A Handbook оn а Practical English Grammar Morphology

A HANDBOOK ON A PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR MORPHOLOGY COMPILED by BEKLYAROVA TAMARA

YEREVAN STATE LINGUISTIC UNIVERSITY AFTER V.BRUSOV

A HANDBOOK ON A PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR MORPHOLOGY COMPILED by BEKLYAROVA TAMARA

Yerevan 2007

Печатается по решению Ученого совета ЕГЛУ им. В.Я.Брюсова.

A Handbook оn а Practical English Grammar Morphology. Compiled by Т. Beklyarova. Пособие по грамматике английского языка. –Ер.: Лингва, 2007. – 443 стр. Для Студентов русско-английских факультетов Лингвистических Университетов. Составитель:

Беклярова Тамара Егишевна

Рецензенты: Велян К. А., кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры теории английского языка Лингвистического Университета имени В. Брюсова. Чубарян A.Э, кандидат филологических наук, доцент, кафедра английской филологии, факультет романо-германской филологии, ЕГУ. Мартиросян Н.А., преподаватель-ассистент, кафедра английской филологии, факультет романо-германской филологии, ЕГУ.

ISBN N 99930-79-43-x

© Лингва, 2007 © Беклярова Т., 2007

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Настоящее пособие составлено на основе работ по морфологии английского языка известных российских и зарубежных грамматистов. Оно предназначенно для студентов русско-иностранных факультетов вузов, аспирантов и лиц, самостоятельно изучающих английский язык. Автор не претендует на оригинальность работы, так как пособие является компиляцией лучших трудов и современных подходов к отдельным явлениям грамматического строя английского языка. Автор выражает глубокую благодарность всем рецензентам за внимательное прочтение работы и их ценные замечания. Автор также выражает признательность лаборантке кафедры английского языка (вторая специальность) Базикян Л.А. за помощь при составлении следующих глав: the Future Tenses, the Sequence of Tenses, Voice, the Indirect Speech. Материал, использованный в пособии, в течение нескольких лет был апробирован на русско-английском отделении факультета русского языка и литературы и иностранных языков Ереванского Лингвистического Университета имени Брюсова.

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PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH The words of every language are grouped into classes which are called parts of speech. This classification is based on three main principles: 1. their grammatical meaning; 2. their form 3. their syntactical characteristics; By the first we understand the meaning common to all the words in the class, such as process or state for the verb, thingness for the noun. By the second we mean the morphological characteristics of the class meant, such as the number of the noun or the voice of the verb. By the third we understand the syntactical functions of a type of word and the combinability. All words are divided into three main groups: notional words, structural words and independent elements. Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence – they serve either as primary or secondary parts of the sentence .To this group belong the following parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and adverbs. Structural words differ from notional words semantically – their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of notional words (e.g. in, and, to). Moreover, they are sometimes altogether devoid of it (e.g. the articles the and a, the preposition of, etc.). The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, particles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Independent elements are words which are characterized by peculiar meanings of various kinds (e.g. yes, however, oh, alas, etc.); they do not perform any syntactic function in the sentence, they can even serve as sentences themselves. Here belong the following parts of speech: modal words, interjections, words of affirmation and negation. There are words which cannot be classed among any of the above mentioned parts of speech (e.g. please, anyway). 5

Sometimes it is difficult to divide words into notional and structural. For example, verbs are to be treated as notional words, but there are some verbs which serve as structural elements (e.g. modal verbs). Some other verbs may function either as notional words or as structural words: e.g. He looked at me. ( notional verb) He looked pale. (a structural word, a link-verb).

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THE VERB The Morphological Composition According to their morphological composition verbs can be divided into simple, derivative, compound, and composite (phrasal verbs). Simple verbs consist of only one root morpheme: ask, build, go. Derivative verbs are composed of one root morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes and suffixes). The main verb forming suffixes are: -ate, -en, -fy, -ize, as in: organize, justify, blacken, decorate. The most widely spread prefixes are: de-, dis-, mis-, re, un-, as in: decompose, dislike, misunderstand, rewrite, and unpack. Compound verbs consist of at least two stems: overgrow, undertake. Phrasal verbs consist of a verbal stem and an adverbial particle, which is sometimes referred to as postposition. Postposition often changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. Thus there are phrasal verbs whose meaning is different from the meaning of their components: e.g. to give up – бросать, прекращать to give in – сдаваться to do up – ремонтировать to bring up – воспитывать to do away – ликвидировать to put up with – примириться There are other phrasal verbs in which the original meaning is preserved: to stand up, to sit down, to come in, to take off, to put on. Classifications of the Verb 1. Verbs are words denoting actions, e.g. to play, to write, or state, e.g. to suffer, to stand.Semantically, all verbs can be divided into two groups – terminative and durative verbs. 7

Terminative (предельные) verbs have a final aim in view.These are such verbs as sit down, come, fall, stop, open, close, shut, begin, recognize, refuse, find, etc. Durative (непредельные) verbs imply that the actions expressed by these verbs may go on indefinitely. These are such verbs as run, carry, stand, sit, sleep, know, live, suppose, talk, speak, etc. But as most verbs in English may be polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another (verbs of double lexical character), and terminative and durative in the same meaning (verbs of double aspectual meaning). Here belong such verbs as see, hear, know, write, read, translate. Cf. Can you read ? (durative) Вы умеете читать? He longed to read his stories to Ruth. (terminative) Он жаждал прочитатьсвои рассказы Рут. I’ll see you to the door. (terminative) Я провожу вас до двери. Can you see well? (durative) Ты хорошо видешь? 2. English verbs can be classed from the semantic and the syntactic point of view. From the semantic point of view, verbs can be divided into the following classes: actional verbs, which denote actions proper (do, go make, write, etc.) and statal verbs, which denote state (be, exist, lie, sit, stand, know etc.) or relations (belong, fit, match, have, cost, etc.). It is very important to know that statal and relational verbs have no passive voice and generally are not used in the continuous and perfect continuous tenses. From the syntactic point of view verbs may be subdivided into transitive (переходные) and intransitive (непереходные) ones. Transitive verbs can take a direct object, i.e. they express an action which passes on to a person or a thing directly. These are such verbs as give, take, send, make, see, show, bring, love, etc. Transitive verbs may be followed: a) by one direct object; e.g. Jane is helping her sister. 8

b) by a direct and an indirect objects; e.g. Jane gave her sister an apple.(her sister is an indirect object, an apple is a direct object) c) by a prepositional object; e.g. Jane looks after her sister. Intransitive verbs do not require any object for the completion of their meaning: e.g. The sun is rising. There are many words in English that can function as both transitive and intransitive: e.g. Tom is writing a letter. (transitive) Tom writes clearly. (intransitive) Who has broken the vase? (transitive) Glass breaks easily. (intransitive) She ran the company competently. (transitive) He ran up the hill past a block of houses. (intransitive) From both semantic and syntactic points of view verbs may be used as notional words and as structural words. Notional verbs always have their own lexical meaning and have an independent function in the sentence. e.g. He knew what he was thinking. During the war he lived in London. When a verb is used as a structural word, it may either preserve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence – it is always connected with some other word. Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs. A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive – together they form a compound modal verbal predicate. e.g. She couldn’t do anything under the circumstances.

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A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a compound nominal predicate. e.g. He was a middle-aged man. She looked very tired. It became very hot by noon. Sometimes a verb entirely loses its lexical meaning and is called an auxiliary verb. They are not numerous, they are seven; to do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would. Together with a notional verb an auxiliary verb forms analytical forms. e.g. Do you know him well enough to trust him? “I am sailing early next month,” he said. I have known the young lady all her life. Polysemantic verbs may serve as notional verbs as well as structural words. The verb to be may be used as a notional, auxiliary, modal and link-verb. e.g. The book is on the table. (notional) He is reading. (auxiliary) She is young. (link-verb) We are to meet at Peter’s. (modal) The verb to have may be used as a notional, auxiliary and modal verb. e.g. She has a nice cottage in the country. (notional) I had to reconsider my position. (modal) What has happened? You are so pale. (auxiliary) The verb to do may be used as a notional and an auxiliary verb. e.g. What are you doing here? (notional) Do you smoke? ( auxiliary) There are some other polysemantic verbs in English such as to get, to grow, to turn, etc. e.g. I get a lot of mail every day. (notional) He got pale when he saw her. (link-verb) 10

The car turned round the corner. (notional) In autumn the leaves on the trees turn red and yellow. (link-verb) 3. English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms which can be divided into two main groups according to the function they perform in the sentence – the finite forms and non-finite forms. The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence, they may also be called the predicative forms (личные или предикативные формы). The non-finite or non-predicative forms (неличные или непредикативные формы) can have various other functions. These forms are also called verbals. The Finite Forms of the Verb 1. The verb in its finite forms has the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, perfect, voice and mood. The forms that serve to express the above mentioned categories may be built in different ways. There are four basic forms: 1. the plain verb stem (чистая основа глагола), which is also often referred to as the infinitive without the particle to – play, rise. 2. the simple past—played, rose. 3. participle II – played, risen 4. participle I – playing, rising The infinitive stem and participles I and II are used to build other verbal forms, the Simple Past is not. According to the way of forming the simple past and participle II, all verbs are divided into two groups: regular and irregular verbs. With regular verbs the simple past and participle II are formed by adding the suffix -ed to the stem. The suffix -ed is pronounced in three ways: a) [d] after vowels and voiced consonants except [d]: e.g. live – lived clean – cleaned 11

stay – stayed play – played b) [t] after voiceless consonants except [t]: e.g. talk – talked wish – wished place – placed c) [id] after verbs ending in [t] or [d]: e.g. skate – skated decide – decided dust – dusted In writing the following rules should be observed: a) the letter -d is added to the stem ending in -e: e.g. invite – invited free – freed b) a final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel: e.g. stop – stopped ad`mit – admitted oc`cur – oc`curred pre`fer – pre`ferred but if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single: e.g. `limit – limited `conquer – conquered ap`pear – appeared per`form – performed c) the final -l is always doubled even in an unstressed syllable: e.g. travel – travelled quarrel – quarrelled In some verbs the final -p is doubled in the same position: 12

e.g.

kidnap – kidnapped handicap – handicapped worship – worshipped

d) the final -y is changed into -i if it is preceded by a consonant: e.g. cry – cried reply – replied but it remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel: e.g. play – played stay – stayed All other verbs are to be considered irregular in modern English. They are a mixed group comprising various patterns: e.g. spend – spent – spent take– took– taken ring –rang– rung Some verbs have a regular form by the side of an irregular one: e.g.

e.g.

learn – learnt – learnt learn –learned –learned A number of verbs remain unchanged: put – put – put cost – cost – cost hit – hit – hit cut – cut – cut

Two verbs take their forms from different roots; they are the verbs to be and to go: e.g. be – was, were – been go – went – gone 2. The category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker, showing whether the action is performed by the speaker (the 1st person), someone addressed by the speaker 13

(the 2nd person) or someone/something other than the speaker or the person addressed (the 3rd person). The category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-persons. For the simple present tense of the verb to be there are three forms; the 1st person singular – am, the 3rd person singular – is, the form for all persons plural – are. In the simple past tense it is only the verb to be that has one of these categories – the category of number: was for the singular and were for the plural. All the other verbs have the same for all the persons, both singular and plural. The category of tense expresses the relationship between the time of the action and the time of speaking. There are three tenses in English – the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense which refer actions to present, past or future time. The category of aspect shows the way or the manner in which an action is performed, i.e. whether the action is perfective (совершенное), imperfective (несовершенное), momentary (мгновенное, однократное), durative (продолженное, длительное), etc. In English the category of aspect is represented by the continuous aspect and the common aspect. Continuous Common writes is writing wrote was writing will write will be writing has written has been writing Whereas all verbs can be used in the common aspect, there are some verbs that do not have the forms of the continuous aspect. They 14

are referred to as statal verbs. The most common of them are the following: a). Relational verbs have, be and some link verbs: become, remain, appear, seem, sound. However, both to be and to have can be used in the continuous aspect forms where to be has the meaning to act and to have loses its meaning to possess. e.g. She is so foolish! She is being so foolish (acting foolishly) today. I have three brothers. I am having dinner (am dining) now. There are some other relational verbs that continuous aspect: to exist to contain to apply to to hold to belong to to cost to depend on to interest to compare to deserve to matter to concern to consist to differ from to measure

are not used in the to own to possess to remember to stand for to weigh

b). Verbs expressing sense perception: to feel (чувствовать), to smell (чувствовать запах), to see (видеть) to hear (слышать), to taste (чувствовать вкус) However, there are some cases in which these verbs are used in the continuous and perfect continuous forms, they will be considered in detail below. c). Verbs expressing emotional state: to mind (= to care) to detest to admire to prefer to envy to adore to respect to fear to appreciate (= value) to value to hate to care for to want to hope to desire to wish to like to dislike to love to despise

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d). Verbs expressing mental activity: to recollect to forget to agree to see (= to understand) to appreciate (= to to imagine to see through smb to know understand) (видеть кого-то to mean to assume насквозь) to mind to believe to suggest to notice to consider to suppose to perceive to doubt to think (= to have an to expect (= to think) to realize opinion) to recall to feel (= to think) to remember to trust (= to believe) to feel sure to understand to recognize to find The category of perfect is as fundamental to the English verb as the categories of tense and aspect; it is constituted by the opposition of the perfect to the non-perfect. The perfect forms denote actions preceding certain moments of time in the past, present or future. The non-perfect forms denote actions belonging to certain moments of time in the past, present or future. e.g.

Perfect I have seen the film, and I think it is dull. At last you are here! I’ve been waiting for you so long! She had left by the 2nd of September. She had been sleeping for half an hour when the telephone woke her up. I shall have returned before you get the supper ready. 16

Non-perfect I see you are tired. Who are you waiting for? She left on the 2nd of September. When the fire began everybody was sleeping. I shall return at 10.

The perfect forms belong either to the continuous or to the common aspect and have specific semantic characteristics of either one or of the other. Thus the perfect continuous forms denote continuous actions taking place during a definite period of time preceding the present moment or some moment of time in the past or future. The moment of time may be either excluded or included in the period of time of the action. e.g. Don’t wake her up, she has I’ve woken her up, she only been sleeping for half has been sleeping ever since dinner. an hour. (She is still sleeping at the (She is not sleeping at the moment of speaking.) moment of speaking.) She had been living there They had been living there for ten years when for ten years when we met. they moved to N. (She was still living there at (They were not living there any longer at that that moment of past time.) moment of past time.) He will have been working He will have been here for 20 years next working here for 5 years before he returns to our autumn. institute. (He will still be working (He will not already be here at that moment of the working there any longer at that moment of the future.) future.) The perfect forms of the common aspect have no specific aspect characteristics and acquire them only from the lexical meaning of the verb or out of the context in which they are used. Thus terminative verbs in the perfect forms of the common aspect express completeness of the action. Non-terminative verbs may express both completed and incompleted actions. e.g. She had shut the window was going to sleep. He had stumbled and fallen down before I could support him. He had stumbled and fallen down on his knees before he reached the bushes. 17

I have known him all my life. She had lived in many little towns before she settled in St.-Petersburg. She had lived here here since the war. So, it should be clearly understood that every one of verb forms has three grammatical categories, those of tense, perfect and aspect, i.e. every form shows whether the action refers to the present, the past, the future or the future viewed from the past; whether it belongs to a certain moment of time within each of these time-divisions or precedes that moment, and whether it is treated as continuous or not. Tense

Aspect

Present

Common Continuous Common Continuous Common Continuous

Past Future Future in the Past

Common Continuous

Perfect Non-Perfect Perfect takes has taken is taking has been taking took had taken was taking had been taking will take will be taken will be taking will have been taking would take would have taken would be would have taking been taking

Thus each tense is represented by four verb forms involving such categories as aspect and perfect. They are the simple present ( the present indefinite) the present continuous the present perfect the present perfect continuous

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the simple past(the past indefinite) the past continuous the past perfect the past perfect continuous the simple future(the future indefinite) the future continuous the future perfect the future perfect continuous the simple future-in-the-past (the indefinite) the future in-the-past continuous the future in-the-past perfect the future in-the-past perfect continuous

future-in-the-past

The category of voice is represented by the active voice and the passive voice. e.g. I had asked no questions, of course; but then, on the other hand, I had been asked none. Я не задавал вопросов, но, с другой стороны, и мне не задавали вопросов. They saw but they were not seen. Они видели, но их не видели. The meaning of the category of mood is the attitude of the speaker or the writer towards the content of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the action real, unreal, desirable, necessary, etc.

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TENSES THE PRESENT TENSES

The Simple Present Тенсе I. Meaning. The simple present refers the action it denotes to the present time in a broad sense. II. Formation. The simple present is formed from the plain stem of the verb. In the third person singular it has an inflexion – s/es which is pronounced. a) [z] after vowels and voiced consonants: e.g. plays, reads, b) [s] after voiceless consonants: e.g. looks, takes, c) [iz] after sibilants: e.g. wishes, rises, teaches, judges. In writing the following spelling rules should be observed 1. Verbs ending in –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, -x, -z, –zz and -o take the inflexion – es: e.g. watch – watches go – goes kiss – kisses, buzz – buzzes 2. When y follows a consonant it is changed into – ies, e.g. study – studies carry – carries copy – copies but if the y is preceded by a vowel, the inflexion –s is added. e.g. play – plays obey – obeys say – says 3. Verbs ending in –se, -ce, -ze, -(d)ge take the inflexion –s: e.g. please – pleases stage – stages freeze – freezes place – places sledge – sledges The affirmative form of the simple present is a synthetic form: 20

e.g.

I box you box he/she/it boxes

we box you box they box

The interrogative and negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb to do in the simple present and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to: Interrogative Negative I do not box Do I box? You do not box Do you box? He/she /it does not box. Does he/she/it box? We do not box. Do we box? You do not box. Do you box? They do not box. Do they box? Negative contractions: Negative-interrogative contractions:

do not – don`t [dount] does not – doesn’t [daznt] Don`t you work? Doesn’t he box?

III. The Simple Present is used: 1. to denote habitual actions or everyday activity; e.g. Cats drink milk. My dog barks a lot. This tense is often used with adverbs or adverb phrases such as: always, often, sometimes, occasionally, usually, never, every day, every year, on Monday, in the morning, in( the) winter, twice a year, daily, etc. 2. to denote facts in the present: e.g. They live in London. She works at the factory.

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3. to denote actions and states characterizing a given person: e.g. She has many accomplishments; she sings and plays the guitar beautifully. У нее много достоинств, она прекрасно поет и играет на гитаре. That old man gave me a surprise. He is seventy-five, and he doesn`t walk, he runs. Тот старик меня удивил. Ему 75, а он не ходит, он бегает. 4. to denote universal truths, something that is eternally true: e.g. It snows in winter. Two plus two makes four. Snow melts at 0 C. Still waters run deep.(a proverb) Domestic animals return to their homes. 5. to denote actions and states continuing at the moment of speaking (with statal and relational verbs, verbs of sense and mental perception). e.g. Who does this mansion belong to? How much does he owe you? She does not know where he lives. I hate being late. 6. to express announcements, declarations, etc. referring to the moment of speaking: e.g. I declare the meeting open. I offer you my help. I agree to your proposal 7. to denote a succession of actions going on at the moment of speaking: e.g. Now watch me closely: I take a match, light it, put it into the glass and … oh, nothing happens! 22

8. to denote future actions: a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, as soon as, as long as, after, before, while, if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided,etc. e.g. Do it as soon as you are through with your duties. When it stops raining we`ll go out. Whenever it rains the roof leaks. However in object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if it is the simple future tense that is used to express future actions: e.g. I wonder if he will be able to run the company successfully. Do you know when the book will come out? b) in adverbial clauses of concession introduced by conjunctions even if, even though, no matter how, whenever, whatever, however, etc. e.g. Even if he hates me I will never do him any harm. Whenever I hear this name I remember my first teacher. c) The simple present may be used to indicate the future action which is part of a program or schedule. In this case the sentence usually contains an indication of time. This use of the tense is mainly found in speaking about travels and entertainment programs. e.g. “Where is she? – Oh, she has just started for the East. Her ship sails tomorrow. Our tourist group sleep at the Globo hotel this night and start for Berlin early in the morning. “Can you tell me what time that game starts today, please?” Teddy asked her. d) in some special questions: e.g. When do they start? Where do we go now? What do we do next?

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9. to denote past actions: a) in newspaper headlines, in the outlines of novels, plays, films, etc.: e.g. Dog Saves Its Master. Students Say No to New Weapon. Then Fleur meets Little John. They fall in love with each other. b) in narratives or stories to express past actions more vividly (the so-called historic or dramatic present). e.g. She arrives full of life and spirit. And about a quarter of an hour later she sits down in a chair, says she doesn’t feel well, gasps a bit and dies. When the curtain rises, Juliet is writing at her desk. Suddenly the window opens and a masked man enters. 10. to denote completed actions with the meaning of the present perfect (with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told). e.g. I forget her address. I hear you are leaving for England? I am told she returned from Europe last week. The Present Continuous Tense I. Meaning. The Present Continuous (or progressive) denotes an action which is in progress at the moment of speaking. II. Formation. The Present Continuous is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Present and Participle I of the notional verb. The spelling of Participle I (the present participle): Participle I is built up by adding suffix -ing to the stem of the verb: e.g. speak – speaking clean – cleaning In writing the following rules should be observed: 24

a) A mute -e is dropped before -ing: e.g. argue – arguing take – taking except after such verbs as age (стареть), dye (окрашивать), singe (опалять, подпаливать), etc. and verbs ending in -ee: e.g. see – seeing dye – dyeing age – ageing singe – singeing b) A final consonant is doubled before -ing if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel e.g. put – putting ad`mit – admitting stop – stopping be`gin – beginning plan – planning pre`fer – preferring stir – stirring oc`cur – occurring but `enter – entering `open – opening `orbit – orbiting c) A final -l is always doubled: e.g. travel – travelling cancel – cancelling signal – signalling The same refers to some verbs ending in -p: e.g. kidnap – kidnapping handicap – handicapping worship – worshipping d) A final -y is always preserved before –ing: e.g. stay – staying enjoy – enjoying study – studying e) A final -ie changes into -y before -ing: e.g. lie – lying die – dying tie – tying 25

In the interrogative the corresponding form of the auxiliary to be is placed before the subject and participle I follows it. In the negative the negation not` is placed after the auxiliary to be. Affirmative I am working. He (she, it) is working. We are working. You are working. They are working.

Interrogative Am I working? Is he (she, it) working? Are we working? Are you working? Are they working?

Negative I am not (I’m not) working. He (she, it) is not (isn’t) working. We are not (aren’t) working. You are not (aren’t) working. They are not (aren’t) working. Negative-interrogative a) b) Aren’t I working? Am I not working? Is he (she, it) not working? Isn’t he (she, it) working? Aren’t we working? Are we not working? Aren’t you working? Are you not working? Aren’t they working? Are they not working? III. The Present Continuous is used with all actional and some statal verbs 1. to denote continuous actions going on at the moment of speaking. That means that the action began before the moment of speaking is now in progress and will continue for some time. The exact time limits of the action are not known; its beginning and its end are not indicated. The indication of time is not necessary though sometimes such adverbial modifiers as now and at present are found. 26

e.g.

Why is the baby crying? “My dear,” said Jolyon with gentle exasperation, “you are talking nonsense.” I am not wearing a coat as it isn`t cold. “David Copperfield” is not to be got. The second-year students are reading it.

If two simultaneous actions are in progress at the moment of speaking, three variants are possible: a) one action is expressed by the verb in the simple present, the other–by the present continuous: e.g. Do you hear what I am saying?(to hear does not admit of the continuous form) b) both actions are expressed by the verbs in the present continuous: e.g. Are you listening to what I am saying? At home he is always sleeping while I am doing chores. c) both actions are expressed by the verbs in the simple present e.g. Several students watch carefully while he writes it on the board. The simple present, not the present continuous, is used to denote actions which though going on at the moment of speaking, are important as simple facts rather than as actions in progress. e.g. He did such a mean thing and you defend him. Why don`t you read your examples? Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me? Stop talking! Why don`t you listen? 2. to denote an action going on at the present period. In this case the precise time limits of the action are not known either. Besides, the action may or may not be going on at the actual moment of speaking. e.g. “And what are you doing in Geneva?” “I’m writing a play,” said Ashenden. He lit a cigarette and almost immediately began to 27

cough. “The damned things are killing me.” Your behaviour is killing your wife. 3. to denote future actions: a) with verbs of motion to arrive, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to sail, to start and some others, usually the actions are only intended or planned. The future time is usually indicated by some adverbials: e.g. She is leaving tomorrow. The boat is sailing next week. What are you doing on Sunday? Are you coming to the pub? Get your coat on! I am taking you down to the doctor! However, the present continuous of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote an intention or a plan,, to emphasize the idea of an intention, of a decision that has already been made: e.g. He is going to get ill. The flowers are going to wither. It is going to snow. Sandra is going to have a baby in June. We are going to get a new car soon. John says he is going to call in this evening. When are you going to get your hair cut? I am going to keep asking her out until she says `Yes`. In many cases, both structures (the present continuous and to be going + infinitive) can be used to express the same idea. But there are some differences: the present continuous can emphasize the idea of `fixed arrangement`, to be going + infinitive can emphasize the idea of `intention`, or `previous decision`. Compare: Are you doing anything this weekend? (asking about arrangements) Are you going to do anything that letter from the tax people? (pressing to know what has been decided) Who is cooking lunch?(arrangement) Who is going to cook lunch?(decision) 28

I am seeing Phil tonight.(emphasis on arrangement) I am really going to tell him what I think of him.(emphasis on intention) I am getting a new job. (It`s already arranged.) I am going to get a new job. (I`ve decided to.) But the Present Continuous is not used to make predictions about events that are outside people`s control: e.g. Things are going to get better soon. It is going to snow before long. Both structures are used to insist that people do things or do not do things. e.g. She is taking / going to take that medicine whether she likes or not! Она примет то лекарство, нравится оно ей или нет. You are not playing /going to play football in my garden. Ты не будешь играть в футбол в моем саду.(я не позволю) But the Present Continuous is common in emphatic refusals: e.g. I am sorry; you are not taking my car. Мне жаль, но машину мою вы не возьмете! b) In adverbial clauses of time and condition after conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in case, unless, etc.: e.g. I`ll ring you up at 2, while you are having your break. If he is working when I come, don`t bother him, I`ll wait. As follows from all mentioned above, the present continuous cannot occur in the context describing a succession of actions referring to the present. In such cases the simple present is used: e.g. He comes up to the piano, opens the lid, and begins to play the first tune.

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If several actions in a narrative are simultaneous and are usually performed by different persons the verbs are used in the present continuous tense: e.g. The boys are playing football on the lawn, Nell is reading in her room, and Father is having his rest. 4. to denote a) a frequently repeated action, chiefly in the affirmative. It is used with the adverbs always, constantly to express that the frequency annoys the speaker or seems unreasonable to him: Thus Tom is always going away at weekends implies that he goes away too often in the speaker’s opinion. But it does not necessarily mean that he goes away every weekend. It is not a literal (буквальное) statement. Compare: Tom always goes away at weekends. = Tom goes away every weekend. (a literal statement). b) an action which appears to be continuous: e.g. He is always working = He works all the time. This sort of action quite often annoys the speaker but doesn`t necessarily do so; it could also be said in a tone of approval: e.g. She is always losing the keys. (annoyance) He is always reading. (approval) Verbs not normally used in the Continuous Тenses 1. It should be born in mind that though most English verbs can be used in the continuous form, some of them, as we have already mentioned, do not admit of it. This refers to verbs denoting a) physical perception, such as to hear, to see, to notice, to observe(=to notice), to feel.

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b) emotions, such as to admire ( = to respect) to adore to appreciate (= to value) to care for ( = to like) to desire to detest

to dislike to fear to hate to like to loathe

to long for to love to mind(= to care) to respect to value

c) wish, such as to desire, to want, to wish. d) mental processes, such as to admire ( = to be of high to forget to imagine opinion) to know to agree to appreciate (= to to mean to mind(= to understand) object) to assume to perceive to believe (= to consider) to presume to consider (= to regard) to realize to doubt to recall to expect ( = to suppose) to recognize to feel ( = to consider) to recollect to feel sure / certain

to regard to remember to see (= to understand) to see through smb to suppose to think (= to have an opinion) to trust (= to believe) to understand

e) possession, such as to belong, to have(=to possess), to owe, to own, to possess. e.g. How much do I owe you? Who does this garden belong to? f) some other verbs: to matter, to displease to allow, to need, to envy, to appear(= to object, to equal, to seem), to please, to fail to do, to astonish, to feel (as a link- to prefer, to be, to prevent, verb), to claim, to puzzle, to find, to concern, 31

to satisfy,to seem, to signify, to smell, to sound, to succeed, to suffice,

to consent, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ

to refuse, to forbid, to remind, to forgive, to hold (= to to resemble, to result, contain), to require, to keep doing, to manage to do

to suite, to surprise, to taste, to value

2. However, other verbs which have meanings similar to those mentioned above may be freely used in the continuous form if it is required by the sense. This refers to a number of verbs expressing wish (to look forward to, to long), emotions (to amuse, to enjoy), perceptions (to watch), etc. The continuous can be used with to admire meaning `to look at with admiration`(любоваться), to appreciate meaning `to increase in value `(повышать цену, повышаться в цене), to care for meaning `to look after`, to long for, to mind meaning `to look after / concern oneself with`. e.g.

I long for you. Ты мне очень нужен. He is longing for a shower. Он не может дождаться момента, когда примет душ. He is enjoying his holiday in the Arctic. He hates touristy places and doesn`t mind the cold. Он наслаждается своим отпуском в Арктике. Он терпеть не может места, где много туристов, и ничего не имеет против холода. I am minding my own business. Я занимаюсь своим делом. We are looking forward to our holiday. Мы с нетерпением ждем отпуска

3. Many of the verbs included in the list above admit of the continuous form when they are used in other meaning. a) feel When to feel is followed by an adjective indicating the subject`s emotions or physical or mental condition, e.g. angry / pleased, happy / sad, hot / cold, tense / relaxed, nervous / confident, 32

it is usually used in the simple tenses but it can also be used in the continuous: e.g. How do you feel/are you feeling? I feel/am feeling better. Feel meaning `touch` (usually to learn something) can be used in the continuous: e.g. The doctor is feeling her pulse. Доктор щупает ее пульс. Similarly, feel for meaning `try to find something by touching` (нащупывать, искать наощупь): e.g. He is feeling for the keyhole in the dark. Он в темноте наощупь ищет замочную скважину. But feel is not used in the continuous when it means `sense` (чувствовать): e.g. Don`t you feel the house is shaking? Разве вы не чувствуете, что дом дрожит? when it means `think`(думать): e.g. I feel you are wrong. Думаю, вы не правы. and when it is used as a link-verb: e.g. The water feels cold. Вода холодная (наощупь). b) look look isn’t used in the continuous as a link-verb, e.g. That cake looks good. На вид этот торт хороший. With look on (=consider), look up to (= respect) and look down on (= despise) the continuous isn`t used either. e.g. These children look on their teachers as their enemies. Эти дети считают своих учителей врагами. All football fans look up to him as he is a good 33

goalkeeper. Все болельщики футбола уважают его, так как он хороший вратарь. She thinks her neighbours look down on her a bit because she has never been abroad. Она думает, что ее соседи смотрят на нее несколько сверху вниз, так как она никогда не была за границей. But look at, look for/ in / into / out and look on (= watch) can be used in the continuous tenses: e.g. He is looking for his glasses. Он ищет свои очки. I am looking out for a better job. Я подыскиваю себе работу получше. c) smell Smell meaning `perceive a scent/ an odour`(чувствовать запах), or as a link-verb (пахнуть) isn’t used in the continuous: e.g. I smell gas. Я чувствую запах газа. This rose smells sweet. Эта роза нежно пахнет. But it can be used in the continuous in the meaning of `sniff at`(нюхать): e.g. Why are you smelling the milk? Почему ты нюхаешь молоко? d) taste Taste as a link-verb isn`t used in the continuous: e.g. This coffee tastes bitter.(has a bitter taste) У этого кофе горький вкус. But taste meaning `to test the flavour of`(попробовать на вкус) can be used in the continuous: e.g. She is tasting the pudding to see if it is sweet enough. Она пробует пуддинг, чтоб проверить, достаточно ли он сладкий. 34

e) see See can be used in the continuous when it means `meet by appointment`( usually for business) (принимать посетителя): e.g. The director is seeing the applicants this morning. when it means `visit`(usually as a tourist): e.g. Tom is seeing the sights. in the following combinations: see about = make arrangements or inquiries (позаботиться о чем-то, проследить за чем-то) see to = to arrange, put right, deal with: see somebody out = escort somebody to the door. see somebody home = escort somebody home. see somebody to + place = escort somebody to + place: see somebody off = say good-bye to a departing traveller (usually at the airport, station, etc.) e.g. We are seeing about the hotel for the night. Мы позаботимся о гостинице на ночь. The plumber is here. He is seeing to the leak in our tank. Водопроводчик здесь. Он устраняет утечку в нашем баке. Is Bill seeing you home after the party? – No, he is just seeing me to my bus. We are leaving tomorrow. Bill is seeing us off at the airport. f) hear hear can be used in the continuous when it means `listen formally to`(complaints / evidence etc.) (выслушивать жалобы, заслушивать свидетелей): e.g. The court is hearing evidence this morning. Сегодня утром суд заслушивает свидетелей. hear meaning `receive news or letters` can also be used in the present perfect continuous and future continuous: 35

e.g.

I have been hearing all about your accident. Я все узнал о вашей аварии. You will be hearing about the new scheme at our next meeting. Вы узнаете о новом проекте во время нашей следующей встречи.

g) think think can be used in the continuous when no opinion is given or asked for: e.g. What are you thinking about? – I am thinking about the play we saw last night. О чем вы думаете? – Я думаю о пьесе, которую мы смотрели вчера вечером. But What do you think of it? (opinion asked for) – I don`t think much of it. (opinion given). Что ты об этом думаешь? – Я невысокого мнения об этом h) expect expect can be used in the continuous when it means `await`: e.g. I am expecting a letter. Я жду письмо. She is expecting a baby in July. Она ждет ребенка в июле. i) be be in the continuous form can be used to denote behaviour, but not feelings. e.g. You are being stupid. = You are doing stupid things. You are stupid. = You are not clever. j) have have in the meaning of possess is not used in the continuous, but with a change of its meaning it can be used in this form. Namely, it occurs when to have is part of set phrases, as in: 36

to have a bath/a shave/a shower/a wash to have breakfast/lunch/dinner/supper/tea/coffee/a drink/ a meal to have a rest / a lie-down/a sleep/a dream to have a good time/a bad day/a day off/a holiday to have a talk / a chat/a word with smb/a quarrel/a row to have difficulty/trouble in doing smth to have a swim/a walk/a ride/a dance/a game of tennis etc to have smth done to have to do smth and the like. e.g.

Where is Ann? – She is having a bath. I know you are having your difficulties.

4. Some of the verbs included in the list above can also be occasionally used in the continuous form, though, on the whole, it is not typical of them. In this case the present continuous gives them emotional colouring. e.g. “At the present time I am hating the life in New York”, she said in an expressionless tone. But, my dear mother, the committee is depending on you. Dear Amy, I have settled in now and I am liking my new life very much. In any case, I am relying on you, Father. The Present Perfect Tense I. Meaning. The present perfect tense denotes the action preceding the moment of speaking, though it is connected with it either directly or indirectly, i.e. a) it continues up to the moment of speaking or b) takes place within a period of time before the moment of speaking and including it. 37

II. Formation. The present perfect is formed analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the simple present and participle II of the notional verb. Affirmative I have taken He (she, it) has taken We have taken You have taken They have taken

Interrogative Have I taken? Has he (she, it) taken? Have we taken? Have you taken? Have they taken?

Negative I have not (haven’t) taken He (she, it) has not (hasn’t) taken We have not (haven’t) taken You have not (haven’t) taken They have not (haven’t) taken Negative-interrogative a) b) Haven’t I taken? Have I not taken? Hasn’t he (she, it) taken? Has he (she, it) not taken? Haven’t we taken? Have we not taken? Haven’t you taken? Have you not taken? Haven’t they taken? Have they not taken?

III. The present perfect is used in present-time contexts, i.e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. The Present Perfect is used 1. when the speaker merely states that an action took place in the past without mentioning any definite circumstances under which it occurred. It means that it is the happening itself that matters in the speaker’s opinion, the circumstances of the action are not important at the moment.

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e.g.

“I’ve spoiled everything,” she said. “Я все испортила,”сказала она. He is very sensitive, I have discovered that. Он очень чувствителен, я это обнаружила. His secretary said tactfully, ”I’ve put off your other appointment for a while.” Его секретарь тактично сказал: ”Я на некоторое время отложил вашу другую встречу.”

The time of the action is either not indicated at all, or is indicated by means of adverbs of indefinite time and frequency , such as already, always, before, ever, never, of late, lately, just, in the last few days, occasionally, often, seldom, several times, since dinner, so far, recently, up to now, (not) … yet, etc. e.g. I have met a lot of people in the last few days. I am hungry. I haven’t eaten anything since breakfast. Have you heard of him lately? Jane has never been to london. She has cleared the point up before. He has had a lot of bad luck recently. But it should be noted that the use of the present prefect is by no means obligatory with the above mentioned adverbs as any other tense-aspect form can be used with these adverbs if it is required by the sense. e.g. He was studying to become a pianist, but he never touches the piano now. It should also be noted that a) with just now the simple past is used: e.g. I saw you come in just now. b) the simple past is used with ever and never for emotional colouring: e.g. Did you ever hear anything like that! I never heard such nonsense! As a rule the present perfect is used to denote single accomplished actions. But it can also express recurrent actions 39

(периодически повторяющиеся действия) or actions or states of some duration. e.g. We’ve all been young once, you know. We’ve all felt it, Roy. You think I’ve been idle, don't you? Since the present perfect serves to name a past occurrence (incident), it is often used to open up the conversations (newspaper and radio reports, or letters) or to introduce a new topic in them. However, if the conversation continues on the same subject, going into detail, the present perfect usually changes into the simple past, as the action first mentioned has now become definite in the minds of the speakers. In this case some concrete circumstances of the action (time, place, purpose, cause, etc) are usually (but not necessarily) mentioned. in conversations: e.g. Where have you been? – I have been to the cinema. – What did you see? – I saw `Amadeus`. – Did you like it? Where have you been? – I have been at the sales. – What have you bought / did you buy? – I have bought / I bought some yellow pyjamas. – Why did you buy yellow? I hate yellow. newspapers and broadcasts: e.g. Thirty thousand pounds’ worth of jewellery has been stolen from Jonathan Wild and Company, the jewellers. The thieves broke into the flat above some time during Sunday night and entered the shop by cutting a hole in the ceiling. The time of the action is very often given in the second sentence. But even if the time of the action isn’t given the simple past will normally be used in the second sentence: e.g. Two prisoners have escaped from Dartmoor. They used a ladder which had been left behind by some workmen, climbed a twenty-foot wall and got away in a stolen car. 40

e.g.

in letters: I am sorry I haven’t written before but I’ve been very busy lately as Tom has been away.

The present perfect is not used to talk about an accomplished event if we say when it happened: As has been said, the present perfect is mainly used to introduce a new topic. But it may also be used to sum up a situation. e.g. “But I cannot do anything unless I am told the whole truth.” – “But I have told you the truth.” He displayed a basket full of tomatoes. “I really have taken more than I need”. 2. when the speaker means that, though the action is over, the period of time whithin which it was performed is not yet over at the moment of speaking (an incomplete period). The time is indicated by such words as today, this morning, this week, this winter, all my etc.life, all the time, etc. e.g. What Rosanna has done tonight is clear enough. This year we have taken only one assistant. “I have had only one new dress this summer,” exlaimed June. But if the period is over or reference is made to a particular past point of time within that period, the simple past is used: e.g.

(at 11 a.m.)Tom has rung up three times this morning already. (at 2 p.m.) Tom rang up three times this morning.

Note. The present perfect can be used with this morning only up to twelve or to about one o’clock, because after that this morning becomes a completed period. The present perfect used with an incomplete period of time implies that the action happened or didn’t happen at some undefined time during this period 41

e.g.

Have you seen him today? (at any time today) – Yes, I have seen him today.(at some time during the day)

but if we know that the action usually happens at a certain time or in a certain part of our incomplete period we use the simple past tense. e.g. _If my alarm clock normally goes off at six, I might say at breakfast: “My alarm clock didn’t go off this morning.” _Ann: Have you ever fallen off a horse? – Tom: Yes, I’ve fallen off quite often/occasionally. But if Tom’s riding days are over, we would have: Ann: Did you ever fall off a horse? Tom: Yes, I did occasionally/frequently Sometimes, in affirmative sentences, with today, this week, we usually prefer the simple past tense. Compare: I have already spoken to the boss about my holiday. I spoke to the boss today about my holiday. _Have you seen John this week? – I haven’t seen John this week. I saw John this week, and he says… It should be noted that sometimes an adverbial modifier of place points to a past period of time: e.g. Did you see him at the theatre? I ran into him in Oxford Street. 3. to denote actions still in progress, which began before the moment speaking and go up to that moment or into it. In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated by means of the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since, or an adverbial clause with the conjunction since, or the period during which it continued by various adverbs and phrases with for and sometimes in: for an hour, for many years, for the last few days, for a long time, for so long, for ages, in years, in a long while, since morning, in the last few days, etc. or without any prepositions: 42

these three years , all this week, all along, so long, all one’s life, etc. It is thus used in the following cases: a) with statal verbs which do not normally take continuous forms: e.g. I have known this young lady all my life. I haven’t seen you for ages. She has been here since 8. We met by chance last year, and I haven’t seen her since. b) with some actional (durative) verbs (in this case the present perfect continuous is possible). The choice between the two forms depends on the lexical character of the verb: in the case of the present perfect the logical stress is laid rather on the fact than on the progress, whereas in the case of the present perfect continuous it is the process that is important. In such cases the present perfect is rendered in Russian by the present tense: e.g. I have worn glasses since my childhood. Я ношу очки с детства. “It’s a pretty room, isn’t it?” “I’ve slept in it for fifteen years.” “Я сплю здесь уже 15 лет”. Since my accident I have written with my left hand. После аварии я пишу левой рукой. I have worked here since 1994. Я работаю здесь с 1994 года. In the clause introduced by since or ever since the simple past is used to indicate the starting point of an action: e.g. But she has seemed so much better since you started the injections. I have worked here since I left school. He had a bad fall last year and has been off work ever since.

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Attention should be paid to the use of the present perfect and the simple past when the period of duraton is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past time sphere, the simple past should be used. It is only if the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes that the present perfect is used. e.g. “I have lived like this,” he said, “for two years, and I can’t stand it any more.”(it means that he still lives like this) He lived in this town for two years. Now he lives in the country. (he is not in this town any longer) It should be noted that for can sometimes be omitted, especially after be, live and wait and is not used before expressions beginning with all: e.g. We have been here an hour / two days. They have worked all night. Note. There is difference between last and the last. Compare: a) I have been here since last week. b) I have been here for the last week Last week in a) means a point in time about seven days ago. The last week in b) means the period of seven days just completed. 4. in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the conjunctions when, as soon as, after, before, till and until, if and unless, to denote a future action that will be accomplished before a certain moment in the future. e.g. As soon as we have had tea, Ann, we shall go to inspect your house. Wait till I have written the notice.

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Sometimes the simple present is found in this type of clauses in the same meaning as the present perfect. The choice of the form depends on the lexical meaning of the verb. With durative verbs the present perfect is necessary: e.g. When you have had your tea, we’ll see about it. I can tell you whether the machine is good or bad when I have tried it. With terminative verbs the use of both forms is possible: e.g. He says that when he retires / has retired he will grow roses. Mother will stay at home until we return / have returned 5. a) in the sentences of this type: e.g. This is the best wine I have ever drunk. This is the worst book I have ever read. This is the easiest job I have ever had. It/this is the first time I have seen the mounted band. It is only the second time he has played tennis. This is the only book he has written. b) in the questions beginning with how long (with the verbs that are not used in the continuous form) e.g. How long have you been here? – I have been here six months. How long have you known Jane? But How long is it since you last saw her?–It is ages since I last saw her. Сколько времени вы ее не видели? – Я очень давно не видел ее. c) with the verb to be in the sense of to go, to visit even though the adverbials of place are used: e.g. Have you been to London? She says she has been to Paris three times. Note the difference between gone (to) and been (to): 45

e.g.

Jane is away on holiday. She has gone to Italy.(= she is there or on the way there) She is back home from holiday now. She has been to Italy.(= she has now come back from Italy) I have been to Italy four times but I have never been to Rome.

6. the Present Perfect is not used a) in special qiestions beginning with when as in this case the speaker is also interested in the time of the action, though the answer can be either in the simple past or in the present perfect depending on the actual state of affairs: e.g. When did you change your mind? – I changed my mind yesterday. / I have just changed my mind. b) in special quentions beginning with where if the speaker is focusing on the past action, not the present result: e.g. Where did you meet him? Where did you buy this hat? c) in special questions beginning with what, why and what…for both forms can be used, depending on the meaning to be conveyed: e.g. Why didn’t you speak to my father yourself on the boat? (the speaker is interested in the circumstances) Looking up at her he said, “Dorothy’s gone to a garden party.” “I know. Why haven’t you gone too?”(the speaker is interested in the occurrence) d) in special questions beginning with interrogative words other than those mentioned above, the simple past is normally used. The present perfect is not common here because the attention in such sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a definite action in mind: e.g. “How did he get in?”I asked, and Evans said,” Oh, he has a key 46

e) Sometimes, though there is no indication of past time in the sentence, the present perfect cannot be used because reference is made to happenings which are definite in the mind of the speaker, i.e. either because the action has already been mentioned or because the situation is known to the hearer. In this case the simple past is common. e.g. Did you sleep well? Did you enjoy the play? What did you say? Did you have a good journey? Did you see the accident? I did not hear your question. I didn’t understand you. “What sort of place has Laura?” “I didn’t notice.” f) with verbs of knowing, believing and understanding except as in the following sentences I have known him for a long time. I have never believed their theories. So recent actions, even when the time is not mentioned, must be expressed by the Simple Past: e.g. Did you know that he was going to be married? Hello! I didn’t know you were in London. How long have you been here? g) It is noteworthy that recent actions in the present perfect often have results in the present: e.g. Tom has had a bad car crash. (He’s probably still in hospital.) The lift has broken down. (We have to use the stairs.) I’ve washed the car. (It looks lovely.) But actions expressed in the simple past without a time expression do not normally have results in the present: e.g. Tom had a bad crash. (He is probably out of hospital.) The lift broke down. (It is probably working now.) I washed the car. (It may be dirty again now.) 47

h) The present perfect can also be used for actions which occurred further back in the past, if the connection with the present is maintained, that is the action could be repeated in the present: I have seen wolves in the forest implies that it is still possible to see them. If, however, the wolves have been killed we would say I saw wolves in that forest once/several times or I used to see wolves in that forest. e.g.

The Chinese invented printing. Shakespeare wrote many tragedies.

But: My friend is a writer. He has written many short stories. (He still writes books)

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense I. Meaning. The present perfect continuous falls within the sphere of the present. Hence, it is not used in narration where reference is made to past events. It is found in the present-time contexts, i.e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. II. Formation. The present perfect continuous is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the present perfect (have/has been) and participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the first auxiliary (have/has) comes before the subject, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow the subject. In the negative the corresponding forms of the first auxiliary (have) are used, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow them.

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Interrogative Have I been waiting? Has he (she, it) been waiting? Have we been waiting? Have you been waiting? Have they been waiting?

Affirmative I have been waiting. He (she, it) has been waiting. We have been waiting. You have been waiting. They have been waiting.

Contracted Negative Negative I haven’t been waiting. I have not been waiting. He (she, it) has not been He (she, it) hasn’t been waiting waiting. We haven’t been waiting. We have not been waiting. You haven’t been waiting. You have not been waiting. They haven’t been waiting They have not been waiting. Negative-interrogative b) a). Haven’t I been waiting? Have I not been waiting? Has he (she, it) not been Hasn’t he (she, it) been waiting? waiting? Haven’t we been waiting? Have we not been waiting? Haven’t you been waiting? Have you not been waiting? Haven’t they been waiting? Have they not been waiting? III. The Present Perfect Continuous is used with actional verbs to denote: 1. actions in progress which began at a certain moment in the past and continues into the present. In this case either the starting point of the action or the period of time during which it has been in progress is mentioned. e.g. I have been writing since morning, and so I‘ll soon stop. They have been living here since 1987. Now they are going to move to Manchester. She is the fourth year student, so she has been learning English for at least 3 years already. It has been raining ever since midnight, and it is still drizzling. 49

In this meaning, the present perfect continuous may be used with both durative and terminative verbs: e.g. ”We have been staying here nearly a week.” “I hope you are not thinking of leaving.” I wish you went, Chris! We have been getting on each other’s nerves lately. All the actions continuing into the present are translated into Russian by the present tense, imperfective (in the sentences above: пишу, живут, учит, идет дождь, действуем на нервы). 2. actions in progress, which began in the past and continues up to the moment of speaking or till just before it. e.g. You look so sad. Have you been crying? Ты такая печальная. Ты плакала? Oh, here you are at last! I’ve been waiting for you all day! Ну, наконец-то! Я тебя весь день жду. 3. actions, which were in progress quite recently but their beginning and their end are not mentioned, though they are connected with the moment of speaking through its importance for the present: e.g. My brother has been using my bicycle and has got the tyre punctured. Мой брат пользовался моим велосипедом и проколол шину. I hear she has been calling on you again. Я слышал, она опять к вам приходила. She said,” I’ve been talking to your friend, Adeline, and I like him.” … “Я разговаривала с вашим другом, Аделина, и он мне понравился.” Don’t tell your mother what I have been saying. What have you been doing? He began abruptly,”I have been thinking about what you told me.”

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The forms denoting actions that are over by the moment of speaking are translated into Russian by means of the past tense, imperfective (in the sentences in points 2 and 3 they are: плакала, ждала, катался, приходила, беседовала, говорила, делал, обдумывал). In this case, the Present Perfect Continuous is not, as a rule, associated with any indications of time (see the examples above). It is only occasionally found with indications of a recent period or with the adverb just: e.g. Augustus has been dining with us tonight. Август сегодня с нами обедал. I have been discussing it with Arabella this evening. Сегодня вечером я обсуждал это с Арабеллой. I’ve just been having such a delightful chat with Margaret. Я только что так чудно болтала с Маргарет. 4. future actions in progress before a certain moment in the future ( in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition): e.g. He will get accustomed to the surroundings after he has been staying here for a week or two. Он привыкнет к окружению после того, как останется здесь недельку-другую. 5. in negative sentences the present perfect continuous is not common. The present perfect is preferred in this case because the attention is paid rather to the negation of the action than to its progress. But occasionally the present perfect continuous is also found in negative sentences but in this case the negation does not refer to the action itself but to the length of its duration or to the circumstances attending the action. e.g. I haven't disscussed it with Arabella. She hasn't written to me for a year. I haven't read the paper for the last two years. He has made nothing but trouble. We haven't heard from them since then. 51

6. As is seen from above, the present perfect continuous cannot be used to denote the succession of actions and therefore cannot be used to describe the development of events. If two actions denoted by the Present Perfect Continuous happen to come together it only means that they are simultaneous and are usually performed by two different persons: e.g. I have been living here for two months while they have been traveling all over Europe. Now they are coming back, and I’ll soon move back to my own place. 7. The Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect (simple) compared: a) continuation / completion: Both the present perfect tenses (simple and continuous) can be used to talk about recent actions and situations that have recent results. There is an important difference. The present perfect continuous focuses on the action / situation itself, looking at it as a continuous, extended activity (not necessarily finished). The simple present perfect, on the other hand, looks more at the ideas of completion and present result. Compare: I must have a bath. I have been gardening all afternoon. (focus on continuous activity) …Я весь день проработал в саду. I have planted a lot of rose bushes. (focus on result) Я посадил много розовых кустов. – She has been learning irregular verbs all afternoon. (focus on the continuous activity) Она весь день учила неправильные глаголы. She has learned all the irregular verbs. (focus on result) Она выучила все неправильные глаголы. _ Sorry about the mess. I have been painting the house. (focus on the continuous activity) (…красила… I have painted two rooms since lunchtime. (focus on completion) (…покрасила…) 52

Who has been sleeping in my bed? (emphasis on continuous activity – makes the action sound longer and more annoying) (…спал…) I think she has slept enough. – I will wake her up. (focus on completion) (…поспала…) b) repeated actions: We can use the present perfect continuous to talk about repeated actions and events, but not if we say how often they have happened (because this stresses the idea of completion). Compare: I have been playing a lot of tennis recently. I have played tennis three times this week. c) temporary and permanent actions: We often prefer the present perfect continuous to talk about more temporary actions and situations; when we speak about longerlasting or permanent situations we often prefer the simple present perfect. Compare: I haven’t been working very well recently. He hasn’t worked for years. – I have been living in Sue’s flat for the last month. My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives. Generally, however, both continuous and simple tenses are possible in cases like these, with a slight difference of emphasis. e.g. It has been raining / It has rained steadily since Saturday. Harry has been working / has worked in the same job for thirty years We generally use the present perfect continuous to talk about continuous changes or development, even if this is permanent. e.g. Scientists believe that the universe has been expanding steadily since the beginning of time.

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THE PAST TENSES

The Simple Past Tense I. Meaning. The simple past tense denotes actions completed at a definite time in the past. II. Formation. Affirmative forms are represented by the second of the basic verb forms. Interrogative forms are built by means of the auxiliary verb to do in the simple past (did), which is placed before the subject, and the infinitive stem of the notional verb, which follows the subject. Negative forms are built by means of the negative form of the auxiliary, which has two varieties: didn’t and did not – and the infinitive of the notional verb that follows it. Affirmative Interrogative write(stop)? I wrote (stopped) I he (she, it) write (stop)? He (she, it) wrote (stopped) write (stop)? wrote (stopped) Did we We write (stop)? you wrote (stopped) You write (stop)? they wrote (stopped) They Negative I did not (didn’t) write (stop) He (she, it) did not (didn’t) write (stop) We did not (didn’t) write (stop) You did not (didn’t) write (stop) They did not (didn’t) write (stop) a) Did Did Did Did Did

Negative-interrogative I not write? (stop?) he(she, it) not write? (stop?) we not write? (stop?) you not write? (stop?) they not write? (stop?)

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b) Didn’t Didn’t Didn’t Didn’t Didn’t

I he (she, it) we you they

write (stop)? write (stop)? write (stop)? write (stop)? write (stop)?

III. The simple past is used to denote actions which are in no way connected with the present. Therefore the simple past can be used only in contexts relating to the past. The past reference of the text can be shown: a) by various adverbials of time pointing to the past, i.e. yesterday, the day before yesterday, last (that) Sunday, last year (week, month), an hour ago, in 1946, on the 1st of May, etc. e.g. I saw him yesterday. She came back home two hours ago. Things came to a crisis in July. They met the day before yesterday. I got a letter from Tom last week. Nobody slept that night. Yet the simple past may also be used with such adverbial modifiers of time as this morning, today, tonight, etc. e.g. I saw the announcement this morning. I ran into her tonight. The time of the action may be implied in the situation through the mention of the place of the action or other attending circumstances. e.g. I ate turnips in Germany. Did you belong to any society at the University? “What a lot you know,” said Miss Marple. “About the private lives of film stars. Did you learn it all in California? He built that place for Lord Henry.

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But sometimes the mention of the time or place of the action appears unnecessary because reference is made to a particular action which is definite in the mind of the speaker or the hearer. e.g. Sorry! I didn’t mean to hurt you. I slept very badly. You told it beautifully, Grace. Did you say anything?-I did not quite catch what he said.” b) by some other past actions (denoted by the verb in the simple past or past continuous) e.g. He came when I was already at home. They started when the sun was rising. The Simple Past is used: 1. To state simple facts in the past. e.g. She was very beautiful. I did not hear your question. We saw them at the theatre. What did you say? The house stood on the hill. I did not know who the man was. The simple past is used in the questions beginning with when and where: e.g. Where did you buy that hat? When did you see him? (the answer can be either in the simple past or in the present perfect depending on the situation) – I saw him two days ago. – I have just seen him. 2. To denote recurrent actions. To support this meaning such adverbial modifiers of frequency as often, sometimes, now and again, never, for days, etc. are used. e.g. You often mentioned her in your letters. He breathed hard and stopped every few minutes. Martin spent many of his evenings reading case histories of radiation illness. 56

3. To denote an action which occupied a whole period of time now over. That means that the action after taking place came to an end in the past. The period of time is usually indicated in the sentence by means of adverbial phrases with the preposition for or during and synonymous expressions. e.g. Last May I spent six weeks in London. We stayed in the garden for a long time. For twenty years you lived without your child. I admit I was wrong. Remember how we quarreled about it? We quarreled for three days. Questions beginning with how long may accordingly contain either the simple past or the present perfect depending on whether the period of time implied is already over or has not yet expired. e.g. Maurice turned on the light and saw his brother sitting in the armchair. “How long have you been here?” he asked in surprise. “We really had a wonderful time in Brighton.” “How long did you stay there?” 4. To denote the succession of past actions. e.g. He got up, put on his hat, and left. The car stopped, the door opened, and a very pretty girl got out of it. I found some matches, climbed on the table, lit the gas lamp, and then settled down to read. So I went up the stairs. I bathed. I changed. Then I went downstairs and cooked and served dinner for three. We went to the park and I sat down on the chair and took the baby out of the pram. Consecutive (последовательные) actions may be either single accomplished actions (as in the examples above) or actions of some duration occupying a whole period of time. The latter is usually indicated by means of the prepositional phrases with for, during, from … to, or by means of the words all day, all night and the like. 57

e.g.

e.g.

She looked at him for a long time and then shrugged. One day I met Gerald. We chatted for a bit. I asked him to have lunch with and he seemed pleased. We marched all night and all today. We arrived only an hour ago. 5. To denote habitual actions in the past. On Sunday evening he took her to the pictures. Dan worked in a factory twelve hours a day for five shillings a week. The drive sloped downward to where the house stood. She lived alone in London, and saw no one except me. She was fond of him, but I did not believe that she loved him. He usually took the first morning train.

Besides the simple past there are other ways of expressing habitual actions in the past. They are “used to + infinitive” and “would + infinitive”. a)“Used to + infinitive” (pronounced [ju:st] ) generally serves to express habitual actions which may be either point actions or actions of some duration. e.g. Some years ago he used to call on me, now he never does. She used to give me chocolate. I used to meet him when he was working on the Chronicle here. I liked reading in the garden. I used to take out a deckchair, sit under one of the apple-trees and read. Sometimes “used to + infinitive” with a durative verb serves to express an action permanently characterizing the subject of the sentence in the past.

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e.g.

“I used to be as sentimental as anyone a few years ago,” said Ann. I do not exactly hear as I used to. You wouldn’t have the same comforts in the country, dear, I know, I used to live there as a girl.

The negative and interrogative forms of “used to + infinitive” are very seldom found. The negative construction of used to is formed in one of two ways: didn’t used to / didn’t use to and used not to. The interrogative construction is: did … use to? / did … used to? and used … to ? e.g. Lena didn’t use to like the clock, did she? “I am not mean.” “You usedn’t to be. But you have been lately, haven’t you? Cedric, what’s come over you? You used not to talk like that. “Who do writers write for now?” “Who did they used to write for? People, of course. “And what did they use to give you on Sundays?” he was asking as I came in. Used you to climb the old apple-tree in the garden? b) The other way of expressing habitual actions is by means of “would + infinitive” which always conveys an additional modal colouring of will. e.g. This used to be my mother’s room, and I would sit there for hours. Раньше это была мамина комната, и я, бывало, часами сидел там. 6. To denote actions in progress at a certain moment in the past, a) with the verbs that cannot be used in the continuous forms. e.g. He was not listening but still heard what they were speaking about. At that time he was on the watch. She sipped her coffee and pulled a face. She thought it 59

tasted horrible. She was ill at ease, and he felt sorry for her. He wanted all her troubles for himself at that moment. b) with certain durative verbs instead of the past continuous. They are carry, gleam, hang, lie, shine, sit, sleep, speak, stand, walk, wear and some others. The continuous form need not be used because the attention is focused on the fact of the action, not on the progress or the manner in which the action is presented. e.g. Barbara and Basil sat in the garden after lunch. The smoke from Basil’s cigar hung on the humid air. The lights in the house were out, but a rising moon gleamed against one window in the room where little Mary slept. We went to the bus stop. The full moon shone down on the lightless blind-faced street. His hair was newly cut, he wore a stiff white collar, a bowler hat, a thin gold watch-chain and other marks of respectability, and he carried a new umbrella. He talked with acute intensity. Her face was heavy, she spoke with deep emotion. He walked between us, listening attentively to our conversation. On the table lay three rows of cards face upwards. Outside the ground froze hard and the trees stood out white against the leaden sky. However, the Past Continuous is occasionally found, too. e.g. She was speaking with difficulty, as though she had to speak hard about each word. 7. To denote future actions in subordinate adverbial clauses of time, condition and concession: the future-in-the-past or modal verbs are usually used in the principal clause in this case. e.g. She said she would come when the film was over. She said she would do it if nothing unexpected happened He knew that she was determined to marry him, and 60

would, if she thought it useful, lie and cheat and steal until she brought it off. Probably she knew that, whatever happened, he would not give her away. The Past Continuous Tense I. Meaning. The past continuous (or progressive) denotes an action which was in progress at a definite moment in the past. II. Formation. The past continuous is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the simple past and participle I of the notional verb. Interrogative Affirmative Was I reading? I was reading Was he (she, it) reading? He (she, it) was reading Were we reading? We were reading Were you reading? You were reading Were they reading? They were reading Negative I was not (wasn’t) reading He (she, it)was not (wasn’t) reading We were not (weren’t) reading You were not (weren’t) reading They were not (weren’t) reading Negative-interrogative b) a) Wasn’t I reading? Was I not reading? Wasn’t he (she, it) reading? Was he (she, it) not reading? Weren’t we reading? Were we not reading? Weren’t you reading? Were you not reading? Weren’t they reading? Were they not reading? III. The Past Continuous is used: 1. To denote a continuous action in progress at a certain moment in the past. 61

The moment of time can be specified directly, by means of adverbials of time, or indirectly by some other past action mentioned in the same sentence. The moment of time at which the action is in progress can also be shown by the previous context, or understood from the situation. e.g. At 10 it was still raining. Little Mary came in. She was eating an ice-cream cone. She looked unbelievingly at him. Surely he was joking. I am afraid I took your wife’s fan for my own, when I was leaving your house tonight. When he returned she was wandering from room to room. In a moment I returned to where Martin was still reading by the fire. The fire began at midnight when everybody was sleeping. At that time she was already packing up. 2. To denote a continuous action in progress during a certain period of time in the past, marked by adverbials – prepositional phrases such as from … till, from … to or adverbs all day long, the whole night, etc. e.g. We were quarrelling all day long yesterday. She says she was washing from six to eight. All through that winter and spring, I was attending committees, preparing notes for the minister, reading memoranda, talking to my scientific friends. Roy was keeping to his room all day. All that winter they were experimenting with protective clothing. When actional durative verbs take the form of the past continuous the actions described do not actually differ from those in the form of the simple past, as both denote actions in progress at some moment of time in the past. e.g. When I saw him he was standing at the door. (the process) When I saw him he stood at the door. (the fact) 62

Both examples may refer to the same situation. The difference is that the simple past lays the stress on the fact, while the past continuous emphasizes the process, thus presenting the action more vividly. However, in a complex sentence with a subordinate adverbial clause of time if the predicate verbs both in the principal and in the subordinate clauses express simultaneous actions in progress it is usual (though not obligatory) to use the simple past in both clauses: e.g. While I ate and drank, I looked up the register. She looked all the while at him as she spoke in her slow, deep voice. But, the past continuous is rather frequent in adverbial clauses, introduced by the conjunctions while, as, when, as long as, etc. e.g. While they were talking, the boy waited outside. As he was climbing up, he all the while looked at the birds soaring high above him. When I was working there, I played in the local jazzband. She stayed in the car while I was talking to the nurse. Sometimes the past continuous is used in the principal clause, while the simple past is in the subordinate: e.g. They were talking inside while he stood watching the path. The verbs to stand, to sit, to lie expressing actions in progress at a certain moment, or during a certain period of time in the past are commonly used in the simple past, if they are followed by participle I. e.g. They stood by the door, talking loudly. They sat beside their lorry, drinking soda water and eating sardines from a tin. He lay in bed trying to forget what had happened. However, the past continuous is also possible. e.g. She was standing staring at the open letter in her hand.

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3. To denote actions characteristic of certain persons in the past, the adverbials always and constantly are often used in the sentence. e.g. She had rather poor health and was constantly complaining of headaches. As I remember her she was always fussing over something. He seemed very absent-minded, he was constantly losing things. You remember how he was always writing verses. She was noisy and constantly trying to attract attention by any means. 4.To denote future actions viewed from the past, with verbs of motion (to arrive, to come to go, to leave, to return, etc.), usually if the action is planned or expected. In this case adverbials of time are generally used, or the future reference of the verb is clear from the context or situation: e.g. She said she was leaving in a week. Then I understood that they were not returning that year or the next. The ship was sailing in a few hours. Why didn’t you tell me you were starting? At the end of the week she wired that she was returning. If no future reference of the action is evident, it implies that though the action was planned, it was not or will not be carried out. e.g. I said quickly: “She was coming to tea yesterday afternoon” (was due to come, but did not). “Listen”, I said. “I’ve brought a little cousin of mine along. Joanna was coming too but was prevented.” Note: The following sentence is a stereotype. It is emotionally coloured, expressing irritation: e.g. I thought you were never coming. – Я уж думала, ты никогда не придешь. 64

IV. The simple past and the past continuous can be found in different combinations in the following sentence patterns 1. A complex sentence with a clause of time introduced by the conjunction as. Within that pattern there may be three different kinds of time relations between the action of the subordinate clause and that of the principal clause. The actions of the two clauses may be fully simultaneous, and the simple past is commonly used in both clauses. e.g. I watched him as he drank his tea. Roy talked little as they drove home. Occasionally the past continuous is found in the principal clause whereas the simple past is still used in the clause of time. It happens when the verb in the principal clause is terminative and the simple past would indicate a completed action. e.g. As I poured her out a glass of sherry, she was saying, “I always imagined you were older.” a) The actions of the principal and the subordinate clauses may be partially simultaneous. In this case we normally find the past continuous in the subordinate clause and the simple past in the principal clause. e.g. As I was going inside, Mrs. Drawbell intercepted me. One evening, just as I was leaving the office, Martin rang me up. b) The actions of the two clauses may form a succession. In this case naturally only the simple past is found. e.g. As the sun disappeared, a fresh breeze stirred the new curtains at the window. As I turned back into the room a gust of wind crashed the door shut behind me. 2. A complex sentence with a clause of time introduced by the conjunction while. Here we find two different kinds of time relations between the actions of the two clauses.

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a) The actions may be fully simultaneous. In this case either the past continuous or the simple past is used in the subordinate clause and the simple past is normally found in the principal clause. e.g. Martha said nothing but looked from one face to the other while they discussed / were discussing the plans. She sat still as a statue while he was playing / played the sonata. Sometimes the past continuous is used in both the principal and the subordinate clauses. e.g. I was preparing dinner while she was tidying the room. But the repetition of the same form in both clauses is usually avoided. e.g. While we dined the band was playing. or While we were dining the band played. b) The actions may be partially simultaneous. In this case the simple past is used in the principal clause while in the subordinate clause either the past continuous or the simple past is found. e.g. While I was reading, I heard a splash from the bath, and I realized that Martin must be there. While he stood there wondering what sort of pictures to hang on the walls he heard the telephone ring. V. Like the present continuous, the past continuous may be used with the verbs which normally do not admit of the continuous form. It occurs either because the verb has changed its meaning or for reasons of emotional colouring. e.g. I had a horrid feeling that she was seeing right through me and knowing all about me. I was seeing George regularly now. He took me as an equal. Some durative verbs may be used, without any marked change of meaning, either in the past continuous or in the simple past. This, in the first place, refers to the verbs to feel, to wear, and to look. 66

e.g.

Ted Newton stopped at my table for a quick drink. He was wearing a fur coat. A few minutes later Fred came from the direction of the stables. He wore riding breeches. His wife was looking happy. She looked like a very wise mermaid rising out of the sea.

VI. The past continuous can be used as an alternative to the simple past to indicate a more casual, less deliberate action or to make something seem less important: e.g. I was talking to Tom the other day.(the action was in no way unusual or remarkable, it is not clear who started the conversation, and it does not matter.) I talked to Tom. (the Simple Past indicates that I took the initiative.) I was talking to the President last night, and she said… (as if there was nothing special for the speaker about talking to the President.) From four to six Tom was washing the car. (it was a casual, routine action.) From four to six Tom washed the car. (implies the deliberate action by Tom.) In questions about how the period was spent, the continuous often appears more polite than the simple past. Compare: What were you doing before you came here? sounds more polite than What did you do before you came here? On the other hand, What were you doing in my room? sounds rather rude, it could indicate a feeling that I think you had no right to be there, while What did you do in my room? could never give this impression, it sounds more polite.

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The Past Perfect Tense I. Meaning. The past perfect tense denotes the action completed before a certain moment in the past. II. Formation. The past perfect is formed analytically by the auxiliary to have in the simple past and participle II of the notional verb.) Affirmative I had done He (she, it) had done We had done You had done They had done

Interrogative Had I done? Had he (she, it) done? Had we done? Had you done? Had they done?

Negative I had not (hadn’t done) He (she, it) had not (hadn’t) done We had not (hadn’t) done You had not (hadn’t) done They had not (hadn’t) done

Negative-interrogative b) a) Hadn’t I read? Had I not read? Had he (she, it) not read? Hadn’t he (she, it) read? Hadn’t we read? Had we not read? Hadn’t you read? Had you not read? Hadn’t they read? Had they not read? III. The past perfect is used: 1. To denote an action accomplished before a given moment in the past and viewed back from that moment. This moment can be indicated by an adverbial of time, or by another action, or else by the situation. e.g. He had finished his work by then. I opened the window. The rain had stopped, but the sharp east wind was still blowing. I knew him a little: we had met in Rome a year before. She felt wretched. She had not slept for two nights. It was long afterwards that I found out what had happened. He knew where Haviland, but he had never lived there. 68

She was no fool. She had read much, in several languages, and she could talk of the books she had read with good sense. She was in a dressing-gown and her hair was disheveled. She had evidently just got out of bed. After everybody had left, she rushed to her room and began packing hurriedly. 2. To denote an action in progress which began before a certain moment of of time in the past and went on up to that moment and sometimes into it. In such cases either the starting point of the action is specified (by means of the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since or an adverbial clause introduced by the conjunction since), or the period during which the action was in progress (by various adverbials): a) with statal verbs, which do not normally allow of continuous forms: e.g. He had been away for some months before his first letter came. They had thought it over and over again since that dinner. I could not believe the rumour. I had known him for a good many years. b) with some actional durative verbs (in the similar way as with the past perfect continuous). e.g. When we first met she had lived in the country for two years and was quite happy. And thus he had sat in his chair till the clock in the hall chimed midnight. Since her mother's death she had slept in the corner room. In this case the past perfect continuous can also be used, though with a slight difference of meaning: while the past perfect lays the stress on the mere fact that the action took place, the past perfect continuous emphasizes the duration of the action. 69

3. To denote a succession of past actions to the time preceding the narrative as a whole, thus describing a succession of events in the prepast time. e.g. I gave a slight shiver. In front of me was a near square of grass and a path and the low gate. Someone had opened the gate , had walked very correctly and quietly up to the house, and had pushed a letter through the letter-box. The ways of rendering the past perfect in Russian are varied, owing to its aspective meaning of the verb or the context. It can be translated by Russian verbs in the past tense of both perfective and imperfective aspects with all possible shades of their meaning. These are mostly supported by lexical means: e.g. I had admitted everything before. Я все это признал еще раньше. He had banged his fist on the table two or three times before they turned to him. Он стукнул по столу два или три раза прежде, чем они обернулись. Of late years I had sometimes found him at parties. В последние годы я иногда встречал его на вечерах. Note: The past perfect is often used in combination with the past continuous when both are viewed from the same past moment. One action is accomplished before that moment while the other is still in progress. The past perfect and the past continuous may be used in a simple sentence where they are homogeneous predicates, or in two coordinate sentences. This pattern is in extensive use. e.g. Ann had risen and was peering over his shoulder She had got up, and was breathing deeply, with her lips parted and her cheeks very flushed. Outside on the square it had stopped raining and the moon was trying to get through the clouds. All along the walls people were standing and at the far end of the square boys had climbed into the trees. I walked across to my window and pulled the curtains. 70

The sky had cleared and the moon was shining on the snow. With verbs which do not admit of the continuous form and with some durative verbs the simple past is used instead of the past continuous in this pattern. e.g. The rain had passed and the air was fresh and sweet. She had changed her wet clothes and wore a light cotton dress. 2) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction when, the time relations between the action of the when-clause and that of the principal clause may be of various kinds: the action of the principal clause may follow the action of the when-clause, be fully or partially simultaneous with it and even occasionally precede it. Accordingly, different tense-aspect forms are used in the principal and the subordinate clauses. a) The most commonly occurring kind of time relation is when the action of the principal clause closely follows that of the whenclause — the two actions form a succession of actions. The simple past is usually used in both clauses in this case. e.g. When they reached Grosvenor Square, Angela got out of the taxi and looked about her, puzzled. When she returned with the grammar, she drew a chair near his and sat down beside him. b) When the two actions are partially simultaneous, the past continuous is normally found in the principal clause and the past indefinite in the when-clause. The former represents the action in its duration. The latter indicates a shorter action which occurs at a certain moment of the development of the action in the principal clause. e.g. Later that night, I was reading in my sitting-room when the bell rang. When he returned to the room she was sitting by the fire. 71

With durative verbs and verbs which do not admit of the continuous form, the same time relation is expressed by the simple past in the principal clause. e.g. He was still in a state of uncertainty when his brother returned with a letter in his hand. When the car stopped in front of the door he looked dazed. c) When the two actions are fully simultaneous, the simple past is generally used in both clauses. e.g. Ann Chester looked her best when she smiled. I often felt sincere admiration when I talked to him. d) Occasionally the action of the principal clause may precede that of the subordinate clause. In this case the past perfect is used in the principal clause and the simple past in the when-clause. e.g. He walked at my side under the trees by the edge of the park. When he next spoke his tone had changed. When he returned to the living-room, his wife hadn't moved and the radio continued to play into the silence. 3) There is another sentence pattern which is also a complex sentence with a when-clause. This pattern always contains the simple past in the subordinate clause and the negative form of the past perfect in the principal clause. e.g. I hadn't been in the pub two minutes when somebody brought Tom in for a drink. Не прoбыл я в пабе и двух минут, как кто-то привел Тома выпить. I hadn't gone a hundred yards from the corner when I noticed there was a car behind me. Не прошел я и ста ярдов, как заметил позади себя машину. 4) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction as soon as, there is only one kind of time relation between the two actions, namely, the action of the principal clause closely follows that of the 72

subordinate clause. The two actions form a kind of a succession of actions, as it were. Hence, the simple past is normally used in both parts of the sentence. e.g. As soon as I had the chance I asked Mary-Ann what she knew of the incident. As soon as she arrived in my flat, she busied herself tidying it up. Occasionally the past perfect may be found in the subordinate clause where it is used to emphasize the completion of the action and then the meaning of the subordinate clause approaches to that of the subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction after (see below). e.g. As soon as he had gone, I spoke to Hanna. 5) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction after, there is only one kind of time relation between the two actions, namely, the action of the principal clause follows that of the after-clause. Normally the past perfect is found in the after-clause and the simple past in the principal clause. e.g. After I had dressed, I went up to Roy's room, and found him in shirt-sleeves and black waistcoat studying his image in the mirror. After he had been through the grammar repeatedly, he took up the dictionary and added twenty words a day to his vocabulary. The past perfect is used in the after-clause with terminative as well as durative verbs. With terminative verbs, however, the past perfect may be replaced by the simple past. e.g. Shortly after we returned from Basel, Roy moved to London. After we rose from the table. James immediately went to make a telephone call. 6) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions till or until there is only one kind of time relation between the two actions – the 73

action of the principal clause is an action of some duration and it precedes that of the subordinate clause. Normally the simple past is found in both the principal and the subordinate clause. e.g. He read the manuscripts until he was dead tired. I did not see him again till he returned to England for the summer. Sometimes, however, the past perfect is used in the till / until-clause to show that the action of the principal clause stopped only after the action of the subordinate clause was accomplished. e.g. He waited till she had regained certain calm. 7) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction before, there may be two kinds of time relations between the two actions. a) The action of the principal clause precedes that of the before-clause. Hence, the past perfect is normally used in the principal clause and the simple past in the subordinate clause. e.g. Madge had given Dace a set of keys before they left the farm on Wednesday morning. He had heard the news before he ran up my stairs. Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by means of до того как…, прежде чем…, перед тем как…. Actually, however, the simple past is by far more common in the principal clause, especially with terminative verbs. e.g. He knocked at the door twice before a muffled voice asked: "Who's there?" It happened before you came. b) In complex sentences with a before-clause there may be a specific time relation between the two actions, namely, the action in one of the clauses is not fully accomplished before the action of the other clause takes place. The unaccomplished action is expressed by the past perfect. It is noteworthy that sometimes there are indications of measure in such sentences. If the unaccomplished action is expressed in the principal clause, its predicate verb is always negative in form 74

e.g.

They had not gone four miles before he understood that it was going to rain. Они и четырех милей не прошли, как он понял…. He had not been there for two days before he admitted that he should not have accepted the invitation. Он и двух дней не пробыл там, как понял…

If the unaccomplished action is expressed in the subordinate clause, its predicate verb is affirmative in form but negative in meaning. e.g. I realized before you had been here a fortnight that you never were cut for this life Не пробыли вы и двух недель здесь, как я понял, что вы не рождены для этой жизни. I discovered the news before I had been in the house for an hour. Я не пробыл в доме и часа, как узнал эту новость. 8) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by scarcely… when, hardly… when, nearly… when, and no sooner… than, the past perfect is found in the principal clause and the simple past in the subordinate clause. e.g. He had scarcely entered the room when in a chair by the door he perceived Ann Chester. Hardly had she sat down when a very stout gentleman wearing a very small hat flopped into the chair opposite hers. No sooner, however, had they established themselves in the house than he perceived to his dismay a return of her gloomy mood. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense I. Meaning. The past perfect continuous denotes an action which began before a given moment in the past, continued for a 75

certain period of time up to that moment and possibly still continued at that past moment. The moment of time in the past before which the action begins is usually indicated by other past actions in the simple past or, rather rarely, by the past continuous. Sometimes it is indicated directly by adverbials. II. Formation. The past perfect continuous is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary to be in the past perfect (had been) and participle I of the notional verb. Affirmative Interrogative I had been doing Had I been doing? He (she, it) had been doing Had he (she, it) been doing? We had been doing Had we been doing? You had been doing Had you been doing? They had been doing Had they been doing? Negative I had not (hadn’t) been doing He (she, it) had not (hadn’t) been doing We had not (hadn’t) been doing You had not (hadn’t) been doing They had not (hadn’t) been doing Negative-interrogative b) a) Hadn’t I been reading? Had I not been reading? Had he (she, it) not been Hadn’t he (she, it) been reading? reading? Hadn’t we been reading? Had we not been reading? Hadn’t you been reading? Had you not been reading? Hadn’t they been reading? Had they not been reading? III. The past perfect continuous is used with actional verbs to denote: 1. Actions in progress that began before a certain moment of time in the past and continued up to that moment, but not into it. 76

As a rule no indications of time are present: the exact time of the beginning of the action is more or less clear from the situation, while the end, closely precedes the given moment of past time. e.g. Dick, who had been reading aloud Pit's letter, suddenly stopped. Дик, вслух читавший письмо Пита, внезапно остановился. They had been walking rapidly and now they were approaching the spot. Они шли быстро и сейчас уже приближались к этому месту. Her eyes were red. I saw she had been crying. Глаза у нее были красными. Я понял, что она плакала. 2. Actions in progress that began before a certain moment of time in the past and continued into it. In this case either the starting point of the action or its duration is indicated. e.g. Ever since his return he had been losing strength and flesh. После возращения он все слабел и худел. She had been acting for a long time without a rest and she badly needed one. Она долгое время работала без отдыха и очень нуждалась в нем. Even now he could not stop, though he had been running all the way from the village. И даже сейчас он не мог остановиться хотя он бежал всю дорогу от самой деревни. The past perfect continuous is usually rendered in Russian by the past tense, imperfective. In negative sentences the past perfect continuous is not common, the past perfect is preferred in them becausein this case the attention is focused rather on the negation of the action than on its progress.

77

Note: 1) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by since, the action of the subordinate clause indicates the starting point of the action of the principal clause. Hence, the simple past is used in the since-clause. As to the principal clause, the present perfect continuous is used in it in present-time contexts(a) and the past perfect continuous in the past-time contexts (b). e.g. a) I’ve known him since we were kids. b) Mr Bentley was a publisher because ever since he was a boy he had had a liking for books. 2) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by while and since as well as by some connective words and expressions, such as as long as, during the week, in the short time (that), all the time (that), etc. The actions in both clauses may be parallel, starting at the same time in the past and continuing either into or up to the moment of speaking in present-time contexts or into or up to a given past moment in past-time contexts. Accordingly, the present perfect continuous (or present perfect) is used in both clauses in the former case (a) and the past perfect continuous (or past perfect) in the latter case(b). e.g. a) Our friendship has been growing all the time we've been working on the project. I've been rather shut in since we've been here, with all this bad weather b) We had been sitting on our beds while George had been telling me this true story. The suit had been neither pressed nor brushed since he had had it. 78

3) In the sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction when, the action of the subordinate clause may serve to indicate a given past moment into or up to which the action of the principal clause that had begun before the moment continued. The duration of the action is indicated by some adverbial modifier of time. The past perfect continuous is found in the principal clause and the simple past in the when-clause. e.g He had been sitting by the fire for nearly an hour when his mother came into the room with a letter in her hand. They had been walking for less than an hour when the moon suddenly appeared between the heavy cloud THE FUTURE TENSES

The Simple Future Tense I. Formation: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs shall/will and the infinitive stem of the notional verb. Affirmative I shall speak He (she, it) will speak We shall speak You will speak They will speak

Interrogative Shall I speak? Will he (she, it) speak? Shall we speak? Will you speak? Will they speak? Negative I shall not (shan’t) speak He (she, it) will not (won’t) speak We shall not (shan’t) speak You will not (won’t) speak They will not (won’t) speak 79

Negative-interrogative b) a) Shan’t I speak? Shall I not speak? Won’t he (she, it) speak? Will he (she, it) not speak? Shan’t we speak? Shall we not speak? Won’t you speak? Will you not speak? Won’t they speak? Will they not speak? In present-day English there is a tendency to use will for all the persons. (I / we will...) The contracted forms are: I’ll, you’ll… II. The simple future is used to denote: 1. a single action completed in the future. e.g. I shan’t stay with them. Я не останусь у них. It will be cold in the evening. Вечером будет холодно. 2. habitual, repeated actions in the future. e.g. Next year we’ll meet each other more often. В будущем году мы будем встречаться чаще. So I’ll see you often in winter? Итак, мы часто будем встречаться зимой? 3. a succession of actions in the future. e.g. He’ll ring you up and tell you everything. Он позвонит вам и все расскажет. I’ll wait in the next room and come back when she’s gone. Я подожду в соседней комнате и вернусь, когда она уйдет. 4. an action occupying a whole period of time in the future. e.g. I hope you’ll live for many years. Надеюсь, вы проживете много лет. I think I’ll remain in love with you all my life. Думаю, я всю свою жизнь буду любить вас. 80

5. permanent future actions generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject of the sentence. e.g. I’m afraid he’ll be a bit lonely, poor darling. Боюсь, он будет чувствовать себя одиноким, бедняжка. III. The simple future is not used in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the connectives when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as, if, unless, in case (that), on condition that, provided, etc. In such clauses the simple present is used instead: e.g. They will wait till it grows dark. Они подождут, пока не стемнеет. When she comes, ask her to type this letter. Когда она придет, попросите ее напечатать это письмо. Unless you are careful, you will get into trouble. Если ты будешь невнимательным, попадешь в беду. Note. Care should be taken to distinguish between the adverbial clauses of time or condition and object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if; in the case of object clauses any tense required by the sense can be used. e.g. I don’t know when I will come again. Ask him if he will do it at all. The Future Continuous Tense I. Formation: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the simple future and participle I of the notional verb. Affirmative Interrogative I shall be speaking Shall I be speaking? He (she, it) will be speaking Will he (she, it) be speaking? We shall be speaking Shall we be speaking? 81

You will be speaking They will be speaking

Will you be speaking? Will they be speaking? Negative I shall not (shan’t) be speaking He (she, it) will not (won’t) be speaking We shall not (shan’t) be speaking You will not (won’t) be speaking They will not (won’t) be speaking Negative-interrogative a) b) Shall I not be speaking? Shan’t I be speaking? Will he (she, it) not be Won’t he (she, it) be speaking? speaking? Shall we not be speaking? Shan’t we be speaking? Will you not be speaking? Won’t you be speaking? Will they not be speaking? Won’t they be speaking?

II. The future continuous is used to denote: 1. an action in progress at a certain moment of time or during a certain period of time in the future. e.g. This time next year I’ll be studying the second foreign language. В будущем году в это время я буду изучать второй иностранный язык. At that time she will be having her early morning cup of coffee. When she comes, I think I’ll be packing already. From ten till twelve he will be writing in his study. 2. an action which the speaker expects to take place in the future in the normal, natural course of events. It may be used with or without time indications and generally refers to the near future though it is also possible to use it for a more distant future. e.g. She says she’ll be seeing you tomorrow. By the way, she will be coming to lunch. Maurice is tired. He will be coming to bed directly. Sooner or later, Nelly too will be getting married. 82

This use of the future continuous is more frequent than the first one. Note. In the following examples the future continuous is used with verbs which normally do not admit of the continuous form (it gives them emotional colouring). e.g. What is your brother like? I shall be knowing him at Oxford. Harris said,”We shall be wanting to start in less than twelve hour’s time.” The Future Perfect Tense I. Formation: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the simple future and the participle II of the notional verb. e.g. He’ll have read the book by that time. II. The future perfect is used to denote: 1. a future action that begins and ends before some moment of time in the future. e.g. By the time you come I shall have finished the translation. К твоему приходу я уже закончу перевод. 2 a future action, expressed by a statal verb,which do not admit of the continuous form, that begins before a certain moment of time in the future or goes up to it or into it. e.g. We shall have known each other fifteen years next year. В будущем году будет 15 лет, как мы знаем друг друга. But this use is hardly ever found in modern English. The Future Perfect Continuous Tense I. Formation. It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the future perfect and participle I of the notional verb. 83

e.g.

I shall have been living there for five years next February. В будущем году в феврале будет 5 лет, как я живу здесь.

II. The future perfect continuous is used to denote a future action that begins before a certain moment of time in the future or goes up to it or into it. But this tense is rarely used in modern English as situations which require it very seldom arise.

The Future-in-the-Past Tenses The Simple Future-in-the-Past I. Formation: The simple future-in-the-past is formed by means of auxiliary verbs should and would instead of shall and will and the infinitive stem of the notional verb. e.g. I said I should (I’d) do it. He said he would not (shouldn’t) do it. II. Use: It is used in object clauses after one of the past tense-aspect forms in the principal clause, but not in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition (when, if, (un)till, etc.). Compare: e.g. He knew when he would learn French. (object clause) She promised to ring me up when she came back. (adv. clause of time The simple future-in-the-past denotes simple facts, habitual actions and successions of actions in the future viewed from the past. e.g. The sun was setting. In an hour it would be quite dark. Солнце садилось. Через час было бы уже совсем темно. He said he would soon take up French. Он сказал, что скоро начнет изучать французский. 84

The Future Continuous-in-the Past I. Formation: This tense is formed in the same way as the future continuous except for the fact that instead of shall and will we use should and would. e.g. I said I should be seeing him often soon. Я сказал, что вскоре буду с ним часто видеться. II. Use: This tense is used to denote an action in progress at a certain moment of time, or an action that is expected by the speaker as a result of a naturally developing situation (viewed from the past) which is expected to take place in the natural course of events. e.g. He said he would be seeing him that evening at the Atkinsons. Он сказал, что вечером встретится с ним у Аткинсонов. This tense is not frequently used. The Future Perfect-in-the Past This tense has the following form: should/would have done. It denotes a) an action completed before a definite moment which is future from the point of view of the past or (b) an action lasting during a certain period of time before a definite future moment viewed from the past. e.g. He realized that he would have finished his task long before midnight. Он понял, что закончит работу далеко за полночь.

The Future Perfect Continuous-in-the Past It has the form: should/would have been doing. It denotes an action lasting during a certain period of time before a definite future moment viewed from the past. 85

e.g.

He said he would have been living here for ten years next year. Он сказал, что в будущем году будет уже 10 лет, как он живет здесь.

The last two tenses hardly ever occur in English as they are not required by the situation. Different Means of Expressing Future Actions All future actions are by nature hypothetical. Owing to that, ways of expressing future actions – in addition to the meaning of futurity – are often associated with various other modal meanings, such as intention, willingness, obligation, readiness, assurance, expectation and the like. That explains why English is rich in means of referring an action to the future. 1. The Present Continuous. It is used to express a future action as definitely settled (fixed). The action is going to take place in the near future and the time, as a rule, is indicated in the sentence by means of such adverbial modifiers as tonight, next week, in a few days, etc. e.g. She is coming to lunch on Thursday. Она придет на ланч в четверг. Are you staying long? Patrick, are we doing anything at the week-end? Teddie is leaving here by the first train tomorrow. This use of the Present Continuous is also possible without any time indications and then the action refers to the immediate future. e.g.

It’s Fred. He’s going to Italy and wants to say goodbye. I’m just going upstairs to change and pack. I’m sorry you are leaving England. And now I must go as we are dining out. 86

Note. In questions beginning with when the present continuous always refers the action to the future. The action is regarded as fixed and the speaker is certain that it will take place. e.g. When is he coming? When are you going back? Verbs that do not admit of the continuous form cannot naturally be used in the present continuous; in this case the future indefinite should be applied. 2. The Future Continuous (see the future continuous). The difference between the present continuous expressing a future action and future continuous becomes clear if we compare the following sentences: e.g. We are meeting tomorrow. (we have arranged to meet tomorrow, we have fixed the date of our meeting) Мы встречаемся завтра. We shall be meeting tomorrow. (in the normal course of events – at work, at classes, etc.) Мы завтра.встретимся 3. To be to + infinitive. In this combination to be is regarded as a modal verb. This combination shows a previously arranged plan or obligation (обязательство) resulting from this arrangement or plan. It differs from the present continuous in that it does not necessarily refer the action to the near future. e.g. We are to discuss it next time. Мы должны обсудить это в следующий раз. I’ve had a letter from home. I’m to go back at once. Я получила письмо из дома. Я должна сейчас же вернуться. The meaning of obligation may become so strong that to be + infinitive sometimes comes to express orders or instructions to be carried out in the future. e.g.

Millie, you are not to talk like that in front of the child. Милли, ты не должна так разговаривать в присутствии ребенка. 87

4. To be going to + infinitive. This combination is mainly found with verbs admitting of the continuous form. An important exception to this rule is the verb to be which is often used in this construction. e.g. He is going to be a doctor. Он собирается стать врачом. The trip is going to be wonderful. Поездка будет чудесной. Are you going to play tennis? Ты будешь играть в тенис? What are you going to do about it? Что ты с этим будешь делать? The verbs to go and to come are rarely found with the “goingto” form. These verbs are generally used in the Present Continuous. e.g. Are you going to Italy? Ты едешь в Италию? Are you coming, Mother? Ты идешь, мама? The “going-to” form may have the following meanings: a) It expresses premeditated intention (an intention that has already been made). e.g. I am going to live abroad. Я буду/собираюсь жить за границей. b) It shows a future action or event that is on the way, or starting to happen. e.g. Look at the sky. It is going to rain. Посмотри на небо. Дождь пойдет. 5. The Present Indefinite. It is also an important means of expressing future actions. It is used in three different cases: а) Its use is structurally dependent in subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession as well as in object clauses after to see, to take care, to make sure. 88

e.g.

If you come, I’ll bring your book. Если ты придешь, я принесу твою книгу. I’ll have dinner whenever it is ready. Я пообедаю, когда обед будет готов. I’ll see that the lady is properly looked after. Я прослежу за тем, чтобы за леди хорошо ухаживали.

b) In some special questions the present indefinite is also structurally dependent. e.g. What do we do next? Что делать потом? When do they start? Когда они начнут? c) It is used to indicate a future action which is a part of a program or schedule. e.g. “Can you tell me what time that game starts today, please?” Teddy asked her. “Вы можете сказать, в котором часу сегодня игра начнется?”-спросил ее Тедди. 6. The Future Indefinite. This tense is used differently with verbs which admit of the continuous form and with those which do not admit of it. With verbs which do not admit of the continuous form, the future indefinite is used to express any action referring to the future without any restrictions. e.g.

She’ll know the truth soon. Она скоро узнает правду.

With verbs admitting of the continuous form, the future indefinite is used: a) in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a clause of time, condition and concession. e.g. We shall catch the train if we start now. Мы успеем на поезд, если отправимся сейчас же. 89

b) in passive constructions. e.g. She‘ll be paid in cash. Ей заплатят наличными. c) to express a succession of actions in the future. e.g. I’ll prepare you a dinner, and then I’ll leave. Я приготовлю тебе обед, а потом уеду. d) when the time of the realization of the action is indefinite. e.g. Life will teach her a lesson. Жизнь проучит ее. e) with such modal words as perhaps, probably, of course, maybe, certainly, and the like. e.g. They’ll probably change their decision. Они, возможно, изменят свое решение. f) in object clauses after verbs expressing personal opinions: to think, to know, to hope, etc. e.g. I’m afraid he won’t talk to you. Боюсь, он не будет с вами разговаривать. 7. The Present Perfect. This tense is used to express a future action in adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the conjunctions when, if, before, (un)till, as soon as, etc. It shows that the action of the subordinate clause will be over before the action of the principal clause. e.g. When you’ve had your tea, we’ll see about it. Когда ты выпьешь чай, мы подумаем об этом. 8. The Future Perfect (see the description of the future perfect). e.g. You’ll have gone to bed by the time I have finished. Ты уже будешь спать к тому времени, как я закончу. 90

VOICE Voice is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the subject of the sentence is the agent (the doer) or the object of the action expressed by the predicate verb. There are two voices in English – the active voice and the passive voice. The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is the agent of the action expressed by the predicate verb, that it acts. e.g. “I deny that,” said John. We know you’ve been cheating us. The passive voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is not the agent (doer) of the action expressed by the predicate verb but is the object (receiver) of this action. e.g. Students are examined twice a year. Студентов экзаменуют два раза в год. This tree was planted by my grandfather. Это дерево посадил мой дед. There are cases when the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action though the verb is in a passive form. It depends on the lexical character of the verb. e.g. After Jacobs was drowned his farm was sold to Martin. После того, как Джакобс утонул, его ферму продали Мартину. The Passive Voice I. Formation: the passive voice is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense form and participle II of the notional verb. Tense/Verb form Passive Voice Present Indefinite am, is, are kept Past Indefinite was / were kept Future Indefinite shall / will be kept 91

Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Present Continuous Past Continuous

have / has been kept had been kept shall / will have been kept am, is, are being kept was /were being kept

In colloquial speech the passive voice may be formed by the auxiliary verb to get + participle II of the notional verb e.g. The china lamp got broken. Фарфоровая лампа разбилась. II. The Use of the Passive Voice. The passive voice is widely used in English. Passive constructions are often used: 1. instead of active constructions in sentences beginning with an indefinite pronoun (one, somebody, anyone, etc.), or a noun or pronoun of indefinite meaning (we, you, they, the noun people, etc.) e.g. Somebody left the dog in the garden – The dog was left in the garden. Кто-то оставил собаку в саду. – Собаку оставили в саду. They told me to go away. – I was told to go away. Они вели мне уйти. – Мне велели уйти. People will laugh at you for it. – You will be laughed at for it. Люди будут смеяться над тобой из-за этого. – Над тобой будут смеяться из-за этого. 2. when the speaker is interested in what happens to the person or thing denoted by the subject. The verb or the whole verb phrase is thus made more prominent. The agent of the action is not mentioned at all, either because it is unknown or unimportant. e.g. We were brought up together. Мы выросли вместе. Thank you for your help, but it is no longer required. Спасибо вам за помощь, но она уже не нужна.

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3. with a number of conventional expressions where the passive voice is constantly used: e.g. The novel was published in1929. Рассказ опубликовали в 1929. Shakespeare was born in 1564. Шекспир родился в 1564. 4. with a number of verbs which can be used in the passive voice, while with their Russian equivalents the passive construction is impossible. To these verbs verbs belong, for example, to approach, to attend, to answer, to help, to assist, to follow, to influence, to join, to watch, and some others. e.g. The general was followed into the room by his younger daughter. За генералом в комнату вошла его младшая дочь. At that moment they were joined by the others. В эту минуту к ним присоединились и остальные. III. Types of Passive Constructions There are four types of passive constructions. They are : 1. The direct passive. In this construction the direct object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. e.g. He opened the door. Он открыл дверь. The door was opened. Дверь открыли. It is noteworthy that the direct passive is part of two widely used constructions. a) It forms the basis of the “subjective predicative construction”. e.g. He was appointed secretary of the committee. Его назначили секретарем комитета. I was not allowed to chat. Мне не разрешали болтать. She is said to be a first-class teacher. Говорят, что она первоклассный учитель. 93

He was seen talking to the Мinister. Видели, как он разговаривал с министром. b) In the construction with a formal it as subject the passive voice of verbs denoting mental and physical perceptions, suggestion, order, request and decision as well as verbs of saying may be used. These verbs are: to require to feel to agree to rumour to know to announce to say to notice to arrange to suggest to observe to believe to think to propose to decide to understand to recommend to determine to report to expect and the like to request to explain e.g.

It was known that he would not tolerate any criticism. Было известно, что он не потерпит никакой критики. It was arranged that Martin would have the room all to himself. Было договорено, что комната будет в полном распоряжении Мартина. It was reported that he was still in town. Сообщалось, что он еще в городе.

Although this is the most commonly used passive construction, there are certain restrictions to its use. It is impossible: 1) with certain verbs which denote not an action or process, but a state. They are: to have, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble. e.g. John resembles his father. (John looks like his father.) Джон похож на отца. He lacks comfidence. Ему не хватает уверенности. Will this suit you? Вам будет удобно?

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2) with the object expressed by an infinitive(a), gerund(b), that-clause(c), reflexive pronoun(d) or a noun with a possessive pronoun referring to the same person as the subject of the sentence (e). e.g. (a) We arranged to meet at 5 o’clock. Мы договорились встретиться в пять часов. (b) John enjoyed seeing his native town. Джон обрадовался, увидев свой родной город. (c) John said that everything was all right. Джон сказал, что все хорошо. (d) He hurt himself. Он поранился. (e) He cut his finger. Он порезал палец. 3) when the verb and the direct object are so closely connected that they form a set-phrase and cannot be separated: to lose heart, to lose courage, to take courage, to take responsibility, to take flight, to take alarm, to keep one’s word, to lose one’s patience, etc. 2. Both the direct and the indirect object of the active construction can become the subject of the passive construction. There are a number of verbs in English which take two objects – (a) a direct and (b) an indirect object. They are to tell, to give, to offer, to show, to allow, to pay, to grant, to leave, to promise, to lend, to send, and a few others. These verbs may have two passive constructions: the direct passive and the indirect passive. In the direct passive the direct object of the active construction may become the subject. In the indirect passive the indirect object of the active construction may become the subject e.g. When I came to the office the secretary gave me a telegram. When I came to the office a telegram was given to me. When I came to the office I was given a telegram. (b) They offered me a very good job the other day. A very good job was offered to me the other day. I was offered a very good job the other day 95

Although the indirect passive is peculiar to English, its use is not common. It is freely used only with the verb “to tell”. In this case the direct object is mainly expressed by a clause (a) and sometimes by a noun or a pronoun (b). e.g. (a) I am told that his new house will be finished soon. Мне сказали, что его новый дом будет скоро закончен. (b) You weren’t told anything because there wasn’t anything to tell you. Тебе ничего не сказали, потому что тебе и нечего рассказывать. The Indirect Passive is also found with set phrases containing the verb “to give” – to give a chance (an opportunity), to give a job, to give news, to give task, etc. e.g. I haven’t been given a chance to explain. Мне не дали возможность объясниться. Note. 1. There are a number of verbs in English which require a direct and an indirect object in the active construction, but only the direct object can become the subject of the passive construction. Among them we find to write, to read, to play, to telegraph, to bring, to buy, to sell, to explain, to dictate, to describe, to deliver, and some others. e.g. I wrote him a letter. A letter was written to him. He explained the rule to them again. The rule was explained to them again. 2. The verbs to ask, to envy and to teach also take two objects, but only the object denoting a person can become the subject in the passive construction. e.g. They asked him a lot of questions. He was asked a lot of questions. She will teach us music. We will be taught music.

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3. The prepositional passive. In this type the prepositional object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. The preposition retains its place after the verb. e.g. He was thought of in his town. В городе о нем думали. When they found her lying on the floor, the doctor was sent fоr. Когда ее нашли, лежащей на полу, послали за доктором. It may be formed from any verb which takes a prepositional object, but it is regularly found with the following verbs: to account for to agree upon tp appeal to to comment upon /on to deal with to decide on to depend on/upon to dispose of to dwell upon to hear of to insist on to interfere with to laugh at to listen to to look at

to look for to look into to object to to pay for to provide for to put up with to read to to refer to to rely on to send for to speak about/of/to to talk about/of to think about/ of to touch upon/on to take care of

to wait for to wonder at to catch sight of to lose sight of to find fault with to make fun of to make a fuss of to make use of to pay attention to to put an end to to put up with to set fire to to take notice of to take advantage of

e.g. You have been a good deal talked about. О тебе много говорили. He was looked upon as their leader. На него смотрели, как на своего лидера. She was being laughed at. Над ней смеялись. You’re being made a fool of, that’s all. Над тобой просто подшучивают, вот и все. 97

Her request was disapproved of. Ее просьбу не выполнили. In hospital patients are taken great care of. В больнице за пациентами хорошо ухаживают. The boy was the only child and was made a lot of fuss of. Мальчик был единственным ребенком в семье, и с ним много возились. Caroline was also still being talked about. О Кэролаин тоже все еще продолжали говорить. He had never been spoken to that way in his life. С ним так никогда в жизни не разговаривали. 4. There is another passive construction possible in English: the adverbial modifier of place of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. In this case the preposition also is placed after the verb. The following intransitive verbs may be used here: to arrive at, to come to, to live in, to sleep in, to sit in (on). e.g. His bed hasn’t been slept in. В его постели не спали. No conclusion was arrived at (come to). Ни к какому заключению так и не пришли. Such a dress can’t be sat down in. В таком платье нельзя сесть. IV. The Use of the Agentive by-Object The object of the passive construction is the agent of the action and is therefore called the agentive object. The agentive object is introduced by the preposition by. e.g. The answer was followed by silence. За ответом последовала тишина. The аgentive by-object is used seldom. However, when it occurs, it is of great importance and without the mention of it (byobject) the sentence will be devoid of meaning. e.g. I was wounded by the lightning. Меня ранила молния. 98

There are certain verbs with which the passive is impossible without the mention of the agent. These verbs are: to follow, to seize, to catch, to visit, to control, to rule, to influence, to join, to attract, etc. e.g. Then my attention was caught by the noise coming from behind the fence. Затем мое внимание привлек шум за забором. The agent may be a living being, or any thing or notion. e.g. He was accompanied by his father who was very nervous. Его сопровождал отец, который очень нервничал. He is very easily influenced by the ideas of anyone whom he meets. Он очень легко поддается влиянию идей любого встречного. Besides a noun and very rarely a pronoun, by-object may be a gerundial phrase or a complex or a subordinate clause. e.g. I was then awakened only by knocking on the window. Потом только стук в окно и разбудил меня. She was always being taken in by what people told her. Она всегда верила тому, что говорят ей люди.

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THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES I. Meaning: The Sequence of Tenses is a dependence of the tense form of the predicate of a subordinate clause on the tense form of the predicate of its principal clause. The rules mainly concern object clause depending on principal clauses, though some other subordinate clauses (such as subject, predicative, appositive and clauses of purpose) may be used here. Note: It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can be used in the subordinate clause. e.g. I’ve seen which way the wind is blowing. Я понял, в каком направлении ветер дует. II. The rules are as follows: If the predicate verb of the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, the predicate verb of the subordinate clause may be only in one of the past tenses: 1. The past indefinite or past continuous in the subordinate clause denotes an action simultaneous with that of the principal clause. e.g.

He thought it was his own son. Он думал, что это его сын. She noticed suddenly that I wasn’t listening. Вдруг она заметила, что я не слушаю.

2. The past perfect or past perfect continuous in the subordinate clause denotes an action prior to that of the principal clause. e.g. I knew well enough what she had been doing. Я достаточно хорошо знал, чем она занималась. I wasn’t going to tell her that Megan had rung me up. Я не собирался ей говорить, что Меган мне звонила.

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3. The future-in-the-past tenses (should/would) in the subordinate clause denote an action following that of the principal clause. e.g. I said that she would soon be better. Я сказал, что вскоре она поправится. What she would say or do didn’t bother him. Что она скажет или сделает его не волновало. Note: There can be other means of expressing future viewed from the past. e.g. She said she was going to see him the same night. Она сказала, что собирается встретиться с ним той же ночью. 4. The rules of the sequence of tenses concern subordinate clauses dependent not only on the predicate of the principal clause but also on any other part of the clause. e.g. She smiled again, sure that I should come up. Она снова улыбнулась, уверенная, что я подойду к ней. In complex sentences having more than two subordinate clauses the choice of the tense form for each of them depends on the tense form of the clause to which it is subordinated. e.g. I guess you told him where they had come from and where they were hiding. Я думаю, что ты сказал ему, откуда они пришли и где они прятались. Besides object clauses, the sequence of tenses may be observed also in: a) subject and predicative clauses; e.g. How she managed to do it was not known. Как она смогла это сделать – неизвестно. This was why he had thought of Bosinney. Why they had voted against him was a mystery. Почему они проголосовали против него было тайной. 101

My first impression was that they all behaved very well. Моим первым впечатлением было, что они все себя хорошо ведут. b) appositive clauses; e.g. She had a feeling that someone was watching her. У нее было чувство, что за ней кто-то наблюдает. c) clauses of purpose (in which we mainly find modal verbs may and can); e.g. The doctor stepped around so that she could see him, and nodded. Врач отошел так, чтобы она могла его видеть, и кивнул. d) simple sentences as well as in all types of clauses in socalled “inner-speech”; e.g. The idea wasn’t too bad, he reflected to himself. It was good. Идея не очень-то плохая, размышлял он. Даже хорошая. e) simple sentences in which a parenthetic sentence is inserted. e.g. The house had, he admitted, a feeling of solidity and security. Дом вызывал, это он признавал, чувство уверенности и безопасности. III. The rules of sequence of tenses are not observed in the following cases: 1) when the subordinate clause describes a so-called general truth, e.g. He proved that the earth goes round the sun. She was very young and – and ignorant of what life really is.

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2) when the subordinate clause describes actions referring to the actual present, future or past time. This is found in dialogues, newspapers, radio, on TV. e.g. I didn’t know he will be here tomorrow. The speaker said that the peoples want peace. He didn’t seem to know that nettles sting. 3) when the predicate verb of the subordinate clause is one of the modal verbs which have only one form: must, should, ought, need. e.g. I wrote that I must see him. 4) in attributive clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession the use of tenses depends on the sense of the sentence. e.g. She only liked men who are good-looking. I was thinking of the day which will come only too soon. You see, I could not follow them as I am rather shy. He knew the job better than I do. She worked so much yesterday that she feels quite weak today. She had been a wife for even less time than you have. In my youth life was not the same as it is now. He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the book today. 5) if the speaker wishes to emphasise that the described situation still exists. e.g. I told you that the road is closed. I told you the bridge has collapsed. I told you no one can cross it.

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THE INDIRECT SPEECH I. Meaning: In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words or thoughts of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words or thoughts are reported. II. Formation: When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are made: 1. The quotation marks (кавычки) and the comma (запятая) are not used. 2. If the speaker reports somebody else’s words, the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st and 3rd. e.g. He said, “I am ready.” Он сказал: “Я готов.” He said he was ready. Он сказал, что он готов. If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed. e.g. I said, “I am ready.” Я сказал: “Я готов.” I said I was ready. Я сказал, что готов. 3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstrative pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance: here there this that these those now then, at that time(moment), or no adverb is used at all today that day this night that night yesterday the day before, the previous day the day before yesterday two days before 104

ago a year ago last night last Sunday tomorrow the day after tomorrow in two days e.g.

before a year before the previous night the Sunday before, the previous Sunday the next day two days later two days later

She said, “I met them yesterday.” Она сказала: “Я встретила их вчера.” She said she had met them the day before. Она сказала, что встретила их вчера.

If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed. e.g. “An hour ago he said he would come here to-night.” Час назад он сказал, что придет сюда сегодня вечером. 4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses. The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite. e.g. She said, “We often write letters.” Она сказала: “Мы часто пишем письма.” She said they often wrote letters. Она сказала, что они часто пишут письма. The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous. e.g. She said, “We are writing a letter.” Она сказала: “Мы пишем письмо.” She said they were writing a letter. Она сказала, что они пишут письмо. The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect. e.g. She said, “We have just written a letter.” Она сказала: “Мы только что написали письмо.” 105

She said they had just written a letter. Она сказала, что они только что написали письмо. The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous. e.g. She said, “We have been writing for an hour.” Она сказала: “Мы писали в течение часа.” She said they had been writing for an hour. Она сказала, что они писали в течение часа. The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect. e.g. She said, “We wrote a letter last night.” Она сказала: “Мы написали письмо вчера вечером. ” She said they had written a letter on the previous night. Она сказала, что они написали письмо вчера вечером. The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous. e.g. She said, “I was writing at 5 o’clock.” Она сказала:“Я писала в пять часов.” She said she was (had been) writing at 5 o’clock. Она сказала, что писала в пять часов. The Past Perfect remains unchanged. e.g. She said, “We had written the letter by 5 o’clock.” Она сказала:“Мы закончили писать письмо к пяти .” She said they had written the letter by 5 o’clock. Она сказала, они закончили писать письмо к пяти. The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged. e.g. She said, “We had been writing for an hour by 5 o’clock.” Она сказала:“К пяти часам мы уже как час писали.” She said they had been writing for an hour by 5 o’clock. Она сказала, что к пяти часам они уже час, как писали. 106

The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite-inthe Past. e.g. She said, “We’ll write a letter tomorrow.” She said they would write a letter the next day. The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuousin-the Past. e.g. She said, “We’ll be writing at 5 o’clock.” She said they would be writing at 5 o’clock. The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect-in -the Past. e.g. She said, “We’ll have written the letter by 5 o’clock.” She said they would have written the letter by 5 o’clock. The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Perfect Continuous-in-the Past. e.g. She said, “We’ll have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o’clock.” She said they would have been writing for 2 hours by 5 o'clock. If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it remains unchanged in indirect speech. e.g. She said, “I had left home, before the telegram came.” Она сказала:“Я уже вышла из дома, перед тем как телеграмма пришла .” She said she had left home before the telegram came. Она сказала, что она вышла из дому до того, как пришла телеграмма. The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged. e.g. She said, “I have been writing since I came.” Она сказала :“Я писала, с тех пор как пришла. ” She said she had been writing since she came. Она сказала, что она писала, с тех пор как пришла. 107

Note: If somebody talked about a situation that has still not changed – that is to say, if the original speaker’s present and future are still present and future – a reporter can often choose whether to keep the original speaker’s tenses or change them. Both structures are common. e.g. He said: “The earth goes round the sun.” Он сказал: “Земля крутится вокруг солнца.” He said that the earth goes/went round the sun. Он сказал, что земля крутится вокруг солнца We do not keep the original speaker’s tenses if we do not agree with what he/she said, if we are not certain of its truth, or if we wish to make it clear that the information comes from the original speaker, not from ourselves. e.g. The Greeks thought that the sun went round the earth. (not...goes... .) Греки думали, что солнце крутится вокруг земли. Did you hear that? She just said she was fourteen! Ты слышала это? Она только что сказала, что ей четырнадцать. 5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are converted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged. However, there is a case when the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense. e.g. Oh, how I wish I had never seen him! Ах, как бы я хотел никогда больше не видеть его! She said she wished she had never seen him. Она сказала, что не желает больше его видеть. Whoever you may be, I am deeply grateful to you. Кем вы бы ни были, я очень благодарен вам. She said that whoever he might be she was deeply grateful to him. Она сказала, что кем бы он ни был, она очень благодарна ему. 108

6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation. e.g. She said to him, “Do you know them?” Она спросила его: “Ты знаешь их?” She asked him if he knew them. Она спросила его, знал ли он их. She said to him, “Come here at once!” Она сказала ему: “Иди сюда скорей!” She told him to come at once. Она велела ему сразу же придти 7. It should be born in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech. Direct speech is more emotional than indirect speech. If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech. e.g. She said to him, “It’s very kind of you to offer to help me, very kind indeed.” Она сказала ему: “Очень любезно с вашей стороны предложить мне помощь, на самом деле очень любезно”. She said it was very kind of him to offer to help her. Она сказала, что очень любезно с его стороны предложить ей помощь. So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly, etc. in exclamatory sentences. e.g. She said, “Jane plays the piano so well!” Она сказала ему: “Джейн так хорошо играет на пианино!” She said Jane played the piano very well. Она сказала, что Джейн играет на пианино очень хорошо. She said, “Jane is such a good pianist!” Она сказала ему: “Джейн такая хорошая пианистка!” She said Jane was an exceedingly (very) good pianist. Она сказала, что Джейн очень хорошая пианистка. 109

Interjections must be replaced by suitable modifiers. e.g. She said, “Alas! I'll never be happy again.” Она сказала: “ Увы! Я никогда не буду счастлив.” She exclaimed in despair she would never be again. Она в отчаянии заявила, что никогда не счастлива снова.

adverbial снова happy будет

8. The modal verbs would, should, could, might, ought, need and must usually remain unchanged. As a rule, must remains unchanged in indirect speech if it expresses advice (order) or a supposition. e.g. She said to him, “You must be more careful.”(advice) Она сказала ему: “Ты должен быть осторожнее ”. She told him he must be more careful. Она велела/посоветовала ему быть осторожнее. However; must is generally replaced by a) had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances e.g. She said, “I must get up early every morning.” Она сказала: “Каждое утро я должна рано вставать ”. She said she had to get up early every morning. Она сказала, что каждое утро ей приходится рано вставать. b) was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order. e.g. She said, “I must ring him up at two o’clock.” Она сказала: “Я должна позвонить ему в два часа”. She said she was to ring him up at two o’clock. Она сказала, что должна позвонить ему в два часа. First-person shall and conditional should may be replaced by would in indirect speech (because of the change of the person). e.g. They said: “We shall/should be delighted to come.” Они сказали: “Мы будем рады прийти”. They said they would be delighted to come. Они сказали, что они будут рады прийти. 110

Note the different ways of reporting questions beginning with Shall I...? e.g. Shall I be needed tomorrow? Завтра я вам понадоблюсь? He wants to know if he will be needed tomorrow. Он хочет знать, нужен ли он будет завтра. Shall I carry your bag? Понести вашу сумку? He wants to know if he should/can carry your bag Он хочет знать, помочь ли вам с сумкой. III. 1. Indirect Statements. Indirect statements are generally introduced by the verbs to say, to tell, to announce and in official style by the verb to inform. With the verbs to tell and to inform the person addressed is always mentioned. With the verbs to say and to announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is mentioned, the preposition to is used. e.g. She said (to us), “I am leaving for good.” Она сказала (нам):“Я уезжаю навсегда. ” She announced to us that she was leaving for good. Она нам об'явила, что уезжает навсегда. The monitor said to us, “There will be a meeting tonight.” Староста сказала нам: “Сегодня вечером будет собрание. ” The monitor told (informed) us that there would be a meeting to-night. Староста сообщила нам, что вечером будет собрание. The verb to say is used to introduce both direct and indirect speech if the person addressed is not mentioned. If the person is mentioned, the verb to tell is preferable; if the verb to say is used, the preposition to is necessary. e.g. She said (to us), “I’ll be back directly.” She said she would be back directly. 111

If the person addressed is mentioned the verb to tell is used to introduce the indirect speech e.g. She said to us, “I’ve received an interesting letter.” She told us she had received an interesting letter. An emphatic statement with emotion is often introduced by the verb to declare. e.g. She said, “It’s the dullest book I’ve ever read.” Она сказала:“Это самая неинтересная книга, которую я когда-либо читала.” She declared it was the dullest book she had ever read. Она заявила, что это самая неинтересная книга, которую она когда-либо читала. Other verbs are also used to introduce statements. According to the character of the statement, the verbs to promise (обещать), to remark (отмечать), to remind (напоминать), to assure (заверять), to admit (признать), to deny (отрицать), etc. are frequently used. e.g. He said to me, “I hope you have not forgotten that there will be a meeting to-night.” Он сказал мне: “Я надеюсь, вы не забыли, что сегодня вечером будет собрание”. He reminded me that there would be a meeting that night. Он напомнил мне, что вечером будет собрание. He said, “I did speak to her about that.” Он сказал: “Я действительно поговорил с ней об этом”. He admitted having spoken to her about that. Он признал, что говорил с ней об этом. He said, “I never spoke to her.” Он сказал: “Я не говорил с ней”. He denied having spoken to her. Он отрицал, что говорил с ней. The child said to his mother, “I’ll never disobey you again.” Ребенок сказал своей матери: “Я всегда буду тебя 112

слушаться”. The child promised his mother never to disobey her again. Ребенок пообещал своей матери, что всегда будет ее слушаться. The conjunction that is often dropped, especially after common reporting verbs, such as say, think, etc. in informal speech. e.g. Bill said (that) he didn’t like the party. Бил сказал, что ему не нравится вечеринка. That cannot be dropped after certain verbs, such as reply, telegraph, shout, etc., and it is not usually dropped after nouns. e.g.

I replied that I didn't intend to stand for election. Я ответил, что я не намерен ставить свою кандидатуру на выборах. She shouted that she was busy. Она закричала, что занята. He disagreed with Copernicus’s view that the earth went round the sun. Он не был согласен с мнением Коперника, что земля движется вокруг солнца.

2. Indirect Questions. Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. Question marks are not used in reported questions. 1. An indirect general question is introduced by the conjunction if or whether. e.g. I said to her, “Have you lived here long?” Я сказал ей: “Вы долго жили здесь?” I asked her if she had lived there long. Я спросил ее, долго ли жила она там. An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct question. e.g. I said to her, “Where do you live?” I asked her where she lived. 113

2. If a direct question to the subject contains the link verb to be, the direct order of words is not always strictly observed. e.g. He asked, “Who is that man?” He asked who the man was (or who was the man). The direct question constructed with who/what/which + be + complement can be converted in two ways: be can be put before or after the complement. e.g. He asked, “What is the matter?” He asked what was the matter (or what the matter was). Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style the verb to inquire is used. e.g. She called at the office and said, “When does the secretary usually come?” Она зашла в офис и сказала: “Когда обычно приходит секретарь?” She called at the office and inquired when the secretary usually came. Она зашла в офис и поинтересовалась, когда обычно приходит секретарь. If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb to inquire is used with the preposition of. This occurs in bookish style only. e.g. She said to him, “Where does Mrs. Brown live?” Она сказала ему:“Где живет Миссис Браун?” She inquired of him where Mrs. Brown lived. Она поинтересовалась у него, где живет Миссис Браун. In rendering answers the verbs to answer and to reply are generally used. Occasionally, answers are rendered in the following way: His reply (answer) was that ..., He said in reply ... This is not colloquial. 3. Indirect orders and requests. An order or a request in indirect speech is expressed by an infinitive. e.g. She said to him, “Open the window (do not open the window).” 114

Она сказала ему: “Откройте окно (не открывайте окно)!” She told him to open the window (not to open the window). Она велела ему открыть окно(не открывать окна). She said to him, “Please, open the window (do not open the window).” Она сказала ему: “Пожалуйста, откройте окно.”(...не открывайте окно). She asked him to open the window (not to open the window). Она попросила его открыть окно (...не открывать окна). The choice of the verb is determined by the character of the order, request. The verb most commonly used to introduce indirect orders is the verb to tell; the verb to order is frequently used, occasionally also the verb to command. The verb to tell corresponds to the Russian сказать, чтобы, and велеть; to order and to command correspond to приказать: e.g. Mr. Bumble said to Oliver, “Bow to the board.” Мистер Бамбл сказал Оливеру: “Поклонись комитету!” Mr. Bumble ordered Oliver to bow to the board. Мистер Бамбл велел Оливеру поклониться комитету. The officer said to the soldiers, “Stop!” Офицер сказал солдатам: “Остановитесь!” The officer commanded the soldiers to stop. Офицер приказал солдатам остановиться. The verb to request is used in official style, chiefly in the Passive Voice. It is best rendered in Russian by предложить. The verb to request introduces rather an order than a request. e.g. The ticket collector said to the passenger, “Produce your ticket.” 115

or:

Контролер сказал пассажиру:“Предъявите ваш билет.” The ticket collector requested the passenger to produce his ticket. Контролер предложил пассажиру предъявить свой билет. The passenger was requested to produce his ticket. Пассажира попросили показать свой билет.

Unemotional requests are usually introduced by the verb to ask. e.g. He said to a passer-by, “Will you show me the way to the theatre?” Он сказал прохожему:“Не покажите ли вы мне дорогу в театр?” He asked a passer-by to show him the way to the theatre. Он попросил прохожего показать ему дорогу в театр. The verb to beg introduces a request somewhat more emotional. e.g. The child said to his mother, “Do take me to the circus!” Ребенок сказал своей матери: “Пожалуйста, возьми меня в цирк!” The child begged his mother to take him to the circus. Ребенок умолял свою мать повести его в цирк. Very often, however, it is used in the same meaning as the verb to ask, only it is more polite. e.g. He said to the visitor, "Will you walk in?” Он сказал посетителю: “Пожалуйста заходите.” He begged the visitor to walk in. Он попросил/пригласил посетителя зайти. Emotional (emphatic) requests are introduced by the verbs to implore, to entreat, to beseech (умолять).

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e.g.

Eliza said to the stranger, “Do save my child!” Элиза сказала незнакомцу: “Пожалуйста, спасите моего ребенка!” Eliza implored the stranger to save her child. Элиза умоляла незнакомца спасти ее ребенка.

The verb to urge introduces a request made with great insistence. It corresponds to the Russian настаивать, уговаривать. e.g. The mother said to her son, “Do take care of yourself!” Мать сказала своему сыну: “Пожалуйста, следи за собой!” The mother urged her son to take care of himself. Мать уговаривала своего сына следить за собой. As is seen from the above examples, in converting requests beginning with the emphatic do, we use the verbs to implore, to entreat, to beseech, to urge. 4. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice. When converting offers and suggestions into indirect speech, we use the verbs to offer and to suggest. There is a difference between these two verbs, though both are rendered in Russian by предложить: e.g.

He said to her, “Shall I fetch you a glass of water?” She said, “Do, please.”“No, don't trouble.”) Он сказал ей: “Принести вам стакан воды?” Она сказала: “Да, пожалуйста, ” (Нет, не беспокойтесь.) He offered to fetch her a glass of water and she accepted the offer (declined the offer). Он предложил принести ей стакан воды, и она согласилась (отказалась). He said to her, “Suppose we go there together?” She said, “Very well.” (“No, I would rather you went alone.”) Он сказал ей: “Полагаю, мы пойдем туда вместе?” 117

Она сказала: “Очень хорошо”. (“Нет, лучше идите один”). He suggested that they should go there together and she consented (refused). Он предложил ей вместе пойти туда, и она согласилась (отказалась). We do not use infinitive structures after suggest. However, after this and many other verbs, instructions can be reported with that-clause, usually with modal verbs or subjunctives. e.g. He suggested that I try to park there. Он предложил мне припарковаться там. The policemen said that I mustn’t park there. Полицейский сказал, что там нельзя парковаться. Sentences expressing advice are converted into indirect speech by means of the verb to advise. e.g. He said to them, “You had better take a taxi, you may be late.” Он сказал им: “Вам лучше взять такси, вы можете опоздать”. He advised them to take a taxi, as otherwise they might be late. Он посоветовал им взять такси, так как иначе они могут опоздать. 5. Indirect exclamations. When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, it is not so much the verb as the adverbial modifier which shows the character of the exclamation — whether it expresses joy, sorrow, surprise, etc. e.g. She said, “How pleasant! Jane is going to spend a week with us!” Она сказала: “Как хорошо! Джейн собирается провести с нами неделю!” She cried joyfully (with joy, delightedly) that Jane was going to spend a week with them. Она радостно закричала, что Джейн собирается 118

провести с ними неделю. She said, “I am so sorry! Jane is leaving us!” Она сказала: “Мне так жаль! Джейн покидает нас!” She said sadly (with deep sadness, sorrowfully) that Jane was leaving them. Она печально (с глубокой печалью, с сожалением) сказала, что Джейн покидает их. She said to him, “You are telling a lie!” Она сказала ему:“Ты говоришь неправду!” She cried indignantly (with indignation) that he was telling a lie. Она закричала возмущенно (с негодованием), что он говорит неправду. She said to him, “Do you mean to say you’ve already read all the books?” Она сказала ему: “Ты имеешь в виду, что ты уже прочитал все книги?” She asked in surprise if he had really read all the books. Она спросила с удивлением, читал ли он все книги. She said to him, “Excuse me for disturbing you.” Она сказала ему: “Простите меня за то, что беспокою вас.” She apologized (to him) for disturbing him. Она извинилась за то, что побеспокоила его. She said to him, “I beg your pardon; I’ve forgotten to bring you the book.” Она сказала ему: “Я прощу прощения, я забыла принести вам книгу”. She begged his pardon for having forgotten to bring the book. Она попросила прощения за то, что забыла принести книгу. She said to them, “Thank you for your help.” Она сказала им: “Спасибо вам за вашу помощь”.

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6. Greetings and leave-taking in indirect speech. When converting greetings and leave-taking into indirect speech, we use such verbs as to greet, to welcome, etc. e.g. She said to them, “How do you do?” Она сказала им: “Здравствуйте!” She greeted them. Она поздоровалась с ними. He said to them, “Happy to see you at my place.” Он сказал им: “Рад вас видеть у себя дома.” He welcomed them. Он радушно приветствовал их. He said to them, “Good-bye!” Он сказал им: “До свидания!” He bade them good-bye. Он попрощался с ними. He said to them, “Good night!” Он сказал им: “Доброй ночи!” He wished them good night. Он пожелал им доброй ночи.

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MOOD Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation to reality the speaker places the action or state expressed by the predicate verb. Thus, the category of mood expresses modality. There are the following moods in English: a) the direct moods –- the indicative and the imperative; b) the oblique (косвенные) moods –- subjunctive I, subjunctive II, the suppositional and the conditional. The Indicative Mood The indicative mood shows that the speaker considers the action or state denoted by the predicate as an actual fact and affirms or negates its existence in the present, past or future. e.g. “…there is a girl in Goya picture at Madrid who’s like me, Father says”. That night nobody slept. He will stay with us as often as possible. The indicative mood is widely used in modern English. It may denote actions with different time-reference and different aspect characteristics. Therefore the indicative mood has a wide variety of tense and aspect forms in the active and passive voice. The Imperative Mood The imperative mood expesses a command or a request to perform an action addressed to somebody, but not the action itself. As it does not actually denote an action as a real fact, it has no tense category; the unfulfilled action always refers to the future. Aspect distinctions and voice distinctions are not characteristic of the imperative mood although forms such as, be writing, be warned sometimes occur. The imperative mood form coincides with the plain stem of the verb. The negative is built by means of the auxiliary verb to do + the negative particle not (the contracted form is don’t). 121

e.g. Come here! Read the text! Do not worry about the child! Don’t be a fool. Do is also used in commands or requests to make them more emphatic (the emphatic imperative): e.g. Do come and stay with us. Do be quiet. In commands and requests addressed to a first or third person (or persons) the analytical form let + bare infinitive is used. The verb functions as an auxiliary, and it partly loses its lexical meaning. e.g. Let us (let’s) go together. Let him finish his dinner first. Let Andrew do it himself. In negative sentences the analytical forms take the particle not without an auxiliary. e.g. Let us not argue on the matter. Let him not overestimate his chances. Let her not go any further. Don’t let him go. In the last sentence the negation refers to the verb let, which in this case fully retains its original meaning of permission. Will you? very often follows the imperative. In such imperative sentences the order becomes modified by the addition of will you? into a kind of request. e.g. “Give me my box and money, will you?” I cried bursting into tears. “Turn to the right here, will you?” “Heigh! Heigh! Keep that dog back, will you?” he shouted… The imperative mood can’t be used in questions. 122

The Oblique Moods The function of the oblique moods is to represent something in the speaker’s mind not as a real fact, but as a wish, purpose, condition or doubt, supposition, problematic or contrary to fact. In English there are four groups of forms which can represent an action as desirable, necessary, possible, impossible, problematic, unreal, etc.: 1) subjunctive I I, he, she, it, we, you, they be smth.; do smth. 2) subjunctive II I, he, she, it We, you, they

were / was smth; did smth. had been smth.; had done smth. were smth.; did smth. had been smth.; had done smth.

3) the conditional mood I, we should do smth. should have done smth. He, she, it, you, would do smth. they would have done smth. 4) the suppositional mood I, he, she, it, should do smth. we, you, they should have done smth. Two of the oblique moods are synthetic and two analytical. The synthetic moods are: subjunctive I and subjunctive II. The analytical moods are: the conditional and the suppositional. The analytical moods are built by means of the auxiliary should and would + the infinitive. These auxiliaries are called mood auxiliaries. They have lost their lexical meaning. In cases where should and would retain their original modal meaning, they are regarded as modal verbs, forming a compound verbal modal predicate. 123

The Use of the Oblique Moods I. All forms denoting unreality may be classified into two groups: 1) forms characterizing the action as contradicting reality (unreal in general). The conditional mood and subjunctive II (present and past) are forms characterizing the action as contradicting reality in the present, future or past. e.g. I should not say so now. I should not have said so yesterday. If only it did not rain all the time! I wish he had been there to see it. 2) forms characterizing the action as problematic (unreal only at pesent, sometimes unlikely to take place). Subjunctive I, the suppositional mood and the modal phrases characterize the action as problematic. e.g. She suggested that someone stay behind to oversee the packing. He had given instructions that everything possible should be done. She held her face averted so that I might not see her reddened lids. If he were to ask me I would probably agree. II. The choice of the oblique mood depends on the following factors: a) on the structure of the sentence (the structurally dependent, i.e. obligatory, use of forms expressing unreality), mainly on the type of the subordinate clause in which this form occurs, the conjunction, and in certain cases even on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause. e.g. It is time you got up. (subjunctive II) It is necessary that you should go there. (the suppositional mood) Do it now lest it should be too late. (the suppositional mood) 124

b) on the meaning, the attitude of the speaker towards the actions expressed in the sentence (the independent, i.e. free, use of forms expressing unreality). The use of moods in clauses of condition is an example of the free use of the moods. If the speaker wants to characterize the condition as unreal subjunctive II is used. . If the speaker wants to show that the fulfilment of the condition is possible but unlikely, the suppositional mood must be used. e.g. If she hears from him she’ll phone. (the real condition, the indicative mood ). If she should hear from him she’ll phone. (the problematic condition, the suppositional mood). If she had heard from him she would have phoned. (the unreal condition, subjunctive II past and the conditional past). c) In a limited number of cases the use of forms expressing unreality has become a matter of tradition and is to be treated as set phrases, as other sentences cannot be built up on their patterns (the traditional use of forms expressing unreality). e.g. Be ours a happy meeting! Пусть наша встреча будет счастливой! May success attend you! Пусть удача сопутствует тебе! So be it! Да будет так! Happen what may. Что будет, то будет. Be this as it may... Как бы то ни было… Ideas be hanged! К черту всякие идеи! As luck would have it, I was invited for that night. По счастливому стечению обстоятельств, я был приглашен на этот вечер. They were silent and, as it were, oppressed. Они молчали и, как бы, были подавлены. 125

III. It is noteworthy that the tenses of the oblique moods (subjunctive II, the conditional and the suppositional) are relative tenses, i.e. they do not refer the action to a certain point of time (present, past or future) but merely indicate that the action of the verb in the oblique mood coincides in time with the action of the verb in the principal clause or precedes it. Thus the present tenses of the oblique moods serve to indicate simultaneousness. The past tenses of the oblique moods serve to indicate priority. e.g. You look (looked, will look) as if you were ill. (simultaneousness) You look (looked, will look) as if you had been ill. (priority) I am sure (was sure) that if she knew your address, she would write to you. (simultaneousness) I am sure (was sure) that if she had known your address, she would have written to you. (priority) The Conditional Mood I. Meaning. The conditional mood expresses unreality of an action due to the absence of the necessary circumstances on which the realization of the action depends. The conditional mood is mainly used in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of unreal condition where the verb is used in subjunctive II. e.g. If he were here he would help us. If I had not been so busy yesterday, I should have come. II. Formation. The conditional mood has two tenses. The present conditional is formed by the auxiliary verbs should / would and the simple infinitive. e.g. If she did not like children she would not be a teacher. If I knew her address I should say so. 126

The past conditional is formed by the auxiliary verbs should / would and the perfect infinitive. e.g. We should have stayed there longer if it had not begun raining. I should not have paid the slightest attention to his words if he had not looked so upset. Note. The difference between real and unreal condition may be lost in reported speech as the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this case. Real condition Unreal condition He said, “If I had time I He said, “If I have time I shall go.” should go.” He said that if he had time he He said that if he had time he would go. would go. III. The Use of the Conditional Mood I. The conditional mood can be used in any type of sentence, simple or complex. 1. in simple sentences (sentences of implied condition). If an action is represented as an actual fact, the indicative mood is used. But if it is dependent on some implied unreal condition, the conditional mood is used to represent the action as contradicting reality. An implied condition is not openly stated in the sentence, but it is suggested by an adverbial part of the sentence, or else by the context. e.g. I should so like to meet him. ( if I had a chance) Я так хотел бы встретиться с ним. I saw her last week. She looks nice, has put on some weight. You would never have recognized her. …. Ты бы никогда не узнал ее. 2. in simple sentences with an adverbial modifier of condition introduced by but for, except for (если бы не…) which imply an unreal condition with an opposite meaning. e.g. But for luck he would be still living alone. (in fact he was lucky). Если бы не удача, он бы все еще жил в одиночестве. 127

These people would long ago have been forgotten, but for the artist’s genius. Этих людей давно бы уже забыли, если бы не гений художника. That’s all I can remember. I wouldn’t have remembered anything at all but for you. –- … . Я бы совсем ничего не вспомнил, если бы не вы. 3. in the following sentence patterns: a) would help smb. To do smth. would have helped smb. To have done smth. e.g.

To go back now would be impossible. To have given him a hand would have cost you very little.

b) otherwise (or) e.g.

smb. would do smth. (I, we should do smth.) smb. would have done smth. (I, we would have done smth.)

I shall take my younger sister to the pictures. Otherwise I should gladly stay and help you. It was much too late. Or I should not have objected. They had no desire to spread a scandal. Otherwise they would have demanded their due.

II. In complex sentences: 1) in the principal clause of a complex sentence with an adverbial clause of unreal condition (a conditional sentence). Conditional sentences are complex sentences including conditional clauses introduced mainly by the conjunction if. Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, supposing (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition

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(that). Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition and unreal condition. In the first case the indicative mood is used, in the second subjunctive II is used in the if-clause to express an unreal condition and the conditional mood is used to express unreal consequence in the principal clause. Both conditions may refer to the pesent, past and future. In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative mood may be used. e.g. If she heard it she gave no sign. Если она и слышала, она не подала виду. Why did he send us matches, if he knew there was no gas? Почему он послал нам спички, если он знал, что газа нет?. If I have offended you, I am very sorry. Если я обидел тебя, я прошу прощения. If he was lying, he was a good actor. Если он и лгал, то он был хорошим актером. If I drop this glass it will beak. Если я уроню этот стакан, он разобьется. You may go away if it bothers you. Ты можешь уйти, если тебе скучно. In sentences with unreal condition the choice of forms of subjunctive II and the conditional moods depends on time-reference of the actions. If smb. did smth. smb. would do smth. If smb. had done smth. smb. would have done smth. a) If the action refers to the present or future subjunctive II present is used in the subordinate clause and the present conditional is used in the principal clause. e.g.

If you knew him better you wouldn’t think so. Если бы ты знал его лучше, ты так не думал бы. If he weren’t ill he would come. Если бы он не был болен, он бы пришел. 129

You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were hurt. Ты бы так не разговаривал, если бы не был обижен. b) If the action refers to the past, subjunctive II past is used in the if-clause and the past conditional – in the principal clause. e.g. If he hadn’t insisted upon her going there, nothing would ever have happened. Если бы он не настоял на ее поездке туда, ничего бы и не произошло. If you had gone there, you would have seen him. Если бы ты пошел туда, ты бы его увидел. Unless he had been grinning happily at us, I should have sworn he was mortally wounded. Если бы он так радостно ни улыбался, я бы поклялся, что он смертельно ранен. Sometimes inversion can be used: e.g. Were you in my place you would behave in the same way. Был бы ты на моем месте, ты бы повел себя так же. Had the world been watching, it would have been startled. Если бы мир это видел, он бы содрогнулся. c) The actions in the principal and subordinate clauses may have different time-reference. Sentences of this kind are said to have split condition. If the unreal condition refers to the past and the consequence – to the present or future, subjunctive II past is used in the if-clause and the conditional mood present in the principal. e.g. If we had not been such fools we should all still be together. Если бы мы не были такими глупцами, мы бы все еще были вместе. How much better I should write now if in my youth I had the advantage of sensible advice. Насколько лучше я писал бы сейчас, если бы в молодости у меня была возможность получить разумный совет. 130

I shouldn’t be bothering you like this if they hadn’t told me downtown that he was coming up this way. Я бы сейчас вам так не надоедал, если бы в городе мне не сказали, что он едет сюда. Split condition is possible for sentences with real condition as well: e.g. If you saw him yesterday you know all the news. Если вы его вчера видели, то вы знаете все новости. If you live in this part of the city you knew of the accident yesterday. Если вы живете в этой части города, то вы уже вчера знали об аварии. If the condition refers to no particular time (is permanent) and the consequence refers to the past, subjunctive II present is used in the if-clause and the conditional mood past is used in the principal. e.g. If you were practical, you would have bought these shoes. Если бы ты была практичной, ты бы купила эти туфли. She wouldn’t have told me her story if she disliked me. Она не рассказала бы мне о своей жизни, если бы я ей не нравился. John wouldn’t have lost his key unless he were so absent-minded. Джон не потерял бы свой ключ, если бы только не был таким рассеянным. 2. There are some more types of conditional clauses with reference to the future. a) I, we should do smth. If he, she, they would do smth. he, she, they would do smth. 131

or If he, she, they would do smth.

smb. could do smth.

In this type would + infinitive for all persons in the singular and plural is used in the conditional clause and is rendered into Russian если бы вы согласились, изъявили желание, захотели бы. In the principal clause should/would + infinitive or the indicative mood is used e.g. If you would only come to our place, we’ll be very glad. (we should be very glad) Если бы вы только согласились прийти к нам, мы были бы очень счастливы. Of course, I would go if Mother would let me. Конечно, я бы пошла бы, если бы мама захотела меня пустить. We could have the party at this flat if he would give us the key. Мы могли бы устроить вечеринку в его квартире, если бы он захотел дать нам ключ. I’d love it if you would call me Eliza. Я была бы рада, если бы вы согласились называть меня Элизой. b) If smb. were to do smth.

I., we should do smth. he, she they would do smth

In this type subjunctive II of the verb to be to + infinitive is used in the subordinate clause and in the principal clause should/would + infinitive or the imperative mood is used. Both actions have future or pesent time-reference. The form were to implies greater improbability of the action, but doesn’t reject it. e.g. I simply don’t know what I should do if they were to come today. Просто не знаю, что бы я делала, если бы они пришли сегодня. If you were to undertake it, everything would be 132

different. Если бы вы взялись за это, то все было бы подругому. If I were to tell you everything, you would be amazed. Если бы мне пришлось рассказать вам все, вы бы удивились. Would you object if we were to ask you to go there? Вы бы не возражали, если бы нам пришлось попросить вас поехать туда? 3. in the principal clause of a complex sentence with an adverbial clause of concession. a) Complex sentences with an adverbial clause of concession introduced by the conjunction even if or even though have the same pattern as the sentences of unreal condition, i.e subjunctive II (present or past) is used in the subordinate clause and the conditional mood (present or past) is used in the principal clause. e.g. But even if you were right, I should be prepared for any contingency. Но даже если вы и правы, я должен быть готов к любой неожиданности. Even if I had been a stranger he would have talked of his misfortune. Даже если бы я был с ним незнаком, он бы все равно говорил со мной о своих несчастьях. Even if it were true, he couldn’t say so. Даже если бы это было правдой, он не мог это сказать. Even though he had proposed, nothing has changed since that day. Хотя он и сделал предложение, ничего с того дня не изменилось. b) In complex sentences with a clause of concession introduced by though, although, whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever, however, no matter how the indicative mood is used in both clauses if the fact despite which the action is carried out is a real one. 133

e.g.

And when we settle down, wherever it is, you’ll have a garden. А когда мы устроимся, где бы это ни было, у тебя будет сад. Cold as it is, we shall go out. Как бы холодно ни было, мы выйдем. Tired as he was, he continued his work. Каким бы уставшим он ни был, он продолжал работать. Though he was 36, he looked very old. Хотя ему было 36, он выглядел очень старым. It was not meant to offend you, no matter how ironic it sounded. Тебя не хотели обидеть, как бы иронично это ни звучало.

In literary style may/might + infinitive is occasionally used to lay stress on the meaning of supposition. e.g. Whatever his invitation may mean, I am going to accept it. Что бы его приглашение ни означало, я его приму. He said he would be glad to fulfill the conditions whatever they might be. Он сказал, что рад будет выполнить все условия, какими бы они ни были. Whoever he may be, he has no right to be rude. Кем бы он ни был, он не имеет права грубить. Wherever we might go, we found the same gloomy sight. Куда бы мы ни пошли, мы везде находили тот же самый унылый вид. He will not convince us however hard he should try. Он не убедит нас, как бы он ни старался. Whichever of the two roads we may take, the distance is great. По какой бы из этих двух дорог мы ни пошли, идти далеко (расстояние огромное). 134

4. Modal verbs or phrases in conditional sentences. The modal verbs can, may and will in subjunctive II are freely used to express unreality in subordinate and principal clauses. Like mood auxiliaries should, would they may be combined with different infinitives: a) in main clauses: e.g. If it were not so dark I could take you there now. Если бы так темно не было, я бы отвез тебя туда. If I had time I might go there. Если бы у меня было время, я мог бы пойти туда. Someone might have noticed if she had not been there. Может, кто-нибудь заметил бы, если бы ее там не было. If you had trusted me I could have led you safely through. Если бы вы мне доверились, я мог бы вам помочь справиться с этим. b) in subordinate clauses: e.g. If I could only have one flower I should have lilies of the valley. Если бы я мог иметь хоть один цветок, у меня были бы только ландыши. If I might come at six it would suit me better. Если бы мне можно было прийти в 6, мне было бы удобней. If I could have translated that article without a dictionary I should have got my work done more quickly. Если бы я мог перевести эту статью без словаря, я бы справился с работой быстрее. If he would translate this article it would be nice. Если бы он согласился перевести эту статью, было бы прекрасно. There may be a modal phrase in both clauses of the sentence or in one clause only. e.g. If she could have been compressed to about three quarters of her actual width, she would have been very attractive. 135

Если бы ее можно было сжать на три четверти от ее обычной ширины, то она была бы очень привлекательной. …and had he so desired he might have been persona grata with the diplomatic set. … и пожелай он, он мог бы быть персоной грата со всеми привилегиями дипломата. 5. Sometimes the conditional mood and the forms could and might are found in sentences without implied condition. Their use in this case differs from the use of the indicative mood only stylistically – they serve to lend the sentence a milder and more polite shade of meaning, the past conditional expressing the highest degree of politeness. e.g. “How long did you wait?” “I would say a good five minutes.” …. Я бы сказал, целых пять минут. Ask Miss Thompson when it would be convenient to see her. Спросите у мисс Томпсон, когда ей будет удобно, чтоб мы ее навестили. “I suppose I am prepared to accept their offer.” “I should think you are.” “Полагаю, я готов принять их предложение”. “ Помоему, да”. I should have thought there could be no two answers to that. Я бы полагал, что здесь двух мнений быть не может. I should have said he is nothing out of the ordinary. Я бы сказал, что он весьма зауряден. (в нем нет ничего незаурядного) Compare it with the similar use of the subjunctive mood in Russian: Я бы сказал…, Я бы считал…. Не могли бы вы…. This function of the conditional mood and of the forms could and might plays an important role in spoken English.

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Subjunctive II I. Meaning. Subjunctive II represents an action as contrary to reality. e.g. I wish he were with us. (he is not with us) If he had been in town yesterday,he would have come. (he was not in town yesterday) II. Formation. Subjunctive II has two tenses: the present and the past. a) The forms of the present subjunctive II do not differ from the forms of the past indicative. The only exception is the verb to be: Subunctive II present: I, he (she, it) were We, you, they were I, he (she, it) was The past indicative: We, you, they were In all other verbs the forms of the present subjunctive II are homonymous with the forms of the past indicative. I spoke He wrote Subjunctive II present: I spoke He wrote The past indicative: e.g. “What would uncle Reed say to you if he were alive? He wished it were vacation. I wish I knew how to reward you. In modern English there is a tendency to use the form was for were in the singular. e.g. If I was at home, I should see her.(subjunctive II present) I was at home yesterday. (the past indicative) b) The past subjunctive II is homonymous with the past perfect indicative in all verbs. e.g. You look as if you had heard good things. What should I have done if you had refused to come?

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Subjunctive II To be Present I were (was) He were (was) We were You were They were

Past I had been He had been We had been You had been They had been To speak The Common Aspect

Present I spoke He spoke We spoke You spoke They spoke

Past I had spoken He had spoken We had spoken You had spoken They had spoken

The Continuous Aspect Present Past I were speaking I had been speaking He were speaking He had been speaking We were speaking We had been speaking You were speaking You had been speaking They were speaking They had been speaking III. The Use of Subjunctive II Subjunctive II can be used both in simple and complex sentences. I. In simple sentences subjunctive II is used to denote 1. advice: Smb. had better do smth. not do smth. e.g.

You had better wait here. Лучше подождите здесь. You had better not eat this salad. Тебе лучше не есть этот салат. 138

2. preference: Smb. would (smb.’d) rather/sooner Smb. had (smb.’d) rather/sooner e.g.

do smth. have done smth.

I would much rather walk. Я бы охотней пошла пешком (сейчас). She would sooner have stayed at home. Она бы предпочла (тогда) остаться дома. I had sooner not make any decision now. Я бы предпочел никаких решений сейчас не принимать. Mother had rather have stayed at home and watched TV. Мама охотней бы осталась дома и смотрела б телевизор.

3. wish (in exclamatory sentences beginning with If only…, Oh, if…, Oh, that…): If only Oh, if Oh, that

did smth smb. had done smth.

Such sentences state no condition but express a wish as unreal or are used to show that the speaker is sorry something was done or not done in the past. e.g. If only it were true! Ах, если бы это было правдой! Oh, that I were young again! Ах, если бы я опять был молод! Oh, if I had this chance! Ах, если бы у меня была эта возможность! If only I had listened to my parents! Ах, если бы я послушался родителей! Oh, if she had taken my advice! Ах, если бы она последовала моему совету!

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The forms of subjunctive II of the modal verbs can, may and will may also be used: e.g. If only it would stop raining! Ах, если бы дождь прекратился! If only we could have stopped him! Ах, если бы мы смогли его тогда остановить! Oh, if she might get there in time! Ах, если бы она могла туда вовремя попасть! II. In complex sentences subjunctive II is used: 1. in attributive clauses after the idiomatic phrase It is time (also It is high time…, It is about time…). It is/was time e.g.

smb. did smth.

It is high time we got rid of our old furniture. Нам давно бы пора избавиться от нашей старой мебели. It’s high time you were in bed too, my child. Тебе, малыш, давно пора бы быть в постели. He said, “It’s time we ordered dinner”. Он сказал; “Пора бы нам заказать обед.”

The rule of the sequence of tenses is not observed in this kind of clauses. e.g. It’s time we had lunch. It was time we had lunch. 2. In object clauses аfter the verb to wish and phrases expressing the same idea I had better, I would rather/ I’d rather different forms of subjunctive II may be used, depending on the time reference of the action in the object clause. a) If the action refers to the present or future, or is simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause subjunctive II present or the continuous form of subjunctive II is used. I wish/wished/will wish smb. did smth. 140

e.g.

I wish I deserved your compliments. I don’t. Как бы мне хотелось быть достойным ваших комплиментов. Но я не заслуживаю их. I wished it were true. Как жаль, что это не правда. I would rather you went now. Я бы предпочел, чтобы вы ушли сейчас. I wish you came here more often. I hardly ever see you. ( Как бы мне) Хотелось бы, чтобы вы приходили сюда почаще. Я вас почти не вижу. I’d rather you didn’t help me, actually. Лучше бы вы мне не помогали. (я бы предпочел, чтобы…). I wish(ed) he were with us. Как бы мне хотелось, чтоб он был с нами.

Note: To express a realizable wish an infinitive, not a clause, is generally used. e.g. I want him to come. I’d like him to call me up. I wish to see it for myself. I wish him to do something forme. He wished it to be true. b) If the action refers to the past or is prior to the moment it is desired subjunctive II past is used. I wish/wished/will wish e.g.

smb. had done smth.

We wished we had not left everything to the last minute. Как жаль, что мы все оставили на последнюю минуту. I wish I had been taught music in my childhood. Как жаль, что в детстве меня не учили музыке. 141

He wishes he had stayed at home. Как он жалел, что не остался дома. c) If the desired action refers to the future the following subjunctive forms may be used: could + infinitive may / might + infinitive would + infinitive The form would + infinitive is used to make the sentence more emphatic, but only if the subjects in both clauses are different and the wish refers to the present or future. This form is used when the fulfilment of the action depends on the will of the person denoted by the subject of the subordinate clause. e.g. I wish you would treat me better. (Как) Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы со мной лучше обращались I wish you would not interfere. Хоть бы вы не вмешивались. I wish you would not smoke indoors. Как бы мне хотелось, чтоб вы / Хоть бы вы / Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы не курили в помещении. If the fulfilment of the wish depends more on the circumstances, might + infinitive or could + infinitive is preferable to show that the realization of the action is very unlikely. e.g. I wish I could help you. Как бы мне хотелось помочь вам. I wish you might stay with us a little longer. Как бы мне хотелось, чтобы вы еще немного остались с нами. Note: Might + infinitive or could + infinitive may also be used to express a simultaneous action. e.g. I wish I could understand you. Жаль, что я вас не понимаю. I wish he might be here. Как бы мне хотелось, чтобы он был здесь. 142

As all these forms express an unrealizable wish, they serve as expressions of regret rather than wish. That is why they may be rendered in Russian in two ways: a) When the actions in both clauses are simultaneous both ways of translation may be used, Как бы мне хотелось… or Как жаль, что…. b) When thе action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, there is only one way of rendering the sentences in Russian, namely Как жаль, что…. It is necessary to point out that when the verb in the object clause is affirmative in English, it is negative in Russian and vice versa. e.g. I wish I had told him the truth. Как жаль, что я не сказал ему правды. I wish I hadn’t acted like that. Как жаль, что я так поступил. When the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the principal clause, it is not necessary to translate the modal verbs into Russian; the usual way of rendering such sentences is Как бы мне хотелось…. e.g. I wish he would tell me everything. Как бы мне хотелось, чтобы он мне все рассказал. I wish I could (might) go round the world. Как бы мне хотелось объехать весь мир. Note. Notice that I wish you would + infinitive has become a set phrase and is an equivalent of the imperative mood; it is emotionally coloured. e.g. I wish you would stop it. Да перестань же ты, наконец. 3. In object clauses after verbs and phrases expressing doubt (to doubt, to disbelieve, to have doubts, to greet with scepticism, etc.) and after some other verbs in the negative form. The subordinate clause is introduced by if or whether. 143

e.g.

We had doubts if it were possible to cross the river at this time of the year. Мы сомневались, возможно ли было переплыть реку в это время года. I doubted she had even been there. Я сомневался, была ли там она вообще.

4. In object clauses after would/had rather, would/had sooner: ’d rather/sooner smb. did smth. Smb. had rather/sooner smb.had done smth. would rather/ sooner e.g. I would rather we didn’t discuss her affairs. Я бы предпочел, чтобы мы не обсуждали ее дела. It was clear that they would much rather nobody had mentioned the subject. Было ясно, что они бы предпочли, чтоб никто не затрагивал это тему. 4. In subordinate clauses of comparison. Depending on the time reference a) subjunctive II present (indefinite and continuous) is used if the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that in the principal clause. speaks Smb. spoke will speak e.g.

as if as though

smb. did smth. smb. were (was) doing smth.

She will behave as if she didn’t know you. Она будет вести себя, словно вас не знает. He paid no attention to us as though we didn’t exist. Он не обращал на нас внимания, будто нас и не существовало. She was holding a tea-pot as if it were a hand grenade. Она держала чайник так, словно это была ручная граната. She rummaged in her bag as if she were (was) trying to 144

find some change. Она порылась в сумке, будто бы пытаясь найти мелочь. Subjunctive II past is used if the action in the subordinate clause is prior to that in the principal clause. speaks as if smb. had done smth. Smb. spoke as though smb. had been doing smth. will speak e.g.

She smiled and reached out her hand as if she had only just noticed me. Она улыбнулась и протянула мне руку, словно только что заметила меня. Look, her eyes are red as if she had been crying. Смотри, глаза у нее красные, словно она плакала. In a couple of weeks he will be running and jumping as if he had never been hurt. Через несколько недель он будет бегать и прыгать, словно и не был ранен.

c) If we have the subjunctive form of a modal verb in such patterns we use the indefinite infinitive to denote simultaneousness and the perfect infinitive to denote priority. as if smb. could do smth. Smb. does smth. as though smb. could have done did smth. will do smth. smth. e.g.

You speak as if you could help me. Вы говорите так, как будто можете мне помочь. She will reproach as if anybody could have done more. Она будет вас упрекать, словно кто-нибудь мог сделать больше.

5. In predicative clauses with comparing meaning. а) Smb looks smb. did smth. looked as if smb. could do smth. 145

Smb. e.g.

feels felt

smb. had done smth. smb. could have done smth.

The boy looks as if he were feverish. У мальчика, кажется, температура. You look as though you could eat all of it. Ты, кажется, мог бы съесть все. She felt as if she had lost something. Ей казалось, что она что-то потеряла. You will feel as if you could do it easily. Вам покажется, что вы легко это сможете сделать.

b) looks looked It seems seemed was e.g.

as though

as if smb. as though

did smth. could do smth. had done smth. could have done smth. was doing smth. had been doing smth.

It looks as if they had not been expecting us. Они нас, кажется, не ждали. It seems as if he knew the way. Он, кажется, знает дорогу. It looked as if it were (was) going to snow. Казалось, снег пойдет. It will seem as if you had never been ill. Вам покажется, что вы никогда не болели. It looked as if the idea had appealed to everybody. Казалось, мысль понравилась всем. It was as if night was falling. Казалось, наступает ночь.

c) is not was not It will not as if

smb. 146

did smth. could do smth. had done smth.

(won’t)be

e.g.

as though

could have done smth. was doing smth. had been doing smth.

It is not as if I could help. Ведь я же не могу помочь. It was not as if you had tried. Ведь вы же не пробовали. It won’t be as if you were a party to it. Ведь ты же не будешь соучастником.

6. In subordinate clauses of condition. (see The Use of the Conditional Mood, II, p.1, page 133; p.2, page 136) 7. In subordinate clauses of concession. (see The Use of the Conditional Mood, II p.3, page 137) 8. The set phrase as it were (так сказать, как бы) is used as parenthesis, emphasizing that the content of the sentence is highly figurative or unreal. e.g. He is my best friend, my second self, as it were. Он мой лучший друг, мое второе”я”, так сказать. Subjunctive I 1. Subjunctive I represents an action as problematic, but not contradicting reality. It is used to express order, request, suggestion, supposition, purpose, etc. e.g. I suggest that he do the work. I insist that they be here. Subjunctive I has also optative (желательное) meaning, i.e. it is used to show wish or express a prayer: e.g. Long live world peace! Да здравствует мир во всем мире! Success attend you! Пусть успех сопутствует тебе! 147

God bless you! (Bless you!) Благослови тебя господь! God save the king! Боже, храни короля! Heaven forbid! – Боже упаси! Long live freedom! – Да здравствует свобода! 2. Subjunctive I has no tenses, the same form being used for the present, past and future: e.g. He orders that we be present. He ordered that we be present It is necessary that you be pesent at our meeting tomorrow. 3. The formal difference between subjunctive I and the indicative mood has almost disappeared in modern English. The remaining forms in which subjunctive I differs from the present indicative are: a) in the verb to be : I be, he (she, it) be, we be, you be, they be. b) in all other verbs where the singular has no s-inflexion I have I be He (she, it) be He (she, it) have We be We have You be You have They be They have

form of the third person I speak He (she, it) speak We speak You speak

4. In modern English the use of subjunctive I is limited to certain styles, such as poetry or the language of official documents; it is widely used in American English. In British English, in everyday speech, if modality has to be expressed, the suppositional mood or modal phrases are used instead. e.g. He ordered that we be present. (subjunctive I) He ordered that we should be present. (the suppositional mood) We shall start tomorrow though it rain. (subjunctive I) 148

We shall start tomorrow though it should rain. (the suppositional mood) It is necessary that we be present. (subjunctive I) It is necessary that we should be present. (the suppositional mood) Whoever you be, you have no right to do such a thing. (subjunctive I) Whoever you may be, you have no right to do such a thing. (modal phrase) 5. Subjunctive I is also used in some set expressions: Suffice (it) to say that... Достаточно сказать, что Far be it from me to У меня и в мыслях не было contradict you! противоречить вам. Far be it from me to spoil the У меня и в мыслях не было fun! испортить вам настроение. Far be it from me to conceal Чтобы я скрывал правду! the truth! So be it! Да будет так. Manners be hanged!. К черту церемонии (хорошие манеры) Come what will / may. Будь, что будет.

The Suppositional Mood I. Meaning. The suppositonal mood represents an action as problematic, but not necessarily contradicting reality. The realization of the action may depend on certain circumstances, but these circumstances are not contrary to fact. The suppositonal mood is used to express necessity, order, suggestion, supposition, etc. e.g. Should you meet him tomorrow, tell him to come. (I am not quite certain if you will meet him, but it is possible) I insist that you should consult a doctor. (In my opinion you ought to do it, though I am not sure if you will do it.) 149

II. Formation. The suppositonal mood is formed by combining the auxiliary verb should (for all persons) with the infinitive. The suppositonal mood has two tenses: the present and the past. The present suppositonal is formed by the auxiliary verb should + simple infinitive: e.g. He proposed to Ann that they should accompany them. I suggested we should meet here The past suppositonal is formed by the auxiliary verb should + perfect infinitive: e.g. It is curious that she should have been absent. It is not surprising that you should have changed your mind. III. The Use of the Suppositional Mood In complex sentences the suppositional mood is used: I. in clauses of condition to show that the action is not likely to take place. Such clauses are called clauses of problematic condition. If smb. should do smth. smb. will do smth. Should smb. do smth. do smth. e.g. If I should be out, leave the message with the secretary. Если случайно меня не будет, оставьте сообщение у секретаря. Should the book be sold out, I can always get you a copy at our library. Если же книга окажется проданной, я всегда могу взять ее в библиотеке. If he should succeed, no one will be more pleased than I. Если все же он добьется успеха, никто не будет доволен этому больше меня. Should you see her, give her my love. Если же вам доведется ее встретить, передайте ей от меня привет. 150

The if-clause may be rendered in Russian as если случайно…, если так случится, что…, вдруг кто-нибудь…. In this type of sentences the clause of condition is rather often introduced by the conjunction in case, and it is rendered in Russian as на тот случай, если…, в случае, если…. e.g. I’ll let you know in case there should be some unavoidable delay. Я дам вам знать, в случае если произойдет какя-то неизбежная задержка. I’ll be at the flat all evening in case you should change your mind. Я буду дома на тот случай, если вы передумаете. II. in subject clauses of complex sentences. Subject clauses follow the principal clause, which is either formal or has no subject (exclamatory). Should + infinitive or subjunctive I is generally used in this pattern in the subject clause, after expressions of necessity or recommendation; we also find these forms after the passive voice of some verbs expressing order, suggestion, decision, request, etc. Pattern 1 It is (was, will be) necessary It is (was, will be) important It is (was, will be) advisable It is (was, will be) desirable It is (was, will be) demanded It is (was, will be) ordered that he should come It is (was, will be) requested that he come It is (was, will be) recommended It is (was, will be) arranged It is (was, will be) considered strange It is (was, will be) good (better, best) etc. e.g. It is necessary that you should come a couple of days before the others. 151

It was arranged that the town be evacuated by the 15th. Is it important that the sitting should take place tonight? In American English subjunctive I is used in this sentence pattern. e.g. He arranged that we stay the night in the empty schoolbuilding. It’s highly advisable that something be done about their pronunciation In exclamatory complex sentences: e.g.

How wonderful that she should have such a feeling for you! Как чудесно, что она испытывает такое чувство к вам! What a scandal that that Palmer and Antonia should go to the opera together! Какой скандал, что этот Палмер и Антония вместе пойдут в оперу!

In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause. Therefore, should is only combined with the simple infinitive in such constructions, i.e. the suppositional present is used. As a rule, subordinate clauses are introduced by the conjunction that. Notice that the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in those patterns. Pattern 2 It is (was) natural It is (was) understanding It is (was) characteristic It is (was) surprising It is (was) strange It is (was) curious It is (was) odd

that smb. should do smth. that smb. should have done smth. 152

It is (was) doubtful It is (was) impossible It is (was) unpleasant It is (was) a pity In all these cases if the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause the suppositional present is used, and if the action of the subordinate clause precedes the action of the principal clause the suppositonal past is used. e.g. It is natural that she should want to come. Понятно, что она тоже хочет прийти. It was surprising that she should object. Удивительно было, что она возражала. It seems odd that they should have come to an agreement. Кажется странным, что они пришли-таки к соглашению. It was not surprising that she should have changed her mind. Не удивительно (было), что она передумала. Isn’t it a pity that you should be ill today? (Разве не жаль) Ну, надо ж, чтоб ты сегодня был болен. Isn’t it a shame that the weather should have changed like that? Ну, разве ж не жаль, что погода так изменилась? The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in those patterns. If the principal clause expresses possibility may / might + the simple infinitive is used, because the action is referred to the future (возможно, что…; похоже, что…; видимо…). It is possible It is probable It is likely

smth. may (might) do…..

153

e.g.

It is likely the weather may change. Похоже, что погода изменится. It is possible the key may be lost. Видимо, ключ утерян.

In negative and interrogative sentences, however, the suppositional present is used. e.g. It is not possible that he should have guessed it. Невероятно, чтобы он догадался об этом. Is it possible that he should refuse to come? Возможно ли, чтоб он отказался прийти? Note: If in sentences introduced by it the reference is made to an existing fact or state of things, the indicative mood may be used in the subordinate clause. e.g. It is strange that he behaves like that. Странно, что он так себя ведет. Is it possible that he has taken the key? Неужели, он взял ключ. In this case the rules of the sequence of tenses must be observed. III. in object clauses of complex sentences: 1. after verbs expressing order, request, suggestion. Pattern 3 to suggest to demand to insist to order to arrange to request to propose to move to urge to recommend

that smb. should do smth. that smb. do smth

154

to require to prefer to give orders to take care to give instructions to make up one’s mind e.g.

He demanded that Andrew should return to the house with him to tea. Он потребовал, чтобы Эндрю вернулся с ним домой к чаю. She urged that they go to Europe. Она настаивала, чтоб они поехали в Европу. He had given instructions that everything possible should be done. Он проинструктировал, чтоб было сделано все возможное. The situation reqired that he be courteous. Ситуация требовала, чтобы он был учтив.. He will insist that we should do it ourselves. Он будет настаивать, чтоб мы сделали это сами. Have you arranged that she should be met at the station? Вы договорились, чтобы ее встретили на станции?

2. after verbs expressing opinion of some situation. Pattern 4 to think to believe to consider to find to feel e.g.

it

necessary desirable advisable better important etc.

that smb. should do smth that smb. do smth.

I consider it necessary that somebody should interfere. Я считаю необходимым, чтобы кто-то вмешался. 155

I don’t think it important that you should be present. Я не думаю, что так уж важно, чтобы вы присутствовали. We don’t find it important that he should arrive a day before the contest. Мы не находим, что так уж важно, чтобы он приехал за день до конкурса. We believe it desirable that the patients should spend their waking hours in the park and on the beach. Мы считаем (желательным), что желательно, чтобы больные проводили все свое время в парке и на пляже. In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause. Therefore, the suppositional present is used. Pattern 5 to think to believe to consider to find to feel

e.g.

it

natural strange odd curious pleasant unpleasant possible impossible understandable etc.

that smb.should do smth. that smb. do smth. that smb.should have done smth.

We found it strange that he should speak so calmly after the events. Мы нашли странным, что после всех событий он говорил так спокойно. I found it curious that I should not have been told at once. Было странно, что мне сразу об этом не рассказали. We thought it odd that he should thihk so. Нам показалось странным, что он так думает. 156

He believed it impossible that she should have made a mistake. Он считал невозможным, чтобы она ошиблась. In all these cases the action of the subordinate clause may either follow the action of the principal clause (the suppositional present is used) or precede the action of the principal clause (the suppositonal past is used). 3. after expressions of fear. a) In literary style, after expressions of fear, in object clauses introduced by the conjunction lest the suppositional present is used. Pattern 6 to fear to worry to be afraid to be uneasy to be in terror to tremble to be nervous (frightened, terrified, troubled, etc.) e.g.

lest

smb. should do smth.

I worry lest it should be too late. Боюсь, что уже слишком поздно. They were terrified lest someone should discover their secret hiding place. Они ужасно боялись, как бы кто-либо не обнаружил их потайное убежише. She is uneasy lest her neighbours should complain about the dog. Ее беспокоит, не пожалуются ли соседи на собаку. She seemed nervous lest she should miss the train. Казалось, что она нервничает, как бы не опоздать на поезд. 157

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in those patterns. b) In object clauses introduced by the conjunction that or joined asydentically, the indicative mood or may + infinitive is used. The rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed here. Pattern 7 to fear to worry to be afraid to be uneasy to be in terror to tremble to be nervous (frightened, terrified, troubled, etc.) e.g.

smb. may /might do smth. smb. may /might have done smth

that

They trembled (that) they might be discovered. Они дрожали при мысли, что их могут обнаружить. He was afraid (that) she might have seen it in the papers. Он боялся, что она могла узнать об этом из газет. I am anxious (that) people may have noticed her shabby dress and mended gloves. Боюсь, что люди могли заметить ее поношенное платье и зашитые перчатки.

IV. in predicative and appositive clauses after the following nouns: Pattern 8 order demand advice suggestion proposal recommendation

that smb. should do (do) smth.

is was 158

motion desire, rule arrangement request, doubt hesitation fear*

will be

*Care should be taken to use the conjunction lest after the noun fear. e.g. in appositive clauses in predicative clauses The order that we should The order was that we should come. come surprised me. Her wish that we should Her wish was that we stay at her place as long should stay at her place as as possible was rather long as possible. sudden My advice that he should My advice will be that he stay till next week was should stay till next week. reasonable. Our fear lest he should Our fear is lest he should give away our secret was give away our secret. great. V. in attributive clauses after the following expressions: Pattern 9 to give an order to express a wish to make a motion to make a suggestion to make a demand to make a request to make a rule to make a recommendation to make an arrangement

that smb. should do (do) smth.

159

e.g.

I’ll make a motion that we should not take any steps until we hear from her. Я внесу предложение, чтобы мы ничего не предпринимали до тех пор, пока не получим от нее весточку. He gave an order that the women and children should be taken care of. Он отдал приказ, чтобы в первую очередь позаботились о женщинах и детях. She expresses her only wish that people should leave her alone. Она выражает свое единственное желание, чтобы люди оставили ее в покое.

VI. in subordinate clauses of purpose a) after the conjunction lest. Pattern 10 To do smth.

lest

smb. should do (do) smth.

In literary style in subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by the conjunction lest (чтобы не) the suppositional present (rarely subjunctive I) is used. As the conjunction lest is negative in meaning, the verb is in the affirmative form. Note: This conjunction should not be confused with the homonymous conjunction lest which is used to introduce object clauses after expressions of fear and is not negative in meaning. (see above, p.3a) e.g. Do it at once lest she should change her mind. Сделай это сейчас же, чтобы она не передумала. He drew a plan for me lest I should lose (lose) my way. Он нарисовал мне план, чтобы я не заблудился. I think we had better take an earlier train lest mother should worry. 160

По-моему, надо поехать более ранним поездом, чтобы мама не беспокоилась. He spoke slowly and clearly lest he shoud be misunderstood. Он говорил медленно и ясно, чтобы его не поняли превратно. b) If the clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction so that, so, that and in order that (the last two are characteristic of literary style), the predicate is expressed by may / can + infinitive and the rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed here. Pattern 10 To do smth.

e.g.

so that that in order that

smb. may/can do smth. smb. may/can not do smth. smb. might/could do smth. smb. might/could not do smth.

I’ll cut some sandwiches so that they may (can) eat them on the train. Я приготовлю им бутерброды, чтоб они могли поесть в поезде. Stand between her and the window so that she cannot (may not) him leave. Встань между ней и окном, чтоб она не видела (не могла увидеть), как он уйдет. She kept her head averted so that we could (might) not see her smile. Она отвернулась, чтобы мы не могли увидеть, что она улыбается. I did it only that you might know how fond of you I am. Я сделал это только для того, чтобы вы узнали, как вы мне нравитесь.

If the verb in the subordinate clause is in the negative form, the suppositional mood, i.e. should + infinitive is preferred.

161

e.g.

I stood up, my back turned so that he should not see my face. Я встал, (повернувшись) спиной к нему, чтобы он не увидел моего лица. “Sit down,” he said, dropping his voice so that the two men in the room should not hear. “Садитесь,” сказал он, понизив голос, чтобы те двое в комнате не услышали.

The Forms of the Oblique Moods (Summary) Types of sentences

Subjunctive I

Simple sentence

Ideas be hanged! Far be it from me to talk back! May it come true!

Complex s-ce with a subject clause

It is required that all be present.

Complex s-ce with a predicative cl.

Subjunctive II

The The Conditional Suppositional Mood Mood If only that I’d like to see were true! this film. You had better But for you I not argue with should have me. been lost. I’d sooner have To leave now a cup of coffee. would mean losing her love It is time the It is important that boy came. he should come.

He looks as if he were surprised. It was not as if I had hurt him.

The order is that we should move.

The order that we should move surprised us.

Complex s-ce with an appositive cl.

162

I insist that you I wish I were Complex here. s-ce with an be polite. I wish I could object cl. help you. I’d sooner we took a taxi. I wish he would come. The stranger Complex looked at me as s-ce with if he were an adverbial surprised. cl. of comparison Complex s-ce with an adverbial cl. of purpose It is true Even if we had Complex s-ce with an whether it be warned him... adverbial cl. convincing or Tired as he not. might be, he of continued his concession way. If I were you… Complex s-ce with If he knew the an address… adverbial cl. If he had known of condition the address…

163

I insist that you should be polite. I feared lest they should be late. I think it odd that she should have made a mistake.

he would not have come.

We put the matches away lest the baby should find the box. He won’t manage it however hard he should try.

I shouldn’t Should I meet him object to it. I shall tell him he would come. about it. If he should he would have object, I’ll try to called on you show him how last week. important it is.

MODAL VERBS Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the speaker’s attitude towards the action expressed by the infinitive, i.e. they show that the action indicated by the infinitive is considered as possible, impossible, obligatory, advisable, necessary, doubtful or uncertain, certain,requested, prohibited, probable, improbable, permissible, ordered, etc. from the speaker’s point of view. Modal verbs are only used with the infinitive. A modal verb in combination with the infinitive forms a compound verbal modal predicate. There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare, to be to, to have to (to have got to). The latter two are modal only in one of their meanings. Ten of them (i.e. all but to be to and to have to) are also called defective verbs as they lack some features characteristic of other verbs, that is: 1) they do not take –s in the third person singular; 2) they have no verbals, so they have no analytical forms (i.e. compound tenses, analytical forms of the oblique moods, the passive voice); 3) they have (except for can, may and dare) only one form and no past tense; 4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (i.e. by the infinitive without the particle to); 5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms. Most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning, i.e. they are polysemantic, and some of their meanings are synonymous. Each of their meanings is characterized by a specific usage: 1) some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentences; others occur only in affirmative or interrogative or negative sentences; 2) different meanings may be associated with different forms of the infinitive – simple and perfect (both in the active and passive forms), continuous and perfect continuous; 164

The use of modal verbs is in most cases independent of the structure of the sentence; the use of this or that modal verb is determined by the attitude of the speaker towards the facts contained in the sentence. In this case we may speak of free or independent use of modal verbs. e.g. He admires you. He thinks you are a little beauty. Perhaps I oughtn’t to have told you that. He may be in the hall now, waiting for me. But sometimes the use of certain modal verbs depends on the structure of the sentence, mainly on the type of the subordinate clause, and occasionally also on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause. This may be called structurally dependent use of modal verbs. e.g. It is obviously necessary that an investigation should be made. Christine feared she might not be met at all. When the use of modal verbs is structurally dependent, their meaning sometimes becomes weakened; in fact, it may be quite vague. This may be accounted for by the fact that these verbs become rather part of the structure than bearers of individual meaning. It is important to take into account that as all modal verbs show that a certain action is representd as desirable, possible, doubtful, necessary, etc. from the point of view of the speaker they are generally used in conversation. In past-time contexts they may be found only in reported speech or thought. Thus You should have done it before, or He might be wrong, or It must be true can be only used after He thought that…, He said that…, He knew that…, and the like. The only exceptions are the past tense forms could, might, would, had and was which may be used not only in conversation but also in narration. e.g. Walker was illiterate and could not sign his name. When I looked at her I saw tears in her eyes. So I had to tell her the truth. 165

Can I. The modal verb can has the following forms: can – for the present tense and could – for the past tense and for the subjunctive mood. e.g. I can’t dance but I could when I was young I wish I could go with you. The form could is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts as a form of the Indicative mood. e.g. He could speak English when he was a child. b) in present-time contexts to expess unreality, or as a milder and more polite form of can, or as a form implying more uncertainty than can: e.g. Could I help you? Не мог бы я вам помочь? Could it be true? Неужели это правда? He could speak English if necessary. Он мог бы и по-английски говорить, если нужно. II. Can has the following meanings: 1) physical and mental ability or capacity. e.g. I can imagine how angry he is. (I am able to …) Mary can speak English quite well. (she is able to…) John can keep a secret if he wants. (he is capable of…) I can drive a car. (I know how to…) I couldn’t understand him when he spoke very fast. (I was incapable of…, was unable to…) This meaning may also be expressed by to be able to. The phrase can be used in all tense-forms if necessary. In the meaning of ability, capacity can occurs in all kins of sentences: affirmative, interrogative and negative.

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e.g. I can play a few simple tunes on the piano. Can you write with your left hand? I can’t (cannot) promise you anything. In this case can is followed by the simple infinitive and reference is made to the present. But depending on the context it may also refer to the future. e.g. We can discuss your paper after lunch. However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future shall/will be able is used (as can have no infinitive, it has no future tenseform.) e.g. Soon he will be able to speak English more fluently. I shall be able to earn my own living soon. The form could may be used in past-time contexts and in this case it is followed by the simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indicative mood here. e.g. He could read a great deal during his holidays. Could the boy read before he went to school? After what had happened I couldn’t trust him. The form could may also be used in present-time contexts in combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with reference to the present or future. e.g. You could articulate more distinctly with that cigarette out of your mouth. (мог бы говорить более четко.) As the form could may be used in two ways (see point I) it is usually understood as expressing unreality with reference to the pesent or future if there are no indications of the past time in the sentence or in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint landscapes may be understood as Oна могла бы писать пейзажи. If there is no indication of the past time in the context but the speaker wishes to refer the action to the past, was / were able is used instead of could to avoid ambiguity (двусмысленность). In this case

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was / were able to means “managed to” or “succeeded in”, and could is impossible. e.g. She was able to explain the mystery. Она смогла объяснить эту тайну. I was able to go to the mountains yesterday as I had my day off. Я смог пойти в горы вчера, так как у меня был выходной. He was able to finish his work in an hour. Он сумел закончить работу за час. The fire brigade was able to put out the fire before it destroyed the other buildings. Пожарные смогли потушить огонь до того, как он уничтожил другие здания. In combinaton with the perfect infinitive could indicates that the action was not carried out in the past. e.g. She could have explained the mystery. Она могла бы объяснить эту тайну. (но не объяснила) 2) Possibility. a) possibility due to circumstances: e.g. Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый. You can hardly blame him for that. Вряд ли можно винить его за это. I don’t think the car can be repaired. Не думаю, что машину можно починить. You can see the forest through the other window. Вы можете увидеть лес из другого окна. In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is followed by the simple infinitive and refers the action to the present or future.

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e.g. You can obtain a dog from the Dogs’ Home at Battersea. Can we use the indefinite article with this noun? We can’t use the indefinite article with this noun. Can is often used in this way to talk about the choices that somebody has (now or in the future), or to suggest opportunities. e.g. There are three possibilities: we can go to the police, we can talk to a lawyer, or we can forget all about it. “What shall we do?” “We can try asking Lucy for help” Could is also used, like can to talk about present and future choices and opportunities, espеcially when we want to make suggestions sound less definite. e.g. “What shall we do tomorrow?” “Well, we could go fishing.” When you are in Spain, you could go and see Alex. e.g

b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws: In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена можно было приговорить человека к смерти за небольшое преступление. The Lower House alone can initiate financial measures. Только Палата представителей может выносить на рассмотрение финансовые вопросы.

c) possibility of the idea (the so-called “theoretical” possibility) e.g. The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they are not perfect yet.) Железные дороги могут стать лучше. In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as “sometimes”. e.g. The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Море иногда бывает бурным. 169

In past-time contexts the form could is used. In this case it is followed by the simple infinitive. e.g. You could see the forest through the other window before the new block of houses was erected. Можно было увидеть лес через то окно до того, как был построен новый высотный дом. The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may also express unreality with the reference to the present or future. e.g. You could see the forest from here if it were not so dark. Вы могли бы увидеть лес отсюда, если бы не было так темно. In combination with the perfect infinitive could indicates that the action was not carried out in the past. e.g. I could have lent you the money. Why didn’t you ask me? Я мог дать тебе деньги. Почему ты не попросил у меня? Note. When could is used with reference to the past it denotes only the ability or possibility of performing an action but not the realization of the action. Therefore when a realized or an unrealized action is expressed, could is naturally not used. If an action was carried out in the past, it is expressed with the help of to manage or to succeed (the latter is used in literary style). e.g. He managed to settle the difficulty. Он сумел уладить все трудности. He succeeded in attaining his aim. Он сумел достичь своей цели If an action was not realized in the past it is expressed with the help of to fail, or to manage and to succeed in the negative form. e.g. He failed to reach the peak. Он не сумел добраться до вершины. He did not manage to settle the difficulty. Ему не удалось (он не смог) уладить трудности. 170

Compare: In his youth he could swim across the Volga. В юности он мог (был способен) переплыть Волгу. But: He managed to swim across the Volgs last year. Он смог переплыть Волгу в прошлом году. Also: He failed (didn’t manage) to swim across the Volga last year. Он не смог (ему не удалось) переплыть Волгу в прошлом году. e.g.

As for to be able to, it may, depending on the lexical character of the infinitive or the context, express either the ability or possibility of performing an action or the realization of that action. e.g. He was able to speak English well. Он мог (умел) хорошо говорить по-английски. He was able to get the book from the library. Он смог достать книгу в библиотеке. 3). Permission. Can in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, interrogative sentences in which a request is expressed and in negative sentences where can expresses prohibition. e.g. You can use my car. (permission) Вы можете воспользоваться моей машиной. He can go now. (permission) Теперь он может идти. Can I use your car? (request) Можно я воспользуюсь вашей машиной? Can you hold on a minute, please? (request) Вы можете задержаться на минутку? You can’t use my car today. (prohibition) Вам нельзя сегодня пользоваться моей машиной. You can’t cross the street here. (prohibition) Здесь нельзя переходить улицу. In this meaning can is combined with the simple infinitive 171

The form could with reference to the present is found only in interrogative sentences and expresses a more polite request. e.g. Could I use your car? Не мог бы я воспользоваться вашей машиной? Could you come again tomorrow? Не могли бы вы прийти завтра опять? The form could is also found in reported speech, (i.e. in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses). e.g. He said that I could use his car. Он разрешил мне воспользоваться его машиной. (Он сказал, что я могу воспользоваться его машиной). He asked me if he could use my car. Он спросил, может ли он воспользоваться моей машиной. (Он попросил разрешения воспользоваться моей машиной.) Can is now more common than may (or might) in the meaning of permission. Questions about permission are expressed by can or to be allowed to in the present and could or to be allowed to in the past: e.g. Can Tom use the car whenever he likes? Том может пользоваться машиной, когда пожелает? Is Tom allowed to use the car whenever he likes? …разрешается пользоваться … Could students choose what they wanted to study? Могли ли студенты выбирать, что им изучать? Were students allowed to choose what they wanted to study? Разрешалось ли студентам выбирать… 4). Uncertainty, surprise. In this meaning can is found in interrogative sentences (in general questions). It corresponds to the Russian неужели and sentences of this kind are often emotionally coloured. Depending on the time reference, can in this meaning is used in combination with different forms of the infinitive. 172

Thus, if reference is made to the present, the continuous infinitive is used with the verbs that can have the continuous form and the simple infinitive with the verbs that cannot have the continuous form. e.g. Can she be telling lies? Неужели она лжет? Can he be waiting for us? Неужели он ждет нас? Can he really be ill? Неужели он действительно болен? Can it be so late? Неужели так поздно? Can in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past. e.g. Can she have said that? Неужели она это сказала? Can he have waited for her all the time? Неужели он все это время ждал ее? Can they have told her the truth? Неужели они ей сказали правду The combination of can with the perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with the verbs that cannot have the continuous form. e.g. Can she really have been at home all this time? Неужели она действительно все это время была дома? Can she have seen anything in that fellow to send her mad? Неужели она что-то нашла в этом парне, чтобы так сходить по нем с ума? However, if can is followed by a verb that admits of the continuous form, the perfect continuous infinitive is used. e.g.

Can he have been waiting for her all the time? Неужели он все это время ждет ее? 173

Can she have been looking for us so far? Неужели она нас ищет до сих пор? Could with reference to the present is also used in this way, implying more uncertainty. e.g. Could it be true? Could she be telling lies Could he have said that? Could she have been at home all this time? Could she have been waiting for us so long? In Russian both variants , with can and could, are rendered into Russian in the same way: Неужели это правда? Неужели она лжет? and so on. The verb can expressing surprise is not used in the negative form. Therefore the Russian negative questions of the type – неужели он не… is translated into English in different ways: a). by complex sentences: e.g. Can/could it be that you haven’t seen him? Неужели вы не видели его? Can/could it be that she hasn’t read this book? Неужели она не читала эту книгу? b). by different lexical means: e.g. Can/could you have failed to see him? Неужели вы не видели его? Can/could she have never read this book? Неужели она не читала эту книгу? Can/could you dislike this film? Неужели вам не нравится этот фильм? Can/could nobody have seen her do it? Неужели никто не видел, как она это делала? Can/could you disapprove of her decision? Неужели вы не одобряете ее решение? Can/could they fail to realize the full significance of the event? Неужели они не понимают всей значимости этого события? 174

Can/could he disbelieve it? Неужели он не верит этому? Can/could he have failed to understand me? Неужели он не понял меня? 5). Improbability, strong doubt. In this meaning can is found only in negative sentences and they are often emotionally coloured. In Russian it is usually rendered by не может быть (невероятно), чтобы… . In this meaning can is also used with different forms of the infinitive depending on the time reference (see mentioned above). Could is also used in this way making the statement less categorical. The time reference is indicated not by the form of the modal verb but by that of the infinitive. e.g. It can’t (couldn’t) be true. Не может быть, что это правда. He can’t (couldn’t) be so old. Невероятно, что он так стар. She can’t (couldn’t) be telling the truth. Не может быть, что она говорит правду. He can’t (couldn’t) have said it. Не может быть, чтобы он это сказал. He can’t (couldn’t)have been waiting for us so long. Не может быть, что он так долго ждет нас. He can’t (couldn’t) be there. Не может быть, что он здесь. You can’t (couldn’t) have done it. Не может быть, чтобы ты это сделал. The Russian не может быть, чтобы он не… / он не может не…may be translated in the following way: e.g. He can’t (couldn’t) be unaware of her arrival. Он не может не знать о ее приезде. He can’t (couldn’t) have failed to notice you. Не может быть, чтобы он вас не заметил. Nobody can (could) have seen him do it. Не может быть, чтобы кто-нибудь видел, как он это делал. 175

She can’t (couldn’t) disapprove of your decision. Не может быть, чтобы она не одобрила ваше решение. He can’t (couldn’t) disbelieve it. Он не может не верить этому. She can’t (couldn’t) have failed to tell you about it. Не может быть, чтобы она об этом вам не рассказывала. They can’t (couldn’t) distrust him. Они не могут не доверять ему. 6. Can and could (with reference to the present) are found in speacial questions where they are used for emotional colouring (for instance, to express puzzlement, impatience, etc.). e.g. What can (could) he mean? И что это он хочет этим сказать? Where can (could) he be hiding? И где это он прячется? How can (could) he have done it? И как он сделал это? Who can (could) have painted this picture? И кто это нарисовал эту картину? What can (could) he have been doing there? И что это он там делал? 7. Reproach. This meaning is found only with the form could. In this sense could is interchangeable with might. 8. Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose: e.g. I will leave the newspaper on the table so that he can see it at once. I left the newspaper on the table so that he could see it at once. I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it.

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9. Note some set expressions with the modal verb can: a) cannot/can’t help doing smth. – не могу не… e.g. When I saw him I couldn’t help laughing. Когда я увидел его, я не мог удержаться от смеха. She can’t help crying. Она не может не плакать. I couldn’t help seeing that she was ill. Я не мог не видеть, что она больна. b) cannot/can’t but do smth. – ничего не остается как… e.g. I can’t but ask him about it. Мне ничего не остается, как спросить его об этом. We cannot but hope he is right. Нам ничего другого не остается, как надеяться, что он прав. They couldn’t but refuse him. Им ничего не оставалось, как отказать ему. I couldn’t but put him up for the night. Мне ничего другого не оставалось, как оставить его на ночь. c) one cannot but wonder – нельзя не задуматься e.g. I cannot but wonder what I should do next. Нельзя не задуматься, что мне делать дальше. d) as can be – an intensifying expression e.g. They are as pleased as can be. Они очень (страшно) довольны. It’s as ugly as can be. Это необычайно уродливо (трудно себе представить что-либо более отвратительное) e) can but – во всяком случае e.g. I can but try. По крайней мере, я могу попробовать. I can but hope. Я могу только надеяться. 177

f) can’t possibly do – просто не может (не мог, не мог бы) e.g. He can’t possibly do it. Он просто не может это делать. He couldn’t possibly afford a car on his present salary. Он просто не мог бы позволить себе купить машину на свою нынешнюю зарплату. He can’t possibly have done it. Он просто не мог этого сделать. 10. Note: It is possible to use can and could to say that somebody is/was able to do something on one occasion. This happens with see, hear, taste, feel, smell, understand, follow, remember, guess and tell (meaning see, know). These verbs are not normally used in the continuous form; so to talk about seeing, hearing, etc. at a particular moment can/could is used. e.g. I can see Susan coming. Я вижу, что Сюзанна идет. Can you hear somebody coming up the stairs? Ты слышишь, что кто-то поднимается по лестнице? What did you put in the stew? I can taste something funny. Что ты положила в рагу? Я чувствую какой-то необыкновенный вкус. Suddenly she realized she could smell something burning. И вдруг она поняла, что чувствует запах горелого. I could guess what she wanted. Я знал (мог догадаться), что она хочет. You can tell he’s Irish from his accent. Вы можете узнать, что он ирландец, по его акценту. I can’t (don’t) understand what she is talking about. Я не понимаю, о чем она говорит? Can (do) you follow what he is saying? Ты следишь за тем, что он говорит? I (can) remember your grandmother. Я помню твою бабушку. 178

Can is possible in affirmative sentences with words like only, hardly or never, which have a limiting or negative meaning. May I. This modal verb has two forms: may for the present tense e.g. It may be true. You may go home. and might for the past and as the subjunctive mood form. Thus the form might is used in two ways: a). in past-time contexts, mainly in reported speech in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses e.g. He told me that it might be true. He told him that he might go. The librarian told the man that he might take the book home b). in present-time contexts as a milder and more polite form of may e.g. Might I come and see you? or as a form implying more uncertainty than may e.g. It might be true. or to express unreality (only with the perfect infinitive) e.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the pills. or in some syntactical patterns requiring the subjunctive mood forms e.g. However hard he might (or may) try, he will never manage to do the same. I’ve brought you the book so that you may / might write your paper.

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II. May has the following meanings: 1). Supposition implying uncertainty, e.g. He may be busy getting ready for his trip. Может быть, он занят, готовится к поездке. May in this sense is synonymous with perhaps and maybe, and occurs in affirmative and negative sentences. In Russian this meaning is usually rendered by means of the modal words возможно and может быть. e.g. He may be at home. Он, возможно, дома. He may not be at home. Может быть, его дома нет. May (might) in this meaning is not used in questions, instead some other means are used, such as Is it (he) likely…? or Do you think…? e.g. Is she likely to arrive tonight? Она, вероятно, сегодня вечером приедет? Do you think he has already come? По-твоему, он уже пришел? (Может, он пришел уже?) In this meaning may can be followed by different forms of the infinitive depending on the time reference expressed. May in combination with the continuous infinitive of the verbs that admit of the continuous form refers the action to the present. e.g. It’s too late to phone him now. He may be sleeping. …Он, возможно, спит. I never see him about now. For all I know, he may be writing a book. … oн, возможно, пишет книгу. He may be waiting for us at home. Он, возможно, ждет нас дома.

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May in combination with the simple infinitive (non-perfect infinitive) usually refers the action to the future. e.g. He may come soon. Может, он скоро придет. They may arrive tonight or tomorrow. Они, возможно, приедут сегодня вечером или завтра. He may come or he may not. Может быть, он придет, а может и нет. This news is so strange that you may not believe it. Эта новость настолько странная, что, возможно, вы и не поверите. The action may also refer to the present but only with verbs that are not used in the continuous form. e.g. She may not know that you are here. Может быть, она не знает, что вы здесь. He may be ill. Он, возможно, болен. I’m afraid they may hear us from the room. Боюсь, они нас, возможно, слышат из комнаты. May in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past. e.g. Why hasn’t he come? He may have been hurt. …Его, может быть, обидели. He may have fallen ill. Может быть, он заболел. What’s happened to the dog? – It isn’t here. His master may have taken it with him. … Его хозяин, возможно, взял ее с собой. The combination of may with the perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with verbs that do not admit of the continuous form. e.g. He may have been at home for about two hours. 181

However, if may is followed by a verb that can have the continuous form, the perfect continuous infinitive is used. e.g. He may have been waiting for us for an hour. He may have been expecting a letter from her. In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty, the form might is also used with reference to the present or future. It differs from the form may in that it emphasizes more the idea of uncertainty. It may be followed by the simple, continuous and perfect infinitive. e.g. He might come soon. He might be ill. He might be doing his homework now. He might have spoken to her yesterday. 2). Possibility due to circumstances, e.g. You may order a taxi by telephone. Вы можете заказать такси по телефону. The railways may be improved. Железные дороги могут быть усовершенствованны. You may find all the books you want in the National Library. Вы можете найти все необходимые вам книги в Национальной Библиотеке. May in this meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences and it is followed only by the simple infinitive. The form might is used in past-time contexts in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses. e.g. He said that he might order a taxi by telephone. Он сказал, что может заказать такси по телефону. He thought that the railways might be improved. Он подумал, что железные дороги могут быть усовершенствованны.

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Might followed by the perfect infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out owing to certain circumstances (expressed in the sentence or implied). e.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the medicine. Он, возможно, и заболел бы, если бы не принимал лекарство. Luckily he was not driving the car. He might have been hurt. К счастью, он не вел машину. Ведь, он мог бт пострадать. You are so careless. You might have broken the cup. Ты так не аккуратен. Ты чуть не разбил чашку. May expessing possibility is not usually used in questions and negative sentences, instead can is used. May in the meaning of possibility is very seldom found in general questions. But it may be used in special questions. e.g. When may we expect you? What may be the result of the new tax? But the construction to be likely or to think is more usual. e.g. When are you likely to arrive? What do you think the result will be? However may/might in the affirmative can form part of a question: e.g. Do you think he may/might not be able to pay? 3. Permission. May expresses the meaning to have permission to, to be allowed to, to be permitted to. e.g. You may smoke in here. Вы можете здесь курить. You may go now. Вы можете идти уже. May we leave this parcel with you? Можно оставить этот пакет у вас? 183

May I smoke in here? Здесь можно курить? You may not go swimming. Не смей ходить купаться. You may not enter the room until I say so. Не смей входить в комнату, пока не позову. May in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, in interrogative sentences which usually express a request, and in negative sentences where it denotes prohibition. But in negative sentences it is not common, as prohibition is generally expressed by other modal verbs (see can and must). In this meaning may is combined only with the simple infinitive. Might is used: in polite requests for permission. e.g. Might I join you? Можно мне с вами? Might I use your telephone,please? Можно воспользоваться вашим телефоном? I wonder if I might borrow your car. Интересно, можно ли мне взять вашу машину. and in reported speech. e.g. He told me that I might smoke in the room. He asked me if he might join us. Can is now more common than may or might to express informal permission, but may/might is often used when talking of ourselves. e.g. May/might I help you? When the action was permitted and performed the expression was allowed to is preferable. e.g. When translating the story we were allowed to use a dictionary, so I took a Longman new dictionary. Когда мы переводили рассказ, нам разрешили пользоваться словарем, поэтому я взял новый словарь Лонгмэна. 184

4. Reproach or disapproval. In this meaning might is used in affirmative sentences and is followed by the simple or perfect infinitive. In the latter case it renders irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out. e.g. You might at least offer to help. По крайней мере, ты мог бы предложить помощь. You might carry the parcel for me. Ты мог бы понести мешок вместо меня. You might have helped me. Ты мог бы мне (тогда) помочь. You might have opened the door for me. Ты мог бы открыть мне дверь. 5. May/ might is used in certain sentence patterns: a) in clauses of purpose: e.g. Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly. Сядь сюда, чтобы я мог яснее видеть твое лицо. He died so that others might live. Он умер, чтобы другие жили (могли жить). b) in clauses of concession: e.g. Try as he may he will never be top of his class. Как бы он ни старался, он никогда не будет лидером в классе. However hard he might try, he never mananged it. Как бы он ни усердствовал, ему никогда это не удавалось. However cold it may be , we’ll go skiing. Как бы холодно ни было, мы пойдем кататься на лыжах. c) in subordinate clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope, wish, fear: e.g. The doctor has fears that she may not live much longer. Доктор боится, что она долго не проживет. The prisoner had hopes that he might be set free. Пленник надеялся, что его скоро освободят. 185

I hope that the young couple may enjoy many years of happiness together. Я надеюсь, что молодая чета (пара) будет наслаждаться долгими годами счастья. Let’s pray that peace may soon return to our troubled land. Давайте помолимся, чтобы мир вскоре вернулся на нашу измученную землю. 6. May is used in formal expressions of wishes and hopes. May often comes at the beginning of the sentence. e.g. May you both be happy! Счастья вам обоим! May the New Year bring you all your heart desires. Пусть новый год принесет вам все то, что ваше сердце (душа) желает. May God be with you. Да поможет тебе бог. May she rest in peace. Пусть она покоится с миром. 7. The two forms may and might are not opposed in the meaning of possibility where only may is used, nor in the meaning of reproach or disapproval where only might is used. e.g.

You may find the book at the library. You might have considered your parents’ feelings.

Might expresses unreality only in combination with the perfect infinitive. e.g. You might have let me know about it beforehand Ты мог бы дать мне знать об этом заранее. There was a car accident in front of our house. Luckily Tommy was at school. He might have been killed. …..Он мог бы погибнуть.

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In most cases might is used as a milder and more polite form than may(a) as well as a form implying a greater degree of uncertainty(b). a) permisson e.g. May I spesk to him now? Might I speak to him now? b) supposition e.g. He may come a little later. He might come a little later. 8. Notice the following set phrases with may and might: a) may as well (might as well,) + infinitive is a very mild and unemphatic way of expressing an intention. It is used tо suggest or recommend an action. e.g. I may as well take the child with me. Я, пожалуй, возьму ребенка с собой. You may as well give him a letter. Пожалуй, будет лучше, если вы отдадите ему письмо. I might as well stay at home tonight. Я, пожалуй, останусь дома сегодня вечером. I might as well give you a lift. Я, пожалуй, подброшу вас. b) may/might just as well means “it would be equally good to” and is used to suggest alternative actions (just makes the sentence more emphatic). e.g. “I’ll go at six.” “That’s far too late; you might just as well not go at all.” …с таким же успехом можно не ходить туда совсем. I don’t think I’ll go out today. I may just as well be comfortable at the fire in this weather. Я думаю, что сегодня никуда не выйду. Я с таким же успехом, пожалуй, посижу в комфорте у камина в такую погоду.

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c) It might have been worse means: things are not so bad after all. In Russian it is rendered as: Могло бы быть и хуже or в конце концов дела обстоят не так уж плохо. e.g. Charles came out of the examinaton room. “How did you get on?” I asked. “It might have been worse, I suppose,” he said. …” Могло бы быть и хуже, полагаю,” сказал он. d) He might have been a… means He might have been taken for a…, He looked like a …, e.g. From afar the house might have been a small inn. Издалека дом можно было принять за небольшую гостиницу. Roy Willson, the new doctor, was twenty-eight, large, heavy, mature and blond. He might have been a Scandinavian sailor. …Его можно было принять за моряка-скандинава. e) If I may say so… has become a stereotyped phrase in which the meaning of permisson is considerably weakened. e.g. If I may say so, I think you have treated him very badly. Если позволите (мне сказать), по-моему, вы с ним очень плохо обращались.

Can and May Compared The use of can and may is parallel only in two meanings: possibility due to circumstances and permission. In these meanings, however, they are not always interchangeable for a number of various reasons. 1) Thus in the meaning of possibility due to circumstances the use of the modal verb may is restricted only to affirmative sentences, whereas can is used in all kinds of sentences.

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e.g

May Can He may find this book He can find this book at the at the library. library. Can he find this book at the library.? He cannot find this book at the library.

Their time reference is different as well. May refers only to the pesent or future; the form might is used in past-time contexts only in reported speech. Can (could) may refer to the present, past or future. e.g Can May He may find the book at He can find this book at the library. the library. I said he might find the He could find this book at the library yesterday. book at the library. He can find this book at the library tomorrow. Both could and might combined with the perfect infinitive indicate that the action was not carried out in the past. e.g. He might have found the book at the library. He could have found the book at the library. It follows from the above that the sphere of application of can is much wider than that of may. 2) When can and may express permision the difference between them is rather that of style than of meaning – may is more formal than can which is characteristic of colloquial English. Compare: May (might) I speak to you for a moment, professor? Can (could) I have a cup of tea, Mother? Besides, may in negative sentences expressing prohibition is uncommon. 189

Must I. The modal verb must has only one form. It is used in present-time contexts with reference to the present or future and in combination with the perfect infinitive it refers to the past. In past-time contexts this form is used only in the reported speech, i.e. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must. e.g. I knew I must go there too. II. Must has the following meanings: 1) obligation or compulsion (from the speaker’s point of view). In this meaning must is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences and is followed only by the simple (non-perfect) infinitive. e.g.

He must move the furniture himself. I can’t help him. Он должен сам передвинуть мебель. Я не могу помочь ему. Must you really go so soon? Вам, действительно, нужно уходить так рано? Must he do it himself? Он сам это должен сделать? I really must give up smoking. Мне, действительно, нужно бросить курить. You must be back at 2 o’clock. I want you to do some cooking. Ты должна вернуться в 2 часа. Я хочу, чтобы ты чтонибудь приготовила. You must call me Sir. (I like it that way). Ты должен обращаться ко мне “Сэр”. (Мне так нравится). Plants must get enough light and water if they are to grow properly. Растения должны получать достаточно света и воды, если нужно, чтобы они росли, как следует.

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In different contexts must may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as: a) duty or necessity. e.g. We must begin before five, or we shan’t finish in time for our supper. Мы должны начать до пяти, иначе не успеем к ужину. You must speak to your daughter about her future. Ты должен поговорить со своей дочерью о ее будущем. Do it if you must. Если нужно, делайте. I must go now. Мне нужно идти. b) instructions, orders or notices. e.g. Passengers must cross the lines by the footbridge. Пассажиры должны переходить через пути по пешеходным мосткам. All rooms must be vacated by 11 a.m. and the keys handed to the porter on the day of departure. Все комнаты должны быть освобождены к 11 утра, а ключи вручены портье в день отъезда. Guests must be out of the building by midnight. Постояльцы должны к полуночи покинуть здание. c) with a 2nd person subject must expresses an obligation which has the same effect as a command. e.g. You must do as you are told. Делай, как тебе говорят. You must be careful. Нужно быть аккуратным. You must go now. I want to go to bed. (Ты должен уйти) А сейчас уходи. Я хочу лечь спать. You must change your shoes, I won’t have you in here with muddy feet. Тебе нужно переобуться, я не позволю тебе войти в грязной обуви. 191

Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future, in reported speech they may refer to the past. e.g. She had already decided that she must show the letter to Robert. Она уже решила, что должна показать это письмо Роберту. James said that we must invite the Stewarts to dinner. Джеймс сказал, что нужно пригласить Стюартов к обеду. Future obligations can be made precise with the future indefinite of the verb have to. e.g. I’ll have to read it again. Мне нужно будет еще раз прочитать это. We shall have to give you a new copy of the book. Мы должны будем дать вам новый экземпляр книги. 2) prohibition. This meaning is expressed in negative sentences and must is also followed by the simple infinitive and is rendered into Russian as нельзя, не разрешается. e.g. The girl mustn’t go home alone. It’s very late. Девочке нельзя идти домой одной. Очень поздно. Cars mustn’t be parked in front of this gate. Запрещается парковать машины перед воротами. He mustn’t leave his room for a while. Он некоторое время не должен (ему нельзя) выходить из комнаты. You mustn’t come into the ward, it’s against the rules. Нельзя заходить в палату, это против правил. You mustn’t do that! Не делайте этого! 3) invitations or emphatic advice. This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences and it is closely connected with the two above mentioned meanings.

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e.g.

You must come and see me some time. Вы обязательно должны как-нибудь навестить меня. You must come and have dinner with us. Вы обязательно должны пообедать с нами. You must come and see our picture gallery. Вы обязательно должны осмотреть нашу картинную галерею. You must stop worrying about your son. Перестань беспокоиться о своем сыне. You must have your hair cut. It’s much too long. Ты обязательно должен постричься. … You mustn’t cry. Ты не должна плакать. You mustn’t give another thought to what he said. Не надо придавать другой смысл его словам. You mustn’t miss the film. It is very good. Ты не должна пропустить этот фильм… You must come and see us when you are in London. Вы обязательно должны навестить нас, когда будете в Лондоне.

4) supposition implying strong probability. In English this meaning may also be expressed by means of the modal word probably. In Russian this meaning is usually rendered by means of the modal words вероятно, должно быть. In this meaning must is found only in affirmative sentences. e.g. He must be ill. He looks pale. Он, вероятно, болен. Он бледен. It must be late as the streets are deserted. Должно быть, поздно, так как улицы пустынны. In this meaning must may be followed by different forms of the infinitive. If reference is made to the present, the continuous infinitive is used with dynamic verbs. e.g. The book is not on the shelf. Jane must be reading it. … Джейн, вероятно, читает ее. John isn’t here. He must be working in the garden. … Он, должно быть, работает в саду. 193

Ann is busy. She must be packing for the trip. … Она, должно быть, упаковывает вещи. Where’s Nell? She must be sightseeing now. … Она, должно быть, осматривает достопримечательности. Let’s have something to eat. You must be starving. ….Вы, вероятно, умираете с голоду. If must is followed by the simple infinitive of the dynamic verbs, it expresses obligation. e.g. Jane must read the book. Джейн должна читать книгу. He must work in the garden. Он должен… She must pack for the trip. Она должна… However, with stative verbs the simple infinitive is used to express supposition. e.g. He must be over fifty. Ему, должно быть, больше 50. He must know all about it as he has read a lot on the subject. Он, вероятно, все знает об этом,… Must in combinaton with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past. e.g. You must have frightened her. Вы, наверняка, ее испугали. Did you always live with your farther? You must have led quite a busy social life. Вы, должно быть, вели довольно бурную жизнь в обществе Do you see him smoking over there? He must have finished his work. … Он, должно быть, закончил работу. It is six o’clock. She must have come home. … Она, вероятно, пришла домой. 194

The combination of must with the perfect continuous infinitive indicates an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. e.g. They must have been working all the time. They look very tired. Они, вероятно, все это время работали. … It must have been raining all the night. There are big puddles in the garden. Наверное, всю ночь шел дождь. … However, if must is followed by a verb which cannot be used in the continuous form, the perfect infinitive us used. e.g. He must have been here since breakfast. Он, вероятно, здесь был с самого завтрака. He must have known it all along. Он, должно быть, все время знал об этом. Occasionally the combination of must with the perfect continuous infinitive may express an action going on at a given past moment. e.g. He must have been writing a letter when I came. Он, должно быть, все еще писал письмо, когда я пришел . Must expressing supposition implying strong probability is not used: a) with reference to the future. In this case modal words probably and evidently are used. e.g. He will probably feel lonely. Он, наверное, будет чувствовать себя одиноким. He will probably come tomorrow. He will evidentlly know all about it. b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several ways of expressing the negative meaning of probability in such sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns, or lexically. 195

e.g. He must have failed to get in touch with her. Он, должно быть, не смог связаться с ней. You must have misunderstood me. Вы, вероятно, неправильно меня поняли. They must have been inattentive. Они, наверное, были невнимательны. He must have had no chance to warn you. У него, наверняка, не было возможности предупредить вас. The letter must never have reached her. Письмо, должно быть, не попало к ней. He must be quite unaware of the circumstances. Он, должно быть, не знает всех обстоятельств. No one must have seen him there. Его, вероятно,там не видели. The letter must have been left unanswered. На письмо, наверняка, не ответили. He must never have guessed the truth. Он, вероятно, так и не узнал правды. Besides the above mentioned shades of meaning, sometimes accompanied by emphasis, the modal verb must may be used solely for the sake of emphasis. In this case must is not translated into Russian, it merely emphasises some action or idea. e.g. Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby must catch measles. …ребенок вдруг заболел корью/ ребенок возьми и заболей корью. Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and do the opposites. …она вдруг пойди и сделай наоборот. As we were starting what must he do but cut hie finger. …он возьми и порежь палец. At a time when everybody is in bed he must turn on the wireless. … он вдруг включает приемник. 196

Notice the following set phrases with must: a) Must needs denotes obligation. e.g. He must needs go there. Он непременно должен пойти туда. b) I must be going or I must be off both mean it is time for me to go –- Мне пора уходить. Must and May Compared Must and may can be compared in two meanings. 1) both must and may are used to express supposition but their use is not parallel. May denotes supposition implying uncertainty whereas supposition expressed by must implies strong probability. e.g. For all I know, he may be an actor. His face seems so familiar. Все, что я знаю, так это то, что он, возможно, актер. Его лицо кажется очень знакомым. He must be an actor. His voice carries so well. Oн, вероятно, актер. Его голос так хорошо доносится сюда. I saw him an hour ago. He may still be in his office now. Я видел его час назад. Он, может быть, еще в оффисе. He always comes at 10 sharp. So he must be in his office now. Он всегда приходит ровно в 10. Значит, он, должно быть, сейчас в офисе. 2) Must and may are used to express prohibition in negative sentences. But may is seldom in this meaning. In negative answers to questions with may asking for permission we generally find must not or cannot. e.g. “May I smoke here?” “No, you mustn’t / you can’t.” 197

To Have to, Have got to I. To have to as a modal verb is not a defective verb and can have the category of person and number and all the necessary tenseaspect forms as well as verbals. It is followed by a to- infinitive and combined only with the simple (non-perfect) infinitive. e.g. As there is no through train to our town we have to change in Moscow. Так как до нашего города нет прямого поезда, нам приходится в Москве делать пересадку. We had to look all over town before we found what we wanted. Нам пришлось обыскать весь город, прежде чем мы нашли то, что хотели. She won’t have to walk the whole way, will she? Ей не придется идти пешком всю дорогу, да? Having to go so soon we were afraid of missing the man. Будучи вынуждены уйти так рано, мы боялись пропустить этого человека. I have had to remind you of writing to her all this time. Все это время мне пришлось напоминать тебе о том, что нужно написать ей письмо. He is an invalid and has to have a nurse. Он инвалид, и ему нужна сиделка. He is always having to exercise judgement. Ему всегда приходится приводить приговор в исполнение. My impression was that he was having to force himself to talk. У меня было впечатление, что ему приходится заставлять себя разговаривать. As a matter of fact,” he said, “I’ve been having to spend some time with them.” “Дело в том,” сказал он, “что мне пришлось провести с ними некоторое время. Having to work alone, he wanted all his time for his research. 198

Так как он был вынужден работать один, он хотел все свое время посвятить исследовательской работе. It wouldn’t have been very nice for them to have to mix with all those people in the smoking-room. Им не так уж было бы приятно быть вынужденными общаться со всеми этими людьми в курилке. The interrogative and negative forms of the modal verb to have to are built up by means of the auxiliary verb to do. e.g. Do you have to work Why do I have to do everything?so hard? He doesn’t have to be here before Sunday. There was a grin on his face. He didn’t have to tell me that he already knew. Did he have to tell them about it? You don’t have to do what she tells you. II. The modal verb to have to serves to express obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances. It is rendered into Russian as приходится, вынужден. e.g. She is usually short of time, so she has to go by air. Ей обычно не хватает времени, поэтому ей приходится летать. My sister has a lot of friends in different parts of the country, so she has to write lots of letters. У моей сестры много друзей в различных частях страны, поэтому ей приходится писать много писем. e.g.

In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation. We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in the country. Нам пришлось многое сделать за ту неделю, что мы пробыли в деревне. They made such a noise that I had to send one of the boys to make inquiries. Они так шумели, что мне пришлось послать однго из мальчиков узнать, в чем дело. 199

The modal verb to have to is found in all kinds of sentences – affirmative, interrogative and negative – and is combined only with the simple infinitive. e.g. He had to stop every few minutes. Did he have to stop every few minutes? He didn’t have to stop every few minutes. The past form of the modal verb to have to replaces must where must cannot be used: a) to express past necessity or obligation, e.g. We had to do it again. Мы должны были сделать это снова. They had to do what they were told. Они должны были делать то, что им сказано. b) to express absence of necessity (in the sense of needn’t), since must not means prohibition, e.g. You don’t have to make another copy of the document, Miss Black; this copy will be quite satisfactory. Вам не делать еще одну копию этого документа…. Compare: e.g. You mustn’t make another copy of the document. Вы не должны (вам нельзя) делать еще одну копию… c) to express a future obligation, since the future tense of the verb to have to makes the obligation more precise. e.g. You will have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train. Вам нужно будет взять такси, если вы хотите успеть на поезд. I shall have to reconsider my position. Мне нужно будет пересмотреть свое отношение. The modal verb to have to can be used together with the modal verb may: 200

e.g.

We may have to wait long here. Нам, возможно, придется долго ждать здесь.

II. Have got to has the same basic meaning as to have to. The difference lies in that have to usually denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action. e.g. Do you have to get up early every morning? Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning? III. Notice the set phrase had better. Had better is followed by the simple infinitive without to. e.g. A few drops began to fall.”We’d better take shelter,” she said. … “Нам бы лучше укрыться. She didn’t like to say that she thought they had better not play cards when the guest might come in at any moment. ….им бы лучше не играть в карты… To Be to I. The modal verb to be to is used in the present and past tenses. e.g. We are to meet at Peter’s. We were to meet at Peter’s. II. The modal verb to be to has the following meanings: 1) An obligation resulting from the arrangement or a previously arranged plan. It is found in statements and questions. To be to is followed by the simple infinitive. e.g. We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.) Мы должны закончить работу завтра. When is the wedding to be? Свадьба когда будет? (назначена) When am I to come? 201

Когда мне прийти? Who is to be the first? Кто первый? I was to meet Mother at the dentist’s at 11 o’clock. Мне нужно было (я должен был) встретиться с мамой у дантиста в 11 часов. The last sentence in which to be to is in the past indefinite does not indicate whether the action did or did not take place. The past tense of the verb to be to in combination with the perfect infinitive indicates an unfulfilled plan. e.g. She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill. Она должна была закончить институт в июне, но, к несчастью, заболела. I promised to go to a club with her last Tuesday, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played a duet together. …Мы должны были играть дуэтом. The present indefinite may refer an arrangement (especially official) to the future or to no particular time. e.g. The German Chancellor is to visit France. Канцлер Германии посетит Францию. A knife is to cut with. Ножом режут.( Нож предназначен для того, чтоб им резать) 2) A strict order or an instruction, often official (frequently in reported speech) e.g. You are to stay here until I return. Ты должен оставаться здесь до моего возвращения. You are to do it exactly the way you are told. Ты должен точно выполнять то, что тебе говорят. Norman says I am to leave you alone. Норман говорит, что я должен оставить тебя в покое. All junior officers are to report to the colonel at once. 202

Все младшие офицеры должны немедленно явиться к полковнику с докладом. In this meaning to be to is found in affirmative and negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. 3) Something that is destined to happen or is unavoidable. It corresponds to the Russian суждено, предстоит.It is mainly found in the past tense and its application is limited to narration. It occurs in affirmative and negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. e.g. I didn’t know at the time that she was to be my wife. В то время я не знал, что ей суждено стать моей женой. As a young man he didn’t know that he was to become a famous scientist. В молодости он не знал, что ему суждено стать знаменитым ученым. He was never to see her again. Ему больше никогда не суждено было ее увидеть. It was not to be. Этому не суждено было сбыться. He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come. Ему суждено было стать моим учителем и другом на многие годы. Sometimes it may be translated by the Russian verb хотеть, especially after the conjuncton if. e.g. If we are to get there on time, we must start at once. Если мы хотим попасть туда вовремя, надо отправляться немедленно. 4) Strict prohibition (only in negative sentences). e.g. You are not to do that. We are not to leave the place until we are told to. You are not to smoke in this room. You are not to tell anybody about it. 203

5) Possibility. In this meaning to be to is equivalent to can or may. It is used in all kinds of sentences in the Present and Past tenses and is followed by the passive infinitive. e.g. They are not to be trusted. Им нельзя доверять. Where is he to be found? Где его нужно искать? Nothing was to be done under the circumstances. При таких обстоятельствах ничего нельзя было сделать He was nowhere to be found. Его нигде нельзя было найти. How am I to repay you for your kindness? Как мне отблагодарить вас за вашу доброту? 6) Notice some set expressions: What am I to do? – Что мне делать? Как мне быть? What is to become of me? – Что со мной станется (будет)? Where am I to go? – Куда же мне деваться? Must, to Have to and to Be to Compared I. The verbs must, to have to and to be to have one meaning in common, that of obligation. a) In the present tense verbs come very close to each other in their use though they preserve their specific shades of meaning. Thus must indicates obligation or necessity from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. it expresses obligation imposed by the speaker. e.g. I must do it. (I want to do it.) He must do it himself. (I won’t help him) To have to expresses obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances. 204

e.g.

What a pity you have to go now. (It’s time for you to catch your train.) He has to do it himself. (There is nobody to help him.)

To be to expresses obligation or necessity resulting from an arrangement. e.g. We are to wait for them at the entrance. (We have arranged to meet there.) Sometimes the idea of obligation is absent and to be to expresses only a previously arranged plan. e.g.

We are to go to the cinema tonight.

Note. In public notices we find must because they express obligation imposed by some authorities e.g. Passengers must cross the railway line by the foot bridge. Пассажиры должны переходить ж-д линию только по пешеходному мосту. The same is true of prohibitions expressed in negative sentences. e.g. Passengers must not walk across the railway line. Пассажирам запрещается… Visitors must not feed the animals. Посетителям запрещается… b) In the past tense, however, the difference in the use of the three verbs is quite considerable. Must has no past tense. It is used in past-time contexts only in reported speech. e.g. He said he must do it himself. Had + infinitive is generally used to denote an action which was realized in the past as a result of obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances. 205

e.g.

I had to sell my car. (It was necessary for me to do it because I needed money.) He had to put on his raincoat. (It was raining hard outside and he would have got wet through if he hadn’t.)

Was / were + infinitive is used to denote an action planned for the future which is viewed from the past. The action is not realized in the past and the question remains open as to whether it is going to take place or not. e.g. We were to meet him at the station. (It is not clear from the sentence if the action will take place or not.) If the speaker wishes to make it clear at once that the plan was not fulfilled, the perfect infinitive is used to show that. e.g. We were to have met him at the station. (That means that we failed to meet him.) However, the simple infinitive may also be used in this case. II. In reported speech must remains unchanged in all of its meanings. e.g. He said he must do it without delay. He said I mustn’t tell anyone about it. The doctor told her that she must eat. They believed the story must be true. Parallel to must, had + infinitive is also used occasionally in reported speech to express obligation. In this case had to approaches to must in meaning: it does not include the idea of a realized action but refers to some future moment. e.g. He said he had to make a telephone call at once. Note. Care should be taken not to replace must by had to in reported speech as the two verbs express different meanings.

206

Ought to I. The modal verb ought to has only one form which is used with refernce to the present or future. In reported speech it remains unchanged. II. The modal verb ought to has the following meanings: 1. moral duty, moral obligation which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability and desirability. In this meaning ought to is used in all kinds of sentences. Generally it refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. e.g. You ought to say a word or two about yourself. Вам следует одно-два слова сказать о себе. Ought she to warn him? Она должна предупредить его? We really ought to buy a new car, oughtn’t we? Нам, действительно, следует купить новую машину, да? He oughtn’t to mention it to anybody. Он не должен говорить это кому-либо. With reference to the present ought to is used with the continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb does not admit of the continuous form. e.g. At your age you ought to be earning your living. В твоем возрасте тебе следует самому зарабатывать себе на жизнь. You ought to feel some respect for your elders. Ты должен хоть какое-то уважение чувствовать к старшим. You ought to be helping your mother with your salary and not squandering your money. Ты должен помогать матери своей зарплатой, а не проматывать ее. In combination with the perfect infinitive ought to in the affirmative shows that a desirable action was not fulfilled. 207

e.g.

He ought to have been more careful. Он должен был быть более внимательным. (Ему следовало…) You ought to have put everything off. Тебе следовало все отложить.

In the negative form ought to in combination with the perfect infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled. e.g. You oughtn’t to have laughed at his mistakes. Тебе не следовало смеяться над его ошибками. He oughtn’t to have married her. It was a great mistake. Он не должен был (ему не следовало) жениться на ней. Это было большой ошибкой. 2) supposition implying strong probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to Russian должно быть, наверное. e.g. You ought to be hungry by now. Вы, наверное, проголодались. Apples ought to grow well here. Здесь, должно быть, хорошо растут яблоки. If he started at nine he ought to be here by four. Если он выехал в 9, то здесь он, наверное, будет к 4. There oughtn’t to be any difficulty. Никаких трудностей не должно быть. The new sanatorium ought to be very comfortable. Новый санаторий, должно быть, очень комфортабельный. Black Beauty is the horse that ought to win the race. Черный Красавец и есть та лошадь, которая, наверняка, победит на скачках. In this sense ought to is a weaker equivalent of must when the latter denotes supposition implying strong probability. 3) Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of I wish you could. 208

e.g.

You ought to hear the way he plays the piano! Ты бы слышал, как он играет на пианино.

4) Notice the set phrase: He (you) ought to know it (= he (you) is (are) supposed to know it). Shall and Should Historically shall and should were two forms expressing obligation. But latеr they came to express different meanings and in present-day English their use is not parallel and they are treated as two different verbs. I. Shall In present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It always combines its moral meaning of obligation with the function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense. As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian, usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation. Shall combined with the simple infinitive expresses: 1.Promise, oath, or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used with the 2nd or 3rd person with a weak stress. e.g. It shall be done as you wish. Будет сделано, как пожелаешь. You shall never know a sad moment, if I can help it. Ты никогда не будешь грустить, если это в моих силах. He shall get this money. Он получит-таки эти деньги. “I want this luggage taken to my room.” –-“It shall be taken up at once.” Я хочу, чтоб багаж отнесли в мою комнату. – Его сейчас же отнесут наверх. 209

In the 1st person shall in this meaning requires a strong stress. e.g. I want that prize and I `shall win it. Я хочу этот приз, и я получу его. 2. Threat or warning. In this meaning shall is found only in the 2nd and 3rd person. e.g. That day shall come. И этот день наступит. She shall pay for it, she shall. Она заплатит за это, да. The child shall be punished for it. I won’t allow it. Ребенок будет за это наказан. Я не позволю. Anyone found guilty shall be shot at once. Любой, кто будет признан виновным, будет расстрелян немедленно. “You shall stay just where you are!” his mother cried angrily. Ты останешься там, где ты находишься! Notice that it is not shall itself that denotes promise, threat or warning, but the sentence as a whole. 3. A suggestion or offer. It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person. Such sentences are translated into Russian by the infinitive. “Shall I get you a chair?” –- “Yes, please.” Принести тебе стул? “Shall we begin? –-“Yes, let’s.” Нам начинать? “Shall I read?” –- “Please, do. Мне читать? The above three meanings are closely connected with the old meaning of obligation, but at present shall is not common in this meaning in spoken English. Its use, as a rule, is restricted to formal or even archaic style (official regulations or other documents) and is mainly found in subordinate clauses. 210

e.g. The Society’s nominating committee shall nominate the person for the office of president. … должны выставить кандидата…. It has been decided that the nomination shall not be opposed. Кандидатуру было решено принять. II. Should 1. In modern English the modal verb should is used with reference to the present or future and it remains unchanged in reported speech. e.g. You should be more careful. Вам следует быть более внимательным. I told him that he should be more careful. Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide. 2. Should has the following meanings: a) obligation which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability or desirability. e.g. Private firearms should be banned. Личное оружие следует запретить. He should phone his father, but he probably won’t have time. Он должен позвонить отцу, но, вероятно, у него не будет на это времени. If you see anything strange you should call the police. Если ты увидешь что-то странное, ты должен вызвать полицию. You should stay in bed. Вам нужно (следует) лежать в постели. I think you should read this book. Думаю, что тебе стоит прочесть эту книгу. You should consult a doctor. Тебе следует показаться врачу. 211

Should in this meaning is found in all kinds of sentences. Like ought to it generally refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. e.g. It’s late. You should go to bed. You shouldn’t miss the opportunity. Should I talk to him about it? When used in negative sentences should denotes a weakened prohibition, more like negative advice. e.g. He shouldn’t be so impatient. Ему не следует быть таким нетерпеливым. With reference to the present should is used with the continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb does not admit of the continuous form. e.g. You should be learning your lessons, Jack, and not talking to Mary. Ты должен учить (ты бы лучше учил) уроки, Джек, а не разговаривать (разговаривал) с Мери. You shouldn’t be sitting in the sun. Move out of it into the shade. Не стоит сидеть на солнце. Передвинься в тень. You should not feel so unhappy over such trifles. Не следует так переживать (не стоит чувствовать себя таким несчастным) из-за таких пустяков. Should may be combined with the perfect infinitive. In this case the meaning of the combination depends on whether the sentence is affirmative or negative. In an affirmative sentence should + perfect infinitive denotes criticism, faultfinding; the statement indicates that a desirable action was not carried out e.g. Your shoes are wet. You should have stayed at home. У тебя туфли мокрые. Тебе следовало бы остаться дома. He should have told me about it himself. Ему самому следовало бы рассказать мне об этом. You should have put more sugar in the pie. It isn’t 212

sweet enough. Тебе нужно было положить в пирог больше сахара. Он не очень сладкий. He hasn’t brought the book back, though he should have brought it last week. Он не вернул книгу, хотя должен был принести ее на прошлой неделе. In a negative sentence should + perfect infinitive serves to show that an undesireable action was carried out, something wrong was done. e.g. You shouldn’t have done that. It was stupid. Вам не следовало это делать. Это было глупо. They should never have married. They are so unhappy. Им вообще не следовало жениться. Они так несчастны. He shouldn’t have taken the corner at such speed. Ему не следовало поворачивать за угол на такой скорости. Oh, you shouldn’t have done as you did! О, вы не должны были так поступить! They shouldn’t have concealed it from us. Вам не следовало утаивать это от меня. b) supposition implying strong probability, something naturally expected (only with reference to the present or future). e.g. This film should be very good as it is starring first-class actors. Этот фильм должен быть очень хорошим, так как в нем снимаются первоклассные актеры. We needn’t get ready yet. The guests shouldn’t come for another hour. … Гости вряд ли приедут раньше, чем через час. The use of should in this case does not seem to be very common as this meaning is normally rendered by must. 213

3. In addition to the above mentioned cases showing the independent use of should, this verb occurs in object clauses depending on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause and in adverbial clauses of condition, purpose and concession. Here its use is structurally dependent. e.g. I suggest that you should stay here as if nothing had happened. It’s important that the Barford people should know what we’ve just heard. She was terrified lest they should go on talking about her. Suddenly she began to cry, burying her head under the book so that I shouldn’t see. If he should drop in, give him my message. 4. Should may have a peculiar function – it may be used for emotional colouring. In this function it may be called the emotional should. The use of the emotional should is also structurally dependent. It is found in the following cases: 1) in special emphatic constructions, where a simple predicate isn’t used: a) in rhetorical questions beginning with why, e.g. Why should I do it? С какой стати я буду делать это? Why shouldn’t you invite him? Почему бы вам его не пригласить? b) in object clauses beginning with why, e.g. I don’t know why he should want to see George. Я не знаю, зачем только ему нужен Джордж. I don’t see why we shouldn’t make friends. Я не вижу причины, почему бы нам не стать друзьями. c) in attributive clauses beginning with why, e.g. There is no reason why they shouldn’t get on very well together. Нет причины, почему бы им не ладить друг с другом. 214

I don’t see any reason why we shouldn’t be happy. Не вижу причины, почему бы нам не быть счастливыми. e.g.

d) in constructions of the following kind, The door opened and who should come in but Tom. Дверь открылась, и кто бы вы думали вошел? Никто иной, как Том. As I was crossing the street whom should I meet but Aunt Ann. Когда я переходил улицу, кого вы думаете я встретил? Тетю Анну. e) in the set phrase How should I know? –- Почем я знаю?

In the above cases should may be followed by the perfect infinitive which a) in simple sentences refers the action to the past e.g. I went into business with her as a partner. Why shouldn’t I have done it? … Почему бы мне это было не сделать? and b) in complex sentences shows that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause. e.g. He didn’t know why he shouldn’t have expected them to look different. Он не знал, почему он ожидал, что они выглядят иначе. There were fifteen equally good reasons why she shouldn’t have played bridge. Было достаточно много причин, почему она не играла в бридж. 2) in certain types of subordinate clauses where should + infinitive is interchangeable with a simple predicate in the Indicative Mood: 215

a) in object clauses after expressions of regret, surprise, sometimes pleasure or displeasure, e.g. I am sorry that you should think so badly of me. Мне жаль, что вы так плохо обо мне думаете. He was a little surprised that Ann should speak so frankly about it. Он был несколько удивлен, что Анна говорила об этом так откровенно. I am content that you should think so. Я доволен, что вы так думаете The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here. The perfect infinitive is used to show that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause. e.g. I am sorry that you should have had a row with Kate about it. He was annoyed that they should have been asked about it. b) in subject clauses following the principal clause with a formal it as subject, e.g. It is absurd that such things should happen to a family like theirs. Нелепо, чтобы такие вещи случались в такой семье как их. It was strange that he should be asking those questions. Странно было, что он задает такие вопросы. It was so funny that his brother should be in love. Так смешно было, что его брат влюбился. (for a detailed treatment of this use of the verb should see “Mood”, page 157) c) in constructions of the following kind, e.g. That it should come to this! И до чего дошло дело! To think that it should come to this! Только подумать, до чего дошло дело! 216

To think that it should have happened to me! Только подумать, что это произошло со мной! Must, Should and Ought to Compared I. All the three verbs serve to express obligation. Must, however, sounds more forceful, peremptory (безоговорочный, категоричный). e.g. You must do it immediately. Вы должны (обязаны) сделать это немедленно. Both should and ought to express obligation, advisability, desirability and are used when must would sound too peremtory. e.g. You should do it immediately. Вам следует сделать это немедленно. You ought to do it immediately. Вам нужно сделать это немедленно. Should and ought to are very much alike in meaning are often interchangeable. In using ought to, however, we lay more stress on the meaning of moral obligation, whereas should is common in instructions and corrections. e.g. You ought to help him; he is in trouble. You should use the definite article in this sentence. It is noteworthy that ought to cannot be used instead of the emotional should. II. Must, should and ought to serve to express supposition implying strong probability. Must, however, seems to be in more frequent use than the other two verbs. e.g. He must be working in the garden now. This film should be very good as it is staring first-class actors. You ought to be hungry by now. 217

III. Should + perfect infinitive and ought to + perfect infinitive show that the action has not been carried out though it was desirable; was/were to + perfect infinitive indicates an action that has not been carried out though it was planned. e.g. You ought to have warned him.\ (Now he is in trouble.) You should have helped him. / He was to have arrived last week. (But his plans were upset by some cause or other.)

Will and Would Like shall, the verb will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity.The verb will has the following forms: will for the present time contexts and would for the past time contexts. The latter is used in two ways: a) in past time contexts to express an actual fact and b) in present time contexts to express unreality or as a milder and politer form of will. While shall and should are treated as two different verbs in modern English, will and would are considered to be the forms of the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ. I. Will combined with the simple infinitive expresses: 1. volition, i.e. willingness, readiness, consent, intention and determination. This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences. It is often rendered into Russian by непременно, обязательно, охотно. Would in this meaning shows reference to the past. e.g. I will write as soon as I can. Я непременно напишу, как только смогу. I will be there to help. Я непременно там буду и помогу. I can and will learn. 218

Я могу это выучить и обязательно выучу. When he was young he was so poor that he would do anything to earn some money. Когда он был молодым, он был так беден, что был согласен на любую работу, чтоб подзаработать. The present tense will, in addition to expressing its modal meaning, serves to refer an action to the future in this case; the past tense would is used in reported speech and also serves to refer an acton to the future but in this case it is viewed from a past moment. e.g. “Damn it!” he thought, “I’m going to get out of this hole. I will make money.” “Проклятие!” подумал он. “Я выберусь из этой дыры. Я разбогатею.” I am an Englishman, and I will suffer no priest to interfere in my business. Я англичанин и ни одному священнику не позволю вмешиваться в мои дела. I said I would do anything for him. Я сказал, что все для него сделаю. We decided that we would’t interfere. Мы решили, что не будем вмешиваться. This meaning is often found in conditional sentences. e.g. If you will help me we can finish by six. Если вы согласитесь мне помочь, мы можем кончить к 6 часам. If you will wait for me I will be grateful. Если вы согласитесь меня подождать, я буду вам очень благодарен. When used in the negative it denotes a refusal to do something. e.g. I won’t accept your offer. (I refuse to…) They would’t listen to me. (they refused to listen to me). He wouldn’t answer my question. (he rerfused to answer my quwston.) 219

2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions. The form would renders a greater degree of politeness. e.g. Will you pass me the salt? Will you have some tea? Would you please lend me your pencil? Would you please pass the salt? It is still politer to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ ing form), Would you be so kind as to… e.g. Would you be so kind as to lend me your book? 3. A command (in military comtexts it is a strict command). e.g. Officers will report for duty at 06.00. Офицерам выйти на дежурство в 06.00. You will do exactly as I say. Ты сделаешь, как я сказал. You will go in there and tell him that the game is up. Ты пойдешь и скажешь им, что игра окончена. An impatient command, expressing irritation can begin with will you. e.g. Will you be quiet! Да замолчишь ли ты, наконец? Will you in the tag after a negative command can tone down the command (and is pronounced with the falling tone). e.g. Don’t be late, will you? But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience. e.g. Sit down, will you? Shut the door, will you? Shut the door, won’t you? Would is never used in this meanimg. 220

4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed in this sense. e.g. He `will try to mend it himself. (he insists on mending it himself). With reference to inanimate objects will and would show that a thing fails to perform its function. It occurs in negative sentences and corresponds to the Russian никак не. e.g.

The door will not open. Дверь никак не открывается. The orange will not peel. Апельсин никак не чистится. The engine wouldn’t start. Мотор никак не заводился. The wound wouldn’t heel. Рана никак не заживала.

5. Habitual or recurrent actions. e.g. She will (would) sit for hours under the old oak tree looking at the beautiful country around her. In addition to indicating a habitual action, will (would) in this case implies willingness, personal interest on the part of the doer of the action. Will (would) in this meaning is found in the affirmative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. 6. Inevitability, characteristic behaviour, quality, or something naturally expected. e.g. What will be will be. Чему быть, того не миновать. Accidents will happen. Несчастные случаи неизбежны. Boys will be boys. Мальчишки всегда остаются мальчишками. Truth will out. Истины не утаишь. 221

This meaning cannot be rendered in Russian by any analogous modal verb. e.g. Oil will float on water. Масло плавает на поверхности воды. This car will hold six people comfortably. Эта машина спокойно вмещает 6 человек. That’s exactly like Jane – she would lose the key. Это очень похожe на Джейн – она потеряла ключ. 7. Supposition. Will may be used in this meaning to express supposition with reference to the present or to the future in combination with the simple infinitive, or to the past in combination with the perfect infinitive. This meaning is found with the second and third persons. e.g. This will be the school, I believe. Это, по-видимому, и есть школа. You will have heard the news, I’m sure. Я полагаю, что вы уже слышали новость. It should be noted that the use of will in this meaning is not common. 8. Disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only would is used. It is used sarcastically, mainly in responses, to express that something was to be expected. It corresponds to the Russian этого следовало ожидать, на него похоже. e.g. “I know she attended the place.” – “Oh, yes, she would.” … А как же! He refused to interfere.” – “He would.” …Это на него похоже. You would be late Конечно же, опять ты опоздал. You would forget! Конечно, ты забыл. Auntie Mag has been very brave.” – “Yes. She would be brave.” ….А что ей оставалось?” 222

“I don’t understand him and I don’t approve of his decision.” –“No, you wouldn’t.” …Ну, конечно. 9. Will/ would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express predicton, a certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way as must) e.g. This will be just what she wants. Это, очевидно, то, что она хочет. This will be my wife. Это, конечно, моя жена. This will be our train. Это, наверное, наш поезд. That would be he! Это, наверное, он. John will have arrived by now. Джон наверняка уже приедет к этому времени. In the latter case must is impossible as with a perfect infinitive it has a reference to the past. e.g. That would be in 1910, I think. Я думаю, это, наверное, было в 1910 году. Why are you asking him? He wouldn’t know anything about it. Зачем вы его спрашиваете? Вряд ли он что-нибудь об этом знает? Who is the man? – You wouldn’t know him. Кто этот человек? – Вы вряд ли его знаете. 10. Notice the set phrases with will and would: a) Will not / won’t have + an object + an infinitive without to means I will see to it that it doesn’t happen. e.g. I will not (won’t) have you speak to me like that. Я не допущу, чтобы вы со мной так разговаривали. b) Would rather (‘d rather) and would sooner (‘d sooner) + an infinitive without to mean to prefer. 223

e.g.

I’d rather do it myself. Я, пожалуй, сделаю это сам. He’d sooner die than let me think he was a failure Он скорее умрет, чем позволит мне думать, что он неудачник.

c) Would… mind in interrogative and negative sentences means to object. e.g. Would you mind my staying here for a while? Вы не против, если… I wouldn’t mind your telling them aboutHardy. Я не против, если… Would… mind in interrogative sentences may also express a polite request. e.g. Would you mind getting me a cup of tea? Вы не дадите мне чашечку чая? d) You would, would you? – Ах, ты так! Need I. The modal verb need may be either a defective or a regular verb. As a defective verb need has only one form and is combined with a bare infinitive. In reported speesh it remains unchanged. As a regular verb it has the past indefinite form needed and regular negative and interrogative forms. e.g. Need I do it? You needn’t do it just now. The teacher said that we needn’t come. Need I show you my pass now? Do I need to show my pass every time? You don’t need to say it every time you see him. There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and irregular forms. 224

The regular form is used mainly when the following infinitive denotes habitual action. The defective form is more common when one particular occasion is referred to (see the first four examples). The defective form is mainly restricted to negative and interrogative sentences, whereas the regular verb can be used in all types of sentences and is therefore more common. II. Need expresses necessity. It is mainly used in questions and negative sentences, where it is a replacement for must or have to. It corresponds to Russian нужно. e.g. Do you need to work so hard? (Do you have to work so hard?). Разве вам нужно столько работать? You needn’t do it now. Вам не нужно это сейчас делать. Need she come tomorrow? Ей завтра нужно приходить? The negation is not always combined with the verb, but may be expressed by other parts of the sentence. e.g. I don’t think we need mention him at all. Я думаю, нам совсем не нужно о нем упоминать. I need hardly say that you are to blame. Едва ли мне нужно говорить, что вы виноваты. In questions need is used when there is a strong element of negation or doubt or when the speaker expects a negative answer. e.g. Need she go there? (hope for a negative answer) I wonder if I need go there. (statement of doubt) In negative statements need followed by a perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive was performed but was not necessary. It implies a waste of time or effort, and is therefore translated by зря, незачем, не к чему было. e.g. You needn’t have spent all the money. Зря вы потратили все деньги. We needn’t have waited for her because she never came at all. 225

Мы зря прождали ее, так как она так и не появилась. The difference between the two forms of need in negative sentences is as follows: the regular verb indicates that the action was not done because it was unnecessary, whereas the defective verb shows that the action, although unnecessary, was carried out. Compare: Didn’t need to do smth = It was not necessary, so probably not done. e.g. We didn’t need to say anything at all, which was a great comfort. Нам совсем ничего не нужно было говорить, что было большим утешением. She didn’t need to open the drawer as it was already open. Ей не нужно было открывать ящик, потому что он уже был открыт. Needn’t have done smth = It was not necessary, but done nonetheless. e.g. You needn’t have said anything. Then he would never have known about it. Зря вы сказали. А так он никогда и не узнал бы об этом. She needn’t have opened the drawer. She found it empty when she did. Зря она открыла ящик. Ведь, когда она его открыла, она обнаружила, что он пуст. Note. The regular verb need may be followed by a noun or pronoun. But in this case it is not a modal verb. e.g. He needs a new coat. Ему нужно (он нуждается) новое пальто. Does he need a new coat? Ему нужно новое пальто? He does not need anything. Ему ничего не нужно. 226

Dare The modal verb dare may be either a defective or a regular verb. I. As a defective verb dare has two forms which are the present and the past tense forms and is combined with a bare infinitive. In reported speesh it remains unchanged. It has the meaning – to have the courage or impertinence to do something, to venture. Its use is very restricted. In present-day English it is mainly found in questions beginning with how and in negative sentences. e.g. Dare you ask him? (Are you brave enough to ask him?) How dare he speak to you like that? Как смеет он так разговаривать с тобой? How dare you sneak into my room? Как смеешь ты тайком пробираться в мою комнату? How many years is it since we danced together? I daren’t think. Сколько лет мы с тобой не танцевали? Страшно подумать. He dared not look at her. Он боялся посмотреть на нее. II. As a regular verb it has all the necessary forms including the verbals. Its use is also restricted. It may have two meanings: 1. to venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the defective dare). In this sense it is used mainly in negative sentences. e.g. He didn’t dare to stop us. She doesn’t dare to answer. Don’t you dare to touch me. No one dared to live in the house since. 2. to challenge, to defy. (бросать вызов, спровоцировать) e.g. I dare you to jump the stream Держу пари, вы не перепрыгнете через ручей! I dare you to say this straight to her face. Попробуй, скажи это ей прямо в лицо. 227

III. Notice the colloquial set phrase I dare say (очень возможно, пожалуй, полагаю, осмелюсь сказать). e.g. I dare say I looked a little confused. Полагаю, я выглядел несколько смущенным. My son is not in town, but I dare say he will be before long. Моего сына нет в городе, но очень возможно, он скоро приедет.

Shouldn’t + Perfect Infinitive, Oughn’t + Perfect Infinitive, Needn’t + Perfect Infinitive Compared Shouldn’t + perfect infinitive and oughn’t + perfect infinitive show that an action has been carried out though it was undesirable; needn’t + perfect infinitive indicates that an action has been carried out though it was unnecessary. e.g. You shouldn’t have come (because you are ill). Тебе не нужно было приходить. You oughn’t to have written to them (because your letter upset them). Нельзя было писать им. You needn’t have come (because the work is finished). Зря ты пришел. You needn’t have written to them (because I sent them a telegram). Зря ты написал им. Expressions of Absence of Necessity The main verbs expressing necessity are: must, to have to, to be to, should and ought. Yet the verbs must, to be to, should and ought in their negative forms do not express absence of necessity. Absence of necessity is expressed by the negative forms of to have and need.

228

e.g.

In the present tense: You don’t have to go there. You needn’t go there.

These two verbs generally differ in that needn’t+ infinitive indicates that the speaker gives authority for the non-performance of some action, whereas don’t (doesn’t) have to+infinitive is used when absence of necessity is based on external circumstances. e.g. You needn’t come here. (I’ll manage everything without your help). Тебе не нужно приходить сюда. You don’t have to come to the institute tomorrow. (There will be no lectures tomorrow). Тебе не нужно приходить в институт завтра. e.g.

In the past tense: You didn’t have to go there. You didn’t need to go there.

The latter is not in common use. Did not have + infinitive shows that the action did not take place in the past as a result of the absence of necessity. Thus He didn’t have to go there means that he actually did not go there as it was unnecessary. Note. Care should be taken not to use You needn’t have gone there as an expression of absence of necessity because it means that an action has been carried out though it was unnecessary.

229

VERBALS (Non-finite Forms of the Verb) There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive – to take the gerund – taking participle I – taking participle II – taken Lexically non-finites do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically the difference between the finites and nonfinites lies in the fact that the finites agree with the subject in number and person whereas non-finites don’t. e.g. Coming near I found the door unlocked. The finites possess seven verb categories: person, number, mood, tense, voice, perfect and aspect– whereas verbals possess the verb categories of voice, perfect and aspect. Thus, the Infinitive has three categories: voice active passive aspect common continuous perfect non-perfect perfect

to take to be taken to take to be taking to take to have taken)

The Gerund and Participle I have two categories: voice active taking passive being taken perfect non-perfect taking perfect having taken Participle II has no categories. It has only one unchangeable form, i.e. the 3-rd form of the verb. The non-finites have double nature, verbal and nominal, that is, they possess some verbal and some non-verbal (i.e. nominal) features. The main verbal feature of the Infinitive, Participle I and Participle II is that they can be used as part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, have written, will do). 230

The verbal character of non-finites is revealed mainly in their combinability. Like finite forms they may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect or prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and with subordinate clauses. Non-finites may also work as link-verbs, combining with nouns, adjectives or statives as predicatives, as in: to be / being a doctor (young, afraid). They may also act as modal verb semantic equivalents when combined with an infinitive: to have / having to wait, to be able / being able to stay. The non- verbal (i.e. nominal) character of the verbals is revealed in their syntactical functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial modifier; Participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by themselves, although they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate. All non-finites may be used a) in the so-called predicative constructions, i.e. twocomponent syntactical units where a noun or a pronoun and a nonfinite verb-form are in predicate relations (like those of the subject and the predicate). e.g. I heard Jane singing. – Я слышал, как она поет. We waited for the train to pass. – Мы подождали, чтобы поезд прошел. I saw him run. – Я видел, как он бежит. b) in phrases, i.e.with one or several accompanying words (an object or an adverbial modifier to the verbal). These phrases form syntactic units serving as one part of the sentence. A phrase should not be confused with a predicative construction: between the elements of a phrase there is no predicate relaton, as it does not include a noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action expressed by a verbal. 231

e.g. Not to disquiet his sister, he had said nothing to her of the matter. Чтобы не тревожить сестру, он ничего не рассказал ей об этом. She tried to tranquillize him by reading aloud. Она пыталась успокоить его, читая ему вслух. Having garaged his car, he remembered that he had not lunched. Поставив машину в гараж, он вспомнил, что не завтракал. c) singly, i.e. without accompanying words. e.g. She went away smiling. Она ушла, улыбаясь. To decide is to act. Принять решение – значит начать действовать. Talking mends no holes. Словами делу не поможешь. In common with the finite forms all the non-finites have voice and tense distinctions. But, the tenses of the finites indicate the time of the action, whereas the forms that are called “tenses” in verbals comprise relative time indication: they usually indicate a) if the action of the verbal coincides with that of the finite verb or b) if the action of the verbal is prior to that of the finite verb. Besides distinctions of voice and tense the verbals retain the following characteristics of the finite forms: a) if they are formed from a transitive verb they can take a direct object. e.g. Ben was too busy to hear him now. b) the infinitive, the gerund, the participle may be modified by adverbs. e.g. Soames stood looking gloomingly into the window. I’m tired of sitting still. He can’t write so quickly. 232

THE INFINITIVE

I. The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way. Like other non-finites the infinitive has a double nature: it has verbal and non-verbal (i.e. nominal) features. The verbal features of the infinitive are of two kinds: morphological and syntactical. 1). Morphological: the infinitive has the verb categories of voice, aspect and perfect. e.g. She promised to bring the picture down in ten minutes. (common aspect) At that time I happened to be bringing him some books he had asked for. (continuous aspect) She did not intend to keep me long, she said. (nonperfect) I am so distressed to have kept you waiting. (perfect) 2). Syntactical: the infinitive has the verb combinability: a) it takes an object in the same way as the corresponding finite verbs do; Cf. Finite verb Infinitive To tell him about it the She told me about it only same night was out of the yesterday question. She did not mean to You see, I depend on his word only. depend on her father. b) it takes a predicative if it happens to be a link verb; Cf. She wanted to be a He was a teacher of teacher. French. I don’t want to look pale She looked pale and tonight. haggard. c) it is modified by adverbials in the same way as finite verbs, Cf. To draw his attention I He spoke loudly, turning had to speak very loudly. his head from side to side. 233

II. The nominal features of the infinitive are revealed only in its function. e.g. To understand is to forgive. (subject, predicative) That’s what I wanted to know. (object) I saw the chance to escape into the garden. (attribute) I merely came back to water the flowers. (adverbial modifier of purpose) III. The grammatical categories of the infinitive. As has already been stated the infinitive has three categories, those of perfect, aspect and voice. The category of perfect 1. The non-perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with the action of the finite verb. e.g. I’ve always heard him tell the tale. I am glad to be invited there. Combined with the present tense of such verbs as to want, to expect, to hope, to intend, etc. the non-perfect infinitive refers an action to the future. e.g. I want you to give me some information. When used with the modal verbs the non-perfect infinitive may also refer an action to the future. e.g. I must go and see him in a day or two. What am I to do? The meaning of the non-perfect infinitive may easily be modified by the context. Thus, it may denote an action preceding or following the action denoted by the finite verb. It expresses succession, i.e. indicates that the action follows the action denoted by the finite verb, as in the following cases: a) when used as an adverbial modifier of purpose: e.g. She bit her lip to keep back a smile. I came here to help you, not to quarrel with you. 234

b) when used as part of a compound verbal predicate: e.g. You must do it at once. You know, she is beginning to learn eagerly. c) when used as as object of a verb of inducement: e.g. He ordered the man to come at three. She always asks me to help her when she is busy. He will make you obey. 2. The perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive precedes the action of the finite verb. e.g. I am very glad to have seen you again. Combined with a modal verb the perfect infinitive indicates a) either that the action took place in the past, e.g. Why did she go away so early last night? – She may have been ill. b) or that the action is already accomplished at a given moment and is viewed upon from that moment. e.g. Let’s go, it must have stopped raining. After the modal verbs should, ought to, could, might, was to / were to the perfect infinitive indicates that an action planned or considered desirable was not carried out. e.g. You should have phoned me at once. After the past tense forms of the verbs expressing hope, expectation, intention the perfect infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out. e.g. I meant to have written to you. (but I didn’t) Whereas “I meant to write to you” leaves the queston open as to whether or not the intention was fulfilled. The category of aspect 1. The common aspect forms denote simultaneousness with the action of the finite verb. (see above, II, p.1) 235

2. The non-perfect continuous infinitive denotes an action in its progress at the time when the action expressed by the finite form of the verb takes place. e.g. She seemed to be listening. Where is Ann? – She must be watering flowers in the garden. Can he be telling a lie? 3. The perfect continuous infinitive denotes an action which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb. e.g. We must have been walking for two hours, let’s have a rest. For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothing but cold meat, cake and bread and jam. The two aspects differ in their frequency and functioning; the continuous aspect forms are very seldom used and cannot perform all the functions in which the common aspect forms are used. They can only function as: a) subject e.g. To be staying with them was a real pleasure. b) object e.g. I was glad to be walking. c) part of a compound verbal predicate e.g. Now they must be getting back. The leaves begin to be growing yellowish. The continuous aspect forms do not occur in the function of adverbial modifiers and attributes. The category of voice The infinitive of transitive verbs has the category of voice, active (to say, to have said) and passive (to be said, to have been said). 236

There are no perfect continuous forms in the passive voice and non-perfect continuous forms (to be being taken) are exceptionally rare. There are cases where the active form of the non-perfect infinitive denotes an action directed towards the subject, i.e. although active in form, it is passive in meaning, so in nearly all cases the active form can be replaced by the passive form. e.g. He is to blame / to be blamed. There was only one thing to do / to be done. The house is to let / to be let. The Use of the Infinitive without the Particle to (The Bare Infinitive) In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the partical to. The particle to is generally used with the infinitive stem and is closely connected with it. But sometimes the particle to is separated from the infinitive by an adverb or an emphatic particle. Such a construction is called the split infinitive and it is used to give special emphasis to the verb. e.g. They were seen to just touch each other’s hands. Although the particle to is closely connected with the infinitive, sometimes the bare infinitive (i.e. the infinitive without the partical to) is used . The bare infinitive is used: 1. after auxiliary verbs: shall, will, do, etc. and modal verbs: can, may, must, need, should (except ought to, have to, be to). e.g. I must go and look at the flowers at Hampton Court. Will you come? But e.g. You ought to have seen her. I will have to do it. Where are we to meet? 2. after verbs of sense perception: see, watch, observe, notice, hear, feel, perceive. 237

e.g. In a few minutes they heard him ascend the ladder to his room. Через несколько минут они услышали, как он поднимается к себе в комнату. I never saw you look so well before. Я никогда не видел, чтоб вы так хорошо выглядели. I felt my heart jump. Я почувствовал, как сердце у меня екнуло. Note. The verb to be after the verb to feel is used with the particle to. e.g. I felt this to be true. 3. after verbs of inducement: make, have, let, bid. e.g. What makes you think so? Let me help you. He turned on Florence and bade her leave the room. 4. after the verb to know in the meaning of to experience, to observe. In this meaning it is never used in the present indefinite tense. e.g. I have never known him pretend. Note. All the verbs in pp. 2, 3, and 4 are used with the particle to if used in the passive voice. e.g. He was heard to open the door. He was made to come. 5. after the verb to help the infinitive is used with or without the particle to. e.g. I helped her take off her coat. She helped her to put away her work. 6. after the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, nothing but, cannot choose but. 238

e.g. You had better go to bed. I cannot but think so. She does nothing but make scenes from morning till night. I looked long at that picture, and could not choose but look. …и не могла не смотреть. 7. in special questions beginning with why. e.g. Why not come and talk to her yourself? 8. When there are several infinitives with the same or similar function the particle to is usually put only before the first one. e.g. It was his delight to run into the garden and shake the rose bush over him. But if emphasis or contrast is intended, to is repeated before each infinitive. e.g. To be or not to be – that is the question. Syntactical Functions of the Infinitive The infinitive performs almost all syntactical functions characteristic of the noun. The infinitive can be used I. as subject. It can be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, by a noun, or by a clause. e.g. To doubt, under the circumstances, is almost to insult. Сомневаться при таких обстоятельствах – это почти равносильно оскорблению. To acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly is the first duty of the artist. Приобретать знания, и приобретать их непрерывно – вот первый долг художника. Even to think of it gave him ineffable torture. Одна мысль об этом причиняла ему невыразимые страдания. 239

There are cases when the infinitive subject follows the predicate. The sentence opens with the introductory it, which serves as an introductory subject. The introductory it is not translated into Russian. e.g. It’s a waste of time to sit here. Сидеть здесь – напрасная трата времени. ( Напрасная трата времени – сидеть здесь). Is it bad to love one so dearly? Разве плохо так сильно любить? In both patterns the infinitive subject is a “to”- infinitive. If there are two or more homogeneous infinitive subjects in a sentence all of them keep the particle to. e.g. To be alone, to be free from the daily interests and cruelty would be happiness to Asako. It was awfully difficult to do or even to say nothing at all. The predicate of the subject expressed by an infinitive always takes the form of the 3-rd person singular. e.g. To understand is to forgive. To talk to him always bores me. To write a really good book requires more time than I have. II. as part of compound nominal predicate. In the function of a predicative the infinitive is used in compound nominal predicate after the link verb to be. e.g. His dearest wish was to have a son. Его сокровенным желанием было – иметь сына. To be born in poverty was to be doomed to humiliation. Быть рожденным в бедности означало быть приговоренным к унижению. To hear is to obey. Now the question was what to tell him. The problem was how to begin. All he wanted was to be left alone. All I can do is get you out of here. 240

The least I can expect is to have this day all to myself. What we want to do is to fight a world. With homogeneous predicatives the use of the particle to varies. e.g. My intention was to see her as soon as possible, to talk to her, to calm her. Your duty will be to teach him French and play with him. His plan was to ring her up at once, or even call on her. III. as simple nominal predicate. The infinitive as simple nominal predicate may be used in exlamatory sentences expressing the speaker’s surprise, indignation, in interrogative why-sentences to express a suggestion. e.g Me – to be your lover! Me – marry you! Why not go away? Why let him sleep so long? IV. as part of a compound verbal predicate. 1. The infinitive may be used as part of a compound verbal modal predicate a) after the modal verbs can, may, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would, need, dare, to be to, to have to, e.g. I can tell you nothing at all about him. She ought to have told me before. The train was to leave at midnight. b) after expressions with modal meaning had better, would / had rather / sooner, to be going to, to be obliged to, to be compelled to, to be willing, to be eager, to be ready, etc. e.g. I am eager to hear your story. We were compelled to spend the night at Winchester. Is she determined to start instantly? 2. The infinitive may be used as part of a compound verbal phasal (aspect) predicate 241

a) after verbs expressing the beginning, duration and end of an action: to begin, to start, to continue, to go on, to cease, etc. e.g. Imprisonment began to tell upon him. They gradually ceased to talk. They continued to whisper. Note. To stop followed by the infinitive doesn’t form the compound verbal phasal (aspect) predicate as the infinitive is used here as the adverbial modifier of purpose. To form the compound verbal phasal (aspect) predicate to stop + gerund must be used. e.g. He stopped to read. – Он остановился, чтобы прочесть. He stopped reading. – Он перестал читать. b) With the constructions used to + infinitive and would + infinitive expressing repeated actions in the past (the latter has a modal meaning). e.g. I used to see you looking at the flowers and trees. She would come and ask if he wanted anything, and he would smile and say,”Nothing, thanks.” c) With the construction to come + infinitive in which the verb to come imparts perfective meaning to the action expressed by the infinitive. e.g. Soon after my mother’s death, I came to know you. – …узнала тебя. At last the kettle came to boil. – …закипел. 3. as part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation a) after the following intransitive verbs: to appear, to seem, to turn out, to prove, to happen, to chance. These verbs may be followed by different forms of the “to”- infinitive. e.g. The night turned out to be cold. Ночь оказалась холодной. 242

The man seemed to have come from far away. Казалось, этот человек приехал откуда-то издалека. b) after the passive forms of certain transitive verbs: to hear, to see, to feel, to know, to announce, to report, to believe, to understand, to make, etc. These verbs may be followed by different forms of the “to”- infinitive. e.g. He is supposed to be leaving tonight. Предполагают, что он уезжает сегодня ночью. He was made to keep silent. Его заставили молчать. c) after the phrases: to be (un)likely, to be sure, to be certain. In this case only the non-perfect forms of the infinitive are used, with future reference. e.g. He is likely to be late. Он, вероятно, опаздает. He is sure to become your friend. Он, наверняка, станет вашим другом. (For details see The Subjective Infinitive Construction, page 259) V. object. The infinitive can have the function of object after verbs, adjectives, adjectivized participles and statives. A. After verbs the infinitive may be either the only object of a verb or one of two objects. 1. verbs that take only one object are: to mean to fail to agree to neglect to fear to arrange to omit to forget to attempt to plan to hesitate to care (to like) to prefer to hope to choose to pretend to intend to claim to refuse to learn to consent to regret to like to decide to remember to long to deserve 243

to determine to expect

to love to manage

to swear to tend etc.

Among these verbs two groups can be distinguished: a) the verbs to claim, to fail, to forget, to hate, to like, to omit, to regret, to remember, to swear with which the perfect infinitive denotes actions prior to those of the finite verbs, as semantically these verbs denote an action or a state following or resulting from that of the infinitive. e.g. I regret to have said it to her. I remembered to have met him once. She claims to have seen him before. b) the verbs to attempt, to expect, to hope, to intend, to mean, to plan, to try, when followed by the perfect infinitive imply that the action of the infinitive was not fulfilled. In this case the finite verb can be used only in the past tense. e.g. I hoped to have found him at home. He intended to have reached the coast long before. Besides the above-mentioned verbs there are also rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object. They are the phrases can afford, can bear in the negative or interrogative and such phrases as to make sure, to make up one’s mind, to take care, to make trouble. e.g. Can you afford to buy it yourself? I can’t bear to hear of it again. At last he made up his mind to answer Sibyl’s letter. 2. Verbs that take two objects, the first of which is a noun or a pronoun and the second an infinitive. These are the verbs of inducement; they all have the general meaning to persuade, to cause to do smth.: to advise to allow

to direct to encourage

to induce to instruct 244

to permit to persuade

to ask to beg to cause to command to compel

to forbid to force to have to impel to implore

to invite to leave to let to make to order

to recommend to request to require to tell to urge

e.g. Tell him to hurry He asked her to keep an eye on the clock.. What would you recommend me to do? With all these verbs, except to have, to let and to make, a ”to”-infinitive is used; after to have, to let and to make the bare infinitive is used. e.g. She’ll have you do it at once. Don’t let it bother you. Soon she made me see where I was wrong. The verb to help can be used either with one or with two objects, with a “to”-infinitive or with a bare infinitive: e.g. She helped to pack. She helped me to make up my mind. And she actually helped find it. I’ll help you do it. B. The infinitive can have the function of object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles), mostly used as predicative. They fall into two groups: 1. The adjectives of the first group are: powerless entitled anxious fit apt prerared free bound quick hard careful ready impatient curious reluctant inclined determined resolved interested difficult set keen eager slow liable easy worthy 245

When used with these adjectives, the infinitive denotes actions either simultaneous with, or posterior (последующий) to the states expressed by the predicate, and therefore cannot be used in perfect forms. e.g. She is determined to go on. I am powerless to do anything. He is fully prepared to meet them any time they choose. I am so impatient to start. 2. The adjectives (adjectivized participles) of the second group are: relieved glad amused scared grateful annoyed sorry happy astonished surprised horrified delighted thankful pleased distressed touched proud frightened puzzled furious These adjectives and participles express certain psychological states which are the result of the action expressed by the infinitive object that always denotes an action slightly preceding the state expressed by the predicate. So the infinitive can have both nonperfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect forms are used to express immediate priority. The perfect forms are used to show that there is a gap between the action and the resulting state. e.g. He was amused to hear it. I’m delighted to see you again. I’m delighted to have seen you again. She is proud to have grown such a son. Mother was furious to see them together again.

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Note. With the expressions to be glad, to be sorry the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive e.g. I am glad to have got a ticket for the concert. I am pleased to have seen you. In other cases a clause is used. e.g. I am glad you got a ticket for the concert. 3. after certain statives denoting psychological states, such as afraid, agog, ashamed. e.g. I am all agog to know what happened. Я сгораю от нетерпения узнать, что произошло. He was ashamed to tell us this. Ему стыдно было это рассказать нам. 4. it + adjective + infinitive The infinitive as an object to an adjective is found in a special pattern where a formal it is used as an object to a verb and is followed by an adjective. It is to this adjective that the infinitive serves as an object. The whole construction it + adjective + infinitive mainly occurs after the verbs to find, to think, to make and to feel. e.g. I find it difficult to believe that anyone can be that lazy. I had thought it impolite to smoke a cigar in her presence. C. The infinitive as object may be part of a phrase introduced by the conjunction whether or one of the following conjunctive pronouns or adverbs: what, who, whom, which, when, where, how and how long (the so-called wh-phrase). e.g. I did not at all know what to say. I don’t know who else to ask. The infinitive in the phrase is always used with the particle to. Though the wh-phrase usually serves as an object to the verb to know it may also follow some other verbs, adjectives and set phrases as well, e.g. to decide, to be sure, to make up one’s mind, to wonder, to advise and some others. 247

e.g. He couldn’t decide whether to speak or not. I couldn’t make up my mind whether to accept the offer. I stood wondering how to stop the fight. I’ll ask my travel agent. He advises me what to buy and where to go. No one seemed sure how to act. It is noteworthy that infinitives generally do not serve as prepositional objects. However, the wh-phrase is occasionally found as a prepositional object to a verb or a set phrase. e.g. As we talked of where to meet, I noticed something unusual in his tone. Whether he had changed his mind about what to say I did not know. She gave us orders about how long to stay there. V. part of a complex object. e.g. I never saw you act this way before. – Я никогда раньше не видел, чтоб вы так поступали. (For details see The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction, page261) VI. attribute. The infinitive attribute can modify: 1. class and abstract nouns: e.g. She was not a woman to suffer in silence. Она была не из тех женщин, которые стали страдать молча. I haven’t had time to examine this room yet. У меня еще не было времени осмотреть комнату. The best thing to do would be to go back. Самое лучшее, что можно было бы сделать – вернуться назад. He is just the man to do it. Он именно тот (человек), кто может / должен сделать. 248

бы эту это это

2. indefinite, negative and universal pronouns in -body, thing, -one: e.g. Have you anything to offer me? У вас есть, что мне предложить? He was someone to admire. Он был из тех, кем можно было восхищаться. I have nobody to say a kind word to me. У меня нет никого, кто мне доброе слово сказал бы. He had everything to make his life a happy one. У него было все, чтобы сделать свою жизнь счастливой. The infinitive can have the function of an attribute to personal and reflexive pronouns or pronominal adverbs: e.g. I’ve only you to look to. Я могу только на вас надеяться. Oh, but you have only yourself to praise. О, но ведь вы только сами себя можете хвалить. Now I had nobody to see, nowhere to go. Теперь мне не с кем было встречаться, некуда было идти. 3. substantivized ordinal numerals (especially first), substantivized adjectives (next and last) e.g. He was the first to offer his hand to the Russians. Он первый протянул руку русским. Jack was the first to come. Джек пришел первым. She was the last to reach the hall. Она добралась до зала последней. When his car broke down, it was the last to be repaired. Когда его машина сломалась, ее починили последней. 4. substantivized quantitative adjectives (pronouns) much, little, (no) more, (no) less, much more, enough: 249

e.g. A man in your position has so much to lose. Человеку вашего положения можно потерять так много. I’ve no more to add. Мне больше нечего добавить. 5. the noun-substitute one: e.g. I’m not the one to run about and discuss my affairs with other people. Я не из тех, кто может бегать повсюду и обсуждать свои дела с посторонними. The infinitive used as an attribute often has a modal significance – it expresses an action thought of as obligatory or possible. The most common form of the infinitive functioning as an attribute is the non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form and non-perfect, common aspect, passive voice form. VII. adverbial modifier. The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of: purpose, subsequent events, consequence (result), attendant circumstances, comparison, condition, exception, time, cause, or motivation. 1. The adverbial modifier of purpose. In this function only the non-perfect common aspect forms (both active and passive) are used. The infinitive usually stands after the predicate, though the position at the beginning of the sentence is also possible. In both positions the infinitive may be preceded by the conjunction in order, so as or by limiting particle just, only. e.g. Laws were not made to be broken; laws were made to stay within. To pacify her, I held the window ajar a few seconds. Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. In order to see her better he had to turn his head. Soames put on his coat so as not to be cold. I’m here just to see you off. He came down only to say good-night to you. 250

The infinitive may also be preceded by other modifiers. e.g. He opened his mouth as if to speak. He told his joke merely to gain time. He had never cared for that room, hardly going into it from one year’s end to another except to take cigars. 2. The adverbial modifier of subsequent events. In this function the infinitive denotes an action that follows the one denoted by the predicate. The position of this adverbial is fixed – it always follows the predicate. In this function only the nonperfect, common aspect forms (usually active) are used. e.g. He arrived at three o’clock to hear that Fleur had gone out with the car at ten. (He arrived and heard…) Он приехал в три и узнал, что…. He hurried to the house only to find it empty. (He hurried and found…) Он поспешил в дом и обнаружил, что… He left the house never to come back. Он ушел из дома и больше не вернулся. In this function the infinitive may be preceded by the particles only, merely, simply, which change the meaning of the whole sentence: the action denoted by the infinitive preceded by these particles makes the action denoted by the predicate pointless or irrelevant (неуместный). e.g. She returned to London in a few days, only to learn that Bess had gone to the continent. (She returned…, and learnt….). 3. The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. The infinitive (a non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form) used in this function shows that other actions take place at the same time as the action of the predicate. e.g. I am sorry to have raised your expectations only to disappoint you. Мне очень жаль, что я пробудил в вас надежду только для того, чтобы затем отнять ее. 251

4. The adverbial modifier of consequence (result). In this function the infinitive depends on a) adjectives and adverbs modified by too; e.g. He was too tired to argue. The story was too interesting to pass over lightly. He had gone too far to draw back. b) adjectives, adverbs and nouns modified by enough; e.g. He was fool enough to enjoy the game. He is old enough to learn this. I thought I liked Letty well enough to marry her. c) adjectives modified by so, and nouns, modified by such (the infinitive is introduced by as). e.g. She was so kind as to accept my proposal. Do you think I am such a fool as to let it out of my hands? The positon of this adverbial is fixed – it always follows the words it modifies. In this function only the non-perfect, common aspect forms (usually active) are used. In this function the infinitive is also found in a peculiar sentence pattern, the first part of which is (he) had only to… or (he) had but to…. e.g. I had only to look at Mother to know the answer. Стоило мне только взглянуть на маму, как я знал ответ. He had only to open the door to find them anxiously waiting for him. Стоило ему только открыть дверь, как он обнаружил, что они с беспокойством ждут его. Here was romance and it seemed that you had but to stretch out your hand to touch it. В этом и была романтика, и, казалось, стоило только протянуть руку, как ты коснешься ее.

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5. The adverbial modifier of condition. The position of the infinitive varies; it may either precede or follow the predicate verb it modifies. The only possible form of the infinitive is the non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form. e.g. To look at Montmorency you would imagine that he was an angel sent upon earth. (If you looked…, you would imagine…). I’ll thank you to take your hands off me. (I’ll thank you if you take…). To touch it one would believe that it was the best of furs.(If one touched it…) 6. The adverbial modifier of exception. The infinitive (a non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form) is generally used without the particle to and is introduced by the prepositions but and except. It is found in negative and interrogative sentences. e.g. I had nothing to do but wait. What could I do but submit? There is nothing to do except turn back. 7. The adverbial modifier of time. The position of this adverbial is fixed – it always follows the words it modifies. In this function only the non-perfect, common aspect, active voice forms are used. e.g. His father lived to be ninety. (…lived till he was…) Go away! I shudder to see you here. (I shudder when I see…) 8. The adverbial modifier of cause (motivation). The infinitive in this function follows the predicate. All the forms of the infinitive are possible. e.g. She was silly to come here. They are out of their mind to have sent you here. 9. The adverbial modifier of comparison. In this function the infinitive is preceded by than and modifies a predicate group containing the comparative degree of an adjective 253

or an adverb. The infinitive is generally used with though it may sometimes be used without it. e.g. She seemed more anxious to listen to the others than to discuss her own. Damn it, I’ve got more important things look at the sea. Soon she realized that it was much more give than to be given.

the particle to, troubles of to do than pleasant to

It may be introduced by the conjunction as if or as though as well. In most cases it has an additional meaning of purpose. e.g. She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him. VIII. parenthesis. The infinitive as parenthesis is used with to. The place of the parenthetic phrase in the sentence is not fixed though it is actually often found at the head of the sentence. In writing it is marked off by a comma. The infinitive used as parenthesis is usually part of a set phrase, such as: по правде говоря to tell (speak) the truth – откровенно говоря to be quite frank – чтобы не сказать больше to say the least of it – не говоря уже to say nothing of – мягко выражаясь (грубо to put it mildly (crudely) – говоря) так сказать so to speak – как ни странно strange to say – не приходится говорить, не needless to say говоря уже to make matters worse – а (что) еще хуже to cut a long story short – короче говоря to crown all – в довершение всего to begin with – для начала to be more precise – чтобы быть точным

254

e.g.

Well, to cut a long story short, they thought it would be more economical to live at the villa. Короче говоря, они решили, что будет дешевле жить на вилле. He was rude, to say the least of it. Он был груб, чтобы не сказать больше. To put it mildly, he was not up to the mark. Мягко выражаясь, он был не на высоте. To begin with, you have been lying to me all the time. (Для начала) Начнем с того, что вы мне все время лгали. He was, strange to say, just an ordinary little chap. Как ни странно, он был простым малым. To make matters worse, it began to rain and soon we got wet to the skin. В довершение всего, начался дождь, и вскоре мы насквозь промокли. When they found out I was not one of them, so to speak, they politely turned from me and ignored me. Когда они обнаружили, что я не из их круга, так сказать, они вежливо отвернулись от меня и больше меня не замечали. Predicative Constructions with the Infinitive

In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the infinitive: 1. the Objective with the Infinitive Construction (the Accusative with the infinitive c-n) 2. the Subjective Infinitive Construction (the Nominative with the infinitive c-n) 3. the for-to- Infinitive Construction

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I. The Objective with the Infinitive Construction The objective with the infinitive construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence the construction has the function of a complex object. It is nearly always rendered in Russian by an object clause, sometimes by a simple sentence. The objective with the infinitive construction is used in the following cases: 1. after verbs of sense perception: to see, to watch, to notice, to observe, to hear, to feel and some others. The only possible form of the infinitive is non-perfect common aspect active voice form, used without the particle to. e.g. I haven’t heard anyone call me. Я не слышал, чтоб кто-нибудь звал меня. I felt the blood rush into my cheeks, and then leave them again. Я почувствовал, как кровь прилила к моим щекам, а потом опять отхлынула от них. The verb to listen to, though not a verb of sense perception is used in the same way, with a bare infinitive. e.g. He was listening attentively to the chairman speak. Он внимательно слушал, что говорил председатель. If the verb to see or to notice is used with the meaning to realize, to understand, or the verb to hear with the meaning to learn, to be told, the objective with the infinitive construction cannot be used. These verbs are followed by a subordinate clause. e.g. I saw that he didn’t realize the danger. Я видел (понимал), что он не сознает опасности. I hear you have dropped the idea of leaving him. Я слышал (мне сказали), что вы отказались от мысли уйти от него. After the verbs to see and to notice the objective with the infinitive construction is not used with the verb to be, a subordinate clause is used in such cases. 256

e.g. I saw that he was pale. Я видел, что он бледен. He only had time to notice that the girl was unusually pretty. У него только и хватило времени заметить, что девушка необычайно хороша. 2. after verbs of mental activity: to think, to believe, to consider, to expect, to understand, to suppose, to find, to imagine, to feel, to trust, to know, used in the objective with the infinitive construction. Here any form of the infinitive is used, though the nonperfect forms are more frequent (always with the particle to). The use of the perfect infinitive is very rare.. e.g. I know him to be an honest man. Я знаю, что он честный человек. I believe him to have no conscience at all. Я знаю, что у него совсем нет совести. If you suppose this boy to be friendless, you deceive yourself. Если вы думаете, что у этого мальчика нет друзей, то вы сами себя обманываете. Everybody expected her to marry Pete. Все ожидали, что она выйдет замуж за Пита. The doctor found his heart to have stopped two hours before. Доктор установил, что его сердце перестало биться два часа тому назад. With the verbs to think, to find, to consider the same idea can be expressed without an infinitive. e.g. I thought her beautiful. She found the subject very interesting. You consider yourself an impressive person, eh? 3. after verbs of feeling and emotion: to like, to hate, to dislike, to love, cannot bear and some others. e.g. I can’t bear you to speak of that. Я не могу вынести, когда вы об этом говорите. 257

She hated her son to be separated from her. Она терпеть не могла, когда ее разлучали с сыном. I’d love you to come with me too. Я бы хотела, чтобы вы тоже пришли со мной. 4. after verbs of declaring: to report, to pronounce, to declare. e.g. I declare you to be out of your mind. Я заявляю, что вы не в своем уме. He reported the boat to have been not far away. Он сообщил, что лодка была недалеко. 5. after verbs of wish and intention: to want, to wish, to desire, to intend, to choose ( = to wish), to mean and some others. e.g. He only wished you to be near him. Would you like me to stay? 6. after verbs of inducement (compulsion): to have (заставить), to get (добиться), to make (заставить), to cause (распорядиться). e.g. I can’t get him to do it properly. Я не могу заставить его сделать это как следует. She made me obey her. Она заставила меня подчиниться ей. The noise caused her to awake. Шум разбудил ее. (От шума она проснулась). She caused a telegram to be sent to him. Она распорядилась, чтоб ему послали телеграмму. 7. after verbs of order and permission: to order, to command, to persuade, to allow, to request, to have, to suffer, etc., only if the object is expressed by a noun or a pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the infinitive is passive. (This restriction doesn’t apply to the verbs to suffer and to have) To suffer + the objective with the infinitive construction is rendered in Russian in affirmative sentences by неохотно разрешать, позволить скрепя сердце, in negative sentences it is rendered by допускать. 258

To have denotes permission only in negative sentences and is rendered in the same way. e.g. Mr. Dombey suffered Florence to play with Paul. Мистер Домби скрепя сердце позволил Флоренс поиграть с Полем. Miss Jemima could not suffer Becky to leave the Academy without a present. Мисс Джемайма не могла допустить, чтобы Бекки уехала из пансиона без подарка. I won’t have you speak like it, dear Tess! Я не могу допустить, чтобы бы так говорили, милая Тесс! He ordered his carriage to be ready early in the morning. Он приказал, чтобы экипаж был готов рано утром. She ordered the children to be taken to the station as soon as possible. Она распорядилась, чтобы детей отвезли на станцию как можно скорее. 8. after certain verbs requiring a prepositional object: to rely on/upon, to listen to, to count upon/on. e.g. I rely on you to come on time. Can I account upon you to help me? II. The Subjective Infinitive Construction The subjective infinitive construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The peculiarity of the construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence; one of its components, the nominal part of the construction (the noun or the pronoun) has the function of the subject, the other (i.e. the infinitive) together with the finite verb forms a compound verbal predicate of double orientation e.g. He is reported to have left. = They report that he has left. You are unlikely to believe my story. = It is inlikely that you believe my story. 259

The subjective infinitive construction is used: 1. with verbs used in the passive voice, such as a) verbs of sense perception: to hear, to see, to observe, to watch, etc. and also to find, to discover, etc. to express the idea of evidence. e.g. He was seen to enter the building. Видели, как он входил в здание. The garden-gate was heard to bang. Было слышно, как стукнула калитка. The boy was found to be sleeping at home. Обнаружили, что мальчик спит дома. b) verbs of mental perception: to expect, to assume, to believe, to consider, to suppose, to presume, to know, to mean, to think, to deny, etc. e.g. Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune. Было известно, что Босини – молодой человек без состояния. He was believed to have a bedroom at the back. Полагали, что в задней части дома у него была спальня. My father was considered by many to be a great man. Многие считали моего отца незаурядным человеком. c) verbs of saying and reporting: to say, to report, declare, to predict, to pronounce, to announce, etc. e.g. Blackberries are said to have a lot of vitamins. Говорят, что в черной смородине много витаминов. A new star was reported to have appeared in the East. Сообщали, что на востоке появилась новая звезда. These islands are said to have been discovered as early as 1762. Говорят, что эти острова были открыты аж в 1762 году.

260

d) causative verbs, i.e.verbs expressing permission, request, intention, order, compulsion: to cause, to make, to order, to allow, to permit, to suffer, to request, to command, to compel, to force, to intend, etc. e.g. She was made to repeat her words. Ее заставили повторить свои слова. They were requested to be ready by 7 o’clock. Их попросили быть готовыми к 7 часам. They were ordered to enter the cell. Им приказали войти в камеру. No dam was allowed to be built in this part of the country. В этой части страны не разрешалось строить дамбы. II. with verbs used in the active voice: a) verbs expressing subjective or personal attitude to facts and their evaluation: to seem, to appear, to happen, to chance, to turn out, to prove. e.g. Your friend turned out to be stronger than we expected. Оказалось, что ваш друг сильнее, чем мы думали. Everybody appeared to be enjoying themselves. Казалось, что все веселились. He chanced to be in the park when I was there. Он случайно оказался в парке тогда, когда я был там. I was to tell you the news if I happened to run into you. Я должен был рассказать вам эти новости, если бы случайно встретился с вами. They seemed to have quite forgotten him already. Казалось, они его уже совсем забыли. b) modal phrases expressing different shades of probability or certainty: to be (un)likely, to be sure, to be certain, to be bound, to be apt, to be liable, to be difficult, to be easy, to be hard, etc. e.g. But he is sure to marry her. Но он несомненно женится на ней. This fire is certain to produce a panic in the morning. 261

Этот пожар бесспорно вызовет утром панику. He is always liable to do idiotic things. От него всегда можно ожидать какую-нибудь идиотскую выходку. A girl is apt to be little nervous on her wedding day. Любая девушка, вероятно, нервничает в день своей свадьбы. You are not likely to believe my story. Вы наверняка не верите моему рассказу. III. The for-to-Infinitive Construction In the for-to-infinitive construction the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case introduced by the preposition for. The doer of the action expressed by the infinitive is different from that of the finite verb. e.g. He longed to see the truth. He longed for me to see the truth. All I want is to get out of here for good. All I want is for Jack to get out of here for good. The for-to-infinitive construction has the same functions as the single infinitive. This construction presents syntactical complexes, such as: 1. a complex subject: e.g. For you to come here is impossible. Вам нельзя сюда приходить. It is extremely funny for me to be consoling you. Чрезвычайно забавно, что я вас утешаю. 2. a complex predicative: e.g. That is for me to decide, is it not? Мне решать, не так ли? That was for him to find out. Выяснить это должен был он. 3. a complex object: e.g. She had waited for the moon to rise. Она подождала, когда поднимется луна. 262

He asked for the papers to be brought. Он попросил принести бумаги. I am very anxious for him to succeed in everything he undertakes. Мне очень хочется, чтобы ему удавалось все, за что он берется. Eric saw that she was impatient for him to be gone. Эрик видел, что она с нетерпением ожидает, когда он уйдет. 4. a complex attribute: e.g. There is nobody for him to play with. Здесь ему не с кем поиграть. He had even had a comfortable house for her to live in. У него даже был удобный дом, где она могла бы жить. 5. a complex adverbial modifier of a) purpose: e.g. He stepped aside for me to pass. Он отошел в сторону, чтоб я могла пройти. She paused for him to continue. Она замолчала, чтобы он продолжил. b) consequence (result): e.g. But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede. Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать. He spoke loud enough for you to hear. Он говорил достаточно громко, чтобы вы могли его услышать.

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THE GERUND

I. The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. It is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. The grammatical meaning of the gerund is that of a process. If the meaning of the gerund is nearly the same as that of the noun, the former emphasizes the process, and the latter – the fact: e.g. Thank you for helping me. Thank you for your help. 1. The verbal character of the gerund is revealed: A) morphologically, in the categories of voice and perfect, and B) syntactically, in its combinability. A) The gerund has only two grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect. Active Passive running --Non-perfect taking being taken having run --Perfect having taken having been taken a) The category of perfect. The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb. e.g. No one could pass in or out without being seen. Никто не мог ни войти, ни выйти так, чтоб его не видели. Gwendolen will not rest without having the world at her feet. Гвендолен не успокоится, пока весь мир не будет у ее ног. The perfect gerund denotes an action prior to that expressed by the finite verb. 264

e.g.

He was ashamed of having shown even the slightest irritation. Ему было стыдно, что он проявил раздражение, хотя и очень слабое. She had been crying out of anger at having been driven so hard. Она плакала от обиды, что с ней поступили так жестоко.

The non-perfect gerund may denote a prior action thanks to the lexical meaning of the verb or the preposition suggesting priority, so the non-perfect gerund is generally used after verbs of recollection, gratitude, blame, reproach, punishment and reward (to remember, to excuse, to forget, to thank, to forgive, etc.) and after prepositions on (upon), after and without. e.g. I don’t remember hearing the legend before. Я не помню, что я когда-либо слышала эту легенду раньше. You must excuse my not answering you before. Вы должны извинить меня за то, что я не ответил вам раньше. I thank you for restraining me just now. Я благодарен вам за то, что вы сейчас помогли мне сдержаться. On leaving the house we directed our steps to the nearest shade. Выйдя из дома, мы отправились в тень. Tom, after reflecting a little, gave a long sigh. Том, после недолгого раздумья (подумав немного), глубоко вздохнул. She walked on without turning her head. Она шла, не поворачивая головы. However, when the priority is emphasized, the perfect gerund is used. e.g. And all of a sudden David remembered having heard the name before. He came back after having been away for about ten years. 265

The non-perfect gerund expresses a succeeding action after verbs, adjectives and prepositons implying reference to a future event (such as to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, to look forward to) and after the preposition before. e.g. I insist on being treated with a certain consideration. We are looking forward to visiting new places. Ann suggested going to the cinema. I am not keen on getting myself into trouble. We met once more before parting. The same form occurs after such nouns as hope, intention, plan, prospect, etc. e.g. There is some hope of catching the last train. Есть надежда успеть на последний поезд. b) The category of voice. The gerund of transitive verbs possesses voice distinctions. Passive e.g. Active I hate interrupting I hate being interrupted. people. Терпеть не могу мешать Терпеть не могу, когда людям. мне мешают. I am not used to talking I am not used to being in that way. talked to in that way. Я не привык в таком Я не привык, чтобы со тоне разговаривать. мной в таком тоне говорили. He entered without The door opened without having knocked at the having been knocked on. door. Он, нe постучавшись, Дверь открыли, не вошел. постучавшись. The perfect passive gerund is very rarely used. It is noteworthy that after the verbs to need, to deserve, to require, to want and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the active voice, though it is passive in meaning. 266

e.g. This house wants painting. Этот дом нужно покрасить. Your hair needs cutting. Вам нужно постричься. The child deserves praising. Этот ребенок заслуживает похвалы. They were not worth saving. Их не стоило спасать. B) The gerund may combine: a) with a noun or a pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object, depending on the verb it is formed from; b) with an adjective or a noun as a predicative; c) with an infinitive. Gerunds can be modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases functioning as adverbial modifiers. e.g. It’s no use arguing about trifles. Не стоит (нет смысла) спорить по пустякам. There is some chance of his being able to join us. Есть шанс, что он сможет присоединиться к вам. We enjoyed walking slowly along the silent streets. Мы наслаждались медленной прогулкой по тихим улицам. 2. The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly in its syntactical function, partly in its combinability. Like a noun, it can function as subject, object, or predicative. e.g. Seeing you is always a pleasure. (subject) I remember seeing you somewhere. (object) I am thinking of seeing the film again. (prepositional object) Peter’s hobby is seeing all new films. (predicative) When it is an attribute or an adverbial modifier, a gerund, like a noun is preceded by a preposition. 267

e.g.

There is a chance of catching the train. Есть возможность успеть на поезд. Don’t forget to call me up before leaving London. Не забудь позвонить мне до отъезда из Лондона. I reached my goal in spite of there being every reason against it. Я добился своего (достиг своей цели) вопреки всем аргументам.

The fact that the gerund can associate with a preposition is a sure sign of noun features. Like a noun, but unlike the other non-finites, it can combine with a possessive pronoun and a noun in the genitive case denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund. e.g. Excuse my interrupting you. I insist on Ann’s staying with us. It combines with the negative pronoun no in the idiomatic construction of the type: There is no getting out of it. It is no use arguing with him. II. The syntactical functions of the gerund. The gerund can perform any syntactical function typical of a noun. It may function a) alone, without modifiers, b) as the headword of a gerundial phrase, c) as part of a gerundial predicative construction. A gerundial phrase consists of a gerund as a headword and one or more words depending on it. A gerundial construction contains some nominal element denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund and the gerund itself with or without some other words depending on it. The verbal element of the construction (the gerund) is in predicate relation to the nominal element of the construction.

268

e.g.

Sally hated the idea of borrowing and living on credit. (а gerundial phrase ) Сама мысль: занять деньги и жить в долг – была неприятна Салли. Forgive my speaking plainly. (а gerundial construction) Простите, что я говорю так прямо.

The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in different ways: 1). if it denotes a living being it may be expressed a) by a noun in the genetive case or by a possessive pronoun. e.g. Do you mind my smoking? I remember Tom’s telling me that story once. b) by a noun in the common case or by a personal pronoun in the objective case. e.g. I rely on Tom (him) doing it in time. Do you mind me smoking here? In this case the ing-form has a function intermediate between that of the gerund and participle I. In the first example the action (the verbal element of the construction) is emphasized. In the second example the doer of the action (the nominal element of the construction) is emphasized, and the ing-form reminds us of the participle. (Compare: I saw him doing it.). Such an ing-form may be called a half-gerund. There are cases when the nominal element of the construction, though denoting a living being, cannot be expressed by a noun in the genetive case. e.g. I object to Mary and Jane going out on such a windy day. Did you ever hear of a man of sense rejecting such an offer? Слышали ли вы когда-нибудь, чтобы разумный человек отказался от такого предложения? 269

2). if it denotes a lifeless thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common case or by a possessive pronoun. e.g. I said something about my clock being slow. Я сказала, что мои часы отстают. Peggotty spoke of my room, and of its being ready for me. Пегготи говорила о моей комнате и о том, что ее для меня уже подготовили. 3). The nominal element of the construction can also be expressed by a pronoun which has no case distinctions, such as all, this, that, both, each, something. e.g. I insist on both of them coming in time. Я требую, чтоб они оба пришли вовремя. Again Michael was conscious of something deep and private stirring within himself. Майкл опять почувствовал, что в его душе шевельнулось что-то глубокое и затаенное. Gerundial constructions (complexes) is nearly always rendered in Russian by a subordinate clause, generally introduced by то, что; тем, что; как, etc. Since the functions of gerundial constructions are identical with those of single gerunds or gerundial phrases, we shall treat them together. The gerund may function as 1. subject. As a rule the gerund as subject stands in front position. e.g. Talking mends no holes. Разговоры не помогают в беде. Waiting for the Professor was a lame excuse for doing nothing. То, что мы ждали профессора, было слабым оправданием тому, что мы ничего не делали, His being a foreigner, an ex-enemy was bad enough. То, что он был иностранец, бывший неприятель, было уже плохо. 270

The subject stands in postposition in sentences opening with an introductory it or with the construction there is and the predicate is a phrase such as to be (of) no use (no good, useless), to make all the (no) difference. e.g. It is no use talking like that to me. Бесполезно говорить со мной в таком тоне. There was no mistaking the expression on her face. Выражение ее лица нельзя было не понять. It will make no difference your being quiet. Ваше спокойствие ничего не изменит. Well, there is no avoiding him now. Ну, сейчас от него не избавиться. There is no accounting for his strange behaviour. Его странному поведению нет объяснения. 2. predicative. e.g. His first job was getting her tea. Ее первым делом было принести ей чай. The only remedy for such a headache as mine is going to bed. Единственное средство от такой головной боли, как у меня, - это лечь спать. 3. part of a compound verbal predicate. a) Combined with verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, or the end of an action, the gerund forms part of the compound verbal aspect (phasal) predicate. The most common phasal verbs are: to stop to continue to begin to give up to go on to start to leave off to keep on to cease to finish to burst out e.g.

She began sobbing and weeping. On hearing the joke everybody burst out laughing. Isabella ceased speaking They stopped arguing. 271

b) Combined with verbs and verb phrases denoting modality, such as to intend, to try, to attempt, and with can’t help, the gerund forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate. e.g.

Joseph couldn’t help admiring the man. We intend going to Switzerland and climbing Mount Blanc.

Note. The verbs to begin, to start, to continue, to intend, to try, to attempt may also be followed by an infinitive. A gerundial predicative construction cannot form part of a compound verbal predicate. 4. direct object. The gerund can be used as direct object a) to verbs associated only with the gerund such as: to put off to imagine to admit to appreciate to look forward to to resent to require to mention to avoid to risk to mind to delay to suggest to miss to deny to understand to need to excuse to want (= to need) to postpone to fancy can’t stand to practise to forgive e.g.

I delayed breaking the news, even to George. Я не спешил сообщать новость кому-либо, даже Джорджу. Avoid using very long sentences. Старайтесь не употреблять очень длинные предложения. Fancy us (our) having to walk a mile in a wind like this! Даже представить себе не могу, что придется идти целую милю пешком при таком ветре. I am sorry that I missed seeing you! 272

Жаль, что я вас не заметил! Do you mind Ann’s joining us? Вы не против, если Анна присоединится к нам? We all appreciate your helping us. Мы все ценим вашу помощь. She denied having been at the station that evening. Она отрицала, что была на станции в тот вечер. He enjoyed thinking of her as his future wife. Ему доставляло удовольствие думать о ней, как о своей будущей жене. Forgive my speaking plainly. Простите, что я говорю так прямо. She couldn’t help smiling. Она не могла не улыбнуться. b) to the adjectives like, busy and worth. e.g. Ada was busy packing. Ада была занята тем, что упаковывала вещи. The bridal party was worth seeing. Свадьбу стоило посмотреть. I don’t feel like going out. Мне не хочется выходить. c) to verbs which may be associated with both the gerund and the infinitive, such as: to remember to intend to enjoy to recollect to neglet to detest to propose to omit to forget to plan to (dis)like can’t bear to prefer to hate can’t afford to regret to have e.g. I hate being idle (to be idle). Терпеть не могу ничего не делать. I can’t bear your (you) being so sad. Не могу выносить, когда ты такая печальная. I don’t like interrupting people. 273

Не люблю мешать людям. I prefer walking home (to taking a bus). Предпочитаю ходить пешком (чем ездить на автобусе). After verbs taking an object the gerund, or rather a gerundial phrase or construction, is preceeded by an introductory object it. e.g. I find it strange our going without you. Я нахожу странным, что мы поедем без тебя. I think it no use your (you) arguing about trifles. Я считаю, что вам бесполезно спорить из-за пустяков. 5. prepositional object. The gerund is used as prepositional object a) to such verbs as to depend on to accuse of to devote to to agree to to help in to approve of to insist on to assist in to object to to blame for to consist in (заклю- to persist in to prevent from чаться) to praise for to complain of to punish for to count on to congratulate smb. on

to rely on to sentence for to speak of to stop from to succeed in to suspect of to thank for to think of

e.g. Happiness consists largely in having true friends. Счастье заключается в том, чтобы иметь верных друзей. All depends on the doctor being sent for in time. Все зависит от того, пошлют ли за доктором вовремя. Who will help me in hanging these pictures? Кто поможет мне повесить эти картины? They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans. Меня обвиняют в том, что я сотрудничал с немцами. 274

b) to such adjectives and participles II (used mostly predicatively) as: proud of fond of accustomed to surprised at guilty of absorbed in sure of ignorant of afraid of responsible for indignant at astonished at sorry about keen on aware of tired of overjoyed at busy in used to (dis)pleased at conscious of capable of e.g. He was not aware of Becky’s having married Rawdon. Он не знал, что Бекки вышла замуж за Родона I am very fond of being looked at. Мне очень нравится, когда на меня смотрят. I am well used to travelling. Я привык путешествовать. We were surprised at your leaving the party. Мы были удивлены, что вы ушли с вечеринки. 6. attribute. When used as an attribute, the gerund modifies nouns, mainly abstract nouns. It is always preceded by a preposition, in the vast majority of cases by of, as in the following combinations: the art of teaching the habit of speaking a certain way of walking a chance of seeing smb. e.g.

a hope of getting a ticket an idea of going to the cinema the impression of flying etc.

There is a chance of catching a train. Есть возможность успеть на поезд. He was born with the gift of winning hearts. У него был прирожденный дар покорять сердца. Presently there was a sound of the car being brought to the door. 275

Вскоре послышался звук машины, подъехавшей к дверям. She had a feeling of having been worsted. У нее было чувство, что над ней одержали верх. Lucy had the impression of being carried upstairs. У Люси было впечатление, что ее отнесли наверх. The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of the air. Барометр – это инструмент для измерения давления воздуха. I had no difficulty in getting the tickets for the concert. Я без труда достал билеты на концерт. She felt a strange certainty of being watched. Она испытывала странную уверенность в том, что за ней следят. There was no possibility of taking a walk that day. В этот день не было возможности пойти на прогулку. In some cases the choice of the preposition depends on the requirement of the modified noun, as in surprise at, experience in, skill in, apology (excuse) for, objection to, etc. e.g. The boy showed his skill in building model boats. Мальчик проявил умение конструировать корабли. Imagine his surprise at seeing me. Представьте себе его удивление, когда он увидел меня. A gerund as attribute may precede the noun it modifies in phrases bordering on a compound noun, it is used without a preposition, as in a dancing hall (a hall for dancing) a cooking stove (a stove for cooking) 7. adverbial modifier. Owing to the variety of prepositions the gerund may be used a) as adverbial modifier of time with the prepositions on (upon), in, at, after, before, since. 276

e.g.

One day, on returning to his hotel, he found a note in his room. Однажды, вернувшись в отель, он обнаружил в номере записку. And I’ll wash the dishes and clean up before coming to bed. А я помою посуду и все уберу перед тем, как пойду спать. I had had a lot of thoughts since leaving the office. Я много о чем передумал с тех пор, как ушел из конторы. Upon waking I found myself much recovered. Проснувшись, я почувствовал себя значительно лучше. In quitting the room he paused once more at my desk. Выходя из комнаты, он еще раз остановился у моего письменного стола. Clare turned at hearing her footsteps. Услышав ее шаги, Клер оглянулась. After reaching the second landing I heard a sound of quiet and regular breathing on my left-hand side. Дойдя до лестничной площадки второго этажа, я услышал спокойное и ровное дыхание с левой стороны.

b) as adverbial modifier of reason (cause) with the prepositions of, for, from, for fear of, on account of, through, owing to. e.g. So you see I couldn’t sleep for worrying. Итак, вы понимаете, что я не мог спать из-за беспокойства. We lost ourselves through not knowing the way. Мы заблудились, так как не знали дороги. I dared not attend the funeral for fear of making a fool of myself. Я не смел присутствовать на похоронах, так как боялся поставить себя в глупое положение. 277

c) as adverbial modifier of manner with the prepositions by, in or without. e.g.

She startled her father by bursting into tears. Она, внезапно расплакавшись, напугала своего отца. She dressed without making a sound. Она бесшумно оделась. The day was spent in packing.

d) as adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances with the preposition without. e.g. They danced without speaking. Они танцевали и не разговаривали. The door opened without having been knocked on. Дверь открыли, не постучавшись. e) as adverbial modifier of concession with the prepositions in spite of. e.g. In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her. Несмотря на свою занятость он сделал все, чтобы ей помочь. I don’t ask any questions in spite of there being a lot of questions to ask. Я не задаю ни одного вопроса, хотя вопросов много. f) as adverbial modifier of condition with the prepositions without, but for, in case of. e.g. He has no right to come bothering you and papa without being invited. Он не имеет право приходить и надоедать тебе и папе, если он не приглашен. But for meeting John, I shouldn’t have become a teacher. Если бы я не встретила Джона, я бы не стала учительницей. You won’t enrich your vocabulary without making use of an English dictionary. Вы не обогатите ваш словарный запас, если не будете пользоваться английским словарем. 278

7g) as adverbial modifier of purpose with the preposition for. e.g. They took her to the station for questioning. Они забрали ее в участок для допроса. One side of the gallery was used for dancing, Одна сторона галереи была использована для танцев. h) as adverbial modifier of substitution with the preposition instead of. e.g. Instead of worrying he took a deep breath of the crisp air. Вместо того, чтобы беспокоиться он…. i) as adverbial modifier of exception with the preposition except, but, with the exclusion of. e.g. She liked all sporting events except diving. The Gerund and the Infinitve Compared The gerund and the infinitve have much in common since they both have some nominal and some verbal features. However, in the infinitive the verbal nature is more prominent, whereas in the gerund the nominal one. The basic difference in their meaning is that the gerund is more general, whereas the infinitive is more specific and more bound to some particular occasion. With a number of verbs and word-groups both the gerund and the infinitive may be used. The most important of them are: to fear to be afraid to propose to forget to begin to regret to cease to remember to hate to continue to recollect to intend can (can't) afford to start to like (dislike) to dread, to stop to neglect to prefer

279

1. With the verbs and word-groups to like, to hate, to prefer, to be afraid of and also to begin, to start the gerund expresses a more general or a habitual action, the infinitive a specific single action. e.g. I hate interrupting people. Очень не люблю мешать людям. I hate to interrupt you, but I have to. Не хочется вам мешать, но придется. They prefer staying indoors when the weather is cold. Они предпочитают оставаться в помещении, когда холодно. I’d prefer to stay at home in this cold weather. В такой холод я предпочитаю остаться дома. She began singing when a child. Она начала петь еще ребенком. She went over to the piano and began to sing. Она подошла к пианино и начала петь. No gerund is used: a) when the finite verb is in the continuous form. e.g. He is beginning to study French. It’s beginning to rain. b) with the verbs to understand and to see (meaning to understand) e.g. He began to understand how it was done. c) when the subject denotes a thing, not a living being. e.g. The doors began to creak. The clock began to strike. 2. The verbs to remember, to forget and to regret are followed by a gerund when it means a prior action (to recall, to keep in one’s memory some past event), e.g.

I remembered posting the letters. Я помню, что послал письма. I shall never forget hearing him sing. Я никогда не забуду как он пел. 280

I regret not having worked harder at the language as a boy. Я сожалею, что не учил языка как следует в детстве. I regret following his advice. Я сожалею, что последовал его совету. and by an infinitive when it means a simultaneous action. e.g. I remembered to post the letters. = I remembered and posted. Я не забыл опустить письмо. Don’t forget to post the letters! Не забудь опустить письмо! I didn’t forget to post the letters. Я не забыл опустить письмо. I regret to inform you. С сожалением сообщаю вам это. I regret to have to inform you. Сожалею, что вынужден сообщить вам это. 3. After to stop the gerund is used when it suggests the end of the action denoted by the gerund, whereas the infinitive is used as an adverbial of purpose. e.g. Stop arguing! Перестань спорить! I stopped talking. Я замолчал. I stopped to talk to a friend оf mine. Я остановилась, чтобы поговорить с другом. 4. The verb to allow is used with the gerund when it is not followed by an indirect object. e.g. They don’t allow smoking here. Здесь нельзя курить. They allowed us to smoke. Они разрешили нам курить.

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The Gerund and the Verbal Noun Compared The gerund should not be confused with the verbal noun which has the same suffix –ing. The verbal nouns can denote concrete things (landing – лестничная площадка) or abstract notions, including actions (beginning – начало, singing – пение). The main points of difference between the gerund and the verbal noun are as follows: 1. Like all the verbals the gerund has a double character – nominal and verbal. 2. The gerund is not used with an article.

1. The verbal noun has only a nominal character.

3. The gerund has no plural form.

3. The verbal noun may be used in the plural. e.g. Our likings are regulated by our circumstances.

4. The gerund of the transitive verb takes a direct object. e.g. I like doing morning exercises.

4. A verbal noun cannot take a direct object; it takes a prepositional object with the preposition of. e.g. She was rallying her nerves to the reading of the paper.

5. The gerund may be modified by an adverb.

5. The verbal noun may be modified by an adjective or may be associated with pronouns such as some, any, a lot of, etc. e.g. She had an attack of violet sobbing.

e.g. Drinking, even temperately, was a sin. 282

2. The verbal noun may be used with an article. e.g. There was a knocking at the door. I want you to give my hair a good brushing.

THE PARTICIPLE

The participle is a non-finite form of the verb. There are two forms of the participle – participle I and participle II, traditionally called the present participle and the past participle. Participle I I. Participle I is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character. It is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. The verbal character of participle I is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and perfect, and syntactically in its combinability. Thus, like the other verbals, it: a) may take a direct object. e.g. Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her. We didn’t utter a word while listening to the story b) may be modified by an adverb. e.g. Rising early, you’ll make your days longer. Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. Deeply affected, he rose and left the room. The adjectival and adverbial features of participle I are manifested in its syntactical functions as an attribute and an adverbial modifier. e.g. Arriving at the station, she saw him at once, leaning against the railing. (adverbial modifier, detached attribute) I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (attribute) Having garaged his car, he remembered that he had not lunched. (adverbial modifier). II. The grammatical categories of participle I. 1. The category of perfect. The category of perfect in participle I is expressed in the contrast of the non-perfect and perfect forms. 283

The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by participle I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb. e.g. He returned to his hut, bringing in his arms a new-born lamb. Он вернулся в хижину, неся на руках новорожденного ягненка. He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer. Он смотрел на ковер, ожидая ее ответа. Sometimes participle I non-perfect denotes an action referring to no particular time. e.g. The last turning had brought him into the high-road leading to Bath. После последнего поворота они вышли на дорогу, ведущую в Бат. Participle I non-perfect may denote a posterior action, immediately following the first action, forming its part or being its result. e.g. Lizzy left the room, banging the door shut. Лиззи вышла из комнаты, с шумом захлопнув дверь. John fell, hurting his knee. Джон упал и ушиб колено. There may be a lapse of time between the first and the second action. e.g. We left at dawn, returning late. Мы уехали на заре и вернулись поздно. The perfect form of participle I indicates that the action denoted by participle I is prior to that denoted by the finite verb. e.g. They were, indeed, old friends, having been at school together. Они и в самом деле были старыми друзьями, так как вместе учились в школе. Having reached the classroom, she became the object of many questions. Когда она вернулась в класс, ее стали засыпать вопросами. 284

Immediate priority is usually expressed by non-perfect participle I if it is formed from terminative verbs, such as a) verbs of motion: to come, to enter, to arrive, to turn, to leave, to pass, to cross, to open, etc. e.g. Arriving at the station, he found his train gone. Leaving the house, Andrew continued his round. Turning the corner, you’ll see the house you are looking for. b) verbs of sense perception: to see, to hear, to find. e.g. Hearing a noise in the garden, I looked out of the window. Finding him so friendly, I asked for the pen and ink aand paper, to write to Peggoty. c) verbs of certain specific actions associated with motion: to put, to put on, to take, to take off, to seize, to grasp, to open. e.g. Taking off our shoes, we tiptoed into the nursery. Putting on his hat, he took his leave. But the perfect participle of the same verbs is used when there is a lapse of time between the two actions, or when the action denoted by the participle is durative. e.g. Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her. Having seen the girl only once, I didn’t recognize her. Not having seen her for a long time, I didn’t recognize her. Sometimes the perfect participle is used to emphasize priority. e.g. Her husband, finding the right key, fits it into the lock of the bureau. Having found the place he sought, Bateman sent in his card to the manager. As seen from the above examples non-perfect participle I denoting a prior action usually precedes the predicate verb. When it denotes a posterior action, it usually stands after the predicate verb. 285

In both cases it corresponds to the Russian perfective adverbial participle (деепричастие) (приехав, повернув, услышав, сняв, хлопнув, вернувшись). 2. The category of voice. Participle I of transitive verbs, both non-perfect and perfect, has active and passive forms. e.g. Passive Active When writing letters Being written in pencil the he does not like to be letter was difficult to make out. disturbed. Когда он писал Трудно было разобрать написанное письма, он не любил, письмо, чтоб его беспокоили. карандашом. Having written some Having been written long letters he went to post ago the manuscript was illegible. them. Написав несколько Написанную много лет писем, он пошел их назад рукопись было очень трудно прочитать. отправить. III. Syntactical functions of participle I. Participle I performs the syntactical functions characteristic of the adjective and the adverb, and can therefore be used as attribute, predicative, or adverbial modifier. It may be used: a) alone e.g. Let sleeping dogs lie. Не буди спяшую собаку. (Не буди лихо, пока оно тихо). He drank his coffee standing. Он стоя выпил кофе. b) as headword of a participial phrase, e.g. There are some other people waiting for you. Еще несколько людей ждут вас. The youth looked at him curiously, never having seen a Forsyte with a beard. 286

Юноша с любопытством смотрел на него, так как никогда прежде не видел Форсайта с бородой. c) as part of a predicative construction. e.g. We found him working in the garden. Мы застали его за работой в саду. Participle I can function as: 1. attribute In this functon participle I non-perfect, active is used. It corresponds to the Russian imperfective participle, usually active. Participle I passive corresponds to the Russian imperfective passive participle: leading – ведущий being asked – спрашиваемый asking – спрашивающий being translated – переводимый sleeping – спящий being built – строящийся Participle I non-perfect, passive is very seldom used as an attribute. Participle I perfect, active and passive is not used attributively. In this function participle I can be in pre-position and in post position, i.e. it can precede the noun it modifies and follow it. Participle I in pre-position hardly ever has accompanying words. e.g. There was nothing to be seen or heard, not even a barking dog. He cocked an inquiring eye at him. Participle I as an attribute in pre-position differs from the gerund in the same function. The noun serves as the subject of the action expressed by the participle, as in a living man = a man who lives a burning house = a house that is burning a dancing girl= a girl who is dancing (or dances) The gerund suggests a destination of the object or a person’s occupation, as in writing paper = paper for writing a dancing hall = a hall for dancing a singing teacher = a teacher of singing 287

There is also difference in stress patterns. There are two stresses in the pattern with the participle – a `burning `house – the second being the main stress, while in the pattern with the gerund only the first (gerundial) element is stressed – a `dancing hall. If there are two stresses, the first component has the main stress – a `speaking `habit, a `writing `career. Participle I in post-position as a rule has one or several accompanying words e.g. The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted. Забор, окружающий сад, свежевыкрашен. We admired the stars twinkling in the sky. Мы любовались звездами, сверкающими в небе. In many cases an attribute expressed by participle I is detached, i.e. it acquires a certain independence in the sentence; the connection between the attribute and the word it modifies is loose. A detached attribute is usually separated by a comma. e.g. The wardrobe was empty, except for one dress, swinging on a hanger. В гардеробе ничего не было, кроме одного платья, покачивающегося на вешалке. The door was opened by one of the servants, bearing an envelope. Дверь была открыта одним из слуг, принесшим конверт. It is noteworthy that participle I in the function of an attribute cannot express priority. It is rendered in English by an attributive clause. e.g. I’ve just talked to the students who have come back from their practice. Я только что поговорила с вернувшимися с практики студентами,. I talked to the students who came back from their practice last week. Я разговаривала со студентами, вернувшимися с практики на прошлой неделе. The woman who had been standing on the porch went 288

into the house. Женщина, стоявшая на крыльце, вошла в дом. But: I addressed the woman standing on the porch. (simultaneous action) Я обратился к женщине, стоящей на крыльце. 2. adverbial modifier a) of time Participle I as adverbial modifier of time may denote a simultaneous or a prior action. Participle I non-perfect is usually used with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to enter, to seize, to look out, to turn, to walk, to go, to sit, to lie, to stand and others even when priority is meant. (see above) e.g. Ann…hearing his step, ran to the foot of the stairs to meet him. Услышав его шаги, Анна побежала вниз по лестнице, чтоб встретить его. Entering her room that evening, she found a packet for herself on the dressing-table. Войдя вечером в свою комнату, она нашла сверток на туалетном столике. Turning slowly she went to her room. Медленно повернувшись, она пошла в свою комнату. To emphasize the meaning of simultaneousness the conjunctions when and while are used. e.g. While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face over the stove. Don’t forget articles when speaking English. Note. Participle I non-perfect of the verb to be is not used as an adverbial modifier of time. Clauses of the type “Когда он был ребенком”, “Когда он был в Ленинграде”…may be translated “When a boy”, “When he was a boy”, “When in Leningrad”, “When he was in Leningrad” 289

Participle I passive in this function usually denotes priority. e.g. Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence for some time. Оставшись одни, мы с Полин некоторое время молчали. Participle I perfect as adverbial modifier of time always denotes a prior action. e.g. They wrote because they had to, and having written, thought only of what they were going to write next. Они написали, потому что должны были, а написав, только и думали о том, что же им писать дальше. b) of reason (cause). Participle I as adverbial modifier of reason (cause) can be expressed by all the four forms: non-perfect and perfect, active and passive. The most frequently used non-perfect participles I are those of verbs denoting mental perception and emotions, for example: knowing, remembering, realizing, expecting, hoping, fearing; also the participles being and having. e.g. Hoping to catch the train, we took a taxi. В надежде успеть на поезд мы взяли такси. Being there, I could see everything. Будучи там, я мог все видеть. I turned back, not knowing where to go. Я повернул назад, не зная, куда идти. Even then he hadn’t been able to watch her, not having eyes in the back of his head. И даже теперь он не мог следить за ней, так как у него не было глаз на затылке. c) of attendant circumstances. The main grammatical meaning of non-perfect participle I is the function of the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. In this case participle I denotes an action or event parallel to the action or state denoted by the finite verb.

290

e.g.

She was silent, fidgeting with the spoon in her saucer. Она молчала, нервно водя ложкой по тарелке. I laughed, and still laughing turned away eastward. Я засмеялся и, все еще смеясь, повернулся и пошел на восток.

d) of manner. e.g. They walked by the lake holding hands. Они гуляли около озера, держась за руки. She balanced herself on the curbstone and began to walk carefully, setting heel to toe, heel to toe. Она встала на край тротуара и осторожно пошла вперед, переступая с пятки на носок, с пятки на носок. Participle I as an adverbial modifier of manner is akin to an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. The difference consists in the fact that an adverbial modifier of manner characterizes the action of the finite verb, whereas that of attendant circumstances denotes a parallel action or state. It is not always easy to discriminate between an adverbial modifier of manner and an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. e.g. He came in carrying a big parcel. Он вошел, неся большой сверток. He has been in three revolutions fighting on the barricades. Он участвовал в трех революциях, сражаясь на баррикадх. d) of comparison. In this function participle I is introduced by the conjunction as if or as though. e.g. Lena gave me a long look as though seeing me for the first time. Лена посмотрела на меня долгим взглядом, как будто впервые видела меня. She stopped speaking as if waiting for him to speak. 291

Она перестала говорить, словно ждала, что он заговорит. Much of the afternoon I looked out of the window, as if thinking, but not really thinking. …будто бы думая о чем-то, но, в действительности, ни о чем не думая. e) of condition. e.g. Oh, do go upstairs, Lizzy! You’ll only catch a cold, hanging around the passage. …если будешь болтаться в коридоре. She ought to be there and her absence might be resented, but being there she wouldn’t know what to say. …но если бы она там была, она не знала бы, что сказать. f) of concession. When participle I is used as an adverbial modifier of concession the conjunction is not obligatory and then the idea of concession may be understood from the context, however the conjunction will make it clearer. e.g. But why did he marry her, feeling as he did about everything? Но почему же он на ней все-таки женился, раз все это чувствовал? Somebody was waiting: a man who, though moving irregularly, was making speed in my direction. ….человек, который, хоть и неровно, но все быстрее шел в мою сторону. Note. The Russian не+деепричастие may correspond to the English without + gerund or not + participle. It corresponds to not + participle if it is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of cause (reason). e.g. Not knowing Miss Betsy’s address, David could not write to her. Не зная адреса мисс Бетси, Давид не мог написать ей. 292

If не+деепричастие is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances and of condition, it corresponds to without + gerund. e.g. David left London without telling anybody about it. Давид уехал из Лондона и никому не сказал об этом. The boys could not leave Salem House without asking for permission. Мальчики не могли уйти из Салем хауса без разрешения. 3. as predicative. In this function only non-perfect participle I is used. The participle gives the qualitative characterization to the subject. e.g. The story is amusing. Your answer is surprising. Participle I may be used with other link-verbs. e.g. Isidora remained standing. Исидора осталась стоять. It sounded exciting. 4. as part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation. e.g. Presently other footsteps were heard crossing the room below. Вскоре они услышали, что через комнату внизу прошел еще кто-то. 5 . as part of a complex object. e.g. I saw that young man and his wife talking to you on the stairs. Я видел, как этот молодой человек и его жена разговаривали с вами на лестнице. 6 . as parenthesis. Here we always find a participial phrase; a single participle is not used in this function. 293

e.g.

Generally speaking, 1 don't like boys. Judging by appearances, Mr. Bowmore looked like a man prematurely wasted and worn by the cares of a troubled life. Participle II

I. Participle II is a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. Participle II stands apart from the other nonfinites in that it does not possess their morphological categories. The main meanings of participle II are those of a state as a result of some action or an action itself. One of the most essential characteristics of participle II is that when it is used as part of the sentence, participle II of a transitive verb is passive in meaning, participle II of an intransitive verb is active. Thus the participles invited, told, taken are semanticaily passive and correspond to the Russian passive participles приглашенный, рассказанный, взятый. The participles arrived, gone, risen are semanticaily active and correspond to the Russian active participles прибывший, ушедший, поднявшийся (взошедший) The adjectival nature of participle II reveals itself in its function in the sentence, which is usually that of either attribute or predicative. It may combine with adverbs of degree typical of adjectives, such as very, too, slightly, so, much, more, as in: e.g. I am very pleased with you. The children were too excited to notice the newcomer. No man has ever had a more devoted sister than I. Instead of the negation not, which we find with the other nonfinites, participle II is often negated with the prefix un-, as in unfinished, unanswered. Participle II may turn into adjectives with qualitative meaning synonymous with other adjectives, as in celebrated - famous, tired – weary.

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Similar to adjectives and participle I, participle II may form adverb with the help of the suffix -ly: fixedly, unhurriedly, admittedly. The adjectival nature of participle II is traced in adjectivized participle with a form different from the verbal participle II. These forms occur as attributes in such phrases as on bended knees, a drunken man, a lighted match (candle, torch), molten lava (lead, steel), a rotten apple, a shaven head, a well-shaven man, sodden clothes, sunken eyes, a swollen river. Some forms are used predicatively: to be well-stricken in years (престарелый), poverty-stricken (бедствующий), to be panic-stricken (охваченный паникой), but (thunder-struck, theatre-struck). The verbal character of participle II is manifested in its combinability. Thus participle II of transitive verbs easily combines with a by-object denoting the doer of the action as in Jane entered the room followed by her brother. Participles II of phrasal verbs retain their composite structure: a boy brought up in a teacher's family. Participles II of prepositional transitive verbs are followed by the appropriate prepositions: a book often asked for, the article referred to, a man much spoken of. Ditransitive verbs keep their second object as in: That was the main question asked her at the wedding. Participle II may be accompanied by an adverbial modifier expressed by adverbs or phrases combining with verbs: a house built two years before, man hidden in the bush, a play well acted, a story long forgotten. One of the main verbal features of participle II is revealed in its functioning as part of the compound verb forms of the passive voice and the perfect.

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II. The Functions of Participle II in the Sentence. 1. Participle II as an attribute. When used as an attribute Participle II of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in -en, as a broken chair (сломанный стул), a broken cup (разбитая чашка), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета издаваемая в Москве), the problem discussed at the meeting (вопрос обсуждавшийся на собрании). Participle II of intransitive verbs which denote passing into a new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. However, only in a few cases Participle II of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly Participle II of the verbs to fade, to wither, to retire, to fall, to vanish, as faded leaves (увядшие листья), a withered flower (засохший цветок), a retired colonel (отставной полковник), a fallen star (упавшая звезда), the vanished jewels (пропавшие драгоценности). e.g. A man in torn and dusty clothes was making his way towards the parked car. I always throw broken cups away. They sat on a fallen tree that made a convenient seat. The withered leaves came showering down. The retired colonel practiced what he preached. Participle II, as well as Participle I, can be used in preposition (without any accompanying words) and in post-position (with one or more accompanying words). e.g. He answered through the locked door. Он ответил из-за запертой двери. They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit up with Chinese lamps. Они свернули в большую оранжерею, красиво освещенную китайскими фонариками. An attribute expressed by Participle II may be detached; in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier: e.g. The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the bell. 296

Экономка вышла из своей комнаты, привлеченная неистовым звоном колокольчика. Accompanied by his father and Steger, he ascended to his new room. В сопровождении отца и Стеджера, он поднялся в свою комнату. 2. Participle II as an adverbial modifier. In this function Participle II is preceded by the conjunctions when, while, if, as if, as though, though, etc. It is generally rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. Participle II can be an adverbial modifier: a) of time. . e.g. When questioned Annie had implied vaguely that she was anxious about her brother-in-law. Когда Энни стали расспрашивать, она дала понять, что беспокоится о своем шурине. b) of condition. e.g. It was a dreadful thing that lie now proposed, a breach of the law which, if discovered, would bring them into the police court. c) of comparison. e.g. As if torn with inner conflict and indecision, he cried. Он плакал, как будто его мучили внутренняя борьба и сомнения. Mr. Kantwise shook his head as though tost in wonder and admiration. Мистер Кэнтуаиз покачал головой, словно переполненный чувством удивления и восхищения. d) of concession. e.g. Her spirit, though crushed, was not broken. Хотя она и была подавлена, но она не была сломлена.

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e) reason: e.g. Deprived of his wife and son by the Spanish adventure, Jolyon found the solitude at Robin Hill intolerable. Разлученный с женой и сыном из-за приключения в Испании, Джолион находил невыносимым уединение в Робин Хилле. 3. Participle II as a predicative. e.g. In spite of himself, Val was impressed. На Вэла это произвело впечатление, помимо его воли. The inner gate was locked, and the lodge closed Внутренние ворота были заперты, и помещение привратника закрыто. 4. Participle II as part of a complex object. e.g. She has found me unaltered. Она нашла, что я ничуть не изменился. Predicative Constructions with the Participle In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the participle: the Objective Participial Construction the Subjective Participial Construction the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. e.g. In the next berth she could hear her stepmother breathing heavily. Ей было слышно, как на соседней койке тяжело дышит ее мачеха. 298

The participle breathing is in predicate relation to the noun stepmother, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle. In the Objective Participial Construction Participle I nonperfect active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object. It usually corresponds to a subordinate object clause in Russian. The Objective Participial Construction may be found: a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc. e.g. Then he looked out of the window and saw clouds gathering. Потом он выглянул из окна и увидел, что собираются тучи. I heard my wife coming. Я услышал, что пришла моя жена. She could feel her hands trembling exceedingly. Она чувствовала, как у нее страшно дрожат руки. The dog heard his name pronounced through the open door. Собака услышала, как из-за открытой двери произнесли ее имя. He felt himself clutched by the collar. Он почувствовал, что его схватили за воротник. You will probably find your sister grown, Bella. Вы, наверняка, обнаружите, что ваша сестра выросла, Белла. b) after some verbs of mental activity, such as to consider, to understand. e.g. I consider myself engaged to Herr Klesmer. Я считаю себя помолвенной с господином Клесмером. c) after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish, to desire. In this case only Participle II is used. e.g. The boss wants it done quick. Босс хочет, чтоб это было быстро сделано. 299

d) after the verbs to have and to get; after these verbs only Participle II is used. In this case the Objective Participial Construction shows that the action expressed by the participle is performed at the request of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence. Thus I had the piano tuned means 'I made someone tune the piano'. e.g. I had my coat altered. Я переделала пальто. He had several bottles of wine brought. Ему принесли несколько бутылок вина. You can get your clothes made in Europe. Вы можете заказать себе одежду в Европе. In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb to do is used: e.g. Why don't you have your hair waved? Почему вы не сделаете себе завивку? Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the participle. e.g. The wounded man had his leg amputated. Раненому ампутировали ногу. The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle I) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence. In rendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence is generally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal.' The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation. e.g. They were heard talking together. Было слышно, как они разговаривали. The horse was seen descending the hill. 300

Видно было, как лошадь спускалась с холма. Then Bathsheba's footsteps were heard crossing the room. Было слышно, как Батшеба прошла через комнату. This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense perception. In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case; the noun or pronoun is not the subject of the sentence. e.g. The door and window of the vacant room being open, we looked in. Так как дверь и окно пустой комнаты были открыты, мы заглянули в нее. In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction Participle I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This construction is generally rendered in Russian by means of an adverbial clause. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier: a) of time. e.g. The lamp having been lit, Mrs. Macallan produced her son's letter. Когда зажгли лампу, миссис Макаллан достала письмо от сына. This duty completed, he had three months' leave. Когда эта работа была закончена, он получил трехмесячный отпуск. b) of cause. e.g. It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went upstairs. Так как было довольно поздно, мы взяли свечи и пошли наверх. A knock had come to the door, and there being nobody 301

else to answer it, Clare went out. Послышался стук в дверь,и так как больше некому было открыть, Клер вышел. We were walking by ourselves for an hour, George having remained behind in the hotel to write a letter to his aunt. Мы гуляли одни в течение часа, так как Джордж остался в отеле, чтобы написать письмо тете. c) of attendant circumstances. In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is mostly placed at the end of the sentence e.g. He turned and went, we, as before, following him. Он повернулся и пошел; мы, как и прежде, последовали за ним. One morning he stood in front of the tank, his nose almost pressed to the glass. Однажды утром он стоял перед витриной, почти прижавшись носом к стеклу. In rendering it in Russian деепричастный оборот is used.

a

coordinate

clause

or

d) of condition. In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction occurs but seldom and is almost exclusively used with the participles permitting and failing. e.g.

Weather (time, circumstances) permitting, we shall start tomorrow. Если погода (время, обстоятельства) позволит, мы поедем завтра. Conciliation failing, force remains; but force failing, no further hope of conciliation is left. Если не удается достигнуть примирения, приходится применять силу; но если сила не помогает, не остается никакой надежды на примирение. 302

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very often occurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this construction in colloquial English is rare. The Absolute Participial Construction may be introduced by the preposition with and is then called the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. It is in most cases used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. This construction is rendered in Russian by a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот. e.g. They were walking on again, with Hugh calmly drawing at his pipe. Они снова пошли вперед; Хью спокойно покуривал трубку. The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixed on the ground. Дочь сидела молча и неподвижно, опустив глаза в землю. Note. There are two types of absolute constructions in which we find no participle. The second element of the construction is an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb. The Nominative Absolute Construction It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time or attendant circumstances. In the function of an adverbial modifier of time this construction is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. e.g. Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. Когда кончили завтракать, он пошел в свою контору. In the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the Nominative Absolute Construction is rendered either by a coordinate clause, деепричастный оборот, or a noun (pronoun) with the prеposition c. 303

e.g.

Manston went homeward alone, his heart full of strange emotion. Мэнстон отправился домой один; душа его была переполнена странными чувствами. There he stood, his face to the south-east, his cap in his hand. Он стоял, повернувшись к юго-востоку, с шапкой в руке.

Mind the difference between the meaning of the following constructions: The lesson (concert, lecture) over... The lesson (concert, lecture) being over.. The lesson over has a temporal meaning, whereas The lesson being over has as a rule a causal meaning. The Prepositional Absolute Construction It is mostly used in the function of аn adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. In rendering this construction in Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот is used. e.g. I found him ready, and waiting for me, with his stick in his hand. Он был готов и ждал меня; в руке у него была палка. Sikes, with Oliver's hand still in his, softly approached the low porch, and raised the latch. Сайкс, все еще не выпуская руку Оливера из своей, подошел потихоньку к невысокому крыльцу и поднял щеколду. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the Nominative Absolute Construction are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon. e.g. Grandcourt rose and strolled out on the lawn, all the dogs following him. Mr. Tulkinghorn comes and goes pretty often; there being estate business to do. 304

Participle I and the Gerund Compared Participle I and the gerund are alike in their verbal characteristics, both morphological (the categories of voice and perfect) and syntactical (verbal combinability). The difference between the two lies in their non-verbal characteristics, that is in their syntactical functions and non-verbal combinability. Participle I, unless substantivized, cannot be used as subject or object, whereas such use is typical of the noun and therefore of the gerund. When used as adverbial modifier or attribute, participle I like an adjective or an adverb is never preceded by a preposition. On the other hand when the gerund is used as attribute or adverbial modifier it is preceded by a preposition like a noun in these functions. The difference between the two is also to be found in the nominal tendencies of the gerund and the adjectival tendencies of participle I. This is most evident in their function of a predicative and an attribute. As predicative participle I gives qualitative characteristics to the subject, thus tending towards an adjective, as in: The sound of the thunder was deafening. The gerund does not qualify the subject, it rather identifies the subject by revealing its meaning, as in: His favourite occupation is collecting stamps (or playing football or just football). When a gerund or a participle is used as an attribute, the difference between them does not lie only in the absence, or presence of the preposition, but also in their relationship to the modified noun. Participle I denotes an action that the person or thing performs or experiences: What is the name of the man talking to your sister? Thus the modified noun denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle. The gerund usually reveals the meaning of the modified noun, which never denotes the performer of the action. e.g. What the use of crying so? That was my last chance of seeing him. 305

When used as an adverbial modifier, the gerund is more varied in its application than the participle because it is used with different prepositions. The participle and the gerund are interchangeable when used as adverbials of time characterizing the verb through simultaneous or prior events: e.g. Discussing the plan… (participle I) In discussing the plan… (gerund) Entering the room… (participle I) On entering the room… (gerund) Only the gerund is possible when the starting or the final point of the action is meant, as in: e.g. He has never been at his native town since leaving it in 1964. You must get your parents' permission before leaving for the mountains. Yet there are a number of cases, especially among predicative constructions, where the ing-form may be treated either as a participle or a gerund, the difference between them being neutralized, as in: e.g. I don't count on him scaring easily. Then he was aware of Toscato shaking the door of the box. I remember them staying with us once. Fancy him saying so!

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THE ARTICLE The article is a structural word specifying the noun. The absence of the article also specifies the noun and has significance. There are two articles in English which are called the definite and the indefinite article. The use of articles, as well as their absence, has, generally, grammatical meaning and falls under definite rules. The Indefinite Article 1. The indefinite article has the forms a or an and is used with countable nouns, both concrete and abstract, when we wish to name an object (a thing, a person, an animal or an abstract notion), to state what kind of object is meant. The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant: a book, a town. The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel: an apple, an orange. e.g. He gave her a cigarette and lighted it. There came a tap at the door, and a small elderly man entered the room, wearing a black cap. They are of an age. 2. At the same time, owing to its origin from the numeral one, the indefinite article always implies the idea of oneness (единичность) and is used only before nouns in the singular. The idea of oneness may sometimes become quite prominent. It occurs in the following cases: a) a hundred, a thousand, a minute, a mile, etc. b) after the negative not – not a word, not a trace, not a thought, etc. c) in some set phrases – one at a time, at a draught (as in: He emptied his glass at a draught), a stitch in time saves nine, etc. 307

3. When the speaker uses the indefinite article, he just names an object which is usually new to the hearer. So the indefinite article is often used to introduce a new element in the sentence. e.g. I think he is a stupid fellow. Presently the Browns arrived. They brought with them a small child, a governess and a dog. The table was covered with a white cloth. The indefinite article is used with nouns accompanied by pre- or postmodifying attributes. e.g. It is a very interesting novel. It is a novel by a modern writer. It’s a teenager novel about American boys. It is an exciting novel which is very suitable for staging. But: It is the novel our teacher mentioned at the last lesson. 4. With uncountable nouns, the indefinite article serves to bring out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. In this case the noun is usually qualified by an attribute which also brings out a special aspect. e.g. A dull burning anger rose in his chest. He had almost a supernatural courage. 5. With nouns considered to be unique. In this case the noun is usually associated with a descriptive attribute indicating a special aspect: a full moon, a pale moon, a brilliant red sun, a dark blue sky, etc. e.g. Beyond the closed window the moon rode up, a full and brilliant moon. A pale, crystalline sky arched over the valleys. The Definite Article 1. When used with countab1e nouns, either concrete or abstract, the definite article has two distinct functions. It may be used with singular and plural nouns to show that the noun denotes a particular object (a thing, a person, an animal or an 308

abstract notion) or a group of objects as distinct from the others of the same kind. In other words, the definite article serves to single out an object or several objects from all the other objects of the same class. This function is called the individualizing function of the definite article. e.g. The car stopped. Paul got out and stretched himself. As we stood on the steps, we felt the smell of fallen leaves coming from the garden. Margоt took up the telephone. 2. The definite article may also have the generic function with countable nouns. With nouns in the singular it serves to indicate that the noun becomes a composite image (собирательный образ) of the class. e.g. The tiger has always had the reputation of being a maneater. The linguist is interested in the form and meaning of all possible statements in a language. 3. With uncountable nouns, the function of the definite article may be called restricting. The definite article restricts the material denoted by a concrete uncountable noun to a definite quantity, portion or to a definite locality (a); it also restricts the abstract notion expressed by an uncountable noun to a particular instance (проявление понятия в данном случае) (b). e.g. a) He slowly pulled on his gloves, concentrating on each fold in the leather. As we came out into the cold damp air, she shivered. b) The work seemed to consist chiefly of interviewing young women for jobs in department stores. I did not wish to betray the anxiety I felt. Absence of the Article 1. The absence of the article has only one function with common nouns which is synonymous with the function of the indefinite article, i.e. it has the nominating function. This function 309

of the absence of the article may be found with countable nouns in the plural. e.g. Marion came round the corner of the house, wearing gardening gloves and a very old skirt. My mother gave me some pennies to buy apples or a magazine. She had a splitting headache and took an aspirin and sleeping pills. 2. The nominating function of the absence of the article is also found with uncountable nouns, both abstract and concrete (names of materials). e.g. Last night I felt friendship and sympathy for Henry, but today he has become an enemy. Life goes on, changeless and ever changing. Winterbourne asked for water and drank thirstily. The place smelt of dust. The Use of Articles with Countable Nouns General Rules for the Use of Articles with Countable Nouns 1. Countable nouns in the singular may be used with the indefinite article in its nominating function and with the definite article in its individualizing function. e.g. They couldn't travel without a car there. While her suit-case was being taken out of the car, she looked round. He shut the door behind his wife and handed me a cigar. I didn't enjoy the cigar because it was damp. In the plural, countable nouns may be used without any article or with the definite article. e.g. They couldn't travel without cars there. While their suit-cases were being taken out of the cars, they looked round. He shut the door behind his wife and handed us cigars. We didn't enjoy the cigars because they were damp. 310

Note: Notice the use of the noun things in the meaning of circumstances, conditions, events in general, the present state of affairs. It is always used without any article in this meaning. e.g. Your refusal will only make things worse. Things aren't going very well at the firm. I told him that you've let things slide for long enough. Your father is making a mess of things. You take things too seriously. I must think things over. 2. Since the choice of articles is determined by the context or the general situation, we should take into consideration attributes modifying the noun. Attributes are generally divided into two classes: limiting and descriptive. A limiting attribute indicates such a quality or characteristic of an object (or a group of objects) which makes it distinct from all other objects of the class. e.g. She lost her temper: "It's the most unpleasant thing you've ever told me." She sat listening but the sound of her pounding heart covered any other sound. Alice smiled to him and took the letter he held out to her. A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object (or a group of objects) or give additional information about it. This kind of attribute does not single out an object (or a group of objects) but only narrows the class to which it belongs. e.g.

He wrote a novel. He wrote a good novel. He wrote a good historical novel.

Nouns modified by limiting attributes are used with the definite article. 311

Nouns modified by descriptive attributes may be used with either the indefinite or the definite articles, as the choice of articles for countable nouns is not affected by this kind of attribute e.g. He was going to build a new house. Shortly after he moved to the new house, he fell ill. We shall take a road going through the forest as it won't be so hot there. We shall take the road going through the forest as it is a short cut. 2. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by adjectives. Attributes expressed by adjectives are usually descriptive. e.g. She drove an old car. His office was in a fine, gay, busy little street. Descriptive attributes do not affect the choice of articles. Thus we may find a noun modified by a descriptive attribute used, with the definite article. e.g. The woman looked at me shrewdly and there was a glint of humour in the dark eyes. We lay lazily on the steep bar, looking at the tall reeds. The definite article in this case is accounted for by the situation but not by the attribute. Note. Notice that the adjective pronouns all and whole are to be treated as descriptive attributes. The use of articles with nouns modified by these attributes is determined by the situation. e.g. All children like ice-cream. All the children watched the game with excitement. He never stayed a whole evening with us. He spent the whole evening watching the telly. The adjective pronoun such is also a descriptive attribute, but, unlike all and whole, it is never combined with the definite article. e.g. Your father is such a handsome man. I'm not prepared to believe such things about my son. 312

But adjectives may become limiting attributes when contrast is implied. In this case they are marked by stronger stress. e.g. Will you pack my things for me? I want the little suitcase as I'll be away only one night. She saw a car pull up at the curb with two women in it. The younger woman asked her the way to the railway station. Adjectives in the superlative degree, however, are always limiting attributes. e.g. She was the smartest girl in the room. "The most dangerous person of all is my uncle," the young man whispered. Note 1. Notice the difference between the following constructions. e.g. He's the most experienced doctor I know. Он самый опытный врач. He's a most experienced doctor. Он очень опытный врач. Note 2 The combination a best suit (выходной костюм) and a best seller (ходкая книга) are to be regarded as set phrases. Some adjectives, adjective pronouns and adjectivized ingforms always serve as limiting attributes. The most important of them are: right (тот который нужен правильный) and wrong (не тот), very, only, main, principal, central, left and right, same, coming, following, present, former (первый) and latter (последний). e.g. It just seems to be the wrong way to go about it. My chief is the right man in the right place. The questions you ask are the very questions I am putting myself. My mother was the only person whom I told what had happened. My relatives take a very grave view of the present situation. 313

Besides, there are other adjectives which commonly, though not always, serve as limiting attributes, e.g. proper (надлежащий, правильный), previous, opposite, necessary, so-called, adjacent, usual, upper, lower, and some others. Note 1: An only child is to be regarded as a set phrase (единственный ребенок у родителей). e.g. She is as spoiled as if she were an only child. But She was the only child present in the drawing-room. Note 2: Nouns modified by the adjectives next and last are generally used with the definite article. e.g. We shall probably eat at the next table to him. My father had not read the last seven pages of the book. But when these adjectives modify nouns denoting time, actually coming or just past from the point of view of the speaker, there is no article at all. e.g. He said: "No, you can't see her. She went to London last week." He said: "I am determined not to spend more than ten pounds on my clothes next year and so I'll manage by myself." It must be noted that in narration there is a fluctuation in the use of articles with nouns modified by next. We find either the definite article or no article at all. e.g. We had not been sitting long in the drawing-room before Mr March was arranging a time-table for the next day. I sent her a wire and she met me at the station next day. Note 3: Notice the difference in the use of articles with nouns modified by the adjective pronoun other. The definite article is used with a singular noun modified by other if there are only two objects of the same description. 314

e.g.

He pulled on the other glove and said he would run along to his office.

If there are more than two objects of the same description, the indefinite article is used (another). In this case another has three meanings: еще один, любой другой, and не такой, иной. e.g. Could I have another cup of tea? "You can do as well as another man," he said. When I came back I found him in another mood. The definite article is used with a plural noun modified by other if there are a definite number of objects divided into two definite groups. e.g. Of the three people invited by her for the weekend, one had already arrived. Her husband wanted to know when the other guests were expected. My mother needed me more than the other members of the family In this case "the other guests", "the other members", etc. means "the rest". If some objects are divided into two groups and either one of the groups or both of them are indefinite, there is no article. e.g. I was thinking of other people in the same position. Her brothers, as a rule, could not make themselves good friends to other men. In this case "other people", "other men", etc. means “другие”. The same rules are applied to other when it is used as a noun pronoun. e.g. He drove with one hand, and used the other to draw diagrams in the air. Young Martin was first sent on an errand to the grocer, then on another to the butcher. Then Katherine remembered about her mail: ”The only letter I've opened is my husband's. Lewis, will you fetch in the others?" 315

When people say they do not care what others think of them, for the most part they deceive themselves. Note 4: Notice also that the other day (недавно на днях) is to be regarded as a set phrase. 3. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by numerals. Cardinal numerals always serve as descriptive attributes. e.g. He had refused three invitations to golf, his excuse to his friends being that he had no time. If a noun modified by a cardinal numeral is used with the definite article, this is accounted for by the situation or context. e.g. By candlelight the two men seemed of an age if indeed not of the same family. Ordinal numerals are usually limiting attributes. e.g. During the second week in October she met him in Oxford Street. However, when ordinal numerals are not used to indicate order but acquire the meaning of one more or another, the noun they modify is used with the indefinite article. e.g. They must have a third race to decide who is the real winner. After a moment's hesitation she added a fourth spoonful of sugar to her tea. Note I: The above mentioned rule does not apply to the numeral the first. The combination a first night (премьера) and a first prize are to be regarded as set-phrases. Note 2: It is important to remember the use of articles in the following patterns with nouns modified by cardinal and ordinal numerals: the third chapter but chapter 3 (three), the fifth page but page 5 (five). 316

5. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by participles. Attributes expressed by participles are placed either in preposition or in post-position to the noun they modify, like adjectives. e.g. They lived in a newly painted house. There was a faded photograph and an ash-tray on the desk. The use of the definite article in this case is usually accounted for by the context or the general situation. e.g. At the corner of the street there shone the lighted windows of a club. She collected the scattered pages of the letter and put it away into her desk. In post-position we usually find participle phrases but not single participles. They may be either descriptive (a) or limiting (b) attributes, according to the context or situation. e.g. a) It was a very small room, overcrowded with furniture. He took a medicine prescribed by the doctor. b) I adopted the tone used by my uncle Henry. At length I reached the sixth floor and knocked at the door numbered thirty-two. 6. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by ing-forms. Attributes expressed by ing-forms are placed either in preposition or in post-position to the noun they modify. When they are placed in pre-position, they are usually descriptive attributes. e.g. He looked at me with a mocking smile. He turned and saw a crying boy. In post-position the ing-form may be either non-prepositional or prepositional. We generally find phrases and not single ing-forms here. Both kinds of these phrases may be descriptive (a) and limiting (b) according to the context or situation. 317

e.g.

a) There was no answer and he sent a telegram saying that he needed some work done urgently. John had an odd way of looking at things. b) He took the path leading to the lonely cottage. He could not bear the thought of leaving her in such a state.

7. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by infinitives. Attributes expressed by infinitives tend to be descriptive. e.g. He willingly accepted an invitation to spend the weekend out of town. I made an attempt to smile. He suddenly felt an impulse to laugh. Yet, sometimes, depending on the situation or context, the infinitive may become a limiting attribute. e.g. They did not have the money to buy the house. That's not the way to speak to your parents. At last he forced himself to lie quietly on his back fighting the desire to answer back. 8. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by clauses. Nouns can be modified by two kinds of clauses: attributive (A) and appositive (B). A. Attributive clauses qualify the noun. They may be introduced by the relative pronouns who, whose, which and that, by the relative adverbs where, when and occasionally why or asyndetically. e.g. I will not describe the pictures that Strickland showed me. His pictures gave me an emotion I could not analyze. He wandered about the place like a man who has nothing else to do. 318

Note. Attributive clauses fall into two groups: 1) Some attributive clauses can be removed from the sentence without destroying its meaning. Clauses of this kind are called non-defining clauses and they are always descriptive and do not influence the choice of the article. So the use of the article is determined by other factors (the context and other attributes). e.g. She told me that she had discovered a wonderful young man, who was going to help her in the East End. She asked me a question, which I did not hear. On her sofa there was a note-book open, in which she was preparing her lessons for the term. When he at last got to the office, where he spent so many dull hours, he gave a sigh of relief. 2) Other attributive clauses are so closely connected with the antecedent that they cannot be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. Attributive clauses of this kind are called defining clauses and they may be limiting or descriptive, depending on the situation or context. When the attributive clauses are limiting, the definite article is used with the antecedent. e.g.

He took the cigarette that Robert offered him. I remembered what I used to feel about the young men Charles brought to the house. In the back of her mind was the memory that it was the city her friend came from.

When the attributive clauses are descriptive, the article with the antecedent is determined by the context or the situation. e.g. She stared at me with an expression that made me uncomfortable. "It's not a story I could tell anyone else, Harry," he said. As a girl my mother had expected a husband who would give her love and position. 319

B. Appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the noun. They can modify only certain abstract nouns, such as idea, feeling, hope, thought, impression, sense and the like. Appositive clauses are usually introduced by the conjunction that (что) and are similar to object clauses. e.g. He had the feeling that all his efforts proved to be futile. He put off the thought that he ought to have tackled the conversation differently. Appositive clauses are generally limiting attributes. e.g. "I am sorry", she said, and I had the impression that she meant it. The idea that he can be of use made him happy. I was annoyed by the sense that nothing intellectual could ever trouble him. Occasionally, however, the noun modified by an appositive clause is used with the indefinite article. e.g. She had an impression that Charlie was speaking to his cousin rather than to her. I had a growing feeling that time was running out. 9. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the common case. Attributes expressed by nouns in the common case are usually descriptive. e.g. There was a glass door leading into the passage. A silver tray was brought in with tea cups on it. He sat on a kitchen chair. When the modified noun is used with the definite article, this is accounted for by the situation, not by the attribute. e.g. At the study door he stopped for a moment. Lanny looked at the dining-room window and smiled. Sometimes, however, nouns in the common case may serve as limiting attributes. 320

e.g. At the Squaw valley Winter Olympics the Soviet team won 21 medals. The Hitler regime brought nothing but misery to the German people. In this case the attribute is usually expressed by a proper name and serves to show that reference is made to a particular object. 10. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the genitive case. The use of articles with nouns modified by nouns in the genitive case is specific: before we speak of the choice of the article it is necessary to find out to which element of the combination it refers. As has been said, there are two kinds of the genitive case: a). The specifying genitive which denotes a particular person or thing, as in: my mother's picture, the man's voice, the river's bed. In this case the article refers to the noun in the genitive case and is chosen in accordance with the general rules: e. g. the boy's books, the boys' books, a boy's books, boys’ books, Robert's books. Note: When the noun in the genitive case is a proper name, there is naturally no article. b). The classifying genitive which refers to a whole class of objects, as in: sheep's eyes, a doctor's degree, a mile's distance. In this case the article refers to the head-noun whereas the noun in the genitive case serves as a descriptive attribute. The article for the head-noun is chosen in accordance with the general rules. e.g. We had not walked a mile's distance when we saw the river. It was only a mile from the cottage to the nearest village but the mile's walk in the hot sun seemed very long to Jim. Is there a butcher's shop in the street? "I am looking for the butcher's shop," he said, "that used to be here when I was a child."

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As the article here refers to the head-noun, the noun in the genitive case may have the plural form and yet be preceded by the indefinite article, as in: a soldiers' canteen, a girls' school, a three miles' walk, a fifteen minutes’ break. e.g. Would you like to go to a soldiers' canteen and get some food? The College has a two years' course. 11. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by prepositional phrases. Attributes may be expressed by nouns with various prepositions. Depending on the context or the situation, they may be either descriptive (a) or limiting (b). e.g. a) But you must know that a marriage with a boy in a jazz band wouldn't last a year. A man under such circumstances is always very helpless. b) He always felt ill at ease among the callers at his sister's house. The darkness was almost complete, and the boats in the harbour were swaying to the rhythm of the sea's breathing. Within this type of attributes special consideration should be given to the so-called of-phrase which is very common. Of-phrases may serve as descriptive and limiting attributes. Descriptive of-phrases are recognized by clear-cut meanings. They denote: a) quality: a book of interest, a feeling of relief, a question of importance, a portrait of a girl, etc. b) quantity or measure: a temperature of 4-20°, a distance of three miles, a box of two tons, etc. c) composition: a group of children, a flock of birds, a party of twelve people, a team of hockey players, etc. d) material: a wall of glass, a ring of gold, a scarf of thick wool, etc. 322

e) content: a cup of tea, a bottle of milk, a packet of cigarettes, etc. f) age: a boy of five, a man of middle age, etc. g) size: a sailor of middle height, a building of enormous size, etc. Here also belong such combinations as: a friend of mine, a book of my own, etc. Nouns modified by descriptive of-phrases usually take the indefinite article. But the definite article may also be used and then it is accounted for by the context or by the situation. All other of-phrases are limiting and, consequently, the headnoun is used with the definite article. As limiting of-phrases express a great variety of meanings there is no point in classifying them. The most common types of combinations are: the invention of the radio, the house of my neighbour, the use of articles, the wife of a miner, the name of John, the foot of the mountain, the city of New York, the collar of a shirt, the smoothness of a new the position of a teacher, the colour of amber, machine, the shot of a gun, the shadow of a tree, the development of science, the outline of a boat. the roaring of the ocean, In some cases, however, the choice of the article is affected not only by the nature of the of-phrase but also by the following factors. a) If the head-noun denotes an object which is the only bearer of the property (признак) expressed by the of-phrase, the definite article is used: the president of the club, the glow of a lamp, the murderer of Caesar, the monitor of the group, etc. b) But if there are many objects of the same description, the indefinite article is used: a member of the club, a student of the group, a puff of wind, etc. Sometimes, however, the definite article is used alongside of the indefinite article, even if there is more than one object of the same description. This occurs when there is a definite number of component parts: the (a) leg of the table, the (a) wheel of the car, the (an) ear of а dog. 323

Certain Peculiarities in the Use of the Definite Article with Countable Nouns There are certain instances of the use of the definite article which are to be regarded as a matter of tradition: We often find the definite article used by reason of locality, i.e. with reference to objects that surround the speaker (or the people and things described by him). This usually refers to objects either indoors (e.g. the corner, the window, the table, the door, the wall, etc.) or out-of-doors (e.g. the stars, the street, the trees, the flowers, the houses, the leaves, the birds, the bees, etc). e.g. As I came up our street, I saw my mother and my brother waving from the window. The late sun streamed across the kitchen, and a patch of light danced on the wall. A bee buzzed among the flowers. The trees swayed to and fro under the grey sky. The gulls flew low over the barges. The noonday heat had even stilled the songs of the birds. It should be noted that this rule applies only to a limited number of nouns. The definite article is used with nouns denoting objects that are normally found in a particular place. It is taken for granted that the object is to be found there. For example, we normally expect to find a subject and a predicate in a sentence. Therefore in analysing the sentence The old man walked slowly we say: “The old man is the subject, walked is the predicate.” But we say: "Old is an attribute, slowly is an adverbial modifier of manner," as the secondary parts are not found in every sentence. When we speak about the cinema or the theatre we say: "I couldn't find my seat and asked the attendant to help me." In a café or a restaurant we say: "Let's call the waiter." In a department store we say: “Let's go to the men's clothing department." 324

The Generic Function of the Definite Article 1. A singular countable noun with a definite article may represent a whole class of objects, thus becoming a composite image of that class (but not a typical representative). A noun in this function is called a generic singu1ar. e.g. The violet is a lovely flower. The cuckoo is a lazy bird. The airplane has made the world a small place. Note 1: It is also sometimes possible to use the indefinite article in similar cases. e.g. A violet is a lovely flower. The indefinite article implies any representative of the class. Hence the use of the indefinite article is not equivalent to that of the definite article when the noun is used as a composite image of a whole class. Thus the indefinite article is not possible in the following sentences: e.g. Now the horse has been replaced by the tractor. "In this lecture I am going to speak about the article in English," said the professor. In other cases, however, when any typical representative of a class but not a composite image of that class is meant, only the indefinite article may be used. e.g. A passenger is allowed to take 20kg of hand luggage free of charge. Note 2: When the noun man is used in a generic sense, no article is found. e.g. Surely he had suffered everything that man can endure. The noun woman in a generic sense may be used with the definite article or without any article. e.g. He had always been interested in that mysterious being – the woman. Woman is man's helpmate. 325

The generic article is always found with collective nouns denoting social groups or classes. The article serves to emphasize the idea of collectivity, as in: the proletariat, the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy, the nobility, the gentry, the clergy, and the intelligentsia. The use of the generic singular is restricted in two ways: a) Only a semantically limited group of nouns appear to be used generically. We mainly find here names of animals, plants, professions and occupations, the nouns man, woman and child, collective nouns denoting social groups and, last but not least, scientific terms. Note: In particular, grammar terms may be also used generically. e.g. The noun may have different functions in the sentence. The article is a structural word specifying the noun. b) Generic singulars are mainly characteristic of scientific and literary prose where there is a need for generalization. That means that there is a stylistic restriction to the use of generic singulars. 2. The definite article is used with generic plurals but it is found only when the idea of collectivity is definitely emphasized, suggesting the whole body of, as in: a) the Russians, the Germans, the Italians, the Americans; b) the Communists, the peasants, the workers, the capitalists, the Tories, the aristocrats, the Liberals, the Catholics. e.g. The workers have nothing to lose but their chains. The Tories will not lift a finger to help the workers. As we see from the above examples, this use of the generic definite article is found with names of nationalities, representatives of political parties, classes, social groups and also religious beliefs. Note, however, that there is no article when not the whole body of but separate representatives are meant. e.g. Italians are often good singers. Brazilians are generally keen on football.

326

It should be stressed that the use of generic plurals is still more lexically restricted than that of generic singulars as it is found with a more limited number of semantic groups of nouns. Yet it is not restricted stylistically. Note 1: The noun people is used with the definite article when the idea of collectivity is emphasized. e.g. The people in our country are doing their best to ensure a lasting peace. But if the idea of collectivity is not uppermost in the mind of the speaker, there is no article at all. e.g. She was speaking with absolute certainty: "(All) People are selfish." Note 2: The noun public, which agrees with a plural verb, is also to be treated as a generic plural. It should be noted that it is always used with the definite article. e.g. The public were not admitted to hear the trial. It is not to be confused with the set phrase public opinion which is used without any article. e.g. Public opinion is becoming concerned in showing the Tory Government what it should not do. 3. The same generic use of the definite article is found with partially substantivized adjectives (e.g. the blind, the poor, the rich, the young, the old, etc.) This is also the case with some adjectives denoting names of nationalities (e.g. the British, the French, the Chinese, the Japanese, etc.). e.g. The class policy put forward by the Tories is a policy intended to benefit the rich at the expense of the poor. It is necessary to point out here that when not the whole body of but separate representatives are meant, a noun should be added. 327

e.g.

The young are often intolerant. "Ah, well! Young men can't help making fools of themselves," he said amiably.

Note: Adjectives followed by ones may have generic force and then they are used with the definite article. e.g. "It isn't the pretty ones that become good wives and mothers," said Jack. "The little ones always know a good man from a bad one," said the old woman. The Use of Articles with Countable Nouns in Some Syntactic Relations In some syntactic relations we observe certain peculiarities in the use of articles. This refers, in the first place, to the use of articles with nouns in the function of a predicative or an apposition. 1. As a rule, nouns used predicatively or in apposition take the indefinite article. It is used here in its nominating function in accordance with the general rule. It stands to reason that nouns in the plural have no article, e.g. Apposition Predicative I'm a socialist, of course," he "I'm sure you know Alfred Hard, a professor at London said. University," she remarked. All my friends were students My friends, all students then, often discussed the war. Nouns used predicatively or in apposition may have descriptive attributes, e.g. Predicative Apposition He was an extremely boring Hart, an uneasy nervous man, made a few sarcastic fellow. remarks. 328

2. The definite article, in accordance with its individualizing function, serves to show that the speaker or writer is referring to a definite person or object. As a rule, the noun in this case has a limiting attribute, e.g. Predicative Apposition Philip had been the hero Then Jack, the most impudent person there, interrupted me. of his childhood. In addition to this rule it should be mentioned that a noun in apposition is also used with the definite article when the speaker takes it for granted that the hearer knows the person in question. e.g. "What is it, Maty?" "It's Mr Hooker, the newspaper editor, he wants to see you." As the invited entered the house they were greeted by Elsie, the maid. 3. Nouns used predicatively or in apposition may have no article and that is one of the peculiarities of the syntactic functions in question. This is found in the following cases: a) when nouns used predicatively or in apposition denote a position (rank, state, post or occupation) which is, as a rule, unique. Note that the noun in this case usually has an of-phrase attribute, e.g. Apposition Predicative Mike Slattery was chairman Johnson, Superintendent of of the Republican county the Schools, received me in his office. committee. Occasionally the definite article is also used in such cases, e.g. Apposition Predicative I think we all realize that Mr So one day I took the Passant has been the leader of opportunity to talk to Mr Pyke, the assistant director of our group. the firm b) when nouns used predicatively or in apposition denote a relationship and stress is laid on the social position of the person

329

expressed by the subject (or the head-noun). The noun is usually modified by an of-phrase in this case, e.g. Predicative Mrs. Nelson was wife of the manager of the firm. He is heir to a rich manufacturer.

Apposition Margaret, daughter of a history professor, was working as secretary to a Labour member.

But normally we find the definite article here, Apposition Predicative She was the wife of a local Ann, the daughter of the landlady, cooked breakfast for tradesman. One of these young men the boarders. was the son of an eminent Then I was introduced to Tom, the nephew of our host. writer. Note: On the whole, with the nouns son and daughter used predicatively or in apposition we find the following three variants: 1) She is the daughter of a doctor (which is the most common variant expressing mere relationship); 2) She is a daughter of a doctor (which expresses the idea that the doctor has more than one daughter; the variant is not used unless this idea becomes prominent); 3) She is daughter of a doctor (which describes the social position of the person in question). c) A noun predicative is used without any article when it serves to denote a certain characteristic of the person indicated by the subject. The noun predicative is usually followed by enough here. (This case is not found with nouns in apposition.) e.g. He isn't fool enough to believe that sort of thing. She is woman enough to understand it.

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3. In English there are a number of verbs which in the Active Voice require the use of nouns as objective predicatives (a) and in the Passive Voice – as subjective predicatives (b). e.g.

a) They thought him a prig. They named the child John. b) He was thought a prig. The child was named John.

The number of verbs which can be used in sentences containing an objective or a subjective predicative expressed by a noun is limited. The most commonly used of them are: to appoint, to make, to choose, to elect, to think, to call, to name, to fancy, to imagine. The use of articles with nouns which serve as objective (a) and subjective (b) predicative is similar to that of predicative nouns and nouns in apposition. e.g. a) They appointed him a member of the delegation. We elected him an honorary member of the Committee. He fancied her the most wonderful woman in the world. They chose him chairman of the Society. They appointed him secretary of the new Committee. b) He was appointed a member of the delegation. He was elected an honorary member of the Committee. She was thought the most impudent little flirt in London. He was chosen chairman of the Society. He was appointed secretary of the new Committee Note: In the sentences: They took him prisoner He was taken prisoner They called him names He was called names we are dealing with set phrases. 331

4. The rules given for the use of articles with predicative nouns and nouns in apposition also hold good for nouns introduced by as. e.g. I regarded my uncle as a terrible tyrant. He meant it as a joke but forgot to smile. He went to the conference as the head of the delegation. As the only son of rich parents he was always well provided with money. He acted as interpreter for Mr March. They nominated him as Lord Treasurer of the Council. Although the use of articles with nouns introduced by as is, on the whole, similar to that with predicative nouns and nouns in apposition, there is a deviation from the general rule. When the noun introduced by as denotes an object which is not unique, the article is sometimes used and sometimes not. e.g. Rebecca was now engaged as (a) governess. The man had agreed to serve as (a) witness. Note: The above rules do not concern nouns introduced by as used for comparison. The articles are used in accordance with the general rules for countable nouns in this case. e.g. The city looked to him as brilliant as a precious stone. You were as white as the sheet in your hands. 5. When nouns denoting titles, military ranks, or posts are followed by a proper name they are used without any article, as in: Colonel Holmes, Doctor Smith, Professor Jones, Academician Fedorov, Lieutenant-General Rawdon, President Wilson, Prime Minister Churchill, Queen Elisabeth, King George, Lord Byron, Lady Windermere, Sir William, etc. In such combinations only the proper name is stressed.

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Note 1: We say: "The doctor has come." "The Prime Minister made an announcement yesterday." Note 2: Notice the use of the definite article in the following cases: the late Professor Smith, the celebrated playwright Osborne. Note 3: A foreign title followed by a proper name is used with the definite article: the Baron Munchausen, the Emperor Napoleon III, the Tsar Peter the Great. The article is not used with some nouns denoting relationship when they are followed by names of persons, as in: Aunt Polly, Uncle Timothy, Cousin John. Other common nouns, when followed by proper names, are used with the definite article, as in: the boy Dick, the student Smith, the painter Turner, the composer Britten, the widow Douglas, the witness Manning, the geologist Foster, the dog Balthazar, etc. In this case both the common noun and the proper name are stressed. Combinations as above are found not only with names of persons but also with lifeless things and abstract notions, as in: the planet Mars, the preposition 'on', the verb 'to be’, the figure '2', etc. e.g. Britten, the modern English composer... Turner, the celebrated English painter... Manson, a promising young actor... 6. The article is not used with nouns in appositive of-phrases when the head-noun denotes a title or a post. e.g. He was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. They nominated candidates for the post of President and Vice-President. He got the degree of Master of Arts. When I was a young man, the position of schoolmaster carried with it a sense of responsibility. 333

7. The article is not used in the following adverbial pattern, in which the same noun is repeated after the prepositions from...to, as in: from tree to tree, from street to street, from town to town, from day to day, etc. Such combinations, though they are built up on the same pattern, are to be regarded as free combinations (not set phrases) as the number of nouns thus used is practically unlimited. Note: Care should be taken not to confuse such free combinations with set phrases, which are somewhat similar to the above mentioned pattern but limited in number: a) from head to foot, from top to toe, from top to bottom, from, beginning to end, from South to North. (Here after the prepositions from... to we find two different nouns, not the same noun. The number of such units is limited.) b) hand in hand, arm in arm, shoulder to shoulder, face to face, day by day. (The same noun connected by different prepositions is repeated here. The number of such units is also limited.) 8. There is no article with nouns in direct address. e.g. How is my wife, doctor?" "Well, young man," said Eden with a smile, "what can I do for you?" 9. After the exclamatory what we find the indefinite article with singular nouns. e.g. "What a car!" she exclaimed. I thought what an unhappy man he must be! What a narrow-minded, suspicious woman Maria was! With plural nouns there is no article, in accordance with the general rules. e.g. What marvelous books you've got! It is noteworthy that no article is used after the interrogative what modifying a noun. e.g. What question did you want to ask me? 334

10. The definite article is found in the following patterns in which an of-phrase is preceded by one, some, any, each, many, most, none, all, several, the first, the last, the rest, the majority. e.g. “One of the letters is from Tom,” she said. Most of the lecturers had other jobs in the town. Several of the boys knew that my father had failed in business. At the end of each of the toasts George threw his glass into the fireplace. Compare the above given combinations with: one letter, most lecturers, several boys, etc. 11. There is a fluctuation in the use of articles in the following combinations: a sort of (a) man, a (the, some, what, this, that) kind of the sort of (a) man, (a) man, what sort of (a) man, a (the, some, what, this, that) type of (a) this sort of (a) man, man. that sort of (a) man, some sort of (a) man e.g. He showed us a new type of bulb. "What sort of a day have you had?" I asked him. I said: "It's not the sort of situation one laughs at." It was too dark to see what kind of a house it was. "What kind of car was it?" Ramsden asked. The more commonly found variant is the one without any article. The Use of Articles with Abstract Nouns 1. Abstract nouns, like concrete nouns, fall into two classes: countables and uncountables. 335

Among abstract countable nouns we find: answer, belief, conclusion, doubt, effort, fact, government, holiday, idea, job, lie, mistake, opinion, plan, promise, question, reply, principle, sentence, visit, word and many others. Countable abstract nouns are class-nouns. They may be used in the singular and in the plural. e.g. He had a brilliant idea. He always had brilliant ideas. I like their method of work. I like their methods of work. The class of uncountable abstract nouns includes such nouns as: anger, beauty, curiosity, excitement, freedom, grace, happiness, impatience jealousy, love, modesty, nervousness, pride, respect, strength, time, violence, work and many others. ' Uncountable abstract nouns are used only in the singular. It is sometimes difficult to draw a line of division between countable and uncountable nouns. Some abstract nouns are used in one meaning as countables and in another as uncountables: Uncountable Countable silence –– тишина, молчание a silence –– пауза decision –– решительность a decision –– решение kindness –– доброта a kindness –– доброе дело experience –– опыт an experience –– случай из жизни favour ––расположение, милость a favour –– одолжение failure –– неудача, провал a failure –– неудачное дело society –– общество a society –– организация, кружок nature –– природа a nature –– натура, характер grammar –– грамматика (наука) a grammar –– учебник по грамматике observation –– наблюдение an observation –– замечание 336

e.g.

They walked in silence along the path. After a long silence he began his story. She spoke with decision. You must carefully think before you take a decision. He is a wicked person who is insensible to kindness. If you write him you will be doing him a kindness. He has been doing this kind of work for many years, so he has a good deal of experience. It was an unpleasant experience and he didn’t speak of it.

There are also a number of abstract nouns which appear both as uncountables and countables without any noticeable change of meaning: difficulty, trouble, temptation, torture, reason and some others. Some of such nouns that generally tend to be uncountable are in certain constructions regularly used with the indefinite article. Here belong pleasure, pity, disappointment, comfort, relief, shame, disgrace and some others. They are found with the indefinite article when they are used as predicatives after a formal it as subject (a) or after the exclamatory what (b). e.g. a) It is a pleasure to see you It was a relief to know that she was safely home, b) What a disappointment! What a pity! 2. The use of articles with countable abstract nouns does not differ from their use with countable concrete nouns – in the singular countable abstract nouns are used with the indefinite or definite article; in the plural they are used without any article or with the definite article. e.g. He told the child a story. He told the child stories. The child knew the story he told. The child knew the stories he told. 337

3. As a general rule, uncountable abstract nouns are used without any article. e.g. Indifference and pride look very much alike, and he probably thought I was proud. I knew that generosity would have been wasted on him. There was sharpness in her bones, sharpness in her voice, sharpness in her eyes. She had attached herself to youth and hope and seriousness and now they failed her more than age and despair. Whether the indefinite article or no article is used depends on the character of the nouns in question — the indefinite article is used with countable nouns, both concrete and abstract, whereas with uncountable nouns there is no article at all. Cf.

When in distress people look for a friend. When in distress people look for friendship. His desire was simply for a companion. His desire was simply for companionship. 4. The definite article is used with uncountable nouns when they are modified by a limiting attribute, which may be expressed in different ways. e.g. He was in a state of the greatest excitement. They were surprised at the curious silence into which he had fallen. He jumped at the abruptness of the question. Sometimes the limitation is clear from the context. e.g. It was very still in the house. Suddenly a faint sound could be heard in the stillness The lights round the garden suddenly went out. In the darkness we felt lost. For a long time they walked without saying a word. Jim was the first to break the silence. The definite article is used here in its restricting function to denote a particular instance of the notion expressed by the noun. 338

5. The definite article is also found with substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions: the ordinary, the average, the beautiful the unusual, the supernatural, the extravagant, the unknown, the regrettable the normal, the grotesque, the unbearable, etc. e.g. You shouldn't think you're something out of the ordinary,” she said. "Do you believe in the supernatural?" he asked. 6. The indefinite article is used with uncountable abstract nouns when they are modified by a descriptive attribute which brings out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. The attribute may be expressed in different ways. e.g. A dull anger rose in his chest. There seemed to be a wonderful excitement everywhere in the world. There was a tenderness in his voice that moved her. She felt a bitter contemptuous hatred so strong that it blotted every other sense and emotion. She recognized a pleasant irony in his voice. "Didn't you feel a certain impatience?" they asked. His face had a calmness that was new to her. She had a natural grace that was very attractive. He had a patience which amazed his friends. The little bouquet of violets filled the air with a wild fresh sweetness. His new experience filled him with a singular enthusiasm. He was crushed by an overpowering sadness. After a time a loneliness fell upon the two men. There was a bitterness in her voice. (A loneliness means a certain loneliness and a bitterness means a certain bitterness here.) 7. Sometimes an uncountable abstract noun is used with an attribute and has no article. This seems to contradict the general rule, but it can actually be explained by one of the following reasons: a) the nature of the attribute and b) the nature of the noun, 339

a) In some cases the attribute does not bring out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. The attribute may express degree (great, perfect, sufficient, huge, tremendous, immense, sheer, utter, complete, infinite, endless, major and some others), or have some other meaning. Thus it may qualify the noun from the point of view of time: modern, ancient, impending eternal, daily, contemporary, further, final, original, nationality: English, French, etc., geography: Moscow, London, world, etc., authenticity: real, genuine, authentic, symbolic and some others as well as give it social characteristic: Soviet, proletarian, bourgeois, capitalist, racial, religious, etc. As these attributes do not express a special aspect, the nouns modified by them are used without any article. e.g. I have perfect confidence in him. She has great experience in her work. I'm sure your work will give you complete satisfaction. He had sufficient ability to carry out any complicated task. The reward had only symbolic value. I didn't think it had real importance. They talked about modern poetry. He was conscious of impending danger. It's three o'clock by Moscow time. Ron was particularly interested in ancient sculpture. Mrs. Peters, feeling instinctively that Greek architecture would leave her cold, excused herself from the excursion. [

Note: But the definite article is used with the combinations French poetry, modern art, American literature, German philosophy, Soviet science, etc. if there is a limiting attribute, as in: the Russian literature of that period, the French poetry of the 19-th century, etc. b) Some nouns are never used with the indefinite article. They are nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, and process, such as advice, assistance, encirclement, admiration, guidance, 340

permission, progress, recognition research, torture, work, information, approval, concern, trade (торговля) and some others. This rule also applies to the following nouns: weather, money, news, fun, nature, health and some others. e.g. I am not sure whether it is good news or bad. He was anxiously waiting for permission to begin his experiment. He felt honest admiration for his colleague. Note 1. It should be noted that in a considerable number of cases both factors, i.e. the character of the attribute and the character of the noun, are found together. e.g. She was making great progress. They promised Jackson further assistance. Note 2: Although the above mentioned nouns are never used with the indefinite article, they can be used with the definite article. e.g. He told me of the progress he was making. The news was so upsetting that she said she would not see anyone that night. Note 3: Notice the sentence patterns with the noun weather: e.g. The weather is fine (cold, etc.). What is the weather like today? If the weather changes ... We are having fine weather. What cold weather we are having! I wouldn't like to go out in such (bad) weather. They were discussing (talking about) the weather. The flight was cancelled because of (the) bad weather. Note 4: The noun wind is uncountable. e.g. There isn't much wind today. Yet it is regularly used with the definite article. e.g. The wind was blowing and it was cold. The wind is rising (falling). He ran like the wind. But if the noun wind is modified by a descriptive 341

attribute it is used with the aspective indefinite article. e.g. A cold wind was blowing from the north. For stylistic purposes it may be used in the plural, e.g. The cold winds blew the leaves off the trees. Note 5: Notice the sentence patterns with the noun life: e.g. Life goes on, ever changeless and changing. Life is worth living. They began a new life They were leading a happy life. The life he is leading now causes everyone distress. The life of our people... Life in our country... 8. Sometimes the use of articles with an uncountable abstract noun is affected by the syntactic function of the noun. a) Nouns in attributive prepositional phrases and in adverbial prepositional phrases of manner have no article even if they have descriptive attributes. Attributive prepositional phrases are usually introduced by the preposition of (other prepositions may also be found, but not often). e.g. His flush of anger died as he began to listen more attentively. An odd feeling of curiosity made him look through the keyhole. He awoke with a feeling of sharp anticipation. His face bore a look of cold disapproval. He had an unsatisfied hunger for knowledge. Adverbial prepositional phrases are usually introduced by the preposition with, sometimes in (other prepositions may also be found in this case, but not often). e.g. The old man looked at the boy with curiosity. He moved slowly, with deliberation. He turned round in annoyance, and then walked away. He began to speak with sudden heat. "You have seen it?" he asked with intense interest. Ann examined everything about her with great care. She kissed him with warm affection. 342

The tendency to use the noun in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases without any article is so strong that sometimes even countable nouns have no article in these functions. e.g. It is a question of principle, and it must be discussed before we take a decision. It was just a plain statement of fact. He refused to help us without apparent reason. He listened without remark while Robert poured out his heart to him. The young doctor was received in amiable fashion. The door closed without sound. He spoke with effort. However, care should be taken to remember that the use of the indefinite article is still the norm with a vast majority of countable nouns. The use of the definite article is generally associated with the use of limiting attributes modifying the noun. e.g. May I speak to you in the strictest confidence?" he asked. "No," said Eric after the slightest hesitation. He watched her go from group to group with the same ease. He trembled all over with the exertion of keeping himself upright. The use of the indefinite article appears to be optional — it seems to depend on the desire of the speaker to lay particular stress on the special aspect expressed by the attribute modifying the noun. Thus it would be correct to use the nouns in the following examples without articles in accordance with the general rule. e.g. He smiled at me with (a) grave sympathy. He walked in (a) solemn silence. In some cases, however, the use of the indefinite article is obligatory. It is always used in prepositional phrases in which the noun is modified either by the adjectives certain and peculiar or by an attributive clause. 343

e.g.

The girl interrupted him with a certain impatience in her voice She spoke to strangers with a peculiar intimacy. He gripped his hand with an abruptness that revealed his emotion. He entertained with an originality that pleased.

b) There is a tendency to use an uncountable abstract noun in the function of a predicative without any article even if the noun has a descriptive attribute. e.g. The result of the experiment had been dismal failure. "It was righteous punishment," he exclaimed. When they were together, it was pure happiness. I suspected that this was not just ordinary anxiety. Prepositional phrases in the function of a predicative are usually set phrases. Care should be taken to learn the use of the article in each case, e.g. to be in despair, to be in service, to be in power, to be of the opinion, to be of importance, to be out of control, to be in danger, to be out of danger, to be in a rage, to be in a good (bad) humour, to be at a loss, to be in a hurry, etc. The Use of Articles with Uncountable Concrete Nouns Names of Materials 1. Uncountable concrete nouns (names of materials) are generally used without any article. The absence of the article has the nominating function. e.g. These sleeping pills should be dissolved in water. She had nothing in the medicine chest but toothpaste and mouthwash and shampoo. A lot of European countries buy oil from the Soviet Union. 344

Unlike uncountable abstract nouns, names of materials are used without any article even if they are modified by a descriptive attribute. e.g. She said: "I knitted the socks myself of thick grey wool." I ticked off the names written in violet ink. He took out of his pocket an object wrapped in tissue paper. 2. The definite article in its restricting function is used with names of materials if they are restricted in their quantity or by reason of locality. e.g. The boss took up a pen and picked a fly out of the ink. Together they walked through the slush and mud. He observed everybody who came in, as they shook the thin watery snow from their hats and coats Note 1: Notice, however, that there is no restriction in such phrases and sentences as: e.g. a bottle of milk, a cup of tea The ground was covered with snow. The pond was covered with ice. Note 2: As is seen from the examples above, most uncountable concrete nouns are names of materials. However, there are a few other uncountable concrete nouns which are not names of materials (e.g. machinery, equipment, furniture and some others). The same rules of the use of articles are applied to them. e.g. She hoped she would save enough money to buy new furniture. The furniture they had was enough for a much bigger house. 3. Sometimes, owing to a change in meaning, names of materials become countable and as such they are used with articles in accordance with the rules for countable nouns. That means that they may then be used with the indefinite article. 345

Names of materials become countable nouns in the following cases: a) when various sorts of food products are meant, e.g. They are now giving you bad teas in the club. b) when a portion of food or drink is meant, e.g. If you want to please the boy, buy him an ice. We went into the pub and I ordered two whiskies. "A salad and two coffees will do," she said smiling. c) sometimes the change of meaning is quite considerable — the noun comes to indicate an object made of a certain material, e.g. A full glass of orange juice stood beside him. There was a tin of sardines on the table. Note: In the waters of the Pacific, the snows of Kilimanjaro or the sands of the Sahara the plural does not signify any change in meaning but is purely a stylistic device. The Use of Articles with Some Semantic Groups of Nouns There are certain semantic groups of nouns which are very common in English. These nouns are sometimes used as countables and sometimes as uncountables. Besides, they are often found as part of set phrases. As a result, the use of articles with these nouns has considerable peculiarities. They include the following semantic groups. I. Names of Parts of the Day To this group of nouns belong: day, night, morning, evening, noon, afternoon, midnight, dawn, dusk, sunrise, sunset, daytime, nightfall and the like. 1) When the speaker uses these nouns he often means a particular day, night, etc. and then naturally the definite article is used. e.g. The night was warm and beautifully still. He decided to spend the afternoon with his friends The weather was very cold on the day of his arrival. 346

Sometimes we find a descriptive attribute with nouns denoting parts of the day, but the definite article will still be used if the above mentioned limitation holds good. e.g. I could see a few faint stars in the clear night. I was not in a hurry, and walked along, basking in the warm evening. The definite article is also found with nouns denoting parts of the day used generically. e.g. He used to spend the morning lying about the beach. I often sat up the night with him and read to him to ease his pain. 2) When nouns indicating parts of the day have a descriptive attribute and are the centre of communication in the sentence they are used with the indefinite article. This use of the indefinite article is mainly found in the following sentence patterns. e.g. It had been a wet day; the pavements were glistening, though now the rain had stopped. It was a fine, warm night and Charles and I decided to walk home. On a hot September evening he strolled idly to the embankment. We were having tea in my room on a cold January afternoon. 3) Nouns denoting parts of the day have no article when they are used as predicatives. e.g. It was evening when he decided to lay his books aside and take a walk. It was nearly midnight and neither of us had eaten for a long It was dusk but I could see Henry walking across the field. However, if these nouns are used predicatively with a descriptive attribute the indefinite article is used (see point b) above). But the article is not used with nouns indicating parts of the day if they are modified by one of the following adjectives because the form a close sense-unit with them. 347

e.g.

It was early morning. It was broad day. It was high noon. It was late evening.

3) In numerous cases the use of articles with nouns denoting parts of the day can hardly be accounted for, as it has become traditional. This is found in the following cases. a) In some prepositional phrases either the definite article or no article is found. They are to be treated as set phrases. The definite article is used in: in the morning, in the evening, in the daytime, in the afternoon, in the night. No article is used after the prepositions at, by, about, past, before, after, towards, till, until, by noon at night past noon, at dawn, about midnight, by day before dawn, by night after sunset, by midnight etc. e.g.

I would take pills at night to make me sleep quickly, but I never found any pills that would keep me asleep till daylight. Rain was now falling in sheets as it so often did before dawn. After midnight I walked to the beach with him, sad to see him leave so soon.

b) There is no article with the nouns morning, day and dawn when they are used as subject to the verbs to break, to be at hand; the same is true of the nouns evening, night, dusk when they are followed by the verbs to fall, to gather, to set in, to be at hand, to come. e.g. Day was breaking when we set out. The sky was overcast and dusk fell early. Dawn was still breaking among the olives, silvering their leaves. 348

c) There is no article with nouns denoting parts of the day when they are modified by the names of the days of the week and the words tomorrow and yesterday. e.g.

She was here yesterday afternoon. I went to Aunt Milly's house on Friday evening. He spoke to Lin on the telephone on Thursday afternoon. I shall see him tomorrow morning. d) There is no article in the following phrases: from morning till night, all day (long) (to work) day and night, all night (through) in the dead of night, day after day, late at night night after night, day in day out,

But we say: all through the night and all through the day, early in the morning. e) There is a tendency to use the nouns denoting parts of the day without any article in attributive of-phrases. Yet, the definite article is used when a particular day, night, etc. is meant. e.g. He always woke up with the first sounds of morning. After the bombardment he couldn't recognize the street that had been so familiar to him at the beginning of the day. II. Names of Seasons To this group of nouns belong: winter, spring, summer and autumn. The use of articles with these nouns presents great difficulty because we find a good deal of fluctuation here. 1. The definite article is used with these nouns when reference is made to a particular winter, spring, summer or autumn present past or future, or to a season of a particular year. As a general rule, this limitation is clear from the situation or context, but it may 349

also be expressed by a limiting attribute. The nouns usually have the function of subject in this case. e.g. The summer was exceptionally trying in the town. The winter was very fine that year and we were very happy. The summer wore on. He was still working hard. The autumn of 1914 was very warm. But when these nouns are used as the subject to such commonly used verbs as to come, to begin, to approach, to set in, to come to an end, to be over, to pass and some others, either the definite article or no article is found. In this case reference may be made to a particular season or to any season in general. e.g. (The) winter came early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. (The ) summer was over but we had not heard from him yet. In those parts (the) spring usually sets in early. The same fluctuation is observed when names of seasons are used in general statements as a subject to a nominal predicate. e.g. (The) winter is very long here. (The) summer is a rainy season on the island. 2. The definite article is generally found when names of seasons serve as an object in the sentence. This is usually found after the verbs to spend, to like, to love, to hate, to wait for, to talk about and some others. In this case reference may be made to a particular season or to any season in general. e.g. He looks like somebody who spent the summer at the sea. Dave loves the winter. I liked the summer there, on account of the bathing, I think. Note: Although the use of the definite article is the norm in this case, occasionally no article is found here.

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3. When names of seasons have a descriptive attribute and are the centre of communication they are used with the indefinite article. e.g. We had a short summer. He had passed a sluggish winter and a lazy summer. 4. When names of seasons are used as predicatives they have no article. e.g. It was summer and the place broke up in red flowers. However, when these nouns in their predicative function are modified by a descriptive attribute, the indefinite article is used. e.g. It has been a terrible summer," he said. "It was a remarkably fine autumn," she added. But no article is used with names of seasons if they are modified by the adjectives early and late with which they form close sense-units. e.g. It was early summer. It was late autumn. 5. There is a great deal of fluctuation in the use of articles with names of seasons when they are used as adverbial modifiers in prepositional phrases. After the prepositions in, till, until, before and after names of seasons may be used either with the definite article or without any article. Reference again may be made to a particular season or to any season in general. e.g. The sun in (the) summer warms the skin, but in (the) winter when it appears it warms the heart. In (the) autumn young Ben was to go to a preparatory school. "Can't you wait until (the) winter?" Sam asked. I don't think they'll be able to get through with their work before (the) winter. But after the prepositions through, for and during the definite article is to be used. 351

e.g.

Through the autumn, a busy time for me, I was often uneasy. "Are you going to stay here for the winter?" Jack asked after a while. He stayed in Paris during the summer and worked without a break till autumn was well advanced.

6. In attributive of-phrases names of seasons usually have no article, as in: the warmth of spring, the dust of summer, three months of winter, and the colours of autumn. Note: Notice the following set phrases used adverbially: (to work) winter and summer, early (late) in the autumn (summer, etc.), all the winter (spring, etc.). III. Names of Meals The group includes the nouns: breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper and tea. a) In the overwhelming majority of cases names of meals are used without any article. In this case neither the function of the noun nor its being part of a set phrase is of any practical importance. e.g. Lunch is ready and we can go in. Dinner was at an end. I was having tea with her. He came in when we were eating breakfast. We finished dinner and went to the drawing-room to have our coffee. John came to lunch at the appointed time They met for dinner. "Stay to tea," said Mrs. Watson. We were talking about it before dinner. His eyes still bored me as they had done at tea. b) The definite article is rarely found with names of meals. It is used in a clear case of back reference or if there is a limiting attribute. 352

e.g. The supper was very different from the one of the evening before The dinner was excellent, but Isabel noticed that John ate very little. He was greedily eating the lunch his mother had given him. c) The indefinite article is used when names of meals are modified by descriptive attributes. e.g. I'll try to give you a decent lunch. Walter wanted a very special dinner. You can get a good supper here. As soon as he was dressed, he went into the library and sat down to a light French breakfast. d) Occasionally, owing to a change of meaning, names of meals become countable nouns. This occurs in the following cases: 1) when they denote dinner party, tea party, etc. Both the definite and the indefinite articles may be found here. e.g. Fleur said: "We had a dinner last night." I was having a wash and a brush-up before starting out to go to the luncheon Elliot had invited me to. Each Friday night Mr March used to give a dinner to the entire family. 2) when they denote a portion. In this case the noun is used with the indefinite article denoting one. e.g. I have not enough money to buy a dinner at such an expensive restaurant. He wheedled a few francs out of me for a dinner and a bed. IV. Names of Diseases This group includes a considerable number of uncountable nouns, pneumonia, influenza (flu in colloquial English), scarlet fever, cholera, diabetes, lumbago, cancer, diphtheria, tuberculosis (consumption), mumps and measles (The latter are both used with a singular verb), etc. 353

1. Names of diseases are generally found without any article, as in most cases they are used just to name the kind of disease. e.g. The doctor said he had pneumonia and told him to keep warm. The boy Roger arrived home with measles. He had a bad attack of lumbago. He had almost died of cholera. She was suffering from diabetes. The boy had been ill for two days and his mother thought it was scarlet fever. 2. The definite article may be used with names of diseases in a clear case of back reference or if there is a limiting attribute. e.g. The family were sitting around watching TV, recovering from the 'flu. After the diphtheria Jane felt very weak and depressed. Note: Certain nouns which are not special medical terms are, however, used to name diseases. They may be countable or uncountable. e.g. He had a (bad, splitting) headache. He had a toothache. He had a sore throat. He had heart trouble. I have a boil on my hand. She had a bruise on her leg. V.The Noun Sea The noun sea is regularly found with the definite article. This may be accounted for by different reasons. In some cases it may be understood as a generic singular. e.g. The sea covers nearly three fourths of the world's surface. He always spends his holiday by the sea. A cold wind was blowing from the sea. Let's go for a swim in the sea.

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Certain Countable Nouns in Their Phraseological Use There are a number of countable nouns in English which are often used without any article, as they undergo a change of meaning and become uncountable. 1. The nouns school, college, hospital, prison, jail, camp, church, court, bed, table and occasionally market are used without any article when, as part of set phrases, they lose their concrete meaning and express the purpose which the objects denoted by these nouns serve. Thus hospital comes to denote treatment, prison — punishment, school — studies, bed — sleep, etc. Compare the following examples. After lunch Dr. Reily went off to the hospital How long were you in hospital with that wound?" she asked They had a hospital in the town during the war. Madame Duclerk sat at the table darning socks. I asked her to tell me who all the people at table were. In the cafe we had a table to ourselves, but those around us were soon filled. The road to the prison was blocked by policemen. He would be sent to prison if he were caught. Perhaps he was in a German prison. I softly drew the chair to the bed and sat down. He went to bed early, but lay awake for a long time. I found a bed made up for me, and placed the candles on the old-fashioned chest of drawers. It should be noted that the use of a descriptive attribute or a limiting attribute destroys the idiomatic meaning of the phrases in question. See the examples above and also compare the following sentences. He was sent to school. He was sent to a secondary (good, public) school. He was sent to the best school in the town.

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2. The noun town in some prepositional phrases maybe used without any article when it means the centre or business part of a town, or the nearest town to a country place. e.g. She drove into town and drew up at the curb beside the drugstore. I called up and asked her if she wouldn't prefer to lunch in town. I thought that he would be out of town next week. 3. A considerable number of nouns of different character when used in adverbial prepositional phrases have no article. by train by plane by boat by coach by bus by tram by taxi by air by car by sea by post by mail e.g.

by phone by radio by accident by mistake by hand by chance by letter by land by sight at hand off hand in detail

in person on board on deck on foot on tiptoe at sea to sea on hand on leave on business on holiday etc.

It was nearly eight o'clock, and I had to go home by taxi. I had already told her by telephone about my talk with Keats. You needn't tell me about it in detail.

4. There is no article in a number of set phrases treated as compound prepositions, consisting of a preposition + noun + a preposition. in favour of in addition to in combination with in charge of in answer to in contrast with on top of in regard to 356

in support of in reply to in connection with on account of in comparison with in conformity with in honour of in memory of in pursuit of,

in defiance of with regard to in recognition of in return for in place of in relation to in search of by reason of by way of etc.

e.g. I rushed through the passage in search of my mother. My father found himself in charge of a factory. However, in other set phrases built up on the same pattern the definite article is found. under the influence of in the middle of in the centre of on the initiative of on the invitation of under the pretence of by the side of etc. 5. There is no article in some combinations treated as compound conjunctions consisting of a preposition + a noun + a conjunction: for fear that, on condition that. However, in some cases the definite article is found, as in: on the ground that, for the reason that. 6. The definite article is used in the following set phrases: to (in) the country to the forest on the spot in (to, across) the fields in the slums to (at) the cinema in the trenches to (at) the theatre to the pictures Notice, however, that the nouns museum, picture gallery, concert, exhibition do not form such set phrases. 357

e.g.

I took Marian aside and asked her to come for a walk. We went to the fields. We had an early dinner and went to the theatre. "Oh", he said, "Sarah's come in. She's been to the pictures." I knew that Aunt Lin would not ring up because it was her afternoon at the cinema.

But if these nouns indicate a particular object, the articles are used with them in accordance with the general rules. But this case is not common. e.g.

We found that the film was on at a cinema across the river. Charles suggested that we should have a meal and go to a theatre.

7. The definite article is also used in the following set phrases: to play the piano, to play the violin and the like. But no article is found in the combinations: to play volleyball, to play hockey, to play golf, to play cards and the like. The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting Objects or Notions Which are Considered to be Unique There are a number of nouns in English denoting either concrete objects or abstract notions which are considered to be unique. These nouns are neither countable nor uncountable as, on the one hand, they express oneness but, on the other hand, the idea of more-than-oneness is inconceivable in connection with them. Such nouns are used with the definite article as reference is always made to the same object or notion. They include: 1. names of unique objects, such as the sun, the moon, the earth, the world, the globe, the cosmos, the universe, the Milky Way, the ground, the atmosphere. 358

e.g. The sun was falling flat across the field and the grass was pale. We had been there all day, the ground was littered with our picnic. When these nouns have descriptive attributes they may be used with the definite article in accordance with the rule stated above. e.g. Only the yellow light of the low autumn moon ruffled the water. The stars were quivering in the frosty sky. However, the indefinite article may also be used in this case. Then attention is focused on the noun and it becomes the centre of communication, which is as usual marked by strong stress. e.g. There was a splendid tropical moon and a soft breeze last night. It was a glorious night, with a great full moon gleaming in a purple sky. My first reply was: "Of course, I want to see a better world." It should be noted that the use of the above mentioned nouns with attributes is typical of literary style. 2. names of unique notions, such as the present, the past, the future, the singular, the plural, the South, the North, the East, the West, the equator, the horizon, the post, the press, the telegraph, the telephone, the radio e.g. The film star had a particular smile for the press. Presently the sun rose over the horizon. I knew that the future was going to be full of pain for me. "The telephone in this town," Hallam said, "is as private as the radio."

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Note: The above rule does not concern the nouns radio and telephone indicating concrete objects. e.g. Somewhere a radio softly played. The use of articles with these nouns modified by descriptive attributes is the same as that with nouns denoting unique objects. Compare: Even the distant future looked quite gloomy to him. Everyone believed that he had a brilliant future before him. Note: Notice the following set phrases: at present (в настоящее время) in the past (в прошлом) in the future (в будущем) in future (отныне, впредь) The Use of Articles with Proper Names The use of articles with proper names seems to be based mainly on tradition. It is true that some cases might be accounted for historically. Thus we can say that the use of articles with names of certain countries is due to foreign usage: the Senegal, the Tyrol. In other cases the article may be due to the omission of a common noun which was formally added: the Sahara (desert), the Crimea (peninsula), the Pacific (ocean), the Baltic (sea), the Bedford (hotel), the Lancet (magazine). In the Urals the use of the definite article may be explained by the fact that the noun originates from the name of a mountain range; the Congo may have the article because the name originally denotes the river. Names of rivers are used with the definite article because formerly the noun river often preceded the proper name: the river Thames. 360

Although historical explanations of that kind may be convincing, they are not of great help from the viewpoint of presentday English. In modern English the use of articles with proper names lacks regularity and so does not always seem consistent. Proper names fall into various groups, such as names of persons, geographic names, names of newspapers and magazines, boats, hotels, public buildings, etc. Moreover, geographic names may be divided into subgroups, such as names of countries, continents, cities and towns, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, islands, peninsulas, etc. The use of articles with each of the above mentioned groups and subgroups has peculiarities of its own. Within each group there are typical cases and individual cases. Hence, it is necessary to describe the use of articles with each group separately. I. The Use of Articles with Names of Persons 1. Generally no article is used with names of persons e.g. There was a letter from Susan inviting me to a party. I did not see Charles Strickland for several weeks No article is used either if names of persons are modified by such descriptive attributes as little, old, young, dear, poor, honest. e.g. Young Jolyon, standing by the little piano, listened with his dim smile. When dear old Emily went back to town after staying with them for a fortnight, she sent us a doll's house. We find no article with the names of members of a family, such as Mother, Father, Aunt, Uncle, Grandmother, Grandfather, Baby, Nurse, Cook, when they are treated as proper names by the members of that family. In this case such nouns are usually written with a capital letter. e.g. "How nice that you've come!" she said. "Mother is still resting, but she will be down soon." She went into the hall: "Is Nurse back?" 2. However, both the definite and the indefinite articles may be occasionally found with names of persons. The definite article is used: 361

e.g.

a) with a name in the plural to indicate the whole family. He didn't even know the Browns had a daughter He's very different from the rest of the Jacksons.

b) with a name modified by a limiting attribute, e.g. Is he the Jones who is a writer? Now she was more like the Julia of their first years of marriage. c) with a name modified by a descriptive attribute when the limitation is clear from the context or situation (a) or when the attribute indicates a permanent quality of the person in question (b). e.g. a) A remarkable number of guests went without coffee because it was not the right sort, a detail that had been overlooked by the embarrassed Otto. b) He slapped him on the shoulder, which startled and slightly annoyed the prim George Augustus. The indefinite article is used: a) to indicate that one member of a family is meant, e.g. I have often wondered if Arthur was really a Burton. b) with a name modified by a descriptive attribute when it is the centre of communication in the sentence. e.g. He was met at the door by an angry Isabel, who demanded to know what he meant by coming home at that hour. Note 1: If a name is preceded by Mr, Mrs or Miss it may be used with the indefinite article to denote a certain (некий). e.g. He was a lawyer, a Mr Reid from Melbourne. My landlady knocked at the door and said: "A Mr Parkis to see you," thus indicating by a grammatical article the social status of my caller.

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Note 2: Sometimes, owing to a change of meaning, names of persons become countable nouns indicating concrete objects (a) or typical features associated with a well-known name (b). The articles with such nouns are used in accordance with the general rules for countable nouns. e.g. a) Lanny has sold them an especially fine Goya. He wanted to know how much a Buick cost. There was a rack of books and among them he saw a Hemingway. b) She felt like an Alice in Wonderland. Mozart was called the Raphael of music. Swithin smiled and nodding at Bosinney said: "Why, you are quite a Monte Cristo." II. The Use of Articles with Geographic Names In the use of articles with geographic names there are two prevailing tendencies: some of them are traditionally used without any article, others require the definite article. As there seems to be no principle underlying the difference in the use or the absence of the article with geographic names it is more convenient to divide them into semantic groups and consider the use of articles in each of them. 1) Names of continents are used without any article, e.g. Europe, Asia Africa, Australia, South America, North America. No article is used either when names of continents are modified by such attributes as northern, southern, western, eastern, central, minor, south-west, south-east, Latin. e.g.

Northern Europe, North America, Central Africa, Asia Minor, South-East Asia, Latin America, etc. But we say the Arctic and the Antarctic (regions) meaning the sea and the land round the North and South poles. 2) Names of countries (a), states or provinces (b), cities (c), towns (d) and villages (e) are, as a rule, used without any article. 363

e.g.

a) France, Great Britain, China, Brazil, etc. b) California, Kashmir, Brittany, Katanga, etc. c) Moscow, Oslo, Rome, Delhi, etc. d) Brighton, Hastings, Tartu, etc. e) Grasmere, Patterdale, Appledore, etc.

No article is used either, when these nouns have such attributes as north(ern), south(ern), east(ern), west(ern), ancient, old, new, central, Soviet, e.g. West Germany, Old England, Ancient Greece, Southern France, Soviet Russia, etc. Some of these nouns, however, are traditionally used with the definite article e.g. countries: the USSR, the USA, the Ukraine, (the) Argentine, the Lebanon, the Netherlands (the Low Countries), the Cameroon, the Senegal, provinces: the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Ruhr, the Tyrol, the Transvaal, the Riviera, cities: the Hague. 3) Names of oceans (a), seas (b), straits (c), channels (d), canals (e), rivers (f), and lakes(g) usually take the definite article, e.g. a) the Pacific (ocean), the Atlantic (ocean), the Indian (ocean), the Arctic (ocean); b) the Baltic (sea), the Mediterranean (sea), the Black Sea, the Adriatic (sea), the North Sea, the South Seas, etc.; c) the Magellan Strait, the Bering Straits, the Torres Straits, and also the Kattegat, the Bosporus, the Dardanelles, the Skagerrak, etc.; d) the English Channel; e) the Kiel Canal, the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, etc.; f) the Volga, the Thames, the Nile, the Amazon, the Mississippi, etc.; g) the Leman, the Baikal, the Ontario, etc. 364

But when names of lakes are preceded by the noun lake (which is often the case), no article is used, e.g. Lake Baikal, Lake Ohio, Lake Como, Lake Superior, Lake Ladoga, etc. 4. Names of bays generally have no article, e.g. Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, etc. 5. Names of peninsulas have no article if the proper name is used alone, e.g. Indo-China, Hindustan, Kamchatka, Labrador, Taimir, Scandinavia, etc. But we find the definite article if the noun peninsula is mentioned, e.g. the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula. 6.Names of deserts are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Sahara, the Gobi, the Kara-Kum, etc. 7) Names of mountain chains (a)and groups of islands (b) are used with the definite article, e.g. a) the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Alps, the Pamirs, etc b) the Philippines, the Azores, the Bahamas, the East Indies, the Canaries, the Hebrides, the Bermudas, etc. 8) Names of separate mountain peaks (a) and separate islands (b) are used without any article, e.g. Elbrus, Mont Blanc, Everest, Vesuvius, etc.; Sicily, Cuba, Haiti, Newfoundland, Madagascar, etc. 9) Names of falls (a) and mountain passes (b) are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Niagara Falls, the Swallow Falls, etc.; the Saint Gotthard Pass, etc.

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Note 1. Geographic names that generally take no article may be occasionally found with the definite or the indefinite articles. This occurs in the following cases. 1) The definite article is found when there is a limiting attribute. e.g. In Ivanhoe Walter Scott described the England of the Middle Ages. 2) The indefinite article is found when a geographic name is modified by a descriptive attribute which brings out a special aspect. e.g. The flier went on to say: "There will be a different Germany after the war." It was a new Russia that he found on his return. Note 2. The definite article is always used with the pattern: a common noun + of + a proper name, e.g. The city of New York, the village of Grasmere, the Cape of Good Hope, the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Straits of Malacca, the Straits of Dover, the Bay of Biscay, the Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Finland, the Lake of Geneva, the Island of Majorca, etc. III. The Use of Articles with Miscellaneous Proper Names This group of proper names includes names of various places, objects and notions. 1) Names of streets (a), parks (b) and squares (c) tend to be used without any article, a) Oxford Street, Southampton Row, Kingsway, Pall Mall,Piccadilly, Fleet Street, Whitehall, Wall Street, etc. But names of some streets are traditionally used with the definite article, e.g. the Strand, the High Street and some others. 366

Note. Names of streets in foreign countries are sometimes used with the definite article, e.g. the Rue de Riuoli (in Paris), the Via Manzoni (in Milan), b) Hyde Park, Central Park, Memorial Park, Regent's Park, etc. But: the Snowdonia National Park, the Botanical Gardens, etc. Note: Names of parks in foreign countries are often used with the definite article, e.g. the Gorki Park (in Moscow), the Tiergarten (in Berlin), c) Trafalgar Square, Russel Square, Hyde Park Corner, Piccadilly Circus, etc. Note: Names of squares in foreign countries may have the definite article, e.g. the Red Square (in Moscow). 2) There is no article with names of universities and colleges, e.g. London University, Cambridge University, Oxford University,Harward University, Trinity College, Upsala College, Note: The definite article is used in the combinations: the University of London, the University of Moscow, etc. 3) There is a growing tendency to use no article with names of airports and railway stations, e.g. London Airport, Moscow Airport, Victoria Station, etc. But the definite article may still be found in this case too. 4) Names of theatres (a), museums (b), picture galleries(c), concert halls (d), cinemas (e), clubs (f) and hotels (g) tend to be used with the definite article, e.g. a) the Coliseum Theatre, the Opera House, the Bolshoi Theatre, etc.; b) the British Museum, the Scottish National Museum, 367

the Lenin Museum, etc.; c) the National Gallery, the Tretiakov Gallery, the Hermitage, the Louvre, etc.; d) the Festival Hall, the Albert Hall, the Carnegie Hall, the Chaikovsky Hall, etc.; e) the Empire, the Dominion, the Odeon, etc.; f) the National Liberal Club, the Rotary Club, etc.; g) the Ambassador Hotel, the Continental Hotel, the Savoy, etc. But in newspaper announcements and advertisements the article is usually not found with these nouns. 5) Names of ships and boats are used with the definite article, e.g. the Sedov, the Titanic, etc. 6) Names of newspapers and magazines are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Times, the Guardian, the Lancet, the Word, etc. 7) The use of articles with names of separate buildings varies from name to name and should be remembered as a special item, e.g. Scotland Yard, Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace, But: the Old Bailey, the Royal Exchange, the Tower, etc 8) Names of territories consisting of a word combination in which the last word is a common noun are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Lake District, the Yorkshire forests, the Kalinin region, the Virgin Lands, etc. 9) Names of months (a) and the days of the week (b) are used without any article, e.g. January, February, March, etc. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, etc.

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Compare, however: We met on Friday (Мы встретились в прошлую пятницу) We met on a Friday (Мы встретились однажды в пятницу) 10) Names of state institutions, organizations and political parties are used with the definite article, e.g. the Supreme Soviet, the Komsomol, the Liberal Party, the National Trust, the Church the London City Council, the Soviet Army, etc. 11) Names of languages are used without any article unless the noun language is mentioned, e.g. English, French, Japanese, etc. But: the English language, the Italian language, the Polish language, etc. Note: Notice the phrases: Translated from the German and What is the French for "book"? 12) We find the definite article with names of some grammatical categories, such as names of tenses, moods, voices, cases and others, e.g. the Past Indefinite, the Passive Voice, the Conditional Mood, the Genitive Case, etc.

The Place of Articles The article is always placed before the noun with which it is associated. e.g. I was silent for a moment. Then I thought of the children.

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If the noun is modified by an attribute (or attributes) placed before it, the article generally precedes them. e.g. She had a pair of the most intelligent bright brown eyes Robert had ever seen. In the train, we found an empty third-class carriage Yet there are a few attributes in English which affect the place. 1) The indefinite article is placed after an adjective if that adjective is preceded by so, as, too and however. e.g. We most of us hesitate to make so complete a statement. They are as happy a couple as I've ever seen. It was too good a chance to be missed. Travelling on however humble a scale is expensive in Scotland. 2) The indefinite article is placed after the attributive phrase too much of. e.g. It was too much of a temptation for George to resist saying it. 3) The place of the indefinite article is optional if the adjective which modifies the noun is preceded by quite or rather. In this case the indefinite article may be placed between quite (or rather) and the adjective or before the whole phrase. e.g. He seems quite a decent fellow. He made rather a surprising remark. And also: It's a quite fundamental disagreement. He's a rather hard man. 4) The indefinite article is placed after such and the exclamatory what. When the noun is modified by an adjective, the article precedes that adjective. e.g. "I never heard of such a thing," she said. I cannot make such a categorical statement. What a character he is! What a dusty road this is! 370

5) The indefinite article is placed after many (and in that case the noun is used in the singular). e.g. He told me this many a time. I have heard many a young girl say that. 6) The definite article follows both, all, double and treble. e.g. She was ill all the time she was abroad. Both the boys were late for dinner. I offered him double (treble) the amount, but he still refused. It is noteworthy that the use of the definite article after both is optional. e.g. Both (the) men were talking in low voices. He signed both (the) papers. The use of the definite article after all is determined by the general rules. e.g. All children have to go to school one day. All the children of the boarding school were in bed. Note: Notice that when both is part of the correlative conjunction both ... and. either article may be found after it, i.e. in this case the article is chosen in accordance with the general rules. e.g. He was both a scrupulous and a kind-hearted man. e.g.

7) The definite and the indefinite article follow half and twice. Half the men were too tired to go. It took us half an hour to settle it. He paid twice the price for it. They used to meet twice a week.

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Note 1. Notice the difference in meaning between twice followed by the definite article and twice followed by the indefinite article: twice the price — двойная цена twice a week — два раза в неделю. Note 2: Half may serve as the first component of a compound noun. In this case the article naturally precedes it, a half-brother, a half-truth, etc. Use of Articles with Nouns in some Set Expressions 1. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions. Things done in a hurry are done badly. 2. to have a mind to do I have a great mind to have a something (a great mind, a serious talk with her. good mind) — иметь желание что-либо сделать, быть склонным что-либо сделать 3. to fly into a passion — If you contradict him, he will fly into a passion прийти в бешенство 4. to get in a fury (in a If you contradict him, he will get in a fury (in a rage). rage)— прийти в ярость 5. to take a fancy to (chiefly I wonder why she took a fancy with names of living beings) to the little girl. — проникнуться симпатией, почувствовать расположение 6. in a low (loud) voice— Don't speak in a low voice. тихо, (громко) 7. a great many (with I have spoken to him a great many times. countables) — много 1. in a hurry — второпях

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8. a great deal (with We can't skate today; there is a great deal of snow on the uncountables) — много ice. It is a pity you did not go to the 9. it is a pity— жаль concert last night. 10. it is a shame — стыдно It is a shame not to know these elementary things. 2. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions. "Will you go to the theatre tonight?" "It's out of the question. I have lots of things to do." You had a difficult text to translate and you did not take the trouble to consult the dictionary. 3. in the original — в You know English well enough to read Dickens in the original. оригинале 4. to play the piano (the She plays the piano very well. violin, the harp) — играть на пианино (скрипке, арфе) 5. to keep the house — She has a cold and will have to keep the house for a couple of сидеть дома days. 6. to keep the bed — She has a bad cold and will have соблюдать постельный to keep the bed for a couple of days. режим 7. on the whole — в целом On the whole Tom is a pleasant fellow, but sometimes he has whims. 8. the other day (refers to I met him the other day. the past) — на днях 9. on the one hand…on the On the one hand he certainly other hand — с одной excites suspicion, but on the other стороны… с другой hand we have not enough evidence against him. стороны 1. it is out of the question — об этом не может быть и речи 2. to take the trouble to do something —потрудиться

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10. to tell (to speak) the truth — говорить правду; по правде говоря 11. to be on the safe side — для верности

He always speaks (tells) the truth. To tell the truth, I don't like the girl. I am almost sure of the pronunciation of this name, but to be on the safe side let us consult the pronouncing dictionary

3. Nouns in set expressions used without an article. 1. out of doors — на дворе, The children spent most of the time out of doors. на улице 2. to take to heart— Don't take things too much to принимать близ-ко к heart. сердцу 3. to take offence — If he had heard your remark, he would have taken offence. обижаться 4. to give (to get, to ask) permission дать (получить, просить) разрешение 5. to lose heart — терять мужество, приходить в уныние 6. at present — в настоящее время

I asked permission to keep the book a little longer. He found the subject very difficult at first, but he did not lose heart. You may go home; we don't want you at pre-sent.

7. from morning till night He worked in his little garden from morning till night. — с утра до вечера 8. from head to foot — с She was dressed in furs from head to foot. головы до ног 9. at first sight — с He fell in love with her at first sight. первого взгляда 374

10. by chance — случайно 11. by mistake — по ошибке 12. for hours — часами 13. for ages — целую вечность 14. by land, by air, by sea — сушей, по воздуху, по морю 15. on deck — на палубе 16. to go to sea — стать моряком

They met quite by chance. I have brought the wrong book by mistake. He could read for hours. I have not seen you for ages. 1 like travelling by sea.

We spent hours on deck. My sister wants to be a doctor, and my brother wants to go to sea. 17. to keep house — вести Her sister keeps house for her. хозяйство 18.at sunrise — на We left the town at sunrise. рассвете We arrived at the village at 19.at sunset — на закате sunset. Whenever I come, he is always 20. at work — за работой at work. We want to be at peace with all 21. at peace — в мире countries. His cat, Snowball by name, was 22. by name — по имени playing on the carpet. Mr. Micawber was always in 23. in debt — в долгу debt.

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THE NOUN Nouns are names of objects, i.e. things, human beings, animals materials and abstract notions. (e.g. table, house, man, girl, dog, lion, snow sugar, love, beauty) I. Semantically all nouns can be divided into two main groups – proper names (e.g. John, London, the Thames) and common nouns. Common nouns, in their turn, are subdivided into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns denote objects that can be counted. They may be either concrete (e.g. book, student, cat) or abstract (e.g. idea, word, effort). Uncountable nouns are names of objects that cannot be counted. They may also be concrete (e.g. water, grass, wood) and abstract (e.g. information, amazement, time). Nouns have the grammatical categories of number and case. They are also characterized by the functions they perform in the sentence. II. Morphological compositioin. According to their morphological compositioin nouns can be divided into simple, derived, and compound. Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, room, chair, roof, leaf. Derived nouns (derivatives) are composed by one rootmorpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes or both): e.g. misconduct, blackness, inexperience. The main noun-forming suffixes are those forming abstract nouns and those forming concrete, personal nouns. -age -al -ancy/ -ency -ance/ -ence

Abstract nouns leakage, vicarage betrayal, portrayal, refusal vacancy tendency importance dependence 376

-(i)an -ant/ -ent -arian -ee

Concrete nouns physician, Parisian, republican assistant, informant student vegetarian refugee, employee, payee

-dom -hood -ing -ion/ -sion/ -tion/ -ation -ism -ment -ness -ship -ty/-ity -th -y

freedom, kingdom childhood, brotherhood meaning, cleaning operation tension conversation examination darvinism, patriotism agreement, government darkness, weakness friendship, membership cruelty, variety, generosity growth, strength difficulty, honesty

-er -ician -ist -or -let -ess -ine -ix -ette

teacher, singer, dancer musician, politician artist, socialist visitor, actor booklet, leaflet actress, tigress, waitress heroine proprietrix usherette Note: The four suffixes –ess, -ine, -ix, -ette are feminine.

Compound nouns consist of at least two stems. The meaning of the compound is not a mere sum of its elements. The main types of compound nouns are: noun stem + noun stem

seaman – моряк airmail – авиапочта adjective stem + noun stem bluebell – колокольчик blackbird – черный дрозд verb stem + noun stem pickpocket – карманный вор gerund + noun stem looking-glass – зеркало dancing-hall – танцевальный зал noun stem + prepositions + father-in-law – тесть, свекор noun stem mother-in-law – свекровь, теща, man-of war – военный корабль noun stem + preposition passer-by – прохожий looker-on – наблюдатель, зритель 377

substantivised phrases

forget-me-not – незабудка pick-me-up – тонизирующий напиток noun stem + adjective stem attorney general – министр юстиции(США) court-martial –военно- полевой суд verb or adjective stem + close-up – крупный план preposition grown-up – взрослый pullover – пуловер The Gender of Nouns In accordance with their meaning nouns may be classed as belonging to the masculine, feminine and neuter gender. Names of male beings are masculine (e.g. man, husband, boy, son, ox, cock), and names of female beings are feminine (e.g. woman, wife, girl, daughter, cow, hen). All other nouns are said to be neuter (e.g. pen, flower, family, rain, opinion, bird, horse, pride). Gender finds its formal expression in the replacement of nouns by the pronouns he, she or it. However, there are nouns in English which may be treated as either males or females (e.g. cousin, friend). They are said to be of common gender. When there is no need to make a distinction of sex, the masculine pronoun is used for these nouns. Sometimes a separate form for a female is built up by means of the suffix –ess. e.g. host – hostess lion – lioness actor – actress prince – princess heir – heiress waiter – waitress tiger – tigress It is also possible to indicate the gender of a noun by forming different kinds of compounds:

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e.g.

a man servant – a maid servant, a man driver – a woman driver, a boy friend – a girl friend, a tom cat – a tabby cat, a he-wolf – a she-wolf a salesman – a saleswoman, a sportsman – a sportswoman

Nouns denoting various kinds of vessels (e.g. ship, boat, etc.), the noun car as well as the names of countries may be referred to as she. e.g. Sam joined the famous whaler "Globe". She was a ship on which any young man would be proud to sail. Getting out of the car he said to the man in the overalls, "Fill her up, please." He said, "England is decadent. She's finished because she is living in the past." The Number of Nouns I. Number is the form of the noun which shows whether one or more than one object is meant. Some nouns in English may have the singular and the plural forms. e.g. lesson – lessons, worker –workers, room – rooms. Other nouns are used only in the singular e.g. freedom, progress, machinery, steel, milk or only in the plural e.g. spectacles, goods, billiards The plural of most nouns is built up by means of the suffix –s or –es. It is pronounced: [z] after vowels and voiced consonants e.g. days, dogs, birds [s] after voiceless consonants e.g. books, coats) [iz] after sibilants e.g. horses, roses, judges, brushes 379

In writing the following spelling rules should be observed. The suffix -es is added a) to nouns ending in s, ss, sh, (t)ch, x and z. e.g. glass – glasses, brush – brushes, watch – watches, box – boxes b) to nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant e.g. tomato – tomatoes, potato – potatoes, hero – heroes But if a noun ends in -o preceded by a vowel or it happens to be a noun of foreign origin, only –s is added e.g. cuckoo – cuckoos, radio – radios, piano – pianos, kilo – kilos, photo – photos c) Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the y into ies e.g. story – stories, fly – flies, country – countries But if a noun ends in -y preceded by a vowel, only -s is added e.g. key – keys, boy – boys, day – days d) The following in the plural: wife — wives life — lives knife — knives leaf — leaves

nouns ending in f or fe have the ending -ves calf — calves half –– halves wolf — wolves thief — thieves

shelf — shelves loaf –– loaves self –– selves sheaf –– sheaves

But other nouns ending in f or fe take only -s in the plural: handkerchief – handkerchiefs, e.g. roof – roofs safe – safes cliff – cliffs gulf – gulfs proof – proofs grief – griefs cuff – cuffs belief – beliefs The following nouns have both forms in the plural: scarf — scarfs / scarves, wharf — wharfs / wharves, hoof — hoofs / hooves. 380

e) There are a number of nouns in English which form their plural in an irregular way. A few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel. They are: man – men foot – feet woman – women goose -geese child – children mouse – mice tooth – teeth louse – lice Notice also the peculiar plural form in the noun: ox - oxen. A few nouns have the same form for the singular and the plural: a sheep – sheep a fish – fish a swine – swine a craft – craft a deer – deer a counsel – counsel e.g.

This sheep looks so small. All those sheep are good. There are so many fish here.

The following nouns unchanged in the plural: a means - means, a barracks - barracks, a series – series,

ending in s in the singular remain a headquarters – headquarters, a species – species a corps – corps

Note: Notice that the noun penny has two plural forms – pennies (when referring to individual coins) and pence (when the amount only is meant) e.g. She dropped three pennies in the slot-machine. The fare cost him eight pence. II. Some nouns borrowed from other languages, especially from Greek and Latin, keep their foreign plural forms. These nouns are mostly found in scientific prose. They are: agendum – agenda datum – data analysis – analyses hypothesis – hypotheses bacterium – bacteria phenomenon – phenomena basis – bases stratum – strata 381

crisis – crises criterion – criteria

thesis – theses

Some other nouns have the new English plural alongside of the original foreign one: curriculum – curriculums / curricula, formula — formulas / formulae, memorandum — memorandums / memoranda. III. With compound nouns it is usually the final component that is made plural: e.g. a bookcase – bookcases a writing table – writing tables a tooth brush – tooth brushes a handful – handfuls a drawback – drawbacks a forget-me-not – forget-me-nots an Englishman – Englishmen In a few nouns the first component is made plural: e.g. a father-in-law – fathers-in-law a commander-in-chief – commanders-in-chief a passer-by – passers-by a court martial – courts martial When the first component is man or woman, the plural may be expressed twice e.g. a man servant – men servants a woman doctor – women doctors IV. Initials can be made plural: e.g. MPs (Members of Parliament) VIPs (very important persons) UFOs (unidentified flying objects) V. A considerable number of nouns are used only in the singular in English. (The Latin term singularia tantum is applied to them.) 382

1) Here belong all names of materials (e.g. iron, copper, sand, coal, bread, cheese, oil, wine, tea, chalk) and also a great number of nouns denoting abstract notions (e.g. generosity, curiosity, foolishness, excitement, poetry, fun, sculpture, progress). Special mention should be made of a few nouns which end in -s but are used only in the singular. They are: news, gallows, summons. Here also belong nouns ending in -ics: physics, mathematics, phonetics, optics, ethics, politics. Nouns of the latter group are occasionally treated as plurals. e.g. Politics has (have) always interested him. Mathematics is (are) well taught at that school. 2) There are a number of nouns in English, more or less limited which are used only in the plural. (The Latin term pluralia tantum is applied to them.) Here belong nouns indicating a) articles of dress consisting of two parts e.g. trousers, pants, shorts, trunks, pyjamas, drawers, braces b) tools and instruments, consisting of two parts e.g. scissors, spectacles, glasses, tongs, pincers, scales, fetters c) names of some games e.g. billiards, cards, dominoes, draughts d) other nouns: riches, contents, oats, thanks, clothes, soapsuds, troops, goods, whereabouts, bowels, surroundings, savings, belongings, goings on, winnings, home comings, proceedings, hangings e.g.

The whereabouts of the tomb have long been a historic mystery. There were clothes scattered about the room.

3) There are a few other nouns in English which have only the plural form and lack the singular, i.e. they are pluralia tantum 383

nouns. But they happen to be homonyms of nouns which are used in both forms, the singular and the plural. These nouns are: a colour — colours ( = hues) colours ( = regimental flag) a force — forces (= powers) forces ( = an army) a custom — customs (= habits) customs (= taxes on imported goods) a draught — draughts (=currents draughts (= a game) of air) a glass — glasses (= vessels for glasses (= spectacles) drinking from) a manner — manners (=ways) manners (= behaviour) a moral — morals ( = lessons of morals (= standards of a story) behaviour) a minute — minutes (= spaces of minutes(= secretary's record of time) proceedings) a quarter — quarters (= fourth quarters(= lodgings) parts) 4) Some nouns which belong to the singularia tantum group are occasionally used in the plural form for stylistic reasons suggesting a great quantity or extent, e.g. the sands of the Sahara, the snows and frosts of the Arctic, the waters of the Atlantic, the blue skies of Italy, etc. VI. It is only natural that nouns in the singular, when used as the subject of the sentence, agree with a singular verb and nouns in the plural take a plural verb. A plural verb-predicate is also used with homogeneous subjects connected by and. e.g. Sun and air are necessary for life. Tom amd Mary are my friends. However, with structures where coordinated nouns refer to one thing or person a singular verb-predicate is used. e.g. Bread and butter is not enough for breakfast. (one object is meant) Bacon and eggs makes a traditional English breakfast. (one dish is meant) 384

The painter and decorator is here. (one person is meant) If the article is repeated, the reference is to two persons or objects, and a plural verb-predicate is used. e.g. The bread and the butter are on the table. (two separate objects are meant) The painter and the decorator are here. (two persons are meant) Likewise, when a singular noun-subject has two attributes characterizing the same person or non-person connected by and it has a singular verb and the article is not repeated. e.g. A tall and beautiful girl was waiting in the office. A black and white kitten was playing on the hearth rug. But if the attributes characterize different persons or nonpersons the verb is in the plural and the article is repeated. e.g. A black and a white kitten were playing on the hearth rug. (A black kitten was playing and a white kitten was playing.) The yellow and the red car were badly damaged. However, the article is repeated before each attribute only with countable nouns. Uncountables have no article. e.g. In modern hotels hot and cold water are supplied in every room. American and Dutch beer are both much lighter than British. Good and bad taste are shown by examples. With plural nouns only one article is used. e.g. The Black and Mediterranean Seas never freeze. With homogeneous subjects connected by both... and. e.g. Both the bread and the butter are fresh. Both the teacher and the students have come.

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With homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctions not only... but also, either... or, or, neither... nor the verb-predicate agrees with the nearest noun-subject. (This is the so-called "proximity rule".) e.g. Either my sister or my parents are at home. Either my parents or my sister is at home. Neither you nor I am right. Neither I nor you are right. Not only my parents but also my brother knows about it. Not only my brother but also my parents know about it. Is Tom or Mary eager to meet you at the station? With homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctions as well as, rather than, as much as, more than the verb-predicate agrees with the first one. e.g. My parents as well as my sister are teachers. My sister as well as my parents is a teacher. The manager as well as/rather than/more than/as much as the members of the board is responsible for the present situation. Notional agreement Notional agreement is to be found in the following cases: 1. In modern English agreement there may be a conflict between form and meaning. It refers first of all to subjects expressed by nouns of multitude (collective nouns) which may denote plurality being singular in form. In such cases the principle of grammatical agreement is not observed and there appears the so-called notional agreement, when the choice of the number is based on the fact whether the group of beings is considered as one whole or as a collection of individuals taken separately. Thus the nouns of multitude (band, board, crew, committee, crowd, company, clergy, cattle, family, gang, group, guard, gentry, infantry, jury, militia, police, poultry, team) may have both a plural verb-predicate and a singular one depending on what is meant - a single undivided body or a group of separate individuals. 386

The peculiarity of these nouns is that even in their singular form they may take either a singular or a plural verb. They take a singular verb when they show that the members of the group they denote are thought of as a collective body. e.g. The college football team has done badly this season. Футбольная команда коледжа плохо играла в этом сезоне. His family was well known in their town. Его семью хорошо знали в их городе. But when the members of the group denoted by a collective noun are thought of individually, they agree with a plural verb. e.g. "The team are now resting," the coach said to us. “Команда сейчас отдыхает, “ – сказал нам тренер. "My family keep a close eye on me," said George. “Моя семья не спускает с меня глаз,“ – сказал Джордж. Compare: A new government has been formed. The government have asked me to go, so I am leaving now. How are your family? Our family has always been a very happy one. The crowd was enormous. The crowd were silent. The police is already informed. I don't know what the police are doing. The cattle is in the mountains. The cattle have stopped grazing. They know before you hear any sound that planes are approaching. The jury decides whether the accused is guilty or not. While the jury were out, some of the public went out for a breath of fresh air. It stands to reason that when these nouns are used in the plural, they agree with a plural verb. 387

e.g.

Two leading British football teams are meeting next Sunday. All the families in our neighbourhood were alike, and I often wondered at their exceeding sameness.

2. Subjects expressed by nouns denoting measure, weight, time, etc., have a singular verb-predicate when the statement is made about the whole amount, not about the discrete units. e.g. Ten years is a long time. Another five minutes goes by. A million francs is a lot of money. 3. The group many a + noun takes a singular verb- predicate. e.g. Many a man has done it. Ни один человек проделал такое. (Многие…) 4. Notional agreement is also observed with subjects expressed by word-groups including nouns of quantity: a/the number of.., a/the majority of.., (a) part of.., the bulk of..., a variety of... . These admit of either a singular or a plural verb-predicate. e.g. The number (количество) of pages in this book isn't large. It was Sunday and a number (многие) of people were walking about. In Elisabeth's reign the bulk of English vegetable supplies were imported from Holland. 5. Subjects expressed by such invariable plural nouns as goods (товар, товары), contents (содержание, содержимое), riches (богатство, богатства), clothes (одежда), wages (зарплата), eaves (карниз крыши) have a plural verb. e.g. His wages were only 15 shillings a week. I asked her what the contents were about. His clothes were shabby. The goods were delivered on time. 6. Subjects expressed by such invariable singular nouns as hair, money, gate, information (сведения), funeral (похороны), 388

progress (успехи), advice have a singular verb-predicate. These are called "singularia tantum'' "всегда единственное число", as they have no plural. e.g. Her hair is beautiful. The money is mine. The gate is open. The information was unusually interesting. If the funeral is so detestable to you, you don't have to go to it. 7. Subjects expressed by invariable nouns ending in -s ("pluralia tantum" – " всегда множественное число ") and denoting an indivisible notion or thing have a singular verb-predicate: measles (корь), mumps (свинка), billiards, dominoes, linguistics, economics, news, headquarters (штаб), works (завод). e.g.

No news is good news. The new works that has been built in our district is very large.

Though nouns in -ics which are names of sciences and other abstract notions have a singular agreement when used in their abstract sense, they may have a plural verb-predicate when denoting qualities, practical applications, different activities, etc. (ethics "moral rules", gymnastics -"physical exercises"). Thus these nouns may be followed by either a singular or a plural verb. e.g.

Statistics (a branch of science) is a rather modern branch of mathematics. These statistics (collected numbers, figures representing facts) show deaths per 1,000 of population. Statistics on this subject are available. Tactics (the art of arranging military forces for battle) is one of the subjects studied in military academies. Your tactics (methods) are obvious. Please, don't insult my intelligence. Politics (a profession) is a risky profession. 389

Politics (political affairs) have always interested me. What are your politics (political ideas)? Ceramics (the art of making bricks, pots, etc.) is my hobby. Where he lives isn't the provinces as far as ceramics (articles produced in this way) are concerned, it's the metropolis. 8. Subjects expressed by substantivised adjectives denoting groups of people (the blind, the dumb and deaf, the eminent, the mute, the old, the poor, the rich, etc.) always take the plural verbpredicate. e.g. He did not look an important personage, but the eminent rarely do. The Case of Nouns 1. Case is the form of the noun which shows the relation of the noun to other words in the sentence. English nouns may have two case forms – the common case and the genitive case. e.g. the child - the child s father, an hour — an hour's walk. The genitive case is formed by means of the suffix -'s or the apostrophe (-') alone. The suffix -'s is pronounced: [z] after vowels and voiced consonants, e.g. boy's, girl's; [s] after voiceless consonants, e.g. student s, wife's; [iz] after sibilants, e.g. prince’s, judge’s. The -'s is added to singular nouns (see the examples above) and also to irregular plural nouns, e.g. men’'s, children’ s, women’ s. The apostrophe (-') alone is added to regular plural nouns, e.g. soldiers', parents', workers', and also to proper names ending in -s, 390

e.g. Soames’ collection, Archimedes' Law, Sophocles’ plays, Hercules’ labours. Note. Notice that with compound nouns the suffix -'s is always added to the final component, e.g. my father-in-law's house, the passer-by's remark. Names consisting of several words are treated similarly. e.g. Henry the Eighth’s wives, the Prince of Wales’s helicopter. The suffix -'s is also added to the initials. e.g. The PM’s secretary, the MP’s briefcase, the VIP’s escort. 2. The number of nouns which may be used in the genitive case is limited. Here belong a) names of persons and animals e.g. He received a telephone call from John's secretary. She avoided any comment on her friend's scheme. It seemed we had moved close to the swan’s nest. b) nouns denoting time, distance and measure, e.g. a day's work, a few days' voyage, a two years' absence, a moment's pause, a seven months' pay, a mile's distance, a shilling's worth. c) names of countries and towns. e.g. Italy’s economy, Russia’s exports, Canada’s population, London’s ambulance services. d) The use of the genitive case with nouns denoting animals is not common though possible, e.g. the cat's tail, a bird's nest. e) In principle the genitive case is also possible with nouns denoting inanimate things and abstract notions, such as nouns 391

denoting planets, nouns world, nation, country, town, city, ship, boat, car e.g. the sun's ray the play's title, the island's outline, Nature's sleep, the city's white houses, the nation’s wealth, the ship's crew, the world’s top guitarists,etc. the car’s wheel, 3. In English, however, there are a considerable number of set phrases in which all sorts of nouns are found in the genitive case, мысленно, в уме in one's mind's eye головка булавки a pin's head игольное ушко a needle’s eye к … полному восторгу to one's heart's content ради бога for goodness' sake в замешательстве, в тупике at one's wit's end в безопасности, от греха out of harm's way подальше чувство долга duty's call острие иголки a needle's point на пороге смерти at death’s door на вытянутую руку at arm’s length на небольшом расстоянии at a stone’s throw двигаться как черепаха to move at a snail’s pace for old acquaintance’s sake ради старой дружбы 4. The suffix -'s may be added not only to a single noun but to a whole group of words. It is called the group genitive. We find various patterns here, e.g. Smith and Brown's office, Jack and Ann’s children the Prime Minister of England's residence, the Prince of Denmark’s tragedy, somebody else's umbrella, the man we saw yesterday's son. The use of the group genitive is possible here because the words in the group form a close sense unit. 392

5. Sometimes we find the use of -’s and of together. This is called double genitive. e.g. He was an old business client of Grandfather's. 6. A noun in the genitive case maybe used without a headword. This is called the independent, or absolute, genitive. The independent genitive is used with nouns denoting trade and relationship or with proper names. It serves to denote a building a school, a house, a hospital, a church or a shop. It is mainly found in prepositional phrases. e.g. I was in the grocer's and I heard some women say it. He asked her how she liked living at her daughter's. They were married at St. Paul's. Mrs. White ran the confectioner's very competently. He asked her to choose a restaurant and she suggested Scott’s.

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THE ADJECTIVE The adjective is a part of speech which denotes a quality or state of a substance (noun). It has no number or case. The only grammatical category it has is the degrees of comparison. I. Morphological Composition According to their morphological composition adjectives can be subdivided into simple, derived and compound. Simple adjectives are gay, new, fresh, pale, etc. Derived adjectives have the following adjective-forming suffixes: -able -al -ary -ed -en -que -fold -ful -ic -id -ish -ive -less -like -ly -most -ous -some -y

understandable – понятный musical – музыкальный documentary – документальный barbed – колючий, beaded – украшенный бисером wooden, silken – деревянный, шелковый picturesque – живописный twofold – двойной, manifold – различный careful, sinful – осторожный, грешный atomic – атомный torpid – оцепеневший, morbid – болезненный selfish, bluish – эгоистичный, голубоватый effective – эффективный careless, spotless – небрежный, чистый manlike – мужской, warlike –воинственный kindly, weekly – добрый, еженедельный uttermost – крайний glorious – выдающийся lonesome – одинокий sunny – солнечный, handy – доступный, умелый

There are also adjectives which can be formed with prefixes. The most common of them is a-. e.g. alive, aware, awake, afraid, asleep, etc. живой, знающий, проснувшийся, испуганный, спящий, и т. д 394

Compound adjectives may consist of: a noun + an adj: an adjective + an adjective an adverb + participle a noun/ a pronoun + a verbal an adjective / an adverb + a noun + the suffix –ed:

colour-blind – страдающий дальтонизмом, grass-green – зеленый как трава deaf-mute – глухонемой well-known – известный; heart-breaking – душераздирающий; blue-eyed – голубоглазый.

Semantic Characteristics Adjectives fall into two groups: qualitative (качественные) and relative (относительные). 1. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly. They have degrees of comparison. e.g. great, cold, beautiful, etc. Relative adjectives describe qualities of a substance through relation a) to materials, e.g. woolen, wooden b) to place, e.g. Italian, European c) to time, e.g. daily, weekly d) to some action. e.g. wonderful, light, cold, etc. They have no degrees of comparison.

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2. Qualitative adjectives in their turn may be descriptive and limiting. Descriptive adjectives denote a quality in a broad sense. e.g. wonderful, light, cold, etc. Limiting adjectives give a concrete or unique meaning to a noun. e.g. the left hand, medical aid, several pages, etc. Relative adjectives are also limiting in their meaning. Many adjectives may function either as descriptive or limiting, depending on the head-word or the context. Thus a little finger may denote either a small finger or the last finger of a hand. In the first case little is descriptive, in the second it is limiting. Degrees of Comparison There are three degrees of comparison: 1. Positive 2. Comparative 3. Superlative. The positive form is the plain stem of an adjective. e.g. heavy, slow, narrow, beautiful, happy, etc. There are two methods of forming comparative and superlative degrees: 1) synthetic: by adding the suffixes –er and –est, 2) analytic: by using more and most before the adjectives. Adjectives in the superlative degree have the definite article. e.g. The carrier's horse was the laziest horse in the world. That wine is the best I ever tasted.. Note: Adjectives in comparative degree can also be used with the definite article. e.g. He is the taller of the two. She is the more beautiful of her two daughters. 396

1. The first method (with -er and -est) is used for: a) monosyllabic (односложный) adjectives: e.g. new - newer – newest big – bigger – biggest nice – nicer – nicest b) disyllabic (двусложный) adjectives ending in –er, -ow, y, -le, -some. e.g. clever – cleverer – cleverest narrow – narrower – narrowest happy – happier – happiest noble – nobler – noblest handsome – handsomer – handsomest c) disyllabic adjectives with the stress on the second syllable: e.g. polite – politer – politest complete – completer – completest The following spelling rules should be observed in forming comparative and superlative degrees: a) adjectives ending in –y preceded by a consonant, change –y into –ier, -iest. e.g. crazy – crazier – craziest But the adjective in -y preceded by a vowel remains unchanged. e.g. gay – gayer – gayest b) monosyllabic adjectives with a short vowel double their final consonant: e.g. big – bigger – biggest thin – thinner – thinnest But monosyllabic adjectives ending in a double consonant remain unchanged. e.g. thick – thick – thickest 397

c) adjectives with a mute –e have at the end only –r, -st, e.g. pale – paler – palest 2. The second method (with more and most) is used for: a) most disyllabic adjectives or adjectives of more than two syllables: e.g. beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful b) adjectives formed from participles or -ing forms: e.g. tired – more tired – most tired interesting – more interesting – most interesting c) adjectives used predicatively: e.g. afraid – more afraid – most afraid Note: Most also may have the meaning of ‘very, extremely’. Then it is preceded by an indefinite article. e.g. He was a most interesting man. Он был очень интересным человеком. Compare: It is the most interesting book I have ever read. Это самая интересная книга, которую я когда-либо читал (из всех мною прочитанных). It is a most interesting book. Это весьма интересная книга. Note: Compound adjectives have two ways of forming degrees of comparison, either the first element (if it is an adjective or an adverb) is changed, or comparison is with more and most. e.g. well-known – better-known – best-known kind-hearted – more kind-hearted – most kindhearted

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Irregular Forms of Comparison A few adjectives have irregular forms for the degrees of comparison. They are as follows: good better best bad worse worst little less least many more most much near nearer nearest(for distance) next (for order) late later (for time) – latest (for time) latter(for order) – last (for order) far farther (for distance) farthest (for distance) further (for time and furthest (for time and distance) distance) old older (for age) oldest (for age) elder (for the sequence of eldest (for the sequence brothers and sisters) of brothers and sisters) e.g.

The nearest village is at the shortest distance. Ближайшая деревня находится совсем недалеко. The next item on the program is a piano sonata. Следующий номер программы – соната для фортепиано. This is the latest news we have heard of him. Это самые свежие новости из тех, что мы о нем слышали. That is the last news we heard of him. Это последняя новость о нем. The school is at the farthest/furthest side of town. Школа находится в самом отдаленном районе города. Further discussion will follow. Последует дальнейшее обсуждение. My eldest brother is six years older than me. Мой старший брат на шесть лет старше меня. 399

Note. Elder and eldest are used to distinguish members of the same family; also when speaking of people higher in rank and authority. Elder is never followed by than. e.g. He is the eldest and the most respected member of our community. He is the elder of the two brothers. She is the eldest of the three sisters. Elder can be used as a noun: e.g. She was sensible enough to see that her elders had reason on their side. When two things are compared, the comparative degree should be used; when more than two, the superlative. e.g. Fanny was just a little taller than Elizabeth. Фaнни была только немного выше Элизабет. I remember the smallest details of the afternoon. Я помню мельчайшие детали дня. But in colloquial English the superlative degree is sometimes used instead of the comparative. e.g. This is the shortest of the two roads. When two things are compared, the word other is sometimes used with the name of the second object to make the expressions more precise. e.g.

e.g.

Sparrows are more common than any other birds. Воробьев больше, чем других птиц. In the superlative degree, all is used. This is the finest picture of all. Это самая лучшая картина из всех.

There are some adjectives that, because of their meaning, do not admit of comparison at all.

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e.g. perfect, full empty, round, wooden, daily, upper, major, inner, whole, only, medical, dead, childish, middle, darkish, greenish, left, previous, etc. Comparatives may be intensified by means of: a) repetition: e.g. Her cries grew fainter and fainter. Ее крики становились слабее и слабее . b) such words or phrases as far, still, ever, much, a great deal, etc.: e.g. I found the task much more difficult than I had expected. Я нашел задание гораздо более трудным, чем ожидал. The superlative degree is emphasized by placing very, by far, etc., before the superlative, or by means of the adjectives possible, imaginable, etc., placed after the noun: e.g. It is the best means possible. Это самый лучший способ из всех возможных. He is by far the best worker at our factory. Он наилучший рабочий на нашем заводе. The superlative degree is sometimes used when the thing spoken of is not compared but is regarded as possessing a certain quality in a very high degree. In such cases the definite article is sometimes omitted. e.g. I shall do it with the greatest (very great) pleasure. Я сделаю это с огромным (огромнейшим) удовольствием.

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The Order of Adjectives Adjectives denoting general characterization a nice an ugly a dirty a famous a charming a nice a handsome those that a fine a nice

size

shape

age

colour

small large

square

old young old

blue black brown

low large

round

new

substance oak

green

German French Chinese

brown

London German

young young

tall

origin

round Venetian

Limiting adjectives

kitchen hunting medical writing

beer glass glass

flower

Noun table dog coat school desk carpet man policemen mug table vase

Numbers usually go before adjectives, and first, last and next go before numbers: e.g. six large eggs the second big shock my first three days my last two jobs The adjectives are not separated by commas, unless they belong to the same type. e.g. a nice little old man However, if there is more than one adjective of the same type they are separated by commas. e.g. a nasty, irritable, selfish man Notice the difference: a pretty intelligent girl means a rather intelligent girl a pretty, intelligent girl means a girl who is both pretty and intelligent

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Substantivization of Adjectives Substantivized adjectives have the functions of noun in the sentence and are always preceded by the definite article. They have two meanings: 1. They denote a class of persons in a general sense; they are always plural in meaning and take a plural verb. e.g. The young (young people) are always romantic, aren’t they? Молодые (молодые люди) всегда романтичны, не так ли? They robbed the poor (poor people) of their lands. Они отнимали у бедных (бедных людей) их земли. 2. They may indicate abstract notion. In this case they are singular in meaning and take singular verb. e.g. The unknown is always interesting. Неизведанное всегда интересно. Note the following sentences in which comparison is expressed: comparison of a) equality – as … as e.g. The boy was as cunning as a fox. Мальчик был хитрым как лис. b) inequality – not so … as, not as … as e.g. The sun is not so hot today as yesterday. Сегодня солнце не такое жаркое, как вчера. c) superiority – … -er than, … -est of (in, ever) e.g. He looked younger than me. Он выглядел моложе меня. It is the biggest risk I have ever had. Это самый большой риск, на который я шел когдалибо.

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d) inferiority – less … than e.g. John is less musical than his sister. Джон менее музыкален, чем его сестра. e) parallel increase or decrease – the … the, … -er as e.g. The sooner this is done, the better. Чем быстрее это будет сделано, тем лучше. Notice the following set phrases: 1. a change for the better ( for the worse) – перемена к лучшему (к худшему) 2. none the less – тем не менее 3. so much the better (the worse) – тем лучше (хуже) 4. to be the worst for – делать что-то еще хуже, 5. no (none the) worse for – хуже не станет от... 6. if the worst comes to the worst – в худшем случае 7. to go from bad to worse – становиться все хуже и хуже 8. as best – в полную меру старания, как можно больше 9. at (the) best – в лучшем случае.

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THE ADVERB The adverb is a part of speech denoting circumstances or characteristics which modifies verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. It includes words with different lexical meanings. I. Morphological Composition As to their morphological composition adverbs can be simple, derived, compound and composite. Simple adverbs are fast, well, now soon, etc.. Derived adverbs are slowly, lately, warlike, backward(s), clockwise, outermost, etc.. But the most common suffix is -ly. Compound adverbs are somehow, nowhere, downstairs, etc. Composite phrasal adverbs are at last, all along, at first, in front, the day after tomorrow, all of a sudden, etc. e.g. He spoke resolutely. Он говорил решительно. My father looked somewhat pale. Мой отец выглядел несколько бледным. II. Semantic Characteristics According to their meaning adverbs fall into the following groups: 1) adverbs of time: now, then, yesterday, lately, soon, afterwards, presently, immediately, eventually, when, etc. Note: Some adverbs of time though synonymous, are used in different syntactical patterns. Thus, already is used in affirmative sentences, and yet – in interrogative and negative sentences. e.g. They have already finished their test. Они уже закончили тест. They haven’t finished their test yet. Они еще не закончили тест. Have they finished their test yet? Они уже закончили тест? However, already may occur in interrogative and negative sentences when there is an element of surprise or the question is suggestive, that is the speaker expects an affirmative answer. 405

e.g. Have they finished already? (The speaker is surprised at their having already finished.) Как, они уже закончили? In the same way still, meaning “continuously, up to this moment” is used in affirmative sentences and any more – in negative sentences. If any more is used in a question, it implies that the speaker expects a negative answer. e.g. He still works at the library. Он все еще работает в библиотеке. He doesn’t work there any more. Он больше не работает там. Does he take music lessons any more? No, he doesn’t. Он все еще занимается музыкой? Нет. 2) adverbs of frequency: often, seldom, sometimes, always, hardly ever, never, constantly, occasionally, etc. 3) adverbs of place or direction: here, there, everywhere, downstairs, below, ashore, abroad, inside, outside, northward(s), to and fro, backwards, where, etc. 4) adverbs of manner: well, badly, fast, quickly, clearly, suddenly, deeply, sincerely, willingly, sideways, somehow, how, etc. A considerable number of adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives by adding -ly. e.g. calm – calmly slow – slowly willing – willingly happy – happily (notice the change of the y to i) careful – carefully (notice that the final 1 is doubled) comfortable – comfortably But we cannot form adverbs from adjectives ending in -ly, such as manly, friendly, silly, fatherly, lively, etc. An adverbial phrase is used in this case instead of an adverb. e.g. in a silly way, in a friendly manner, etc. глупо, дружелюбно, и т. д.

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Some adverbs, however, have the same form as the corresponding adjective. e.g. He walked very fast. Он шел очень быстро. The road ran straight for miles. На несколько миль дорога была прямая. Some other adverbs have two forms - the adjective form and the form in -ly. In most cases the two forms differ in meaning. e.g. He came late. Он пришел поздно. I haven't seen him lately. Я не видела его в последнее время. But in a few cases both forms can be used without any difference in meaning. e.g. He talked loud (loudly). Он громко говорил. Note 1: Care should be taken to remember that after the link verbs to feel, to smell, to taste, etc. we use an adjective as predicative. e.g. She is feeling bad. Она плохо себя чувствует. This medicine tastes bitter. Лекарство горькое на вкус. Note 2: There are a few adverbs and adjectives in English which have the same form in -ly. They have been derived from nouns, such as daily, weekly, monthly, hourly, etc. e.g. It was his daily duty to water the flowers in the garden. Поливать цветы в саду было его повседневной обязанностью. Most newspapers appear daily. Большинство газет выходят ежедневно.

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5) adverbs of degree: very, awfully, terribly, highly, perfectly, completely, utterly, fully, much, a great deal, too, so, little, a little, enough, sufficiently, quite, nearly, etc. Note 1: When much is used to modify nouns it is an indefinite pronoun. e.g. We haven’t much time left. У нас не много времени осталось. Much as some other adverbs like still, yet, far, any are only used with comparative adjectives. e.g. She is much wittier than her friend. Она остроумнее своего друга. You could do it far more neatly. Ты мог бы сделать это намного аккуратнее. The use of the adverb much has the same peculiarities as the indefinite pronoun much — it is mainly found in interrogative and negative sentences. e.g. He doesn’t care much what happens to him. Его не очень волнует то, что с ним происходит. Did he travel much?, Он много путешествовал? Note 2: When enough is used to modify nouns it is an adjective. e.g. I'm afraid I haven't got enough money. Я боюсь, что у меня нет достаточно денег. 6) adverbs of consequence and cause: therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, as a result, for this reason, for one thing, why, etc. III. Degrees of Comparison Most adverbs are invariable. But certain adverbs of manner can change for degrees of comparison. The degrees of comparison of adverbs are formed in the same way as those of adjectives. 408

Monosyllabic adverbs and the adverb early form the comparative and the superlative degrees by adding the suffixes -er and -est. e.g. hard — harder — hardest near — nearer — nearest soon — sooner — soonest early — earlier — earliest The degrees of comparison of all other adverbs are formed by placing more and most before them. e.g. beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully quickly—more quickly — most quickly The adverb often has two types of comparison: oftener/more often, oftenest/most often. e.g.

A few adverbs have irregular degrees of comparison. well — better — best badly — worse — worst much — more — most little — less — least far — farther/further — farthest/furthest

Notice that it is only the comparative degree of adverbs that is actually found in English. e.g. He ran faster than the wind. Он бегал быстрее ветра. Little Martha danced even more beautifully than her sister. Маленькая Марта танцевала даже красивее своей сестры. In the combinations most beautifully, most wisely, etc. most is an adverb of degree denoting very. It is only the superlatives best, most and worst that are actually found in English. Most of the adverbs, however, stand outside the degrees of comparison: pronominal adverbs denoting place and time (here, some where, there, sometimes, when), denoting manner (somehow, 409

thus), and adverbs of manner denoting gradation (minimally, optimally, and proximally). Syntactic Functions Adverbs have the function of an adverbial modifier in the sentence. When they modify verbs, they can serve as adverbial modifiers of time, frequency, place, manner, degree and cause. e.g. He was then only fifteen years old. (time) Тогда ему было только пятнадцать. I loved her passionately. (degree) Я страстно любил ее. The father held the boy tightly in his arms. (manner) Отец крепко держал мальчика в своих объятиях. He was ill and so he had to stay in bed. (consequence). Он был болен, поэтому ему пришлось остаться в постели. When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they serve as adverbial modifiers of degree. e.g. I led a very pleasant life there. Я вел там очень хорошую жизнь. Adverbs of degree can also modify certain kinds of prepositional phrases. e.g. I am almost through with my work. Я почти закончил свою работу. There are a few adverbs in English which can have the function of an attribute. They modify nouns. e.g. I was fully master of the situation. Я полностью владел ситуацией.

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Adverbs can occupy different positions in the sentence. e.g. He sings well. (adverb of manner) Он хорошо поет. Proudly he showed his diploma to his parents. (adverb of manner) Он с гордостью показал свой диплом родителям. Usually he sings well. (adverb of time can have different positions) Обычно он хорошо поет. He usually sings well. He sings well usually. You are always laughing at me. (adverb of frequency) Ты всегда смеешься надо мной. There is also a special group of pronominal adverbs when, where, how and why used either as interrogative words or as connectives to introduce subordinate clauses. The adverb how, in addition to the above functions, may also be placed at the head of an exclamatory sentence. e.g. Where shall we go? ( an interrogative adverb) Куда мы пойдем? Sunday was the day when he was least busy. (a connective) Воскресенье было тем днем, когда он был менее всего занят. Look how well I’m looked after! Посмотри, как (хорошо) за мной ухаживают! Notе: The adverb so, which is generally used as an adverb of degree or consequence, may also be used to stand for a previous statement. This is found in the following cases: 1) So is used to express agreement with a preceding statement, especially after the verbs to say, to think, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to hear, to tell, to imagine, to be afraid. 411

e.g. “Will he do it?” “I think so.” (“I don’t think so.”) “Сделает ли он это?” “Я так думаю.” (“Я так не думаю.”) “Is he very ill?” “I’m afraid so.” (but: “I’m afraid not.”) “ Он очень болен?” “Боюсь, да.” 2) So expressing agreement and referring to a previous statement is also found in the two following patterns. e.g. “It was hot yesterday.” “So it was.” “Вчера было жарко”. “Да.” “It’s going to rain soon.” “If so, what are we going to do?” “Скоро пойдет дождь”. “Если так, что нам делать?” 3) So is used with to do to refer to a preceding verb. e.g. If they want me to help you, I will do so. Если они хотят, чтобы я помог вам, я так и сделаю. 4) So meaning also is used in the following sentence patterns. e.g. My wife likes having visitors and so do I. Моя жена любит принимать гостей и я тоже. The negative counterpart of this so is neither. e.g. I haven’t seen him for a long time and neither have they. Я давно не видел его, и они тоже.

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THE PRONOUN Pronouns are deictic words which point to objects, their properties and relations, their local or temporal reference, or placement, without naming them. They constitute a limited class of words (that is a closed system) with numerous subclasses. They are generally differentiated into noun-pronouns (substituting nouns) and adjective-pronouns (substituting adjectives). Morphological composition and categorical characteristics Pronouns may be of different structure: simple, compound, and composite. Simple pronouns comprise only one morpheme - the stem; I, you, he, we, etc.; this, that, some, who, all, one, etc. Compound pronouns comprise more than one stem: myself, themselves, somebody, everybody, anything, nothing, etc. Composite pronouns have the form of a phrase: each other, one another. Patterns of morphological change in pronouns vary greatly not only from subclass to subclass, but also within certain subclasses. Some pronouns have the category of number (I - we, this - these), while others have not; some have the category of case expressed in a similar way to that of nouns (somebody - somebody's), some have a pattern of their own (he - him), and others have no case distinctions at all. Some pronouns have person and gender distinctions, such as personal pronouns, while others have none. The pronouns also have special forms to distinguish between animate and inanimate objects. This category is to be found again in personal pronouns (he/she – it), possessive pronouns (his/her – its), reflexive pronouns (himself/herself - itself), conjunctive pronouns (who - what), relative pronouns (who-which), and interrogative pronouns (who - what).

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Subclasses of Pronouns and their Functions Semantically all pronouns fall into the following subclasses: I. Personal pronouns. Personal pronouns are noun-pronouns, indicating persons (I, you, he, we, they) or non-persons (it, they) from the point of view of their relations to the speaker. Thus I (me) indicates the speaker himself, we (us) indicates the speaker together with some other person or persons, you indicates the person or persons addressed, while he, she, they (him, her, them) indicate persons (or things) which are neither the speaker nor the persons addressed to by the speaker. Personal pronouns have the category of person, number, case (nominative and objective), and gender, the latter is to be found in the 3rd person only: masculine and feminine is he - him, she - her; neuter case-forms it-it coincide. The nominative case form is generally used as subject of the sentence, or predicative in the compound nominal predicate in sentences like: It was I who did it. However, in colloquial style the form of the objective case is preferable, especially in sentences of the type: It is me. Both the nominative and the objective case forms are used after the conjunctions as and than in comparative constructions: e.g. She is as stout as I now She is as old as me; Last year he looked much He was a better friend to older than I you than me The nominative case-form (as well as the objective) is used in elliptical sentences: e.g. Who is there? – I Who did it? -Me. The objective case form is used mainly as an object (with or without a preposition), occasionally as an attribute in prepositional phrases: e.g. Give me your hand. Were you speaking about me? The better half of me protested. 414

The fact that semantically personal pronouns indicate persons or things restricts their functioning as adverbial modifiers. However, they may occur in this function in a prepositional phrase: e.g. He stood close to me. Keep behind me. The pronoun you implies a person, sometimes an animal, or an inanimate object, when the latter is personified: e.g. Glad to see you here, Mary. Oh, Cat, you are as clever as a man. Its singular and plural forms, as well as the objective case forms, coincide: e.g. Are you in, John? Where are you going, children? The plural and the singular forms are differentiated only through their co-referents (denoted by John, children), as both agree with the verb in the plural. The pronouns he (him), she (her) usually refer to persons, he to male, she - to female. However some other phenomena are often referred to as he or she in poetry and fiction. Those referred to as he are: sun, wind, fear, love; those referred to as she are: earth, moon, ship, boat, car, hope, justice, modesty and some others. Also countries, especially native countries, are referred to as she: England, France, Italy, the USA, etc. e.g. I was born in Ireland. She is the best country for me. The nominative case forms are used as subject or predicative; when used as predicative both nominative and objective case forms are possible: e.g. At last he lost his way. It was he. It is him. e.g.

It keeps true also for comparative constructions: She did it better than he (him). 415

The pronoun it can perform functions varying so greatly that three statuses of this word should be differentiated. They are the personal pronoun it, the impersonal pronoun it, the demonstrative pronoun it and the emphatic it. The personal pronoun it refers to non-persons, that is, to animals, things and abstract notions, as in: e.g. The room was large. Somebody had already cleaned it. We had no mutual understanding, and I wanted it badly. The dog was sitting by him. Several times it had turned and looked up at the boy. However when speaking of pet animals, especially cats and dogs, it is usual to refer to them as he or she depending on whether they are male or female. e.g. He is a very nice dog. He is my friend. He knows how I feel. It's Pussy. She wants to go out. The demonstrative pronoun it indicates non-persons or certain situations, mentioned in the previous context: e.g. Some were dancing, some tried to sing. A big man, bottle in hand, lay by the armchair. Clouds or smoke hung under the ceiling. Suddenly I felt sick of it all. Besides, it is also used with demonstrative force when preceding the words it points to e.g. It's my husband. It's Mary. It was a red rose. It may also have the force of a purely formal element of the sentence, as the formal subject or object devoid of any lexical meaning. Its function is to point to the real subject or object which comes after the predicate and is expressed either by an infinitive (an infinitive phrase) or by a gerund (a gerundial phrase), or else by a clause. e.g. It was nice to stop here. It was useless trying to see him. 416

It was clear to everybody that she was not well. May I take it that you will keep your word? When it refers to the predicative (or any part in this position) it serves as means of producing emphasis: the word in the predicative position becomes prominent and therefore becomes the information focus of the sentence: e.g. It was he who did it. Именно он это сделал. (Как раз он это сделал ). It was there that we met. Именно там мы встретились.(Там-то мы и встретились). It was to this room that Soames went. Именно в эту комнату пошел Сомс. The impersonal pronoun it functions as a purely structural element -the subject of impersonal sentences describing various states of nature and environment, or things, time, measure, or distance, etc. as in: e.g. It was raining. It was cold that day. It's spring already. It's 10 o'clock. It's still sixty miles to the river. The pronoun they (them) is the plural form of the pronouns he, she and the personal it. Its syntactic functions are similar to those of the forms the singular. It may be used as subject (They had no time) and as predicative (It's they who will answer first). The objective case form can also used in these cases (That's them). The same form is to be found in comparative constructions, as objects and adverbial modifiers: e.g. Do you know them, boy? (object) Try to catch up with them. (prepositional object) In front of them there were seven candles. (adverbial modifier) You are better off than they (them). 417

In addition to their usual function when they have personal meaning like pronouns we, you, they may be used as indefinitepersonal, indicating topic in general or a limited group of people. The difference between them is in their reference: we refers to a group of people including the speaker, you includes only the listener(s), and they excludes both the speaker and the listeners. e.g. As we know, geographic limits between dialects are not easy to establish. You never saw such a commotion up and down the house, in all your life, as when my Uncle Podger undertook to do a job. When you are tired they give you some pills, and in a minute you are your own self again. They say you were in the park with her? What do they teach you there? II. Possessive pronouns. Possessive pronouns indicate possession by persons (my, mine, your, yours, their, theirs) or non-persons (its, their, theirs). They comprise two sets of forms: the conjoint forms - my, your, his, her, our, their, which always combine with nouns and premodify them as attributes and the absolute forms - mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, which do not combine with nouns, but function as their substitutes. Thus, they may be adjective-pronouns when used as conjoint forms and noun-pronouns when used as absolute forms. There is no absolute form corresponding to the pronoun it. Both conjoint and absolute forms may function with reference to persons and non-persons. e.g. My friends are waiting for me. I liked this house and its wonderful garden. Where are the dogs? — Mine is under the table. The coat isn't mine, it's yours. Hers was a wonderful room. A peculiarity of the English language is that possessive pronouns, not the article, are used with reference to parts of the body, personal belongings, relatives, etc. 418

e.g.

I raised my eyebrows. He rose up and put his hands in his small pockets. Where are you going to spend your leave ? I can't see my way ahead.

III. Reflexive pronouns. Reflexive pronouns indicate identity between the person or non-person they denote and that denoted by the subject of the sentence. They are: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, structurally derived either from the possessive pronouns (myself, yourself, ourselves, yourselves), or from personal pronouns in the objective case (himself, herself, itself, themselves); the pronoun oneself is derived from the indefinite pronoun one. Reflexive pronouns derived from possessive and personal pronouns have the categories of person, number, and gender in the 3d person singular only. The generalizing reflexive pronoun oneself has none of these. e.g. Oh, I can do it myself. He felt himself grow hot to the roots of his hair. If these are several homogeneous subjects denoting different persons including the 1st, the 1st person plural reflexive is used: e.g. You, mother, and I must now think about ourselves. If there is no 1st person, the 2nd person plural reflexive is used: e.g. You and mother must now think of yourselves. If the subject is the indefinite pronoun one, the corresponding reflexive is used: e.g. One must not deceive oneself. If the subject is expressed by any other indefinite pronoun himself or themselves is used: e.g. Has anybody hurt himself? The most common functions of the reflexive pronouns are those of an apposition and objects (direct, indirect, prepositional). 419

e.g.

Cedric himself knew nothing whatever about it. (apposition) I have all kinds of beautiful sentiments myself. (apposition) I learned to dress myself many years ago. (direct object) "How well you talk," said the Miller's wife pouring herself a large glass of warm ale. (indirect object) She talks only about herself. (prepositional object)

Less common are the functions of the subject, predicative, attribute, and adverbial modifiers: e.g. My wife and myself welcome you, sir. (subject) In some minutes she became herself again. (predicative) She showed me a large picture of herself as a bride. (attribute) My brother was a Robbins like myself. (adverbial modifier of comparison) He lived in a tiny cottage all by himself. (adverbial modifier of manner) Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used emphatically: e.g. Moreover, Soames himself disliked the thought of that. IV. Reciprocal pronouns. Reciprocal pronouns indicate a mutual relationship between two or more than two persons, or occasionally non-persons (each other, one another) who are at the same time the doer and the object of the same faction. Thus They loved each other means that the doer A loved the object B and at the same time the doer В loved the object A. The pronoun each other generally implies that only two persons are involved, one another usually being preferred when more than two persons are involved. Both of them are composite words and have only one grammatical category – the category of case (each other's, one another's). Reciprocal pronouns in their common case form function as objects: 420

e.g.

e.g.

Now they hate each other. They often quarrelled with one another. The possessive case forms are used as attributes: They stood silent, in each other's arms.

V. Demonstrative pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns point to persons or non-persons or their properties: this (these), that (those), such. The first two of them have the category of number. This (these) and that (those) funciction both as noun-pronouns and adjective-pronouns; such functions only as an adjective-pronoun: e.g. This is my brother Rob. (noun.pronouns) That is very kind of you. (noun.pronouns) This house is too large just for one person. (adjective.pronouns) She is such a silly little thing. (adjective.pronouns) Both of them point to things, persons, or situations denoted in the preceding context, as in the following examples with this and that: e.g. He tried the door. This did not yield. "I often wondered how you were getting on." - "That was very kind of you." Sometimes, however, these pronouns may be used with anticipatory force, pointing to something new, or something still to come: e.g. I know this - you're a traitor. This time I'II win. When used with words denoting periods of time (a day and its parts, week, month, year, century) the pronoun this implies that these periods include the moment of speaking: e.g. This year he is going abroad. I had no breakfast this morning. I haven't seen her this week. 421

When used with the words town, country, government the pronoun this implies one in which the speaker lives or is staying at the moment of speaking. Phrases like in this town, in this country, this government, etc., should be translated into Russian by the actual names of the town or country as in the following: e.g. Englishman: I do like this country - Я очень люблю Англию or by a possessive pronoun: Я очень люблю свою (нашу) страну. The pronoun that (those) pointing to something relatively remote in space or time may refer to something already known or past: e.g. Do you see that red roof over there? That's my house. Oh! that was a sad mistake. That (those) can be used either as a noun-substitute or as a sentence-substitute. e.g. The perfume of the rose is more subtle than that of the lily. Syntactically the pronouns this and that can be subject, predicative, object, or attribute. e.g. This was my old dear car again. (subject) His story was like that. (predicative) Do you remember this? (object) The woods are so beautiful at this time of year. (attribute) When used as attributes both this and that exclude the use of the article. The pronoun such points to a certain quality in things, persons, or situations. e.g. I like such little towns as this. He could not love her. Such was everyone's verdict. You can buy there such things as buns, sausage rolls, and plum cakes

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Such never precedes the definite article, though it often occurs with the indefinite one, which is placed after such. e.g. I've never seen such a beauty. VI. Indefinite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns indicate persons or non-persons or else their properties in a general way without defining the class of objects they belong to, class or properties they possess. They are: some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything, one. Some and any are both noun-pronouns and adjectivepronouns; their compounds in -body, -one, or -thing, as well as the pronoun one, are only noun-pronouns. Some, any, something, anything have no grammatical categories, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, and one have the category of case (somebody's, anybody's, someone's, anyone's, one's). Some and any indicate qualities or quantities, depending on the class and grammatical form of the noun with which they are used as attributes or for which they function as their substitutes. The idea of quantity is actualised if they combine with: a) count nouns in the plural: e.g. Are there any roses in your garden? I have a lot of flowers in my garden, some of them are sweet-scented, some are not. e.g.

e.g.

b) nouns of material: Give me some water, please. Can you see any snow on the mountaintop? c) abstract nouns: She won't give you any trouble.

When used before noun-phrases with cardinal numerals some denotes approximate quantity: some ten years ago, some twenty people (около, приблизительно). The idea of quality is actualised when some and any combine with count nouns in the singular. In a positive statement any acquires the meaning of 'любой'. 423

e.g.

They bought some old house in the country, (какой-то дом) Any horse will do now. (любая лошадь)

Very often the idea of quality and that of quantity go together: Some people will do it of their own free will means a certain type of persons and a certain number of people. Some and any, indicating both indefinite qualities and quantities, differ in meaning. Some has assertive force, that is, presupposes the presence of some quality or quantity. It generally corresponds to the Russian некоторый, какой-то, некоторое количество. Any has a non-assertive force, that is, does not presuppose the presence of any quality or quantity, and generally corresponds to the Russian какой-нибудь, какой-либо, сколько-нибудь. The difference in meaning predetermines their use. Some is commonly used in affirmative and imperative sentences. e.g. There are some apples on the table. Give him some milk. Any is commonly used: 1) In negative sentences (with negatives not, no, never, neither... nor), in sentences with incomplete negatives (hardly, little, few, least, etc.), and with implied negatives (fail, prevent, reluctant, hard, difficult). e.g. I don't like any of them. She has never tasted any wine. I hardly knew any of those present. He failed to find any of them. e.g.

e.g.

2) In questions, mostly general: Did you see any of them? Is there any bread there? 3) In conditional clauses: If any person learns about it, you will have to leave

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e.g.

4) In comparative phrases: He did more for me than any of you.

However, some, not any, is used in interrogative sentences when their basic meaning is assertive and the speaker suggests that a certain state of affairs exists, as in: e.g. Did you see some new English books on the shelf? (The speaker suggests that there are new English books on the shelf and the addressee had only to look on them). When will you have some time to show me your presents? Some, not any, is preferable when making invitations or offers if it presupposes an acceptance: e.g. Will you have some tea? Would you like to see some of my pictures? The same holds true for negative sentences and conditional clauses with positive orientation. e.g. She would not find some letters she had left on the table. If you bring her some flowers, she'll be only too glad. On the other hand, any can be found in affirmative sentences if used with the meaning of no matter what, no matter who, as in: e.g. I am so hungry. I’ll eat any piece of stale bread. Any of them will do. …Я съем любой черствый кусок хлеба, любой из них подойдет). Syntactically some and any can be used as subject, object, or attribute. The compound pronouns of this subclass (something, somebody, someone, anything, anybody, anyone) are used only as noun-pronouns. Those ending in -thing imply non-persons, and those ending in -body imply persons. The difference in their communicative value is the same as between some and any. The pronouns with the element some- are used in affirmative and conditional sentences, or in interrogative, negative and conditional sentences if they are assertive: 425

e.g.

Something unexpected always happened to him. Что-нибудь неожиданное всегда случалось с ним. Let somebody bring me a glass of water. Пусть кто-нибудь принесет мне стакан воды. Did anybody call me up? Мне кто-то звонил?

The pronouns beginning with any are used in negative and interrogative sentences, in conditional clauses, in comparative phrases and in affirmative sentences meaning no matter what, no matter who. e.g. I don't see anyone here. Я никого здесь не вижу. If anyone calls, ask them to wait a moment. Если кто-нибудь зайдет, попросите подождать минуту. The pronoun one is indefinite-personal. It indicates people in general implying inclusion of the speaker, much in the same way as the indefinite-personal we, you, they do: One is used as subject and attribute (in the genitive case) e.g. One never knows what may happen. Никогда не знаешь, что может случиться The use of one is rather formal. In everyday speech we or you is preferable: e.g. You never know what may happen. e.g.

One can be used in the plural. I prefer red roses to white ones. “Which biscuits would you like?” “The ones with chocolate on them

There are certain restrictions to the use of the pronoun one: a) one is not used after own, e.g. I won’t go by your car. I’ll use my own.

426

b) one is normally not used after a superlative adjective or a comparative adjective preceded by the definite article, e.g. Of all the runners my brother was the swiftest. Of the two armchairs I chose the harder. e.g.

c) one is not used after cardinal numerals, I have only one friend but you have two.

But: The little ones always know a good man from a bad one. (i.e. children) It isn’t the pretty ones that make good wives and mothers. (i.e. pretty girls) He was a man that was liked by one and all. (by everybody) VII. Negative pronouns. Negative pronouns as the term implies render the general meaning of the sentence negative. They are: no, none, nothing, nobody, no one, neither. No is used only as an adjective-pronoun, none, nothing, nobody, no one as noun-pronouns, neither may be used as both adjective-pronoun and noun-pronoun. Unlike Russian, in sentences with negative pronouns no other negative words can be used: e.g. Я ему ничего не сказал. - I told him nothing. Only two negative pronouns have the category of case: nobody-nobody's, no one - no one's. The other pronouns of this subclass have no grammatical categories. No and none refer to all nouns denoting both persons and things, nothing refers to things, whereas nobody and no one refer to persons only. The pronoun neither refers to two persons or things and therefore correlates only with count nouns. It has a disjunctive force (ни тот, ни другой). e.g. Nobody means to offend you. Nothing happened. I could see nothing there. Nobody answered. (Not anybody) No one stirred. (Not anyone) Neither came back. Neither book interested me. 427

When neither is used as subject, the predicate verb is in the singular: e.g. Neither was present. No means not... a when premodifying count nouns are in the singular. e.g. I have no pen. = I haven't a pen with me. (ни одной ручки) No trees could be seen. I will give you no trouble. None refers to many people, as well as things, countable and uncountable, therefore it agrees with the predicate verb both in the plural and in the singular, according to the sense required. e.g. None were present at the meeting. I remember none of the stories. None of them are any use to me. None of them really know how ill she is. But He asked them for advice. None was given. None of us knows where he is going to work. I wanted some more coffee but none was left. Nobody and no one cannot be postmodified by an of-phrase. Only none can be used in this case. e.g. None of my relatives came to our wedding. VIII. Detaching pronouns. Detaching pronouns indicate the detachment of some object from other objects of the same class. There are only two pronouns of this subclass - other, another. They are used both as noun-pronouns and as adjective-pronouns. e.g. One of the girls was pretty, while the other was terribly plain. He gulped one cup, then another. I live on the other side.

428

Both other and another have the category of case (other other's, another - another's), but only other has the category of number (other -others). The pronoun other has dual reference, personal and nonpersonal, and correlates with all subclasses of nouns in the singular and in the plural: e.g. Other times have come, other people are of importance. Unlike the majority of pronouns, other (both as a nounpronoun and as an adjective-pronoun) can be preceded by the definite article and other determiners. e.g. The other tree was half-withered. Then he gave me his other hand. That other question quite upset me. Show me some other pictures. His sister's other child was only five then. In these sentences other is used as an attribute. The attributive function can also be performed by the noun-pronoun other in the genitive case, as in: The other's mouth twitched where other's stands for some noun from the previous context. The pronoun another also has a dual reference, but it correlates only with count nouns in the singular. e.g. Will you have another cup? Then another runner came into view. Another has two meanings: 1) a different one e.g. I don't very much like this dress, will you show me another? (другое) 2) one more, one in addition to the one or ones mentioned before e.g. She asked me a question, then another. (еще один) Detaching pronouns can be used as subject, object, adverbial modifier and attribute.

429

IX. Universal pronouns. Universal pronouns indicate all objects (persons and nonpersons) as one whole or any representative of the group separately. They are: all, both, each, every, everything, everybody, everyone, and either. Of these only everybody and everyone have the category of case (everybody - everybody's, everyone - everyone's), others have no grammatical categories. These pronouns, as can be seen from the definition, differ in their reference. Some universal pronouns (all, everybody) have always collective or all-embracing reference. They correspond to the Russian все, весь, целый, всё as in: e.g. All were present. Все присутствовали. All night long she sat by the window. Всю ночь напролет она просидела у окна. I haven't read all the book. Я не прочел всей книги. Everything looks so beautiful in spring. Все так красиво весной. She is everything to me. Она для меня всё. Two pronouns (both, either) indicate a group comprising two persons or non-persons treated either as a whole (both) or as consisting of individual objects in a group of two (either - каждый из двух). In accordance with their reference both takes a predicate verb in the plural and either - in the singular. The article is usually placed after both. e.g. Both have come in time. Оба пришли вовремя. Both the windows were shut. Оба окна были закрыты. Either of these will do. Любой из них подойдет.

430

Some pronouns (every, each, and either) always have individual reference (каждый, другой), therefore they agree with the predicate-verb in the singular. e.g. She searched every corner, but found nothing. Each of them keeps silent. Two pronouns (everybody, everyone) may have both collective and individual reference. In the first case it corresponds to the Russian все, in the second case to the Russian каждый. This or that reference is generally marked not so much by the predicateverb, as by correlation with personal or possessive pronouns. e.g. Everybody did as he thought best. Everybody was eager to give his evidence. Tell everybody that they are to wait a bit. Everybody lowered their eyes. The women stood by the gates and everyone told her own story. X. Interrogative pronouns. Interrogative pronouns indicate persons or non-persons or their properties as unknown to the speaker and requiring to be named in the answer. Accordingly they are used to form special (or pronominal) questions. This subclass of pronouns comprises who, whose, what, which, whatever, whichever. Of these only the pronoun who has the category of case — the objective case is whom. However, there is a strong tendency in colloquial English to use who instead of whom, especially with prepositions. e.g. Who did you get it from? Who have you been with? Who do you mean? instead of Whom did you get it from? (от from whom). Whom have you been with? (or with whom). Whom do you mean?

431

Who, whose, whoever have personal reference, what, whatever have non-personal reference, and which may have both personal and non-personal reference. The number of the persons implied by who can be derived from the context. Accordingly the predicate-verb may be in the singular or in the plural. e.g. Who has come? It's my brother. Who are to come today? When who is used as predicative, the link verb naturally agrees with the subject: e.g. Who is she? Who are you? Who were those people? The pronouns what may be both a noun-pronoun (что?) and an adjective-pronoun (каков? какой?). It has mostly a nonpersonal reference, as in: e.g. What has happened? What is his name? What did you say? What are you looking at? What book are you reading? When what is used as subject, it is, unlike who, always used with the predicate verb in the singular. e.g. What is there on the table? - Some books and papers. However, when what is used as a predicative the link verb agrees with the subject. e.g. What are their names? What and who can both be used as predicative in questions concerning persons. In this case they convey different meanings. Who-questions inquire about the person's name or parentage, while what-questions inquire about person's occupation, profession, rank, etc. 432

e.g.

"Who are you?"- "I am your sister's son." "Who is he?"- "He is Mr. Smith." "What is she?" - "She is a painter".

Which is both a noun-pronoun and an adjective-pronoun. It may have either personal or non-personal reference. e.g. Which of these men is your husband? Which colour do you prefer? Which always implies a choice among a certain limited group of persons or things, corresponding to the Russian который, какой из. The same meaning may be rendered by what, but what has always indefinite reference, whereas which has definite reference. Thus the following two questions Which books would you like to buy? What books would you like to buy? differ in meaning, as the first implies that one is to choose from a given number of books and that one knows what kind of books they are. When answering this question one may either specify the books or just point to them saying "these". The second sentence implies that one is to choose from an indefinite number of books, from books in general. This sentence corresponds to the Russian Какие (какого жанра и т. п.) книги Вы хотели бы купить? When answering this question, one simply has to specify them. The pronouns whoever, whatever, whichever are nounpronouns. Whoever has personal reference, whatever has nonpersonal reference, whichever may have either personal or nonpersonal one. When used in questions they express indignation or surprise. e.g. Whoever could have done it? Whichever was it? Whatever are you trying to do? Whatever is he talking about? XI. Conjunctive pronouns. Conjunctive pronouns (whom, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever) are identical with the interrogative pronouns as to their morphological, referential and syntactical 433

characteristics. They refer to persons and non-persons. The difference between the two subclasses lies in that the conjunctive pronouns, along with their syntactical function in the clause, connect subordinate clauses to the main clause. They are used to connect subject, predicative, and some adverbial clauses, or rather to indicate the subordinate status of these clauses, as the sentence may begin with the clause they introduce. e.g. Who did it will repent. (who opens the subject clause) I know who did it. (who opens the object clause) They were what you call model girls. (what opens the predicative clause) Whatever you may do you can't save the situation. (whatever opens the adverbial concessive clause) Conjunctive pronouns always combine two functions notional and structural. They are notional words because they function as parts of the sentence within a clause and they are structural words because they serve as connectors or markers of the subordinate clause. The compounds whoever, whatever and whichever introduce subject and adverbial clauses and have a concessive meaning: e.g. Whoever told you this may be mistaken. Whichever you choose, I'll help you. Whatever may be the consequences, I insist on going on. XII. Relative pronouns. Relative pronouns refer to persons and non-persons and open attributive clauses which modify words denoting these persons or non-persons. They are who, whose, which, that. Who, like its homonyms, has the category of case (who-whom), the others have no categories. Relative pronouns, like conjunctive pronouns, have two functions -notional and structural: they are parts of the sentence and connectors between the main clause and the subordinate attributive clause they are used in. But unlike conjunctive pronouns they are always related (hence their name relative) to some noun or pronoun in the main clause. Compare the following sentences: 434

Who he was is still a mystery.(conjunctive pronoun) I don't know which of the books is better.

That is the man who has saved your child. (relative pronoun) Here is the book which the lecturer recommended.

Relative pronouns may function in the subordinate attributive clause as subject, object, attribute, and adverbial modifier (with prepositions). Types of pronouns Personal pronouns

Possessive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Indefinite pronouns Negative pronouns Universal pronouns Detaching pronouns Reciprocal pronouns Interrogative pronouns Conjunctive pronouns Relative pronouns

The lists of pronouns The common case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they The objective case; me, you, him, her, it, us, them Conjoint forms: my, your, his, her, its, our, their Absolute forms: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves This, that, these, those, such, same Some, something, somebody, someone, Any, anything, anybody, anyone No, nothing, nobody, no one, none, neither All, each, both, either, every, everything, everybody, everyone Other, another Each other, one another Who, what, which, whose, whoever, whatever, whichever Who, what, which, whose, whoever, whatever, whichever Who, whose, which, that 435

THE NUMERAL I. The numeral denotes an abstract number or the order of things in succession. Numerals include two classes of words — cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals. Cardinal numerals indicate number: one, two, three, four, ten, twelve, eighteen, twenty, thirty-three, seventy-five, ninety-one, a hundred, one hundred and forty-six, two hundred and twenty-eight, a thousand, three thousand and fifty-two, seven thousand three hundred and seventeen, etc. Note 1: The numerals hundred, thousand and million are always preceded by the indefinite article a or the numeral one. The latter is generally used when these numerals are followed by some other numerals. e.g. a hundred or (a) one hundred and twenty-three (100 123) cто или сто двадцать три a thousand or (a) one thousand seven hundred and thirty (1000 - 1730) тысяча или одна тысяча семьсот тридцать. Note 2: Care should be taken to remember the following patterns: a) five hundred books ( 500 books), b) hundreds of books (сотни книг) c) tens of thousands of people (десятки тысяч человек) In the examples under a) the exact number of persons or things is given; in the examples under b) and c) hundred, thousand and million do not indicate any exact number but only a great multitude of persons or things. Ordinal numerals indicate order: first, second, third, fourth, tenth, twelfth, eighteenth, twentieth, twenty-fifth, forty-seventh, a hundredth, two hundred and thirty-ninth, etc.

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Note 1: Dates are read in the following way: 1-st September, 1944 — the first of September (September the first), nineteen (hundred and) forty-four; 5-th January, 1807 — the fifth of January (January the fifth), eighteen hundred and seven. Note 2: Common fractions are read in the following way: 1/9 – one-ninth; 2/3 – two thirds; 3/8 – three eighths; 5/12 – five twelfths. 3 1/5 – three and one-fifth Decimal fractions are read as: 0,5 – zero point (decimal) five 4,76 – four point seventy-six; 8,03 – eight point naught three. 0,005 – zero decimal zero zero five II. Morphological composition. 1. The cardinals. Among the cardinals there are simple, derived, and compound words. The cardinals from one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple; those from thirteen to nineteen are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix –teen; the cardinals denoting tens are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -ty. Note. Mind the difference in spelling of the stem in three and thirteen (thirty), four and forty, five and fifteen (fifty). The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and those over hundred are compounds. e.g. 21 – twenty-one, 35 – thirty-five, 72 – seventy-two, etc 437

In cardinals including hundreds and thousands the words denoting units and tens are joined to those denoting hundreds and thousands by means of the conjunction and. e.g. 103 – one hundred and three 347 – three hundred and forty-seven 4068 – four thousand and sixty-eight 9651 –nine thousand six hundred and fifty-one 2. The ordinals. Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative, and compound words. The simple ordinals are first, second and third. The derivative ordinals are derived from the simple and derivative cardinals ones by means of the suffix –th: e.g. four – fourth eighteen – eighteenth five – fifth twenty – twentieth nine – ninth forty – fortieth twelve – twelfth ninety – ninetieth The compound ordinals are formed from the composite cardinals. In this case only the last component of the compound numeral has the form of the ordinal. e.g. twenty-first, one hundred and third forty-second, five hundred and forty-fourth ninety-ninth three hundredth etc III. Both cardinal and ordinal numerals can have the functions of subject, object, predicative and adverbial modifier of time. e.g. Three of the schoolboys fell ill with scarlet fever. (subject) Трое школьников заболели скарлатиной. We had three visitors that day. (object) В тот день у нас было трое посетителей. They were seven. (predicative) She got up at five today. (adverbial modifier of time)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. R.A.Close. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. Moscow.”Prosveshchenie”, 1979 2. M.A.Ganshina, N.M.Vasilevskaya. English Grammar. Moscow. Higher School Publishing House,1964. 3. E. M. Gordon, I. P. Krylova. A Grammar of Present-day English. Moscow. “Visshaya Shkola”, 1974. 4. W. L. Kaushanskaya, R. L. Kovner, O.N Kozhevnikowa and others. A Grammar of the English language. Leningrad. “Uchpedgis”, 1963. 5. N.A. Kobrina, E.A. Korneeva, M.I. Ossovskaya, K.A. Guzeeva. An English Grammar. Morphology. Syntax. St. Petersburg, “Soyuz”,1999. 6. E.A.Natanzon. Oblique Moods. Modal verbs. Moscow. “Meszdunarodnye Otnosheniya”,1968. 7. Michael Swan. Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press, 1995. 8. A.J.Thomson, A. V.Martinet. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1986.

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CONTENTS

PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH

5

THE VERB The morphological composition Classifications of the Verb The Finite Forms of the Verb TENSES

7 7 7 11 20 20 20 24

THE PRESENT TENSES The Simple Present Tense The Present Continuous Tense Verbs not normally used in the Continuous tenses The Present Perfect Tense The Present Perfect Continuous Tense THE PAST TENSES The Simple Past Tense The Past Continuous Tense The Past Perfect Tense The Past Perfect Continuous Tense THE FUTURE TENSES The Simple Future Tense The Future Continuous Tense The Future Perfect Tense The Future Perfect Continuous Tense Future-in-the-Past Tenses Different Means of Expressing Future Actons VOICE The Passive Voice THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES THE INDIRECT SPEECH MOOD The Indicative Mood The Imperative Mood The Oblique Moods The Use of the Oblique Moods The Conditional Mood 440

30 37 48 54 54 61 68 75 79 79 81 83 84 84 86 91 91 100 104 121 121 121 123 124 126

Subjunctive II Subjunctive I The Suppositional Mood The Forms of the Oblique Moods (Summary) MODAL VERBS Can May Can and May Compared Must Must and May Compared To Have to, Have got to To Be to Must, to Have to and to Be to Compared. Ought to Shall and Should Must, Should and Ought to Compared Will and Would Need Dare Shouldn’t + Perfect Infinitive, Oughn’t + Perfect Infinitive, Needn’t + Perfect Infinitive Compared Expressions of Absence of Necessity VERBALS (Non-finite Forms of the Verb) THE INFINITIVE The Use of the Infinitive without the Particle to (The Bare Infinitive) Syntactical Functions of the Infinitive Predicative Constructions with the Infinitive The Objective with the Infinitive Construction The Subjective Infinitive Construction The for-to-Infinitive Construction THE GERUND The Gerund and the Infinitve Compared The Gerund and the Verbal Noun Compared THE PARTICIPLE Participle I 441

137 147 149 162 164 166 179 188 190 197 198 201 204 207 209 217 218 224 227 228 228 230 233 237 239 255 256 259 262 264 279 282 283 283

Participle II Predicative Constructions with the Participle Participle I and the Gerund Compared

THE ARTICLE The Indefinite Article The Definite Article Absence of the Article The Use of Articles with Countable Nouns General Rules for the Use of Articles with Countable Nouns Certain Peculiarities in the Use of the Definite Article with Countable Nouns The Generic Function of the Definite Article The Use of Articles with Countable Nouns in Some Syntactic Relations The Use of Articles with Abstract Nouns The Use of Articles with Uncountable Concrete Nouns The Use of Articles with Some Semantic Groups of Nouns Certain Countable Nouns in Their Phraseological Use The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting Objects or Notions Which are Considered to be Unique The Use of Articles with Proper Names The Place of Articles Use of Articles with Nouns in some Set Expressions

294 298 305 307 307 308 309 310 324 325 328 335 344 346 355 358 360 369 372

THE NOUN The Gender of Nouns The Number of Nouns Notional agreement The Case of Nouns

376 378 379 386 390

THE ADJECTIVE

394

THE ADVERB

405

THE PRONOUN

413

THE NUMERAL

436

BIBLIOGRAPHY

439 442

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