, /ö/ is preﬁxed as well. However, when words with CC- (¤ with an initial consonant cluster) occur –in connected speech– after a word ending in a V˚ it is not necessary to add the V (nor /ö/), therefore the two words are linked. If, instead, the preceding word ends in a C˚ then the V is added, but /ö/ is not. ˛e reader is referred to grammars, where this phenomenon (called wa«la) is generally treated quite widely. It is to be found in connection with the article, certain verbal forms, the imperative and a dozen nouns. Among these, the most important are: ('öIbn, -bó, -b¢n) /'öibn/ ibn˚ ('öImRUö) /'öimruö/ imru'˚ ('öIsm, -sõ, -s¢m) /'öism/ ism˚ (öI†'nÄ:ni) /öi†'na:ni/ i≠naani\ (Ra'öÄitUb 'ni:) /ra'öaitu b'ni:/ ra'aitu bnii˚ ('bÄ:bUl 'bÄIt) /'ba:bu l'bait[i]/ baabu al-baiti˘ Constrictives 9.2.3. Among the phonemes belonging to this articulation manner, we ﬁnd /f/ (f) (but not the corresponding voiced phoneme): (fa'5i:d) /fa'ri:d/ fariid˚ (öIf'sÄ:d) /öif'sa:d/ ifsaad˘ In addition, there are two diphonic pairs, which pose no problems, /†, ∑÷ s, z/ (†, ∑÷ s, z): (†Ä'lÄ:†) /†a'la:†/ ≠alaa≠˚ ('mÄ∑IR) /'ma∑ir/ maÉir˚ ('∑Äm:) /'∑amm/ Éamm˚ ('da5s) /'dars/ dars˚ ('za:5) /'za:r/ zaar˚ ('kÄnz) /'kanz/ kanz˘ However, there are two more diphonic pairs, with variations that may pose some phonemic dilemmas; they are /†, Ã/ (†÷ Ã/D) and /S, Z/ (S÷ Z/G). We prefer (Ã, Z) for their voiced members, as they are more modern and more integrated in the phonologic system than their more çKoranicÇ variants (D, G), which are considered more prestigious (even by those who do not use them), but have di‡erent place or manner of articulation. ˛erefore, they complicate the phonemic system. However, they can be used – especially in a kind of pronunciation which aims at the traditional more than at the international accent: (mah'ÃU:Ã, -DU:D) /mah'Ãu:Ã/ ma∆„uu„˚ ('ÃA:mIö, 'D-) /'Ãa:miö/ „aami'÷ ('†UR†UR, †UR'†u:R) /'†ur†ur, †ur'†u:r/ «ur«u(u)r˚ (Ra'ºI:†) /ra'Xi:†/ raÆii«÷ (öIS'hÄ:d) /öiS'ha:d/ i∞haad˚ (öÄS'jÄ:ö) /öaS'ja:ö/ a∞yaa'˚ (mu'SÄuwÄS, -ÄwwÄS) /mu'SawwaS/ mu∞awwa∞˚ (öÄ'SÄd:) /öa'Sadd/ a∞add˚ (RaS'SÄ:S) /raS'Sa:S/ ra∞∞aa∞˚ (öÄS'SaRu) /öaS'Sarw/ a∞∞arw˚ (ZÄ'mi:l, GÄ-) /Za'mi:l/ `amiil˚ ('öÄZmaH, 'öÄG-) /'öaZmaH/ a`ma‘˚ ('tÄ:Z, -G) /'ta:Z/ taa`˘ In the pharyngeal place of articulation, we ﬁnd the voiceless constrictive /h/ (h) (currently, the çcorrespondingÇ voiced sound is considered to be constrictive as well, but in neutral pronunciation, it is clearly an approximant, /H/ (H), as we will see below, § 9.2.4): ('hUbbi) /'hubbi:/ ∆ubbii˚ (mah'tu:m) /mah'tu:m/ ma∆tuum˚ (mU'hAdd¢R) /mu'haddir/ mu∆aƒƒir˚ ('faRIh) /'farih/ fari∆˚ (fah'ha:S) /fah'ha:S/ fa∆∆aa∞˘ Arabic also has a diphonic pair of uvular constrictive trills, (º, ˜) (as will be seen), which phonemically may be represented with the o‚cial symbols /X, º/. Approximants 9.2.4.1. Let us ﬁrst consider the least peculiar ones (although there are rather free occurrences), /j, w/ (j, w), even realized as (i, u), for /0jò, 0wò/ (and, possibly,

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for /òj0, òw0/, in colloquial variants, as no doubt in the dialects) and (ij/jj, uw/ww), for /éjjé, éwwé/): ('jÄ:wIR) /'ja:wir/ yaawir˚ (wA'†I:jÄ) /wa'†i:ja[h]/ wa«iiya-h˚ (wU'†u:l) /wu'†u:l/ wu«uul˚ ('sÄijId, 'sÄjjId) /'sajjid/ sayyid˚ (nÄu'wÄ:m, nÄw'w-) /naw'wa:m/ nawwaam˚ ('nÄi) /'najj/ nayy˚ (mÄn'Hi:) /man'hi:/ manhiyy˚ ('öÄbu) /'öabw/ abw (Ô ('öÄbu) /'öabu/ abu). ˛e çKoranicÇ pronunciation prefers (-jj-, -ww-), as in the cases seen above. Let us also consider these further examples, which show us the di‡erences between modern pronunciation and traditional çKoranicÇ pronunciation. In principle, they coincide even with the most important cases where, even in colloquial accents and dialects, /ai, au/ do not change into monophthongs ((™:, ø:)). ˛is happens when they are in absolute ﬁnal position, and when in front of /j, w/ or after /i:, u:/, respectively, or when ﬁnal, after C˚ as the following examples will show: ('kÄi, 'kÄj, -J) /'kai/ kay (Ô ('kÄij, 'kÄj:, -J:) /'kaij/ kayy), ('lÄijÄn, 'lÄjjÄn) /'lajjan/ layyan˚ (jÄu'mi:jÄ, -JÄ) /jau'mi:ja[h]/ yaumiiya-h˚ ('Humi, 'Humj, -mJ) /'Humj/ ‘umy˚ ('lÄu, 'lÄw, 'lÄ)) /'lau/ law˚ ('dÄuwaR, 'dÄww-) /'dawwar/ dawwar˚ (Ha'du:wÄ, -u:)Ä) /Ha'du:wa[h]/ ‘aduuwa-h˚ ('sÄHu, 'sÄHw, -H)) /'sahw/ sahw˚ ('Hafu, 'Hafw, -f‹, -fä) /'Hafw/ ‘afw˘ 9.2.4.2. As we have said above (§ 9.2.3), the Arabic phoneme /H/ (H) is an approximant (and generally it is laryngealized as well, ((ó)), which is fairly easy to detect by its lower intrinsic tonality and creaky voice): ('HaIn) /'Hain/ ‘ain˚ ('maHa) /'maHa/ ma‘a˚ ('baHda) /'baHda/ ba‘da˚ ('naHnaH, naH'na:H) /'naHnaH, naH'na:H/ na‘na(a)‘˚ (&faHHa'li:jÄ) /faHHa:'li:ja[h]/ fa‘‘aaliiya-h˚ ('sÄlH) /'salH/ sal‘˘ It is occasionally possible to hear some peculiar regional –non-neutral– variants, as that with a slight simultaneous laryngeal stop, (?), or else a pharyngealized laryngeal stop, (ö), ™: ('na?na?, na?'na:?, 'nAönAö, nAö'nA:ö). ˛e last Arabic approximant is a true laryngeal phone, /h/ (H, h), and has a very free occurrence; it is typically (lenis) voiced (H), but it becomes (lenis) voiceless, when near a pause, or a voiceless C˚ or when geminate: (&öItti'ZÄ:h, -G-) /öitti'Za:h/ itti`aah˚ ('mUhtaR) /'muhtar/ muhtar˚ ('hÄ:∑iHi) /'ha:∑ihi:/ haaÉihii˚ (mÄH'bu:l) /mah'bu:l/ mahbuul˚ (&öInHi'zÄ:m) /öinhi'za:m/ inhizaam˚ (hÄf'nÄ:f) /haf'na:f/ hafnaaf˚ ('hija) /'hija/ hiya˚ ('ka5h) /'karh/ karh˚ ('bIh) /'bih/ bih˚ ('›AH-wÄ) /'›ahwa[h]/ qahwa-h˚ (wÄh'hÄ:Z, -G) /wah'ha:Z/ wahhaa`˘ In our transliteration, taa' marbuu=a is indicated by a hyphen, -a-h (while another –only seemingly more recommendable and less complicated– solution could be -a–); it is pronounced (Ä, Äh) /a[h]/ (but (a, A), if preceded by C which are capable of modifying timbres). It is to be noted that a realization with (h) represents a very careful, çKoranicÇ pronunciation, while the normal realization of -aò is (a): ('hÄzzÄ) /'hazza[h]/ hazza-h (çmovementÇ) but: ('hÄzza) /'hazza/ hazza (ç(he) shookÇ). Trills 9.2.5. Typically the voiced alveolar /r/ is realized as a velarized trill, (5), generally, in stressed syllable, and as a tap, (R), in unstressed syllables. ˛ey inﬂuence the

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timbre of /a/ (a): ('5Ip›) /'rib›/ ribq˚ (maR'bu:H) /mar'bu:H/ marbuu‘˚ ('maRIh) /'marih/ mari∆˚ (mIR'5i:h) /mir'ri:h/ mirrii∆˚ (mi'5a:h) /mi'ra:h/ miraa∆˚ ('fU5fUR, fUR'fu:5) /'furfur, fur'fu:r/ furfu(u)r˘ It is possible to hear (¸), mainly for ﬁnal /r/, but this pronunciation is not recommendable. As already said above (§ 9.2.4), Arabic has a diphonic pair of uvular constrictive trills, /X, º/ (º, ˜): (baº'Si:S) /baX'Si:S/ baÆ∞ii∞˚ ('ºaUº) /'XauX/ ÆauÆ˚ (faº'ºa:Ri) /faX'Xa:ri:/ faÆÆaarii˚ ('˜adÄn) /'ºadan/ ‚adan˚ (†A'˜i:R) /†a'ºi:r/ «a‚iir˚ ('bÄ:lI˜) /'ba:liº/ baali‚˚ (mÄS'˜u:l) /maS'ºu:l/ ma∞‚uul˚ (tÄ'wa˜˜Ul) /ta'waººul/ tawa‚‚ul˘ Laterals 9.2.6. ˛ere is one lateral phoneme, /l/ (l, ¬, ı) (the third taxophone occurs in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/; it occurs as a phonostyleme (¤ a stylistic phoneme), too, in Allaah and derivatives (provided that it is not preceded by /i/): (&mutÄ'lÄölIö) /muta'laöliö/ mutala'li'˚ (tÄl'bi:s) /tal'bi:s/ talbiis˚ ('lÄIl) /'lail/ lail˚ (mÄ¬'jÄ:n) /mal'ja:n/ malyaan˚ (zÄl'lA:›A) /zal'la:›a[h]/ zallaaqa-h˚ (tAı'›I:h) /tal'›i:h/ talqii∆˚ (&bIsmIl'lÄ:h) /bismil'la:h/ bismillaah˚ (öAı'ıA:h) /öal'la:h/ Allaah˘ For the typical complete assimilation of /l/ in the article al˚ see below (§ 9.3.1.1). Geographic variants 9.2.7. Very often, /†, ∑/ are pronounced like /t, d/, mainly in big cities in North Africa, or like /s, z/ as well, particularly in the Middle East. In each one of these cases a phonemic distinction is lost. In Iraq, /Ã/ is (D), as in traditional and çKoranicÇ pronunciations; elsewhere it is often realized as (Ã), as in Egypt and Syria, but it may even be confused with /t, d/, above all in Maghreb. ˛e grapheme `iim˚ /Z/ (Z), has very many geographical, social, and religious, variants. ˛e normal (Z) prevails in the Middle East and in North Africa, while (G) (typical of Koranic reading) is used in Jordan, Saudi Arabia (typical of Bedouins) and Iraq. But in some areas, as in Egypt (Cairo), Sudan and Oman, we ﬁnd (g); elsewhere, even (›), as in Luxor (southern Egypt), and (J). For instance, /'Za:b/ `aab is ('ZÄ:b) in the Levant (Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria) and in Africa (except Egypt and Sudan, as we have just said); it is ('GÄ:b) in Arabia, the Persian Gulf, Jordan, Iraq and among the rural and the nomadic peoples in Morocco. ˛e grapheme qaaf˚ /›/ (›), very often becomes (ö), above all in Cairo and other big cities; but it becomes (H, k) as well, or even (g), particularly in central-southern Egypt, in rural areas of Morocco, and among Saudi Arabia Bedouins (who often, typically, change /k/ into (c)). For instance, /'›alb/ qalb may be: ('›Alb÷ 'öÄlb, 'Halb, 'kÄlb, 'gÄlb). In the Levant, /òö/ is generally quite weak, therefore we could transcribe it as (,) (instead of (ö)). In Maghreb, /ö/ may not even be present at all.

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Structures 9.3.0. Here we will deal with assimilation, quantity, and some typical reductions of colloquial speech, still within neutral pronunciation (although with geographical variants). Taxophonics 9.3.1.1. ˛e deﬁnite article, (öÄl) /öal/ al˚ obligatorily assimilates completely to all apical or laminal C following it. ˛erefore, in such cases we may say that the article is /a0/ with a following homorganic /0/ – ¤ something like ç/a*/Ç, as in the neutral-Italian pronunciation phenomenon called co-gemination. ©th /Z/, assimilation takes place if it is pronounced (Z), but there is no change if it is pronounced (G), or (g), Â: (öÄS'SÄms) /öal'Sams/ al-∞ams˚ (öaR'5A›†, -5å›†) /öal'ra›†/ al-raq«˚ (öÄt'tutUn) /öal'tutun/ al-tutun˚ (öÄz'zÄlÄl) /öaz'zalal/ al-zalal˚ (öAd'd¢:›) /öad'di:›/ al-ƒiiq˚ (öÄZ'ZÄmÄl, öÄ¬'GÄ-÷ öÄl'gÄ-) /öal'Zamal/ al-`amal˚ (öÄl'kUSk) /öal'kuSk/ al-ku∞k˚ (öÄl'bahR, -ah{) /öal'bahr/ al-ba∆r˚ (öÄl'wÄlÄd) /öal'walad/ al-walad˘ Even voicing assimilations are quite common indeed, therefore a voiced ﬁnal C may become voiceless, or devoiced, mainly after voiceless C÷ while voiceless C may become fully (or partially) voiced, between voiced phones. Besides, many cases of assimilation (regarding place or manner of articulation) are possible, even accompanied by the dropping of some phones: (›As'sÄmIHa) /›ad'samiHa/ qad sami‘a˚ ('lÄm 'juRIS 'SÄiöÄn) /'lam 'jurid 'Saiöan / lam yurid ∞ai'an˚ ('öIbHa∑ '∑Ä:lika) /'öIbHa† '∑a:lika/ ib‘a≠ Éaalika˚ ('HUttu) /'Hu∑tu/ ‘uÉtu˚ ('öIhfaZ 'Za:Raka, -G 'G-) /'öihfaÃ 'Za:raka/ i∆fa„ `aaraka˘ In Arabic both vowel and consonant quantities are distinctive. Consonant quantity is shown by gemination ((00)) between V˚ but by lengthening ((0:)) elsewhere: ('öÄb) /'öab/ ab˚ ('öÄ:b) /'öa:b/ aab˚ (ZÄ'mÄ:l, G-) /Za'ma:l/ `amaal˚ (ZÄm'mÄ:l, 'G-) /Zam'ma:l/ `ammaal˚ ('öUm:) /'öumm/ umm˚ ('›AtÄla) /'›atala/ qatala˚ ('›A:tÄla) /'›a:tala/ qaatala˚ ('›AttÄla) /'›attala/ qattala˘ Unstressed /é:/ are (é;) only in the çKoranicÇ kind of pronunciation, since they are generally shortened, (é) (Ô § 9.1.5). 9.3.1.2. In colloquial speech, unstressed /i, u/ tend to drop whenever this does not form three-C clusters. On the other hand, when in connected speech two word-ﬁnal C are followed by a word-initial C˚ then a short V˚ generally /i/, is inserted to divide the cluster. In certain cases, the added V may even bear stress; and sometimes a V inserted in a certain place may cause –or allow– the dropping of another short V˘ Furthermore, long V tend to shorten a little in checked syllables (but less than in unstressed syllables); and short ﬁnal V in polysyllables tend to drop (above all grammemes, and /énò/ as well, except for accusative /anò/, which may become /a:ò/, in any position, even non-pausal). Verbs and pronouns are more likely to maintain the V˚ since endings have distinctive and pragmatic values.

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Let us see some examples: ('hÄ:∑Ä ki'tÄ:b, 'hÄ:∑Äk 'tÄ:b) /'ha:∑a: ki'ta:b[un]/ haaÉaa kitaabun˚ (öÄl'hIb-RU 'tAijIb, 'tAjjIb) /öal'hibru 'tajjib[un]/ al-∆ibru =ayyibun˚ (kÄ'tÄptu&biHi, -tUb&Hi) /ka'tabtu 'bihi/ katabtu bihi˚ ('kÄ:nÄ fIl'bÄIt) /'ka:na fi:albait[i]/ kaana ﬁi al-baiti˚ (Ra'öÄitUl 'bÄIt) /ra'öaitu al'bait[a]/ ra'aitu al-baita˚ (kÄ'tÄpt) /ka'tabt[u]/ katabtu˚ (&sÄkÄ'ki:n) /saka:'ki:n/ sakaakiin˘ 9.3.1.3. As far as çpausal formsÇ are concerned, let us take from Mitchell (1990) some examples (which we will transcribe again appropriately), keeping in mind that this is an çorthologicalÇ phenomenon people use to pronounce words in intonemes, including preceding words, semantically and syntactically linked (to the exclusion of grammemes). ˛is category includes ﬁnal short V (with or without inﬁnitive -n) – ('kÄtÄb) /'katab[a]/ kataba˚ ('jÄktUb) /'jaktub[u]/ yaktubu˚ ('liöÄ~ 'jÄktUb) /'liöan 'jaktub[a]/ li'an yaktuba˚ (&fimÄ'da:RIs) /fi:ma'da:ris[a]/ ﬁi madaarisa˚ (fIl'bÄIt) /fi:l'bait[i]/ ﬁi al-baiti÷ ('bÄIt) /'bait[un]/ baitun˚ (fi'bÄIt) /fi:'bait[in]/ ﬁi baitin˚ ('mUn∑u 'zÄmÄnI˙ wÄ'Zi:z, -'Gi:z) /'mun∑u 'zamanin wa'Zi:z[in]/ munÉu zamanin wa`iizin˘ However, (accusative) -an /an/ may be substituted by /a:/: (öaH'tA:HU HIS'5i:nÄ di'na:Ra) /öaH'ta:hu HiS'ri:na di:'na:ra:/ a‘=aahu ‘i∞riina dinaaran˚ except for adverbs like: ('ha:lÄn) /'ha:lan/ ∆aalan˚ ('öÄ¢dAn) /'öaidan/ aiƒan˘ Lastly, taa' marbuu=a [¤ -atin˚ -atan˚ -atun] is substituted by /a[h]/, which is generally pronounced (Ä) (or (Äh) in a {more} çKoranicÇ style): (ZÄ'mi:lÄ) /Za'mi:la[h]/ `amiila-h ((ZÄ'mi:lÄtUn, &ZÄmi'lÄtUn, %G-) /Za'mi:“latun/ `amiilatun]˚ ('fÄtahat mÄ'da:RisÄ lÄi'li:jÄ, &mÄda'5isÄ) /'fÄtahat ma'da:“risa lai'li:ja[h]/ fata∆at madaarisa lailiiya-h ((lÄi'li:jÄtÄn, &lÄili'jÄtÄn) /lai'li:“jatan/ lailiiyatan]˚ (&fIlZu'nÄinÄ, -Gu-) /fi:lZu'naina[h]/ ﬁi al-`unaina-h ((Zu'nÄinÄ&ti, &ZunÄi'nÄti, %G-) /Zu'nai“nati/ `unainati]˘ 9.3.1.4. Colloquially, very often /ö/ is not maintained when it occurs within words or at the end of words – it is dropped or changed into /j, w/, or else it lengthens a possible preceding V\ ('miöÄ, 'miÄ, 'mijÄ, 'mi:Ä) /'miöa[h]/ mi'a-h˚ ('jÄöºu∑u, 'ja:ºu∑u, ja'ºu∑u) /'jaöXu∑u, jaö'Xu∑u/ ya'ÆuÉu˚ ('5aös, '5a:s) /'raös/ ra's˚ (sÄ'mÄ:ö, sÄ'mÄ:) /sa'ma:ö/ samaa'˘ ‹en two hamzas occur in contiguous syllables, the ﬁrst one is maintained: ('ZÄ:öÄ &[ö]ÄZÄ'luHUm, '[ö]ÄZÄ&luHUm, [ö]Ä'ZÄlHUm, 'GÄ:öÄ, -ÄGÄ-) /'Za:öa öaZa'luhum, 'öaZaluhum/ `aa'a a`aluhum˘ In /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/ sequences, Arabic syllabiﬁcation is heterosyllabic, /0˘j, 0˘w, 0˘r, 0˘l/: (mIt'5a:s) /mit'ra:s/ mitraas˚ ('öÄtlÄfa, öÄt'lÄfa) /'öat“lafa/ atlafa˚ ('mÄdRasÄ, mÄd'Ra-) /'mad“rasa[h]/ madrasa-h˚ ('öÄd-la) /'öadla/ adla˚ ('ma5-jÄm) /'marjam/ Maryam˚ ('mUsRIH) /'musriH/ musri‘˚ (mIs'wÄ:k) /mis'wa:k/ miswaak˚ ('mÄS-wi) /'maSwi/ ma∞wi˚ ('öÄfRaza, öÄf'Raza) /'öaf“raza/ afraza˚ ('mÄk-wa) /'makwa/ makwa˚ ('öÄ¬-jÄn) /'öaljan/ alyan˚ ('öÄH-wa) /'öahwa/ ahwa˘ 9.3.1.5. In ﬁnal position, after C˚ the sonants (/m, n, r, l/) may be realized in di‡erent ways, according to how accurately one speaks. From a phonemic point of view, they are just C˚ but –phonetically– they may be plain (or devoiced, mainly in front of a voiceless C]˚ or intense (çsyllabicÇ), or even with a short epenthet-

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ic V (like (I, ¢)): ('›¢s≈, -sõ, -s¢m) /'›ism/ qism˚ ('lÄdn, -dó, -d¢n) /'ladn/ ladn˚ ('fÄtn, -tó, -t¢n) /'fatn/ fatn˚ ('dUHn, -hn, -Hó, -H¢n) /'duhn/ duhn˚ ('bÄdR, -d{, -d¢R) /'badr/ badr˚ ('m¢†R, -†á, -†{) /'mi†r/ Mi«r˚ ('fÄtú, -tÍ, -t¢l) /'fatl/ fatl˚ ('5AtÓ, -t–, -t¢l) /'ratl/ ra=l˘ 9.3.1.6. Here are some examples of typical Arabic phonotactics: (taö'bi:n) /taö'bi:n/ ta'biin˚ (mÄö'†u:R) /maö'†u:r/ ma'≠uur˚ ('mÄtHUb) /'matHu:b/ mat‘uub˚ ('öÄ†›Al) /'öa†›al/ a≠qal˚ ('mÄdºal) /'madXal/ madÆal˚ (mÄ∑'Hu:R) /ma∑'Hu:r/ maÉ‘uur˚ ('tÄzHu) /'tazhu/ tazhu˚ ('mÄsZId, -GId) /'masZid/ mas`id˚ ('mÄSta) /'maSta/ ma∞ta˚ (mÄS'˜u:l) /maS'ºu:l/ ma∞‚uul˚ ('mA†5aH) /'ma†raH/ ma«ra‘˚ ('öAdZaHa, öAd'ZaHa) /'öadZaHa/ aƒ`a‘a˚ ('öAdHafa, öAd'Hafa) /'öadHafa/ aƒ‘afa˚ ('öAÃlÄma, öAÃ'lÄma, -D-) /'öaÃlama/ a„lama˚ (maH'Zu:n, -Gu:n) /maH'Zu:n/ ma‘`uun˚ (maH'5u:f) /maH'ru:f/ ma‘ruuf˚ (öaH'mÄ:l) /öaH'ma:l/ a‘maal˚ (ma˜'Su:S) /maº'Su:S/ ma‚∞uu∞˚ ('mA›ha) /'ma›ha/ maqha˚ (mÄl'öÄ:n) /mal'öa:n/ mal'aan˚ ('jÄiöÄsu, jÄi'öÄsu) /'jai“öasu/ yai'asu˚ ('öÄuHÄma, öÄu'HÄma) /'öau“hama/ auhama˘ Stress 9.3.2.1. For words of two or more syllables, we have the patterns given below. It should be kept in mind that ç/à/Ç stands for çlightÇ syllables (/0é/); ç/9/Ç for çheavyÇ ones, ¤ consisting of çheavyÇ sequences like /é00, é:0, éé0/, which are located counting from their syllabic nucleous onwards, up to the next (belonging to another sequence). ˛erefore, in this kind of calculation, we do not consider them to be true phono-syllables. In addition, ç/à/Ç indicates a light or heavy syllable –indi‡erently– with no direct inﬂuence on stress assignment. ˛e symbol ç/“/Ç indicates alternative stressing, which is substitutive (certainly not simultaneous – as a matter of fact, one is free to choose either stress pattern from sequences showing both /'/ and /“/): 2 syll. /'àà, à'9, '9à/, 3 syll. /'ààà, àà'9, à'9à, '9“àà/, 4 syll. /“àà'àà, ààà'9, àà'9à, à'9“àà, “9'ààà/, 5 syll. /à“à'ààà, àààà'9, ààà'9à, àà'9“àà, à“9à'àà, 9“àà'àà/, 6 syll. /àà“àà'àà, ààààà'9, àààà'9à, ààà'9“àà, àà“9à'àà, à9“àà'àà, 9àà'ààà/. ˛ey function as a useful point of reference, for analyses and to ﬁnd correspondences; in fact, it would not be easy to try to memorize them. 9.3.2.2. ˛e solution to the formulae with variants, to read along columns, provides: /'9àà, 9'àà/÷ /àà'àà, 'àààà/, /à'9àà, à9'àà/, /9'ààà, '9ààà/÷

/àà'ààà, à'àààà/, /àà'9àà, àà9'àà/, /à9à'àà, à'9ààà/, /9àà'àà, 9'àààà/÷

/àààà'àà, àà'àààà/, /ààà'9àà, ààà9'àà/, /àà9à'àà, àà'9ààà/, /à9àà'àà, à9'àààà/.

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In patterns with two possible stressings, the variants may be of two types: çEgyptianÇ (Cairo), as: /'9“àà, à'9“àà, àà'9“àà, ààà'9“àà/; or çliteraryÇ (— dialectal, like those of southern Egypt), with the following possibilities: /“àà'àà, “9à'àà/, /à“à'ààà, à“9à'àà, 9“àà'àà/, /àà“àà'àà, àà“9à'àà, à9“àà'àà/. For /à9“àà'àà/, we may ﬁnd the patterns /à'9àààà/, /à9à'ààà/ as well (which constitute çloftierÇ stressings, as can be seen in the story in § 9.4.2.1-2). All the stress patterns we give belong to modern neutral pronunciation. ˛erefore, one is free to choose, provided certain structural homogeneousness is maintained. A dialectal peculiarity found in Lebanon (which should not be followed) puts ﬁnal stress on words ending in /é:ò, ééò/ (which, in neutral pronunciation, are not çheavyÇ enough to bear the stress): ('mInHuma, mIn'Huma) (and (&mInHu'ma:)) /'min“huma:/ minhumaa˘ 9.3.2.3. Preﬁxes do not inﬂuence the application of the stress rule, in di‡erent actual words; nor does the article even when it assimilates completely. But the rule is modiﬁed by the dropping of some (vocalic or consonantal) phones, because this changes the syllabic structure, both within words and at their end, before a pause. As far as secondary stress in polysyllabic words is concerned, it tends to occur on alternate syllables, but preferring the heaviest ones, whenever possible. Lastly, here are some examples: (Ra'su:l) /ra'su:l/ rasuul˚ (sÄ'fÄ~Z, -~G) /sa'fanZ/ safan`˚ (mu'5a:sIl) /mu'ra:sil/ muraasil˚ (ta'5assUl) /ta'rassul/ tarassul˚ ('HA:†¢mÄ, HA'†¢-) /'Ha:“†ima[h]/ ‘aa«ima-h˚ (&mutÄ'fÄuw¢›, -Äww¢›) /muta'fawwi›/ mutafawwiq˚ (mu'fa:RA›A, &mufa'5A›A) /mu'fa:“ra›a[h]/ mufaaraqa-h˚ ('mÄd-Ra&sÄ, mÄd'5asÄ) /'mad“rasa[h]/ madrasa-h˚ ('daRa&ki) /'daraki:/ darakii˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄHu, 'kÄtÄ&bÄHu) /“kata'bahu/ katabahu˚ (mUº'tÄli&fÄ, 'mUºtÄ&lifÄ) /“muX'talifa[h]/ muÆtalifa-h˚ (&öÄZÄ'luHUm, 'öÄZÄ&luHUm, öÄ'ZÄlHUm, -GÄ-) /“öaZa'luhum, öa'Zalhum/ a`aluhum˘ 9.3.2.4. We give further useful examples (again completed and retranscribed from Mitchell, 1990), both with çpausalÇ and çpre-pausalÇ forms (Ô § 9.3.1.3): ('5amÄt) /'ramat/ ramat˚ (Ra'mÄthu) /ra'mathu/ ramathu˚ ('öahad) /'öahad/ a∆ad˚ (&öaha'duHUm, 'öaha&duHUm) /“öaha'duhum/ a∆aduhum˚ ('SÄdda) /'Sadda/ ∞adda˚ ('SÄddÄHu, SÄd'dÄ-) /'Sad“dahu/ ∞addahu˚ ('öa5dA) /'öarda:/ ardaa˚ (öa5'dA:Hu) /öar'da:hu/ ardaahu˚ (kÄ'tÄpti) /ka'tabti/ katabti˚ (kÄ'tÄptiHi, &kÄtÄp'tiHi) /ka'tab“tihi/ katabtihi˚ (öIs'taı›A) /öis'tal›a:/ istalqaa˚ (&öIstaı'›A:Hu) /öistal'›a:hu/ istalqaahu˚ ('kÄ:tÄ&ba, kÄ'tÄba) /'ka:“taba:/ kaatabaa˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄ:Hu) /ka:ta'ba:Hu/ kaatabaahu˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄta, 'kÄtÄ&bÄta) /“kata'bata:/ katabataa˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄtÄ:&Hu) /kataba'ta:hu/ katabataahu˚ (kÄ'tÄbÄ&ta, 'kÄ:tÄ&bÄta) /“ka:'tabata:/ kaatabataa˚ (&kÄtÄbÄ'tÄ:Hu, kÄ&tÄ-) /ka:taba'ta:hu/ kaatabataahu˚ (&SÄZa'5atUn, 'SÄZa&RatUn) /“SaZa'ratun/ ∞a`aratun˘ Here are some more –longer– examples: (&öÄdwijÄ'tuHu, öÄd'wijÄ&tuHu) /ad“wija'tuhu/ adwiyatuhu˚ (mUR&tÄbi'tAtUn, mUR'tÄbi&tAtUn) /mur“tabi'tatUn/ murtabi=atun˚ (&SÄZa'5atu&Hu, SÄ'ZaRa&tuHu) /Sa“Za'ratuhu/ ∞a`aratuhu˚ (&SÄZa&Ratu'Huma, &SÄZa'5atu&Huma) /SaZa“ratu'huma:/ ∞a`aratuhumaa˚ (&öÄdwijÄ'tuHu&ma, öÄd'wi-) /öadwija'tuhuma:/ adwiyatuhumaa˚ (mu&tÄZÄn'nibÄ&tUn, &mutÄ'ZÄnni&bÄtUn, -GÄ-) /muta“Zan'nibatun/ muta`annibatun˚ (mu&tA›A'tilÄtUn, &mutA'›Ati&lÄtUn) /muta“›a:'tilatun/ mutaqaatilatun˘

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Intonation 9.3.3. û 9.6 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of modern neutral Arabic. ˛e continuative intoneme is not very di‡erent from the suspensive one; therefore, generally, the pause which follows the suspensive type has greater duration. ˛e interrogative intoneme in the Levant is of the rising-falling type, /?/ (2 ' 1 2), instead of that given here. It will be interesting to compare the tonograms (but also the V and C] referring to the four geographic Arabic varieties (Ô § 9.1.1 – which di‡er in grammar as well, but most of all in their vocabulary). We will merely give some illustrative examples, for neutral intonation, to be used for comparisons: /./: ('lÄ: 'öaHRIf mÄ&dinÄ'tÄkUm23) {(mÄ'di:nÄ&tÄkUm23)} /'la: 'öaHrif[u] ma“di:na'takum./ Laa a‘rifu madiinatakum. /?/: (¿'hÄl öÄlki'tÄ:b ZÄ'di:d21) {(GÄ-)} /¿'hal öalki'ta:b[u] Za'di:d[un]?/ Hal al-kitaabu `adiidun? /÷/: ('jUmkIn &öÄnnA'›u:m bi'ZÄulÄ2 2) {(bi'GÄu-)} /'jumkin[u] öanna'›u:m[a] bi'Zaula[h]÷/ Yumkinu an naquuma bi-`aulatin… û 9.6. Arabic preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Text 9.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows. According to the Phonetic method we start with the version in Arabic pronunciation of (neutral British) English (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Arabic translation follows, in its neutral version. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Arabic, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Arabic (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Arabic pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Arabic, as an excel-

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lent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Arabic pronunciation (of English) 9.4.1. (då'nø5s 'wInd2 öåndå'sån2 w™5dIs'bjutI˙ 'wIS wåzzåst'5ø˙gå523| 'w™n öåt'5åfålå52 'k™:m öå'lø˙k2 ì'5åbt öinå'wø5m 'klø:k23œ| z™å'g5i:d2\ &dåtzå'wån Hu'f™5s såk'si:dId2 öIn'm™:kIn dåt'5åfålå52 't™:k hIsk'lø:k 'øf2 2| &SUdbikån'sidå5ds "t5ø˙gå5 &zåndi'åzå523|| 'd™n2 då'nø;5s 'wInd2 'blu:2 öåz'Hå5d2 öåzHi'kUd23| &båtdå'mø5 HIb'lu:2 2| zå'mø5 'klø:sli2 &dIdzåt'5åfålå52\ 'fø:ld HIsk'lø:k å'5åUndHIm23| ì&öåndåt'lÄ{:}st2œ\ zå'nø5s 'wInd2 'g™:f 'öåb diå't™mt23|| ì'd™n2œ då'sån 'Søn 'öÄUt23 ì'wø5mli23œ| &öåndi'mi:djåtli2\ ˚dåt'5åfålå5 'tUk 'öøf23 ˚hIs'klø:k23|| ìöånd'sø:2œ zå'nø5s 'wInd2 wåzåb'låIZd tukåM'f™s2| &zåtdå'sån23 wøsdåst'5ø˙gå523 ì&öåfzå'tu:23œ|| ¿&didju'låIk21 ¿dås'tø:5i2| ¿&duju'wøn tå'Hi5It öå'g™n21|||) Arabic text 9.4.2. ˛is passage highlights the fact that the çmodern classicalÇ Arabic language is a rather artiﬁcial concept. In fact, the currently unwritten short V have very ﬂuctuating realizations, due to both their presence or absence and to their timbres (themselves) (/i, a, u/). As the number of recordings (of di‡erent speakers) increases, the number of variations also increases (even for stressing and orthology, ¤ the use of intonemes and pauses). 9.4.3. Kaanat rii∆u al-∞amaali tata`aadalu wa al-∞amsu ﬁi ayyin minhumaa kaanat aqwaa min al-uÆraa, wa iÉ bi-musaaﬁrin ya=la‘u mutala‚‘an bi-‘abaa'atin samiikatin. Fa ittafaqataa ‘alaa i‘tibaari al-saabiqi ﬁi i`baari al-musaaﬁri ‘alaa Æal‘i ‘abaa'atihi al-aqwaa. ‘a«afat rii∆u al-∞amaali bi-aq«aa maa ista=aa'at min quuwatin. Wa laakin kullumaa izdaada al‘a«fu, izdaada al-musaaﬁru tada≠≠uran bi-‘abaa'atihi, ilaa an usqi=a ﬁi yadi al-rii∆ fataÆallat ‘an mu∆aawalatihaa. Ba‘da'iÉin sa=a‘ati al-∞amsu bi-dif'ihaa, famaakaana min al-musaaﬁri illaa an Æala‘a ‘abaa'atahu ‘alaa al-tauu. Wa hakaÉaa iƒ=arrat rii∆u al-∞amaali ilaa al-i‘tiraafi bi-anna al-∞amsa kaanat hiya al-aqwaa. Hal kaanat al-qi««atu `amiila? Hal turiidu an nuraddidahaa? 9.4.4. ('kÄ:nÄt2 '5i:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]2 &tÄtÄ'ZÄ:dÄ&lu wÄS'SÄms[u]2 2| fi'öÄij[In] 'mInHu&ma2»| 'kÄ:nÄt 'öA›wa2 &mInöÄl'öuºRa23| wÄ'öI∑ bimu'sÄ:fIR[In]2| ì'jAtıAHU” &mutÄ'lÄffI&Ham2 &bI-

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Ha'bÄ:öÄ[tIn] sÄ'mi:kÄ23œ|| 'fÄt tÄfA'›Ata2 2|’ 'HalaH ti'ba:RIs 'sÄ:b¢›[¢]2[ &fiöIZ'ba:RIl mu'sÄ:fIR[i]2| 'Hala 'ºalHI Ha&bÄöÄ'tiHIlÌ 'öA›-wa23|| 'HA†AfÄt2 '5i:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]|| bi'öA›†A 'mÄ: öIstA'tA:öÄt m¢,'›u:wa23|| wÄ'lÄ:kIn2 ì'kUllÄmÄz• 'dÄ:dÄl 'HA†f[u]2 2œ|| öIz'dÄ:dÄl mu'sÄ:fIR[u] tÄ'dÄ††u&Ran2] &biHa'bÄ:öÄ&tIh2 2| ì'öilÄ öÄn'öUs›¢&tA2Ô fi'jÄdIR '5i:h23œ|| &fÄta'ºallÄt 'Ham mU&hawÄlÄ'tiHa23||»Ò baH'dÄöi&∑In2|»» &sAtA'öÄtIS»” 'SÄmsu bi'dIföi&Ha2| &fÄmÄ'kÄ:nÄ mIn&öÄlmu'sÄ:fIR[i]2| 'öIllÄ öa,'ºala&Ha»’ Ha&bÄöÄ'tÄHu23»[ ì'HalÄt 'tÄu23œ|| 'wÄ 'HÄkÄ&∑Ä»Ì ö¢d'tA5Rat2 '5I:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]2 2| 'öilÄl &öIHti'5a:f[i]2 bi'öÄnnÄS 'SÄms[Ä]2| 'kÄ:nÄt2 'hijÄl 'öA›-wa23|| ¿'hÄl 'kÄ:nÄt öAı'›¢††Atu2 ¿ZÄ'mi:lÄ21|| ¿'hÄl tu'5i:d[u]2 'öÄn &nuRad'didÄ&Ha21|||)»• » mIn'Huma2 — ” jAt'ıAHU — ’ 'tÄfA&›Ata2 2| — [ sÄ'b¢›¢2| — Ì Ha'bÄ:öÄ&tiHIl — • kUl'lÄmÄz — ] &tÄdÄ†'†uRan2 —  bI&HabÄ'öÄtIh2 2| — Ô &öÄnöUs'›¢tA2 — »Ò mUha'wÄlÄ&tiHa23||, mU'ha:wÄ&lÄti&Ha23||, mU&hawÄ'lÄti&Ha23|| — »» -öI∑2|, 'baHdÄ&öi∑In2|, -&öI∑2| — »” 'sAtA&öÄtIS — »’ 'öa,ºa&laHa — »[ Ha'bÄ:öÄ&tÄHu2 — »Ì HÄ'kÄ∑Ä — »• nu'5addidÄ&Ha21||| English pronunciation of Arabic 9.4.5. ('khπnπ˛2 5>Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli2» &TπTÈ5GπDÈ&l¯u wπS'Sπms¯u32| fIi5aÙ¤m 'm¤nhÈ&mA;2|” 5khπnπT 'A;kwû2 &m¤nπı'¯uk>å3 3| wπö5¤∑ &bIimÈ'sπfÈ>¤n2| ì5jA;tlÈ&h¯u’ &m¯uTÈ'lπf¤håm2 &b¤hÈ5bπöÈT¤n sÈ'mIikå3 3œ|| 5fπT[ TÈfû'khA;Tå32| 5hålÈö T¤'bA;>¤s 'sπbûk[û]2Ì &fIiG5bA;>¤ı mÈ'sπfÈ&>Ii2| 5hålû 'khåıhi hÈ&bπöÈ'ThIih¤ı 'A;kwå3 3|| 'hA;sÈ&fπT2 '¯u tÈ'Dπ†È&>ån2 &bIihÈ'bπöÈ&TIi32| ì5IilÈ πn'¯uskû&TA;2 fIi5πD¤È '>Iix3 3œ|| &fπTû5khπlÈT 'håm mÈ&hA;wûlÈ'ThIihå3 3|| båö'DaÙ&∑¤n2| &sA;TA;5πT¤S 'Sπms¯u bIi'D¤f¤hå2| &fπmû5khπnÈ m¤n&πımÈ'sπfÈ&>Ii2| 5¤ı lπ˙'khålÈhÈ A;&bπöÈ'Thπh¯u3 3 ì5hålπT 'Tha;Ö3 3œ|| 5wπö 'hπkû∑ÈÔ öÈD'ThA;>ÈT2 5>Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli32|»Ò 5öIilπı &ö¤ÈT¤'>A;fi2 bi5πnÈS 'Sπmså2| 'khπnπT2 5hIiπı 'A;kwå3 3|| ¿5hπı 'khπnπT A;ı'kh¨såT¯2 ¿GÈ'mIilÈ21|| ¿5hπı T¯u'>IiD¯u2 ¿5πn»» &n¨È>È'DIiDÈ&hå21|||) » -'mπ;ı2 — ” m¤n'h¯umå — ’ jåT'lA;h¯ — [ 5faÈT — Ì sÈ'bIik[i] — • -'mA;li2 — ] k¨'lA;mÈ —  &πnÈ'skIiTÈ2 — Ô hû'khπ∑È — »Ò -'mA;li32| — »» ¿&πıTÈ'>I;iD2 ¿5πn

10. Hindi 10.0.1. Neutral Hindi pronunciation is presented in detail (whereas regional variants are given only for the /EE, OO/ ae˚ ao phonemes, which constitute the major peculiarity – Ô û 10.2.å). Our transliteration diverges from more traditional one(s) – and from English orthography as well, which neglects vowel duration. It shows çlongÇ vowels by doubling their graphemes (ii˚ aa˚ uu), as it does for consonants (pp˚ nn), even when there is no opposition between short and long (ee˚ oo), for coherence. On the contrary, the historical indication of diphthongization is kept, for the two vocalic phonemes mentioned at the beginning (ae˚ ao), instead of using a more complicated spelling (even if a little less inaccurate, perhaps, such as ùù˚ §§]˘ We can still ﬁnd –and quite often, even if it is, rightly, losing ground– a kind of transliteration which shows the three short vowels, /i, a, u/ (I, å, U), as i˚ a˚ u˚ and the three corresponding long, /ii, aa, uu/ (ii, aa, uu), as i˚ a˚ u÷ but, at the same time, it shows /ee, oo/ (ee, oo), just as e˚ o (since there are no corresponding short phonemes). ‹en transcriptions are not added, in that kind of system, it would be decidedly better to write e, o. However, we are left with the problem of /EE, OO/, which –if transcriptions are still lacking– could perhaps coincide more with the last indications given above, if one chose to write them as ™, Ø. 10.0.2. Nasalized vowels are marked with the çtildeÇ sign (i˚ q˚ ãã); however, in accordance with the system of marking long vowels with a macron, awkwardly, the tilde should be put over the macron (≤˚ >˚ <]˚ as some transcribe. Nevertheless, others use –less satisfactory– digraphic devices (aµ˚ aµ÷ añ˚ añ). Postalveolar consonantal articulations are indicated by a dot underneath (=˚ ƒ˚ ó); postalveopalatal ones with an inverted circumﬂex (or ha£ek\ £˚ À˚ ∞; instead of traditional, but ambiguous, c˚ j˚ ≈]÷ for the uvulars of Arabic and Persian loanwords we use particular signs (q˚ Æ˚ ‚; instead of digraphs or other more complex combinations, or less evident, from a visual point of view, as well). ˛ese have been mentioned in order to avoid both signs and also digraphs which could be too generic. ˛e latter are reserved for çaspiratedÇ consonants (ph˚ bh˚ óh…). Furthermore, we decidedly prefer w (to v]˚ for (6, j) /w/. 10.0.3. Traditional devanagari script [deewnaagrii /deew'naagrii/ (de6'naag-Ri)) is not of great help, unless one has already learnt it. On the other hand, it is more syllabic than alphabetic (and with a lot of monographs, indeed more than 150, in addition to the over 40 basic signs), for sequences of polyphonemic graphemes. ˛erefore, it is not suitable to indicate actual phonic structures in a simple way, with a further complication constituted by (short) çinherentÇ a, which is not written when preceded by C˚ except in (some) transliterations. ˛ese transliterations

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are, basically, of two kinds: those that indicate /a/ only when it is really pronounced, and those that show every a (or very many), as for instance in ('måt-låb) /'matlab/ matlab (or matalaba]. However, the actual phonetic situation may be something in between, as can be seen in § 10.3.1.1 as well. Vowels 10.1.1. û 10.1 shows Hindi vowels, which are ten: three short, (I, å, U) /i, a, u/, and seven çlongÇ. ˛ese are actually diphthongs: ﬁve monotimbric, with narrow movements, but nevertheless perceptible, (ii, ee, aa, oo, uu) /ii, ee, aa, oo, uu/, and two more evident ones (even if, generally, they are simply described as long V˚ themselves), (Ä™, ∏ø) /EE, OO/ (because native speakers think they are monophthongs, including the variants given, and use them as such when learning foreign languages). Let us see, for now, some examples of the three short V\ ('dIn) /'din/ din˚ ('påR) /'par/ par˚ ('kUl) /'kul/ kul÷ the three corresponding diphthongs are: ('diin) /'diin/ diin˚ ('paaR) /'paar/ paar˚ ('kuul) /'kuul/ kuul÷ the other four diphthongs are: ('beeR) /'beer/ beer˚ ('bÄ™R) /'bEEr/ baer˚ ('booR) /'boor/ boor˚ ('b∏øR) /'bOOr/ baor˘ We will deal again with the geographic variants of /EE, OO/ (Ô û 10.2.å) again, only here, ('bÄ™R) /'bEEr/ baer˚ ('b∏øR) /'bOOr/ baor\ ('bå™R, 'b√øR) (east: Bihar, West Bengal), ('bE™R, 'bOøR) (west: Rajasthan), ('bπER, 'bØOR) (northwest: Panjab)˘ û 10.1. Hindi vowels. /ii/ ('ii, &i, ’i) /i/ (I) /ee/ ('ee, &e, ’e)

/uu/ ('uu, &u, ’u)

/EE/ ('Ä™, &Ä, ’™)

/OO/ ('∏ø, &∏, ’ø)

/a/ ('å, &å, ’å0, ’‘˘)

/u/ (U) /oo/ ('oo, &o, ’o)

/aa/ ('aa, &a, ’a)

10.1.2. Each Hindi vowel may be (distinctively) nasalized: (t'hI) /t'hi/ thi˚ ('Hì™, &Hì, H™) /'híí/ hãq˚ (b'HÅÅ®) /b'hÅÅ#/ bhããó˚ (k'h_9) /k'hÓÓ/ khã£÷ let us consider, for instance ('Råg) /'rag/ rag çveinÇ ('RAg) /'rÅg/ rãg çcolorÇ. Currently, words such as ('Hå∫s) /'hans/ hans tend to be confused with ('HAs) /'hÅs/ hãs÷ but, in neutral pronunciation, they must be accurately distinguished, even if (∫) has no full contact with the alveolar ridge (Ô § 10.2.1.1-2). ‹en ae˚ ao are followed by /j, w/, they correspond to (åI, åU) /ai, au/: ('måIãa) /'maijaa/ maeyaa˚ (tåI'jaaR) /tai'jaar/ taeyaar˚ ('HåUja) /'hauwaa/ haowaa˘ ˛e same should hold for Sanscrit words with ae˚ ao (èai˚ au¶); but, currently, these become /EE, OO/ (Ô § 10.2.1.2). Intra-lexemic sequences /eeh0, ooh0/ may be realized as short vowels: ('seeH-Ra, 'seH-) /'seehraa/ seehraa˚ ('mooH-låt, 'moH-) /'moohlat/ moohlat÷ when there is grammemic derivation, no shortening occurs: ('leeH-jÉ) /'leehja/ leehya˚ ('mooH-na)

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/'moohnaa/ moohnaa˘ Even in English loanwords we ﬁnd (more or less evident) shortenings: ('pee˛) /'pee˛/ pee= çstomachÇ, but ('pe;˛, 'pe˛, 'p™˛) /'pee˛/ pee= çpet (animal)Ç. ˛e sequence /ah/, in front of a C˚ or in front of short /a/, or at word boundary (/ah0, aha, ahò/), is realized as ('ÄH, ’ÉH) (which could be marked as ç/E/Ç): (kÉH'naa) /kah'naa/ kahnaa˚ (pÉH'laa) /pah'laa/ pahlaa˚ (lÉ'HåR) /la'har/ lahar˚ ('tÄH) /'tah/ tah˘ In the other cases, /a/ remains (Ô the following section) with the following realizations (å, ‘, É, ê, x, ∑): (kx'Haa) /ka'haa/ kahaa˚ (d‘'Hii) /da'hii/ dahii÷ in Sanscrit loans we ﬁnd /a/ before /ha/ as well: (R‘'Hås-jÉ, 'RåHåsª) /ra'hasja/ rahasya˚ (gx'Hån) /ga'han/ gahan˚ (mê'Håt:j∑) /ma'hattwa/ mahattwa˘ û 10.2. Regional variants (å) and unstressed neutral taxophones of /a/ (∫).

å. Regional variants of ae˚ ao /'EE, 'OO/: ('E™, 'Oø) west (Rajasthan); ('πE, 'ØO) northwest (Panjab); ('å™, '√ø) east (Bihar, West Bengal).

∫. Attenuated taxophones of /’a˘/: (‘), ((’0‘)), (’jÉ, ’ãÉ÷ ’j∑), ((’±ê)): ± (m, p[h], b[H], å, 6), ((’ôx)): (k[h], g[H], ›, ˜, r).

10.1.3. In unstressed syllables, çinherentÇ a is pronounced only when it is necessary to give substance to a phono-syllable. ˛us, it is often not pronounced at all, except in the case of consonant clusters which are not so easy to produce. Consequently, at the end of words (or word-internally, mainly after /h/), some unchecked phono-syllables are generally produced with a fading vocoid of the (‘) type (Ô û 10.1). However, this timbre, although attenuated (in length as well), changes in accordance with the contoids preceding it (even in /0h/ sequences). ˛erefore, as shown in û 10.2.∫, after labials ((m, p[h], b[H], å, 6)) it has rounded lips, (ê); after velars or uvulars ((k[h], g[H], ›, ˜, r)), it moves back, (x) (besides, after (j), we have (∑)); after /j/, it moves forwards, (É) (this phone also occurs in ('ÄHÉ0, ’ÉHÉ0) /ah0/ ahC˚ and with /h/, near /ee, EE/, as well – as an echo). It is a good thing to manage to use these ﬁve vocoids (in their attenuated, rather than full, forms), since the coarticulatory logic is quite evident. However, a rather satisfying result can be achieved, if we systematically use an attenuated (‘) (while a full (å) would sound too pushy). Let us see some examples (but it should be noted that, often, in various published texts, we ﬁnd ç(È)Ç for (å), even if stressed): ('kåN˛-h‘) /'kan˛h/ ka¿=h˚ ('på~C‘) /'panc/ pan£˚ ('kåRmê) /'karm/ karm (çkarmaÇ), ('baÅ˙gx) /'baang/ baa;g (('baÅ˙) /'baa˙, 'baang/ is possible as well), ('muuRk-hx) /'muurkh/ muurkh˚ (åM'6åãÉ) /an'waj[a]/ anway(a)˚ (‘'gåM-jÉ) /a'gamj[a]/ agamy(a)˚ ('ån-jÉ) /'anj[a]/ any(a)˚ (‘'gåπ-jÉ) /a'gaNj[a]/ aga¿y(a)˚ ('mooH‘&na) /'moohnaa/ moohnaa˚ ('mÄHÉl) /'mahl/ mahl˚ ('meeHÉ&tåR, &meHÉ'tåR) /'meehtar/ meehtar˘

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10.1.4. In unstressed syllables, the phonetic diphthongs are normally realized as short monophthongs (or, in slow or more accurate pronunciation, as half-lengthened monophthongs): ('HIndi÷ -di;) /'hindii/ hindii˚ (I'daaRa÷ -Ra;) /i'daaraa/ idaaraa˚ ('jaadÚ÷ -dÚ;) /'jaadÚÚ/ yaadõõ˚ (ëa'baaë÷ ëa;-) /Saa'baaS/ ∞aabaa∞˘ According to stress strength in sentences, for /EE, OO/, as in hae˚ we have: ('HÄ™, &HÄ, ’H™) /hEE/. Unfortunately, Hindi grammars persist in placing among the çvowelsÇ the grapho-syllable which in Sanscrit indicated /(/ (“) and traditionally is transliterated ®, but today it only stands for /ri/ (RI) (¤ a /0é/ sequence): (ë'RI) /S'ri/ ∞ri˘ Consonants 10.2.0. û 10.3 shows Hindi consonants, including phono-stylemes for words coming from Sanscrit (corresponding to ¿˚ ;˚ «) and Arabic, Persian, Turkish and English (q˚ f˚ z˚ Æ, ‚), and taxophones as well. û 1.9-15, instead, show the orograms (gathered by articulation manners) of all the contoids given in the chapters of this book –even as secondary, occasional, or regional, variants– for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is exposition makes necessary comparisons more direct.

mÌ|(M) ö F p5 bÌ Ô ƒ {å} 6 _ ß ó ‹

(n) nÌ|(∫) {N|(π)} t5 dÌ ˛5 ÃÌ s {z}

{ßÌ}

(~|µ)

(n) («Ì)

C5 ‚Ì ë j|(ã)

(l)

R lÌ

®Ì ($)

{˙Ì}|(˙) k5 gÌ

{(,)} {›} /w/ (j)

{˜}

laryngeal

uvular

velar rounded

velar

provelar

palatal

postalveopalatal

postalveolar

alveolar

dental

bilabial

û 10.3. Table of Hindi consonants.

{ö}

(h) H {r}

(¬)

/c, G/ (C, ‚), /S/ (ë), /j/ (j, ã), /F/ (å), /w/ (6, j), /r/ (R), /#/ (®)

Nasals 10.2.1.1. ˛ere are two fundamental nasal phonemes, /m/ (m), and /n/ (m, n, N, ~, ˙, ,), since the NC sequences are homorganic. Besides, (M) ((˘)} occurs before /w, F/; (∫) ((ˆ)) before /s/; (n) ((q)) before /j/; and («) {(Ö)} before /h/ – with a rare /˙/, which would give /˙h/ (and this would show the advantage of considering sequences of Ch biphonemic, even for stops) or /ngh/ (˙gH, «H). (It is worth observing that (M, ∫, µ, n, «) are nasals with no full contact (¤ semi-nasals): semi-labial, semi-alveolar, semi-postalveo-palatal, semi-palatal, and semi-provelar, respectively, Ô § 9.9 of NPT/HPh˚ and (π) {(¯)} as well, given in § 10.2.1.2.)

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On the other hand, it is not necessary to use the speciﬁc symbols ((˙, n)): ('mooH) /'mooh/ mooh˚ ('såmbål) /'sambal/ sambal˚ ('tiim ma'taÅe) /'tiin maa'taaee/ tiin maataaqq˚ (såM'jaad) /sam'waad/ samwaad˚ ('nåbH) /'nabh/ nabh˚ ('kåN˛h) /'kan˛h/ ka¿=h˚ ('kå~‚) /'kanG/ kanÀ˚ ('6åµë) /'wanS/ wan∞˚ ('ån-jÉ) /'anja/ anya˚ ('på˙k) /'pank/ pa;k˚ (&I,›x'laab) /in›a'laab/ inqalaab˚ ('sI«H[x]) /'si˙h[a]/ sinh(a)˘ In some words, we ﬁnd /m, n/ before heterosyllabic C\ (bê'RaÅmda) /ba'raamdaa/ baramdaa˚ (åm'Ruud) /am'ruud/ amruud˚ ('gUm˛i) /'gum˛ii/ gum=ii˚ ('CåmCa) /'camcaa/ £am£aa˚ ('‚Umka) /'Gumkaa/ Àhumkaa˚ ('meenka) /'meenkaa/ meenkaa (indicated in writing by the segments m˚ n˚ instead of by anuswaar˚ a diacritic sign). 10.2.1.2. Furthermore, in lofty Sanscrit words, also /N, ˙/ (N, Í÷ ˙) occur, and have speciﬁc graphemes, ¿˚ ;, but generally change into /n/. ˛e more frequent genuine realization of /N/ is (Í), a nasalized postalveolar ﬂap, or even a nasalized postalveolar approximant, (¯), so it is better to use the symbol of the diaphone, (π), which incorporates these values, although it generally becomes /n/. Also (~) has a particular grapheme, n, even if it does not represent a phoneme (as was the case instead in Sanscrit): ('baÅm) /'baam/ baam˚ ('baÅn) /baan/ baan˚ ('baÅπ, 'baÅN, 'baÅn) /'baaN/ baa¿˚ (gx'πeeë, gx'Neeë, gx'neeë) /ga'NeeS/ ga¿ee∞˚ (‘'gåN-jÉ, ‘'gåπ-jÉ) /a'gaNja/ aga¿ya˚ ('6aÅ˙måI, -˙mêãÉ, -«m-, -nmÄ™, -mmÄ, -mm™) /'waa˙maj/ wa;may˚ ('baÅ˙[gx]) /'baang/ baa;g. Furthermore, we ﬁnd the sequences /mh, nh/ (mH, nH), which (together with /lh/ (lH) and, possibly, /˙h/, Ô § 10.2.1.1) have no o‚cial devanagari graphemes, but combinations. In fact, they did not occur in Sanscrit, contrary to çaspiratedÇ stops and stopstrictives, including /#h/ (®H), which comes from /Ãh/ (ÃH): (kUm'HaaR) /kum'haar/ kumhaar˚ ('kaÅnH) /'kaanh/ kaanh˘ Stops 10.2.2.1. ˛ere are four diphonic pairs, /p, b÷ t, d÷ ˛, Ã÷ k, g/ (p, b÷ t, d÷ ˛, Ã÷ k, g), in addition to the voiceless uvular phonostyleme /›/ (›) (which, currently, becomes /k/ (k)): (pI'taa) /pi'taa/ pitaa˚ ('åb) /'ab/ ab˚ ('Raat) /'raat/ raat˚ (n‘'dii) /na'dii/ nadii˚ (˛'hiik) /˛'hiik/ =iik˚ ('pINÃ) /'pinÃ/ pi¿ƒ˚ ('k∏9n) /'kOOn/ kaon˚ ('gaÅna) /'gaanaa/ gaanaa˚ ('kÄ™) /'kEE/ kae˚ ('›Ä™) /'›EE, 'kEE/ qae˘ 10.2.2.2. ˛e most remarkable peculiarity of stops is that the elements of diphonic pairs may occur in sequences, with /h/, producing /ph, bh÷ th, dh÷ ˛h, Ãh÷ kh, gh/ (ph, bH÷ th, dH÷ ˛h, ÃH÷ kh, gH) (it is not rare to ﬁnd that the çaspiratedÇ voiced ones are, actually, devoiced, (ÊH, ∂H, ∂H, âH), although a fully voiced pronunciation is perfectly acceptable too). Generally, they are considered to be unitary phonemes: çaspiratedÇ opposed to the corresponding çnon-aspiratedÇ. No doubt, this opinion derives from traditional writing as well, since particular graphemes are in use. We prefer to consider the çaspiratedÇ sounds as phonemic (and phonetic) se-

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quences constituted by plain stops + /h/, which is realized as (h), after voiceless C˚ or as the normal (in Hindi) voiced laryngeal approximant, (H), after voiced C (all the more so because they are realized as heterosyllabic, instead of tautosyllabic; this can be seen by the placement of stresses, which is more evident and logical within a word or a rhythm group): ('pål) /'pal/ pal˚ (p'hål) /p'hal/ phal÷ ('baala) /'baalaa/ baalaa˚ (b'Haala) /b'haalaa/ bhaalaa÷ ('tål) /'tal/ tal˚ (t'hål) /t'hal/ thal÷ ('daa6a) /'daawaa/ daawaa˚ (d'Haa6a) /d'haawaa/ dhaawaa÷ ('˛åppa) /'˛appaa/ =appaa˚ (˛'håppa) /˛'happaa/ =happaa÷ ('Ãiil) /'Ãiil/ ƒiil˚ (Ã'Hiil) /Ã'hiil/ ƒhiil÷ ('kaal) /'kaal/ kaal˚ (k'haal) /k'haal/ khaal÷ (gI'Raa) /gi'raa/ giraa˚ (gHI'Raa) /ghi'raa/ ghiraa˘ 10.2.2.3. It is not unusual for /b, bh/ to be realized as (6, 6H). Besides, attenuations are also possible for /k/ (∆, ◊, â), /kh/ (xh, x), /g/ (Ÿ, y, µ), /gh/ (ŸH). Before front vowels (and before /j/), /k[h], g[h]/ are realized as prevelar, but no special symbol (([”]´, [”]Ò)) is necessary. In ﬁnal position, the stops may have inaudible realizations: ('naak, 'naakæ) /'naak/ naak˚ ('åb, 'åbæ) /'ab/ ab÷ this is contrary to what happens to çaspiratedÇ sequences, which do not simplify, even if the laryngeal element may be less evident, in this ﬁnal position (for other C too), but it may not be missing, because it is distinctive\ ('siikh, -kh) /'siikh/ siikh˚ ('nåbH, -bH) /'nabh/ nabh (and: ('boo‚H, -‚H) /'booGh/ booÀh˚ ('baa®H, -®H) /'baa#h/ baaóh]˘ Only within sequences like /0h0/, may /h/ be dropped (Ô § 10.3.1.5). Also word-ﬁnal /h/ may be attenuated (and even disappear completely): (b'jaaH, -aaH, -aa) /b'jaah/ byaah˘ Stopstrictives 10.2.3. We only ﬁnd the postalveopalatal diphonic pair, /c, G/ (C, ‚) (with the corresponding çaspiratedÇ sequences, /ch, Gh/ (Ch, ‚H), and the possibility of (äH), as for the stops): (C‘'tUR) /ca'tur/ £atur˚ ('Raa‚) /'raaG/ raaÀ˚ ('Caal) /'caal/ £aal˚ (C'haal) /c'haal/ £haal˚ ('‚aal) /'Gaal/ Àaal˚ (‚'Haal) /G'haal/ Àhaal˘ In various contexts, there may be frequent attenuated realizations (¤ constrictives or approximants), even after a pause (or, instead, sharper ones, ¤ stops), for /c/ (ë, À÷ T), /ch/ (ëh, Àh÷ Th), /G/ (ò, ö÷ D), /Gh/ (òH, öH÷ DH). Constrictives 10.2.4. In actual fact, we ﬁnd two voiceless constrictives: /s, S/ (s, ë) (sometimes, the latter is realized as velarized postalveolar, (∑), ¤ (ß) with velarization) and the voiced /w/ (6, j) (whose rounded semi-velar approximant variant, (j), mainly occurs after C˚ after /uu, u/, and sometimes after a pause – but, in actual fact, the two types alternate quite freely): ('sÄ™R) /'sEEr/ saer˚ ('kooëIë) /'kooSiS/ koo∞i∞˚ (&R‘6I'6aaR) /rawi'waar/ rawiwaar˚ ('nii6, 'nii˘, 'niiM) (with possible nasalization, near nasalized V]\ /'niiw/ niiw˚ (6'Råt) /w'rat/ wrat˚ ('HåUja) /'hauwaa/ haowaa˚ (s'jåRg) /s'warg/ swarg˚ (6ê'HÅÅ, |j∑-) /wa'hÅÅ/ wahãã˘ In Sanscrit loans, we also ﬁnd /ß/ (ß) (which currently becomes /S/ (ë): ('bIß, 'bIë)

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/'biß/ bi«; on the other hand, /s/ becomes (ß), before /˛/: ('kåß˛) /'kas˛/ ka«= (shown in writing as well). In Persian, Arabic, and English loans, we ﬁnd /F, z/ (å, z) too (which currently become /ph, G/ (ph, ‚)): (åê'›iiR, phê-, -'kiiR) /Fa'›iir, -'kiir/ faqiir˚ ('åUt, p'hUt) /'Fut/ fut˚ (ba'zaaR, ba'‚aaR) /baa'zaar/ baazaar˘ Approximants 10.2.5. In this articulatory manner, there are two fundamental phonemes, /j, h/ (j, ã÷ H, h); (the semi-palatal) (ã) occurs between V˚ in unstressed syllables: ('jee) /'jee/ yee˚ (dH'jaÅn) /dh'jaan/ dhyaan˚ ('lIe, 'lie, 'lIãe) /'lijee/ liyee˘ ‹en in unstressed ﬁnal position (with an inherent a]˚ its sound is (-ãÉ, -™); when preceded by i˚ it drops, often closing /i/ {(I) = (i)}, except in careful pronunciation: (s‘'måãÉ, s‘'må™) /sa'maj/ samay˚ (k'ßåãÉ, -å™, k'ë-) /k'ßaj/ k«ay˚ ('CaaãÉ, 'Caa™) /'caaj/ £aay˚ (k'ßåt-RIãÉ, kßåt'RIãÉ, -IÉ, -iÉ, kë-) /k'ßatrij/ k«atriy˘ Generally, the /h/ phoneme is (H)÷ while (h) occurs with voiceless çaspiratedÇ consonants. Near nasalized V˚ /h/ becomes nasalized: ('Haathi) /'haathii/ haathii˚ ('gåRH) /'garh/ garh˚ (&pÄHÉ'laa) /pah'laa/ pahlaa˚ ('teeRÉH, te'RÄH) /'teerah/ teerah˚ (HAs'naa) /hÅs'naa/ hãsnaa˚ ('bÅÅH) /'bÅÅh/ bããh˚ (kx'HÅÅ) /ka'hÅÅ/ kahãã˘ ˛ere are two further approximants, for Persian and Arabic loans, for which the o‚cial uvular constrictives symbols are often used, /X, º/ (or, even less precisely, the velar ones, /x, Ÿ/); they are uvular approximants (˜, ˜) (but, for the voiced one, more often, the uvular tap, (r), occurs). However, currently they become /k, g/ (k, g): (d‘'˜ål, d‘'kål) /da'Xal/ daÆal˚ ('˜aana, 'kaana) /'Xaanaa/ Æaanaa (Ô (k'haana) /k'haanaa/ khaanaa]˚ ('baar, 'baa˜, 'baag) /'baaº/ baa‚ (Ô ('baag) /'baag/ baag]˘ £Trills∞ 10.2.6. In this category, we have an alveolar tap, /r/ (R), and a postalveolar ﬂap, /#/ (®), which oppose distinctively (and sometimes the former may be stronger, a true trill (r), or –on the contrary– weaker: an approximant (¸); often, the latter is weaker than normal: an approximant (Í), similar to British English (>), but with no lip rounding at all): (H‘'Rå®) /ha'ra#/ haraó˚ (lå®'kaa) /la#'kaa/ laókaa˘ ˛ere is also the sequence /#h/ (®H, ÍH): (bå®'Haa, -Í'Haa) /ba#'haa/ baóhaa (Ô (bê'®aa, -'Íaa) /ba'#aa/ baóaa]˘ Laterals 10.2.7. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme, /l/ (l, $, ¬); besides, there is the sequence /lh/ (lH): ('laat) /'laat/ laat˚ (mê'laal) /ma'laal/ malaal˚ ('kå¬ C‘'loo) /'kal ca'loo/ kal £aloo˚ ('kå¬ jÉ'HÅÅ 'aao) /'kal ja'hÅÅ 'aaoo/ kal yahãã aaoo˚ ('Ãaa$Ãa) /'ÃaalÃaa/ ƒaalƒaa˚ ('kuula) /'kuulaa/ kuulaa˚ ('kuulHa) /'kuulhaa/ kuulhaa˚ ('deelHi) /'deelhii/ Deelhii˘

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Structures 10.3.0. We will consider here the relationships between segments, syllabic structure, stress, and intonation. Most examples –re-transliterated and transcribed– are based on recordings expressly made (taken from Shukla, 2000). A typical Hindi pronunciation shows a particular kind of paraphonic setting with breathy voice §ÿ@, or, less positively, with tense voice ≠§÷@. Taxophonics 10.3.1.1. As for V˚ which oppose as short and çlongÇ, or rather (very) narrow diphthongs (generally represented by geminating symbols, Ô § 10.1.1), gemination is distinctive for C too: (pê'taa) /pa'taa/ pataa˚ ('påtta, påt'taa) /'pattaa/ pattaa˚ (bê'Caa) /ba'Caa/ ba£aa˚ ('båCCa, båC'Caa) /'baccaa/ ba££aa˚ (U'see) /u'see/ usee˚ ('Usse, Us'see) /'ussee/ ussee˘ ˛is fact changes the syllabic structure, consequently, often even stress changes (although without phonemic relevance). We have already mentioned and demonstrated in our examples, that –in Hindi– sequences of two or three C syllabify moving the last one to the beginning of the next syllable: ('såt-jÉ) /'satja/ satya˚ ('gåd-Ha) /'gadhaa/ gadhaa˚ (åbH'Råk) /abh'rak/ abhrak˚ ('ëUk-l‘) /'Sukla/ ∞ukla˚ (åkh'®aa) /akh'#aa/ akhóaa. Obviously, in case of isolated initial sequences, the syllabicity scale joins the elements in one syllable, although some slight di‡erence is maintained; however, if they are internal, they divide into two syllables, including the preceding V\ (‚'Hiil) /G'hiil/ Àhiil. ˛e geminates are (0˘0) between V˚ but (0:˘) + C˚ even for /j, w, h, r, #, l/ (in this last context, especially short stops and stopstrictives are often realized as (0:˘) + C˚ thus neutralizing the di‡erence with geminates): ('bUÃ:Ha) /'buÃÃhaa/ buƒƒhaa˚ (6Id[:]'ãaal‘ãÉ, -lÄ™, -lÉ) /wid'jaalaj/ widyaalay˘ If the number of C in the sequences exceeds three, the last two move to the beginning of the second syllable: (såt'jaaRthpR‘&kaë) /sat'jaarthprakaaS/ Satyaarthprakaa∞. Another interesting phenomenon, that complicates the description and the acquisition of this language, concerns the epenthesis of a vowel; therefore, an attenuated vocoid is inserted (Ô § 10.1.3, although here we indicate it simply as an audible o‡set, ($)), not only in complex consonant clusters, but also –in not quick pronunciation– at the end of words, even after a single consonant: (‘'gåR$) /a'gar/ agar˚ ('uupåR$) /'uupar/ uupar˚ (Cål$'naa) /cal'naa/ £alnaa˚ ('phuul$) /'phuul/ phuul˚ ('ëåR$båt) /'Sarbat/ ∞arbat˚ (båd$'maaë) /bad'maaS/ badmaa∞˚ (lå®$'kaa) /la#'kaa/ laókaa˚ (khI®$'kii) /khi#'kii/ khiókii˚ (åbH'jaas$) /abh'jaas/ abhyaas˚ (s‘'måã$) /sa'maj/ samay˚ (Rakh$'naa) /rakh'naa/ rakhnaa˚ (Ug$'naa) /ug'naa/ ugnaa˚ ('uugH$na;) /'uughnaa/ ££ghnaa˚ ('på®$) /'pa#/ paó˚ ('på®H$) /'pa#h/ paóh… 10.3.1.2. Hindi phonotactics presents some peculiar consonant clusters, both at the beginning and end of words. In fact, we may ﬁnd, for instance: (m'RIg) /m'rig/ mrig˚ (m'laÅn) /m'laan/ mlaan˚ (n'jaa™) /n'jaaj/ nyaay˚ (nRI'ëå∫s) /nri'Sans/ nri∞ans˚ (p'jaala) /p'jaalaa/ pyaalaa˚ (b'Rå‚) /b'raG/ braÀ˚ (b'laak) /b'laak/ blaak˚ (bH'Råm) /bh'ram/ bhram˚ (tj∑'Raa) /twa'raa/ twaraa˚ (t'Raas) /t'raas/ traas˚ (d'juut)

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/d'juut/ dyuut˚ (dH'jåni, -∑'nii) /dh'wani/ dwani˚ (dH'RU6) /dh'ruw/ dhruw˚ (Ã'joo®Hi, Ãjo®'Hii) /'Ãjoo#hii/ ƒyooóhii˚ (C'jUt) /c'jut/ £yut˚ (‚'jooti) /G'jooti/ Àyooti˚ (k'jaa) /k'jaa/ kyaa˚ (k'jaath) /k'waath/ kwaath˚ (kh'jaab) /kh'waab/ khwaab˚ (g'RaÅm) /g'raam/ graam˚ (g'laÅni) /g'laani/ glaani˚ (gH'RaÅπ, -N, -n) /gh'raaN/ ghraa¿. More: (˜'jaal, kh'j-) /X'jaal/ Æyaal˚ (H'Raas) /h'raas/ hraas˚ (ëmê'ëaÅn) /Sma'Saan/ ∞ma∞aan˚ (ë'RaÅnt) /S'raant/ ∞raant˚ (ë'låth) /S'lath/ ∞lath˚ (s'kåndH) /s'kandh/ skandh˚ (skhx'lån) /skha'lan/ skhalan˚ (s'tåR) /s'tar/ star˚ (s'thål) /s'thal/ sthal˚ (s'mIt) /s'mit/ smit˚ (s'naÅn) /s'naan/ snaan˚ (s'jaaH) /s'jaah/ syaah˚ (s'jåRg) /s'warg/ swarg˚ (s'Råß˛a) /s'ras˛aa/ sra«=aa˚ (z'jaada) /z'jaadaa/ zyaadaa˚ (6jåt'haa) /wjat'haa/ wyathaa˚ (6'Råt) /w'rat/ wrat˘ In words of Sanscrit origin, we ﬁnd /òkß/ as well (but people currently change it into (kë)): (k'ßåπ, k'ßåN, k'ëån) /k'ßaN/ k«a¿˚ (k'ßiiR, k'ë-) /k'ßiir/ k«iir˘ Furthermore, for initial sequences with /òs0[0]/, current pronunciation preﬁxes an epenthetic vowel, generally (I, I) – but (å, å) is possible as well (and also (‘, ‘), with the other variants seen, Ô § 10.1.3), before non-front vowels: (s'tRii, Is-, Is-) /s'trii/ strii˚ (sp'huuRti, Is-, Is-, ås-, ås-, ‘s-, ‘s-) /sp'huurti/ sphuurti˚ (s'naÅn, Is-, Is-, ås-, ås-, ‘s-, ‘s-) /s'naan/ snaan (also with /S/: (ë'look, Ië-, Ië-, åë-, åë-, ‘ë-, ‘ë-) /S'look/ ∞look]˘ 10.3.1.3. As far as word-ﬁnal position is concerned, we ﬁnd consonant clusters such as: ('gUpt) /'gupt/ gupt˚ ('ëåbd) /'Sabd/ ∞abd˚ ('lUbdH) /'lubdh/ lubdh˚ ('˛åps) /'˛aps/ =aps˚ ('nåbz) /'nabz/ nabz˚ ('kUb‚) /'kubG/ kubÀ˚ ('mUåt) /'muFt/ muft˚ ('Uts) /'uts/ uts˚ ('Råkt) /'rakt/ rakt˚ ('dågdH) /'dagdh/ dagdh˚ ('åks) /'aks/ aks˚ ('mookß, -kë) /'mookß/ mook«˚ ('så˜t, -kht) /'saXt/ saÆt˚ ('ëå˜s, -khs) /'SaXs/ ∞aÆs˚ ('bå˜ë, -khë) /'baXS/ baÆ∞˚ ('CUst) /'cust/ £ust˚ (s'jåsth) /s'wasth/ swasth˚ ('kåß˛) /'kas˛/ ka«=˚ ('6aaëp) /'waaSp/ waa∞p˘ In ﬁnal position, geminates are possible as well, realized as long: ('gåp:) /'gapp/ gapp˚ ('Cåm:) /'camm/ £amm˚ ('CIt:) /'citt/ £itt˚ ('Råd:) /'radd/ radd˚ ('ån:) /'ann/ ann˚ ('såR:, -r[:]) /'sarr/ sarr˚ (pRåp'hUl:) /prap'hull/ praphull˚ (b'Hå˛:) /b'ha˛˛/ bha==˚ (U'‚åÃ:) /u'GaÃÃ/ uÀaƒƒ˚ ('UC:) /'ucc/ u££˚ (nI'lå‚:) /ni'laGG/ nilaÀÀ˚ ('dåg:) /'dagg/ dagg÷ sequences which include a laryngeal are also found: ('‚Ut:h) /'Gutth/ Àutth˚ ('jUd:H) /'juddh/ yuddh˚ ('sIk:h) /'sikkh/ sikkh˚ (s'jåC:h) /s'wacch/ swa££h˘ ≈nal consonant clusters, in morphological derivation, resyllabify in accordance with the phonic structure of the Hindi language: ('paap) /'paap/ paap˚ ('paa-pi) /'paapii/ paapii÷ ('Råkt) /'rakt/ rakt˚ ('Råk-tIm) /'raktim/ raktim˘ 10.3.1.4. Short (I, å, U) /i, a, u/, in ﬁnal position, have the peculiarity of fading (Ô § 10.1.3), to a point in which they drop as well, as happens to /a/, (å÷ å, ‘, ê, x, ∑÷ `), or strengthen, ¤ (i, u), simply as closer realizations of /i, u/, or actually becoming /ii, uu/. In this case, stress shifts are also possible, according to the weight of the syllables constituting given words: ('Rå6i, R‘'6ii) /'rawi/ rawi˚ ('tIthi, tIt'hii) /'tithi/ tithi˚ ('ëIëu, ëI'ëuu) /'SiSu/ ∞i∞u˚ ('6åsu, 6ê'suu) /'wasu/ wasu˘ ˛e change Vò = VVò is not considered completely neutral, in spite of being very widespread indeed (with many supporters too). ≈nally, as many examples have already shown, sequences of /'ééö/ + /é, ò, 0/ are realized as ('é–ö): ('HaÅni) /'haani/ haani˚ ('kaÅm) /'kaam/ kaam˚ (ak'RaÅnt) /aak'raant/ aakraant˘

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10.3.1.5. Dealing with consonants, we have already seen the assimilatory characteristics within words. ˛e same holds in sentences, for words linked by meaning, especially if joined in rhythm groups, as in: ('tiim ma'taÅe) /'tiin maa'taaee/ tiin maataaqq˚ ('tiim pê'piite) /'tiin pa'piitee/ tiin papiitee˚ ('tiiN 'Ãaal) /'tiin 'Ãaal/ tiin ƒaal˚ ('tii˙ kx'mål) /'tiin ka'mal/ tiin kamal˚ ('tii˙ 'gaaÉ) /'tiin 'gaaj/ tiin gaay˚ ('tii~ 'CaaÉ) /'tiin 'caaj/ tiin £aaj˚ ('tii~ '‚aal) /'tiin 'Gaal/ tiin Àaal˚ ('tiin ë‘'Raab) /'tiin Sa'raab/ tiin ∞araab˚ ('tiin 'jaaR) /'tiin 'jaar/ tiin yaar˚ ('tiiM 'jåRß, -Rë) /'tiin 'warß/ tiin war«˚ ('tii, ›x'saai, -˙ kx-) /'tiin ›a'saaii/ tiin qasaaii˚ ('tii« 'Haath) /'tiin 'haath/ tiin haath˘ Besides, both within words and sentences, in not slow –nor emphatic– speech, for diphonic C˚ voicing assimilation is regular, to the second element of a sequence (while a possible /h/ is lost): ('ågbåR, åg'båR) /'akhbar/ Akhbar˚ (tåz'biiH) /tas'biih/ tasbiih˚ ('CUb 'bÄ™˛ho, 'CUb b™˛'hoo) /'cup 'bEE˛hoo/ £up bae=hoo˚ ('Chåb gx'jaa) /'cap ga'jaa/ £hap gayaa˚ ('saad 'bÄ™˛ho, 'saad b™˛'hoo) /'saath 'bEE˛hoo/ saath bae=hoo˚ ('åp 'tåk) /'ab 'tak/ ab tak˚ ('Haad 'doo) /'haath 'doo/ haath doo˚ ('aakpåR) /'aagpar/ aak par˚ ('eeg 'dIn) /'eek 'din/ eek din˚ ('‚åpki) /'Gabki/ Àab ki˚ ('baa˜ 'kaa, -k 'k-) /'baaº 'kaa/ baa‚ kaa˘ Stress 10.3.2.1. In Hindi, stress position is not distinctive; in fact, the same speaker, in di‡erent occasions, may stress di‡erent syllables of the same word. Furthermore, these ﬂuctuations also depend on the placing of words in sentences, on nearby words, on orthological highlighting and emphasis. Still more important is the fact that stress is distributed among rhythm groups, usually moving back from the end, according to syllabic çweightsÇ. ˛is holds for isolated words as well, but always with a certain ﬂexibility. For instance, we normally have ('HIndi) /'hindii/ hindii˚ but (HIn'dii&ke, -&ka) /hin'diikee, -kaa/ hindii kee˚ hindii kaa˘ On the other hand, given its non-distinctiveness, native speakers use stress as something ﬂuctuating (without fully realizing it), frequently alternating, for rhythmic reasons, within rhythm groups. After all, it is the same thing for segmental duration and for syllabic pitch, in languages where they are not distinctive: they may change quite freely, without real problems. In Hindi intonemes (both for the three marked and the unmarked one, or continuative), the terminal posttonic syllable, generally, bears a secondary stress, which complicates the (already unsettled) di‡erentiation and identiﬁcation of stress strength on the di‡erent non-light syllables (but sometimes on the light ones too). 10.3.2.2. However, some rules may be formulated in order to produce a coherent e‡ect, if rigorously applied (even if they might be considered excessively precise or even mechanical as regards current language). Regardless of the C that may precede a V˚ we deﬁne a light syllable one which contains a short V˚ (I, å, U) /i, a, u/ not followed by any C (in the same syllable): (kI, ki) /ki/ ki˚ (sU'måtI, -ti) /su'mati/ sumati÷ within a word, the attenuated reali-

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zations of /a/ (‘, É, x, ∑, ê) do not count (Ô § 10.1.3), being usually more elusive, (‘, É, x, ∑, ê), and are just a mere physical support, necessary to make a word pronounceable, but they may drop completely. Furthermore, we have mid syllables˚ constituted by VC (¤ a short V and a C]˚ or by VV\ ('bål) /'bal/ bal˚ (k'jaa) /k'jaa/ kyaa˚ ('HIndi) /'hindii/ hindii˚ ('ëåjja) /'Sajjaa/ ∞ayyaa˚ including çdisyllabicÇ syllables in counting morae, as (b'Haai) /b'haaii/ bhaaii (ç/aa/ + /ii/Ç = four morae). Besides, there are heavy syllables˚ formed by VCC˚ or VVC (more rarely VVCC as well): ('ånt) /'ant/ ant˚ ('aÅm) /'aam/ aam˚ ('aaRt) /'aart/ aart˚ ('6aaëp) /'waaSp/ waa∞p˘ 10.3.2.3. Stress assignment, in isolated words, is done on the basis of the identiﬁcation of the çheaviest syllableÇ, as in: (U'paadHi) /u'paadhi/ upaadhi˚ (U'paÅnt) /u'paant/ upaant˚ (&ad-jo'paÅnt) /aadjoo'paant/ aadyoopaant˚ (kx'lii) /ka'lii/ kalii˚ (kx'maÅn) /ka'maan/ kamaan˚ ('kaÅmna) /'kaamnaa/ kaamnaa˚ (ko'πaaRk, ko'NaaRk, ko'naaRk) /koo'Naark/ koo¿aark˚ ('˜aÅndani) /'Xaandaanii/ Æaandaanii˚ (‚'jaÅmIti) /G'jaamiti/ Àyaamiti˚ (&tabe'daaR) /taabee'daar/ taabeedaar˚ (&tIgU'naa) /tigu'naa/ tigunaa˚ (p&RIthji'Raa‚-Ra&so) /prithwii'raaGraasoo/ prithwiiraaÀraasoo. More: (bån'duugba&zi) /ban'duukbaazii/ banduukbaazii˚ (måR'daÅ˙gi) /mar'daangii/ mardaangii˚ ('maÅndHa&ta) /'maandhaataa/ maandhaataa˚ (&såt-jåpR‘'kaaë) /satjapra'kaaS/ Satyaprakaa∞˚ (såt'jaaRth-pR‘&kaë) /sat'jaarthprakaaS/ Satyaarthprakaa∞˚ (&sa˙go'paÅ˙g) /saangoo'paang/ saangoopaang˚ (sa'maÅn) /saa'maan/ saamaan˚ ('HaÅni) /'haani/ haani˘ If a word has more than one non-light syllables of the same weight, there are two possibilities: the stress preferably hits either the last syllable but one or the last but two (or even the very last, especially if constituted by VV˚ as happens more often within a sentence, with particles and postpositions): (ë‘'kUnt‘&la, ë‘&kUnt‘'laa) /Sa'kuntalaa/ ∞akuntalaa˚ (gx'®eeRI&ãa, gx&®e;RI'jaa) /ga'#eerijaa/ gaóeeriyaa˚ (bê'HaadU&Ri, bê&HadU'Rii) /ba'haadurii/ bahaadurii˚ (&mêHab'HaaRåt) /mahaab'haarat/ mahaabhaarat˚ (jUd'HIß˛hIR, &jUdHIß˛'hIR, -ë˛-, -ë'˛-) /jud'hiß˛ir/ Yudhi«=hir˚ (s‘'HuulI&ãåt, s‘&HulI'jåt) /sa'huulijat/ sahuuliyat. More examples: (a'ëiiR-jad, &aëiR'jaad) /aa'Siirwaad/ aa∞iirwaad˚ ('å›xl&månd, &‘›xl'månd) /'a›lmand/ aqlmand˚ (&ana'kaÅni, a&naka'nii) /aanaa'kaanii/ aanaakaanii˚ (dH'jåni, -∑'nii) /dh'wani/ dhwani˚ (påR'jåRti, &påRjåR'tii) /par'wartii/ parwartii˚ ('båRtån, båR'tån) /'bartan/ bartan˚ ('bås-ta, bås'taa) /'bastaa/ bastaa˚ (b'Haala, bHa'laa) /b'haalaa/ bhaalaa˚ (s‘'mIti) /sa'miti/ samiti˚ (sa'laÅna, &sala'naa) /saa'laanaa/ saalaanaa˚ (så~'Caalån, &så~Ca'lån) /san'caalan/ san£aalan˚ (&HeRap'heeRi, He&Raphe'Rii) /heeraap'heerii/ heeraapheerii˘ 10.3.2.4. ˛e same stress pattern occurs in inﬂected and derived words as well: (&båd-HI'kÚÚ) /badhi'kÚÚ/ badhikõõ˚ (&låg-HU'tåR) /laghu'tar/ laghutar˚ (&ëUCI'tåm) /Suci'tam/ ∞u£itam˚ (mås'leega, &måsle'gaa) /mas'leegaa/ masleegaa˚ ('laapê&ta;, &lapê'taa) /'laapataa/ laapataa˚ (&gxlI'jaaRa, gx&lIãa'Raa) /gali'jaaraa/ galiyaaraa˚ (pa'gålpån, &pa;gål'pån) /paa'galpan/ paagalpan˚ (sUn'dåRta, &sUndåR'taa) /sun'dartaa/ sundartaa˚ (b™H'naapa, &b™Hna'paa, b™&H™na'paa) /bah'naapaa/ bahnaapaa˘

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Among Hindi monosyllables, lexemes bear a stress, even in sentences, while grammemes (¤ postpositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, enclitics) are unstressed or half-stressed: ('åb) /'ab/ ab˚ ('kåm) /'kam/ kam˚ ('kaÅm) /'kaam/ kaam˚ ('∏øR) /'OOr/ aor˚ ('deeë) /'deeS/ dee∞÷ but (ka) /kaa/ kaa˚ (Hì, H™) /híí/ hãq˘ 10.3.2.5. Lexemic compounds, normally, have the following stress pattern (' “) /' “/ (since the second stress, which is generally more attenuated, may sometimes reach a degree of prominence which is relatively slightly more perceptible than a secondary stress): (R‘'sooig“Hår) /Ra'sooiig“har/ rasooiighar˚ ('deeënI“ka[a]la) /'deeSni“kaalaa/ dee∞nikaalaa˚ ('6Iëj∑“ko[o]ë) /'wiSwa“kooS/ wi∞wakoo∞˚ ('duuRdåR“ëi[i]) /'duurdar“Sii/ duurdar∞ii˚ ('dI¬-‚‘“la[a]) /'dilGa“laa/ dilÀalaa˚ ('nImn‘lI“khIt) /'nimnli“khit/ nimnlikhit˚ ('CåndR‘“ka[Å]nta) /'candra“kaantaa/ £andrakaantaa˚ ('CåndR‘“ka[Å]nta“sånt‘ti) /'candra“kaantaa“santati/ £andrakaantaasantati. More: (mê'Haasåb“Ha[a]) /ma'haasab“haa/ mahaasabhaa˚ ('HIndumê“Ha[a]såb“Ha[a]) /'HInduma“haasab“haa/ mahaasabhaa˚ ('tuu 'kåRm“Hi[i]M j'jåkti&HÄ) /'tuu 'karm“hiin w'jaktihEE/ tuu karm-hiin wyakti hae˚ ('tuu 'kåRm“Hi[i]«&HÄ) /'tuu 'karm“hiinhEE/ tuu karm-hiin hae˚ ('aÅm“ja[Å]m) /'aam“waam/ aam-waam˚ ('kaÅnÚ“ka[Å]n) /'kaanÚÚ“kaan/ kaanõõ-kaan˚ ('kåÅm“ka[a]‚) /'kaam“kaaG/ kaam-kaaÀ˚ ('Ä™sa“6Ä[™]sa) /'EEsaa“wEEsaa/ aesaa-waesaa˘ Complete reduplications always keep both stresses: ('laal 'laal) /'laal'laal/ laal-laal˚ (d'HiiRe d'HiiRe) /d'hiireed'hiiree/ dhiiree-dhiiree˘ 10.3.2.6. ˛ere is a di‡erence between compounds and collocations (which have independent sentence ictuses): ('laalpåg&®i;) /'laalpag#ii/ laal-pagóii çpolicemanÇ (¤ çred-turbanÇ) and ('laal 'påg-®i, 'laal påg'®ii) /'laal 'pag#ii/ laal pagóii çred turbanÇ, ('kaala&pani) /'kaalaapaanii/ kaalaa-paanii çpenal colonyÇ (¤ çblack-waterÇ) and ('kaala 'paÅni) /'kaalaa 'paanii/ kaalaa paanii çblack waterÇ, ('mii˛ha&te;l) /'mii˛haateel/ mii=ha-teel çsesame-oilÇ (¤ çsweet-oilÇ) and ('mii˛ha 'teel) /'mii˛haa 'teel/ mii=ha teel çsweet oilÇ, ('niil&ga;™) /'niilgaaj/ niil-gaay ç(a species of) large antelopeÇ (çblue-cowÇ) and ('niil 'gaa™) /'niil 'gaaj/ niil gaay çblue cowÇ. For contrast, there is emphasis on the marked element (and attenuation on the second occurrence of the unmarked element): (¿'HIndu"måndIR2 2 ¿'jaa &HIndug£HåR3 3) /¿'hinduu"mandir÷ ¿'jaa 'hinduug"har./ hinduu-mandir, yaa hinduu-ghar?˚ ('åtmêp£Reem2 2 'jaa &a;tmêg£jaÅn3 3) /'atmp"reem÷ 'jaa 'atmg"jaan./ atm-preem, yaa atm-gyaan˘ Intonation 10.3.4. û 10.4 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of the neutral Hindi language. We will merely give some illustrative examples, to use for comparisons. Let us observe that the posttonic syllables of the interrogative ((2 1)) and suspensive ((2 2)) intonemes, which are in the higher parts of the mid and high bands (as will be clear from û 10.4), are generally accompanied by falsetto (for all kind of voices), which is marked with (Ú) after the intonemes, in phonotonetic transcriptions. In addition, paraphonically, there is a peculiar type of çIndian voiceÇ, with murur

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voice §ÿ@ or, in the broadest accents (≠), with tense voice §÷@: /./: (&mìçHIndi bolçtaa–Hu3 3) /míí'hindii bool'taahuu./ Mãq hindii booltaa h££. /?/: (¿k'jaa6™h pUs'tåkpå®H R‘'Hii&HÉ21Ú) /¿k'jaawah pus'takpa#h ra'hiihEE?/ Kyaa wah pustak paóh rahii hae? /÷/: (‚åb'mì™ ‚ål'dii ‚ål'dii bol'taa&Hu2 2Ú ap'meeRi 'baat n‘'Hii &s‘måCçtee3 3) /Gab'míí Gal'dii Gal'dii bool'taahuu÷ aap'meerii 'baat na'hii samaGh'tee./ êab mãq Àaldii-Àaldii booltaa h££, aap meerii baat nahii samaÀhtee. û 10.4. Hindi preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Text 10.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows. According to the Phonetic method we start with the versions in Hindi pronunciation of (neutral British) English (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Hindi translation follows, in its neutral version. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Hindi, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Hindi (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Hindi pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Hindi, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).

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Hindi pronunciation (of English) 10.4.1. (d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 End‘'sån2 6‘RÃIsçpãuu˛I˙ ç6IC 6åsd‘eß˛çRO˙–gåR3 3| ç6En e˛'RE6‘&låR2 çkeem å'lO˙2 ìçREp ˛Ineç6åRm çklook3 3œ| deeåg'RiiÃ2\ dE˛d‘ç6ån HuuçååRß˛ såk'siiÃeÃ2 ImçmeekI˙ då˛'RE6‘&låR2 ç˛eek hIskçlook 'Oå2 2Ú| &SUÃ6ikånçsIÃeRÃ eß˛£RO˙g‘R &dEndåçå–dåR3 3|| 'dEn2 d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 ç6luu2 Es'haåRÃ2 EshiçkUÃ3 3| &6å˛d‘çmOR Hi6'luu2 2Ú| d‘çmORk 'loos&li2 &ÃIÃd‘˛'RE6‘&låR2\ çåoolÃ HIskçlook ‘çRåuN&ÃIm3 3| ì&ENÃE˛'laåß˛2œ\ d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 çgee6 çåp d‘‘ç˛Em˛3 3|| ì'dEn2œ d‘çsån çëOn çåu˛3 3 ìç6åRm–li3 3œ| &ENÃI'miiÃã‘˛&li2\ ˚d‘˛çRE6‘låR ç˛Uk çOå3 3 ˚hIskçlook3 3|| ìEn'soo2œ d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 6åzO6çlåië ˛uk‘M'åEs2| &dE˛d‘çsån3 3 6åzd‘eß˛çRO˙–gåR3 3 ì&O6d‘ç˛uu3 3œ|| ¿&ÃIÃãu'låik21Ú ¿d‘eß'˛oo&Ri2| ¿&Ãuãuç6ON ˛uçHi‘RI˛ ‘'geen21Ú|||) Hindi text 10.4.2. Uttarii hawaa aor suuraÀ is baat par Àhagaó rahee thee ki ham doonõõ mqq zyaadaa balwaan kaon hae. Itnee mqq garam £oogaa pahnee eek musaaﬁr udhar aa niklaa. Hawaa aor suuraÀ doonõõ is baat par razii hoo gayee ki doonõõ mqq see Àoo pahlee musaaﬁr kaa £oogaa utarwaa deegaa wahii zyaadaa balwaan samÀhaa Àaayeegaa. Is par uttarii hawaa apnaa puuraa zoor lagaakar £alnee lagii. Leekin wah Àaesee Àaesee apnaa zoor baóhaatii gayii waesee waesee musaaﬁr apnee badan par £oogee koo aor bhii zyaadaa kas kar lapee=taa gayaa. Ant mqq hawaa nee apnii koo∞i∞ band kar dii. Phir suuraÀ teezii kee saath niklaa aor musaaﬁr nee turant apnaa £oogaa utaar diyaa. Is liyee hawaa koo maannaa paóaa ki un doonõõ mqq suuraÀ hii zyaadaa balwaan hae. Kyaa tumhqq yah kahaanii a££hii lagii? Kyaa phir see sunaa££? 10.4.3. (&Utt‘çRii H‘'6aa2 ç∏øR çsuu–Rå‚2 2Ú| Is'baat2 &påR‚H‘'gå® R‘&Heçthee2 2Ú| ki'Håm 'doÚnÚ&me2| zçjaada bål'6aÅn2| çk∏9n–HÄ3 3|| It'nee&me2| gxçRåm Cooçgaa &pÄHÉçnee2 2Ú| 'eek2 mUçsaa&åIR2 2Ú| Ud'HåR2\ çaa nIkçlaa3 3|| H‘ç6aa2 2Ú| ç∏øR 'suu&Rå‚2| çdoÚnÚ2 2Ú Is'baat2 &påRRaçzii Hogxçjee2 2Ú|| kiçdoÚ&nÚ çmee&se2 2Ú &‚opåHçlee mU'saa&åIR2| &kaCoçgaa3 3| ìUçtåR6a deçgaa2 2Úœ|| 6ê'Hii2| zçjaada bål'6aÅn2 såm‚'Haa ‚aãeçgaa3 3|| çIs&påR2 2Ú| ì&Utt‘çRii H‘'6aa2œ åpçnaa çpuuRa 'zooR2 l‘çgaakåR Cålçnee l‘çgii3 3|| 'lee&kIn2| '6ÄH2 ìç‚Ä™se '‚Ä™&se2 &åpnaçzooR2 2Ú\ bê®çHaati gxçjii2 2Úœ| ç6Ä™se '6Ä™&se2\ mU'saa&åIR2| ìåpçnee bêçdåm 'påR2œ| çCooge 'koo2| ç∏øR bçHii zçjaada 'kås&kåR2| l‘çpee˛ta gxçjaa3 3|| çånt 'mee2| H‘ç6aÅne çåpni çkoo&ëIë2 2Ú| çbånd kåRçdii3 3|| p'hIR2| 'suu&Rå‚2 teçzii keçsaath nIkçlaa3 3|| ç∏øR mUçsaaåIR 'nee2| çtURånt çåpna Coçgaa3 3 ìUçtaaR dIçjaa3 3œ| IsçlI&ãe2 2Ú| H‘ç6aa koçmaÅnna pê'®aa2| &kiUnçdoÚnÚ çmee2 2Ú| çsuuRå‚ 'Hii2 zçjaada bålç6aÅn–HÄ3 3|| ¿çkjaa tUm'Hee2| ¿çjÄh kx'HaÅ&ni2 ¿åC:çhii l‘'gii21Ú| ¿çkjaa phIRçsee sU'naa&u21Ú|||)

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English pronunciation of Hindi 10.4.4. (&¨TÈ5>I;i hÈ'wA:2 5aÖÈ 's¨È>ÈG32| ¤s'bA;T2 &pA;Gû5gA: &>åhÈ'Th™;I32| khIi5håm 'D‘¨n‘¨&m™In2| zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n2| 'khaÖn&haÙ3 3|| ¤T'n™Im™In2| gû5>åm c‘¨'gA: &pπhÈ'n™;I32| 5™Ik mÈ'sA;f¤å32| ¨'DA:2\ 5A: n¤k'lA:3 3|| hÈ'wA:32| 5aÖÈ 's¨È>ÈG2| 'D‘¨n‘¨n32 ¤s'bA;T2 &på>È5zI;i &h‘¨gû'j™;I32|| khIi5D‘¨n‘¨n 'm™In&s™I32 &G‘¨pÈ5l™;I mÈ'sA;f¤å2| &khåcû'gA:3 3| ì¨5ThA;wû D™I'gA:32œ|| wû'hI;i2| zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n2 såm5GA: GaÙû'gA:3 3|| '¤spA;32| ì&¨TÈ5>I;i hû'wA:2œ åp5nA: 'ph¨È>È 'zø:2 lû5gA;kû cÈı'n™;I lû'gI;i3 3|| 'l™Ik¤n2| 'wA:2 ì5GaÙs™I 'GaÙs™I2 &åpnÈ'zø:32\ bA;5hA;Ti gû'jI;i32œ| 5waÙs™I 'waÙs™I2\ mÈ'sA;f¤å2| ìåp5n™;I bÈ'Dåm 'phA:2œ| 5ch‘¨gû 'kh‘;¨2| 5aÖÈ 'bI;i zi'A;Dû 'khåskA;2| lÈ5ph™ITû gû'jA:3 3|| 5ånT 'm™;In2| hû5wA;n™I 'åpni 'kh‘¨S¤S32| 5bå˙â kA;'DI;i3 3|| 'ph¤;å2| 's¨È>ÈG2 T™I5zI;i k™I'sA;T n¤k'lA:3 3|| 5aÖÈ mÈ'sA;f¤È 'n™;I2| 5Th¨È>ÈnT 'åpnA; c‘¨'gA:3 3 ì¨5ThA: di'A:3 3œ| ¤s'lIi™I32| hû5wA: k‘¨'mA;nÈ pÈ'>A:2| &khIiÈn5D‘¨n‘¨n 'm™;In32| 5s¨È>ÈG 'hI;i2 zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n&h™I3 3|| ¿5khjA: T¨m'h™;In2| ¿5jA: kû'hA;ni2 ¿È5chI;i lû'gI;i21| ¿5khjA: &ph¤È's™;I sÈ'na;Ön21|||)

11. Chinese 11.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese [pàto«huà /¶phu5thu˙6hwa/ (çp·u^thU,7˜wa), çcommon languageÇ, based on Pekin{g}ese), by using the o‚cial transliteration [pinyin /5phin5jin/ (^p·I~5jIn)), but accompanied by a careful phonetic transcription (which is necessary to show and acquire a good pronunciation) and by a phonemic transcription (established according to precise descriptive and teaching strategies). Chinese has various (especially vocalic) taxophones and a syllabic structure with deﬁnite phonotactic limitations. ˛erefore, in the presentation of phonemes it is always useful to deal with all the various possible syllables, especially when they have peculiar characteristics. We maintain the criterion that Chinese syllables have a consonantal initial before a final element, which –in addition to a vocalic nucleus (/i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷ a/)– may have an intermediate consonantal element (/j, ¥, w/ i˚ ü˚ u) — a terminal one (which can be vocalic: /i, e÷ u, o/; or consonantal: /n, ˙, >/). 11.0.2. We will see that Chinese syllables always begin with a contoid, even when they lack a real initial. In the case of close vowels, //òi, òy, òu// (whereas /M/ only occurs after the initials /q[h], s/}, we actually have /ji, ¥y, wu/ (recognized by pinyin too: yi˚ yu˚ wu). ˛e other vowels, /e, X, o, a/, are preceded by (ö) (or, but less advisably, by the following voiced phones (y, H, r, «) – respectively, velar semi-approximant, {lenis} laryngeal approximant, uvular tap, and semi-provelar nasal). 11.0.3. Let us observe that the Chinese phonetic çtraditionÇ still follows the phonic çfantasiesÇ of the Swedish sinologist Karlgren, who thought that Mandarin had two çretroﬂexÇ (or çapicalÇ) vowels, rendered with çq, QÇ. Actually, the former is simply a back-central vocoid, (M) (where neither çretroﬂexionÇ nor the lamina are active); the latter, on the other hand, is precisely a postalveolar approximant contoid found in the initial (⁄) />/ r˚ changed into the corresponding intense (çsyllabicÇ) contoid, (Ö). ˛e same çphonetic traditionÇ also lists another rare çretroﬂex (mid) vowelÇ, rendered with çæ&Ç which in actual fact is just the sequence (öX⁄) /X>/ er˘ It seems surprising, to say the least, that the Journal of the International Phonetic Association has accepted and published (in 2003), as an çillustration of the IPAÇ, a paper which still proposes çq, QÇ –although ipa-like masqueraded as ç(≥)Ç in both cases!– by describing them as ç(apico-)laminal denti-alveolarÇ (where no groove is rightly mentioned) and çapical post-alveolarÇ approximants respectively. ˛e latter is correctly described (¤ can(Ö)), while the former is still not (¤ can(¡)); there is a great (articulatory, auditory, and acoustic) di‡erence between (¡) and (M).

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Continuing our review of the peculiarities of this kind of phonetics çà la chinoiseÇ (done in China) and based on a çKarlgrenizedÇ pinyin, we will then see a real phonetic transcription (whose appropriate symbols we will present here in square brackets, ( )). In the West, some things can be rectiﬁed, but generally others are messed up… ˛erefore, Mandarin would have seven vowels: ﬁrst, i (i, I, ¤) /i/, but with two additional çvariantsÇ –incorrectly placed among front vowels (because of the grapheme i]– èq¶ (M) /M/, in zi (qM) /qM/, ci (qhM) /qhM/, si (sM) /sM/, and èQ¶ (Ö) /ˇ/, in ˜i (ﬁÖ) /ﬁˇ/, >i (ﬁhÖ) /ﬁhˇ/, ´i (ßÖ) /ßˇ/, ri (⁄Ö) />ˇ/; however, they are true phonemes, not çvariantsÇ. ˛en, ü (y, Y) /y/ and u (u, U) /u/, with the additional çvariantÇ (y, Y) /y/, in yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu÷ where the only actual variant would be just the grapheme: u instead of ü˚ after çpalatalÇ consonantal graphemes, since –as a phoneme– /y/ is always /y/, irrespective of the way it is spelled. 11.0.4. Continuing, we have e (X, É, ‘, x, ∑) /X/, with its çvariantÇ (™) /e/, in contact with /j, ¥, i/, and (É) in /ae/. But it is decidedly safer to consider /X/ and /e/ as two separate phonemes, given the great phonetic di‡erence, because of interphonemic reasons (even if, from an intraphonemic point of view, ¤ just within the Chinese language, they could –or should– be considered as taxophones of the same phoneme). In addition, o (ø, Ö) /o/, with its çvariantÇ (U) /u/ – which, on the contrary, is a di‡erent phoneme. Instead, o –in contact with labials [mo˚ bo˚ po˚ fo˚ ou˚ wo/Cuo]– could be considered as a variant of /X/, as many Chinese phonologists do, by using ç(X, È)Ç. However, the occurrence of the syllables o˚ yo˚ lo (although rare) requires that a phoneme /o/ is introduced, which will obviously occur near labials as well. ˛en we have a (a, Å, A) /a/, with its variants (jEn, ¥Än), for ian˚ üan˘ ≈nally, this phonetics çà la chinoiseÇ even has a çzero (graphic) vowelÇ, when pinyin çsmartlyÇ economizes on vowels, by writing un for /wXn/ (w‘n), and iu for /jou/ (jPU), ui for /wei/ (wÙI), where a vowel is deﬁnitely present, phonically! No doubt, uen˚ iou˚ uei would have been much better. ˛anks to the use of diaphonemes, then, more realistically we will also have the diphthongs /ae, ao/ (ÅÉ, AÖ), instead of a more abstract representation as /ai, au/: ai˚ ao (pinyin stays on the fence: -i˚ -o)! 11.0.5. We will now present the o‚cial romanization. Starting from the (consonantal) initials, which are 23 (with a double occurrence of y˚ with two di‡erent values), we will not present them alphabetically, but by logical phonic groups, accompanied by their phonemic and çsimpleÇ phonetic transcriptions. ˛e latter is çsimpleÇ, because it shows only one variant (whereas, below, we will provide all necessary details): b /p/ (p), p /ph/ (ph), m /m/ (m), f /f/ (f)÷ d /t/ (t), t /th/ (th), n /n/ (n), z /q/ (q), c /qh/ (qh), s /s/ (s), l /l/ (l)÷ ˜ /ﬁ/ (ﬁ), > /ﬁh/ (ﬁh), ´ /ß/ (ß), r />/ (⁄)÷ j /q/ (Â), q /qh/ (Âh), x /s/ (¿)÷ g /k/ (k), k /kh/ (kh), h /h/ (˜)÷ w /w/ (w), y /j/ (j) “ /¥/ (¥).

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11.0.6. ˛e ﬁnals are 39 (with a triple occurrence of i˚ with three di‡erent values). ˛ey are presented according to their graphic syllabic nucleus. ˛is time, they are given in alphabetical order, even in the seven cases where the romanization has not been a happy one (as we will show in >ç Ç≥). Also the exclamations e /e/ (™), yo /jo/ (jø) occur (with various tonemes, including çzeroÇ). ˛e three ﬁnals which do not occur without an initial are marked with an asterisk (*): å a /aò/ (a), ia˚ òya /jaò/ (ja), ua˚ òwa /waò/ (wa)÷ ai /ae/ (ÅÉ), uai˚ òwai /wae/ (waÉ)÷ yai /jae/ (sole word, yái) an /an/ (Ån), ian˚ òyan /jan/ (jEn), uan˚ òwan /wan/ (wÅn), üan˚ òyuan (j/q/x + uan) /¥an/ (¥Än)÷ a« /a˙/ (a,), ia«˚ òya« /ja˙/ (ja,), ua«˚ òwa« /wa˙/ (wA,)÷ ao /ao/ (AÖ), iao˚ òyao /jao/ (jaÖ). ™ e /Xò/ (X, Xx|, ’x|), ie˚ òye /jeò/ (j™), üe˚ òyue (j/q/x + ue) /¥eò/ (¥™)÷ ei* /ei/ (™I) {(ÉI)}, en /Xn/ (Én), er /X>/ (X⁄)÷ e«* /X˙/ (x,), ue«˚ òwe« /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)}. ¤ i /iò, òjiò/ (i, ji), (s-/z-/c-) /Mò/ (M) > ï (with ü]≥, (´-/˜-/>-) /ˇò/ (Ö) > ï ≥÷ in˚ òyin /in/ (In, òjIn)÷ i«˚ òyi« /i˙/ (¤˙, òj¤˙)÷ ui˚ òwei /wei/ (wÙI) {(w¤i)} > uei ≥. ø o /oò/ (ø, øx|), ou /ou/ (øU) {(∑U)}, uo˚ òwo /woò/ (wø, wøx|) {(w∑, w∑x)}÷ o«* /u˙/ (U,) > u« ≥, io«˚ òyo« /ju˙/ (jU,) {(¥U,)} > iu«˚ yu« ≥. ¨ u˚ òwu /uò, òwuò/ (u, wu)÷ ü˚ òyu (j/q/x + u) /yò, ò¥yò/ (y, ò¥y)÷ un˚ òwen /wXn/ (w‘n) > uen ≥; ün˚ òyun (j/q/x + un) /yn, ò¥yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In, [òj]Yn)}÷ iu˚ òyou /jou/ (jPU) {(j¨u)} > iou ≥. Vowels 11.1.1. In our analysis, Chinese has eight vowel phonemes: /i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷ a/ (û 11.1). Instead, û 11.2.å-∫ show the thirteen taxophones (¤ contextual allophones – grey markers), which are very important for a good neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese. On the other hand, û 11.8 presents the most recommendable realizations for an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is slightly simpliﬁed, but not distorted. Of course, this çinternationalÇ pronunciation will not use the realizations shown in û 11.2-7, which however are very important, because the foreign speakers who can recognize them will be greatly helped in better understanding spoken Chinese (though they need not be able to use actively those shown in û 11.6-7). Let us start then, by systematically considering each phoneme, with all the taxo-

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phones belonging to neutral pronunciation (indicating some possible phonetic variant as well, again more to for recognition than for actual use, û 11.4). 11.1.2. We ﬁrst ﬁnd the close front phoneme, /i/: /[òj]i, [òj]in, [òj]i˙/ ([òj]i, [òj]In, [òj]¤,) (C/y)i˚ (C/y)in˚ (C/y)i«\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (4jIn) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5ÂIn) /5qin/ jin˚ (7j¤¥) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Â¤,) /5qi˙/ ji«˘ ˛e close front-central rounded, /y/, has a fairly limited distribution, ju˚ qu˚ xu˚ yu˚ nü˚ lü (with or without -n), /[¥]y, [¥]yn/ (¥y, ¥Yn) [variants with -n˚ (¥In, jYn)]: (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Â·yy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5ÂYn, 5Â¥In) /5qyn/ jun˚ (4Â·Yn, 4Â·¥In) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿Yc, 7¿¥Ic) /6syn/ xún˚ (4¥Yn, 4¥In, 4jYn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘ More conveniently, pinyin could have used çzü˚ cü˚ sü˚ yüÇ, by phonemically interpreting these syllables as we do: (Ây, Âhy, ¿y) /qy, qhy, sy/. It could also have avoided introducing an allograph without dieresis, by using yü for o‚cial yu (¥y) /¥y/ as well. Indeed, /¥y/ could even be /jy/; but since the phoneme /¥/ is present, it is more adequate to use it. In this way, as it seems convenient, it could also be used to show –even phonemically– the possible oscillations between (¥Yn, jYn, ¥In): /¥yn/, and ç/jyn, ¥in/Ç). ˛erefore, it could have been possible to write çz/c/siu«Ç, instead of the o‚cial j/q/xio« for (ÂjU,, ÂhjU,, ¿jU,) /qju˙, qhju˙, sju˙/ (thus also è-u«¶˚ instead of the o‚cial -o« for (0U,) /0u˙/). 11.1.3. ˛en we ﬁnd the close back-central (without lip rounding!), /M/, which only occurs in /qM, qhM, sM/ (qM, qhM, sM) zi˚ ci˚ si\ (7qœ) /6qM/ zí˚ (4q·M) /•qhM/ cì˚ (5sM) /5sM/ si (but we could extend its use to a sequence like ç/M>/Ç, in place of /ˇ/, for /ﬁˇ, ﬁhˇ, ßˇ, >ˇ/ (ﬁÖ, ﬁhÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ ´i˚ ri\ ([ﬁÎÎ) /¶ﬁˇ/ ˜`˚ (5ﬁ·Ö) /5ﬁhˇ/ >i˚ (4ßÖ) /•ßˇ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Î) /6>ˇ/ rí]˘ ˛e last close phoneme is back rounded, /u/ (u, U), and we are obliged to use two di‡erent graphemes, because of the nature of pinyinization: u˚ o« (instead of a more logical u«]\ ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (4lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5kU,) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7ﬁU¥) /6ﬁu˙/ ˜ò«˘ û 11.1. Mandarin vowels. /[òj]iò/ ([òj]i) (òy)i /[ò¥]yò/ ([ò¥]y) (l/n)ü˚ yu (“ j/q/x + u] /jeò/ (j™) ie˚ òye /¥eò/ (¥™) (l/n)üe˚ òyue (“ j/q/x + ue]

/M/ (M) (z/c/s)i /[òw]uò/ ([òw]u) (òw)u /Xò/ (X, Xx|) (ò)e˚ /X>/ (X⁄) (ò)er /[w]oò/ ([w]ø, [w]øx|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o

/aò/ (a) (ò)a÷ /jaò/ (ja) ia˚ òya÷ /waò/ (wa) ua˚ òwa

11.1.4. ˛e inventory of the vowels of neutral Chinese continues with three mid vowels. We always ﬁnd /e/ (™) e in the sequences /jeò, ¥eò/ (j™, ¥™) ye/Cie˚ yue/Cüe\ (4j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè. ˛en, /X/, with the following distribution /Xò, X>, [w]Xn, [w]X˙/ (öX[x|], öX⁄, Én,

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w‘n, x,, w∑,) e˚ er˚ en˚ un/wen˚ e«˚ ue«/we«. ˛e last one has the variant (wø,) (which, if necessary, could be indicated as /wo˙/): (7ö$[*|]) /6X/ è˚ (5öÉn) /5Xn/ en˚ (4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fËc) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([w‘‘c) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7f*¥) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5w∑,÷ 5wø,) /5wX˙/ we«˚ (7w≤¥÷ 7wø¥) /6wX˙/ wè«˘ ≈nally, we have /o/ (öø[x|]) o˚ which can occur in the syllables /o, jo/ (ø[x|], jø[x|]), in addition to normal /mo, po, pho, [0]wo/ ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|], [0]wø[x|]), mo˚ bo˚ po˚ wo/Cuo\ (5[ø[x|]) /5mo/ mo˚ (4(ø[x|]) /•po/ bó˚ (7(·ø[*|]) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø, [wø*|) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5ﬁwø) /5ﬁwo/ ˜uo˚ (Ò˜A,5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø[*|]) /6o/ ò! ‹en ﬁnal, before a pause, /X, o/ normally have the accompaniment (x), as can be seen from various examples. Instead of /mo, po, pho/, we could even pose /mwo, pwo, phwo/, for ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|]), while maintaining /mou, phou/ (møU, phøU) (/pou/ does not occur), by dissimilation. 11.1.5. Lastly, we ﬁnd the open vowel, /a/, with its distributions and various taxophones, /[0]aò, jan, ¥an, [w/0]an, [j]a˙, wa˙/ (öa, jEn, ¥Än, [w/0]Ån, [j]a,, wA,): (5öa&ëa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7t·a) /6tha/ tà˚ (4jEn) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjEEc) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥Éc) /6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Â·¥Än) /5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öÅÅc) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (4p·Ån) /•phan/ pán˚ (4p·a,) /•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([wÅÅc) /¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([wAA¥) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘ û 11.2.å. Important taxophones. /[òj]in/ ([òj]In) (òy)in

/jan/ (jEn) ian˚ òyan /¥an/ (¥Än) yuan (“ + j/q/x + un, “ lüan]

/[ò¥]yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In), [òj]Yn)} yun (“ j/q/x + un, “ lün) /Xn/ (Én) (ò)en /wXn/ (w‘n) un˚ òwen /[w]an/ ([w]Ån) (u)an˚ ò(w)an

û 11.2.∫. Further important taxophones.

/[òj]i˙/ ([òj]¤,) (òy)ing /X˙/ (x,) eng /’Xò|/ (x) e /[j]a˙/ ([j]a,) (i)ang˚ ò(y)ang

/u˙/ (U,) ong /ju˙/ (jU˙) {(¥U,)} iong˚ òyong {/[w]oò/ ([w]∑, [w]∑x|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o] /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)} ueng˚ òweng /wa˙/ (wA,) uang˚ òwang

Diphthongs 11.1.6. Moving to diphthongs (Ô û 11.3), we have /[w]ei, [w]ae, [j]ao, [j]ou/ (™I, wÙI, ÅÉ, waÉ, jaÖ, AÖ, øU, jPU) ei˚ ui˚ (u)ai˚ (i)ao˚ ou˚ iu÷ for /[w]ei, [j]ou/ there are also the possible variants (shown in û 11.4, which are not necessary for a good pronunciation, and will be given only here), (ÉI, w¤i, ∑U, j¨u): (5f™I÷ 5fÉI) /5fei/ fei˚ (5twÙI÷ 5tw¤i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öÅÅË) /¶ae/ ∑i˚ (7waË) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öAAÖ) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([˜AAÖ)

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/¶hao/ h∑o˚ (4jaÖ) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøU÷ 5ö∑U) /5ou/ Ou˚ ([møøU÷ [m≤≤U) /¶mou/ mœu˚ (5tjPU÷ 5tj¨u) /5tjou/ diu˘ û 11.3. Mandarin diphthongs.

/wei/ (wÙI) ui˚ òwei /ei/ (™I) ei /ae/ (ÅÉ) (ò)ai /wae/ (waÉ) uai˚ òwai

/jou/ (jPU) iu˚ òyou /ou/ (øU) (ò)ou /jao/ (jaÖ) iao˚ òyao /ao/ (AÖ) (ò)ao

û 11.4. Possible diphthong variants. {/wei/ (w¤i) ui˚ òwei] {/ei/ (ÉI) ei]

{/jou/ (j¨u) iu˚ òyou] {/ou/ (∑U) (ò)ou]

Vowels with ﬁnal in />/ (⁄) -r 11.1.7. ˛is characteristic is typical of Peking (Beijing). It enjoys prestige, but is not completely accepted into neutral language, pàto«huà, although it is regularly indicated in dictionaries and grammars. Actually, the Pekinese themselves often try to avoid it; whereas the other Chinese (whether Mandarin or non-Mandarin) have not fully master of its use, ﬂuctuating considerably. However, its true and genuine distribution shows very substantial neutralizations, since the segments that actually occur (besides /ˇ/, preceded by /ﬁ[h]-, ß-, >-/: (ﬁÖ, ﬁhÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ ´i˚ ri, already seen in § 11.1.3) are /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄, ≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), as shown in û 11.5 (which includes (öX⁄) /X>/ er˚ § 1.4). ˛ey are represented in pinyin either by e(n)r˚ e«r˚ a(n)r˚ a«r˚ or by the original syllables with the addition of -r˚ although their pronunciation is reduced to the four already seen, which can be preceded by the middle consonants /j, ¥, w/, often deriving from original /i, y, u/. Let us see at once the four types: (5kX⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([p$$Y) /¶pX>/ b‘nr˚ (4˜≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([nååY) /¶na>/ n∑r˚ (7påY) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5q˙⁄) /5qa˙>/ za«r÷ (5˜wå⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mjåY) /6mja>/ miànr˘ We will now consider those with etymological writing, but which are always realized as /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄, ≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), preceded –or not– by /j, ¥, w/ (sometimes /¥, w/ correspond to ü and u/o]\ (4p·å⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Â·¥$Y) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚ (7ßw$Y) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ (7q·$Y) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([q$$Y) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwå⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚ (5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ (5sw‘n&~¥X⁄, -~&~-) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (4¿i&fwX⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ (^ﬁÖ4ljX⁄) /5ﬁˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (4ÂjX⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (5˜a2bå[t·w$$Y) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ (7tU¥œ¸j/ dò«ji«r˚ (7j$Y) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([s$$Y) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5˜X⁄)

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/5hX>/ heir˚ (5t·jå⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (4mjå⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7q·w$Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ (4t·wX⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßÅm5p·wX⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ´anpor˘ û 11.5. Vowels with />/ (⁄) -r.

/X>/ (X⁄) -e(n)r… /X˙>/ (≈⁄) -engr… /a>/ (å⁄) -a(n)r…

/a˙>/ (˙⁄) -angr…

11.1.8. O‚cial orthography separates the forms which in Chinese characters are çnormalÇ plus ér˘ ˛erefore, non-Mandarin people tend to pronounce the two syllables separated and with their tones (as in a sort of çinternationalÇ Mandarin). In addition, many non-Pekinese Mandarin people join the two syllables into one, but with less neutralizations. Hence, besides the four genuine syllables (with or without middle consonants), we can also ﬁnd the following ones, excluding those with front close vowels, /i, y/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y), that articulatorily do not adapt to (⁄), which is postalveolar. ˛us, we mark them with an asterisk, to advise that, although it is possible to hear them pronounced in that way by Chinese people, they do not fall within neutral pronunciation: *(7ßuY) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ *(5kU⁄÷ 5kÚ⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ *(4¿i&fu⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ *(^ﬁÖ4ljPU⁄÷ -4lj¨u⁄) /5ﬁˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ *(4Âj™⁄÷ 4ÂjÉ⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ *(5˜abå[t·wÙÙY) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ *(5˜™⁄÷ 5˜É⁄) /5hX>/ heir˚ *(4mjaÖ⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ *(7q·wøY÷ 7q·w≤Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ *(4t·øU⁄÷ 4t·∑U⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ *(^ßÅm5p·ø⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ´anpor˘ In any case, of course, these pronunciations are not to be imitated. Vowel reductions 11.1.9. In syllables with neuter/zero tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.4), some timbric reductions occur (together with shortenings), mainly in di‡erent positions from word-ﬁnal ones, or in intonemes. As a matter of fact, in actual language, apart from in slow and accurate speech, some neutralizations occur too. It is fundamental to know them, at least to understand spoken Chinese (well). ˛ey need not be used actively, although an appropriate use of them decidedly improves pronunciation. In order to adequately show the behavior of di‡erent unstressed syllables (for vowel, consonant, and pitch reductions), sometimes we also had to use rare words, rather than omitting something signiﬁcant. û 11.6 shows the most important reductions, which actually occur in non-tonic syllables (¤ in the real sense of çdeprived of any of the four basic tonemesÇ, Ô § 11.3.3.1-3). ˛e examples given are to be interpreted as in a sort of decreasing scale, starting from a prepausal position, in an intoneme (for the ﬁrst variants), up to modiﬁcations produced within a sentence, in a preintoneme (for the others). As

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can be seen, (¤) applies to /i[n/˙], y[n]/: (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwÅ~&ñi), (-3B¤) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3¸i, -3©¤) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (û), to /M[>], u[˙]/: (7jiœΩœ), (-3zŒ) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèn´i˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-vû) /5ßufu/ ´ufu˘ û 11.6. Reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones (in quick speech, not in an intoneme; whereas, in an intoneme, the distinct timbers of û 11.1-3 are used).

/i, y/ (¤) /Xn, e/ (È), /[w]ei/ ([j]È¤) /a[n]/ (å[n]), /[w]ae/ ([j]åÉ)

/M, u/ (û) /X[˙], o/ (X), /[j]ou/ ([ã]X¨) /a˙/ (√,), /[j]ao/ ([ã]√Ö)

11.1.10. In addition, we have (È), for /[j/¥]e, [w]Xn/, and (È¤) for /[w]ei/: ([Âj™™^©ã™), (-1©ã™, -1©ãÈ) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öÅËœ⁄Ëc), (-3⁄Ëc, -3⁄Èc) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (7m™Iœm™I), (-3mÈ¤) /6meimei/ mèimei÷ then (X), for /X, [w]X˙, [w]o/, and ([j]X¨), for /[j]ou/: (5kX&âX), (-2gX) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^2X), (-1"X) /¶ti˙ﬁX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jEN&Ëx,), (-2ΩX,) /5sjanßX˙/ xian´e«˚ (7Âj™œm$), (-3m$) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwÅ©^∆jø), (-1hjX) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˘ Lastly, we have: (å) in /a[n], [w]a, [w]ae/: (7paœÊa), (-3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma), (-2må) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7t·ÅËœthaË), (-3tåË) /6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (√) in /a˙, [j]ao/: ([wÅÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ω√,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑n´a«˚ (5ﬁÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö) /5ﬁˇtao/ ˜idao˘ û 11.7. Further reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones (in even quicker speech, not in an intoneme; then, in an intoneme, the realizations of û 11.6 are also possible).

/i, y, M[>], u/ (¢) /ae/ (É), /ja/ (jÉ)

/ou, uo, ao/ (∑) /X, -X-÷ a, -a-/ (‘)

11.1.11. In û 11.7 other attenuations are shown, or neutralizations too, which are possible in even faster –but still çnormal and genuineÇ– speech. We ﬁnd (¢) for /i, y, M, u÷ >/ (z/c/s˚ ˜/>/´)i˚ ü˚ u\ (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤, -3d^) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwÅ~&ñi), (-2B¤, -2B^) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3©i, -3©¤, -3©^) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu˚ (7jiœΩœ), (-3zŒ, -3z^) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ, -3Ω^) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèn´i˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-2vŒ, -2v^) /5ßufu/ ´ufu÷ and (∑) for /ou, uo, ao/: (çnwÅ©^∆wø), (-1hjX, -1h∑) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨, -3d≤) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨, -2ã∑) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˚ (5ﬁÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö, -2d∑) /5ﬁˇtao/ ˜idao˘

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Besides, (É) in /ae, ja/ (É, ãÉ): (7t·ÅËœthÅË), (-3tåË, -3tË) /6thaethae/ tàitai˚ (4⁄É~&¸ãa), (-2©ãå, -2©ãÉ) /•>Xnqja/ rénjia÷ and (‘) for /X/ an for any other /a/ a: (5kX&âX), (-2g‘) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^ËX), (-1Ω‘) /¶ti˙ßX/ d`«˜e˚ (7öÅËœ⁄*c), (-3⁄‘c) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (5¿jEN&Ëx,), (-2Ω‘,) /5sjanßX˙/ xian´e«˚ (7paœÊa), (-3bå, -3b‘) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5maœma), (-3må, -3m‘) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån, -1hj‘n, -1hÏn) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (çwÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ωå,, -1Ω‘,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑n´a«˘ £International Mandarin∞ vowels 11.1.12. û 11.8 shows the vowel realizations that are su‚cient for an çinternationalÇ pronunciation of Chinese, without taxophones (thus, without either attenuations or neutralizations such as those given in û 11.6-7; equally, we do not even mark creaky voice, which is çsuperﬂuousÇ in an international kind of pronunciation). So we have only eight monophthongs (and four diphthongs, obtained by combining ﬁve of the eight basic ones). ˛ey are a satisfactory result, once (M, x) have been learned. ˛erefore, we have: (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (•jin) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5Âin) /5qin/ jin˚ (7ji˙) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Âi˙) /5qi˙/ ji«˘ ˛en: (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Âhyy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5Âyn) /5qyn/ jun˚ (•Âhyn) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿yn) /6syn/ xún˚ (•¥yn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘ Besides: ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (•lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5ku˙) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7ﬁu˙) /6ﬁu˙/ ˜ò« (•j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ and (7öx) /6X/ è˚ (5öxn) /5Xn/ en˚ (•öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fxn) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([wxxn) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7fx˙) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5wx˙) /5wX˙/ we«˚ (7wx˙) /6wX˙/ wè«˘ More: (5mø) /5mo/ mo˚ (•pø) /•po/ bó˚ (7phø) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5ﬁwø) /5ﬁwo/ ˜uo˚ (Òha˙5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø) /6o/ ò! and (5öa&qa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7tha) /6tha/ tà˚ (•jan) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjaan) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥an) /6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Âh¥an) /5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öaan) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (•phan) /•phan/ pán˚ (•pha˙) /•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([waan) /¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([waa˙) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘ 11.1.13. And with />/: ([ﬁÖÖ) /¶ﬁˇ/ ˜`˚ (5ﬁhÖ) /5ﬁhˇ/ >i˚ (•ßÖ) /•ßÖ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Ö) /6>ˇ/ rí÷ (5kx⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([pxx⁄) /¶pX>/ b‘nr˚ (•h≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([naa⁄) /¶na>/ n∑r˚ (7pa⁄) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5qÅ⁄) /5qa˙>/ za«r÷ (5hwa⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mja⁄) /6mja>/ miànr÷ and (•pha⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Âh¥x⁄) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚ (7ßwx⁄) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ (7qhx⁄) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([qxx⁄) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwa⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚ (5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ (5swxn&n¥x⁄) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (•¿i&fwx⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ (^ﬁÖ•ljx⁄) /5ﬁˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (•Âjx⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (^ha2pa[thwxx⁄) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ (7tu˙œÂj≈⁄) /6tu˙qjX˙>/ dò«ji«r˚ (7jx⁄) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([sxx⁄) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5hx⁄) /5hX>/ heir˚ (5thja⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (•mja⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7qhwx⁄) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ (•thwx⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßam5phwx⁄, -n5p-) /5ßan5phwX>/ ´anpor˘ For diphthongs, we have: (5f™i) /5fei/ fei˚ (5tw™i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öaa™) /¶ae/ ∑i˚ (7wa™) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öaaø) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([haaø) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (•jaø) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøu) /5ou/ Ou˚ ([møøu) /¶mou/ mœu˚ (5tjøu) /5tjou/ diu˘

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11.1.14. In a type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, even vowel reductions are not so necessary; thus (fairly safely) we have: (7ti3ti) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwa~&¿i, -n&¿i) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœÂy) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (7jiœsM) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄xNœßÖ, -nœßÖ) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèn´i˚ (5ßu&fu) /5ßufu/ ´ufu˚ ([Âj™™^Âj™) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öa™œ⁄xn) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (7m™iœm™i) /6meimei/ mèimei. In addition: (5kx&kx) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çti˙^ﬁx) /¶ti˙ﬁX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jaN&ßx˙, -n&ßx˙) /5sjanßX˙/ xian´e«˚ (7Âj™œmø) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwa˙^hwø, çnwan-) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥u˙œtøu) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (•phx˙&jøu) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you÷ also (7paœpa) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^hwan) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7tha™œtha™) /6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (çwaN^ßa˙, -n^ßa˙) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑n´a«˚ (5ﬁÖ&taø) /5ﬁˇtao/ ˜idao˘ û 11.8. çInternational Mandarin ChineseÇ vowels. /i[n/˙]/ ([òj]i[n/˙]) /y[n]/ ([ò¥]y, [ò¥]yn) /je/ (j™), /¥e/ (¥™), /[w]ei/ ([w]™i)

/M/ (M) /u/ ([òw]u), /[j]u˙/ ([j]u˙) /X/ (x), /[w]Xn/ ([w]xn), /[w]X˙/ ([w]x˙) /[w]o/ ([w]ø), /[j]ou/ ([j]øu)

/[j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]ae, [j]ao/ ([j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]a™, [j]aø)

Consonants 11.2.0. ˛e consonant system of (Mandarin) Chinese has some interesting peculiarities, as we will see, including some alternative possibilities of phonemic analysis. ˛e most important one regards the choice on the phonemic status of (Â, Âh, ¿); in fact, pinyin has chosen their ço‚cialÇ acknowledgement –as j˚ q˚ x– to the detriment of vowels, which are rendered as i˚ u˚ after (Â, Âh, ¿), with the following values: /i, y÷ j, ¥/. On the contrary, it would have been su‚cient to systematically use ï˚ ü (instead of ﬂuctuating between yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu and nü˚ lü] – that is always yü˚ jü˚ qü˚ xü˚ nü˚ lü (all the more so because with nü˚ lü both a dieresis and tone-accents must be used). Besides, zï˚ cï˚ sï˚ (ﬁM, ﬁhM, ßM) would have been useful as well, by producing even greater coherence (which is always useful). Consequently, also ˜ï˚ >ï˚ ´ï˚ rï ought to have been used (instead of the pinyin o‚cial ˜i˚ >i˚ ´i˚ ri]˚ with the value of (ﬁÖ, ﬁhÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö). At this point, having seen the vowel phonemic inventory (which we have established, Ô § 11.1.1-5), it is obvious that our analysis prefers to consider (Â, Âh, ¿) as the result of the assimilation of /q, qh, s/ in contact with /i, y÷ j, ¥/. All this, of course, is irrespective of morphological considerations, which are lexically derived, since they are not at all absolute (rather, they are quite capricious indeed). ˛us, even for native speakers, the o‚cial choices have only limited (or seeming) advantages; therefore, we are convinced that the possibility of considering (Â, Âh, ¿) as realizations of /k, kh, h/ is much less preferable – even though sequences like */ki, khi, hi, ky, khy, hy/ do not occur, which would allow to speak of complementary

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distribution. Phonology, in order to be useful, must be explicit and not at all esoteric (although this would not be wrong diachronically). In the table of û 11.9, which gives the consonantal articulations of Mandarin Chinese, to save space, we show as /05/ (whereas here we use ç/0[h]/Ç = /0, 0h/) the consonants which are distinct phonemically. In fact, simple consonants oppose çaspirationÇ sequences (Ô Stops, § 11.2.2, and Stopstrictives, § 11.2.3). Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this handbook for the 12 languages dealt with, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants.

ö F Ô ƒ _ ß ‹

m ([) (M) p5 (b) ((5 {)

(n) n (N) t5 (d) q5 (Q) ﬁ5 (")

(~)* (Â5 ©)

(˙) k5 (g)

laryngeal

uvular

velar rounded

velar

postpalatal rounded

palatal

bilabialized prepalatal (* prepalat.)

postalveolar

alveolar

dental

labiodental round.

labiodental

bilabial rounded

bilabial

û 11.9. Table of Chinese consonants.

,

f (v) (5 ç)

(ö) (·)

s (z)

ß (Ω) ⁄

(¿ B)

j|(ã) ¥|(%) (∆) l /˙/ (,), />/ (⁄), /h/ (·, h, ˜, ∆)

w|(j) (˜)

h

Nasals 11.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, ˙/ (m, [÷ M, n, N, ~, ˙÷ ,) m˚ n˚ «˘ In syllable-ﬁnal position only /n, ˙/ occur; and the latter always maintains its uvular articulation ((,)) even before any consonants. Instead, /n/ regularly assimilates (except in very slow and accurate pronunciation), even if assimilation is only partial for /nj, n¥, nw/ (~j, ~¥, ˙w) (instead of *(Nj, N¥/”¥, ˙w) which are theoretical). However, let us notice the reduced forms of wœmen and tamen, which become monosyllabic, with /mò/ (Ô § 11.3.1.2). ˛e tendency of /nò/ to assimilation is so strong that we can ﬁnd cases such as: (¿ÒÂj™5˜j‘n2lX&ma31, -j‘l2lX-) /•qje5hwXnlXma?/ Jié hun le ma? Mandarin has /n/ (~) + /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (although Pekinese presents instead (n), which can be used fairly safely). On the other hand, we need not use a more speciﬁc symbol, ((˙)), before dentals /t, th, q, qh, s/. On the contrary, it is useful to choose ([) in /mo/ (which could be rendered as /mwo/ ([ø[x]), whereas /mou/ is (møU), by dissimilation). Syllable- and word-ﬁnal nasals always have an inaudible release, even before a pause: ((næ, ,æ)). (˛is is quite normal for other oriental languages such as Cantonese, ˛ai, Cambodian, cetnamese, Tagalog, Malay, and Indonesian – even for ﬁnal voiceless stops, which Mandarin has lost.)

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11.2.1.2. Here are some examples: (5mAÖ) /5mao/ mao˚ (5[ø) /5mo/ mo˚ ([nAAÖ) /¶nao/ n∑o˚ (4p·Én) /•phXn/ pén˚ (4p·x,) /•phX˙/ pé«÷ (œ˜Ëc7ö$[*|]) /¶hXn6X/ h‘n è˚ (ÒÂ·¥Än[t·ii) /•qh¥an¶thi/ quánt`˚ (œÂIc[qAAÖ) /¶qin¶qao/ j`nz∑o˚ (0twÅn7ljEc) /6twan6ljan/ duànliàn˚ (Ò⁄Ém4mIn) /•>Xn•min/ rénmìn˚ (Òlw‘m5pÅn) /•lwXn5pan/ lùnban˚ (0k·aü[faa) /6khan¶fa/ kànf∑˚ (^pjE~4Âi) /5pjan•qi/ bianjì˚ (0ÂI∫[ﬁÎÎ) /6qin¶ﬁˇ/ jín˜`˚ (0p·ÅÊ4Â¥™) /6phan•q¥e/ pànjué˚ (œpjEÊ4¥y) /¶pjan•¥y/ bi∑nyù˚ (ÒkÅ∫[⁄ÅÅc) /¶kan¶>an/ g∑nr∑n˚ (ÒpI˙[kwÅÅc) /5pin¶kwan/ bingu∑n˚ (0ÂjE˙7wA¥) /6qjan6wa˙/ jiànwà«˚ (ÒljE,5˜wÅn) /•ljan5hwan/ liánhuan˘ ©th /˙/: (Òji7lu Òp·¤,5öÅn) /•ji6lu •phi˙5an/ yìlú pì«'an˚ (^fx,7mjEc) /5fX˙6mjan/ fe«miàn˚ (œk·U¥7pu) /¶khu˙6pu/ kœ«bú˚ (0la,7f™I) /6la˙6fei/ là«fèi˚ (^fx,[tii) /5fX˙¶ti/ fe«d`˚ (œk·U¥7¿i) /¶khu˙6si/ kœ«xí˚ (Òp·¤,4¥y) /•phi˙•¥y/ pì«yù˚ (^ßx,7⁄Î) /5ßX˙6>ˇ/ ´e«rí˚ (^fx,7ßÅc) /5fX˙6ßan/ fe«´àn˚ (Òp·¤,[kwøø, -[kwø*|) /•phi˙¶kwo/ pì«guœ˘ In an çinternational-likeÇ pronunciation, it is su‚cient to use (˙), instead of (,), and also (n) before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (and, possibly, before other consonants too]˘ Stops 11.2.2.1. We have three voiceless phonemes, /p, t, k/, which occur as either plain, /0/, or in çaspirationÇ sequences, /0h/, with distinctive values. Before seeing some examples, we have to explain the nature and consistency of both voicelessness and çaspirationÇ. In fact, except in slow (or very accurate) speech, /pé, té, ké/, are realized as (p, t, k) only in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), whereas in half-stressed syllables they are (Ê, ∂, â) or, in unstressed syllables, even (b, d, g). On the other hand –in a parallel way– /phé, thé, khé/, in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), are sequences of voiceless stops and a laryngeal constrictive (decidedly çstrongÇ, (p·, t·, k·) (however, it is possible to ﬁnd a semi-constrictive as well, ((0Ö)), which is weaker). In half-stressed syllables, we have sequences with a laryngeal approximant, (ph, th, kh); whereas, in unstressed syllables, we can even ﬁnd plain voiceless stops, (p, t, k). We choose to adopt this kind of normalized transcription (although oscillations are frequent indeed, including sequences with a voiceless laryngeal semi-approximant, ((0h))). A degree of distinctivity between çaspirationÇ and çnon-aspirationÇ, however, is guaranteed. In fact, we have: /0h/ ('=·, &=h, ’=), /0/ ('=, &Ò, ’Ê), with strong and weak extremes meeting, as (=). Although they coincide phonetically, they remain distinct functionally, from a phonemic point of view. Before /o/ (not /ou/, by dissimilation) we ﬁnd ((), which sounds rather di‡erent from the common (p) of other languages. 11.2.2.2. Let us now see the following examples: (5pIn) /5pin/ bin˚ (4(ø) /•po/ bo˚ (7(·ø) /6pho/ pò˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (4k·wÙI) /•khwei/ kuì˚ (^p·¤,5p·a,) /5phi˙5pha˙/ pi«pa«˚ (0t·jAÖ[wuu) /6thjao¶wu/ tiàowà˚ (5k·x,) /5khX˙/ ke«÷ (7paœÊa|, 7pa3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (7tiœ∂i|, 7ti3dI) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kX&âX|, 5kX2gÈ) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (7ßÎ-

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œphÅË|, 7ßÎ3påË) /6ßˇphae/ ´ípai˚ (4p·u&thAÖ|, 4p·u2t√Ö) /•phuthao/ pùtao˚ (4p·u2t√Ö[ÂjÕÕU÷ -2t∑-) /•phuthao¶qjou/ pùtaojià˚ (7q·œœkh$|, -3kÈ) /6qhMkhX/ cíke˘ As we have seen (§ 11.0.2 “ § 11.2.1), there is also a laryngeal stop, which is important though not phonemic (with some less advisable alternative variants, (y, H, r, «)). It is useful to adequately maintain the articulatory identity of ﬁnal consonants (/n, ˙, >/) before initial vowels. Stop-strictives 11.2.3. As far as this manner (of articulation) is concerned, in our analysis (with the same normalized characteristics of voicing and çaspirationÇ as for Chinese stops) we have /q, qh/ ('q, &ë, ’Q÷ 'q·, &qh, ’q) z˚ c˚ in addition to ('Â, &¸, ’©÷ 'Â·, &Âh, ’Â) j˚ q˚ before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (Ô § 11.2.0), and /ﬁ, ﬁh/ ('ﬁ, &2, ’"÷ 'ﬁ·, &ﬁh, ’ﬁ) ˜˚ >˘ Here are some examples (expressly chosen with ﬁnal syllables without tonemes): (5qÅÉ) /5qae/ zai˚ (7q·wÅc) /6qhwan/ cuàn˚ (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ (4Â·¥U,÷ 4Â·jU,) /•q¥u˙/ qió«˚ (7ﬁ™I) /6ﬁei/ ˜èi˚ (4ﬁ·Ö) /•ﬁˇ/ >ì÷ (4pi&ëM|, 4pi2Qû) /•piqM/ bìzi˚ (4¥Yn&qhÅÉ|, 4¥Yn2qåÉ÷ 4jYn-) /•¥ynqhae/ yùncai˚ (7tjEÊœ¸i|, 7tjEÊ2©¤) /6tjanqi/ diànji˚ (5t·jE~&Âhi|, 5t·jE~Â¤) /5thjanqhi/ tianqi˚ (4q·ÅÉ&2Ö|, 4q·ÅÉ2"Ö) /•qhaeﬁˇ/ cái˜i˚ (4p·™I&ﬁhÉn|, 4p·™I2ﬁÈn) /•pheiﬁhXn/ péi>en˘ Constrictives 11.2.4. ˛ere are three constrictive phonemes. Again they are all phonemically voiceless, but with the usual voicings which depend on syllable-strength attenuation. ˛us we have: /f/ ('f, &Ñ, ’v) f, /s/ ('s, &Ω, ’z) s and ('¿, &ñ, ’B) x, /ß/ ('ß, &Ë, ’Ω) ´\ (4fu) /•fu/ fù˚ (4ma&ÑÅn|, 4mavån) /•mafan/ máfan˚ (7swÙI÷ 7sw¤i) /6swei/ suí˚ (5fx,&Ωu|, 5fx,2zû) /5fX˙su/ fe«su˚ (4¿¥™&ñi|, 4¿¥™2B¤) /•s¥esi/ xuéxi˚ (5ßu) /5ßu/ ´u˚ (4lja,&ËÖ|, 4lja,2ΩÖ) /•lja˙ßˇ/ liá«´i˘ Before /o/ (not /ou/) we ﬁnd (5) (as happens for other labial phonemes): (45ø{x}) /•fo/ fó˘ ˛erefore, we could even pose /fwo/ instead of /fo/ (but /fou/ (føU), by dissimilation). Approximants 11.2.5.1. Chinese has ﬁve approximant phonemes in our analysis. ˛e ﬁrst is postalveolar, />/ (⁄): (4⁄Én) /•>Xn/ rén˚ (4⁄w‘c) /•>wXn/ rún˚ (4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ ([ßÎÎ) /¶ßˇ/ ´`˘ (British English />/ (>) is laterally contracted and has a certain amount of lip rounding, thus is di‡erent – Ô English ('>a;Ö) /'ao/ rào çcoilÇ.) Besides, we have: /j/ (j, ’ã), /¥/ (¥, ’%), /w/ (w, ’j), with çattenuatedÇ variants in weak syllables, that is unstressed, because with çzeroÇ toneme (provided it is not before a pause), respectively: semi-palatal (ã), semi-postpalatal rounded (%), and se-

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mi-velar rounded (j): (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (5Âj™) /5qje/ jie˚ (çli^ÊjEn|, çli1bãEn, -1bãÉn) /¶lipjan/ l`bian÷ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (7Â·¥™) /6qh¥e/ què˚ (7tiœñ¥U¥|, 7ti3B%U¥) /6tis¥u˙/ díxio«÷ (4wA,) /•wa˙/ wá«˚ (5˜wÙI÷ 5˜w¤i) /5hwei/ hui˚ (çt·AÖ^lw‘n|, çt·AÖ1ljÈn) /¶thaolwXn/ t∑olun˘ ≈nally, we ﬁnd /h/ ('˜é, &∆é, ’hé) (in addition to ('0·, &0h, ’0`), already seen for stops and stop-constrictives): ([˜AAÖ) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (5öÉ˙&∆AÖ|, 5öÉn2h√Ö) /5Xnhao/ enhao˘ In theory, we could have two di‡erent phonemes in the inventory of consonants: ç/x, h/Ç, with ç/x/Ç = ('˜é, &∆é, ’hé); but it is better to have only one, with the taxophones already seen (which are di‡erent although auditorily quite similar, but with a phone of contact, (h)). Traditionally, the Chinese prefer to consider initial consonants in a unitary way, with ç/05/Ç di‡erent from /0/, intraphonemically; but this choice does not present any real advantage from an interphonemic point of view, which is interested in several languages of the world – quite the contrary! £International Mandarin∞ consonants 11.2.5.2. In a kind of international pronunciation (as for vowels, Ô § 11.1.1214), it is su‚cient to always use the basic forms, independently of stress: (j, ¥, w), even for (ã, %, j), and (h) for /h/, without variations, also in /0h/ (0h) (against /0/ (0)), and again without creaky voice: (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ (çli^pjan) /¶lipjan/ l`bian÷ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (7tiœ¿¥u˙) /6tis¥u˙/ díxio«÷ (4wa˙) /•wa˙/ wá«˚ (5hw™i) /5hwei/ hui˚ (çthaÖ^lwxn) /¶thaolwXn/ t∑olun˘ However, it is important to be able to hear di‡erent realizations, in order to understand spoken Chinese (better). Obviously, to achieve a more genuine pronunciation, it would be decidedly better to appropriately acquire and use all the characteristics we describe. Laterals 11.2.6. For the last manner (of articulation) necessary for Mandarin, we ﬁnd just one phoneme, /l/ (l) (which remains unchanged even before /i, y÷ j, ¥/): (4lÅÉ) /•lae/ lái˚ (4lU,) /•lu˙/ ló«˚ ([ljEEc) /¶ljan/ li∑n˚ (7ly) /6ly/ lÇ˘ Structures 11.3.0. We will deal, in particular, with the typical tones (tonemes as distinctive elements), including a çzeroÇ ton(em)e and their combinatory variants (taxotones), in addition to degrees of stress, and ﬁnally intonation, which overlaps tone characteristics, by changing them further (as we will see). A typical Mandarin Chinese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice with a paraphonic setting with raised larynx §Æ@, not only for wemen. Other Chinese languages, instead, use a normal (or modal) laryngeal setting, or else one with

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a lowered larynx. ˛ese paraphonic di‡erences can be a good cue in identifying the origins of Chinese people, even when they speak English or other foreign languages. Taxophonics 11.3.1.1. As regards possible reductions, especially in weak syllables, we have already illustrated those of vowel and consonant timbres, in particular, in § 11.1.911 and û 11.6-7, and here and there in § 11.2.0-6. We would like to underline here that in fast speech, in a preintoneme, two other types of reduction are possible, which can make Chinese less easy to understand. ˛us it is important at least to know their mechanisms. Should foreign learners want to apply them in an appropriate manner, naturalness would certainly be improved. ˛erefore, obviously not in an intoneme again, after di‡erent consonants from sonants (¤ after /p[h], t[h], k[h]÷ q[h], ﬁ[h]÷ f, s, ß, h/), and with tone 4 (above all when it is complete, /6/ (7), see below), close vowels, /i, y, M, u/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y÷ M÷ u, U), can be devoiced, (î, Ù, î÷ ÿ, Î÷ ¯÷ ¨, Û). We will show this fact only here (and just for partial devoicing): (0p·î4⁄u) /6phi•>u/ pírù˚ (0p¨[faa) /6pu¶fa/ búf∑˚ (0t·î5ßÉn) /6thi5ßXn/ tí´en˚ (0t¨[k·øøU) /6tu¶khou/ dúkœu˚ (0Âÿ4t·wÅn) /6qy•thwan/ jútuán˚ (0k·¨[ﬁ·aa) /6khu¶ﬁha/ kú>∑˚ (0k¨7k·$) /6ku6khX/ gúkè˚ (0q·¯5Âi) /6qhM5qi/ cíji˚ (0q¯[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zímà˚ (0ﬁ·¨7fÅc) /6ﬁhu6fan/ >úfàn˚ (0Âî,7qwø) /6qi˙6qwo/ jí«zuò˚ (0f¨7pu) /6fu6pu/ fúbú˚ (0¿ÙÊ[jaa¥) /6sin¶ja˙/ xíny∑«˚ (0¿ÿ[Â·yy) /6sy¶qhy/ xúqà˚ (0ß¨4fu) /6ßu•fu/ ´úfù˚ (0˜¨7ﬁAÖ) /6hu6ﬁao/ hú˜ào˘ Besides, in syllables with çzeroÇ tones, but not in an intoneme, approximant realizations are possible: (¸, ã), for /s/ (s, z÷ ¿, B), and (⁄) for /ß/ (ß, Ω), but also for (q[h], Q÷ Â[h], ©) and (ﬁ[h], "): (7kAÖœzœ|, 7kAÖ3¸Œ, -3¸^) /6kaosu/ gàosu˚ (5p™I&QM|, 5p™I2¸û, -2¸¢) /5peiqM/ beizi˚ (4q·øU&QøU|, 4q·øU2¸û, -2¸¢) /•qhouqhou/ cóucou˚ (5tU,&Bi|, 5tU,2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5tu˙si/ do«xi˚ (çjaa¥^©¤,|, çjaa¥1ã¤,, -1ã¢,) /¶ja˙qi˙/ y∑«ji«˚ (5ﬁ·u&Ây|, 5ﬁ·u2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5ﬁhuqhy/ >uqu˚ (5ﬁÖ&ΩÖ|, 5ﬁÖ2⁄Ö) /5ﬁˇßˇ/ ˜i´i˚ (5pa,&"u|, 5pa,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5pa˙ﬁu/ ba«˜u˚ (5Â·¤,&ﬁu|, 5Â·¤,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5qhi˙ﬁhu/ qi«>u˘ 11.3.1.2. As we have said, Chinese words are formed by initial and ﬁnal elements. However, their combinations have some limitations; in fact, among all theoretical possibilities, only 55% are actually used, for slightly over 400 typical syllables (which are regularly indicated in teaching textbooks, with some oscillations for the less frequent ones). Here we will report only the most remarkable characteristics. (öX⁄) /X>/ er occurs with no initial; /f/ has a fairly limited distribution: it does not occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥÷ w/ and some other phonemes; whereas, only in loanwords /v/ is found (which is thus a xenophoneme added to the (v) taxophone of /f/). Besides, (Â[h], ¿) (with other variants already seen) are taxophones of /q[h], s/, which only occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/, and are spelled j˚ q˚ x˘ Equally, /M/ only occurs after /q[h], s/; and /ˇ/ after /ﬁ[h], ß, >/÷ /o/, only after /m, p[h], f, w/ (and in

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some particular forms after /j, l/ or with a çzeroÇ segment); and /y/, only after /j, ¥÷ l/, /n/ (~), or after /q[h], s/ (Â[h], ¿). ≈nally, we would like to add that /m, p[h], f/ do not occur before /X, M, w÷ y, ¥÷ >÷ [j]u˙/ or some other segments; neither do /ﬁ[h], ß/ occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ (or some others), nor /k[h], h/ before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ or /o, wX˙/. ˛ere are some other more speciﬁc limitations; but this is the spirit of Mandarin phonotactics – /n, ˙/ are the only, very frequent, syllable-ﬁnal consonants (besides, />/, which is extremely rare). ˛ere are some remarkable reductions of words such as the following (which are quite normal, except in intonemes or in formal speech): (4ßXm, 4ßXõ, 4ßX2mÈ, 4ßX2mX) /•ßXnmX/ ´énme˚ ([q$$C, çq$1õ, çq$1mÈ, çq$1mX) /¶qXnmX/ z‘nme˚ ([wøøC, çwøøõ, çwø1mÈn, -1mÉn) /¶womXn/ wœmen˚ (5t·am, 5t·aõ, 5t·amÈn, -mÉn) /5thamXn/ tamen˘ Contrary to some other Chinese languages, in Mandarin there is a somewhat exceptional occurrence of /m/ in ﬁnal position, as indeed that of (õ), which we ﬁnd in : (4õ) /•Xm/ µ çreally?/what??Ç, (7≠) /6Xm/ û çyes/I understandÇ. Stress 11.3.2.1. At the end of the previous section, as well as in § 11.1.9-11, we saw a few words with çweakÇ syllables too, ¤ without either a toneme or a strong stress (at most they had a secondary stress on posttonic syllables). We will see below that weak syllables may also occur before the last one, and that generally even grammemes (or grammatical particles) are weak. On the contrary, in most Mandarin words all syllables bear one of the four marked tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.1-3). Among these, two-syllable words have the following stress pattern (&I'I): (^ﬁÖ4¥Än) /5ﬁˇ•¥an/ ˜iyuán˚ (ÒljE~7¿i) /•ljan6si/ liánxí˚ (^˜™I[pÅÅc) /5hei¶pan/ heib∑n˚ (0ÂjAÖ5ßÖ) /6qjao5ßˇ/ jiào´i˘ Chinese writing has separate characters (çideogramsÇ), but without separation between words, phrases, and sentences, except for punctuation (which also includes a çmini-commaÇ (˝) that is used to separate words in a list, but it is used less and less). In trisyllables, without any weak syllables, we have the pattern ('I&I'I): (5jPU0[ø[kÅÅc) /5jou6mo¶kan/ youmòg∑n˚ (•fx,0⁄ËÊ5Âi) /•fX,6>Xn5qi/ fé«rènji˚ (ç˜wø^ﬁhX7ﬁÅc) /¶hwo5ﬁhX6ﬁan/ huœ>e˜àn˘ ‹en Chinese words reach four or ﬁve syllables, lexical compounding coincides with syntactical composition. In fact, the various components are simply juxtaposed. However, there is a way to manage to show lexicalization better, within sentences. As a matter of fact, if –for instance– we separately have (0qœ[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zímà çletter, graphemeÇ, (^p·I~5jIn) /5phin5jin/ pinyin çsyllabiﬁcationÇ, when we put the two words together, we obtain (5p·I~^jIn 0ëœ[muu) /5phin5jin 6qM¶mu/ pinyin zímà çromanization, transliteration, alphabetic writing (to show pronunciation)Ç, instead of a çsimplerÇ –but more artiﬁcial– (^p·I~5jIn 0ëœ[muu); consider also (6ti0∂i0∂AÖ7tAÖ) /6ti6ti6tao6tao/ dídídàodào˘

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11.3.2.2. In sentences, however (as will be seen from the text in § 11.4.2.2 as well), there are frequent oscillations with regard to actual stresses on di‡erent syllables, both for rhythmic reasons and prominence interplay, and even for communicative purposes, even when they are not çdistinctiveÇ. ˛us, for instance, /5ßa˙¶kan¶ﬁu6ji¶ﬁX/ ´a«g∑n˜àyí˜‘ can have two frequent realizations, (5ßa,œâÅ∫çﬁu0ji[ﬁ$$, 5ßa,œâÅ∫œ2u7jiœ2$); equally, even forms such as the following often oscillate: (0ji[tjEEc, 7jiœ∂jEc) /6ji¶tjan/ yídi∑n˚ (0(ø4f™I, 7(ø&Ñ™I) /6po•fei/ pòféi˚ (^qM7wÙI, 5qM0wÙI) /5qM6wei/ ziwèi˚ (0¿Iü[fuu, 7¿IüœÑu) /6sin•fu/ xínfù˚ (^ÂIn5t·jEn, 5ÂIn^thjEn) /5qin5thjan/ jìntian˚ (0öÅË[lii, 7öÅËœli) /6ae¶li/ àil`˚ (^kÅm5p™I, 5kÅm^Ê™I) /5kan5pei/ ganbei! All this can happen both in intonemes and preintonemes. And, what is more, even opposite cases are frequent, that is syllables with çzeroÇ tone which bear a strong stress, verging on mid pitch (again independently of any intoneme): (4p·x,&jPU, &p·x,'jPU) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˚ (7tÅ∫œËÎ, 0∂Å∫'ßÖ) /6tanßˇ/ dàn´i˚ (4ßÖ&∆øU, &ßÖ'˜øU) /•ßÖhou/ ´ìhou˘ In addition, even forms bearing a tone (even written) are weakened, as happens to the grammemes and locatives in the following examples: (5ﬁwø0Ëa¥, -&Ëa,) /5ﬁwo 6ßa˙/ ˜uo ´à«˚ (6ti0ñja, -&ñja) /6ti 6sja/ dí xià˚ (5wuœli, 5wu&li) /5wu ¶li/ wu l`˚ (4t·¤,œli, -&li) /•thi˙ ¶li/ tì« l`˘ Tones 11.3.3.1. ˛e most remarkable aspect of the various Chinese languages (and one of the most serious problems for foreigners) resides in the use of çtonesÇ. In fact, in languages such as Mandarin, a di‡erent pitch on a syllable is able to make its meaning change completely. ˛erefore, we have to speak of tonemes for distinctive elements of a phonemic system, and of tones for their actual realizations, including taxotones, ¤ combinatory variants, as can be seen from the examples given below. In order to draw attention to their importance, and not to confuse concepts and words, let us choose the example of ([mÅÅË) /¶mae/ m∑i çto buyÇ and (7mÅË) /6mae/ mài çto sellÇ. We now add some classical examples (giving some of the most frequent meanings, among the possible ones, since transliterations may unify di‡erent words {as phonic transcriptions do too}, represented by di‡erent characters, or çideogramsÇ): (5ma) /5ma/ ma çmotherÇ, (4ma) /•ma/ má çhempÇ, ([maa) /¶ma/ m∑ çhorseÇ, (7ma) /6ma/ mà çscold, curseÇ˘ As some transcriptions have already shown, tonemes 3 and 4 are realized with creaky (or laryngealized) voice, when their çlowÇ taxophones occur: ([), (ç) and (7) (with secondary stress, (0)), but not when the çhighÇ ones occur: (•) and (6). Tonemes 1 and 2, which are çhighÇ, (5), (4), always have normal voice quality. A prudential warning is necessary about some diagrams which appeared in certain publications, not only in çtourist-likeÇ books, since they are too often completely wrong – so they are of no help at all to unfortunate readers… Mandarin is relatively simple, in comparison with other Chinese languages, also as far as taxotones are concerned. In fact, Mandarin has only four marked tonemes, traditionally indicated and listed as 1 (5) /5/ >1≥ o\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi÷ 2 (4) /•/ >Q≥ ó\

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(4wu) /•wu/ wù÷ 3 ([) /¶/ >5≥ œ\ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ 4 (7) /6/ >Z≥ ò\ (7Â·ja¥) /6qja˙/ qià«˘ û 11.10 shows –for the four tonemes– the four basic tones, in addition to three taxotones, which are as important phonetically (or rather çtoneticallyÇ): in addition to ç3=2 (¤ 3+3 = 3+2)Ç (•) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a toneme 3 –occurring before another 3– which becomes almost a tone 2 {although it is generally –but falsely– identiﬁed with an actual tone 2}), we have a çhalf 3Ç, (ç) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a 3 before one of the other three), and a çhalf 4Ç, (6) /6/ >Z≥ ò (¤ a 4 before another 4). As can be seen, from both tonograms and phonetic transcriptions which will follow, the last two are actually realized as the ﬁrst half of their full forms. In a kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, toneme 2 can be realized as (•) (instead of (4) ((-1))), as the o‚cial taxotone of /¶/ followed by another /¶/. ˛e pitch characteristics of the other ton(em)es ought to be very similar to the o‚cial ones, even for the çzeroÇ toneme, as we have done in our transcriptions (although for the latter, somehow, a realization of mid pitch {and weak stress} could be su‚cient, (2), again in this type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation). û 11.10. Mandarin tonemes and tones.

1 /5/ (5) >1≥ 2 /•/ (4) >Q≥

3 /¶/ ([) >5≥ 3‘ /¶/ (ç) >5≥ 3“ /¶/ (•) >5≥ 4 /6/ (7) >Z≥ 4‘ /6/ (6) >Z≥

11.3.3.2. Obviously, although at ﬁrst all this might seem to be a useless complication, in actual fact, it is a real facilitation for contextual realizations. As a matter of fact, it is a simpliﬁcation, from a tonetic point of view, which is visible only thanks to accurate phonetic (or rather phonotonetic) transcriptions, whereas phonemic (¤ phonotonemic) transcriptions, as well as graphemic renderings, do not change at all, since their entity, their essence, remains the same. As can be seen from the following examples, and –above all– from û 11.11, the allotones (¤ taxophones) of tonemes 3 and 4 present a simpliﬁcation, by assimilation. û 11.11. Fundamental taxotones. /¶ 5/

=

(– 5)

/¶ •/

=

(– 4)

/¶ ¶/

=

(Ò [)

/¶ 6/

=

(– 7)

/6 6/

=

(0 7)

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In fact, toneme 3, ([) = (ç), /¶/ >5≥˚ shortens (even as its segmental duration does), when it occurs before tonemes which are di‡erent from itself: (œ˜wø5ﬁ·X) /¶hwo5ﬁhX/ huœ>e˚ (œt*¥4¥y) /¶tX˙•¥y/ d‘«yù˚ (œk·AÖ7ßÎ) /¶khao6ßˇ/ k∑o´í÷ on the other hand, when it occurs before itself, /¶ ¶/ >5 5≥˚ it has the taxotone (•): (ÒßøU[pjAAÖ) /¶ßou¶pjao/ ´œubi∑o˘ Even in this case, it is right to keep its tonemic and graphemic representation unchanged, since, should we modify them, they would lead us to think of di‡erent structures, not only from a phonic point of view, but also lexically and, then, semantically. Toneme 4 resorts to a (halved) taxotone before itself: (0fa,7Âja) /6fa˙6qja/ fà«jià˘ Tonemes 1 and 2 do not have any variants; and, although the taxotone of 3 (+ 3) is tonetically (more) similar to toneme 2, it nevertheless remains a taxotone of toneme 3 (except in the çinternationalÇ accent {which is a simpliﬁcation}). û 11.12. Taxotones of particular tonemic sequences. /5 • 5/ =

/5 5 5/ (5 — 5)

/5 • •/ =

/5 5 •/ (5 — 4)

/5 • ¶/ =

/5 5 ¶/ (5 — [)

/5 • 6/

/5 5 6/ (5 — 7)

=

û 11.13. Taxotones of other tonemic sequences. /• • 5/ =

/• 5 5/ (4 — 5)

/• • •/ =

/• 5 •/ (4 — 4)

/• • ¶/ =

/• 5 ¶/ (4 — [)

/• • 6/ =

/• 5 6/ (4 — 63)

û 11.14. Further taxotones of tonemic sequences. /5¶ ¶/ =

(5 Ò [) =

(5 — [)

/•¶ ¶/ =

(4 Ò[) =

(4 — [)

/¶ ¶ ¶/ =

(• Ò[) =

(• — [)

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11.3.3.3. As far as sequences of three tonemes are concerned, there are some di‡erences (and they must be indicated and applied too) in comparison with tonemic (and graphemic) representations. û 11.12 shows what happens to sequences of /5 •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes: (5tU,^nÅM5fx,) /5tu˙•nan5fX˙/ do«nán-fe«˚ (5sÅ~^~jE~4Âi) /5san•njan•qi/ sannián-jì˚ (5¿jEN^⁄É~[Âjaa¥) /5sjan•>Xn¶qja˙/ xianrén-ji∑«˚ (5¿i^∆U,7ßÎ) /5si•hu˙6ßˇ/ xihó«´í. û 11.13 shows sequences of /• •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes: (4m™I^laM5fa,) /•mei•lan5fa˙/ Méi Lánfa«˚ (4˜ÅÉ^m™I4lÅÉ) /•hae•mei•lae/ hái méi lái˚ (4wÅ~^Âh¥Än[tUU¥) /•wan•qh¥an¶tu˙/ wánquán dœ«˚ (4¿Y~^ja,7ÂjEc) /•syn•ja˙6qjan/ xùnyá«-jiàn˘ ≈nally, û 11.14 shows the behavior of the sequence /¶ ¶/ preceded by one of the ﬁrst three tonemes: (5sÅ~^jEn[Âj</ Sany∑n Ji‘«r˚ (4˜ÅN^Ëu[pjAAÖ) /•han¶ßu¶pjao/ hán´àbi∑o˚ (•wø^j™[jÕÕU) /¶wo¶je¶jou/ wœ y‘ yœu˘ 11.3.3.4. In addition, there is a çzero toneÇ, which is realized in four di‡erent ways (that are representable, however, with only three signs), according to the previous toneme. It is much simpler to refer to û 11.15, which shows that a çzero toneÇ has mid pitch after tonemes 1 and 2, although –strictly speaking– after toneme 1 pitch is [lower] mid, whereas it is [upper-central] mid after toneme 2: (5pi&(hø) /5pipho/ bipo˚ (4pi&Âhi) /•piqhi/ bìqi˘ After a toneme 3, the unmarked toneme is [lower] high; whereas, it is [lower-central] low, after a toneme 4: (çpi^Ña,) /¶pifa˙/ b`fa«˚ (7piœ∆wÙI) /6pihwei/ bíhui˘ As we have said, three symbols are necessary (and su‚cient), since –as we will see shortly– intonation slightly modiﬁes and compresses what we are explaining here, which refers to an çidealÇ pronunciation – and is used in isolated forms, outside actual communicative contexts. ‹en two unmarked tonemes occur after a marked one, their pitch is as shown in the tonograms of û 11.16: (5k·ÅÉ2lÅÉœl$) /5khaelaelX/ kailaile˚ (4na2lÅÉœl$) /•nalaelX/ nálaile˚ (çqøU1lÅÉ^lX) /¶qoulaelX/ zœulaile˚ (7sU¥3lÅËœl$) /6su˙laelX/ sò«laile˘ Lastly, û 11.17 shows how a çzeroÇ toneme behaves when it occurs between marked tonemes (by observing its tonetic logic as a gradual transition): (5t·jE~1©i7wÙI) /5thjanqi6wei/ Tianjiwèi˚ (4˜a,1"øU7ßÎ) /•ha˙ﬁou6ßˇ/ Há«˜ou´í˚ (çli2hU,5ﬁa,) /¶lihu˙5ﬁa˙/ L`ho«˜a«˚ (çlja,2gX4⁄Én) /¶lja˙kX•>Xn/ li∑«ge rén˚ (6k·Ån2dX7ÂjEc) /6khantX6qjan/ kàn-de-jiàn˘ û 11.15. Contextual pitches of a çzeroÇ tone in bisyllables.

/5 ”/ (5 &)

/• ”/ (4 &)

/¶ ”/ (ç —)

/6 ”/ (7 –)

û 11.16. Contextual pitches of two çzeroÇ tones in trisyllables.

/5 ” ”/ (5 2 –)

/• ” ”/ (4 2 –)

/¶ ” ”/ (ç 1 —)

/6 ” ”/ (7 3 –)

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û 11.17. Contextual pitches of an internal çzeroÇ tone in trisyllables.

/5 ” 6/ (5 1 7)

/• ” 6/ (4 1 7)

/¶ ” 5/ (ç 2 5)

/¶ ” •/ (ç 2 4)

/¶ ” •/ (ç 2 7)

11.3.3.5. To conclude about tones, we must indicate some syntactic-lexical variations, which have to be memorized as they are. We are talking about three numbers: (5ji) /5ji/ yi çoneÇ, (5Â·i) /5qhi/ qi çsevenÇ, (5pa) /5pa/ ba çeightÇ, and the negation (7pu) /6pu/ bú çno, notÇ. ˛e three numbers are realized with a tone (6) before one of the ﬁrst three tonemes (/5, •, ¶/): (6ji, 6Â·i, 6pa), but with tone (•) before a 4 (/6/): (•ji, •Â·i, •pa) (but now even (5Â·i) is acceptable). Also /6pu/, before a 4, becomes (•): (•pu). Besides, (5ji) /5ji/ yi becomes (4) /•/, even before a zero toneme, which derives from (7) /6/, as in (4ji&âX) /•jikX/ yìge. Intonation 11.3.4.1. Although Chinese is a tone language, ¤ with relevant and distinctive syllable pitch, it uses intonation too, as non-tone languages do. Obviously, in this case, things are more complicated, since the basic tonemes with the taxotones we have seen (Ô § 11.3.3.1-5) are slightly modiﬁed by intonation, which superimposes on tones. In fact, it makes them change according to the typical movements of the intonemes. û 11.18 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of Mandarin, with their characteristics. ˛e preintonemes force the pitch of every single tone to be canalized into the shapes indicated (which, in a more sophisticated than really necessary notation, could even be indicated with some small rings, as we will see shortly). A normal preintoneme is compressed (/ / ( ), ((” ))), an interrogative one is raised (/¿ / (¿ ), ((» ))), whereas an imperative one is falling (/¡ / (¡ ), ((»’ ))); ﬁnally, an emphatic preintoneme is extended, non-compressed, (/˚ / (˚ ), ((ˇ ))). û 11.18 also shows the modiﬁcations undergone by the intonemes: the conclusive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the continuative one is compressed (/,/ (2)), whereas the suspensive is extended (/2/ (^)). û 11.18. Mandarin preintonemes and intonemes. / / ( ) ((” ))

/./ (13)

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» ))

/?/ (31)

/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ ))

/÷/ (^)

/˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ ))

/,/ (2)

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11.3.4.2. Besides çisolatedÇ tones (typical of separate words {as examples are} and of a suspensive intoneme, and of an emphatic preintoneme as well, which are given in black), û 11.19 also shows the taxotones (given in grey) of the four marked tonemes, as they are modiﬁed when they are realized in conclusive (/./ (13)), interrogative (/?/ (31)), and continuative (/,/ (2)) intonemes. It is obvious that the tonetic notation used is –necessarily– just an indication of the deformation undergone by actual tones. Of course, in non-tonal languages, the use of tonetic symbols is –automatically– much more precise, since it is free from any phonemic value applied to lexical pitch. In addition, û 11.20 shows in grey all the allotones occurring in the four preintonemes. ˛e four marked in black, in the emphatic preintoneme, correspond to the four çisolatedÇ tones. ˛ey are also useful for comparisons, which must be done very carefully, in order to appropriately memorize and master them in actual sentences (at ﬁrst as a simple identiﬁcation step, then as active drills as well). Undoubtedly, they require a good deal of commitment and constancy. But any e‡ort will certainly be rewarded. Of course, paraphonics further modiﬁes things depending on attititudes, feelings, Â. 11.3.4.3. Lastly, we will see three examples to start an accurate analysis of intonation which is always in an indissoluble relation with tones. Given the complexity of this enterprise, we will use the same basic sentence, with the same tonemes. Of course, other tonal combinations are to be experimented as well, on the basis of the examples provided: /./: (5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,13) /5thaßˇ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙./ Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia«. /?/: (¿5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,2ma31) /¿5thaßˇ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙ma?/ Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia« ma? /÷/: (5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,^ 7tÅ∫3ΩÎ çwø1bu 7öÅËœtha13) /5thaßˇ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙÷ 6tanßˇ ¶wopu 6aetha./ Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia«, dàn´i wœ bù ài ta. û 11.19. ˛e four tonemes combined with the four intonemes. the 4 tones with /./ (13) the 4 tones with /?/ (31) the 4 tones with /,/ (2) the 4 tones with /÷/ (^)

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û 11.20. ˛e seven allotones combined with the four preintonemes. //() /¿/ (¿ ) /¡/ (¡ ) /˚/ (˚ )

Text 11.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Chinese pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Chinese translation follows, in its neutral and çinternationalÇ versions. Please, note the creaky vowels before pauses (¤ with creaky phonation type, or laryngealization, (ü); whereas in Mandarin creaky voice is in relation with low tones, also for the voiced consonants belonging to the same syllable coda). ˛ese creaky vowels confer great çauthenticityÇ, together with a (paraphonic) postdorsal setting, that is with a slight but permanent –or frequent– raising of the dorsum towards the velum together with the raising of the larynx §# Æ@. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Chinese, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Chinese (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Chinese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Chinese, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).

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Chinese pronunciation (of English) 11.4.1. §Æ #@ (2tX'n∏s 'jin2 2Xn2∂X'san2 2jX2∂is'phju2ti, 'jiÂæ 2jXs2∂Xs'thl∏˙2â$13| 'jÄn 2öX'thlÄV2lX2 'kh™Im 2X'l∏,2 ì'lÄpæ 2öin2öX'j∏m 'khløUkæ13œ| 2∂™IX'âli∂æ2\ 2∂Ä2∂X'jan 2˜u'fXs 2sXk'¿i∂i∂2 2öin'm™I2ki, 2∂X'thlÄV2lX2 'th™Ikæ 2˜is'khløUkæ 'ö∏f^| &¿ãu2Êi2kXn'¿i2∂X∂æ 2sX"thl∏˙2gX 2∂Xn2∂i'a2∂$13|| '∂Än2 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 'Êlu2 2˜Xs'˜aX∂æ2 2öX2¿i'khu∂æ13| 2ÊX2∂X'[∏ 2˜i'Êlu^| 2∂X'[∏ 'khløUs2li2 &∂i2∂X'thlÄV2l$2\ '5øU∂æ 2˜is'khløUkæ öX'lA∏n2∂iC13| ì2öXn2Xtæ'las2œ\ 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 'â™I 'Vapæ 2∂iX'thÉCpæ13|| ì'∂Än2œ 2∂X'san '¿ã∏n 'öA∏tæ13 ì'j∏m2li13œ| 2öXn2öi'mi∂iÈ2tli2\ ˚2∂X'thÄV2lX 'thukæ 'ö∏f3 3 ˚2˜is'khløUkæ13|| ì2öXn'søU2œ 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 2jXs2X'blÅÄ¸æ 2tX2kXM'fÉs2| 2∂X2∂X'san13 2jXs2∂Xs'thl∏˙2âX13 ì2öX2∂X'thu13œ|| ¿&∂i2¸ju'lÅÄkæ31 ¿2∂Xs'th∏li2| ¿2¸ju'j∏n 2tX'˜iX2litæ 2öX'âÉc31|||) Mandarin text 11.4.2. Yœu yí huì b‘ife« gen tàiyá« ˜è«zàinar ˜e«lún ´éide b‘n´i dà, ´uo˜e ´uo˜e láile yìge zœudàorde, ´en´a« >uan˜e yìjiàn hòu páozi. Tamen li∑ jiú ´a«lia« h∑o le ´uo, è´éi né« xian jiào ˜ège zœudàorde b∑ tade páozi tuole xiàlai a, jiú suàn ´éide b‘n´i dà¶. H∑o, b‘ife« jiú ´`qi dà jín lái j`ngua j`ngua, k‘´í ta guade yuè líhai, nèige rén b∑ páozi guœde yuè j`n; dào mòli∑or b‘ife« méile fázi, ˜`h∑o jiú suànle. Yíhu`r tàiyá« jiú >ulái rèrerde yì ´ài, nèi zœudàorde m∑´à« jiú b∑ páozi tuole xiàlai. Suœy` b‘ife« bú né« bú >é«rèn dàod` hái´i tàiyá« b` ta b‘n´i dà. N` x`huan ˜è ´œu érge ma? Wœmen zài >à« yì biàn ma? Neutral Mandarin Chinese pronunciation 11.4.3. §Æ #@ (ìœjÕU7jiœ∆wÙI^œ| œÊ™I5fx,2 2gÉn7t·ÅË&ja,2\ 6ﬁx,&ëÅÉ3nåY ^2x,7lw‘c13| 4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2"X^ßwø2"X2œ| 4lÅÉ2lX &ãi2gXœëøU7tåY3d$13|| 5ßÉN&Ëa,2 5ﬁ·wÅN2"X2 4ji0¸jE¥ 7˜øU 4p·AÖ2Qû13|| 5t·am [ljaa2\ 0¸jÕU5ßa,2lja, ç˜AÖ1lX 5ßwøx2|| ^4ß™I &nx,5¿jE~0¸jAÖ2\ 7ﬁ$3g$œëøU7tåY3d$2| œpa5t·a2dX 4p·AÖ2Qû2| 5t·wø2lX 7¿ja3lÅËœa2|| 0¸jPU7swÅ∫2 4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13Œ|| [˜AAÖ^|| œp™I5fx,2 0¸jÕUçßÎ1©i 7ta2 7ÂIc&lÅÉ2 œ¸I©5kwa2 œ¸I©5kwa13|| çk·$1ΩÖ5t·a^|| 5kwa2dX 7¥™ 7li3hÅË2 0n™I3g$4⁄Én^|| [paa2| 4p·AÖ2Qû2 çkwø1dX 0¥™[ÂIIc13|| 7tAÖ 0[ø[ljååY^|| œp™I5fx, 4m™I2lX 4fa2Qû13|| 4ﬁÖœ∆AAÖ2 0ÂjÕU7swÅc3l$13|| 0ji[˜w$$Y^|| 7t·ÅËœja, 0¸jÕU5ﬁ·u&lÅÉ2|| 0⁄$5⁄X⁄2dX Òji7ßÅË13|| nÈ¤œëøU7tåY3d$2|| œma7ßa¥2 0ÂjÕU[paa 4p·AÖ2Qû2 5t·wø2lX 7¿ja3lÅË13|| ì•swøœji2œ| œp™I5fx,2|| 0pu4nx,0Êu Òﬁhx,7⁄Ëc^|| ì7tAÖœ∂ii2œ 4˜ÅÉΩÖ 7t·ÅË&ja,2| œpi5t·a2 çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13|| ¿Ò~iç¿i^∆wÅN 7ﬁ$œßøU œö$Y5kX2ma31|| ¿œwøC7qÅË2 ¿7ﬁ·a¥ Òji7pjEC3ma31|||)

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£International∞ Mandarin Chinese pronunciation 11.4.4. (ìçjøu0ji4hw™i^œ| œp™i5fx˙2 kxn0tha™4ja˙2\ 0ﬁx˙7qa™3na⁄ ^ﬁx˙7lwxn13| 4ß™i2tx çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2ﬁx 5ßwø2ﬁx2œ| 4la™2lx 4ji2kx œqøu7ta⁄3tx13|| 5ßxN&ßa˙2 5ﬁhwaN2ﬁx2 Òji7Âjan 7høu 4phaø2qM13|| 5tham[xn] [ljaa2\ 0Âjøu5ßa˙2lja˙ çhaø1lx 5ßwø2|| ^4ß™i &nx˙5¿ja~ 7Âjaø2\ 7ﬁX3kX œqøu7ta⁄3tx2| œpa5tha2tx 4phaø2qM2| 5thwø2lx 7¿ja3la™œa2|| 0Âjøu7swaN2 4ß™i2tx çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13Œ|| [haaø^|| œp™i5fx˙2 0ÂjøuçßÖ1Âi 7ta2 0Âin4la™ œÂi˙5kwa2 œÂi˙5kwa13|| çkhx1ßÖ5tha^|| 5kwa2tx 7¥™ 7li3ha™2 7n™i3kx 4⁄xn^|| [paa2| 4phaø2qM2 çkwø1tx 0¥™[Âiin13|| 7taø 0mø[ljaa⁄^|| œp™i5fx˙2 4m™i2lx 4fa2qM13|| ÒﬁÖ[haaø2 0Âjøu7swan3lx13|| 0ji[hwxx⁄^|| 0tha™4ja˙ 7Âjøu^ﬁhu4la™2|| 0⁄x5⁄x⁄2tx Òji7ßa™13|| n™iœqøu7ta⁄3tx2|| œma7ßa˙2 0Âjøu[paa 4phaø2qM2 5thwø2lx 7¿ja3la™13|| ìÒswø[jii2œ| œp™i5fx˙2|| 7pu&nx˙7pu Òﬁhx˙7⁄xn^|| ì0taø[tii2œ 4ha™ßÖ 0tha™4ja˙2| œpi5tha2 çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13|| ¿•ni œ¿i5hwaN 0ﬁx[ßøøu œöx⁄5kx2ma31|| ¿œwø2m[xn]7qa™2 ¿7ﬁha˙ Òji7pjam3ma31|||) English pronunciation of Chinese 11.4.5. (ìj‘¨'jI;i&hw™I32œ| b™I'få˙:2 gûn'ThaÙ&jå˙:2\ 5chå˙&tsaÙnÈ &Gå˙l¯'‘:n3 3| 5S™IDÈ 'ph™‘~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3|| ìS¯'‘¨GÈs¯&‘¨Gå2œ| 5laÙlÈ &jIigûts‘¨'ThA;Då3 3|| 'S‘;n&Så˙:2 c¯'A;~GÈ2 5jIiGi&™˙ 'h‘;¨ 'phaÖts¨3 3|| 5ThA:m li'A:2\ G‘¨5Så˙li&å˙ 'haÖlÈ S¯'ø:2|| ^5S™;I nå˙Si'™nGi&aÖ2\ 'c‘;gû ts‘¨'ThA;Då2| phA;5ThA;DÈ 'phaÖts¨2| Th¯5‘¨lÈ Si'A;laÙå2|| Gi&‘¨s¯'πn2 'S™IDÈ 'ph™‘~SÈ 'ThA:3 3Œ|| 'ha;Ö32|| b™I'få˙:2 Gi‘¨'S‘;Gi 'ThA:2 'ch¤n&laÙ2 &G¤˙k¯'A: &G¤˙k¯'A:3 3|| 5kh‘;ZÈ 'ThA:32|| kh¯5A;DÈ 'j™;I 'lIi&haÙ2 &n™Igû'>‘:n32|| 'phA:2| 'phaÖts¨2 'khw‘¨DÈ j™I'ch¤n:3 3|| 5Tha;Ö &m‘¨li'A:32|| b™I5få˙ 'm™IlÈ 'fA;ts¨3 3|| 'ch‘:&haÖ2 ci&‘¨'swπnlå3 3|| &jIi'hw‘:32|| 5Tha;Ù&jå˙ Gi&‘¨'ch¯ulaÙ2|| >È'>‘;DÈ &jIi'Sa;Ù3 3|| &n™Its‘¨'thA;Då2|| mA;'Så˙:2 ci‘¨5phA: 'phaÖts¨2 5Thwø;lÈ Si'A;laÙ3 3|| ì'swø;jIi2œ| b™I5få˙:2|| &ph¯u5nå˙&ph¯u chå˙'>‘:n32|| ì'ThaÖDi2œ 5haÙZÈ 'Tha;Ù&jå˙2| phIi'ThA:2 5ph‘;~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3|| ¿nIi5SIi&hwπn 'ch‘;S‘¨ û'kh‘;må21|| ¿&w‘¨m'tsa;Ù2 ¿5chå˙ &jIipi'™nmå21|||) A short appendix 11.4.6. (6ta0ëM7pAÖ) /6ta6qM6pao/ dàzíbào˚ (5kU,&Ñu) /5ku˙fu/ go«fu (çkung fuÇ, Ô § 11.1.9 for (-2vû)), (0Â·i5kU,) /6qhi5ku˙/ qígo«˚ (7tAÖ) /6tao/ dào˚ (4Âj™ÒÂh¥Än7tAÖ) /•qje•qh¥an6tao/ jiéquándào (çjeet kune doÇ), (5t·ÅÉÒ¸i4Â·¥Än) /6thae•qi•qh¥an/ tàijìquán˚ (5pa0âwa[ﬁaa¥) /5pa6kwa¶ﬁa˙/ baguà˜∑«˘ Besides: (^ﬁU,4kwø[x]) /5ﬁu˙•kwo/ ˆo«guó çChinaÇ˚ (œp™I5Â¤,) /¶pei5qi˙/ B‘iji«, (5t·jEn^öÅm4mÉ˙ ÒâwA¥[ﬁ·aa¥) /5thjan5an•mXn ¶kwa˙¶ﬁha˙/ Tian'anmén Gu∑«>∑«˚ (0sœ5ﬁ·wÅn) /6sM5ﬁhwan/ Sí>uan˚ (Òt·ÅÉ5wÅn) /•thae5wan/ Tái-

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wan˚ (œkwA¥5tU,) /¶kwa˙5tu˙/ Gu∑«do« çCantonÇ˚ (0ßa¥[˜ÅÅË) /6ßa˙¶hae/ Øà«h∑i˘ More: (4mAÖ^ëX5tU,) /•mao•qX5tu˙/ Máo Zédo«˚ (4¥ÄN0⁄ÉN7ﬁAÖ) /•¥an6>Xn6ﬁao/ Yuán Rèn ˆào (traditionally: Yuen Ren ≥ao ]˚ (5ﬁøU ^öÉn4lÅÉ) /5ﬁou 5Xn•lae/ ˆou Enlái˚ (7t*¥ œñjAÖ4p·¤,) /6tX˙ ¶sjao•phi˙/ Dè« Xi∑opì«˚ (ÒlIm5pjAÖ) /•lin 5pjao/ Lìn Biao˚ (•ljPU œËAÖ4Â·i) /•ljou ¶ßao•qhi/ Liù Ø∑oqì˘ Lastly: (5sÅnœli4t·w‘n, -4t·wX⁄) /5san¶li•thwXn, -•twX>/ Sanl`tùn(r)˚ (0ku5kU,) /6ku5ku˙/ Gúgo«˚ (Òﬁ·a,4ﬁ·x,) /•ﬁha˙•ﬁhX˙/ ≥á«>é«˚ (4jiÒ∆X4¥Än) /•ji•hX•¥an/ Yìhéyuán˚ (5ﬁa, 0ji4[øU) /5ﬁa˙ 6ji•mou/ ˆa« Yímóu˚ (œkU¥7li) /¶ku˙6li/ Gœ« Lí˚ (^öøU5ﬁøU) /5ou5ﬁou/ Ou˜ou çEuropeÇ, (Òlw‘n5tw‘n) /•lwXn5twXn/ Lùndun çLondonÇ, (—j¤,4kwø[x]) /5ji˙•kwo/ Yi«guó çEnglandÇ, (5suÒâX4lÅn) /5su•kX•lan/ Sugélán çScotlandÇ, (6ji0∂a7li) /6ji6ta6li/ Yídàlí çItalyÇ, (Òlø[maa) /•lo¶ma/ Lóm∑ çRomeÇ, (5wÙI^~i5sM) /5wei•ni5sM/ Weinìsi çVeniceÇ, (7p™I—∂wø5fÉn) /6pei5two5fXn/ Bèiduofen çBeethovenÇ.

12. Japanese 12.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Japanese, based on that of Tokyo. Our transliteration avoids diacritics for vowels, by indicating long vowels as ii˚ ee˚ aa˚ oo˚ uu (instead of i˚ e˚ a˚ o˚ u˚ or î˚ ê˚ â˚ ô˚ û]˘ As far as consonants are concerned, we prefer the most widely used system (by Japanese authors too: the Hepburn system, with the exception –methodologically considerable– of the choice to use n even before m˚ p˚ b˚ instead of m]. ˛us, the phonemic transcription has the task of indicating the systemic structuration; whereas the phonetic transcription, of course, aims at precision, without which everything would be approximate and –frankly– useless. ˛erefore, we have: (qM) /tM/ _u˚ (FM) /hM/ fu˚ (¿i) /si/ ´i˚ (¿jå) /sja/ ´a˚ (¿jø) /sjo/ ´o˚ (¿jM) /sjM/ ´u˚ (Âi) /ti/ >i˚ (Âªå) /tja/ >a˚ (Âªø) /tjo/ >o˚ (ÂªM) /tjM/ >u˚ (©i, Bi) /zi/ ji˚ (©jå, Bjå) /zja/ ja˚ (©jø, Bjø) /zjo/ jo˚ (©jM, BjM) /zjM/ ju˚ (QM, zM) /zM/ zu˘ But we prefer to use a more çlogicalÇ c> (ÂÂ[ª]) /tt[j]/ (which is less eurocentric than t>]˚ and n (with n' + V or y] (P, õ, ó, «, ô) /ô/ (that some systematically render with â˚ thus resolving in a çgraphonemicÇ way the slight problem of n'˚ before V and y˚ and also that of m˚ before m˚ p˚ b]˘ In addition, we have (˙) /˙/, that we render with g˚ which can alternate with (g) /g/, as we will see below, Ô § 12.2.1.1-2 (others use ä˚ to compensate for the absence of any transcriptions). Length is distinctive both for vowels and consonants. We will mark it by doubling the phonemic and graphemic symbols – /kappoo/ and kappoo˚ respectively. In our phonetic transcriptions, for contoid lengthening it is necessary to add (:): (3kåp'p:øø) (but, as can be seen and heard, after the second element). 12.0.2. In Japanese, even the pitch of the di‡erent morae is distinctive. ˛ey form syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. ˛e example just seen shows that pitch is not marked in spelling, that is in the transliteration, as well as in normal hiragana writing – (3âi'må2˙åœnå, 3âi'må3˙åœnå÷ 3âi'må2˙å&nå) /hiRaù˙aùna÷ -naå (which is added to characters, çideogramsÇ, that were taken from Chinese). Normally, this does not happen in the other type of writing, katakana (3kÄ'tå3kåœnå, 3kÄ'tå2kåœnå) /kataùkaùna/, which is generally used in teaching and scientiﬁc textbooks, in order to çhintÇ at the pronunciation of onomatopeic terms and recent loanwords (more recent than the Chinese ones, which adapted to Japanese), or for stylistic reasons. Instead, in phonotonemic transcriptions, we indicate with Å the point after which the voice goes from a mid pitch to a low one. We call this akusento (Ô § 12.3.2.1), by using the term taken from English [accent]˚ in order to indicate this particular pitch phenomenon. As a matter of fact, it is not properly a stress element, since, in actual fact –as we will see– both pitch patterns and segmental con-

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sistency –or syllabic çweightÇ– determine stress, Ô § 12.3.2.5-14. Indeed, these points may even be more than just one, as can be seen from the two previous examples. However, these points have to be interpreted as possible variants, in a paradigmatic opposition, which is typical of phonemes, that manifest themselves on the syntagmatic axis, as is typical of words in sentences. ˛is means that one must be çchosenÇ, excluding all the others. On the contrary, phonotonetic transcriptions more concretely show the pitch of every syllable in a word, or rhythm group, since there are precise patterns for neutral Japanese (as we will see in detail later on, § 12.3.2.2), even if with variants. As a matter of fact, for the word hiragana we ﬁnd as many as three possibilities (although the last is less favorite and older), as we have just seen, and as many as two for katakana˘ ‹ile, for a word like katana˚ there is just one possible neutral toneme: (3kÄ'tå2nå) /katanaå (/kataùna/ is only regional). We prefer to use ( ) Å (instead of a more popular –in Japan– but less satisfactory (^ Œ) /Œ/), since the marked pitch is low, whereas the unmarked one is mid, not high (as a more traditional notation would lead to think, being based more on a tonemic rather than a tonetic criterion, which considers çhighÇ what is çnon-lowÇ). Vowels 12.1.1. Japanese has only ﬁve vowels, which can be distinctively short or long (or rather doubled, being realized almost as monotimbric diphthongs), and they can combine into di‡erent kinds of sequences (as happens in a slow pronunciation of Spanish in Saavedra or La Habana (ßaa'B™;ƒRa, laa'Ba;na). However, too often Japanese pronunciation is hastily çdescribedÇ as having the vowels of Spanish and the consonants of English. We will see that this is not the case at all. û 12.1 shows the actual articulations of the ﬁve vowels: (i, ™, å, ø, M÷ ii, ™™, aa, øø, MM) /i, e, a, o, M÷ ii, ee, aa, oo, MM/ i˚ e˚ a˚ o˚ u÷ ii˚ ee˚ aa˚ oo˚ uu˘ Since çlongÇ vowels are phonemic sequences (and phonetic geminations), the marker of (short) /a/ (å) is grey, seeing that it is articulated as a less open vocoid (even in stressed syllables). ˛e most problematic Japanese vowel –of course for non-native speakers– is (M) /M/ u˚ which lacks the typical lip rounding of (u) so widespread in many languages. Besides, it is articulated with the tongue dorsum in a fronter position than (u) in most languages; in fact, it is back-central, not simply back. Mostly, the younger generations articulate /M/ in a further front position, as high central –with partial or full rounding, (˚) or (%), respectively– but we always notate (M), since those are youth characteristics which generally change into (M), sooner or later. ˛is peculiarity continues in relative time, without really changing the structure. Obviously, real non-neutral pronunciations are a di‡erent thing. Let us now see some examples for each phoneme: (3i'™) /ieå ie˚ (Çáiô2køø) /giôkoo/ ginkoo˚ (3så'6i3¿ii) /sabisiùi/ sabi´ii÷ (Ç™i2™P) /eieô/ eien˚ ('™3˙åø) /eù˙ao/ egao˚ (3kå'må2t™) /kaRate/ karate÷ (Çåi) /aùi/ ai÷ (çQå¿2¿:i) /zassi/ zas´i˚ (3må'tø) /mato/ mato÷ ('n™3kø) /neùko/ neko˚ (3ø'©i3mM) /okiùRM/ okiru˚ (3ø'tø2kø) /otokoå otoko÷ (3sM'mi) /sMmiå sumi˚ (2åçkM3må) /aùkMma/ akuma˚ (3mM'¿i) /mMsiå mu´i.

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12.1.2. For monomorphemic ei and ou (but the latter is generally transliterated as oo] it is normal to have /ee, oo/ (™™, øø): (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (3sM'i™™) /sMiee/ suiei˚ (Ç™™2©ªøø) /eekjoo/ eikyoo÷ (Çøø3¿jMM) /oùosjMM/ oo´uu÷ (Çøø2gøP) /oogoô/ oogon˚ (Çøø2™P) /ooeô/ ooen˘ Instead, for heteromorphemic ei and ou it is normal to have /ei, oM/ (™i, øM): (Çk™i2tø) /keito/ keito˚ (Çs™i) /seùi/ sei˚ (3å2måÇsøM) /aRasoùM/ arasou˚ (ÇsøM) /soM/ sou˘ û 12.1. Japanese vowels. /i/ (i), /ii/ (ii)

/e/ (™), /ee/ (™™) /a/ (å)

/M/ (M), /MM/ (MM) /o/ (ø), /oo/ (øø) /aa/ (aa)

12.1.3. Besides, neutral Japanese has the peculiarity of presenting vowel devoicing. Indeed, there are two partially di‡erent degrees. ˛e ﬁrst type is complete, and produces voiceless vocoids, that is with no vibration of the vocal folds, as also happens with consonants, such as (voiceless) (s) /s/ in comparison with (voiced) (z) /z/. More appropriately, these voiceless vowels are lenis too (or lenited), ¤ only the arytenoids are open, as for (h). ˛is concerns (i, ¨) between voiceless consonants, or between a voiceless consonant and a pause, when in low-pitched syllables (but occasionally even in non-low-pitch ones, however never on çaccentedÇ morae, after which pitch becomes low), and never in interrogative post-intonemes (which shows a raising of the basic pitch): (3©i'¿i) /kisiå ki´i˚ (3k¨2Âi'6i2mM) /kMtibiRM/ ku>ibiru˚ (3hå'nå2¿i) /hanasiå hana´i˚ (3âi'tø3q¨) /hitoùtM/ hito_u. ˛e second type, or degree, of devoicing is half-voicing, which concerns the other three vowels, but acts less systematically. In fact, we ﬁnd (Ä, ), especially in the ﬁrst syllable of words, when followed by syllables containing the same vowel (more rarely /e/ (É) is devoiced too): (3kÄ'tå2nå) /katanaå katana˚ (3t'kø2mø) /tokoRo/ tokoro÷ (3kÉ'så2nåi) /kesanai/ kesanai˘ ˛e second type again applies, instead, to all vowels before a pause, either short or long, preceded by any consonant. Obviously, /i, M/ become (i, ¨), when they are in the condition of total devoicing, in the context (=é|). ˛erefore, before a pause, the last vocoid is (î, É, Ä, , ¯) (even in diphthongs). It is important to state that this type of devoicing is syntagmatic, which means that we have one vocoid –not two– which begins as voiced and ends as voiceless. So the ﬁrst part is voiced, whereas the second one is voiceless: ((é‚)) – and this is hinted at by the pause context, even if the actual pause is short. Examples relating to this phenomenon can be found in the passage of the Text section, § 12.4. In simpler terms, we could say that the auditory e‡ect is almost that of a very short (h), ((éh)) or a semiapproximant ((éh)). For emphasis, strictly speaking (or for other paraphonic implications connect-

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ed with states of mind), often an actual (éh|) sequence may be heard: (˚Çsøø3d™3s¨œkåh2) /˚soùodesMka,/ Soo desu ka?! Consonants 12.2.0. As we have already said, it is currently thought that Japanese consonants are pronounced as those of English. We have to correct this false information, which is further reinforced by the widespread use of >˚ j˚ ´˚ f˚ _ in transliteration (as we do ourselves, for the sake of simplicity). In fact, >˚ j˚ ´ stand for (Âª÷ ©j, Bj÷ ¿j), with no absorption at all of (j) /j/; besides, f is not (f), but (F). ≈nally, there is («), that –as we will see– is an intense (çsyllabicÇ) provelar semi-nasal: (P) /ô/. ˛e table of û 12.2 gives the consonantal articulations of Japanese which are necessary for an adequate pronunciation of this language. Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms –grouped by manners of articulation– of all contoids treated in the chapters of this handbook (including secondary, occasional, and regional variants), which are needed for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is exposition renders the necessary comparisons among di‡erent languages more useful.

m (n) n (~) (N) ö F p b t d (© á) (q Q) (Â ©) Ô ƒ (6) s z (¿ B) _ ß (F) (â) j /r/ m|(¬) ‹

«

µ

laryngeal

velar

provelar

postpalatal

palatal

bilabialized prepalatal

prepalatal

alveolar

dental

bilabial

û 12.2. Table of Japanese consonants.

˙ k g {(w)}

(ö)

{(∆)}

h {(H)}

Nasals 12.2.1.1. At the beginning of syllables, Japanese has three possible nasal phonemes: /m/ (m) m (bilabial), /n/ (n) n (alveolar; realized, however, as prepalatal, (~), before /i, j/, by assimilation): (3~i'mø2nø) /nimono/ nimono˚ and /˙/ (˙) g (velar): (3å'˙å3k¨) /a˙aùkM/ agaku. But we must add at once that, within words, /˙/ (˙) g (which is sometimes transliterated as ä) can be systematic only in the most neutral type of pronunciation, after /é, ô/. In fact, nowadays the oscillation between /g ˙ ˙/ (g ˙ Ÿ ˙ ˙) is very widespread, but with much ﬂuctuation among people and words. However, no native speaker systematically has only (g) /g/. In (sentence, phrase, lexeme, or grammeme) initial position, (g) /g/ occurs, even for speakers who possess (˙) /˙/;

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for (enclitic) ga we normally ﬁnd (˙å) /˙a/; for ga (conjunction) we have (gå), but (˙å) is possible too, even after a pause. Again, there is (g) /g/ –above all– in loanwords, in onomatopeic expressions, in Chinese reduplicate words, and after certain proclitics (which are obviously heterorganic): ('ái3˙å) /giù˙a/ giga˚ (Çáiô3˙å) /giùô˙a/ ginga; (3mi'ái) /migi/ migi˚ (3må'gM2mø) /magMRo/ maguro˚ (3møôÇg™P) /moôgeùô/ mongen˚ (3må'gø) /magoå mago˘ 12.2.1.2. An even bigger phonic problem regarding nasals arises from a fourth Japanese nasal phoneme, ¤ çmoraic nÇ, /ô/ (sometimes transliterated as â]˚ which always occurs in a syllable coda and has a prevailing articulation as semi-provelar (¤ provelar semi-nasal, with no actual contact between the dorsum and the velum). It is phonetically more energetic, ¤ intense (P). It occurs in three positions: (1) before continuous consonants (¤ those produced with an incomplete occlusion of the oral cavity), that is /s, z÷ j, µ÷ h/ (s ˙ ¿, z ˙ B÷ j, µ÷ h ˙ F ˙ â), (2) before a vowel (which is heterosyllabic, of course), and (3) in ﬁnal position before a pause (or, again, before continuous consonants, or vowels)\ (3™P'såP) /eôsaô/ ensan˚ (Çhå«2¿jå) /haôsja/ han´a˚ (ÇMN2jM) /MôjM/ un'yu˚ (ÇkåP2µå) /kaôµa/ kanwa˚ (3s™™ÇsåP3âi) /seesaùôhi/ seisanhi˚ (Çs™P3âjå3k¨) /seùôhjakM/ senhyaku˚ (3gø's™P3F¨) /goseùôhM/ gosenfu˚ (ÇtåP3i) /taùôi/ tan'i˘ However, by assimilation, /ô/ has other realizations too. In fact, it is articulated as a homorganic nasal (to a following consonant and is always intense): (1) (õ, ó÷ ›, ô), before the correspondent stops /p, b÷ t, d/ (p, b÷ t, d) and /k, g/ (k, ©÷ g, á): (Çsåõ3pø) /saùôpo/ sanpo˚ (Ç¿iõ2bMP) /siôbMô/ ´inbun˚ (ÇMó2t™P) /Môteô/ unten˚ (Çt™N3©i) ((-3£i)) /teùôki/ tenki˚ (Çtåô3kå) /taùôka/ tanka÷ and (2) (ó, «) before dental or bilabialized prepalatal stopstrictive taxophones of /t, z/ (q, Q) and (Â, ©): (3båóÇQåi) /baôzaùi/ banzai˚ (Ç™«2Âªøø) /eôtjoo/ en>oo˚ (Ç~i«2©iP) /niôziô/ ninjin÷ and, naturally, (ô) before the frequent stop(semi){con}strictive variant, (wå, ˜å), of /ka/ (kå) ka\ (Çtåô3wå, -3˜å) /taùôka/ tanka. In addition, we have (3) (õ, ó, «, ô) before nasals, /m, n, ˙/ (m n g) and again (ó) before r /R/ (¬), ™: (ÇMõ3m™™) /Mùômee/ unmei˚ (3åóÇnåi) /aônaùi/ annai˚ (Ç~i«2~i2k¨) /niônikM/ ninniku˚ (Çåô2˙åi, -3˙åi) /aô˙ai, aôù-/ angai˚ and (3åó'¬å2k[¨]3¿i) /aôRakMùsi/ anraku´i˘ Stops 12.2.2.1. Japanese has three (voicing) diphonic pairs for stops: the voiceless are /p, t, k/ (p, t, k) (as already seen, often /k/ is (w, ˜) + /a{a}/; occasionally /t/ becomes (th) + /a{a}, o{o}/; and often /p/ is (ph), in the context between /ô/ and /i{i}, a{a}/): (3kåõ'påi, 3wå-, 3˜å-, -'phåi) /kaôpai/ kanpai˚ ('tå3kø÷ 'thå-) /taùko/ tako˚ (3©ip'p:M) /kippM/ kippu˚ (3µå'tå÷ -'thå) /µataå wata˚ (Çk™õ3pøø) /keùôpoo/ kenpoo (word-initial /p/ only occurs in loanwords and onomatopeic forms). In emphatic speech, there is more çaspirationÇ. ˛e greatest çoddityÇ regards /t/ (t) which, by assimilation, before /i, j/ (i, j) is realized as a bilabialized prepalatal stopstrictive (Â) (transliterated as >˚ even if /j/

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(j) remains; but it is important to note that lip rounding is reduced, by assimilation to /i, j/, but the phone remains di‡erent from (⁄)): (3Âi'Âi) /titiå >i>i˚ (ÇÂªåó2tø) /tjaôto/ >anto˘ In addition –and even more çstrangelyÇ– /t/ (t), before /M/ (M) is realized as a dental stopstrictive (q) (transliterated _): (3qM'Ni) ((-∞i)) /tM˙i/ _ugi˘ Let us observe, once and for all, that the çpalatalÇ realizations of /k, g, ˙/, ¤ (©, á, N), are instead çpostpalatalÇ, or retracted palatal, and can be represented better with çspecialÇ symbols, ((£, 8, ∞)). ˛ey may safely be used (although, more often, (©, á, N) are used), after stating that they are realized in the rear part of their articulatory space, we deﬁne çpostpalatalÇ, which in any case remains distinct from the çprevelarÇ articulation, (´, Ò, ”), typical of most languages before front vowels and (j), as in English (('´hI;i, '>™ÒjÈlå)) {Am. Engl. (('<™ÒjÈl≥))} (('s¤”¤˙)) /'kIi, '<EgjÈlÈ≤, 'sI˙I˙/ key˚ regular˚ singing. ˛us, we have: ((3£ip'p:M, 3mi'8i, 3qM'∞i)) /kippM, migi, tM˙i/ kippu˚ migi˚ _ugi˚ or (3©ip'p:M, 3mi'ái, 3qM'Ni), provided (Ni) remains di‡erent from (~i) (therefore, /ni/ (~i) should not be rendered as if it were ç(Ni), as we ﬁnd in quite a few publications). 12.2.2.2. For /b/ (b) b˚ the variant (6) is more common (¤ a voiced bilabial constrictive), which occurs after vowels, especially in non-slow and non-formal pronunciation; less frequently the corresponding approximant, (B), is used: (3sM'6™3mM) /sMbeùRM/ suberu˚ (Çbåi2kåi) /baikai/ baikai˚ (Ç©jMõ3bi) /zjMùôbi/ junbi˘ ˛e phoneme /d/ (d) d poses no problems, except that genuine Japanese words never have *di, *dyV and *du˚ substituted by ji˚ /zi/ (©i, Bi) jV˚ /zjé/ (©jé, Bjé) and zu˚ /zM/ (QM, zM): (Çdåi3BiP÷ -3©iP) /daùiziô/ daijin˚ (3©jM'zM÷ -'QM) /zjMzMå juzu˘ Its normal distribution, non-emphatic and non-slow, is (éB[j]÷ |©[j], «©[j]). Also /g/ (g) g poses no problems, apart from a complementary (or alternative) distribution with /˙/ (˙) [g˚ which sometimes is transliterated as ä˚ as already said): ('gø3gå3k¨) /goùgakM/ gogaku˘ Word-initial vowels, both at the beginning or in the middle of phrases and sentences, are generally preceded by (ö), especially for emphasis or to separate vowels of adjoining words. ˛is fact will be indicated prevailingly in connected transcriptions, such as those in § 12.4. In addition, especially (but not only) in women's pronunciation, short utterance-ﬁnal vowels, mostly with a suspensive intoneme, can be followed by (ö[æ]) (¤ with or without {an audible} release) as an alternative pronunciation instead of a possible more çnormalÇ partial devoicing of the last vocoid: ('[ö]ø3kÉ|, '[ö]ø3k™[ö]|) /oùke/ oke˚ (3[ö]å'sM|, 3[ö]å'sM[ö]|) /asMå asu˘ In the passage in § 12.4.2.3, a couple of cases are indicated. Constrictives 12.2.3. Japanese has a pair of grooved dental constrictives /s, z/ (s, z) s˚ z˘ ˛e voiceless one, /s/ (s) s˚ is realized as prepalatal round (¿) (with reduced rounding,

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by coarticulation) before i˚ /i/ (i) (transliterated as ´) and before yV˚ /jé/ (jé) (transliterated as ´V˚ although /j/ (j) does not disappear at all): (3¿jå'¿iP) /sjasiô/ ´a´in˘ ˛e corresponding voiced sound, /z/ z˚ is (éz) (slow — careful: (éQ)) and (|Q, óQ). Hence, it is realized as a dental constrictive, between vowels, either in words or sentences, either in normal or fast speech. However, after a pause or /ô/, it is realized as a stopstrictive: (3kå'z™) /kaze/ kaze (slow — careful: (3kå'Q™)), (3QM'åP) /zMaô/ zuan˚ (Çs™ó3Qø) /seùôzo/ senzo˘ In addition, we ﬁnd /z/, before i˚ /i/ (i) (transliterated as j˚ instead of z] and before yV˚ /jé/ (jé) (transliterated as jV˚ although /j/ (j) remains), which is realized as prepalatal rounded (again, with reduced rounding) (éBi, éBjé) (slow — careful: (é©i, é©jé)) and (|©i, |©jé÷ «©i, «©jé): ('FM3Bi) /hMùzi/ fuji˚ (3©i't™P) /ziteô/ jiten˚ (Çkå«2©i) /kaôzi/ kanji˘ Approximants 12.2.4.1. Japanese has three approximants. ˛e ﬁrst, /j/ (j) y˚ is (voiced) palatal: (3så2jø'nå3må, -2må, 3så2jøø'nå3må) /sajonaùRa, -Ra, sajoonaùRa/ sayonara (-yoo-)˚ (3jå2¿i'©i, 3jå¿:'©i) /jasikiå ya´iki˚ (3mi'å2kø) /mijako/ miyako˚ (Çjøø2©ªMM) /jookjMM/ yookyuu˚ (Ç¿jMM3¿i) /sjMùMsi/ ´uu´i˘ As can be seen from the examples, it remains unchanged in word-initial position /òjé/ (òjé), whereas it is realized as a phonetic çzeroÇ, (`), when preceded by i˚ /i/: /ijé/ = (ié). In non-slow speech, the same is possible for /ejé/ = (™é), or (™ãé); thus we will mark (™ãé) (by using a palatal semi-approximant symbol): (3h™'ãå) /hejaå heya. After the voiceless stop phonemes /pjé, tjé, kjé/, /j/ is devoiced, (ª): (pª, Âª, ©ª); but it remains (j) after other consonants (even if voiceless, /s, h/ (¿, â) s˚ h]˚ and without being absorbed by /t, s, z, h/: (Âª, ¿j, Bj, ©j, âj) (in spite of transliterations such as >, ´, j). Sequences such as *yi, *ye do not occur. 12.2.4.2. ˛e second Japanese approximant, /µ/ (µ) w (which occurs in the syllable wa), is (voiced) provelar di‡ering from (w), which is velar rounded; it has the same relationship with /M/ (M) u as happens in English between /w/ and /Uu, U, u/ – (w), (¯u/Uu, ¨, ¯) (('w¤n:, 'khw¤k, 'Th¯;u/-U;u, 'Th¨k, Th¯'IiT) win, quick, two, took, to eat): (3µå'tå2¿i) /µatasi/ wata´i˚ (3kå'µå) /kaµa/ kawa˚ (3M'µå2så) /Mµasa/ uwasa˚ (Çd™P2µå) /deôµa/ denwa˘ ˛e third approximant, /h/ (h) h˚ is voiceless laryngeal; however, in fast pronunciation (h) can become voiced, (H), after vowels. But the most remarkable fact is that, by assimilation, /hM/ is (FM) (a voiceless bilabial approximant, transliterated as fu]˚ and that in /hi, hjé/ (âi, âjé) we have a voiceless palatal approximant. In addition, a voiceless velar approximant, (∆), is very frequent for /ha{a}/: (3hå'høP, 3∆å'HøP) /hahoô/ hahon˚ (3hå'h™P, 3∆å'H™P) /haheô/ hahen˚ (3F¨Çkøø) /hMkoùo/ fukoo˚ (3âi'˙™) /hi˙e/ hige˚ (3âjå'kM) /hjakMå hyaku˘

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£TrillsÇ 12.2.5. Japanese has one phoneme of the çtrillÇ type, which is similar to Spanish r /R/ (R), as in interpretar˚ /inteRpRe'taR/ (in&teRpRe'taR). A realization like this could be su‚cient for a fairly good pronunciation of Japanese, all the more so because that is indeed one of the possible realizations. However, it is better to learn the two most typical articulations given shortly (which are alveolar again), and use them instead of (R). ˛e ﬁrst taxophone of /R/ r is (m), lateral ﬂap (or lateralized ﬂap – Ô û 10.13 in NPT/HPh, besides û 1.14.2-3 in this handbook), which occurs after vowels (even within sentences): (3kå'µå2må) /kaµaRa/ kawara˚ (3™'mi) /eRiå eri (the same phone also occurs in American English before (≥), ™ ('b™m≥) /'bEùÈ≤/ better]˘ A non-lateralized ﬂap is possible too, ([): (3kå'µå2[å) /kaµaRa/ kawara˚ (3™'[i) /eRiå eri (which is the main American phone, in all contexts without (≥), ™ ('b™[i) /'bEùi/ Betty]˘ In Japanese it is better to use (m), although ([, R) are possible too. ˛e second taxophone of /R/ r is (¬), lateral tap (or tapped lateral, û 1.15.3), which occurs after /ô/ (even within sentences) or after pauses: (Çb™ó2¬i) /beùôRi/ benri˚ (3¬M'i2Bi, -2©i) /RMizi/ ruiji˚ (3¬™2©i'¿i, -©:'¿i) /Rekisi/ reki´i˚ (Ç¬øó3¬i) /RoùôRi/ ronri˘ For the sake of simplicity, we could say that the di‡erence between the two realizations consists in di‡erent degrees of lateralization. In fact, (m) is less lateralized, as lateralization is an added, or secondary, component (let us say 1ˇ’); whereas, for (¬) lateralization is prevailing, or primary (let us say 2ˇ’). Occasionally, lateral realizations can be heard as well, (l) (which is still alveolar), and postalveolar ones (of various manners of articulation – respectively: ﬂap, tap, stop, ﬂapped lateral, lateral: (®, e, Ã, », $). Obviously, these phones need not be actively acquired – it is su‚cient to be simply able to recognize them. £Palatalization∞ 12.2.6.1. Before /i, j/, the phonemes /n, ˙÷ t, k, g÷ s÷ z÷ h/ have peculiar but necessary realizations: (~i, Ni) /ni, ˙i/ ni, gi÷ (Âi, ©i, ái) /ti, ki, gi/ >i, ki˚ gi÷ (¿i÷ Bi, |©i, «©i÷ âi) /si÷ zi÷ hi/ ´i÷ ji÷ hi\ (Ç~i«2©jMM) /niôzjMM/ ninjuu˚ (3kå'Ni2mM) /ka˙iRM/ kagiru÷ (3Âi'™) /tieù/ >ie˚ (3©i'™2mM) /kieRM/ kieru˚ (3ái'µå2k¨) /giµåkM/ giwaku÷ (3¿i'må) /simåå ´ima÷ (3å'Bi) /azi/ aji˚ (3©i'mi) /zimiå jimi˚ ('må3âi) /maùhi/ mahi˘ In addition, we ﬁnd: (~j, Nj) /nj, ˙j/ ny, gy÷ (Âª, ©ª, áj) /tj, kj, gj/ >, ky˚ gy÷ (¿j÷ Bj, |©j, «©j÷ âj) /sj÷ zj÷ hj/ ´÷ j÷ hy\ (Ç~jMM2˙å2k¨) /njMM˙akM/ nyuugaku˚ (ÇåN2Njå) /aô˙ja/ angya÷ (ÇÂªMM3Âªø) /tjMùMtjo/ >uu>o˚ (3©ªMMÇ©ªMM3¿jå) /kjMMkjMùMsja/ kyuukyuu´a˚ (ÇájMM2~jMM) /gjMMnjMM/ gyuunyuu÷ (3¿i«Ç~jMM3s™™) /siônjMùMsee/ ´innyuusei÷ (ÇkåN2jMM) /kaôjMM/ kan'yuu˚ (3©iÇdøø3¿jå) /zidoùosja/ jidoo´a˚ (3âjå'kM) /hjakMå hyaku˘ Again, we must remember that, for /k, g, ˙/ + /i, j/, the actual articulation is çpostpalatalÇ ((£, 8, ∞)) (rather than fully palatal, (©, á, N)), and that (j) remains. 12.2.6.2. All other consonants have no çpalatalizationÇ (although certain linguists and phonologists state the contrary, because they carry theorism to an ex-

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cess). So, we regularly have: (émi, |¬i, ó¬i) /Ri/ ri÷ (mi, pi) /mi, pi/ mi, pi÷ (bi, 6i) /bi/ bi. ˛us: (3ø26i'™2mM) /obieRM/ obieru˚ (3mi'nø2mi) /minoRi/ minori˚ (3¬i'sø2k¨) /RisokM/ risoku˚ (Ç¿ió3¬i) /siùôRi/ ´inri˚ (Ç™õ2pi2q¨) /eôpitM/ enpi_u˘ In addition, /0jé/ (0jé) CyV, ChV\ (mj, |¬j, ó¬j) /Rj/ ry÷ (mj, pª) /mj, pj/ my˚ py÷ (bj, 6j) /bj/ by: (Ç™ó3¬jø) /eùôRjo/ enryo˚ (Ç¬jMM) /RjMùM/ ryuu˚ (3¬øp'p:ªå2k¨) /RoppjakM/ roppyaku˚ (Çbjøø) /bjoùo/ byoo˚ (ÇbMõ2mjå2k¨) /bMômjakM/ bunmyaku˚ (3QåiÇmjøø) /zaiRjoùo/ zairyoo˘ £Gairaigo∞ – loanwords 12.2.7. As in any language, even in Japanese, loanwords (of which about 10,000 are of English origin) require some adaptation to the syllable structure (which is based on morae in Japanese) and new phonemic combinations for new sounds. For these typical adaptations, let us consider two examples: (2kMçmå36M) /kMùRabM/ çclubÇ˚ (3s[¨]tøÇmåi3©[i]) /sMtoRaùiki/ ç(workers') strikeÇ˚ (3s[¨]tøÇmåi3k[¨]) /sMtoRaùikM/ ç(baseball) strikeÇ. It is clear how the Japanese syllabic structure changes original monosyllables, with consonant clusters, into actual polysyllables. Among new combinations, in the traditional phonotactics (which is quite rigid and with a fairly limited number of possibilities), the most common are: (Çpaa3ti) /paùat-i/ çpartyÇ˚ (3di'm™3k[¨]3taa) /d-iReùkMtaa/ çdirectorÇ˚ (ÇÂ[ª]™«3©i) /tjeùôzi/ çchangeÇ˚ (Ç©[j]™t3t:ø) /djeùtto/ çjetÇ˚ ('¿[j]™3F[¨]) /sjeùhM/ çchefÇ˚ (3FM'i2mM2mM, -3mM3mM, 'âi-, 'Fµi-, 'Fi-) /hMiRMmM, h[M]iùRMmM/ çﬁlmÇ˚ (Ç¿iõ3Fø3~ii) /siùôhMonii/ çsymphonyÇ˚ (3kåóÇqøø3n™) /kaôtMoùone/ çcanzoneÇ. Some examples clearly show that, besides placing some phones into new combinations, certain sequences are slightly çdenipponizedÇ (as the possible dropping, in these words but not in genuine ones, of (j) after prepalatal {rounded} articulations), becoming slightly more çinternationalÇ. Structures 12.3.0. In particular, we will deal with Japanese akusento, which is determined by pitch (even if it does not lack a stress component), and with intonation, which is superimposed to akusento, slightly changing it. A typical Japanese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice with a paraphonic setting with lowered larynx §æ@, especially for men. Taxophonics 12.3.1.1. ˛e basic things have already been said. In fact, we have seen devoiced vocoids (Ô § 12.1.3), and the few taxophonic characteristics regarding Japanese consonants.

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Gemination 12.3.1.2. We must state that a çmoraÇ coincides with a light syllable, as the one formed by a short vowel (/i, e, a, o, M/), or by /ô/, or else by the ﬁrst element of a geminate consonant (/é-0-0é/ (0-0:)). A half-heavy syllable corresponds to a geminate vowel (/ii, ee, aa, oo, MM/) or a diphthong, or to a short vowel + /ô/ (/éô/) or + the ﬁrst element of a geminate consonant (whose second element belongs to the following syllable, together with its vowel). Instead, a heavy syllable presents a geminate vowel (or diphthong) + /ô/ (/ééô/) or + the ﬁrst element of a geminate consonant: /éé0[-0é]/. As we have seen from various previous examples, in Japanese, vowel length is distinctive, ¤ short and çlongÇ or rather geminate (or doubled) vowels: (sø) /so, soå so (one mora), (Çsøø) /soo, soùo/ soo (two morae); ('tø3©i) /toùki/ toki, (Çtøø3©i) /toùoki/ tooki. Even consonant length is distinctively present, as in (3©i't™) /kite/ (from kiru /kiRM/ çto wearÇ) and /kiteå kite (from kuru /kMRM/ çto comeÇ), both with two morae; (3©it't:™) /kitte[ù]/ (çstampÇ) and ('©it3t:™, 3©it't:™) /kiùtteå kitte (from kiru /kiùRM/ çto cutÇ), both with three morae: /ki-t-te/; (3gå'kå) /gaka/ gaka çartistÇ, (3gåk'k:å) /gakka/ gakka çlessonÇ. From a phonetic point of view, a doubled consonant consists of two morae: the ﬁrst one coincides with the ﬁrst element of the gemination (even if it is actually shorter, (t)), whereas the second one (which is decidedly longer, since actually lengthened, (t:)) constitutes another mora together with the vowel that follows it: (©it-t:™) (although here we have omitted the pitch features given above). In fact, /sotto/ is (3søt't:ø) sotto çsoftlyÇ (while a similar Italian word sotto /'sotto/ çunderÇ is ('sot:to) in an intoneme, or ('sotto) in a preintoneme). Let us observe well –and listen even more carefully to– the di‡erence between (0:0) and (00:). Both for Japanese /sotto/ or for Italian /'sotto/, however, we always have two phono-syllables, even if Japanese /sotto/ has three morae. çMoraicÇ n is always postvocalic, but it can also be followed by a vowel (and it is transliterated as Vn' V˚ in order to make people realize we are dealing with /éôé/ (éP-é), not with VnV /éné/ (é-né), and the same goes for Vn'yV /éôjé/ (éP-jé), which is di‡erent from VnyV /énjé/ (é-~jé)): (Çt™ó3døø) /teùôdoo/ tendoo (Ô, a similar Italian word, tendo /'tEndo/, or ('tEn:do) in an intoneme). However, in Japanese, in addition to /éôé/ (éP-é) and /éné/ (é-né), as in (ÇåP3i) /aùôi/ an'i˚ ('å3~i) /aùni/ ani, we can also have /éô˙é/ (éô-˙é) (which is the combination of /éô/ and /˙é/): (Ç™N2Ni) /eô˙i/ engi and /éôné/ (éó-né) too (combination of /éô/ and /né/): (Çåó2nå) /aôna/ anna˚ (Çå«3~i) /aùôni/ anni (Ô Italian: /'anna, 'anni/ ('an{:}na, 'an{:}ni) Anna, anni]˘ Let us add this –not useless– example: (ÇhøP3jå) /hoùô-ja/ hon'ya˘ ˛erefore, the structure of /ô/ (õ, ó, «, N, ô, P) (one mora) is di‡erent from the geminate one /0-0é/ (two morae, or three including the ﬁrst vowel: /é-0-0é/). However, there is no di‡erence for the counting of morae.

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Japanese £accent∞ – akusento 12.3.2.1. Both phonetic and phonemic transcriptions, as we have seen in the previous section too, indicate that in Japanese akusento is actually a pitch accent. We are not faced with real tones (and tonemes), as in Chinese or cetnamese (languages where even gliding or compound movements on each syllable are prevailing). On the contrary, in Japanese a pattern stretches over whole words, or whole rhythm groups formed by one or more words and by their (strictly connected) enclitic functional syllables (grammatical particles). ˛e term akusento˚ (2å3k[¨]çs™ó3tø) /aùkMseôto/, indicates the point, ¤ the mora, after which pitch is lowered, that is the change from mid to low pitch. In our transcriptions, this is marked by writing Å after the mora in question. Any other morae before the akusento have mid pitch, except for the very ﬁrst one, which is low. If a word or rhythm group has no akusento, the ﬁrst mora is low, whereas all the successive ones are mid; thus without going back to low pitch, according to the pattern that follows shortly (which is limited here to four morae). 12.3.2.2. Only in the following table (which relates to û 12.3), we will show a tonemic (å) and a tonetic pattern (∫, where (3ø) indicates a low-pitched syllable, with the vowel timbre of /o/; whereas (2ø) indicates mid pitch). We consider them to be more useful and convenient, in order to describe and learn/teach. We add pattern (©) that is most recommendable in transliterations which do not ignore akusento, when no transcriptions are used. According to the general principles of not explicitly writing unmarked prosodic elements, in transcriptions, the notation (2) –for mid pitch– could or should be left out. However, it is certainly more useful to show it, all the more so because in actual examples it is much less obtrusive than in the table. In any case, in pattern (∆) it has been left out. For useful comparisons, we will add the most widespread patterns used in transliterations (∂, ™), and the one used in katakana moraic transcription (ƒ) with typically oriental graphic complexities. We also show a phonotonetic pattern turned into a more çorthodoxÇ one (Ÿ), originating from pattern (™). To indicate any mora, here we use (ø), /o/, o˚ $ (the last one to çindicateÇ katakana, in ƒ): å ∫ © ∂ ™ ƒ Ÿ ∆

/oooo/ (3ø2ø2ø2ø) oooo oooo o^ooo $999 (øœøøø) (3øøøø)

/ooooå (3ø2ø2ø2ø) oooò ooooŒ o^oooŒ $990 (øœøøøì) (3øøøø)

/oooùo/ (3ø2ø2ø3ø) ooòo oooŒo o^ooŒo $90$ (øœøøìø) (3øøø3ø)

/ooùoo/ (3ø2ø3ø3ø) oòoo ooŒoo o^oŒoo $0$$ (øœøìøø) (3øø3ø3ø)

/oùooo/ (2ø3ø3ø3ø) òooo oŒooo ^oŒooo 0$$$ (œøìøøø) (ø3ø3ø3ø)

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û 12.3. Pitch-accent patterns.

/oooo/ (3øøøø)

/ooooå (3øøøø)

/oooùo/ (3øøø3ø)

/ooùoo/ (3øø3ø3ø)

/oùooo/ (ø3ø3ø3ø)

12.3.2.3. In type-å tonetic transcriptions, the ﬁrst instance (/oooo/) di‡ers from the second (/ooooå), because for the latter we also indicate the succeeding lowering (which –for obvious reasons– is absent in type-∫ transcriptions). Indeed, it is not objectively present in actual reality, when no words follow (as we will see shortly). In type-© transliterations, the accent could even be acute [ó]˚ but the grave one is to be preferred since it can show actual movements better – in fact, the pitch falls from mid to low. Type-∂ and type-™ transliterations reﬂect the ﬁrst ones in a more abstract way: tonemic and tonetic (å, ∫); even the katakana transliteration –or çtranscriptionÇ– (ƒ) shows the same characteristic, but in a more abstract way in comparison with real transcriptions (å, ∫, Ÿ). We do not use transcriptions of the type /oŒooo/ (^øŒøøø), which some use though (on the wake of type ∂ and type-™ transliterations), because if syllables/morae were really pronounced in a high pitch, instead of the mid one, the result would not be at all convincing. Let us add that in certain textbooks it is possible to ﬁnd both types ∂ and ™ with katakana, and type ƒ with transcriptions. As far as the indication or pitch variants is concerned, as we have done in § 12.0.2, for hiragana ((3âi'må2˙åœnå, 3âi'må3˙åœnå÷ 3âi'må2˙å&nå) /hiRaù˙aùna÷ -naå) and katakana ((3kÄ'tå3kåœnå, 3kÄ'tå2kåœnå) /kataùkaùna/), the most important thing is to indicate them (unless there are usage di‡erences). Our phonotonetic transcription also shows their (wider or narrower) di‡usion and recommendability (which is to be interpreted gradually – from the ﬁrst onwards). On the other hand, in a pronouncing dictionary, which would be worth publishing (using a transliteration, followed by the o‚cial writing and, of course, by an IPA transcription, certainly a phonemic one), preferences could and should be shown, by indicating /hiRa˙aùna, hiRaù˙ana, hiRa˙anaå and /kataùkana, katakaùna/, obviously in a shortened form: /hiRa˙aùna, -Raù-÷ -naå and /kataùkana, -kaù-/. Of course, in an introduction, the precise phonetic and tonetic characteristics would be fully treated, with accurate transcriptions, and with all the necessary vocograms, orograms, and tonograms, Â. 12.3.2.4. A short –mono-moraic– syllable may have two pitch possibilities: /ne/ ne çsound, toneÇ (absence of akusento), /neå ne çrootÇ (presence of akusento), but tonetically they are both çnon-lowÇ (¤ said in a mid pitch: ('n™); the same goes for /ki/ ki çspiritÇ, /kiå ki çtreeÇ, ('©i), and /ha/ ha çleaveÇ, /haå ha çtoothÇ, ('hå). In the case of two morae, we can have (Çsøø) /soùo/ soo çmonkÇ, (Çsøø) /soo/ soo çvilla, innÇ, which are monosyllables realized right as (Çsøø), with half-low pitch – but slightly falling or rising, respectively, since they combine mid and low, or low and mid, pitch (Ô û 12.4).

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In unstressed bimoraic syllables, we ﬁnd (3) (which is low, but raised up to the border with the mid band, as can be seen from the ﬁgure, in comparison with the low pitch of (ç)), as in: (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohii. For two syllables formed by adding –to a monomoraic monosyllable– particles such as (˙å, µå) /˙a, µa/ ga˚ wa˚ which are akusento-less (since their pitch depends on what precedes, even if {when pronounced metalinguistically in isolation} they are obviously ('˙å, 'µå) /˙a, µa/), we obtain respectively: (3n™'˙å) /ne˙a/ ne ga and ('n™3˙å) /neù˙a/ ne ga, (3©i'˙å) /ki˙a/ ki ga and ('©i3˙å) /kiù˙a/ ne ga, (3hå'˙å) /ha˙a/ ha ga and ('hå3µå) /haùµa/ ha wa. It is fundamental not to believe that Japanese has two çtonemesÇ – low and mid. As a matter of fact, akusento is not at all a kind of actual pitch height (as it is not stress either). On the contrary, it is a pitch fall. It is a sort of çcatatonic pointÇ, after which the pitch falls, passing to the low band, as the examples clearly show. But above all, akusento is either present or absent. In English, (the position of) stress is phonemic; whereas it is not so in Japanese. Besides, in English, pitch depends only on intonation (and paraphonics); whereas, in Japanese, pitch is phonemic and fundamental. ˛is language has mid pitch until an akusento comes, after which the pitch becomes low. If no akusento occurs, the pitch remains mid. On the contrary, stress in Japanese is not phonemic and depends on a complex interplay of various factors, such as the presence or absence of akusento, where it is placed, and the syllable structures of the rhythm group. Naturally, the tonograms su‚ciently highlight that, in a rhythm group (or in an isolated word), the ﬁrst mora is low and contrasts with the second one, which is mid; provided that (as we have already seen) the ﬁrst mora is not followed by an akusento, in which case it is mid and what follows is low. Again with two morae, we also have ('hå3nå) /haùna/ hana çedgeÇ, (3hå'nå) /hanaå hana çﬂowerÇ, (3hå'nå) /hana/ hana çnoseÇ (all bisyllabic), as for the monosyllabic examples with a particle seen above. As soon as we add a particle, the e‡ect of akusento is immediately clear: (3n™'µå) /neµa/ ne wa çsound, toneÇ, ('n™3µå) /neùµa/ ne wa çrootÇ, ('hå3nå3˙å) /haùna˙a/ hana ga çedgeÇ, (3hå'nå3˙å) /hanaù˙a/ hana ga çﬂowerÇ, (3hå'nå2˙å) /hana˙a/ hana ga çnoseÇ; and so on. û 12.4. Movements in syllables with morae of di‡erent pitch. £ £

Ç /éé, éô/ = Ç /éùé, éùô/ =

≥ (Çéé, ÇéP),

(3éé, 3éP)

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Stress in Japanese 12.3.2.5. Although stress is not distinctive in Japanese, nevertheless it has a fundamental phonetic function. On the other hand, when acculturated native speakers talk about Japanese accent, they surely mean pitch accent –akusento– which is distinctive. However, in an automatic way, even non-acculturated natives –inevitably– use di‡erent degrees of stress for the various syllables which form sentences. Since stress is not distinctive, it can oscillate and shift in sentences, phrases, and rhythm groups. ˛is can also depend on communicative, pragmatic, paraphonic, and emotional factors. It can even change according to which monosyllables are added. However, we will give some indications about the phenomenon of stress, since we believe it is impossible to continue ignoring it; although this is exactly what still happens. Let us now proceed in order and start from monosyllables, by reﬂecting on the fact that bimoraic words, as the following, are actually monosyllables (in spite of contrary confused indications): (Çii) /iùi/ ii˚ (ÇåM) /aùM/ au˚ (Çbåi) /baùi/ bai˚ (Çkø™) /koùe/ koe˚ (Ç©ªøø) /kjoùo/ kyoo˚ (ÇbMP) /bMùô/ bun˚ (Çøøi) /ooùi/ ooi˚ (Çbaai) /baai/ baai˚ (Çbjøø2iP) /bjooiô/ byooin (this last example has four morae, but not four syllables, rather only one! – Ô English ('g‘¨¤˙, 'gø¨¤˙) /'gOUI˙/ going). In these examples, a stressed syllable is always half-low, but it is slightly falling (since it derives from the combination of mid and low pitch, within the same syllable), except in the last two examples, where it is slightly rising instead (since it derives from the combination of low and mid pitch, tautosyllabically – Ô û 12.4). 12.3.2.6. True problems begin with bisyllables, though. In fact, there are di‡erences between (3å'm™) /ame/ ame çcandyÇ, ('å3m™) /aùme/ ame çrainÇ, and (3n™'mM) /neRM/ neru çto sleepÇ, ('n™3mM) /neùRM/ neru çﬂannelÇ. Bisyllables of two morae, that is with two light syllables, are stressed on the second syllable, unless akusento follows the ﬁrst one, which is then stressed: (3k'kø) /koko/ koko˚ (3å'Bi) /azi/ aji˚ (3M'™) /Me/ ue˚ (3i'M) /iM/ iu˚ (3ø'i) /oi/ oi and (3ø'tø) /otoå oto˚ (3å'¿i) /asiå a´i˚ (3mM'må) /mMRaå mura˚ (3qM'Ni) /tM˙iå _ugi˚ (3¿i'ø) /sioå ´io˚ (3i'™) /ieå ie˘ However, we have: ('dø3m™) /doùRe/ dore˚ ('å3©i) /aùki/ aki˚ ('qM3må) /tMùma/ _uma˚ Â. ˛ree-mora bisyllables are stressed on the heaviest syllables (¤ with more morae than others), although there are some oscillations that we will indicate. It is important to accurately observe akusento di‡erences (which are pitch di‡erences), in phonemic transcriptions, since sometimes they are the only actual di‡erences (but û 12.4 must be carefully considered): (3ø'møi) /omoi/ omoi˚ (3øÇmøi) /omoùi/ omoi˚ (3kå'søø) /kasoo/ kasoo˚ (3kåÇsøø) /kasoùo/ kasoo˚ (3i'måi) /iRai/ irai˚ (2içmåi) /iùRai/ irai˚ (3å'øi) /aoi/ aoi˚ (3åÇøi) /aoùi/ aoi˚ (3¿i'åi) /siai/ ´iai˚ (3©i'nøø) /kinoo/ kinoo˚ (3jø't™™) /jotee/ yotei˚ (2âiç˙åi) /hiù˙ai/ higai (but ('©i3Njøø) /kiù˙joo/ kigyoo]˚ (2kMçmøø) /kMùRoo/ kuroo˚ (2båçm™™) /baùRee/ baree˘ More: (3©iÇkåi) /kikaùi/ kikai˚ (3¿iÇk™P) /sikeùô/ ´iken˚ (2içk™P) /iùkeô/ iken˚ (3i'k™P) /ikeô/ iken˚ (2gøçz™P) /goùzeô/ gozen˚ (2QMç6øP) /zMùboô/ zubon˚ (Çkøø2Bi) /koozi/ kooji˚ (Çkøø3Bi) /koùozi/ kooji˚ (Ç™N2Ni) /eô˙i/ engi˚ (Çåi2då) /aida/ aida˚ (Çhåi3mM) /haùiRM/ hairu˚ (Ç©ªøø3tø) /kjoùoto/ Kyooto˚ (Çkåi2Ni) /kai˙iå kaigi˚ (Çdåi3k¨) /daùi-

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kM/ daiku˚ (Çb™ó3¬i) /beùôRi/ benri˚ (Çmió2nå) /miôna/ minna˚ (3miq'q:M) /miqqMå mit_u˚ (3åk'k:å) /akka/ akka (but: ('åk3k:å) /aùkka/ akka˚ ('¬™¿3¿:jå) /Reùssja/ res´a˚ where pitch prevails on other factors). Generally, in four-mora bisyllables, stress falls on the ﬁrst syllables, unless it is a light one (¤ with just one mora) or there is an akusento after the second one (or if the ﬁrst is only çhalf-heavyÇ, ¤ checked by (=˘=:)): (Ç©jMM26jøø) /zjMMbjoo/ juubyoo˚ (Ç©jMM36jøø) /zjMùMbjoo/ juubyoo˚ (Çhøø2køø) /hookoo/ hookoo˚ (Ç©jMM3døø) /zjMùMdoo/ juudoo˚ (Çkøø2Bjøø) /koozjoo/ koojoo˚ (3køøÇBjøø) /koozjoùo/ koojoo˚ (3tåiÇFMM) /taihMùM/ taifuu˘ More: (Çk™ó2tøø) /keôtoo/ kentoo˚ (3k™óÇtøø) /keôtoùo/ kentoo˚ (Çs™ó2tøø) /seôtoo/ sentoo˚ (Çs™ó3tøø) /seùôtoo/ sentoo˚ (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (Ç©iP2™P) /kiôeô/ kin'en˚ (ÇjMM26iP) /jMMbiô/ yuubin˚ (3gåk'k:øø) /gakkoo/ gakkoo˚ (3tø©'©:ªMM) /tokkjMM/ tokkyuu (but: (ÇbøÂ3Â:ªåP) /boùttjaô/ boc>an]˚ (3™'©iiP) /ekiiô/ ekiin˚ (3¿ip'p:åi, 3¿i-) /sippai/ ´ippai˚ (Çtøø2©ªøø) /tookjoo/ Tookyoo˘ 12.3.2.7. ˛ree-mora trisyllables are stressed on their second syllable, unless it contains a devoiced vowel, which makes stress shift forwards (if an akusento is there) or backwards: (3©i'mø2nø) /kimono/ kimono˚ (3jM'6i2µå) /jMbiµa/ yubiwa˚ (3Âi'kå2må) /tikaRaå >ikara˚ (3F¨'tå2mi) /hMtaRi/ futari˚ (2åçmå3¿i) /aùRasi/ ara´i˘ Besides: (3kå'™2mi) /kaeRiå kaeri˚ (3kå'™2mM) /kaeRM/ kaeru˚ (3kå'™3mM) /kaeùRM/ kaeru (but (Çkå™3mM) /kaùeRM/ kaeru), (2tåçø3mM) /taùoRM/ taoru˚ (3M'™2©i) /Meki/ ueki˚ (3¿i'kå2kM) /sikakMå ´ikaku÷ (2kåçzø3k¨) /kaùzokM/ kazoku (with this pitch pattern, and especially with non-devoiced /i, M/ in the last but one syllable, it is also possible to have: ('dø3Âi3må) /doùtiRa/ do>ira˚ ('d™3˙M3Âi) /deù˙Mti/ degu>i]÷ ('k™3¿i3©i) /keùsiki/ ke´iki˚ ('i3k¨3qM) /iùkMtM/ iku_u˚ ('pø3s¨3tø) /poùsMto/ posuto˚ (3µå2F¨'kM) /µahMkM/ wafuku˚ (3å2¿i'tå) /asitaå a´ita˚ (3jå2k¨'¿jø) /jakMsjo/ yaku´o˘ Four-mora trisyllables are stressed on the ﬁrst syllable, unless it is a light one: (Çkåi2mø2nø) /kaimono/ kaimono˚ (Çøø2så2kå) /oosaka/ Oosaka˚ (Çsaa36i3s¨) /saùabisM/ saabisu˚ (Ç¿jøø2Bi3©i, -2Bi2©i) /sjooziùkiå ´oojiki˚ (Çt™õ2pM2må) /teôpMRa/ tenpura˚ (ÇQ™ô3kø3k¨) /zeùôkokM/ zenkoku˚ (2¿içmøø3tø) /siùRooto/ ´irooto˚ (3bM'qM2zøø) /bMtMzoo/ butuzoo˚ (3s™'©i2~iP) /sekiniô/ sekinin˚ (2åçkå3ÂªåP) /aùkatjaô/ aka>an˚ (3må'™M2mi) /maeMRi/ maeuri˚ (3ø'i2µåi) /oiµai/ oiwai˚ (3M'™2©iå) /Mekija/ uekiya˘ More: (3sM'i2s™P) /sMiseô/ suisen (but: (3øø'å3m™) /ooaùme/ ooame˚ (3¬øø'må3Bi) /Roomaùzi/ roomaji˚ (3kåP'˙ø3F¨) /kaô˙oùhM/ kangofu˚ (3¬øø'sø3k¨, -'sø2kM) /RoosoùkMå roosoku˚ (3©jMM'˙å2qM) /zjMM˙atMå juuga_u˚ where the akusento prevails). Regularly, also: (3~i'høP2˙ø) /nihoô˙o/ Nihongo˚ (3på'Âiô2kø) /patiôko/ pa>inko˘ In compounds, usually we ﬁnd a seemingly irregular pattern, such as: (3båõ'm™2¿i) /baômesi/ banme´i˚ (3gåi'kø2kM) /gaikokM/ gaikoku˚ (3jMM'då2Âi) /jMMdati/ yuuda>i˚ (3håi'zå2må) /haizaRa/ haizara˘ 12.3.2.8. Four-mora quadrisyllables tend to be stressed on the second syllable from the beginning: (3kå'mi2då&må) /kamidama/ kamidama˚ (3nå'˙å2˙M2q¨, -&qM) /na˙a˙MtM/ nagagu_u˚ (3nø'mi2mø&nø) /noRimono/ norimono˚ (3bM'tå2~i&kM, -ik¨) /bMtanikM/ butaniku˚ (3så'kå2nå&jå) /sakanaja/ sakanaya˚ (3¿i'åµå&s™) /siaµase/ ´iawase˚ (3å'm™2mi&kå) /ameRika/ Amerika˚ (3M'mi2©i&m™) /MRikiRe/ urikire˚ (3tø'mø2då&Âi)

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/tomodati/ tomoda>i˚ (3M'k™2q¨2k™, -2qM&k™) /MketMke/ uke_uke˚ (3Âi'kå3¿i3qM, -iœqM) /tikaùsitM/ >ika´i_u˚ (3øô'˙å2k¨3kåi, -2kMœkåi) /oô˙akMùkai/ ongakukai˘ More: (3kM'då3møœnø) /kMdaùmono/ kudamono˚ (3tå'6M3kMœmø) /tabMùkMRo/ tabukuro˚ (3kå'nå2zMœÂi) /kanazMùti/ kanazuti˚ (3âi'mø2¿i&må) /hiRosima/ Hiro´ima˚ (3hå'nå2¿i2t™, -i&t™) /hanasiteå hana´ite˚ (3tå'nø2¿i&mi) /tanosimi/ tano´imi˚ (3kå'n™2mø&Âi) /kanemotiå kanemo>i˚ (3i'n™2mM&mi) /inemMRiå inemuri˚ (2©i't™P2¿jå&jå) /ziteôsjaja/ jiten´aya˚ (3høP's™2©i3Âi) /hoôsekiùti/ honseki>i˘ However, stress generally falls on the last but one syllable, when it is a heavy one, or is followed by an akusento, or when the second one contains a devoiced vowel. Mainly, this also happens with ﬁnal -_u˚ -ri or in obvious compounds: (œå2så'n™36øø) /asaneùboo/ asaneboo˚ (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ (œå2mMÇ6åi3tø) /aRMbaùito/ arubaito˚ (œg™2qMÇjøø36i) /getMjoùobi/ ge_uyoobi˚ (œmø2kMÇjøø36i) /mokMjoùobi/ mokuyoobi˚ (&bi3mMçdiô3˙M) /biùRMdiô˙M/ birudingu˚ (œ~i2µå'kaa3m™) /niµakaaùme/ niwakaame˚ (œÂªø2køÇm™™3tø) /tjokoReùeto/ >okoreeto˚ (œÂªMM2˙ø'kM2˙ø) /tjMM˙okM˙o/ >uugokugo (but (3gåi'kø2kM&˙ø) /gaikokM˙o/ gaikokugo]˘ In addition: (3ø2F¨'kM2mø, œø2FM-) /ohMkMRo/ ofukuro˚ (3jå2k¨'sø2kM, œjå2kM-) /jakMsokM/ yakusoku˚ (3kå2©i'kå2tå, œkå2©i-, -3tå) /kakikataù, -ùta/ kakikata˚ (3jø2q¨'kå2dø, œjø2qM-) /jotMkado/ yo_ukado˚ (œtø2¿i'ø2mi) /tosijoRiå to´iyori˚ (œkå2mi'nå2mi, -3mi) /kaminaùRiå kaminari˚ (œså2måi'˙™2qM, -2q¨) /saRai˙etM/ saraige_u˚ (œhå2Âi'˙å2qM) /hati˙atMå hatiga_u˚ (œ¿i2Âi'˙å2qM, œ¿i-) /siti˙atMå ´itiga_u˚ (œ©jMM2~i'˙å2qM) /zjMMni˙atMå juuniga_u˚ (œå2så'm™2¿i) /asamesi/ asame´i˚ (œi2mM'm™2¿i) /iRMmesi/ irume´i˚ (œøó2nåçnø3kø) /oônaùnoko/ onnanoko˚ (œd™N2©iÇgåi3¿jå, -Ç˙åi-) /deôkigaisja, -˙ai-/ denkigai´a˚ (œâi2©i'då2¿i, 3âi-) /hikidasi/ hikida´i˚ (œkå2¿i'då2¿i) /kasidasi/ ka´ida´i˚ (œhå2tå'mi2Âi) /hatamiti/ hatami>i˘ 12.3.2.9. In ﬁve-syllable words, which are generally not simple words, stress decidedly tends to fall on the last but one syllable, except for particular compounding or devoicing: (3kå&tå2zM'k™3mM) /katazMkeùRM/ katazukeru˚ (3i&nå26içkå3mi) /inabiùkaRi/ inabikari˚ (3ø&tø2køçnø3kø) /otokoùnoko/ otokonoko˚ (3n™&Bi2måçµå3¿i) /nezimaùµasi/ nejimawa´i˚ (3jå&må2nøç6ø3mi) /jamanoùboRi/ yamanobori˚ (3ø&kM2mi'mø2nø) /okMRimono/ okurimono˚ (3ø&©ªå2kM'så2må, œø2©ªå2k¨-) /okjakMsama/ okyakusama˚ (3ø&t™3qMçdåi3såP) /oteùtMdaisaô/ ote_udaisan˚ (3å&m™2mi'kå3BiP, -3©iP) /ameRika ùziô/ amerikajin˘ More: (3s™ó&tå2kM'mø2nø) /seôtakMmono/ sentakumono˚ (3i&Âi2~i'Âi2BjMM) /itinitizjMM/ i>ini>ijuu˚ (œd™N2©i2s¨'tøø36M) /deôkisMtooùbM/ denki-sutoobu˚ (œÂªMM2˙ø2kMÇmjøø3mi) /tjMM˙okMRjoùoRi/ >uugokuryoori˚ (œkøø2då«Ç©jMM3tå3k¨) /koodaôzjMùMtakM/ koodan-juutaku˚ (œdåõ2bøø's™3qM36i, çdåõ2bøø 's-) /daôbooseùtMbi/ danboo-se_ubi˚ (œø2må'µå2mi&såP) /omaùµaRisaô/ omawarisan˚ (3~jMM&˙å2kM2¿iÇk™P) /njMM˙akMsikeùô/ nyuugaku-´iken˚ (œmå2ÂiÇåi2¿i3qM, -i3q¨) /matiaùisitM/ ma>iai´i_u˘ 12.3.2.10. In verbs in -ru generally stress is on the preceding syllable and akusento immediately after it: (œø26ø'™3mM) /oboeùRM/ oboeru˚ (œkåô2˙å'™3mM) /kaô˙aeùRM/ kangaeru˚ (œå2qM'må3mM) /atMmaùRM/ a_umaru˚ (œ¿i2må'6™3mM) /siRabeùRM/ ´iraberu˚

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(œkø2¿i2kå'k™3mM) /kosikakeùRM/ ko´ikakeru÷ but (3å'må2µå3s¨) /aRaµaùsM/ arawasu˚ (3Âi'kå2zå3k¨) /tikazaùkM/ >ikazaku˘ Usually, adjectives are stressed on the last, or last but one, syllable: (3å&tå2tåÇkåi) /atatakaùi/ atatakai˚ (œmM2¿iåÇqMi) /mMsiatMùi/ mu´ia_ui˚ (3jå&kå2måÇ¿ii) /jakamasiùi/ yakama´ii˚ (3å'6M2nåi) /abMnai/ abunai˚ (Çøi2¿ii) /oisii/ oi´ii˚ (Ç©ii2møi) /kiiRoi/ kiiroi˚ (3å'kå2mMi) /akaRMi/ akarui˚ (3qM'm™2tåi) /tMmetai/ _umetai÷ but there are even cases like: (3mM'zM2kå&¿ii) /mMzMkasii/ muzuka´ii˚ (3å'tå2måœ¿ii) /ataRasiùi/ atara´ii˚ (3ø'mø2¿iœmøi) /omosiRoùi/ omo´iroi˚ (3mM'¿iå2qMi) /mMsiatMùi/ mu´ia_ui˚ (3m™ó'døø2k¨œsåi) /meôdookMsaùi/ mendookusai˘ In iterated forms stress and akusento belong to the ﬁrst syllable: ('mM3zMœmM3zM) /mMùzMmMzM/ muzumuzu˚ ('µå3zåœµå3zå) /µaùzaµaza/ wazawaza˘ ≈nally, here are some akusento-less forms: (3så'µåRM, 3qM'˙åRM, M'k™RM) /saµaRM, tM˙aRM, MkeRM/ sawaru˚ _ugaru˚ ukeru˘ 12.3.2.11. Since there are no real rules for akusento and stress in compounds, especially for less long ones, we just give some examples, to rouse reﬂection (also on the paramount importance that a real pronouncing dictionary would have {by using IPA} for akusento˚ stress, segments, devoicing, Â): (3FMjM'˙™3¿[i]3©i) /hMjM˙eùsiki/ huyuge´iki˚ from (3FM'jM) /hMjMå huyu˚ ('k™3¿[i]3©i) /keùsiki/ ke´iki˘ Other examples: (3jM&~jMM2kM'då3mø3nø) /jMnjMMkMdaùmono/ yunyuukudamono˚ from (3jM'~jMM) /jMnjMM/ yunyuu˚ (3kM'då3mø3nø) /kMdaùmono/ kudamono÷ and more: (œjMM2jå2k™'zø3må) /jMMjakezoùRa/ yuuyakezora˚ from (ÇjMM2jå2k™) /jMMjake/ yuuyake˚ ('sø3må) /soùRa/ sora÷ (3så&tø2˙øçkø3mø) /sato˙oùkoRo/ satogokoro˚ from (3så'tø) /sato/ sato˚ (3k'kø3mø) /kokoùRo/ kokoro. Furthermore: (3~i'˙M3mM3må) /ni˙MùRMma/ niguruma˚ from ('~i) /niå ni˚ (3kM'mM2må) /kMRMma/ kuruma÷ (3å'så3kå3z™) /asaùkaze/ asakase˚ from ('å3så) /aùsa/ asa˚ (3kå'z™) /kaze/ kaze÷ (3iP2s[¨]&tåó2tøÇkøø3âii) /iôsMtaôtokoùohii/ insutantokoohi˚ from (3iP2s[¨]Çtåó3tø) /iôsMtaùôto/ insutanto˚ (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohi÷ (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ from (Çgåi2kø2k¨) /gaikokM/ gaikoku˚ (Ç©iP) /ziùô/ jin÷ (œgåi2kø&kM2BióÇtøø3mø3k¨, -2©ió-) /gaikokMziôtoùoRokM/ gaikokujin-tooroku˚ from (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ (Çtøø2mø2k¨) /tooRokM/ tooroku˘ 12.3.2.12. In forming Japanese sentences, some modiﬁcations are introduced regarding akusento (and somehow for rhythm-group stress too). Let us consider the following examples, in order to see how they work, by carefully observing the pitch of the syllables in the second rhythm group. In fact, normally, the rhythm groups that are not separated by pauses, after a rhythm group with akusento, remain mid-pitched as the previous one. Here are some sentences: (3µå'tå2k¨2¿i&nø 2nå'må™) /µatakMsino namae/ wataku´i no namae (in (3nå'må™) /namae/, na- becomes (2nå), by pitch assimilation to the preceeding syllable), ('bø3kMœnø 3s™Pçs™™) /boùkMno seôseùe/ boku no sensei (in (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/, -see becomes low), (3~i'hø« 'Âi3zM) /nihoô tiùzM/ Nihon >izu (without modiﬁcations). More sentences: (2åçså36åP) /aùsa baô/ asa ban (from ('å3så) /aùsa/ and (ÇbåP) /baô/, by unifying everything into one rhythm group and lowering ban]˚ (3jå'så2¿ii ÇhøP)

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/jasasiùi hoùô/ yasa´ii hon (without modiﬁcations), (Çii 3Biç6i3©i, 3©i-) /iùi zibiki/ ii jibiki (from (3©i'6i2©i) /zibikiå, with lowering of -biki]˚ (3sM'zM3¿ii 3h™çãå) /sMzM¿iùi hejaå suzu´ii heya (in (3h™'ãå) /hejaå, -ya is lowered), (3s™PÇs™™œd™3s¨, -s:, -s) /seôseùe desM/ sensei desu (with stress reduction on ('d™3s¨, -s:, -s) /deùsM/ and lowering of de-]˘ More: (3tø't™2mø 2ø'mø2¿iœmøi çhøP) /totemo omosiRoùi hoùô/ totemo omo´iroi hon (from (3ø'mø2¿iœmøi), with raising of o- and lowering of hon]˚ (3âi'Bjøø2~i 2F¨&kM2zå'qM2nå 'møó2dåi) /hizjooni hMkMzatMna moôdai/ hijoo ni fukuza_una mondai (with raising of fu- and mon-]˚ ('møt3t:ø 3jåçsMi çhøP) /moùtto jasMùi hoùô/ motto yasui hon (with lowering of -sui and hon]˚ (3ø'hå2jøø 2gø'zåi2må3s¨, -s:, -s) /ohajoo gozaimaùsM/ ohayoo gozaimasu (with raising of go-]˘ Some others: (3å'mi3˙å3tøø 3gøçzåi3s¨, -s:, -s) /aRiù˙atoo gozaimaùsM/ arigatoo gozaimasu (with lowering of -zaima-\ everything is low, except -ri-]˚ (Çdøø3mø 3åçmi3˙å3tøø 3gøçzåi3må3s¨, -s:, -s) /doùomo aRiù˙atoo gozaimaùsM/ doomo arigatoo gozaimasu (with lowering of -ri- and -zaima-\ everything is low, except doo-˚ which is half-low). In addition: (çM2Âi 'kå2må '™3©i çmå3d™| 3å&mM2©i'må3s¨, -s:, -s) (in the case of fast speech with no breaks: (çM2Âi 'kå2må '™3©i çmå3d™ 3åœmM3©içmå3s¨, -s:, -s); but, separately, word by word: (3M'Âi, 3kå'må, '™3©i, 'må3d™, 3å&mM©i'må3s¨, -s:, -s)} /Mti kaRa eùki maùde aRMki maùsM/ u>i kara eki made arukimasu (please, note the stress change in the ﬁrst rhythm groups, mainly due to /i/ devoicing). Also: ('~i3Bi&kå3må\ Çså«3©i çmå3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i\ 3içmå3s¨, -s:, -s)÷ possibly with fewer breaks, in less slow speech: ('~i3Biœkå3må çså«3©i çmå3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i 3içmå3s¨, -s:, -s). On the other hand, in separate rhythm groups, we have: ('~i3Bi, 3kå'må, Çså«3©i, 'må3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i, 3i'må3s¨, -s:, -s) (with modiﬁcations on kara]˚ /niùzi kaRa saùôzi maùde ziùmMsjoni imaùsM/ niji kara sanji made jimu´o ni imasu÷ ('jø3Bi 3måçd™3~i\ 3k'kø2~i 2©i't™ 2kM2dåÇsåi) (slower: ('jø3Bi 3måçd™3~i\ 3kø'kø2~i\ 2©i't™ 2kM2dåÇsåi); on the other hand, in separate rhythm groups, we have: ('jø3Bi, 3måçd™3~i, 3kø'kø~i, 3©i't™, 3kM2dåÇsåi), with stress modiﬁcations on made ni˚ in comparison with made]˚ /joùzi maùdeni kokoni kite kMdasaùi/ yoji made ni koko ni kite kudasai˘ 12.3.2.13. Here are further examples illustrating stress modiﬁcations, in forming rhythm groups: (2måçd™3~i–µå) /maùdeniµa/ made ni wa˚ (3ø'©i2nå2µå) /okinaµa/ Okinawa˚ but (3ø&©i2nå'µå2µå) /okinaµaµa/ Okinawa wa… Obviously, it is not always easy to readily distinguish between the e‡ect of pitch prominence and stress prominence. On the contrary, when mid pitch coincides with stress, prominence is quite clear. If all this combines with a fairly heavy syllable, prominence is even more evident. In any case, if several nearby syllables share the same characteristics, it becomes less easy to distinguish clearly. However, pitch remains the most important element, being the distinctive one, though undoubtedly stress has a considerable role. It is important to ﬁnd an appropriate balance between the elements, although oscillations are quite possible and normal, indeed. In an example like (œtå26™'må3¿i3tåœkå31) /¿tabemaùsitaka?/ tabema´ita ka?˚ the low pitch and secondary stress on the syllable ta- and the mid pitch and weak stress on

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-be- may give a similar prominence e‡ect. But, of course, it is inferior to that of the syllable -ma-˚ and decidedly inferior to that of ta˚ and even less so than in the syllable -´i-˚ with devoicing up to the loss of syllabicity: (3¿i, 3¿:, 3¿). In the case of loanwords, the interplay of pitch and stress (as well as of syllabic weight and akusento placing) often undergoes some hierarchic reversal, by moving closer to the original (stress) pattern: (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohii (çco‡eeÇ), (2høçt™3mM) /hoùteRM/ hoteru (çhotelÇ). 12.3.2.14. Obviously, in current speech, some reduction phenomena occur in Japanese too. Here we will consider some of the most çnormalÇ ones. ˛e particles no and ni˚ in particular, are often reduced to /ô/: ('kM3mMó 'nå3må) /kMùRMno naùRa/ kuru no nara˚ (ç©i2miP 2M'Âi) /kimino Mtiå kimi no u>i˚ (Çg™›2©ió 'nå3mM) /geùôkini naùRM/ genki ni naru˘ In the negative, forms with -r-V-nai˚ change /Ré/ into /ô/: (3¿ió'nåi) /siRanai/ ´iranai˚ (3ø2kMó'nåi) /okMRenai/ okurenai˘ More frequently, there can even be contractions such as: (2miçÂªåM) /miùte simaM/ mite ´imau˚ (2jø«ç©jåM) /joùôde simaM/ yonde ´imau˘ Intonation 12.3.3.1. ‹en actual Japanese sentences are pronounced, the pitch of their single rhythm groups is partially modiﬁed by intonation (too), which is added with its characteristics, according to the four types of intoneme. û 12.5 shows the Japanese preintonemes and intonemes, with their characteristics. Every preintoneme forces the pitch of its individual tones, by canalizing them into the indicated shapes (which, in more sophisticated notations than necessary, could even be marked with small rings, as we will see shortly). A normal preintoneme is compressed (/ / ( ), ((” ))), the interrogative is raised (/¿ / (¿ ), ((» ))), whereas the imperative one is falling (/¡ / (¡ ), ((»’ ))); ﬁnally, an emphatic preintoneme is non-compressed, (/˚ / (˚ ), ((ˇ ))). Again in û 12.5 it is possible to see the modiﬁcations of the intonemes: the conclusive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the suspensive is extended (/÷/ (^)), whereas the continuative intoneme is compressed (/,/ (2)). û 12.6 shows the modiﬁcations undergone by light and heavy syllables (on two morae of di‡erent pitch {Ô û 12.4}), when the four Japanese intonemes superimû 12.5. Japanese preintonemes and intonemes. / / ( ) ((” ))

/./ (13)

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» ))

/?/ (31)

/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ ))

/÷/ (^)

/˚ / (˚ ) ((ˇ ))

/,/ (2)

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pose on them. Mainly the last syllable of an intoneme undergoes these changes, whether it be stressed (as in these examples) or unstressed. As can be seen, a conclusive intoneme makes the last syllable lower and slightly falling; an interrogative one makes it raise by giving it a clear rising movement. A suspensive intoneme practically does not modify anything; whereas, a continuative one slightly compresses it towards the mid band. Before moving to the illustrastive examples, let us observe that, in Japanese, questions are made by adding the particle ka (kå) /ka/ at the end, and using an interrogative intoneme with total questions, but a conclusive (or a continuative) one with partial questions. ˛is is the most recommedable and common pattern. However, since ka is very recognizable, as an interrogative element, a simple conclusive intoneme can be used, even with total questions, or an interrogative one even with partial questions. Lastly, above all colloquially, ka need not necessarily be used, in which case then an interrogative intoneme is necessary with total questions. Lastly, here are three examples to illustrate the most recommendable use of marked intonemes: /./: (3µå&kå2mi2måÇs™óœd™3¿i3tå13) /µakaRimaseùô desita./ Wakarimasen desita. /?/: (¿3µå&kå2mi'må3¿i3tå3kå31) /¿µakaRimaùsitaka?/ Wakarimasita ka? /÷/: (3FM'jM çdåt3t:å 3k™çm™3døö^ 3i2©i'må3¿i3tå13) /hMjMù datta keRedo÷ ikimaùsita./ Fuyu datta keredo, ikimasita. Typically, Japanese has a peculiar paraphonic setting, with lowered larynx §æ@, mostly for men. û 12.6. Pitch movements for light or heavy Japanese syllables, with the four intonemes. /çé/ =

(çé13)

(çé31)

(çé^)

(çé2)

/'é/ =

('é13)

('é31)

('é^)

('é2)

/çéé/ =

(Çéé13)

(Çéé31)

(Çéé^)

(Çéé2)

/'éé/ =

(Çéé13)

(Çéé31)

(Çéé^)

(Çéé13)

Text 12.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Japanese pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the ﬁrst step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Japanese translation follows, in its neutral phonotonetic and phonotonemic versions, since it is important in this language to see its akusento and the actual phonotonetic rendering, to make useful reﬂections. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Japanese, by neutral British speakers, ﬂuent in Japanese (after prolonged

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contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given ﬁrst. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Japanese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Japanese, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Japanese pronunciation (of English) 12.4.1. (3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 3öåó2Qå'såP2 3µå2©i2s¨'pªMM2ÂiP 'µi2Âi 3µå2zå2s¨2t¯'mø˙2gÄ13| 'µ™P 3å2t¯'må26M2må2 'k™™2mM 'møP2 ì'må2p¨2t 3i2nå'µøø2mM 3k¨'møø2k¨13œ| 3Q™2öå2˙M'mii2d2\ 3Qå2t¯2zå'µåP 3FM'hå2mM2s¨2t 3så2k¨'¿ii2©i2dø2 3öiõ'm™™2©iP 3zå2t¯'må26M2må2 Çt™™2©i 2âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨ 'öø2F¨^| '¿ªM2dø 36i2kåP'¿i2då2dø 3s¨2t¯'mø˙2gå 3zå«2©i'å2zÄ13|| ÇQ™ó2 3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 36M'mMM2 3å2zM'haa2dø2 3å2Bi'kM2d13| Ç6åt2t:ø 3zå'møø 3âi26M'mM¯^| 3Qå'møø 3k¨'møø2sM2mi2 Ç©i2dø2zå2t¯'må26M2mÄ2\ Çhøø2mM2dø 3âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨ 3å'måMó2©i2m¯13| ì3åó2då2t¯'maa2s¨2t2œ\ 3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 Çg™™ '6åp2p:¯ 2Biå't™õ2p¨2t13|| ìÇQ™ó2œ 3Qå'såP '¿ªøP 'åM2t13 ìÇµøø2mM2mî13œ| 3öå«2©i'mii2©jå2t¯2mî2\ ˚3Qå2t¯'må26M2må çqM2k¯ 'ø2F¯13 ˚3âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨13|| ì3öåó'søø2œ 3zå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 3µå2zå26M'måi2Bi2dø 3qM2kåP'h™2s¨2| 3Qå2tå'såó13 3µå2zå2s¨2t¯'mø˙2gå13 ì3å26å2zå'qM¯13œ|| ¿–©i2BjM'måi2©i31 ¿3zå2s¨'tøø2mî2| ¿3©jM'µøó 3tå'âiå2mi 3qM'˙™P31|||) Japanese text 12.4.2. Arutoki Kitakaze to Taiyoo ga >ikara-kurabe o ´ima´ita. Tabibito no gaitoo o nugaseta hoo ga ka>i to yuu koto ni kimete, mazu Kitakaze kara hajimema´ita. Kitakaze wa, èNani, hitomakuri ni ´ite miseyoo¶, to, hage´iku fukitatema´ita. Suru to tabibito wa, Kitakaze ga fukeba fuku hodo gaitoo o ´ikkari to karada ni kut_ukema´ita. Kondo wa Taiyoo no ban ni narima´ita. Taiyoo wa kumo no aida kara yasa´ii kao da´ite, atatakana hikari o okurima´ita. Tabibito wa dandan yoi kokoromo>i ni natte, ´imai ni wa gaitoo o nugima´ita. Soko de Kitakaze no make ni narima´ita. Kono hana´i omo´irokatta? Moo i>ido yomu?

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Phonotonemic transcription 12.4.3. /aùRMtoki,| kitakazeto taùijoo˙a, tikaRakMùRabeo simaùsita.|| tabibitono gaitooo,\ nM˙aùseta hoùo˙a,\ katiù tojMM, kotoùni kimete.|| maùzM,| kitakaze kaRa, hazimemaùsita.|| kitakazeµa÷| ^naùni,| hitomaùkMRini site, misejoùo,Œ| to÷| ha˙eùsikM, hMkitatemaùsita.|| sMRMto,\ tabibitoµa÷| kitakaze˙a hMkeùba,\ hMkMùhodo÷| gaitooo,\ sikkaùRito,\ kaRadani kMttMkemaùsita.|| koùôdoµa, taùijoono baùôni, naRimaùsita.|| taùijooµa,\ kMùmono aida kaRa. jasasii÷\ kaoo daùsite,| atataùkana hikaRiùo, okMRimaùsita.|| tabibitoµa,| daôdaô "joùi,\ kokoRomotini naùtte.|| simainiùµa,\ gaitooo nM˙imaùsita.|| sokode÷\ kitakazeno,\ makeni naRimaùsita.|| ¿kono hanasiù, ¿omosiùRokatta?| ¿moùo itidoù, ¿joùmM?|||/ Phonotonetic transcription 12.4.4. (2åçmM3tø3©i2| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2tø 2tåiçøø3˙å2 3Âi&kå2må'kM3må36™œø 3¿i'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3tå'6i26i&tø2nø Çgåi2tø;2\ 3nM'˙å3s™3tå Çhøø3˙Ä2\ 3kå2Âiçtø3jMM2 3kø'tø3~i 3©i'm™2tÉ2|| 'må3z¯2| 3©i'tå2kå&z™ 2kå'må2 3hå&Bi2m™'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2µÄ^| ^'nå3~î2| 3âi&tø2måçkM3mi3~i3¿i3t™2 3mi's™3ãø2Œ| 'tøö^|| 3hå'˙™3¿i3kM2 3F¨&©i2tå2t™'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3sM'mM2t2\ 3tå'6i26i&tø2µÄ^| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2˙å 2F¨'k™36Ä2\ 3F¨'kM3høœdøö^| Çgåi2tø;2\ 3¿ik2k:åçmi3t2\ 3kå'må2då&~i 3k¨q&q:M2k™'må2¿i3tÄ13|| Çkøó2dø2µå2 Çtåi3øø3nø Çbå«3~i2 3nå2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13| 2tåiçøø3µÄ2\ 2kMçmø3nø Çåi2då 2kå'må13 3jå'så2¿iî^\ 3kå'øø2 'då3¿i3tÉ2| 3å&tå2tåçkå3nå 3âi'kå2miœø2 3öø&kM2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3tå'6i26i&tø2µÄ2| Çdåó2dåP ∞jøî2\ 3k&kø2mø2mø'Âi2~i 'nåt3t:É13|| 3¿i'måi2~i3µÄ2\ Çgåi2tø;ø 3nM2Ni'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3s2kø'dÉ^\ 3©i&tå2kå2z™'n2\ 3må'k™2~i œnå2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13|| ¿3kø'nø 2hå'nå2¿i2 ¿3ø&mø2¿i2møçkåt3t:Ä31| ¿Çmøø 3i2Âi'd2 ¿'jø3m¯31|||) English pronunciation of Japanese 12.4.5. (È'>¯uTû&kIi1| &khIiTûkû5z™IT‘¨ taÙ'j‘¨˙gû2 cIi&kå>û5kh¨È>Èb™I&j‘¨ S¤'måStå3 3|| ThÈ5bIib¤&T‘¨n‘¨ 'gaÙT‘¨2\ n¨˙5gåsÈTÈ 'h‘¨˙gå2\ &khåcÈ'Th‘¨j¯u2 kû5Th‘¨ni k¤'m™T™I2|| 'måz¯u2| k¤5Thåkûz™I kû'>A: hÈ&Z¤mÈ'måSTå3 3|| kh¤&Tåkû'z™wå32| ^'nA;ni2| h¤&T‘¨mû'kh¨È>¤n¤S&T™I2 m¤'s™I&j‘¨2Œ| 'Th‘;¨32|| hå˙'g™Sk¯u2 f¯u&k¤TåTÈ'måSTå3 3|| sÈ'>¯uT‘¨2\ ThÈ'bIib¤&T‘¨å32| kh¤&Tåkû5z™˙gû f¨'kh™bå2\ f¨'kh¯uhÈ&D‘¨32| 'gaÙT‘¨2\ S¤kû'>IiT‘¨2\ khû5>A;DÈ&nIi k¨&ts¯ukû'måSTå3 3|| 'khØnD‘¨È2 5ThaÙ‘¨n‘¨ 'bån-i2 &nA;>¤'måSTå3 3| ThaÙ'j‘¨å2\ kû5m‘¨n‘¨ 'aÙDû kû'>A:3 3 jÈ'sA;SIi32\ khA;'‘;¨2 'DåST™I2| È&TåTû5khA;nû h¤'khå>i&‘¨2 û&k¨È>¤'måSTå3 3|| ThÈ'bIib¤&T‘¨å2| 5DånDå˙ 'jø;Ù2\ khû&kø;>‘¨mÈ5ch¤ini 'nåT™I3 3|| S¤'maÙn¤&wA;2\ 5gaÙT‘¨ &n¨˙g¤'måSTå3 3|| &s‘¨kû'D™;I32\ kh¤&Tåkûz™I'n‘;¨2\ mA;5kh™ni &nå>¤'måSTå3 3|| ¿khû'n‘;¨ hÈ'nåSi2 ¿‘¨&m‘¨S¤>û'khåTå21| ¿5m‘;¨ ¤c¤'D‘;¨2 ¿'j‘¨m¯u21|||)

13. Esperanto 13.0.1. Esperanto is a social fact and a living language. It is an easily accessible language that can be mastered fairly well in a short time. It can be quite useful both in cultural and working environments, including commerce and tourism. In particular, Esperanto is an ideal language for science. For a real world circulation, to know and allow all people in all nations to grasp any subject, avoiding the problems and costs of having good translations done. Furthermore, it is extremely appropriate as a general basis for learning and teaching foreign languages with all their historical complications, and even to reﬂect on the structures and functioning of one's own national — native tongue. Perhaps, the day is still a long way o‡ when peoples and governments can realize that an international auxiliary language (¤ a second language for all mankind, certainly not as a substitute for the present various languages) can have many advantages. All the more so because it is not merely a (rough) vehicular language, but can also meet every-day needs in addition to technical and scientiﬁc demands as well as general cultural ones. Its most evident advantage is that it is nobody's mother tongue, but everybody's second language. Everyone has to study it, and no-one need not do it only because all the others accept to çlearnÇ and use one particular native language. ©th a language which is a second one for all, nobody has any more linguistic privileges that allow them to take advantage of others… Esperanto is not so complicated to learn as other languages are. In fact, its grammar is simple, logical, and regular; with no çcapriciousÇ exceptions so typical of natural languages. Even lexically, there are no surprises such as child, do, say /'caEıd, 'dUu, 'sEI/ and children, does, said /'cIıd<Èn, 'd√z, 'sEd/; nor has it semantic ambiguities caused by polysemy. For this reason Esperanto would be incredibly appropriate for the Internet. Its only drawback resides in its original orthography, which uses six letters with particular diacritics that produce di‡erent combinations from those of other languages: c˚ g (c, G), s˚ j (S, Z), h (x)˚ ¨ (w, u). Although these letters allow to identify Esperanto immediately, they are nevertheless one of the major limitations towards its circulation through the press and electronic media. 13.0.2. However, an important use of Esperanto for phonetic purposes consists in utilizing it as an active drill to apply the phonetic method to a reality that presents fewer obstacles than any other language. As a matter of fact, even its pronunciation is çregularÇ, without exceptions, and fairly natural, as we will see (although it is an çartiﬁcialÇ language, ¤ a çplannedÇ language). Of course, this holds for its spelling too; the real problem is constituted by certain speciﬁc graphemes (that may have di‡erent values in other languages) and by its particular phones (since the world's languages have their own phonic systems, with their own rules and par-

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ticular realizations, which are not necessarily like those of Esperanto). ˛erefore, a serious study of Esperanto neutral pronunciation is an excellent training in order to then learn the pronunciation of natural –or çethnicÇ– languages too. However, the scanty attention devoted by school and society to the importance of pronunciation leads even Esperantists to considerably çmistreatÇ the pronunciation of Esperanto itself (and that of their mother tongues as well). Actually, people pronounce it their own way, depending on their personal pronunciation of their own language. ˛erefore, in spite of the simple rules of Esperanto, they start from their actual pronunciations, by rendering it with the phones and intonation of their personal (and more or less regional) pronunciation, although they do not realize it at all. However, this does not take anything away from the scientiﬁc value of our phonetic experiment. Contrary to what we have done for the other languages (unless we had to deal with minimal pairs which were useful to our explanation), we will add the meaning of the examples provided, all the more so because ambiguities are practically almost excluded. Instead, this is what can regularly happen with ethnic languages, for many words (for which it is always problematic and risky to give glosses). Vowels 13.1 Esperanto (¤ E-o] presents only the ﬁve most normal and natural vowel phonemes (which are the most widespread in the various languages of the world): (i, ™, a, ø, u) /i, e, a, o, u/ (Ô û 13.1). ˛e ﬁve E-o vowels are realized very much like the ﬁve (stressed) vowels of Spanish, as in: ('iR, 'tR™s, 'maR, 'døs, 'tu) /'iR, 'tRes, 'maR, 'døs, 'tu/ ir˚ tres˚ mar˚ dos˚ tù. In the most international pronunciation of Esperanto, e˚ o always have the timbres (™, ø), both in stressed and unstressed syllables. Here are some examples: ('tRi˙ki, '™b-l™, 'ka;Ra, 'dø;mø, 'u;nu) /'trinki, 'eble, 'kara, 'domo, 'unu/ trinki˚ eble˚ kara˚ domo˚ unu çto drink, perhaps, dear, house, oneÇ. ˛e o‚cial Esperanto diphthongs are of the (éi, éu) /éi, éu/ type, and are represented with Vj˚ V¨, even though, of course, other vowel sequences occur, which from a phonetic point of view are real diphthongs as well (Ô § 3.1.2-3, about Italian diphthongs, and NPT/HPh: § 1.16 “ § 2.10-1), as, for instance, /eo, io/ in (&g™øgRa'fiø) /geogra'fio/ geografio çgeographyÇ. Given the nature of Esperanto orthography, a more logical solution çVi, VuÇ was not available, because of its word-stress assignment rule (as we will see in § 13.3.4). /i/ (i)

/u/ (u)

/e/ (™)

/o/ (ø)

û 13.1. Esperanto vowels.

/a/ (a)

13. esperanto

397

Consonants

w

h (H)

(˙) k g

S Z* R|(r) l

velar

palatal

(~)

cG

s z (l)

(n)

prepalatal

alveolar

n

laryngeal

(n) t d q

velar rounded

ö m (M) F pb Ô ƒ f v _ ß ó ‹

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 13.2. Table of Esperanto consonants.

postalveo-palatal protruded

13.2.0. û 13.2 shows the consonants of original, or traditional, Esperanto (including the rarest two, (Z, x), which are marked with a postponed *. It would be better to remove them in order to render the language more modern, more functional, even simpler and more easily di‡used (Ô § 13.4.3-4). In fact, in natural languages a phonemic opposition between (Z, G) or (x, h) is certainly not frequent nor preferred, unless they belong to complete and related series, or unless /x/ is made decidedly more çenergeticÇ (than a simple velar constrictive), or even pronounced as a trill). In Arabic and in Tuscan, for instance, (Z, G) do not oppose. In German, (x, h) are not free from problems or regional and social variations; however, they could be considered to have complementary distribution… û 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional, or regional variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.

x* j

(L)

Nasals 13.2.1. Esperanto has two nasal phonemes, /m, n/ (m, n): ('mø;nø, 'f™ndi) /'mono, 'fendi/ mono˚ fendi çmoney, to splitÇ. ‹ile /m/ never assimilates: (™m'fa;zø, &m™mkøn's™Rvø) /em'fazo, memkon'servo/ emfazo˚ memkonservo çemphasis, selfconservationÇ, there are various possible assimilations for /n/ (M, ~, ˙), which render the pronunciation more ﬂuent and natural: (iM'f™;Ra, 'ma~Gi, si~'jø;Rø, 'SRa˙kø) /in'fera, 'manGi, sin'joro, 'Sranko/ infera˚ mangi˚ sinjoro˚ sranko çinfernal, to eat, gentleman, cupboardÇ (including (n, ~) ((˙, n)): ('s™ndi, 'ma~Gi) /'sendi, 'manGi/ sendi˚ mangi çto send, to eatÇ). However, between lexemes (including preﬁxes) no assimilation takes place (on the contrary, we also ﬁnd secondary stresses, even on syllables contiguous to a stressed one): (&kun'm™;ti, &kun'v™;ni, &s™n'pa;ga) /kun'meti, kun'veni, sen'paga/ kun-

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meti˚ kunveni˚ senpaga çto combine, to meet, free/for nothingÇ. Nevertheless, we have: (køm'pR™;ni, &siamman't™;løn) (with a rhythmic secondary stress) /kom'preni, siamman'telon/ kompreni˚ sian mantelon çto understand, one's own mantle (accus.)Ç (Ô (si'a;mam man't™;løn) /si'aman man'telon/ siaman mantelon ç(a) Siamese mantel (accus.)Ç). In normal, current, relaxed pronunciation, the unstressed grammeme /-n/ >-n≥ (of the accusative case) regularly assimilates (whereas only in formal and solemn pronunciation can we ﬁnd (si'a;man man't™;løn) /si'aman man'telon/). In spite of this, there is a general tendency to keep words separated, both under the inﬂuence of ethnic languages, and because E-o is a çdi‡erentÇ language, not yet adequately internalized (or free from any interference). ©thout such rules, inevitably everyone would use one's own most familiar structures – since, subjectively, they are thought to be quite çnaturalÇ. Stops 13.2.2. Esperanto has three diphonic pairs of stops: /p b, t d, k g/ (p b, t d, k g). Of course, /t, d/ are dental (t, d), not alveolar as in English, since most languages have dental articulations. Besides, g is velar, with no exception, even before i and e (where it becomes prevelar ((Ò)), and /k/ as well ((´)) as in: ('g¤fT, 'g™T) /'gIft, 'gEt/ gift˚ get}: (gi'gantø, &g™øgRa'fiø) /gi'ganto, geogra'fio/ giganto˚ geograﬁo çgiant, geographyÇ; ('p™nsi, ba'bi;li, 'tr™;ti, d™'qi;di, 'kRa;ki, 'ga;gø) /'pensi, ba'bili, 'treti, de'qidi, 'kraki, 'gago/ pensi˚ babili˚ treti˚ decidi˚ kraki˚ gago çto think, to chat, to tread, to decide, to clap/crack, gagÇ. Stopstrictives 13.2.3. In addition, there are three stopstrictives: /q÷ c, G/ (the last two are a diphonic pair): (q) c (as in German: ('hInq) /'hInq/ Hintz, not as in English: ('h¤nts) /'hInts/ hints); then, there are (c) c and its voiced counterpart, (G) g (as in English: ('f™c, 'Gø;Ù) /'fEc, 'GOE/ fetch˚ joy). ˛ey always maintain the values we have seen, before any vowel or consonant: ('q™nt, 'pa;qø) /'qent, 'paqo/ cent˚ paco çhundred, peaceÇ, (c™'va;lø, f™'li;ca) /ce'valo, fe'lica/ cevalo˚ felica çhorse, happyÇ, (GaR'd™;nø, 'pa;Gø) /Gar'deno, 'paGo/ gardeno˚ pago çgarden, page (of book)Ç. ˛e spelling dz represents a (rare) sequence, (dz), not the voiced counterpart of c (which would be (Q), as in Italian ('QE:Ro) /'QEro/ zero çzeroÇ]\ ('™dzø) /'edzo/ edzo çhusbandÇ. Constrictives 13.2.4. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of constrictives and a rare voiceless velar one (which should be withdrawn from modern and future Esperanto, Ô § 13.4.3-

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4): /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ x/ (f,v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ x). It is su‚cient to recall that s is always (s) (voiceless, as in English: ('s¤ns) /'sIns/ since]˚ whereas z is always (z) (voiced, as in: ('z¤p) /'zIp/ zip]\ ('mu;zø, 'mu;sø, 'sli;pø) /'muzo, 'muso, 'slipo/ muzo˚ muso˚ slipo çMuse, mouse, slip (of paper)Ç. Besides, (S, Z) /S, Z/ s, j are as in English ('S¤p, 'v¤ZÈn) /'SIp, 'vIZÈn/ ship˚ vision: ('fi;Sø, ZuR'na;lø) /'fiSo, Zur'nalo/ ﬁso˚ jurnalo çﬁsh, newspaperÇ. ˛e last Esperanto constrictive is the rarest (and practically useless, so it could proﬁtably be withdrawn, by merging into k or h˚ as has already happened for quite a few forms). It is h (x), voiceless velar, as in (Austrian) German ('Êax) Bach: (mø'na;xø) /mo'naxo/ monaho çmonkÇ. Approximants 13.2.5.1. Among the Esperanto approximants (which have a freer passage of phono-expiratory air in comparison with constrictives, and a fairly reduced friction noise, which on the contrary is very strong in constrictives), we ﬁnd the laryngeal /h/ (h) h. It can e‡ectively be pronounced as a voiced (H), instead of voiceless (h), in order to become more di‡erent from the inconvenient and disadvantageous (x) (but this requires particular phonic considerations). ˛e most important thing, especially for Romance-language speakers, is not to completely neglect the phoneme /h/; in fact, ('hø;Rø) /'horo/ horo çhourÇ is quite di‡erent from ('ø;Rø) /'oro/ oro çgoldÇ. And it is also di‡erent from ('xø;Rø) /'xoro/ horo çchorusÇ (by now very often wisely substituted by koruso (kø'Ru;sø)), and from ('kø;Rø) /'koro/ koro çheartÇ, as well. 13.2.5.2. ˛e other two approximants, /j, w/ (j, w), are represented by j and ¨˚ and correspond to English ('j™s, 'w¤n:) /'jEs, 'wIn/ yes˚ win\ ('j™s, 'vø;jø, si~'jø;Rø, 'w™stø) /'jes, 'vojo, sin'joro, 'westo/ jes˚ vojo˚ sinjoro˚ ¨esto çyes, road, gentleman, westÇ. However, when j and ¨ are not followed by any vowels in the same word, they are realized as the corresponding vowels /i, u/ (i, u) (and it is to be avoided for spelling to lead people to think that, in such positions, they have to pronounce what are actually normal and real vowels as consonants): ('tui, 'Raitøi, 'nau, 'laudi) /'tui, 'raitoi, 'nau, 'laudi/ tuj˚ rajtoj˚ na¨˚ la¨di çimmediately, rights, nine, praiseÇ. Apart from this last case of greater phonetic naturalness, i and u always need to be distinguished from j and ¨ before vowels: (mi'™;lø) /mi'elo/ mielo çhoneyÇ, ('mj™;lø) /'mjelo/ mjelo çspinal cordÇ, (fi'askø, &mani'™;Rø) /fi'asko, mani'ero/ ﬁasko˚ maniero çﬁasco, mannerÇ. Let us also consider the following cases, for which (as will be seen in § 13.2.5.2) j is forced to have two di‡erent values owing to the stress-assignment rule: ('pl™idø) /'pleido/ plejdo çplaidÇ, but (pl™'ja;do) /ple'jado/ Plejado çPleiadÇ. In lexical derivation, when ¨ is followed by a vowel, we have two possibilities, /w, u/: ('na;wa, 'naua) /'nawa, 'naua/) na¨a çninthÇ; the same goes for (bal'da;wa, -aua) /bal'dawa, -aua/) balda¨a çpromptÇ, from ('baldau) /'baldau/) balda¨ çsoonÇ.

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However, in compounding, we only have ¨ /u/: (lau'i;gi) /lau'igi/) la¨igi çto adaptÇ. All this must not be unduly modiﬁed by the di‡erent analogical extensions of the various ethnic languages. 13.2.5.3. In addition, even for stressing, let us consider cases (that we present here in advance) such as: ('j™s, 'jam) /'jes, 'jam/ jes˚ jam çyes, alreadyÇ and ('i™s, 'iam) /'ies, 'iam/ ies˚ iam çsomeone's, onceÇ, and (sø'i;fi, 'søilø, ba'lau, 'baldau) /so'ifi, 'soilo÷ ba'lau, 'baldau/ soiﬁ˚ sojlo˚ balau!˚ balda¨ çto be thirsty, threshold, sweep!, soonÇ. To write ¨ has always been a severe problem both for the press and typewriting (and today for computers, too, unless some special fonts have been installed). ˛e ﬁrst o‚cial Esperanto publication by Zamenhof appeared in 1887. ˛e International Phonetic Association was founded in 1886 and the ﬁrst version of the International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA] was produced in 1888. ˛ese coincidences explain why they were not aware of each other's existence. Today, however, the parallelism between (j, w) and j˚ w is quite evident and it spontaneously leads to the substitution of ¨ with w˚ which would certainly be to the advantage of E-o itself. It is neither weakness nor betrayal at all… It would just be common sense! Trills 13.2.6. ˛ere is an alveolar tap, (R) (which, for emphasis, can oscillate with a true trill (r), alveolar as well): ('Ra;nø, 'køRpø, 'tR™;) /'rano, 'korpo, 'tre/ rano˚ korpo˚ tre çfrog, body, very (much)Ç. Any other pronunciation of /r/ (although frequent, because of the di‡erent national languages used by Esperanto speakers) is not neutral. Laterals 13.2.7. Lastly, we ﬁnd a pure alveolar lateral, (l), with no particular nuances (so it is di‡erent from the English {non-prevocalic} l sound as in ('w™ı:{Ω}) well(s)]\ ('la;nø, mul't™;ga) /'lano, mul'tega/ lano˚ multega çwool, very veryÇ. Not even a slight palatalization (ç(¬)Ç, perhaps before /i/) would be acceptable: ('li;gi) /'ligi/ ligi çto bindÇ˘ ˛e only normal assimilation occurs before dentals, (l) ((l)), and before postalveo-palatal protruded consonants, within lexemes or in unstressed grammemes, (¬) ((L)): ('alta, 'fa¬ci) /'alta, 'falci/ alta˚ falci çhigh, mowÇ. Structures 13.3.0. In addition to the realization of its segments (¤ vowels and consonants, as in the previous sections), an international language must be as free as possible from microstructural peculiarities (¤ syllabiﬁcation, assimilation, stress, rhythm, and intonation) and without typical characteristics of any particular languages.

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˛erefore, it must have strict rules, which are coherent and systematic, yet clear and simple, without concessions to any language, or to groups of languages. Most of all, any peculiarities of one's mother tongue should be avoided. In fact, if this is not done, in the end all Esperantists will speak their own çdialectÇ of Esperanto. As a matter of fact, this is what happens when people use E-o without considering its phonic aspect. ˛us what they obtain is quite close to the linguistic Babel which E-o seeks to solve. In neutral Esperanto pronunciation stressed vocoids are realized as half-long in (either word-internal or word-ﬁnal) unchecked syllables, when they occur in prominent positions, ¤ in intonemes, as usually at the end of sentences: ('sa;na, 'a;) /'sana, 'a/ sana˚ A çhealthy, (the letter) AÇ. In checked stressed syllables (either in word-internal or word-ﬁnal position), Esperanto vocoids are always short: ('paRtø) /'parto/ parto çpartÇ. Besides, Esperanto diphthongs are always short, as in German (while in English they are long when not followed by voiceless consonants or by unstressed syllables, as in ('w™;I{Ω}, 'w™;I∂÷ 'w™IT, 'w™IDå/-D≥) /'wEI{z}, 'wEId÷ 'wEIt, 'wEIdÈ≤/ way(s)˚ wade÷ wait˚ waider]\ ('™uRø) /'euro/ e¨ro çEuroÇ, ('ti™) /'tie/ tie çthereÇ. Consonant clusters 13.3.1. Consonant sequences neither undergo voicing assimilation (except for the place of articulation with n in lexeme-internal position or in unstressed grammemes), nor do they simplify. Everything must be pronounced according to the values of each element: (&s™n'nø;ma, &mal'lø˙ga, &huf'f™;Rø, &dis'sølvø, &lip'ha;Røi, 'gli;ti, 'digna, d™s'q™ndi, 'kna;bø, 'kvin, 'li˙gvø) sennoma˚ mallonga˚ hu‡ero˚ dissolvo˚ lipharoj˚ gliti˚ digna˚ descendi˚ knabo˚ kvin˚ lingvo çanonymous, short, horseshoe (èhoof-iron¶), disintegration, moustache (èlip-hair¶), to slide, digniﬁed, to go down, boy, ﬁve, languageÇ. E-o would have a more modern and international aspect, by introducing the variants ('kwin, 'li˙gwø) (in place of (kv, gv)}, with a corresponding spelling: k¨in˚ ling¨o or, better still, at last: kwin˚ lingwo (and (p™Rs'va;di) /pers'vadi/ persvadi çto persuadeÇ = (p™R'swa;di) /per'swadi/ pers¨adi = perswadi). ˛e consonant assimilation of place of articulation, for /n/ + /0/, occurs in two cases only: ﬁrstly, in lexeme-internal position: ('si˙ki) /'sinki/ sinki çto sinkÇ, as (køm'pR™;ni) /kom'preni/ kompreni çto understandÇ implicitly shown, unlike (&kun'pR™;ni) /kun'preni/ kunpreni çto bringÇ, (&kun'm™;ti) /kun'meti/ kunmeti çto combineÇ, (&s™n'pa;ga) /sen'paga/ senpaga çfree/for nothingÇ; secondly, in pragmatically unstressed grammemes: (miam'pla˙køn) /mian'plankon/ mian plankon çmy ﬂoor (accus.)Ç. In (&siamman't™;løn) /sianman'telon/ sian mantelon çone's own mantle (accus.)Ç, there is a rhythmic secondary stress. On the other hand, for emphasis, we have: (&mian'pla˙køn) (where the secondary stress is not rhythmic), or even ('mian 'pla˙køn) /'mian 'plankon/ mian plankon. Here we show that voiced and voiceless consonants do not inﬂuence each other in the least in neutral pronunciation (unlike in many ethnic languages): (™k'zisti, &absø'lu;t™, &naz'tu;kø, &økd™k'du;) /ek'zisti, abso'lute, naz'tuko, okdek'du/ ekzisti˚

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absolute˚ naztuko˚ okdek du çto exist, absolutely, handkerchief (çnose-kerchiefÇ), eighty-twoÇ. 13.3.2. Some Esperantists strive to follow çto the letterÇ the indications that Zamenhof (1962•, the inventor of E-o) used to give enthusiastic people in answer to their questions and doubts. However, it is to be understood that, when he stressed the point that çeach letter must be pronounced clearly separated from the neighboring onesÇ, his sole aim was to make people avoid overly marked ethnic pronunciations. Surely, he had no clear intention to lead them to reﬂect on the Esperanto phonic structure, which is certainly neither based on avant-garde theories nor expressed in strict phonetic terms (least of all phonemic ones!). Here are some examples of di‡erent current ethnic pronunciations (even by expert and ﬂuent Esperantists): (™u'Rø;pø) E¨ropo *(°'˜∏pP, j¨È'>‘¨p‘¨)÷ ('laudi) la¨di *('l∏_i, 'lø;DIi, 'lAÈdi, 'laodi, 'ıOudi)÷ ('pa~-jø) panjo *('pa;No, 'phπni‘¨)÷ ('lø˙g™) longe *('lØ˙, 'lO˙¢, 'lA˙™I)÷ ('vøRtø) vorto *('vO‰to, 'vø;T‘U, 'føi, 'stØORi)÷ (la't™mpø) la tempo *(ı√'tEm:b‘, l√'thEmp{h}P)÷ (in't™nsa) intensa *(in'dEn:Qa, ì'tÕ:sa, in't™nså)÷ (la'pa;qø) la paco *(la'Faq:qP, la'baqqso, lÅ'pÅt†o)÷ (mi'Gø;jas) mi gojas *(miG'GOj:jasse, mi'Z∏:jasse)÷ (™b'l™;qø) ebleco *(eb'b]™q:qø, ji'b¬™;qå)÷ (la'ku;bø) la kubo *(la'guubbo, la'h¯:BP)÷ (li'b™;lo) libelo *(ıib'bE;™ı‘, li'B™;lo)÷ ('kRu;cø) kruco *('kru:So, k'Rju;Cx)÷ ('pa;Si) pasi *('paS:Si, 'paaßi)÷ (mi'p™;tas) mi petas *(mi'bE;Edas:, mi'phe:t{h}as)÷ ('j™s) yes *('á™ß, 'jÄEÀ). Paying excessive attention to spelling can lead people to uselessly force themselves to always unnaturally realize the grapheme n as (n), in every possible context, only because the way it is written seems to require such an articulation. On the contrary, other –even more evident– di‡erences which elude control are unconsciously produced, like those we have just seen. However, the fact of writing n before all consonants except p˚ b certainly does not mean that (n) has illogically to be maintained, against (mp, mb). It is quite the contrary, even if it has been expressed in a rather rudimentary way. Indeed, all languages having a homorganic /ö/ to a following consonant (¤ with (mp, Mf, ~c, Ná, ˙k) Â) show this fact by using the only other unitary grapheme which is a phoneme as well: m /m/. Otherwise, they would even write np and nb, as is done by serious orthographies of heterorganic dialects (like, in general, those of northern Italy). Ending with some Esperanto examples, we have: ('kømbi, køm'pR™;ni) /'kombi, kom'preni/ kombi˚ kompreni çto comb, to understandÇ, (køM'v™;ni, køM'f™;si) /kon'veni, kon'fesi/ konveni˚ konfesi çto be suitable, to confessÇ, (køn'du;ki, 'køntRau) /kon'duki, 'kontrau/ konduki˚ kontra¨ çto drive, againstÇ, (kø~'c™Rtø) /kon'certo/ koncerto çconcertoÇ, (kø˙'gR™;sø, kø˙'ka;va) /kon'greso, kon'kava/ kongreso˚ konkava çcongress, concaveÇ. But (&kunm™'t™b-la, &kun&pRøduk'ta;dø, &kun&bata'lantø) /kunme'tebla, kunproduk'tado, kunbata'lanto/ kunmetebla˚ kunproduktado, kunbatalanto çcombinable, coproduction, comrade in armsÇ; in fact, they belong to di‡erent lexemes, because they are compounds.

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Syllabiﬁcation 13.3.3. ˛e neutral Esperanto phonic syllabiﬁcation, within a word, regularly occurs between two consonants: ('R™s-ti, 'lib-Rø, '™b-l™, 'sig-nø, si~'jø;Rø, ™d'zi;nø) /'resti, 'libro, 'eble, 'signo, sin'joro, ed'zino/ resti˚ libro˚ eble˚ signo˚ sinjoro˚ edzino çto remain, book, perhaps, sign, gentleman, wifeÇ. Instead, at lexeme-boundaries, the sequences are maintained intact: (mi'blø;vis) /mi'blovis/ mi blovis çI blewÇ, (mi'sqias) /mi'sqias/ mi scias çI knowÇ, (lian&taw™n'i;Ris, -au™n'-) /liantawen'iris, -auen'-/ li anta¨eniris çhe came alongÇ, (&Sisa'lu;tis23 'antau øl&føR'i;Ri23) /Sisa'lutis. 'antau olfor'iri./ si salutis anta¨ ol foriri çshe greeted before leavingÇ. ‹en the formation of words is respected, the meaning is more easily understood. In other words, if something is correctly understood, this means that its formation has been analyzed well. For instance: (&vøRt'a;Rø) /vort'aro/ vortaro çdictionary = word [vort-) collection [ar-]Ç. As can be seen, a stressed syllable maintains the lexemes (or stems) separated, whereas the grammemes do not. As a matter of fact, we do not have *(&vøRt'aR-ø) */vort'ar-o/. It should be obvious, however, that the transcription we have shown does not allude at all to excessive pronunciations such as *(&vøRt'öaRöø). Naturally, as a more çTeutonicÇ way of pronouncing it like *(&vøRt'öa;Rø) would not respect the internationality of this language, neither would a more çRomanceÇ pronunciation like *(&vøR'ta;Rø). ˛e correct solution, for all nations, is to follow a middle course, thus: (&vøRt'a;Rø) (otherwise the structures of some particular languages prevail, since all speakers are led to believe that the most familiar solutions for them are the most çcorrectÇ ones, as happens for regional or foreign accents). ©th clusters of several consonants, words are syllabiﬁed according to the criteria of natural phonetics: ('™ks-t™R, ™ks'qi;ti, ™s'tRa;do) /'ekster, eks'qiti, es'trado/ ekster˚ eksciti˚ estrado çoutside, to excite, platformÇ. In lexical compounding, neutral pronunciation separates the lexemes, but not the desinential grammemes (which are then resyllabiﬁed into more natural structures, even by modifying word boundaries): fervojisto˚ malanta¨e˚ bankroti (&f™Rvø'jistø, &mal-an'ta;w™, -au™, &ba˙k'Rø;ti) /fervo'jisto, malan'tawe, -aue, bank'roti/ çrailwayman, backwards, to go bankruptÇ (without introducing –here too– sharp separations as the laryngeal stop, (ö): *(&f™R-vøö'jistø, -voi'öis-÷ &malöan'taöw™, -auö™)}. Word stress 13.3.4. In Esperanto, there is no stress exception, contrary to most ethnic languages: it invariably falls on the last vowel but one of each (non-monosyllabic) word, even if this may cause seemingly çstrangeÇ or çcuriousÇ di‡erences for similar forms in various languages: fra¨lo ('fRaulø) çbachelorÇ, praulo (&pRa'u;lø) çancestorÇ, balda¨ ('baldau) çsoonÇ; balai (ba'lai) çto sweepÇ, soiﬁ (so'i;fi) çto be thirstyÇ, sojlo ('søilø) çthresholdÇ; masino (ma'Si;nø) çmachineÇ, muziko (mu'zi;ko) çmusicÇ, tragedio (&tRag™'diø) çtragedyÇ, sukero (su'k™;Rø) çsugarÇ, logika (lø'gi;ka) çlogicÇ, emfazo (™m'fa;zø) çemphasisÇ, stacio (sta'qiø) çstationÇ, jam ('jam) çalreadyÇ, iam

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('iam) çonceÇ, sabato (sa'ba;tø) çSaturdayÇ, oceano (&øq™'a;nø) çoceanÇ. Instead, talking about the last syllable, for word-stress assignment, is extremely inaccurate. In fact, completely di‡erent and contrasting criteria are still followed upon the actual judgment and nature of syllables. ˛ese are too often considered only from a graphic, grammatical, and metrical point of view, which is incredibly subjective and variable depending on languages, when not totally absurd. Sentence stress 13.3.5. Let us now give some thought to the stressing of utterances. As it would be absurd in ethnic languages to stress every single word appearing in a sentence, such is the case even in E-o, whose grammemes (¤ grammatical words, lacking a real semantic value) are completely unstressed, unless they are voluntarily emphasized for some particular reasons. A sentence like Mi estas la amiko de via frato çI'm your brother's friendÇ would certainly not be *('mi; 'ö™stas 'la; öa'mi;kø 'd™; 'via 'fRa;tø), which would –rightly– make people hate E-o as something unbearable! (On the other hand, even for foreign languages, it is not rare to hear such things, but this depends on incomplete learning, as well as on widespread ignorance of phonetics and its advantages.) A more appropriate rendition of the example given would be: (mi&™stasl{a}a'mi;kø &d™via'fRa;tø). As can be seen from previous transcriptions, even in compounds, we ﬁnd di‡erent stress-degrees in their components, depending on their semantic relevance. However, the main stress of compounds falls on the stem vowel of the last element. Quite evidently, a slow and strained delivery, with too many stresses on grammemes as well, in addition to the inevitably high frequency of the (sole) auxiliary verb esti˚ can before long become a real nightmare if estas˚ estis˚ estos… are always stressed in a rather mechanical way. ˛erefore, accurate speakers carefully avoid falling into this nasty habit. In fact, they will destress, even completely, the forms of esti˚ by introducing the stylistic reﬁnement of using instead the allomorphs with 'st-: (&mistas&ci'ti™, &listøsf™'li;ca) /mistasci'tie, listosfe'lica/ Mi 'stas ci tie˚ Li 'stos felica çI'm hereÇ, çhe'll be happyÇ (either only when pronouncing or when writing as well – by providing a considerable visual-mnemonic help). Even the phrase (tiø'™stas) /tio'estas/ tio estas çthat isÇ, when it is not emphasized, surely gains by becoming (&tiøstas…) /'tiostas/ tio 'stas. Obviously, it is quite the contrary for: (¿&cu'™sti2| ¿&au"n™; '™sti23) /¿cu'esti,| ¿au"ne 'esti./ Cu esti, a¨ ne esti? çTo be, or not to be?Ç. Unfortunately, this use is not generally followed, since the backward-looking ideas that characterize most language teaching (starting from one's own language) do not manage to clearly separate the graphic level (which is secondary) from the phonic one (which is primary). All this leads people to believe that reduced forms are a signal of corrupted and slovenly language. ˛is is the case of (&aÙSDÈÑ'ThÖ¨ıDÈm, -ø¨-), which is quite normal for I should have told them˚ while –on the contrary– something like *(5a;Ù S¨ﬂ&hπv'ThÖ¨ıd&∑™m, -ø¨-) would be quite unusual in-

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deed. As a matter of fact, (&aÙSDÈÑ'ThÖ¨ıDÈm, -ø¨-) is exactly what is uttered by competent people, when they do not speak too slowly and are free from any spelling blackmail; since it is very important to be able not to confuse real language with current writing, because real language is, ﬁrst of all, pronunciation (which is above all not çembalmedÇ). 13.3.6. Returning to our ﬁrst example, we will have the following realization: (&mistasla'mi;kø d™&via'fRa;tø), which is possible to write as: Mi 'stas l'amiko de via frato. ˛e elision of la is o‚cial, although it is often erroneously limited to poetry. Likewise, personal pronouns, which frequently appear at the end of sentences, do not need to be always and mechanically stressed. On the contrary, only for emphasis or contrast may they have a strong stress, otherwise they are destressed and enclitic (although written as separated forms, as in English, but not in many other languages); other monosyllabic particles behave in the same way: (Si'vi;dis&lin) /Si'vidislin/ si vidis lin çshe saw himÇ, ('da˙kønal&vi) /'dankonalvi/ dankon al vi çthank youÇ, ('tiø&ci) /'tioci/ tio ci çthisÇ, (¿'cu;&n™21) /¿'cune?/ cu ne? çisn't it?, aren't you?, doesn't he?, haven't they?Ç… It is worthwhile comparing the following cases: (Si'vi;dis 'lin) /Si'vidis 'lin/ si vidis lin çshe saw himÇ, ('da˙køn al'vi;) /'dankon al'vi/ dankon al vi çthank you!Ç, (&tiø'ci;) /tio'ci/ tio ci çthis hereÇ, (¿&cu'n™;21) /¿cu'ne?/ cu ne? çisn't that so?Ç. ˛e case of ju (mal)pli…, des (mal)pli… is very interesting for stressing: ('ju; &plivipa'Rø;las2 2 'd™s &malpli&mikøm'pR™;nas23) /'ju plivipa'rolas÷ 'des malplimikom'prenas./ ju pli vi parolas, des malpli mi komprenas çthe more you speak, the less I understandÇ, ('ju; &pli'mult™2 2 'd™s &pli'bø;n™23) /'ju pli'multe÷ 'des pli'bone/ ju pli multe˚ des pli bone çthe more, the betterÇ. Intonation 13.3.7. û 13.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of neutral E-o (free from any inﬂuence from ethnic languages), so we will see only three fundamental examples: /./: (&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn23) /ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espeû 13.3. Esperanto preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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'rantan vort'aron./ Ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron ç˛ey often consult the Esperanto dictionaryÇ. /?/: (¿&cu&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn21) /¿cuili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Cu ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron? çDo they often consult the Esperanto dictionary?Ç. /÷/: (&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn2 2| &s™d'tu;t™ &s™n'fRukt™23) /ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron÷| sed'tute sen'frukte./ Ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron, sed tute senfrukte ç˛ey often consult the Esperanto dictionary, but that's of no use.Ç 13.3.8. Besides being used in total questions, cu occurs in indirect questions too, with a subordinate function: (&min™'sqias &culi'v™;nøs) /mine'sqias culi'venos/ mi ne scias, cu li venos çI don't know whether he will comeÇ. Cu is also used in disjunctive clauses with a coordinate function: cu li, cu si çeither he or sheÇ. In these cases –where, by the way, no ﬁnal question mark is written– it is obvious that no (rising) interrogative intonation has to be used. ˛us, the choice of an intoneme becomes important, decisive, and not at all redundant or useless. On the other hand, in colloquial and expressive usage sometimes it is possible to omit an interrogative cu: (¿li'døRmas21) /¿li'dormas?/ li dormas? ç(is he) sleeping?Ç, (¿'v™;R™21) /¿'vere?/ vere? çreally?Ç. ˛erefore, it is fundamental to use an interrogative intonation. (In cases such as these, in all ethnic languages of the world, colloquially, it is possible to omit initial or ﬁnal particles.) In partial questions, instead (with\ ('kiu, 'kiui, 'kiø, 'kia, 'ki™s, 'kial, 'kiam, 'ki™, 'ki™l, 'kiøm) /'kiu, kiui, 'kio, 'kia, 'kies, 'kial, 'kiam, 'kie, 'kiel, 'kiom/ kiu, and kiuj, çwhoÇ (and a plural çwhoÇ), kio çwhatÇ, kia çwhat kind (of)Ç, kies çwhoseÇ, kial çwhyÇ, kiam çwhenÇ, kie çwhereÇ, kiel çhowÇ, kiom çhow muchÇ), the most natural intoneme to use is conclusive (falling, (2 ' 23)), but combined with a regular interrogative preintoneme (tendentially rising): (¿'kial &ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøR'ta;Røn23) /¿'kial ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Kial ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron? ç‹y do they often consult the Esperanto dictionary?Ç. In the case of commands or orders, an imperative preintoneme is used, where the falling movement of the conclusive intoneme is brought forward, although in a rather limited way (as happens for the interrogative one, which however moves in an opposite direction): (¡'øft™ køn'sultu &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøR'ta;Røn23) /¡'ofte kon'sultu l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Ofte konsultu la esperantan vortaron! çConsult the Esperanto dictionary often!Ç. Spelling and internationality 13.4.1. A consideration about E-o spelling, in the third millennium, is inevitable with regards to the six letters çwith a hatÇ {(ca&p™l'i;tai li't™;Røi) /capel'itai li'teroi/ capelitaj literoj]. In fact, the time is ripe for deﬁnitely admitting that they are the major obstacle to the printing and di‡usion of Esperanto publications, as we

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have already said (§ 13.0.1). Besides, before Unicode, computers needed special fonts to be installed, or particular programs to create new characters or to modify existing ones in order to use them, and they are still necessary for the many things which are not yet part of Unicode. But even in this way, these six letters are still a problem for orthographic correction or alphabetical arrangement. Besides, few normal typewriters could combine 4, and only for small letters; to say nothing of T, for ¨, too often replaced by 5, or Z, or Q, or 4: à, ú˚ ù˚ û (unless one studies hard to become… a magician). ˛e problem could be overcome by simply modifying not the language (!), nor its phonemic system (!), but merely its spelling, although for many people this seems to mean –instead– to çalterÇ the very essence of E-o itself (whereas this is normal for natural languages)! ˛us some evolution and structural simpliﬁcation would be quite logical, as in natural languages. ˛e way has already been indicated by Zamenhof himself, although it should be followed with rigorous criteria. On the other hand, we ﬁnd an appealing and reassuring parallelism with the International Phonetic Alphabet, which consists in the use (already suggested by various scholars) of w˚ x˚ instead of ¨˚ h˘ Even for c˚ g˚ j˚ s, Zamenhof himself was aware of the anti-modernism inherent in these signs, and suggested that –if there were typographical di‚culties (which is not merely hypothetical)– they could be substituted with ch˚ gh˚ jh˚ sh˚ hh˚ u (for h˚ ¨]. As usual, it is hard to manage to separate the prevailing graphic level from the underrated phonic level. But it is even more di‚cult to separate personal emotionality from linguistic objectivity. 13.4.2. Apart from the obvious inappropriateness of confusing ¨ and u (especially seeing that w was clearly available!), even in the other cases –since in E-o compounding is the rule– it ought to have been quite clear that forms like the following were not just a possibility: (&mus'ha;Rø, &paq'hu;lø) /mus'haro, paq'hulo/ musharo˚ pachulo ça hair of a mouse, a hull of peaceÇ, which must not be confused with (&muS'a;Rø, pa'cu;lø) /mu'Saro, pa'culo/ musaro˚ paculo ça horde of ﬂies, patchouliÇ. On the other hand, the forced use of digraphs (with a second Roman letter) should not be with h˚ as we have seen, but with another letter having no value in E-o, one which is not already used, but is common and normal. ˛erefore, given that these sounds have a strong palatal component, added to their main articulation (which is lamino-postalveolar), the letter that will function as a diacritic has to be y\ agyo˚ ajyo˚ kacyo˚ kasyo. In fact, by itself it has no value, except possibly when writing foreign family names, in addition to other characteristics which may lead to an appropriate identiﬁcation of the language. It is nothing but a diacritic, without ambiguities; certainly it is no longer above the letters, but immediately after them; and this is their advantage-disadvantage of having no more technological limitations for the press and international communications by any possible means based on the Roman alphabet, with no further complications. On the Internet, often the çdiacritic-letterÇ is x˚ seemingly more by a visual-mnemonic inﬂuence (in fact, the lower part of x can recall 4˚ and the higher one, T; all the more so because x is quite rare in many languages), rather

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than for useful phonic and graphic considerations. Lastly, c (q), which has a di‡erent IPA value, would remain such, as in many Slavic languages. Esperanto £26∞ 13.4.3. Certainly, the most modern solution –and most useful to E-o itself– would be to move on to Esperanto ç26Ç, (&™sp™'Rantø &dud™k's™s), which uses only the twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet, by renouncing –with more gains than losses– the two rarest and less useful sounds: (x, Z) /x, Z/ h˚ j. ˛us the phonemic inventory will be simpliﬁed, by removing the source of some main problems, when we consider the di‡erent phonemic systems of the various languages of the world: it is not always easy to distinguish (h, x÷ G, Z) (as few languages systematically do). Obviously, it is not su‚cient to delete. It is necessary to merge the forms containing these two signs (and sounds) with words having more similar sounds. ˛is means: (x) = (k÷ h), (Z) = (G÷ j). It is already a common practice to e‡ect the former substitution: (x) = (k), as for kaoso˚ kemio˚ jakto çchaos, chemistry, yachtÇ; also the change (Z) = (G) has already been recorded: jazo = gazo çjazzÇ. ˛is same application needs only to be generalized. ‹en similar words containing (k, G) already exist, (h, j) will (have to) be used; otherwise, the shape of the new words which would coincide will be slightly changed; or else they will have to be substituted, if necessary. In the case of horo çchorusÇ, since we already have horo çhourÇ and koro çheartÇ, the new form koruso has been added in order to ﬁnally replace it. For holero çcholeraÇ, since kolero çangerÇ is already there, the solutions can be: holero or kolro (ç26Ç). In a series of oppositions like justa çjust, fairÇ and gusta çright, exactÇ, we may insert juro çlawÇ, juro = guro çvowÇ, jako çjacketÇ, jako = gako çjackÇ as well. As far as jeto çjetÇ, geto çjettyÇ, jeto çthrowÇ are concerned, if this last one becomes ('G™;tø) yeto (ç26Ç), the second example can safely become (G™'t™ø) yeteo (ç26Ç), approaching the related form (mø'l™ø) moleo çmoleÇ. A really concrete case is ajo çthingÇ (and the corresponding su‚x aj˚ with an analogous meaning, which is very widely used) and ago çageÇ. Here, so as not to risk overlapping with the exclamation aj! çow!, ouch!Ç, from which in E-o it is certainly possible to derive ajo ça cry of painÇ, and without thinking of changing a whole series of words already formed with aj (and some more in the future), it would be convenient –and unproblematic– to change ('a;Zø) into ('a;Gø) [ajo = ago = ayo ç26Ç), and ('a;Gø) into ('aiGø) [ago = ajgo = ajyo ç26Ç) or probably, better still, into ('™iGø) [ago = ejgo = ejyo ç26Ç). 13.4.4. Once the number of (distinctive) sounds has appropriately decreased to twenty-six, we have to decide how to pair the sounds with the çnew lettersÇ, as we have already shown in brackets. ˛e advantage of not having to worry about the diacritics will certainly help to overcome some initial perplexities (leaving aside

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any consideration about the çperversionÇ of the language, since they are not at all natural, nor necessary). Obviously, as seen above, ¨ would become w (w), ('na;wa, 'naua) [na¨a = nawa ç26Ç), çninthÇ; however g would become y (G), without causing much ado, given that even in Spanish, in many contexts and variants, for y we ﬁnd a very similar pronunciation, ('pa;Gø) [pago = payo ç26Ç) çpage (of book)Ç. In addition, c would become q (c), and here again we ﬁnd similar pronunciations in Chinese and Albanian, (c™'va;lø) [cevalo = qevalo ç26Ç) çhorseÇ. (On the other hand, does Esperanto not want to be the second language for çallÇ peoples?) ≈nally, x (having no further need to indicate (x) or to function as a diacritic) would be used for (S), which has a similar sound in Portuguese, Catalan, Basque, Chinese, Maltese, and Sicilian (besides in Old Spanish), ('fi;Sø) [ﬁso = ﬁxo ç26Ç) çﬁshÇ. It would be a matter of becoming accustomed to the value of the new letters; after all only for Slavists is c for (q) actually familiar, ('q™;lø) celo çaimÇ. For instance, is not h a real çnothingÇ for most Romance-language speakers: ('ha;vi) havi çto haveÇ (and consequently a real problem)? ˛ose who defend the preservation of (Z, x), because they are useful to render some personal and place names of certain languages (with similar but not identical sounds), should also worry about all the other sounds that E-o does not manage to render (which are many more)… ˛e exchange of j and y (with the value of j /G/ and y /j/), although more in tune with a widespread English-like graphemic tradition, would push E-o away from both IPA usage and from the orthography of many languages. Text 13.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in a number of çnormalizedÇ accents, mostly as useful introductory examples of the phonetic method of natural phonetics. As always, ﬁrst there is the version which gives the typical Esperanto pronunciation of English. ˛en follows the actual Esperanto text, showing neutral E-o pronunciation. Esperanto pronunciation (of English) 13.5.1. (z™'nøRs 'wind2 andz™'san2 w™Rdis'pju;ti˙ 'wic wøzz™'stRø˙g™R23| 'w™n ™'tRavl™R2 'k™m a'lø˙2 ì'Rapt in™'wøm 'kløuk23œ| z™a'gRid2\ zatz™'wan hu'f™Rst sak'si;did2 im'm™;ki˙ z™'tRavl™R2 't™k iz'kløuk 'øf2 2| &Subbikøn'si;d™Rd "stRø˙g™R &zanzi'a;zå23|| 'z™n2 z™'nøRs 'wind2 'blu;2 az'haRd2 azhi'kud23| &batz™'møR hi'blu;2 2| z™'møR 'kløusli2 &didz™'tRavl™R2\ 'føld hiz'kløuk a'Raøndhim23| ì&andat'last2œ\ z™'nøRs 'wind2 'g™v 'ap zia't™mpt23|| ì'z™n2œ z™'san 'Søn 'aøt23 ì'wøRmli23œ| &andi'mi;diatli2\ ˚z™'tRavl™R 'tuk 'øf23 ˚hiz'kløuk23|| ìand'søu2œ z™'nøRs 'wind2 wøzø'bla™G{d} tukøM'f™s2| &zatz™'san23 wøzz™'stRø˙g™R23 ì&øvz™'tu;23œ|| ¿&didju'la™k21 ¿z™'stø;Ri2| ¿dju'wønt tu'hi;Rit a'g™n21|||)

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Esperanto text 13.5.2. Iam, la norda vento kaj la suno disputis, car ciu el la du asertis esti pli forta ol la alia. En tiu momento, ili ekvidis vojaganton, kiu anta¨eniris volvite en sia mantelo. La du disputantoj, do, decidis, ke konsideratos pli forta tiu el la du kiu sukcesos igi la vojaganton forpreni sian mantelon. La norda vento ekblovis tre forte; sed, ju pli gi blovis, des pli la vojaganto mallozigis sian mantelon, kaj, ﬁnﬁne, la kompatinda vento devis rezigni. Tiam, la suno montrigis en la cielo, kaj, mallonge poste, la vojaganto, al kiu estis varme, forprenis la mantelon. Tiel, la norda vento devis agnoski, ke la suno estas pli forta el la du. Cu vi satis la historion? Cu ni ripetu gin? Esperanto pronunciation 13.5.3. ('iam2 la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 &kaila'su;nø2| dis'pu;tis23 'caR2 ìciu &™lla'du;2 a's™Rtis23 &™sti&pli'føRta2 &øll[a]a'lia23œ| ™n&tiumø'm™ntø2 2| &ili&™k'vi;dis23 &vøja'Gantøn23 &kiuan&taw™n'i;Ris23 vøl'vit™ ™n&siaman't™;lø23|| la'du &dispu'tantøi2 ì'dø;2œ d™'qi;dis23 &k™køn&sid™'Ra;tøs2 &pli'føRta2 2|| &tiu™lla'du;2| &kiusuk'q™;søs2 &igila&vøja'Gantøn2 2| &føR'pR™ni &siamman't™;løn23|| la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 2| &™k'bløvis &tR™'føRt™23| 's™d2 'ju; &pliGi'blø;vis2 2| 'd™s2 &plila&vøja'Gantø2 &mallø'zigis &siamman't™;løn23| &kaifiM'fi;n™2| la&kømpa'tinda 'v™ntø2| &d™visR™'zigni23|| 'tiam2| la'sunø møn'tRi;Gis2 &™nlaci'™;lø23| &kaimal'lø˙g™ 'pøst™2 2| la&vøja'Gantø2 ìal&kiu[™]stis'vaRm™2 2œ ˚&føR'pR™;nis23 ˚&laman't™;løn23|| 'ti™l2| la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 ˚&d™vis-ag'nøski23 &k™la'su;nø2 ˚&™stas&pli'føRta23 ì&™lla'du;23œ|| ¿&cuvi'Sa;tis21 ¿la&histø'Riøn2| ¿&cuniRi'p™;tu&Gin21|||) Foreign pronunciations of Esperanto 13.5.4. We add 13 foreign accents (¤ {British and American} English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, {Brazilian and Lusitanian} Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, and Japanese. In the Italian version of this book 11 regional accents are also given, which are omitted in this English adaptation (¤ Turinese, Genoese, Milanese, Venetian, Bolognese, ∫orentine, Roman, Neapolitan, Barese, Palermitan, Cagliaritan). Speakers of other languages could prepare their own versions. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).

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British pronunciation 13.5.5. ('IiÈm2 lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨2 &khaÙlÈ's¯un‘¨2| D¤'sp¯uT¤s3 3 'chA:2 ì5chIi¯ ™ılÈ'D¯;u2 È's™‘T¤s3 3 &™sTi&phlIi'fø;T√2 &ø;ılåÈ'lIiå3 3|œ ™n&ThIi¯mÈ'm™nT‘¨32| &Iili™k'vIiD¤s23 &vøÙÈ'GA;nTØ˙3 3 5khIi¯ ån&Tåw™n'¤È>¤s3 3 vØı5vIiT™I ™n&sIiÈmmÈn'Th™l‘¨3 3|| lÈ5D¯u &D¤spÈ'ThA;nTøÙ2 ì'Dø:2œ D¤'tsIiD¤s3 3 kh™I&khØns¤DÈ'>A;TØs2 &phlIi'fø;Tå32|| &ThIi¯™ılÈ'D¯;u2| &khIi¯s¨k'ts™sØs2 5Iigi &låvøÙÈ'GA;nTØn32| fø;5ph<™ni &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lØn3 3|| lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨‘32| ™k5bl‘¨v¤s &˛h>™I'fø;T™I3 3| 's™;ﬂ2 'j¯;u &phlIiGIi'bl‘¨v¤s32| 'D™s2 &phlIilÈvøÙÈ'GA;nT‘¨2 &mA;ıl‘¨5zIig¤s &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lØn3 3| &khaÙf¤M'fIin™I2| lû&khØmpÈ'ThIinDå 'vEnT‘¨2| &D™v¤s>¤'zIigni3 3|| 'ThIiÈm2| lÈ5s¯;un‘¨ mØN'˛h>IiG¤s2 &™nlÈci'™l‘¨3 3| &khaÙmåı5lØ˙g™I 'phØsT™I32| lÈ&vøÙÈ'GA;nT‘¨2 ìåı&khIi¯5™sT¤s 'vA;m™I32œ ˚fø;'ph>™n¤s3 3 ˚&låmÈn'Th™lØn3 3|| 'ThIi™ı2| lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨2 ˚&D™v¤sûg'nØski3 3 &kh™IlÈ's¯un‘¨2 ˚&™sTÈs&phlIi'fø;Tå3 3 ì&™ılÈ'D¯;u3 3œ|| ¿&ch¯uvi'SA;T¤s21 ¿lÈ&h¤sTÈ'>IiÈn2| ¿ch¯&nIi>¤'ph™T¯&GIin21|||) American pronunciation 13.5.6. ('IiÈm2 lÈ'nø;
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ja'Gan:to2 &mallo'zi;gis &siamman'tE:lon23| &kaifiM'fi:n™2| la&kompa'tinda 'vEn:to2| &d™vizRe'zig:ni23|| 'ti;am2| la'su;no mon'tri:Gis2 &enla'cE:lo23| &kaimal'lO˙ge 5pOs:te12| la&voja'Gan:to2 ìal&kiu'Estis 5var:me12œ ˚foR'prE:niz23 ˚&laman'tE:lon23| 'ti™l2| la'nOrda 'vEn:to2 ˚&d™vi-sag'nOs:ki23 &ke[l]la'su:nø2 ˚&™staspli[f]'fOr:ta23 ì&ella'du23œ|| ¿&cu[v]viS'Sa:tis21 ¿la&isto'ri;øn2| ¿cu[n]&niRi'pE:tu21 ¿'Gin:2|||) French pronunciation 13.5.8. ('iÅm2 lÅ'n∏˜dÅ 'vìntP2 &©ÅilÅ's¯nP2| _isçp¯+is3 3 [T]'SÅ:˜2 ì[T]'Si¯ ™llÅ'd¯2 ÅçsEÆ+is3 3 &™s+ipúi'f∏ÆtÅ2 &ÖllÅ;çliÅ3 3|œ 3n&+i¯mÖ5mìntP1 1| &ili™©çvi_is3 3 &vÖ,ÅçZÕntÚn3 3 &©i¯ÕntÅ°eçni˜is3 3 vÖl'vite 3n&siÅmÕnçtElP3 3|| lÅ'd¯ &_isp¯'tÕntPi2 ‘'dP2’ d™[t]çsi_is3 3 &©ekÚn&side'˜ÅtPs2 &púi5f∏ÆtÅ1 1|| &+i¯™llÅ'd¯2| &©i¯s¯k'sEsPs2 &iáilÅvÖ,Å5ZÕntÚn1 1| fÖÆ'püeni &siÕmÕnçtElÚn3 3|| lÅ'n∏˜dÅ 5vìntP1 1| ™k'bl∏vis tü™çf∏Æte3 3| 'sEd2 ',¯ &púi[D]Zi5bl∏vis1 1| 'dEs2 &púilÅ&vÖ,Å'ZÕntP2 &mÅllO'ziáis &siÕmÕnçtElÚn3 3| &©Åifin'fine2| lÅ&kÚ≈pÅ+indÅ 'vìntP2| &devisºeçzigni3 3|| '+iÅm2| lÅ's¯nP mÚn'tüi[D]Zis2 &3nlÅ[T]çS¿elP3 3| &©ÅimÅl'lÚNáe 5p∏ste1 1| lÅ&vÖ,ÅçZÕntP2 ‘Åú&©i¯'Es+is 5vÅ˜me1 1’ ˚fÖÆçpüenis3 3 ˚&lÅmÕnçtElÚn3 3|| '+i™l2| lÅ'n∏˜dÅ 'vìntP2 ˚&devi-sÅgçn∏s©i3 3 &©elÅ's¯nP2 ˚&™stÅs&púiçf∏ÆtÅ3 3 ì&™llÅ'd¯3 3œ|| ¿&[T]S¯vi•SÅ+is1 1 ¿lÅ&istÖ'ºiÚn2| ¿&[T]S¯&ni˜i•pet¯1 1 ¿'[D]Zin2|||) German pronunciation 13.5.9. ('öi:am2 la'nO‰da 'fEnto2 &khaela'zu:no2| ∂I'spu:tIs3 3 'cha:‰2 ì'chi:u &ö™lla'du:2 öa'zE‰tIs3 3 &ö™sti&phli'fO‰ta2 &öøllaöa'li:a3 3|œ ö™n&thi:umo5mEnto1 1| &öiliö™k'Ñi:dIs3 3 &fo,at'Ëantøn3 3 &khi;uöan&tao™n'öi:ºIs3 3 føl'vi:t¢ ö™n&ziaman'the:lo3 3|| la'du: &dIspu'thantOY2 ‘'do:2’ de'qhi:dIs3 3 &khekøn&zidÈ'ºa:tøs2 &phli;5fO‰ta1 1|| &thi;uö™lla'du:2| &khi;uzUk'qhe:zøs2 'öi:gi la&fo,at5Ëantøn1 1| fø‰'phºe:ni &ziamman'the:løn3 3|| la'nO‰da 5fEnto1 1| ö™k'Êlo:vIs &thºe;'fO‰t¢3 3| 'zEt2 ',u: &phli;tËi5blo:vIs1 1| '∂™s2 &phli;la&fo,at'Ëanto2 &mallo'zi:gIs &Ωiamman'the:løn3 3| &khaefIM'fi:n¢2| la&khømpa'thInda 'fEnto2| &∂evIsºe'zIgni3 3|| 'thi:am2| la'zu:no møn'thºi:tËIs2 &ö™nlaci'öe:lo3 3| &khaemal'lO˙g¢ 5phOst¢1 1| la&fo,at'Ëanto2 ‘öal&khi;u'öEstIs 5Ña‰m¢1 1’ ˚fø‰'phºe:nIs3 3 ˚&laman'the:løn3 3|| 'thi:™l2| la'nO‰da 'fEnto2 ˚&devIsöak'nOski3 3 &khela'zu:no2 ˚&ö™stas&phli;'fO‰ta3 3 ì&ö™lla'du:3 3œ|| ¿&chu;vi'Sa:tIs1 1 ¿la&hIsto'ºi:øn2| ¿chu∋ºi'phe:tu&tËIn1 1|||) Spanish pronunciation 13.5.10. ('ian2 la'nøRƒa 'B™nto2 &kaila'ßu;no2| diß'pu;tiß3 3 'CaR2 ì'Ciu e{l}la'ƒu2 a'ß™Rtiß3 3 &™ßti&pli'føRta2 &ø{l}la'lia3 3œ| en&tiumo'm™nto1 1| &ilieŸ'Bi;ƒiﬁ3 3 &Bo,a',anton3 3 &kiuantawe'ni;-

13. esperanto

413

Riﬁ3 3 Bol'Bi;te en&ßiaman't™;lo3 3|| la'ƒu &ƒißpu'tantoi2 ì'ƒø2œ ƒe[t]'†i;ƒiß3 3 &kekon&ßiƒe'Ra;toß2 &pli'føRta1 1|| &tiue{l}la'ƒu2| &kiußu◊'†™;ßoß2 &iŸila&Bo,a',anton1 1| føR'pR™;ni &ßiaNman't™;lon3 3|| la'nøRƒa 'B™nto1 1| eŸ'Blø;Biß &tR™'føRte3 3| 'ß™ƒ2 '›u &pli,i'Blø;Biß1 1| 'd™ß2 &plila&Bo,a',anto2 &ma{l}lo'ßi;Ÿi{ß}2 &ßia{N}man't™;lon3 3| &kaifiM'fi;ne2| la&kompa'tinda 'B™nto2| &d™BiRr:e'ßiŸni3 3|| 'tian2| la'ßuno mon'tRi;,iß2 &enla'Cj™;lo3 3| &kaimal'lø˙ge 'pøßte1 1| la&Bo,a',anto2 ìal&kiu'™ßtiﬁ'BaRme1 1œ ˚foR'pR™;niß3 3 ˚&laman't™;lon3 3|| 'tiel2| la'nøRƒa 'B™nto2 ˚&ƒ™BißaŸ'nøßki3 3 &kela'ßu;no2 ˚&™ßtaß&pli'føRta3 3 ì&e{l}la'ƒu3 3œ|| ¿&CuBiçßa;tiß21 ¿la&ißto'Rion2| ¿Cu&niRr:içp™;tu21 ¿',in2|||) Brazilian pronunciation 13.5.11. ('iAn2 ]AçnO˜då 'v™ntu2 &kai]å'su;nu2| ‚isçpu;Cis3 3 'ëa˜2 ìçëiu e{∞}]å'du2 açsE˜Cis3 3 &™sCi&p]i'fO˜tå2 &o{∞}]åç]iå3 3œ| e~&CiumÚçm™nt¨2 2| &i]ie©içvi;‚is3 3 &voãaçòAntÚn3 3 &©iuAn&tajeçni;Ris3 3 vo∞çviCi e«&siAmAnçte;]Ú«3 3|| ]åçdu &‚ispu'tAntji2 ì'dO2œ ‚içsi;‚is3 3 &©ekÚ«&side'Ra;tus2 &p]içfO˜tå2 2|| &Ciue{∞}]å'du2| &©iusu©i'sE;sus2 'iái ]a&voãaçòAntÚ«3 3| fo˜çpR™;ni &siAmAnçte;]Ú«3 3|| ]AçnO˜då çv™nt¨2 2| &e©içb]Ovis &tR™çfO˜Ci3 3| 'sE‚i2 'ãu &p]iòiçb]O;vis2 2| 'dEs2 &p]i]a&voãaçòAntu2 &mA{∞}]oçziái{s} &siAmAnçte;]Ú«3 3| &kaifi«'fi;ni2| ]å&kÚmpaçCindå 'v™nt¨2| &devi{s}˜eçzigni3 3|| 'CiA«2| ]åçsunu mÚn'tRi;òis2 &en]åçëje;]u3 3| &kaimA{∞}ç]9Nái çpOsCi2 2| ]å&voãaçòAntu2 ìA∞&©iuçEsCiz çva˜mi2 2œ ˚fo˜çpR™;nis3 3 ˚&]AmAnçte;]Ú«3 3|| 'Ci™∞2| ]AçnO˜då 'v™ntu2 ˚&d™vizaáiçnOs©i3 3 &©e]å'su;nu2 ˚&™stås&p]içfO˜tå3 3 ì&e{∞}]åçdu3 3œ|| ¿&ëuvi¶ëa;Cis12 ¿&]åisto'RiÚ«2| ¿ëu&ni˜i¶pe;tu12 ¿'òi«2|||) Lusitanian pronunciation 13.5.12. ('i4n2 ]‘'nORƒ‘ 'v™nt[u]2 &kai]‘'su;nu2| d¢SÇpu;t?S3 3 'SaÍ2 ì'Siu e{ı}]‘'ƒu2 ‘ÇsEÍtNs3 3 &™StN&p]i'fOÍta2 &o{ı}]aÇ]i‘3 3œ| en&tiumu'm™ntu2 2| &i]i¢kÇvi;ƒ˙S3 3 &voã‘ÇZAntÚn3 3 &kiuAnt‘j¢Çni;RÛS3 3 voı'vit¢ e”&si4m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3|| ]‘'ƒu &ƒÛSpu'tAntji2 ì'ƒO2œ ƒ¢Çsi;ƒÛS3 3 kNkÚ”&siƒ¢'Ra;tuS2 &p]i'fOÍt‘2 2|| &tiue{ı}]‘'ƒu2| &kiusuk'sE;sus2 'iŸi ]‘&voã‘ÇZ4ntÚ«3 3| fuÍ'pRE;ni &si4m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3|| ]‘'nORƒ‘ 'v™ntu2 2| ek'b]OvÛS &tR™ÇfOÍt˙3 3| 'sEƒ2 'ãu &p]iZÛ'b]O;vÛS2 2| 'dES2 &p]i]‘&voã‘ÇZAntu2 &mA{ı}]u'ziŸÛ{S} &si4m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3| &kaifi«'fi;n[˙]2| ]‘&kÚ≈p‘'tind‘ 'v™nt[u]2| &devÛ{Z}º¢ÇziŸni3 3|| 'ti4«| ]‘'sunu mÚn'tRi;ZÛS2 &en]‘ÇSje;]u3 3| &kaimA{ı}']9˙g¢ 'pOSt[˙]2 2| ]‘&voã‘ÇZAnt[u]2 ìAı&kiu'EStÛZ ÇvaRm¢2 2œ ˚fuÍÇpRE;nÛS3 3 ˚&]‘m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3|| 'ti™ı2| ]‘'nORƒ‘ 'v™nt[u]2 ˚&ƒ™viz‘ŸÇnOSki3 3 &ki]‘'su;nu2 ˚&™St‘S&p]i ÇfOÍt‘3 3 ì&e{ı}]‘Çƒu3 3œ|| ¿&Suvi'Sa;tÛS21 ¿&]aiStu'RiÚ«2| ¿Su&niºi'pe;tu21 ¿'Zi«2|||)

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Russian pronunciation 13.5.13. ('ixm2 ıåçnjøRdx 'v™ntx2 &kaIıå'sju;nx2| ÁIsçpju⁄Is3 3 'CãaR2 ìçCiuã™ııå'dju;2 åçÀ™Í⁄Is3 3 &™À⁄i&p¬I'fjøÍtx2 &jøııåç¬ixœ3 3| ãI8&⁄iumåçm™ntx2 2| &i¬ii©çvi;ÁIs3 3 &vjøãåçÁantxn3 3 &©IuxntxF¢ç~i;çIs3 3 våıçvi;⁄i ãi8&Àixmånç⁄™;ıx3 3|| ıåçdju &ÁIspu'tFantxi2 ì'djø;2œ ÁIçqF…;Áis3 3 &©Ikx8&ÀiÁI'RFa;txs2 &p¬IçfjøÍtx2 2|| &⁄iu™ııå'dju;2| &©Iusuk'qF™;sxs2 çi;áI ıx&vjøãåçÁantxn2 2| fåÍçpçe;~i &Àixmån'⁄™;ıxn3 3|| ıåçnjøRdx çv™ntx2 2| ¢kçbıjø;vIs &tR™çfjøÍ⁄I3 3| 'À™t2 'ju; &p¬iÁIbçıjø;vIs2 2| 'Á™s2 &p¬Iıx&vjøãåçÁantx2 &maııåçzi;áiÀ &Àixmmån'⁄™;ıxn3 3| &kaifIm'fi;~I2| ıx&kx≈påç⁄indx 'v™ntx2| &ÁevIsçiç=ig~I3 3|| '⁄ixm2| ıåçsju;nx mxn'tçi;Áis2 &ãInıåçCã™;ıx3 3| &kåimåıçıjøNáI çpjøs⁄I2 2| ıx&vjøãåçÁantx2 ìåı&©Iuçã™s⁄Is çvFaRmI2 2œ ˚fåÍçpçe;~Is3 3 ˚&ıxmån'⁄™;ıxn3 3|| '⁄i™ı2| ıåçnjøRdx 'v™ntx2 ˚&ÁevIsågçnjøs©i3 3 &©Iıå'sju;nx2 ˚&ã™stxs&p¬IçfjøÍtx3 3 ì&ã™ııå'dju;3 3œ|| ¿&C¯vi5ëëa;⁄Is12 ˚ıx&âIstx'çixn2| ¿C¯&~içI5p™;tu&ÁIn12|||) Arabic pronunciation 13.5.14. ('öi;åm2 lå'nø5då 'v™ntU2 &kailå'su:nU2| dIs'pu:tIs23 'Sa52 ì'SiUöIllå'du:2 öå's™5tIs23 &ö™stI&blI'fø5tå2 &øllåöå'li;å23œ| öIn&tiUmU'm™ntU2 2| &ili&Ik'vi:dIs23 &vøjå'ZantUn23 &kiUöåntåwI'ni:RIs23 vUl'vi:tI In&siåmån't™lU23|| lå'du &dIspU'tantUI2 ì'dø2œ dIt'si:dIs23 &kIkUn&sIdI'Ra:tUs2 &pli'fø5tå2 2|| &tiUöIllå'du:2| &kiUsUk's™sUs2 'öi:gI lå&vøjå'ZantUn2 2| fUR'b5™ni &siåmmån't™lU23|| lå'nø5då 'v™ntU2 2| Ik'bløvIs &tR™'fø5tI3 3| 's™d2 'ju; &bliZIb'løvIs2 2| 'd™s2 &plilå&vøjå'ZantU2 &mallU'zi:gIs &siåmmån't™lUn23| &kaifIM'fi:nI2| lå&kUmbå'tIndå 'v™ntU2| &d™vIsRIgnI23|| 'ti;åm2| lå'su:nU mUn't5i:gIs2 &Inlå'Sj™lU23| &kaimål'lø˙gI 'bøstI2 2| lå&vøjå'ZantU2 ìål&kiU'™stIs 'va5mI2 2œ ˚&fUR'b5™nIs23 ˚&låmån't™lUn23|| 'ti™l2| lå'nø5då 'v™ntU2 ˚&d™vIs-åg'nøskI23 &kIlå'su;nU2 ˚&™stås&bli'fø5tå2 ì&öIllå'du:23œ|| ¿&SuvI'Sa:tIs21 ¿lå&hIstU'5iUn2| ¿SU&nIRI'p™tU&ZIn21|||) Hindi pronunciation 13.5.15. ('iiAm2 lÈçn∏øÍÃÈ '6Ä™N&˛o2 &kåilÈ'suu&no2| ÃIsçpuu–˛Is3 3 'CåÍ2 ìçCiiu &ellÈ'Ãuu2 ÈçsÄ™Í–˛Is3 3 &es˛i&plI'å∏øÍ&˛È2 &ollaçliiÈ3 3|œ eN&˛iiumoçmÄ™N&˛o2 2Ú| &iliekç6ii–ÃIs3 3 &6oãÈç‚åN–˛on3 3 &kiiuAN˛È6eçnii–RIs3 3 6olç6iite en&siiÈmåNç˛Ä™–lo3 3|| lÈçÃuu &ÃIspu'˛åN&˛oi2 ì'Ã∏ø2œ Ãetçsii–Ã¤s3 3 &kekon&siÃe'Raa&˛os2 &pliçå∏øÍ&˛È2 2Ú|| &˛iiuellÈ'Ãuu2| &kiiusUk'sÄ™&sos2 çiigi lÈ&6oãÈç‚åN&˛on2 2Ú| åoÍçpReeni &siiAmmåNç˛Ä™–lon3 3|| lÈçn∏øÍÃÈ ç6Ä™N&˛o2 2Ú| egçbl∏ø6Is &˛Reçå∏øÍ–˛e3 3| 'sÄ™d2 'juu &pli‚ibçl∏ø&6Is2 2Ú| 'Ãees2 &plilÈ&6oãÈ'‚åN&˛o2 &målloçsiigIs &siiAmmåNç˛Ä™–lon3 3| &kåiåIM'åii&ne2| lÈ&kompÈç˛INÃÈ '6Ä™N&˛o2| &Ãe6IsReçsIg–ni3 3|| '˛iiAm2| lÈçsuuno moN'˛Rii&‚Is2 &enlÈçCjee–lo3 3| &kåimålçl∏9˙-

13. esperanto

415

ge çp∏øß&˛e2 2Ú| lÈ&6oãÈ'‚åN&˛o2 ìål&kiiuçeß˛i ç6aaÍ&me2 2Úœ ˚åoÍçpRee–nIs3 3 ˚&låmåNç˛Ä™–lon3 3|| '˛iiel2| lÈçn∏øÍÃÈ '6Ä™N&˛o2 ÷&Ãe6Is-ågçn∏øs–ki3 3 &kelÈ'suu&no2 ˚&eß˛ås&pliçå∏øÍ–˛È3 3 ì&ellÈçÃuu3 3œ|| ˚&Cuu6i'ëaa&˛Is21Ú ¿lÈ&HIß˛o'RiiÚn2| ¿Cu&niRi'pee&˛u21Ú ¿'‚In2|||) Chinese pronunciation 13.5.16. ('öiam2 2la'nø;2da 'vÉn2∂ø2 &kaÉ2la'su2nø2| 2dIs'phu2∂Is13 'Âhja;2 ì'Âhiu &öÉ;2la'tu2 2öa'sÉ;2∂Is13 &öÉs2ti&pli'5ø;2∂a2 &öø;2la'lia13œ| 2öÉn&tiu2[ø'm™n2∂ø^| &öi2li&öÉ2kM'vi2dIs13 &çø2ja'Âjan2∂U,13 &kiu2öÅn2∂a2w‘n'öi2lIs13 2çø;'vi2∂É 2öÉ~&¿ia2man'thÉ2lø13|| 2la'tu &∂Is2Êu'than2∂øI2 ì'tø2œ 2dÉ'Âhi2dIs13 &kÉ2âU,&¿i2dÉ'la2∂øs2 &pli'5ø;2∂a^|| &tiu&öÉ;2la'tu2| &kiu2su2kM'qÉ2søs2 'i2gi 2la&çø2ja'Âjan2∂U¥^| 25ø;'phlÉ2~i &¿ian2man'thÉ2lU¥13|| 2la'nø;2da 'vÉn2∂ø^| &öÉ2kM'plø2vIs &tlÉ'5ø;2∂Ë13| 'sÉ2∂M 'ju &pli2©i'plø2vIs^| 'tÉs2 &pli2la&çø2ja'Âjan2∂ø2 &ma;2lø'¿i2gIs &¿ian2man'thÉ2lU¥13| &kaÉ2fIn'fi2nË2| 2la&køm2pa'thIn2∂a 'vÉn2∂ø2| &∂É2vIs2lÉ'¿Ig2ni13|| 'thiaC2| 2la'su2nø 2[øn'thli2©is2 &öÉn2la2ÂhjÉ2lø13| &kaÉ2ma;'lø˙2gÉ '(høs2∂Ë^| 2la&çøja'Âjan2∂ø2 ìöa;&kiu'öÉs2tIs 'va;2mÉ^œ ˚5ø;'phlÉ2~Is13 ˚&la2man'thÉ2lU¥13|| 'thiËë2| 2la'nø;2da 'vÉn2∂ø2 ˚&∂É2vIs2öag'nøs2ki13 &kÉ2la'su2nø2 ˚&™s2tas&pli'5ø;2∂a13 ì&öÉ;2la'tu2œ|| ¿&Âju2vi'¿ja2∂Is31 ¿2la&hIs2tø'liU¥2| ¿2¸ju&~i2li'phÉ2∂u&¸Ic31|||) Japanese pronunciation 13.5.17. ('öia2m¨2 2ma'nø2mM2da '6™ó2tø2 &kai2ma'sM2nø2| 3©i2s¨'pM2Âi2s¨ 'Âªa2mM2 ì'ÂªM &ö™2m¨2ma'QM2 2öa's™2mM2Âi2s¨13 &ö™2s¨2Âi2p¨&mi'Fø2m¨2ta2 &öø2m¨2ma'mia13œ| 3ö™«&ÂiM2mø'm™ó2tø^| –öi2mi&ö™2©i'6i2©i2s¨13 &6ø2ja'©jaó2tøP13 &©iM2öaó2ta2µ™P'öi:2mi2s¨13 26ø2mM'6i2t™ 2ö™P&¿ia2maó't™2mø13 2¬a'dM 2©i2s¨2pM'taó2tøi2 ì'dø2œ 2de'qµi2©i2s¨13 &k™2køP&¿i2d™'ma2tø2s¨2 2pM&mi'Fø2m¨2ta13|| –ÂiM2ö™2m¨2ma'QM2| &©iM2s¨2k¨'qµ™2sø2s¨2 &öi2ái 2ma&6ø2ja'©jaó2tøP^| –Fø2mM'p¨2m™2~i &¿iaõ2maó't™2møP13|| 3¬a'nø2mM2da '6™ó2tø^| –ö™2k¨2bM'mø26i2s¨ &t¨2m™'Fø2m¨2t™13| çs™2Q¨2 'jM: 2p¨&mi2Bi2b¨'mø26i2s¨^| çd™2s¨2 2p¨&mi2ma&6ø2ja'©jaó2tø2 &ma2mM2mø'Bi2ái2s¨ &¿iaõ2maó't™2møP13| &kai2âiP'âi2n™2| 3¬a&køõ2pa'Âió2da '6™ó2tø2| &d™26i2s¨2m™'BiP2~i13|| çÂia2m¨2| 3¬a'sM2nø &møó2t'mi2©i2 &ö™ó2¬a'Âª™2mø13| &kai2ma2m¨'møô2g™ 'pø2s¨2t™^| 3¬a&6ø2ja'©jaó2tø2 ì&öa2m¨&©iM'ö™2s¨2Âi2s¨ '6a2m¨2m™^œ ˚&Fø2mM2p¨'m™2~i2s¨13 ˚&ma2maó't™2møP13|| çÂi™2mM2| 3¬a'nø2mM2da '6™ó2tø2 ˚&d™26i2s¨2öa2˙¨'nø2s¨2©i13 &k™2ma'sM2nø2 ˚&ö™2s¨2ta2sM2p¨&mi'Fø2m¨2ta13 ì&ö™2m¨2ma'QM13œ|| ¿–ÂªM26i'¿ja2Âi2s¨31 ¿2ma&âi2s¨2tø'miøP2| ¿3ÂªM&~i2mi'p™2qM&BiP31|||)

From L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation, Lincom Europa.

Utilizable bibliography ˛e utilizable bibliography is presented in separate chapters. Prelude (é 1) bouquiaux, l. “ cloarec-heiss, f. “ thomas, j. m. c. (1976) Initiation à la phonétique˘ Paris: puf/orstom (a vinyl record with recorded text, to be used alone or in reference to thomas “ bouquiaux “ cloarec-heiss {§ 3}; expanded IPA). canepari, l. (1983) Phonetic Notation _ La notazione fonetica˘ Venezia: Cafoscarina (with 2 enclosed audiocassettes; almost canIPA). – (1985) L'intonazione. Linguistica e paralinguistica˘ Napoli: Liguori (almost canIPA). – (2000) Introduzione alla fonetica˘ Torino: Einaudi (expanded IPA). – (2004 {amended “ modiﬁed reprint} – 2003) Manuale di fonetica˘ Fonetica "naturale&: articolatoria, uditiva, funzionale. München: Lincom Europa (canIPA). – (2005) A Handbook of Phonetics: èNatutal¶ phonetics – articulatory, auditory, and functional˘ München: Lincom Europa (English version of the çMaFÇ, canIPA). – (2006) Avviamento alla fonetica˘ Torino: Einaudi (canIPA). catford, j. c. (1977) Fundamental Problems in Phonetics˘ Edinburgh: E. Univ. Press (IPA). – (1988) A Practical Introduction to Phonetics˘ Oxford: Clarendon Press (guided drills to develop phonetic kinesthesia, to be performed accurately, step by step; however, the 2001 edition should be avoided because of too many technical problems during its unsuccesful updating; IPA). chapman, w. h. et alii (1988’) Introduction to Practical Phonetics˘ Horsleys Green: Summer Institute of Linguistics (substantially IPA). costamagna, l. (2000) Insegnare e imparare la fonetica. Torino: Paravia (with an enclosed audiocassette; canIPA]˘ delattre, p. et alii (1951) vwljùl s¿tetik l d@ f§rmãt e vwljùl klrdinll˚ in çLe Maître PhonétiqueÇ, 96:30-5 as all MPh contributions, fully transcribed in IPA. haudricourt, a. g. “ thomas, j. m. c. (1976) La notation des langues. Phonétique et phonologie˘ Paris: Inst. Géographique National (with 2 enclosed vinyl records; IPA). hyman, l. m. (1975) Phonology: theory and Analysis˘ New York: Holt, Rinehart “ ©nston (non-IPA). jones, d. (1956) Cardinal Vowels˘ London: Linguaphone Inst. 2 {78 rpm} records with booklet; now downloadable; IPA. – (1967’) †e Phoneme: its Nature and Use˘ Cambridge: He‡er (IPA). ladefoged, p. “ maddieson, i. (1996) †e Sounds of the World's Languages˘ Oxford: Blackwell with stated instrumental rigor, but uses also other poeple's works, by accepting them too peacefully, or drawing di‡erent interpretations; 16 Macintosh diskettes for HyperCard were in partial correspondence with parts of this book; IPA. laver, j. (1980) †e Phonetic Description of Voice Quality˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (with a non-enclosed audiocassette; IPA). – (1994) Principles of Phonetics˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (one may be doubtful whether to indicate it or not, because it tries to use the few symbols and various awkward diacritics of

414

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o‚cial IPA, in transcriptions which are always prosodically deﬁcient, whereas in two pages {arranged in three: 558-60} it tries to give çaccurateÇ descriptions, which only reveal the method's heaviness and complexity, with results that cannot be suggested and çlanguagesÇ which are unrecognizable even to native speakers, when one tries to reproduce them as represented; oƒIPA). malmberg, b. (1974) Manuel de phonétique générale˘ Paris: Picard (IPA). o'connor, j. d. (1973) Phonetics˘ Harmondsworth: Penguin (IPA). schubiger, m. (1977) Einführung in die Phonetik˚ Berlin: De Gruyter (IPA). smalley, w. a. (1964”) Manual of Articulatory Phonetics˘ Terrytown (~¥): Practical Anthropology (with 33 non-enclosed {18 cm, 19 cm/s} reels, lasting 32 hours; non-IPA). thomas, j. m. c. “ bouquiaux, l. “ cloarec-heiss, f. (1976) Initiation à la phonétique˘ Paris: puf (completed by the vinyl record of bouquiaux “ cloarec-heiss “ thomas; expanded IPA). trubeckoj, n. s. (1939) Grundzüge der Phonologie˘ Göttingen: Vandenhoeck “ Ruprecht – (1969) Principles of Phonology˘ Berkeley: Univ. of California Press (non-IPA and sometimes mixed, so that some symbols can have {very} di‡erent values). westermann, d. “ ward, i. c. (1990 {1930/31»}) Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages˘ London/New York: Kegan Paul International in association with the International African Institute (IPA). English (é 2) American English Pronunciation Program (1999) New York: Living Language/Random House (graphemic booklet, but with 6 audiocassettes). Australian Learners Dictionary (1997) Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (gives the distributions of Australian pronunciation; IPA). BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names (1983”, 1971») Oxford: O. Univ. Press (British pronunciation; also IPA). canepari, l. (in progr.) English Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with 2 neutral and 2 mediatic pronunciations {¤ American and British}, in addition to the international one and 5 further neutral pronunciations, together with several native regional accents from all over the world and several broad foreign accents, too; canIPA]˘ dauer, r. m. (1993) Accurate English˘ Englewoods Cli‡s: Regents/Prentice Hall (American pronunciation; with 4 audiocassettes; almost IPA). Gage Canadian Dictionary (2000) Gage Educational Publishing Company: Vancouver (gives Canadian pronunciation; IPA). gimson, a. c. “ cruttenden, a. (2001•) An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English˘ London: Arnold (now: çcruttenden, a.
utilizable bibliography

415

it, by standardizing the transcriptions {Ô Jones “ Gimson “ Ramsaran}; there is also a version with a ©∂, which allows one to listen to the pronunciations and to search for homophones by typing in a transcription; IPA). (˛e former version of the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary˚ for American pronunciation {assigned to Hartman and to a çcleverÇ editorial sta‡} had monstrosities like blaster with /sÿ/, that is ç/sù/Ç!) jones, d. “ gimson, a. c. “ ramsaran, s. (1988»[) English Pronouncing Dictionary˘ London: Dent (British; now pronunciation has changed a bit, but it is still worthwhile consulting evenly, to have a taste of all the nuances indicated and to be able to enter the spirit of the language; IPA). kenyon, j. s. (1950»Ò, 1924») American Pronunciation˘ George Wahr: Ann Arbor (American English; meanwhile, pronunciation has changed, but it is still worthwhile seeing; there is also an çaugmentedÇ edition by others, but with no real additions, 1994»”; IPA). – “ knott, t. a. (1953) A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English˘ Springﬁeld, µåßß.: Merriam (American pronunciation; meanwhile, certain pronunciations have changed, but it is still worthwhile consulting; IPA {while, incredibly –in the 3rd millennium– mostly in America, non-IPA dictionaries are still being published!}). Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002) Oxford: Macmillan Education (strangely, this dictionary çcreated in Britain and the usaÇ only gives British pronunciation and with only tiny detail; however, it is useful for the –British– stressing of lexical collocations; IPA). Macquarie Dictionary, †e (1997’) Sydney: ˛e Macquarie Library (encyclopedic, gives Australian pronunciation; IPA). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2003»») Springﬁeld, Mass.: Merriam-Webster (American pronunciation; interesting for its frequent phonetic variants, although it shows absurd çsecondary stressesÇ, since they are marked for almost every non-attenuated V÷ unfortunately non-IPA). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (2000•) Oxford: O. Univ. Press (British pronunciation with only major American di‡erences; it shows cases of çmarkedÇ stresses for certain lexical collocations; IPA). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English – Encyclopedic Edition (1992) Oxford: O. Univ. Press (British pronunciation with only major American di‡erences; it shows cases of çmarkedÇ stresses for certain lexical collocations; IPA). quaggiato, m. e. (1997/98) Fonetica inglese neutra e del Sud. Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (canIPA]˘ ragazzini, g. (1995’) Dizionario inglese {–italiano e italiano–inglese}. Bologna: Zanichelli (British pronunciation with only major American di‡erences; its transcriptions have been revised by L. Canepari and A. Venturi but çreducedÇ by the editorial sta‡, however it presents the innovation of /E/ instead of /e/ and very many çreduced formsÇ, more than in pronunciation dictionaries, although less than in this HPr÷ IPA). Random House Dictionary of the English Language (†e)˚ Unabridged (1987”) New York: Random House (American; reliable for secondary stresses; but non-IPA). Random House Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1997”) New York: Random House (American; reliable for secondary stresses; but non-IPA). roach, p. (2000’) English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (British pronunciation; with 2 audiocassettes; IPA). santipolo, m. (1997/98) A Socio-phonetic Description of Some Varieties of South-eastern British English. Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (canIPA]˘ turrin, n. (1996/97) †e Accents of Northern England. Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (canIPA]˘ upton, c. “ kretzschmar, w. a. jr. “ konopka, r. (2001) †e Oxford Dictionary of Pronunci-

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ation for Current English˘ Oxford: O. Univ. Press (although it is the latest to be projected, it lags behind its predecessors. In addition, it is exactly the opposite to the very convenient diaphonemic and interphonemic transcriptions – as a matter of fact, besides uselessly repeating also çidenticalÇ forms, in addition to those with slightly di‡erent phonetic renderings, for every variant given it repeats the whole transcription {and not continuing the line, but starting a new paragraph}, instead of indicating –more clearly– the sole di‡erences {failing then to give the fundamental immediacy}. Besides, it uses di‡erent criteria and symbols for the two accents {¤ British and American}, leading the reader to think there are di‡erences even where actually there are none, as for instance also for secondary-stress markings after primary stresses, which are indicated in the American but not in the British pronunciation, for forms which are instead absolutely identical such as teacake˘ ˛erefore, considering the great amount of blank space and its many useless transcriptions, it uses twice the number of pages actually needed: for instance, for the article a˚ it uses 10 lines {ten!} to give –in substance– ça /'EI, È/Ç; besides, it mixes up neutral pronunciations and others which are not (yet) neutral, for ex. dune with British variant identical to June, ç/dZu:n/Ç, or latter shown, in the American pronunciation, exactly like ladder, ç/'lπdÈr/Ç, not even as a variant; çmixedÇ IPA]˘ Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1993) New York: Black Dog “ Leventhal (American pronunciation; it marks destressable monosyllables; non-IPA). wells, j. c. (1982) Accents of English˘ Cambridge: CUP (3 vols.; extensive survey however mainly based on available written sources; IPA). wells, j. c. (2000”) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary˘ Harlow: Longman (British “ American pronunciations; together with çJones»•Ç it provides a reliable survey, especially for British English; for American English, /Ø:/ has been removed while it was present in the ﬁrst edition {1990}, although it could be more useful than /πr/, which is still there, whereas /o:r/ has become /oUr/, which is more çeconomicalÇ, but far less appropriate; IPA). Italian (é 3) bonazzi, i. (1989) Dizione e qualità espressiva della voce˘ Torino: Centro Maier (with 6 very short audiocassettes; traditional pronunciation; hypodiacritical spelling). camilli, a. “ fiorelli, p. (1965) Pronuncia e graﬁa dell'italiano. ≈renze: Sansoni (simpliﬁed ì). canepari, l. (1970) Ùtæljæn præn≠nsÙeÙxn˚ in çLe Maître PhonétiqueÇ, 133:6-8 (as all MPh contributions, fully transcribed in IPA]. – (1986’) Italiano standard e pronunce regionali˘ Padova: ©¬™¨π (with 2 enclosed audiocassettes, the second one is about regional pronunciation; almost canIPA]˘ – (2000 {amended “ modiﬁed reprint} – 1999») Dizionario di pronuncia italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli (60,000 forms with transcription and pronunciation variants, which correspond at least to 180,000 actual words; pronunciations given: modern neutral, traditional neutral, acceptable, tolerated, slovenly, intentional and lofty; canIPA]˘ – (2004 {amended “ modiﬁed reprint} – 1999”) Manuale di pronuncia italiana˘ Bologna: Zanichelli (with 2 enclosed audiocassettes; it introduces modern neutral pronunciation, in addition to the traditional one, besides other types, including 22 regional koinés; canIPA]˘ costamagna, l. (1996) Pronunciare l'italiano˘ Manuale di pronuncia italiana per stranieri. Perugia: Guerra (with 4 audiocassettes and a ©∂; canIPA]˘ fiorelli, p. (1965) Córso di pronùnzia italiana˘ Padova: Radar (with 14 vinyl records; traditional pronunciation; hypodiacritical spelling]˘ migliorini, b. “ tagliavini, c. “ fiorelli, p. (1981”) Dizionario d'Ortograﬁa e di Pronunzia. Torino: ™®¤ (still with I and J mixed together; it also contains family and place names; 1st ed. 1969 with a vinyl record; non-IPA).

utilizable bibliography

417

muljaCiÇ, Z. (1972) Fonologia della lingua italiana˘ Bologna: Il Mulino (traditional pronunciation; IPA]˘ tagliavini, c. (1965) La corretta pronuncia italiana˘ Bologna: Capitol (with 26 vinyl records; traditional pronunciation; hypodiacritical spelling]˘ Unfortunately, in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association (2004, 117-21), an implausible çdescriptionÇ of Italian was published (showing incredibly mixed and contrasting features for a native speaker, independently from some queer transcriptions), which simultaneously presents both northern, central “ southern Italian characteristics and even a number of foreign ones. ˛e text wording itself of †e North Wind and the Sun is a çnewÇ translation from English, for instance with il vento del nord çthe North WindÇ instead of la tramontana. An answer was given that four Italian çscholarsÇ had approved it for publication. ˛e only recording used for the transcription is partially better (as one can immediately hear), being somehow less çpossessedÇ than the çtranscriptionÇ provided in the paper. French (é 4) armstrong, l. e. (1932) †e Phonetics of French˘ London: Bell (reprinted many times; in spite of its years, although pronunciation has slightly changed, it still remains good; IPA). boch, r. (1995’) Dizionario francese {–italiano e italiano–francese}. Bologna: Zanichelli (its transcriptions have been revised by L. Canepari but çreducedÇ by the editorial sta‡, however it presents the innovation of çneutralÇ /Õ, Ú/ instead of the old and outdated /˙, Ó/; IPA]˘ canepari, l. (in prog.) French Pronunciation* (with 4 national neutral pronunciations, besides a mediatic and an international one, together with several native regional accents from Europe and Canada, and some broad foreign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps also as Les prononciations du français). capelle, g. (1968) Le rythme et l'intonation de la phrase française˘ Paris: Didier (a vinyl record and booklet, with no notation). carton, f. (1979”) Introduction à la phonétique du français˘ Paris: Bordas (almost IPA). coveney, a. (2001) †e Sounds of Contemporary French˘ Exeter: Elm Bank Publications (not too reliable for things di‡erent from French, reported from controversial written sources; IPA). gleissner, h. (1964) Französische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (a vinyl record and booklet; IPA]˘ kaneman-pougatch, m. “ pedoya-guimbretière, e. (1989) Plaisir des sons˘ Paris: Alliance Française/Hatier/Didier (with 4 audiocassettes; with no explicit intonation; IPA]˘ lerond, a. (1980) Dictionnaire de la prononciation˘ Paris: Larousse (inconveniently separates common and proper names into two sections; IPA with some additional symbols). malmberg, b. (1976[) Phonétique française˘ Malmö: Läromedel (IPA]˘ tranel, b. (1987) †e Sounds of French˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (with an audiocassette; IPA]˘ walker, d. c. (1984) †e Pronunciation of Canadian French˘ Ottawa: Univ. of O. Press; without intonation; almost IPA]˘ warnant, l. (1987’, 1962/66») Dictionnaire de la prononciation française˘ Paris/Gembloux: Duculot (previous editions had an enclosed vinyl record and a less çblank-pageÇ format; inconveniently separates common and proper names into two sections; IPA]˘ – (1996) Orthographe et prononciation en français˘ Gembloux: Duculot (derived from the preceding title, gives the 12,000 words which are not pronounced according to their orthography; but does not give any proper names, which are often more problematical; IPA]˘

418

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German (é 5) Aussprachewörterbuch (2000[, 1962») Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut “ F. A. Brockhaus AG (çthe dudenÇ; also gives Chistian, family, and place names for various languages with their original pronunciation; IPA˚ with /a, a:/, but /r/, however, now at last accepts /r/-çvocalizationÇ even after short V˚ although it continues to transcribe only /r/). barberis, p. “ sarnow, a. (2000) Phonetik lehren und lernen˘ Beiheft Italien˘ Torino: Paravia (with 3 audiocassettes; IPA]˘ bithell, j. (1952) German Pronunciation and Phonology˘ London: Methuen (IPA]˘ canepari, l. (in prog.) German Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with 4 national neutral pronunciations, together with several native regional accents and some broad foreign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps also as Die Aussprachen des Deutschen)˘ Dizionario Garzanti di tedesco} (1994) Milano: Garzanti (the transcriptions have been planned by L. Canepari, prepared by P. Paschke, but çreducedÇ by the editorial sta‡; however, it gives many çreduced formsÇ (on p. 568), although less than those given in this HPr; anyway, it is the ﬁrst dictionary which uniﬁes ç/é:å, éå, 0å/Ç –with ç/å/Ç just for the sake of çuniformityÇ with other publications– instead of giving, in a more complex way, ç/é:å, éK, éå/Ç for /é:√, é√, 0√/ or, as here, /é:K, éK, 0Ú/ (é:‰, é‰, 0…); IPA). Gro•es Wörterbuch der deutschen Aussprache (1982) Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut (çthe gwdaÇ; IPA˚ but with /a, A:, r/, and /Y/ instead of /Y/, in the çstyleÇ of Soviet fonts). kohler, k. j. (1977, 1995”) Einführung in die Phonetik des Deutschen˘ Berlin: Schmidt (IPA˚ but with strange choices for symbols, mitigated in the latest edition). – (1994) Glottal Stops and Glottalization in German˚ in çPhoneticaÇ, ¬¤, 38-51 (IPA]˘ Österreichisches Wörterbuch (1998’) ©en: öbv Pädagogischer Verlag (non-IPA˚ but now at least it gives a table of correspondences). Siebs Deutsche Aussprache (1969»Ô) Berlin: De Gruyter (a handbook and a small pronouncing dictionary; IPA˚ but with /A, A:/ and /r/). stötzer, u. (1975) Deutsche Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (with 2 vinyl records; IPA˚ but with ('a, a, 'A:, A, r), and /Y/ instead of /Y/, in the çstyleÇ of Soviet fonts, and also //ü(:), ö(:), ä:, a:// for /y:, y, Y÷ °:, °, §÷ E:, a:/). Spanish (é 6) Unfortunately, no Spanish pronouncing dictionary exists yet! Even Antonio Quilis' meritorious project of preparing one, with two neutral accents: Iberian and American (also with a ©∂ version, with the possibility of recording one's voice and comparing it with the model provided) could not be fulﬁlled… canepari, l. (in prog.) Spanish Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with 6 or 7 national neutral pronunciations and an international one, together with several native regional accents from Europe and America and some broad foreign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps also as Las pronunciaciones del español). dalbor, j. b. (1980”) Spanish Pronunciation˘ Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and ©nston (American with Iberian indications; çnumericalÇ intonation with pitch levels; non-IPA]˘ Gran Diccionario de la lengua española (1985) Madrid: ßŸ™¬ (Iberian; the only dictionary with generally reliable transcriptions for Iberian Spanish, in spite of many attempts to make them not to appear so; almost IPA]˘ miotti, r. (1995-96) Descripción fono-tonética de las variedades regionales del español de América y España˘ Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (Iberian and American,

utilizable bibliography

419

with 12 regional koinés; canIPA]˘ – (1998) Descrizione fono-tonetica delle varietà regionali dello spagnolo d'America e di Spagna˚ in Annali di Ca' Foscari˚ 393-440 (derived from the thesis, but laid out according to phonemic elements; Iberian and American; canIPA]˘ navarro tomás, t. (1932[, 1918») Manual de pronunciación española˘ Madrid: Publicaciones de la Revista de ≈lologìa Española (Iberian; still being reprinted; it remains the only reliable work for Iberian Spanish, in spite of an excessive subphonemic and biased hyperdi‡erentiation and a non-IPA alphabet]˘ rohwedder, e. (1969) Spanische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (American; a vinyl record and a booklet; non-IPA]˘ saussol, j. m. (1983) Fonologìa y fonética del español para italófonos˘ Padova: Liviana (Iberian; with an audiocassette; semi-IPA]˘

Portuguese (é 7) Unfortunately, no Portuguese pronouncing dictionary exists yet (and with metaphony). canepari, l. (in prog.) Portuguese Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with {Brazilian and Lusitanian} neutral pronunciations and an international one, together with several native regional accents from Europe, America and Africa and some broad foreign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps also as As pronùncias do português). cristófaro silva, t. (2001”) Fonética e fonologia do português˘ São Paulo: Contexto (Brazilian; with a ©∂; IPA]˘ cuesta, p. vázquez “ da luz, m. a. mendes (1971’) Gramática portuguesa˘ Madrid: Gredos (Lusitanian with Brazilian indications; non-IPA]˘ Dicionário da lìngua portuguesa (1981) Porto: Porto Editora (Lusitanian; does not transcribe, but indicates with italic letters in brackets occurrences of /'e, 'o/ [ê˚ ô]˚ cases of unstressed ç/E, a, O/Ç [è˚ à, ò] –which is one of the uses of our /È, A, ì/– and consonant clusters˚ including x). Dicionário da lìngua portuguesa contemporânea (2001), Lisboa: Editorial Verbo (Lusitanian; too much proudly presented as the publishing enterprise çof the beginning of the 21st century and of the 3rd millenniumÇ, which began before the French Revolution and ﬁnally led to this two-volume dictionary; it does indicate metaphony, however, giving only plurals with di‡erent vowel timbres, and hiding them at the end of the entry, not showing them immediately after the headword, together with the other transcriptions, which include feminine forms; in addition, it puzzles a lot because –in the 3rd millennium– it displays such things as ç/õ, g, $, R, ], l/Ç, instead of /…, g, S, K, ı, L/, and even ç/Ω, ó, ö, Z/Ç instead of /E, å, O, Z/; semi-IPA). gärtner, e. “ thomaz jayme, j. (1984) Portugiesische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (Brazilian; a vinyl record and booklet; almost IPA]˘ giangola, j. p. (2001) †e Pronunciation of Brazilian Portuguese˘ München: Lincom Europa (without intonation; hybrid IPA with (y, w) for (jé,éi÷ wé, éu))˘ irmen, f. “ cortes kollert, a. m. (1995) Taschenwörterbuch _ Portugiesisch–Deutsch {Deutsch –Portugiesisch}˘ Berlin: Langenscheidt (Lusitanian; indicates metaphonetic variations, but not systematically; presents /e/ + /S, Z, N, L, j, i/, for (É), but ç(Ai)Ç, for (3I, ’’I) and for (Ai, ’4i); IPA]˘ mea, g. (2003”) Dicionário de Português–Italiano˘ Porto: Porto Editora (Lusitanian; in the present çreprintÇ the transcriptions have been added {whereas earlier they were only present in the reverse part}, which is phonemic even if between ( ), with (b, d, g) in every context; it

420

a handbook of pronunciation

distinguishes (léı), but uses ç(!)Ç in place of (ı); in addition, it gives ç(éj, éw)Ç for (éi, éu), and ç(–)Ç for (–ö), instead of /éö/; it indicates unstressed V which do not undergo reduction, but not always in a reliable way; metaphony is indicated if new separated entries are present; IPA)˘ Pequeno dicionário {italiano–português} português–italiano (1993) São Paulo: Melhoramentos (Paulista {pron. of São Paulo}; indicates some metaphonetic variations; IPA]˘ Pocket {English–Portuguese} Portuguese–English Dictionary (2001’) Glasgow: Collins (Carioca {pron. of Rio de Janeiro}; indicates some metaphonetic variations; IPA]˘ tagliavini, c. (1938) Grammatica elementare della lingua portoghese˘ Heidelberg: Groos (Lusitanian; çcanaÇ old-style IPA). viana, a. r. gonçalves (1903) Portugais. Phonétique et phonologie _ Morphologie _ Textes˘ Leipzig: Teubner (Lusitanian; still the most reliable work, in spite of several inevitable misprints; archaic IPA]˘ – (1912) Vocabulário Ortográﬁco e remissivo da lìngua portuguesa˘ Paris/Lisboa: Aillaud/Alves (still the constant reference work of various authors and lexicographers for the even limited phonetic cues; current spelling with some additional diacritics. For the Portuguese orthography, it bases itself on a rather rational structuring, followed by several semi-reforms, with qualities and failings {for foreigners, the latter would not be a problem any longer if somebody were determined to prepare a Portuguese pronouncing dictionary, by taking account of the problems of metaphony and of Lusitanian peculiarities, which are completely ignored by present-day o‚cial spelling, whereas that of the intermediate time was deﬁnitely more careful}). Russian (é 8) Unfortunately, no IPA Russian pronouncing dictionary exists yet, with full transcriptions of the di‡erent words (also avoiding archaic-Soviet morphonological –or orthographical– symbols, mainly based on the Cyrillic alphabet). ageenko, f. l. “ zarva, m. v. (1993) Clobapì ydapen$= pycckogo r‘vka. Mockba: Pycck$= R‘vk (hypodiacritical spelling for stress and major exceptions, which indicates neither neutralizations nor all assimilations, inconveniently separates common and proper names into two sections, separately signed {in this edition}). borunova, s. n. “ voroncova, v. l. “ es'kova, n. a. (1999’) Opfo<π$ueck$= clobapì pycckogo r‘vka. Mockba: Pycck$= r‘vk (hypodiacritical spelling for stress and major exceptions, which indicates neither neutralizations nor all assimilations, gives only common words; many pages, but with too much blank space in the two columns). boyanus, s. c. (1955) Russian Pronunciation $ Russian Phonetic Reader˘ London: Lund Humphries [IPA]˘ comrie, b. “ stone, g. “ polinsky, m. (1996) †e Russian Language in the Twentieth Century˘ Oxford: Clarendon Press (archaic-Soviet IPA). häusler, f. (1974) Russische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (a vinyl record and booklet; non-IPA]˘ jones, d. “ ward, d. (1969) †e Phonetics of Russian˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press [IPA; it remains the best treatment on the subject, extended and up-to-date, in spite of its archaic-Soviet phonological choices). kalenCuk, m. l. “ kasatkina, r. f. (1997) Clobapì tpydnocte= pycckogo πpo$‘nowen$r. Mockba: Pycck$= r‘vk (hypodiacritical spelling for stress and major exceptions, which indicates neither neutralizations nor all assimilations). kasatkin, l. “ krysin, l. “ Zivov, v. (1995) Il russo˘ ≈renze: La Nuova Italia (non-IPA˚ a kind

utilizable bibliography

421

of phono-transliteration of archaic-Soviet derivation, which mixes and confuses the phonic and graphic levels). shapiro, m. (1968) Russian Phonetic Variants and Phonostylistics˘ Berkeley/Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press [archaic-Sovietized IPA)˘ trofimov, m. v. “ jones, d. (1923) †e Pronunciation of Russian˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press [IPA; the only one with a realistic phonic {pre-Sovietic} structuring, in spite of a pre-revolutionary orthography and traditional pronunciation)˘ Arabic (é 9) Unfortunately, no Arabic pronouncing dictionary exists yet, with full IPA transcriptions of the di‡erent words. al-ani, s. h. (1970) Arabic Phonology˘ ˛e Hague: Mouton (almost IPA). canepari, l. (1983) Fonetica e tonetica araba˚ in Scritti linguistici in onore di Giovan Battista Pellegrini˚ Pisa: Pacini, 1105-21 [çsacriﬁcedÇ IPA for typographical limitations, and with a photographed consonant table, but çcleaned upÇ by an extremely çcleverÇ editorial sta‡, who cancelled ç'Ç and ç‘Ç, used for çöÇ and çHÇ!). cantineau, j. (1960) Cours de phonétique arabe˘ Paris: Klincksieck (non-IPA). gairdner, w. h. t. (1925) †e Phonetics of Arabic˘ Oxford: O. Univ. Press (without intonation; IPA]˘ kästner, r. t. (1981) Phonetik und Phonologie des modernen Hocharabisch˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (without intonation; IPA]˘ krotkoff, g. (1976) Taschenwörterbuch _ Arabisch–Deutsch˘ Berlin: Langenscheidt (in spite of its gaps and naïveties; almost IPA]˘ mitchell, t. f. (1972) Arabic Pronunciation˘ London: ∫∫© (a vinyl record and booklet; çtransliterationÇ with upper-case letters for çemphatic consonantsÇ and with çàÇ for /H/; non-IPA). – (1990) Pronouncing Arabic. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press (çtransliterationÇ with upper-case letters for çemphatic consonantsÇ and with çàÇ for /H/, ç?Ç for /ö/, ç@Ç for (a, A, å, Ø), in addition to inelegantly barred letters both horizontally and diagonally for constrictives; non-IPA, neither ßåµπå, nor…). nasr, r. t. (1967) †e Structure of Arabic˘ Beirut: Librairie du Liban (with some çnumericalÇ intonation; semi-IPA]˘ Hindi (é 10) Unfortunately, no [IPA] Hindi pronouncing dictionary exists yet˘ chaturvedi, m. “ tivari, b. n. (1975” D) A Practical Hindi-English Dictionary˘ Delhi: National Publishing House (with transliteration using a: = /aa/, a = /A/, and CC also for /0˘/ + /w, j, r, l/). jones, w. e. (1971) Syllables and word-stress in Hindi˚ in çJournal of the International Phonetic AssociationÇ 1:74-78 (IPA). kachru, y. (1990) Hindi-Urdu˚ in b. comrie (D) †e Major Languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa˘ London: Routledge, 53-72 (mixed IPA]˘ matthews, w. k. (1954) fænetiks ænd fænolædËi æv hindi:, in çLe Maître PhonétiqueÇ 102:18-22 (as all MPh contributions, fully transcribed in IPA]. mcgregor, r. s. (1977”) Outline of Hindi Grammar˘ Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press (traditional diacritical transliteration].

422

a handbook of pronunciation

mehrotra, r. c. (1965) Stress in Hindi˚ in çIndian LinguisticsÇ 26:96-105 (semi-IPA]. pandey, p. k. (1989) Word Accentuation in Hindi˚ in çLinguaÇ 77:37-73 (semi-IPA transliteration]. ray, p. s. (1966) Hindi-Urdu Stress˚ in çIndian LinguisticsÇ 27:95-101. rosini, s. (1979-80) Indagine sulla struttura fonetica e tonetica della lingua hindi˘ Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (traditional diacritical transliteration with IPA indications). shukla, s. (1999) Hindi Phonology˘ München: Lincom Europa (with semi-IPA transliteration, without intonation). (Mandarin) Chinese (é 11) Unfortunately, no [IPA] Chinese pronouncing dictionary exists yet˘ chao, y. r. (1948) Mandarin Primer˘ Cambridge (µåßß.): Harvard Univ. Press (with vinyl records; non-IPA, but with çtone-lettersÇ {now o‚cialized but trivialized by the çreformÇ of the IPA}). cheng, c-c. (1973) A Synchronic Phonology of Mandarin Chinese˘ ˛e Hague: Mouton (almost IPA]˘ dow, f. d. m. (1972) An Introduction to the Pronunciation of Chinese˘ Edinburgh: E. Univ. Press [IPA, but with not too reliable transcriptions). – (1972”) An Outline of Mandarin Phonetics˘ Canberra: Australian National Univ. Press [IPA, but with not too reliable transcriptions). kratochvìl, p. (1968) †e Chinese Language Today˘ London: Hutchinson (çChinese/KarlgrenizedÇ IPA: with çqÇ for (M), that is with a vocoid still considered as if it were the intense contoid (Ç); on the other hand, with the çvowel QÇ for the true intense contoid (Ö)]˘ norman, j. (1988) Chinese˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press [çSino-likeÇ IPA: with ç„, ÓÇ for (M, Ö)]˘ Practical Chinese Reader (1985) Beijing: ˛e Commercial Press (with audiocassettes; çChinese/KarlgrenizedÇ IPA: with çqÇ for (M), that is with a vocoid still considered as if it were the intense contoid (Ç); on the other hand, it has the çvowel QÇ for the true intense contoid (Ö)]˘ qin, z. (1980) On Chinese Phonetics˘ Beijing: ˛e Commercial Press [çChinese/KarlgrenizedÇ IPA: with çqÇ for (M), that is with a vocoid still consideres as if it were the intense contoid (Ç); on the other hand, it has the çvowel QÇ for the true intense contoid (Ö)]˘ shan pao li, j. (1975) Introduction to the Chinese Language˘ Taipei: Ke Ji Publishing Co. [moderately çSino-likeÇ IPA]˘ speSnev, n. a. (1980) Fonet$ka k$ta=ckogo r‘vka. Len$ngpad: *‘datelìctbo Len$ngpadckogo Yn$bepc$teta (a very hybrid IPA]˘ Unfortunately, in the çJournal of the International Phonetic AssociationÇ itself Standrad Chinese (Beijing) has appeared {2003, 109-112}, which is semi-Karlgrenized IPA, with both (M, Ö) rendered as (≥), but described as (¡) and (Ö), including many more transcriptional queer inaccuracies.

utilizable bibliography

423

Japanese (é 12) Unfortunately, no IPA Japanese pronouncing dictionary exists yet˘ akamatsu, ts. (1997) Japanese Phonetics˘ München: Lincom Europa [IPA]˘ fujito, y. “ nakano, e. “ seton, c. (1979) Japanese Pronunciation Guide˘ Tokyo: Bonjinsha (with audiocassettes; transliteration, not transcription). jorden, e. h. (1963) Beginning Japanese˘ New Haven: Yale Univ. Press (with tapes or audiocassettes; transliteration, not transcription). kindaichi, h. “ akinaga, k. (2001) Shinmeikai Nihongo Akusento Jiten˘ Tokyo: Sanseido (non-IPA\ tonetic and diacritic katakana, with variants). martin, s. e. (1990) Martin's Pocket Dictionary˘ Tuttle: Rutland (transliteration, not transcription; indicates tonemic variants and /i, M/ devoicing). New Japanese-English Dictionary (1974[) Tokyo: Kenkyusha (non-IPA˚ tonetic transliteration). Nihongo Hatsuon Akusento Jiten (1966) Tokyo: Nihon Hoso Kyokai (non-IPA\ tonetic katakana). tsujimura, n. (1996) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics˘ Oxford: Blackwell (semi-IPA]˘ vance, t. j. (1987) An Introduction to Japanese Phonology˘ Albany: State Univ. of New York Press (semi-IPA]˘ Esperanto (é 13) canepari, l. (1998”) Non c'è proprio niente da dire sulla pronuncia e la graﬁa dell'esperanto?˚ in La linguistica, le lingue pianiﬁcate e l'Esperanto˚ a special issue of çL'EsperantoÇ 44-55 [canIPA]˘ cresswell, j. “ hartley, j. “ sullivan, l. h. (1987) Teach Yourself Esperanto˘ Sevenoaks: Hodder “ Stoughton (with an audiocassette of çAnglo-EsperantoÇ; spelling). kalocsay, k. “ waringhien, g. (1980[) Plena analiza gramatiko de esperanto˘ Rotterdam: ¨™å (spelling). wells, j. c. (1978) Lingvistikaj aspektoj de esperanto˘ Rotterdam: ©™∂/¨™å (spelling). – (s. a.) Esperanto Pronunciation Disc˘ London: ∫™å (a vinyl record and leaﬂet; spelling). zamenhof, l. l. (1962•) Lingvaj respondoj˘ Marmande: ™ƒ™ (spelling).

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