A guide to the Solidification of Steels

A Guide to the Solidilication 01 Steels Jernkontoret, Stockholm 1977. Jern kontoret Box 1721 S-111 87 Stockholm Lju...

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A Guide to the Solidilication 01 Steels

Jernkontoret,

Stockholm 1977.

Jern kontoret Box 1721 S-111 87 Stockholm Ljungberg

Tryckeri AB, S6dertalje ISBN 91-7260-156-6

1977

FOREWORD An investigation

into the solidification

terest was started by Jernkontoret work was the responsibility

structures

in steels of commercial

in 1974. The planning

of a Research Committee,

reference of 408/74. Membership

in-

and supervision

of

having the Jernkontoret

of this Committee comprised:

G. Grunbaum, (Sandvik AB), Chairman, B. Call mer, (Swedish Institute for Metals Research),

Secretary,

b.

Hammar,

(Sandvik

Hellner, (AB Bofors), S. Maim, (Uddeholms AB) and

A.

Nilsson, (Stora Kopparberg

The experimental

programme

Metals Research, Stockholm, Callmer, were responsible

AB), P. Havola, (Ovako Oy), L.

AB), L. Morsing, (Avesta Jernverks

AB).

was carried

out at the Swedish

where initially

for the work, including

lography and photomicrography

were performed

represented

supplied

contributions

on the Committee to the experimental

Institute

for

B. Carlsson and, from 1975, B. evaluation

of results. Metal-

by H. Modin. The companies

samples of steels and made other

programme.

D. Dulieu (BSC, Sheffield

Lab-

oratories, England), assisted with the preparation of the English text. The project was partly financed by the Swedish Board for Technical Development.

CONTENTS Foreword

5

Introduction

9

1. Experimental Techniques

11

2. Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

17

3. Chromium Steels

55

4. Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels

81

5. High Speed Steels

133

6. Conclusions and Comments

142

7. References

151

8. Alloy Index

154

INTRODUCTION The purpose of the present work is to provide a systematic compilation of solidification data, describing the formation of the as-cast microstructures in steels of technical importance. The compositions have been chosen to cover a large part of the spectrum of steels in current production. Where a specific steel is not included, it should be possible to gain an outline of its solidification characteristics from related compositions present. The book is not intended to provide a theoretical treatment of solidification processes in steels. It is hoped rather that the descriptions of the microstructures formed on solidification will assist in solving, or avoiding, some of the problems arising in casting, hot working and welding. However, specific production and materials problems have not been described. A knowledge of solidification processes is also relevant to problems of quality in the final product; for example, in understanding the effects of segregation arising during solidification on the microstructure of wrought material. The work should find use also in metallurgical education as a source of basic information. In the planning stage, the Project Committee hoped to collect data from both the technical literature and unpublished laboratory reports. However, a study of these sources soon showed that most investigations were unique in both their experimental techniques and presentation of results. In addition, thermal analysis at varying cooling rates had been identified in this project as a powerful technique for investigation of solidification. Little systematic experimental work employing this method was found in the literature. It was decided, therefore, to generate the data needed within the study and to use the same reproducible methods for all the steel compositions studied. The Committee gave considerable attention to the problem of relating structures obtained in small, laboratory ingots to those found in large ingots under production conditions. This aspect is discussed in chapter 1, where the experimental techniques are described and the format adopted for diagrams and tables is explained. Chapters 2-5 comprise the main body of the book, with results for each individual steel described. These sections are printed in a standardized form for ease of quick reference. The large number of steels has made it necessary to limit the amount of information given. Wherever possible in these chapters, descriptive passages have been avoided in favour of figures, diagrams and micrographs. The alloys have been brought together into four broad classes: Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (Ch. Chromium Steels (Ch. Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels (Ch. High Speed Steels (Ch.

2) 3) 4) 5)

Although the intention was to arrange the steels in a logical way, this was not always possible. In most cases, however, a steel type will be classified easily within the four groups. Each of chapters 2 to 5 is introduced by a paragraph describing those specific steels which have been studied. The reader can quickly ascertain whether a steel composition is included or not, by examining either the tables accompanying each chapter, or the index tables given in chapter 8. Chapter 6 contains some general conclusions regarding solidification phenomena which are common for the groups of steels. References to the relevant literature have been made throughout and are listed in full in chapter 7. Chapter 8 comprises master tables of chemical compositions and thermal analysis data for all the steels included in the study. In addition, this chapter includes tables of dendrite arm spacings and microsegregation.

11

1. Experimental Techniques The object of the laboratory experiments was to produce microstructures identical to those obtained under production solidification conditions. A suitable experimental technique would allow the following: •

Determination of pertinent temperatures, such as those of the liquid us, solidus and high temperature reactions, together with the relative amounts of the phases formed.

•

The ability to freeze instantaneously reaction by rapid quenching.

the solidification

•

A controlled wide limits.

•

A reproducible relationship between the structures obtained in laboratory samples and those found in full-size ingots.

cooling rate which could be varied within

To fulfill these requirements, the experiments were carried out on small ingots (35 g) solidified in a ceramic crucible at a preset, controlled cooling rate. The development of the solidification microstructure is governed mainly by alloy composition and the rate of heat removal. By using samples of commercial alloys and letting them cool at a rate similar to that found in full scale ingots, good reproduction of microstructural features was obtained. A range of cooling rates in steel ingots, evaluated from published cooling curves, is shown in figure 1.1, [1-4,23, 26, 93, 96] * .The results refer to different ingot sizes; which means that values on the abscissa are only indicative of position within an ingot. The figure shows that the range of cooling rates of practical interest lies between 0,05 and 3°C/s. Accordingly, the specimens in this study were cooled at 0,1, 0,5 and 2°C/s.

According to reported data (for cooling rates [20], solidification rates [4, 21] and local solidification times [22]), ingots produced by the electroslag remelting or vacuum arc remelting processes follow, in general, the pattern shown in figure 1.1. No experimental values of cooling rates in continuous casting were found in the literature. Calculations based on mathematical models of heat transfer show these cooling rates to be slightly higher than for ingots up to 20-30 mm under the surface, as shown in figure 1.1 [5,6]. At larger depths no great difference exists, as cooling rate is governed by heat conduction in the solidified shell. This has been established by comparisons between measured solidification speeds in ingots and continuously cast material, [4, 7, 8]. Solidification of weld metal takes place at high cooling rates. Depending on process parameters, such as the size of the weld pool, rates have been reported to vary between 20 and 200°C/s, [10, 11]. In powder metallurgy very high cooling rates are encountered, Calculations lead to an estimate of 103-104 °C/s for the solidification of argon atomized steel particles [9]. Welding and powder metallurgy are thus not directly covered by the experiments reported in the present work.

('C/s)

\000 E

.3-500

~

~300

u

;t200 l1'I

Cooling rate °C/minoC/s 600 10

300

:::li ~ 100

100

x

1 tonne

0

2,5- 9 tonnes

5 x

200

Ingot weight < 1 tonne

I:!.

Continuous cast, calcul. •

3

>a::

~ z o

u W l1'I

50 30 20 1

2

3

5

10 20 30 50 100 200 AVERAGE COOLING RATE (·C/minl

500 1000

2 Figure 1.2 Dendrite arm spacings in commercial 0,14-0,88% C-steel ingots (After Suzuki A. et ai, J. Japan Inst, of Metals, (1968) 1301 -1305.) [28]

30

0,5

20

0,3 0,2

10 6

0,1

3

0,05

3

5

10

20

30

50

100 200 300 500 Distance from surface. mm

• References appear in chapter 7

Figure 1.1 billets

Cooling

rates in steel ingots and continuously

cast

The cooling rate may be related to the microstructure through its effect on the secondary dendrite arm spacing. This decreases with increasing cooling rate in the manner shown in figure 1.2, [28]. Many diagrams of this type are available in the literature. When extrapolated to cooling rates prevailing in welding and powder solidification, the relationship predicts fairly well the secondary dendrite arm spacings in weld metal and steel powder, [14, 9, 96]. As shown in later sections, the arm spacings found in the small samples are of the same order of magnitude as those reported for ingots of the same composition. Figure 1.3 shows examples of secondary dendrite arm spacing measurements in the columnar zones of ingots of low alloy steel ranging in weight from 1 to 9 tonnes, together with results from a 1,7 tonne stainless ingot, [12, 13,26].

12

Secondary dendrite arm spacing, j.Jm

ARGON INLET •.....---WINDOW

400

--

r

300

TEFLON PLUG

FURNACE THERMOCOUPLE FOR POWER REGULATION THERMOCOUPLE ANALYSIS

FOR

I

CRUCIBLE AND LID

SOOmm

200

WITH SAMPLE

AI 0) FIBRE 2 BRASS

TUBES

REFLECTING

WALL

MOLYBDENUM SUPPORT

100

AI 0) 2

WIRE

ROD

TUBE

ARGON INLET

o

o

Figure 1.3

Thermal

20

40

60

80 100 120 Distance from surface, mm

Dendrite arm spacings in production

scale ingots

Experimental

furnace

analysis

The steel samples of 35 ± 1 g were melted in alumina crucibles in an atmosphere of argon (02 < 5 ppm), Samples inserted in the hot furnace, shown in figure 1.4, melted in five minutes. A tube of alumina was resistance heated by a molybdenum wire element. Argon was flushed through the tube from the top at a rate of approximately 0,1 lis. The outside of the tube with the molybdenum wire was subjected to a non-flowing argon atmosphere. The tubular furnace shell was double-walled and water cooled, with the inside chromium plated to give good heat reflection. No insulation was used so that the furnace had a low thermal inertia, enabling cooling rates of up to 2,0°C/s to be achieved down to 1000°C. The samples were quenched in brine within about three seconds from removal at the bottom of the furnace.

FURNACE

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.4

Control systems

The temperature and cooling rate of the furnace was controlled by the power input. The desired furnace cooling rate was achieved by presetting a programmable temperature-time regulator (Data Trak). An artificial thermoelectric voltage-time function was generated and compared with the actual output of the furnace thermocouple. The system minimized any difference by adjusting the furnace power input. Theaccuracy in cooling rate which was obtained was better than ten percent. Figure 1.5 shows schematically the regulating and measuring system of the furnace. The temperature of the steel sample was measured at its centre by means of a thermocouple (PtlPt-10% Rh). The thermocouple output was registered by a digital microvolt meter. The cold junction was maintained at O°C.One registration of specimen temperature per degree fall in furna-

13

ce temperature was used for all the cooling rates. The result was punched on a paper tape and evaluated in a minicomputer. The thermocouples and the other components used were checked by determining the liquidus temperature of a pure nickel melt. The precision of the temperature measurements was found to be ± 2°C.

a minimum, see figure 1.6. After this point the cooling rate of the sample started to approach the cooling rate of the furnace, since no more latent heat was evolved. The derivative is more useful for evaluation of the cooling curve, showing changes more clearly than the temperature-time curve itself.

Thermal analysis, as used here, is based on an analysis of the temperature versus time curve of a solidifying sample. The furnace and the molten sample are subject to a constant cooling rate, but when the sample starts to solidify the latent heat evolved decreases the cooling rate of the sample. In fact, all reactions or transformations evolving latent heat decrease the cooling rate of the sample. The growth of the solid phase starts at the walls of the crucible and proceeds to the centre. The dendrites grow at an almost constant temperature, shown by the plateau of the temperature-time curve in figure 1.6. When the tips of the dendrites reach the thermocouple the heat transfer from the thermocouple becomes markedly more rapid and the amount of latent heat sensed by the thermocouple is diminished. As a consequence the registered temperature starts to decrease.

The end of solidification, as defined here, is denoted the solidus temperature and is strongly dependent on the cooling rate. It was particularly difficult to determine the solidus temperature by thermal analysis in steels with a high carbon content. This is a result of their wide solidification ranges and very low growth rates near the end of solidification. Furthermore, eutectic reactions occurred at the end of solidification over a large temperatu re range which led to poorly defined minima in the derivative.

TEMPERATURE

T (·C)

COOLING RATE

dT d't"

T

(·C/s)

+

The solidus temperature was also determined as the start of melting in heating tests. The samples cooled at a,1 and a,5°C/s were reheated at a,5°C/s. The start of melting and the end of solidification in cooling trials generally differed only by a few degrees. The lowest of these temperatures was chosen as the solidus temperature and rounded off to within five degrees. Quenching experiments confirmed that this method for determining the solidus temperature was acceptable. In a few cases a small amount of the melt could solidify below the reported solidus temperature, but for practical purposes the reported solidus temperatures are relevant. All temperatures given in the tables are mean values of two to five measurements and thus are not necessarily those which can be evaluated from the cooling curves shown.

o R

t furnace _."

"-..,.

TIME, T (s) Figure 1.6

T

Thermal analysis, temperatures

CD

Start of growth of primary phase

®

Growth temperature rature

®

Dendrite tips reach thermocouple

of dendrites,

~ ...........

used as liquidus tempein centre of sample

Start of secondary phase precipitation Maximum reaction rate for secondary phase precipitation, maximum temperature, used as temperature of formation of the secondary phase

w

End of solidification,

~ w

-R

Preset cooling

rate of furnace

'

,

~ ~T

1 I

I -

0

-1I

-

reached

-

1

='4

1

~ w

I I I

b

Tfurnace : Tsample I I

0

-R

t?

z :i

0 0

u

c

o

'[,

TIME

Figure 1.7

a-c.

_

I I

d't

........•.

I

•....dT

w •....

.

1

w

Cl:: W 0-

••..•.••.•

---,

I I

Cl::

dJ~)

I

Ifurnace

I -

a -

tion point, that is, where the cooling rate

I

I .•.•..•.,

1 I

a

u. u.

The temperature of the plateau was taken as the liquidus temperature in this work. This temperature is slightly lower than that of the true equilibrium liquidus, but the difference is very small and of no practical significance. Supercooling was generally observed before nucleation and growth. The degree of supercooling was generally larger and more varied at the start of the secondary (peritectic) reaction than for primary (ferrite) nucleation in the solidification of a ferritic-austenitic steel. The temperatures given for the secondary phase formation are thus less accurate than those of the primary phase formation (liquidus). The end of solidification was defined as the temperature at which the temperature-time curve had its inflec-

I

-....J

1

@)

used as solidus temperature

-....1...

I' I I

® ®

liquidus

and events:

('r)

Derivation of fraction solid phase.

-

14

The fraction solid phase, f5, as a function of time was calculated using the following principles [90]. When the sample starts to solidify, latent heat, L, is evolved which

g~ as shown

decreases the cooling rate

in figure

1.7 a

and c. The cooling rate of the furnace is not affected and thus the temperature difference,
dO

from the sample to

d. the furnace, and

dO, will vary in the same way as
d.

Assuming 00 = Cp· OT, (where Cp is the specific calculated flux

cooling rate,

to the heat

The dendritic structure etching techniques:

~d.Jc

Etchant

Carbon, low alloy and 5% chromium steels.

Saturated solution of picric acid in water or a mixture of water and alcohol.

13% chromium, stainless and heat resistant steels.

Various etchants according to the etching behaviour of the respective alloy. a) Copper-containing gents (Steads).

d.

The difference

L.QD ~ d.7m

between the measured cooling rate

LQD \d./c

and

the sample. = Cp·

[(

is the evolution

of latent

heat in

::t (::)J

c) Acid ferric chloride, FeCI3, HCI and water in various proportions. (Used cold or warm) High speed steels

Hence the area between the two curves in figure 1.7 c is proportional to ~1' the latent heat evolved in the interval 0 to .1.

.1

.1

~1

J

~d.=

d.

o

The latent

J

c,

[(:a - E:~2Jd'

o

heat evolved

is proportional

solid phase at the time considered.

As

to the fraction dO is not readily

d. . . measured, an approximation

QdT) . _. was 0 b·tame d usmg d. c the cooling rates measured at the start and end of solidification. In an iterative process, the calculated fraction solid phase was used to improve the approximate value of

rea-

b) Mixed acids, HN03, HCI and water in proportion by volume 1:10:10 with the addition of some drops of pickling bath inhibitor.' (Used at 65°C)

~

Cp

was revealed by the following

Steel Type

d.

= _1_.

Examination

Metallographic examination of samples was carried out after mechanical preparation and etching in a range of solutions appropriate to the individual steel composition, [15].

dO can be derived as follows, see figure 1.7 c.

U!TI

:~

~,corresPOnding d. c

heat), a

Metallographic

0f

Table 1.1

Normally 4% nitai solution. For examination at higher magnification alkaline permanganate was used (4 wt% NaOH saturated with KMnO.).

Summary of etchants

• In general, this etching reagent gives only a gentle surface relief and no selective darkening. To reveal the dendrites clearly the following technique has been used: The structure is under- or overfocussed, depending on where the best image is obtained, and simultaneously the aperture diaphragm is stopped down considerably in order to increase the depth of focus. In this way a sharp image with good contrast is obtained, i.e. light with dark boundaries or vice versa depending on whether it is under- or overfocussed.

(dT\ d·lc

This analysis is the basis for computing the fraction solid phase. The calculations were more elaborate than the simplified analysis indicates. Corrections, such as for the different specific heats of the liquid and solid phases and their relative amounts during solidification, were included in the actual computation. The results of these calculations are given graphically on the upper part of each solidification diagram and in the tables of thermal analysis data. Alternative methods of calculating are given in references [16-19].

fraction

solid

phase

Where both y- and o-dendrites are formed the y-dendrites appear white and the area occupied by the o-dendrites dark at low magnification (figure 1.8 a). The reason for this is that, on cooling and quenching, the o-dendrites are partly transformed to y which contains closely spaced networks of residual 0, figure 1.8 b. To reveal dendritic and interdendritic ferrite, carbides, phosphides and intermetallic phases, appropriate etchants for the steels in question were used [15]. In some cases the visual observations were supported by identification of the phases using microprobe analysis, X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The magnification~ of the optical photomicrographs have been standardized as far as possible to facilitate comparisons between structures. (Micrographs have been reproduced at actual size, so that magnifications refer directly to the size ratio between objects in the sample and in the illustration).

15

'.

,

·l~

<:t) -; '-:1:..,

t

I /

Figure 1.8 a magnification,

Stainless steel shown at low (steel number 407)

l

y

1J !J

x 150

100

JLm

I·'

<

Figure 1.8 b Detail of figure 1.8 a showing transformed c)-areas

x 600

. (

The secondary dendrite arm spacings have been measured at a low magnification. The measurements were made close to and parallel with the parent primary dendrite stems (figure 1.9). At least four or five secondary arms per primary arm were counted and at least ten such measurements were taken within each steel specimen, where this was possible. The result reported is the arithmetic mean of the individual secondary arm spacings. In most samples a large number of observations was possible and the mean values have good statistical significance. Exceptions are the specimens obtained at the lowest cooling rate, because the large arm spacings in these samples limited the number of observations, together with the ferritic-austenitic stainless steels, in which a very low degree of segregation gave a correspondingly diffuse microstructure. Structures

arising

from the quench

itself, such as fine

transformation products, the figure captions.

are in general not discussed

in

Microsegregation Microsegregation was studied by electron microprobe analysis of samples cooled at O,5°C/s and quenched from just below the solidus temperature. Line scans were performed in selected areas of the specimens. Before analysis the samples were etched and the lines to be traversed were marked with microhardness indentations. Strongly etched specimens were repolished before measuring. Two lines were selected from different areas in each specimen, on the same principle as that for selecting lines for dendrite arm measurement. Consequently, in most cases secondary dendrite arms were crossed at right angles but some primary dendrites were intersected also. A typical example of a traverse for analysis is shown in figure 1.9.

16

are defined below and the appropriate values of segregation ratio, I, or partition ratios, PID or PD' have been reported for each steel. In many stainless steels, ferrite is precipitated from the residual melt in the interdendritic areas together with austenite, (for example in steel 407, figure 10), and a partition ratio PID has been calculated as:

P 10 _-

CX, bID

c

x'

YID

where Cx is the mean value of the concentration of element x in interdendritic band Y . PID is thus a quantity describing the partition of the element x between interdendritic ferrite and austenite. When austenite grew into and consumed dendrites which formed initially as ferrite, thin regions of ferrite remained in the austenite matrix in some stainless steels, (for example in steel 403, figure 7). This solid phase transformation also gives rise to partitioning of alloying elements between austenite and dendritic ferrite, and a partition ratio Po may be calculated:

Po =

Cx' bo Cx, Yo

where Cx is the mean value ment x in band y in dendritic of segregation and partition steels is discussed further in

Presentation x 50

300 fLm

Figure 1.9 Primary and secondary dendrite arms in a typical field showing a traverse followed for the measurement of secondary dendrite arm spacings and electron microprobe analysis, (steel number 410). The total lengths over which analyses were made in each steel and the scanning speeds used were:

Distance Speed

Carbon and low alloy steels

5% and 13% chromium steels

Stainless, heat resistant and high speed steels·

6000 lAm 1,1 IAm/s

3000 lAm 0,7IAm/s

2800 lAm 1,3 ~lm/s

of results

For each type of steel the resu Its are reported on one data page and at least one page with micrographs. The more important contents of these pages are explained in table

1.2: Item

Definition

Designations

The corresponding Swedish, American and German standard steel designations The chemical composition of the actual sample The diagram on a data page represents a furnace cooling rate of R=0,5°C/s; fs indicates fraction solidified phase. The table contains mean values of pertinent temperatures obtained from two to five measurements at three cooling rates. The figures in circles refer to the arrows in the diagram . These relate to specific curves and may differ from mean values, they should be used as an aid to interpretation only. Solidification range defined as Iiquidus - solidus temperature, °C Solidification time defined as the time corresponding to the solidification range, s Sulphides, carbides, nitrides and intermetallic phases found in the solidification structure. . The results refer to samples cooled at O,5°C/sand quenched from 50- 60°C below the reported solidus temperature. Segregation and partition ratios as defined in detail above. Quenching temperature, °C Secondary dendrite arm spacing, lAm Ferrite and austenite Quenched liquid

Composition Thermal analysis

• Microsegregation in high speed steels was also measured by point analysis.

For quantitative calibration, the X-ray intensities were compared with those of homogeneous standard specimens having accurately analyzed compositions close to those of the experimental samples. From the microprobe analyses, mean solute concentration values were evaluated in dendritic and interdendritic areas. The segregation ratio (I) of the alloying element (x) from the centre of the dendrites (D) to the interdendritic areas (ID) was calculated as:

1=

Precipitates

Microsegregation

CX ID Cx. D

where Cx is the mean concentration value. I has been calculated in a straightforward way when the segregation occurred within one phase such as ferrite or austenite. In two-phase steels there is, in addition to this segregation, partitioning of alloying elements between the phases, principally between austenite and ferrite. Partition ratios

of the concentration of eleareas. The specific problem ratios in two-phase stainless chapter 6.

Tq d

band y L

Table 1.2 Key to presentation of experimental results

17

2. Carbon and Low Alloy Steels The steels of this group represent commercial steels. They are produced ings of all sizes. Continuous casting for all except the steels of the highest

the most common as ingots and castis also widely used carbon content.

Carbon steels exist with carbon levels from below 0,1 % to above 1,3%, depending upon the required strength and hardness. The carbon steels chosen are listed in table 2.1: No.

C

Si

Mn

201 202 203 204 205 206 207

0,11 0,12 0,18 0,19 0,36 0,69 1,01

0,12 0,3 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,3

1,3 1,5 1,2 1,5 0,6 0,8 0,5

Table 2.1

Low alloy steels usually contain modest amounts of chromium, nickel, molybdenum and vanadium for hardenability purposes. One of the elements may be present in concentrations of up to about 4 %. In its effect on solidification carbon is still by far the most important element, so that these steels generally follow the behaviour shown in figure 2.1. The following commercial low alloy steels were studied:

Others%

0,03 Nb

Carbon steels

No.

C

208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216

0,10 0,20 0,27 0,29 0,30 0,35 0,52 0,55 1,01

Table 2.2

Steel 202 was treated with rare earth metals to modify the sulphide inclusions. The manganese and silicon concentrations are typical for silicon killed steels. The carbon contents have been selected to represent the main solidification paths expected from the equilibrium diagram of the Fe-C system shown in figure 2.1. The solidification of steels with lower and higher carbon contents can be extrapolated. The types of solidification are: • primary ferrite formation •

primary ferrite formation tion

followed by a peritectic

•

primary austenite formation

reac-

Temperature,OC 1550

1500

1450

1400

1350

1300

1250 0,1

Figure 2.1 275-276)

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8 0,9 1,0 Weight - % carbon

Fe-C system (After Metals Handbook,

Vol 8, 1973,

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

0,3 0,3 0,02 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,3 0,2

0,6 0,9 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,7 0,9 0,5 0,3

1,2 0,8 1,7 1,1 1,0 0,9 1,1 1,0 1,6

3,2 1,0 3,5 0,1 3,2 0,1 0,1 3,6

0,1 0,1 0,4 0,2 0,3 0,2

V

%

0,1

0,3

Low alloy steels

References The solidification of carbon and low alloy steels has been investigated and described by many authors. Dendritic growth (kinetic aspects, arm spacings etc), has been studied in both laboratory ingots of varying sizes and in commercial ingots, [24-37]. Quantitative aspects of microsegregation have been discussed in references [24, 26, 30,31,32,34,35,38-51]. Finally, references [52-54] are examples of papers which, while not predominantly concerned with dendritic growth or microsegregation, nevertheless contain information relevant to the solidification of carbon and low alloy steels.

18 • Steel 201

STEEL 201.

0,1 % CARBON STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

1413

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,11

0,12

1,25

0,040

0,018

0,06

0,03

0,07

0,07

N

0,038

0,012

Thermal Analysis fs

0,0

T (OCl

0)

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

dT d't

fD

(OC/s)

T

1500

1450 +0,5 0

1400

dT d't

-0,5

1350 -1,0 -1,5

R

=

0,5°C/s

1300

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Temperature

ferritic primary phase, °C

of austenite formation,

Solidus temperature,

°C

Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

°C

CD

CD

Precipitates

Interdendritic

MnS.

Microsegregation Element

Mn

R = 1,3

O,5°C/s

Tq = 1390°C

-r (5)

300

200

100

0

Cooling Rate,R, eC/s) 0,5

0,1

1513

1513

1515

1476

1476

1475

1445

1450

1455

65 85

65 240

60 700

Steel 201 • 19

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= 0,5°C/s = 1510°C = 65 J.Lm

o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400J.Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R

= 2,0°C/s

Tq

= 1390°C d = 80 J.Lm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to 'Y by the peritectic reaction. x 25

400 J.Lm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1390°C = 130 J.Lm

.y x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

~,"o '#

= 0,1°C/s

= 1390°C = 300J.Lm x 25

400 J.Lm

20 • Steel 202

STEEL 202.

0,12 % CARBON

STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

1.0566

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Altot

Ce

N

0,12

0,27

1,53

0,010

0,005

0,02

0,03

<0,03

0,05

0,029

0,03

0,011

0,2

0,0

Thermal Analysis

0,4

0,5

0,8

',0

CD f T

'500

'450

Average 2,0

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

ferritic

of austenite

temperature,

QC

Solidification

range, QC

Solidification

time, s

primary

formation,

CD

phase, QC QC

CD

CD

Precipitates

Globular

rare earth inclusions

from addition

of Rare Earth Metals (REM).

Microsegregation Element

Mn

1,4

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1390 QC

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s) 0,5

0,1

1514

1515

1514

1471

1475

1477

1440

1440

1460

75

75

55

105

230

700

Steel 202 • 21

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1510°C d = 70 fLm o-dendrites and quenched

liquid (L).

x 25

400

fLm

,, •

'.f'

Completely solidified

,.

•

•

••• •

~

I

\

r ..#.

.•.. " ••

\

.'.. ..,. .." •

Figure 2 R Tq

\

= 2,0°C/s

= 1390°C = 85 fLm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites,

1I[lI

•

d

transformed

to y by the peritectic

'

reaction. x 25

..

(

400

fLm

~

.'

•• ~1

/

•

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1390°C = 200 fLm

x 25

400 fLm

Figure 4 R Tq d

..1:' '.

r

= 0,1°C/s = 1390°C = 390 fLm x 25

400

fLm

22 • Steel 203

STEEL 203.

0,18 % CARBON STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

2106

Composition

(wt-%)

C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Nb

0,18

0,44

1,26

0,016

0,025

0,01

0,02

0,06

0,02

0,03

0,0 0)

's

Thermal Analysis

0,4

0,8

0,6

N

0,004

0,007

',0

dT dt

T (OC)

(OC/s)

'500

+',5 +',0

'450 +0,5 0

'400

-0,5

dT dt

1350

-',0 -',5

R == 0,5 C/s Q

1300

200

100

0

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Temperature

Solidification

primary phase, QC

of austenite formation,

Solidus temperature, Solidification

lerritic QC

0)

QC

CD

CD

time, s

Precipitates

Interdendritic

MnS.

Microsegregation Element

Mn

1,4

R == 0,5 QC/s Tq == 1370 QC

Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

0,5

0,1

1507

1506

1507

1467

1470

1473

1415

1430

1460

90 85

range, QC

T(s)

80

50

210

570

Steel

203 • 23

Partly solidified

Figure 1

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1500°C d = 65 Mm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400 Mm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1370°C d = 80 Mm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.

x 25

400 Mm

r

l~' t

Figure 3

R

= 0,5°C/s

Tq d

= 1370°C = 190Mm

.~ f

x 25

Figure 4

R

= 0,1°C/s

Tq d

= 1370°C = 250 Mm

x 25

400 Mm

24 • Steel 204

STEEL 204.

0,2 % CARBON STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2172

Nr

1.0580

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Altot

N

0,19

0,40

1,42

0,012

0,007

0,07

0,13

0,02

0,08

0,006

0,005

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0)

0,6

0,4

0,8

1,0

dT dt

T (DC)

(oC/s)

1500

+1,5 +1,0

1450 +0,5

1400

-------

----

0 -0)5

dT 1350

dt'

-1,0 -1,5

R

= O,soC/s

1300

0

"((5)

200

100

Average Cooling Rate,R, rC/s)

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, °C Temperature

of austenite formation, °C

Solidus temperature, °C Solidification Solidification

CD

CD

CD

range, °C time, s

MnS.

Microsegregation Element

Mn

1,6

0,5

0,1

1503

1503

1506

1480

1477

1480

1425

1440

1460

85 80

Precipitates

Interdendritic

2,0

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1370 °C

65

45

210

600

Steel

204 • 25

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1498°C d = 85 f.Lm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).

x

25

400f.Lm

• Completely solidified

... ..• ..

•••

,

'. \. '.

.

"'\

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1370°C d = 75 f.Lm Figures 2 - 4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.

.,

"

"'

x 25

400 f.Lm

~ I •.

•.

•

~

J

-"<,

~

.

.•..

:~

r'", -....

."

,

i.

•

~

I

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1370°C = 120 f.Lm x 25

•

..~ !'

'f

:I

.. Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1370°C = 230f.Lm x 25

f.

;

," .~

.

,.

t.

•

""J

, ••

26 • Steel 205

STEEL 205.

0,4 % CARBON STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

1550

1034

1.1181

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,36

0,27

0,58

0,015

0,012

0,08

0,05

0,02

0,12

N

0,004

0,007

1450

1400

1350

R = 0,5°C/s

1300

o

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

of austenite

temperature,

Solidification Solidification

ferritic QC

primary

formation,

CD

phase, QC QC

CD

(3)

range, QC time, s

Precipitates

Interdendritic

MnS.

Microsegregation Element

Mn

1,6

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1370 °c

300

200

100

T( 5)

Cooling Rate,R, (eC/s)

2,0

0,5

1496

1498

1501

1479

1480

1483

1415

1425

1440

85 85

75 230

0,1

60 840

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= 0,5°C/s = 1480°C = 50 fLm

o-dendrites

and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400 fLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1370°C d = 85 fLm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to 'Y by the peritectic reaction. x 25

400 fLm

.•- ...

Figure 3 R Tq d

. .,

•....• .•

= 0,5°C/s

•

= 1370°C

'

.,A ~..,

.,,'

•

".

= 90 fLm

x 25

400 fLm

•

t

-

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1370°C = 280 fLm x 25

400 fLm

l

,)<

28 • Steel 206

STEEL 206.

0,7 % CARBON STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

1770

1070

1.1231

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,69

0,23

0,72

0,022

0,024

0,02

0,02

0,01

0,03

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

N

0,006

0,002

0,8

1,0

dT d1:

T (OC)

(OC/s)

+1,5 +',0 1450 +0,5 0

-(])---

1400

~~0

-0,5

Ql

1350

-1,0

d't'

-1,5

R

= 0,5 C/s

1300

Q

0

200

100

Average

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

of formation

temperature,

Solidification Solification

austenitic QC

primary

of eutectic,

CD

QC

phase, QC

CD

CD

1471 1370-1335 1335

range, QC time, s

'((5)

Cooling Rate,R, eC/s) 0,1

0,5

1474

1466 1370-1355

1420-1370

1355

1370

140

120

105

105

250

1020

Precipitates 1. Interdendritic Fe3P - Fe3C - austenite eutectic. The eutectic remained after cooling but was dissolved after homogenizing for 4 h at 1200 QC. 2. MnS. (Distribution and morphology at different cooling rates shown in figures 5-8.)

Microsegregation Element

Mn

1,7

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1300 QC

to 850 QC, (see figures

9 and 10),

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= O,5°C/s = 1455°C = 70 fLrn

y-dendrites

and quenched liquid (L), x 25

400 fLrn

.

fir

4

}

l

"•

Completely solidified

•I ~

1,I • " I

•tt'

R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1300°C d = 75 fLrn Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.

~

.( .

, " t •

Figure 2

.J

,

I

"

)

•

•

••

•

. ,.

-

I

A

..•

"

,

""

""

••

•

,.

,.

',: .....•.

~

,..

•

••

.

'

.

.., 4\

••

'" .. .. • ....... ." I'\. ....

i·'

...

•

,.•

'

•

, 1

'

•• •

..,

..",

••

' • .I

,; , x 25

}

"t .

,

.. ,

• t

,

I

,.... -,'r'

, , .. . , , . - ..... ••

•

.•.~

• 11

I

.,.

'

• I, ,

~ J.j.")...,"~''.~ /"

*••

¥._~_....,,.... ...,.e'

if

"w'

•••.

, ••

_-

~.,f

*

~

;'j',

#> (,

';"I

Figure 3 R Tq d

= O,5°C/s = 1300°C = 130fLrn .•....

x 25

','

\

"

tt' Figure 4 R Tq d

..

= O,1°C/s = 1300°C = 160fLrn

• • •• •

.

t

•

I

"

If

x 25

(\

•

'1

30 • Steel 206

!

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1300°C Interdendritic MnS.

~

.. . \

../

100 fLm

x 150

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1300°C Figures 6-8 show the influence of cooling on manganese sulphide coarseness.

,

.•...

x 600

{ 7

.\..-

~

,

• I

, Figure 7 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1300°C

x 600

I

Figure 8

= 0,1°C/s = 1300°C

R Tq •••

t

•..•

'lit

25

fLm

x 600

rate

Steel 206 • 31

Figure 9 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1300°C Figures 9-10: Interdendritic Fe3P-Fe3C-austenite eutectic (E), approximately 0,05 vol-%. x 1000

10 fLm

Figure 10 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 800°C Etched to darken and confirm the existence of the Fe3P phase in the eutectic (E). The eutectic contains 2 wt-% P. x 2000

5 fLm

"- E

32 • Steel 207

STEEL 207.

1,0% CARBON STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

1870

1095

1.1274

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

1,01

0,25

0,46

0,012

0,009

0,02

0,03

0,02

0,03

fs

Thermal Analysis

T (QC)

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

N

.$.0,004

0,002

1,0

0,8

dT dt

CD

t

1450

(QC/s)

T

+1,5 +1,0

1400 +0,5 0

1350

-0,5 1300

-1,0 -1,5

R = O,soC/s

1250 0

100

Average

Liquidus Solidus

temperature, temperature,

Solidification

austenitic °C

CD

primary

phase, cC

CD

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

Precipitates

1. MnS 2. Interdendritic

eutectic

«

0,05 vol. %), as in steel 206

Microsegregation Element

Mn

2,1

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1260 °C

300

200

Cooling

1:(5)

Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1457

1457

1459

1310

1320

1340

150

140

120

110

300

1600

Steel 207 • 33

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R 0,5°C/s Tq 1445°C d 50j.Lrn y-dendrites and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400j.Lrn

..

•~.. t

'. '\

" I

"

"\

.',

,':",.i.. . ... ~

Completely solidified

I

:

"

;'

".

\. . , " \', .Y~

•.. ,

"

'"

. .-

-+,.1

'.

•••

"

".j

Figure 2

.,; "r

,

R 2,0°C/s Tq 1260°C d 70j.Lrn Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.

'-

-,

'\

x 25

400j.Lrn

.'..

,

.,.-~.-

r.'

1-

;

•

"

"

.

--'

..:.)

\.

'

;~, .. .

,..

.. • , " ..,. ,.~.

'" "

l

'-. .

.•.....

\

,

,

.• :.i

. ,;"

f"

". I

,

.' ••

'. .. .•..

1Y

\.

"

""

l;'

,.

.,

R Tq d

0,5°C/s 1260°C BOj.Lrn

"",. x 25

400j.Lrn

x 25

400j.Lrn

Figure 4 R Tq d

~'o.t

•

Figure 3

0,1°C/s 1260°C 210 j.Lrn

."

, .1ft'

,

"

.41' ~

Cl.,

.,-

•• .""

,

'"

f • e,

"

.. ..

•.II "\

•

." •••

I

.*,

'"

t~:~

~~

~

~. ,"

•

34 • Steel 208

STEEL 208.

0,1 % C Cr Ni

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

9310

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,10

0,28

0,57

0,008

0,009

1,14

3,3

0,14

0,11

0,02

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0,2

0,4

0,6

1500

0,013

0,009

1,0 dT dT

CD t

(oC)

0,8

N

(oC/s)

fI>

1450

0

1400

dT dt

1350

-1,5 R = 0,5°C/s

1300

0

Average 2,0

Liquidus temperature, Temperature

ferritic primary phase, °C

of austenite formation,

Solidus temperature,

°C

Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

°C

CD

CD

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,3

1,4

2,5

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1400°C

Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

0,5

0,1

1501

1501

1502

1485

1485

1487

1450

1450

1465

50 85

Precipitates

lIs)

200

100

50

40

210

640

Steel 208 • 35

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= O,5°C/s = 1495°C = 70 J.Lm

o-dendrites

and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400J.Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1400°C d = 75 J.Lm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction. x 25

400 J.Lm

x 25

400 J.Lm

Figure 3 R Tq d

=

0,5°C/s

= 1400°C = 110J.Lm

,·.l #

,f

•

,. .•.. ~

'"

-.

..

.. .,

,,.,'

j1r

,

If

Figure 4 R Tq d

..

4f

••

= 0,1°C/s

;.. t

= 1400°C

= 250J.Lm x 25

400 J.Lm

,

,

\

.

e'

36 • Steel 209

STEEL 209.

0,2 % C Cr Ni

lOW AllOY

STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

2512

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,20

0,25

0,90

0,014

0,039

0,81

1,05

0,06

0,07

0,02

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0)

0,6

0,"

0,8

N

0,036

0,009

1,0

dT dt

CD

(QC)

(QC/s)

~ T

1500

.1,5 .1,0

1450 .0,5 0

1400

-0,5 1350

R

-1,0 -1,5

1300

= 0,5 C/s Q

0

100

200

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

ferritic

Temperature

of austenite

Temperature

of MnS-formation,

Solidus

temperature,

Solidification

QC

primary

formation,

CD

phase, QC QC

QC

CD

CD

CD

Solidification

Precipitates

MnS. The steel was resulphurized

(see figures

5-7).

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

1,5

1,4

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1370 QC

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s) 0,5

0,1

1502

1502

1503

1474

1465

1474

time, s

1'(5)

2,0

1460-1420

range, QC

300

1460-1425

1420

1425

85 95

230

80

-1445 1445

60 750

Steel 209 • 37

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= O,5°C/s = 1495°C = 60 fLm

o-dendrites

and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400 fLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1370°C d = 85 fLm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to"y by the peritectic reaction.

)• -'<' I'~ ,..J

x 25

400 fLm

.

.~-" ....

- ~.

:)"',.-/'

, '"',,-J.

"

•

,.

•

,.,.

,

i

. )

. "

..

,.

.

I.

Figure 3 R Tq d

= O,5°C/s = 1370°C

=

110fLm

x 25

400 fLm

;

,.., Figure 4 R Tq d

= O,1°C/s = 1370°C

=

180fLm

/

x

25

400 fLm

.•.

<{.

.

)

•

38 • Steel 209

"

--

,"

,'.

(

:;

t'

Figure 5

J

-.-

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1370°C Figures 5-7: Interdendritic

'"

,

',",:,

.•... "

.'~ , I

100 Mm

•

'-

~

..

"-

..-

•

.I

x 150

,

I

~

Figure 6 R Tq

= 0,1°C/s = 1370°C

x 150

, .'

' •.•. ::'.,'

.' ~. ".'

::',:', •.•

.. , #

••••

Figure 7

't,

~

, ·r· --;'

R Tq

= 2,0°C/s = 1370°C

,,~

, f,' y

x

600

MnS.

Steel 210 • 39

STEEL 210.

0,3 % C Cr Ni Mo

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,27

0,02

0,32

0,006

0,008

1,66

3,5

0,42

0,04

0,08

Thermal Analysis

fs

0,0

0)

0,4

0,6

0,8

N

0,044

0,007

1,0

T

CD

(OC)

f

dT d't

CD

(OC/s)

~ +1,5

T

+1,0 1450 +0,5 0

1400

-0,5

dT 1350

dt

-1,5

1300

R = O,soC/s

-1,0

100

0

200

300

L(s)

Average Cooling Rate,R, (CC/s)

Liquidus temperature, Temperature

ferritic primary phase, °C

CD

of austenite formation, °C

Solidus temperature, °C Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

CD

Precipitates

Very small amount of fine interdendritic

carbides containing

Mo and V.

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

Mo

v

1,6

1,3

2,2

2,0

R = 0,5 °C/s

Tq = 1350°C

2,0

0,5

0,1

1487 1471 1395 65 80

1493 1490 1430 60 200

1492 1490 1445 50 640

40 • Steel 210

Partly solidified

.•........ ::a. •. ~.

\

":

'f

I

.~.. '"

.

.:.

.

I '.~ ,"

~-..

<

.• Figure 1 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s

d

=

= 1488°C

60

fLm

o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L), -.'""'!.-

400

........

x 25

fLm

.:

,,'

.

)--

•..

'

Completely solidified

_. ·4 I

~~.

....•..._J"

I'

'-.. .......•

•

:.;-. ~ "\.: ..- f".

,I,. {J

.. .-'

,

.. I

Y

".

.\.....

,

-

','

'"

-~.....• .-,

.•..

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1350°C d = 70 fLm Figures 2 - 4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.

.

x

~

25

Figure 3

, f

·I

R Tq

= 0,5°C/s

d

=

400

fLm

= 1350°C

90

fLm

x 25

f •

•

Figure 4

.• .r·

R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s =

1350°C 160 fLm x 25

Steel211

STEEL 211.

0,3 % C Cr Mo

• 41

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2225

4130

1.7218

Composition

(wt-%)

Nr

C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,29

0,21

0,62

0,012

0,006

1,11

0,15

0,21

0,04

0,04

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

N

0,011

0,004

1,0

CD t 1500

1450

1400

0 dT d,(

1350

R = a,scC/s

-1,5 1300

0

100

200

Average

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, cC Temperature of austenite formation, cC Solidus temperature, cC

CD

CD

CD

300

t(s)

Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1501

1501

1503

1460

1471

1475

1420

1435

1450

Solidification

range, cC

85

65

55

Solidification

time, s

95

220

630

Precipitates

Small amount of MnS.

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

1,6

2,0

R = 0,5 CC Is Tq = 1360 cC

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0.5°C/s Tq = 1495°C d = 60 fLm 8-dendrites and quenched

400 fLm

•

.

... \

\..

\ \\.:\ "'-

\

'.

,

•

\' \.\. '.

, •..••.. "

••

:.

\'"

••

,

\"

•••.

\.'

."

.. ', -'\ '. '.

.,'-

) ... '-\. •

/.

'.

I"

'....

J'

'.

~

""

"

""

'.: ...

."

••••••-.'

'\. '" .•.

'r'

4.'·"~~'J·,·.(,'j .,-

"

,':~'

, ,.'•.~.

I",,'

,.-'.'

.•

. .... ,. \ T"

\...

"

.......-

.

t..' ~

~I

.,'.

"' •.••. •

I

~

••

-

"..

.•••.• -r::

-.....f..

I

J'

. r.", .""

•

#

:.

-.f:' ""..... ,'\. .••..

••

~

A

~

~

••

_

".

r

.,~-t. ..{ (. ../

~ ".

l r\.) " I

.•.

_....

(., "" '

'\,"

M·.,~

r.

•

\.

Completely solidified

'

"'li

.

, J

".')-.

t

.

..

••••••......'

'

'I,

.•

~

•

r..) ..,.; ~

IAl.

\.. '\" \'. . r 'l. ''.

.

".

..,tJ-

\

,.

t

."

I ••.•

,,'

\.

.

\

\

.•••

••. '. "

....,

•.•••...•

,,':...

•'t~:, "".'" "'. "' . \ '.

". \ ~,'. ~.: .~"

..')

/ .•......•. ~ 1.." ')

\.

\

i'~

~

\.' ..'\ •." >..•.•.

\ .•.• '

~

. .'-,', \.''.

.."..' \.

,

',," '

. ',:)0

'.' .

\

"~"...:-,

•

'.

..•....•. ..). ~.

.:'-..

••••..

'. '.

\-

x 25

>"":'.

.. r~,~'"\'\,.''lo.

'"' \ ~..¥.f \0....., " '. \ \.'\.~. ~ '"\" \ '"

,.

I

,.. ~

Figure 2 R = 2.0°C/s Tq = 1360°C d = 70 fLm Figures 2-4: Former 8-dendri~es. . transformed to y by the peritectlc reaction.

Jo,.~

J

x 25

I

Figure 3 R Tq

= 0.5°C/s = 1360°C

d

=

90

fLm

x 25

Figure 4 ",

liquid (L).

R Tq d

= 0.1°C/s = 1360°C = 150fLm

400 fLm

x 25

Steel 212 • 43

STEEL 212.

0,3 % C Cr Ni Mo

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

Werkstoff

AISI

Nr

2534

Composition

(wt-%)

C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,29

0,22

0,52

0,009

0,010

1,02

3,2

0,25

0,05

0,03

0,0

Thermal Analysis

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

N

0,010

0,005

1,0

1450

1400

1350

R = O,5 C/s Q

Liquidus

temperature,

austenitic

Liquidus

temperature,

ferritic

Temperature Solidus

of austenite

temperature,

QC

Solidification

range, QC

Solidification

time, s

primary

primary

formation,

CD

o

phase, QC

phase, QC QC

100

CD

CD

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,7

1,4

2,2

R = 0,5 QC/s

Tq = 1360 QC

200

300 't'(s)

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0.5°C/s Tq = 1480°C d = 70 fLm o·dendrites and quenched

400 fLm

. j

,, ),

<",l

.'>

(

.I

Y

J.

...

r ' I 'f ~,

~ ',':

(

.

;/: .\;

,...-

.A I

,

"

~

•....• ' .. . ) / .

•

, '

1...

..,... ,

\

,. ..

;'

..

,

I

Figure 2

t.. ,c, .'-

R = Tq = d = y-dend (Note:

J

2,O°C/s 1360°C 75 fLm rites. primary y at this cooling rate.)

.. ,,

x 25

r ~

,...-'

•..

".,.

'\

<..

•, \

.

1 A

/,

•

I <

Completely solidified

~Jf'

I

r

..

~

Y

I'

,

,

--

, .

"

~,

\

f

.,\

" ••

25

, I

'r

\

i

,.

.•

.. ..

f

,1,.- , 1&

\

~

)-

~

)

)

"

\

x

liquid (L).

\

. Figure 3

J

'.

I

,-. \

,..,

...I

•..

(

,

•

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1360°C d =110fLm Figures 3-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.

.J

•• Jo

,

,

}

~ ..,.. I

\'"

.

,

r

x 25

-

Figure 4 R Tq d

"

",

= O,1°C/s = 1360°C =180fLm

400 fLm

x 25

Steel 213 • 45

STEEL 213.

0,35% C Cr Mo

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2234

4135

1.7220

Composition

(wt-%)

Nr

C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,35

0,24

0,67

0,010

0,020

0,92

0,05

0,19

0,07

0,02

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0,2

0,6

0,4

N

0,004

0,008

1,0

0,8

T (oe)

CD

t

1500

.1,5

T .1,0 1450

.0,5

o

1400

-0,5 1350 - 1,0 -1,5

R = O,5°C/s

1300

o

100

200

Average 2,0

Liquidus temperature,

ferritic primary phase, °C

Temperature of austenite formation, °C Solidus temperature, °C Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

CD

CD

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

1,5

2,4

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1340 °C

Cooling Rate,R, rC/s) 0,5

0,1

1494

1493

1495

1479

1474

1480

1405

1415

1425

80

70 670

90 85

Precipitates

't( 5)

230

46 • Steel 213

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1485°C d = 65 J1.m o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).

400 J1.m

x

25

Completely solidified

:t

/

.(--

.

.•..'

"

./'

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1340°C d = 80 J1.m Figures 2 - 4: Former Il-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.

j

.~ \

\.

\\

...• .1

,. ,.. r

I T.··."

-<

.'"

I

... ),

"

... ..

.

•,; t ,

;

..... ,",

,

-

"

(

~,'

""

·1 ,r

.,.;'

.. ••

l

4.

'

x 25

f :.

-""",,

.••..

.# "

400 J1.m

.. ....,

"'"

S

j

\

'..

~i>

•

.r .•..

",,'

..•••.

--.~

- ..

..

. .. ..

"-

--' .. -

..

"

y

.

-'"

.-

..-

"-

R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1340°C

= 100J1.m

,-

I

.••..

...

Figure 3

,

-" .-

x 25

••

•-.

I ,

••

..

"'.

I

" t 1JIl

I

••

..

•

• • •

I "

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s

= 1340°C = 190J1.m x 25

Steel 214 • 47

STEEL 214.

0,5% C Cr

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

2230

AISI

Werkstoff

6150

1.8159

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,52

0,22

0,85

0,010

0,006

1,07

0,07

0,07

0,04

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

N

0,14

0,008

~0,004

1,0

0,8

dT d"t

T (OC)

(OC/s)

CD t

1500

+1,5

T

+1,0

1450 +0,5 0

1400

dT dt

-0,5

1350 -1,0 -1,5

R = O,soC/s

1300 0

200

100

300

't (5)

Average Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0 Liquidus Solidus

temperature, temperature,

austenitic °C

Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

primary

phase, °C

CD

Small amount

carbides.

Microsegregation Element

1482

1482

1483

1385

1400

85

of interdendritic

Cr

V

2,1

1,9

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1310 °C

0,1

1380 100

Precipitates

0,5

95 250

80 740

48 • Steel 214 "'," .I

..-,

,

.:. L',:"~"'>

.' ; ,..-..

. '

"

. ~/

.'

",

( •

.

j

.I

,

.

/;

"

f

,f

'.

!A

f -

.!/

f

•..I ~ '<..

, ... J;.~ ;;,

-.

'.

"

f

J

(

•. ' /'!,

...

.f

:' ',', ,I

/:

.'~....

,

'.

,...,

-,

Jr'.

\ \

\

\

'. '\

f

\

.

'.

\ '.

\

,"'. \..-

...••

" I

!

•

/'

I

I

~

,,

'\'

•

),

\'1.

. -,

~

I' , ~

liquid (L).

""

...

.. f

,...

,I

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1310°C d = 75 fLm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.

fLm

x 25

~

" J

(

.

Figure 3 Tq d

= = =

400

fLm

R

•

.•.

-

-.-.

')

..

Figure 2

". ~"

..,/

x 25

.•.

."

,

fLm

Completely solidified

400

~

•

~

....I

""

:

,

•

••

.

I

~

.

,;

,.

.~

"... "

..•

.•

,,

I

and quenched

,

\

,

\

......,

•

1

.,

, I

.r

,

J

•••

}

55 fLm

'.

).. ).

I

I.

\

•

"

.

\

I

\

\ \

,

\

I"-

\

lo

= 1470°C

\ \

\

\

\

I

\

.

,

'\

\

,

t

.~

\

"

..,

=

\ 'I

I

'\

\.

.'

(

d

400

,

~

{ ,

\

t

\

\

\

,,. {

, •

t\ . ~ '-

\

J

= 0,5°C/s

'>.

.,•• ../

"

'.'

R Tq

y-dendrites

-.

;'..~:,~

.

Figure 1

\

.!r

f'

Partly solidified

0,5°C/s 1310°C 90 fLm

...J

,

J f

-

x 25

••

Figure 4 R Tq d

=

400

fLm

0,1°C/s 1310°C = 140 fLm x 25

Steel 215 • 49

STEEL 215.

0,55 % C Cr Ni Mo

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

Werkstoff

AISI

2550

Nr

1.2721

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

0,55

0,27

0,50

0,019

0,012

0,99

3,0

0,31

0,06

0,08

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

N

0,8

0,011

0,008

1,0

dT de

T (OCl

(OC/s)

1500 +',5

T 1450

0

1400

dT d't' 1350

-1,5

R

= O,5°C/s

1300

100

0

200

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

austenitic

of formation

temperature,

°C

primary

of eutectic,

CD

phase, °C

CD

°C

300

T(s)

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1471

1471

1472

1365-1335 1335

-1370 1370

-1375 1375

Solidification

range, °C

140

100

75

Solidification

time, s

100

260

720

Precipitates

Interdendritic

carbide-austenite

eutectic,

Fe3P and MnS, (see figure 5).

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

Mo

v

2,1

1,2

2,5

2,0

R

=

0,5°C/s

Tq = 1290 °C

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R

Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1465°C = 65 fLm

y-dendrites

400 fLm

and quenched

x 25

Completely solidified

""

.....•

,

"

l

,,J

Figure 2 R

= 2,0°C/s

Tq

=

1290°C d = 70 fLm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites,

400 fLm

J .../

...., t . 1

x 25

" ...j) :( -\ r

iT- .

f' ('.

·'A.-

\"

'",

"

"\.,.

"

,t.......,

Figure 3

"

".

R

= 0,5°C/s

Tq

= 1290°C = 90 fLm

d

400 fLm 1

x 25

\.

Figure 4 R

Tq '

•

. ;/J ..

liquid (L),

I

.

d

= 0,1°C/s 1290°C

= 130

fLm

x 25

Steel 215 • 51

Figure 5 R

Tq

= O,5°C/s = 1290°C

Interdendritic area with carbide-austenite eutectic (El, Fe3P and MnS. x 1000

52 • Steel 216

STEEL 216.

1,0 % C Cr

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2258

52100

1.3505

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

v

1,01

0,23

0,33

0,021

0,026

1,55

0,02

0,01

0,04

0,04

Thermal Analysis

Is 0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

N

0,011

1,0

0,9

0,8

0,003

dT d't

T

CD t

(OC)

145O

(OC/s)

+',5

T

+',0 1400 .0,5

°

1350

-0,5 1300

-1,0 - 1,5

R = 0,5 C/s

125O

Average 2,0

Liquidus temperature, Temperature

Solidus temperature, Solidification Solification

austenitic

of formation C

primary phase, DC

of eutectic, QC

CD

CD

300

200

100

° CD

1450 1320-1270

range, C time, s

L(S)

Cooling Rate,R, ("C/s) 0,5

0,1

1450

1451

1340 -1300

-1300 ~1300

1270

1300

180

150

150

170

330

1400

Precipitates

1. Interdendritic Fe3P-carbide-austenite eutectic (14% Cr, 5% P). The eutectic figures 5 and 6), but was dissolved after homogenizing for 4 h at 1200 cC. 2. Interdendritic

MnS.

Microsegregation Element

Cr

2,6

R = 0,5 cCls Tq = 1250 cC

remained

after cooling

to 850 DC (see

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

= 1440°C

= 0,5°C/s

d

= 60

y-dendrites

JLm

and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400

JLm

x 25

400

JLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1250°C d = 75 JLm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.

Figure 3

R Tq d

= = =

0,5°C/s 1250°C 90 JLm

'-.:a;

.---x 25

400

..• JLm

R..' ,,:' • 1'...,...

"...,.

.'

.

••

•

p

~

• ~.

..•..

,

;'

'

I

~:~

J

y

,0"

".

..•

•

~

,f

1

Figure 4

R Tq d

= = =

'

.•.. ••

x 25

400

JLm

I

•

.•

.-1 .. ,

V ..

~

f . ~~

#': . .)..~

,

IJ

~

0,1°C/s 1250°C 140 JLm

'-

'.1J

-'

4

.}

, .-

?

J.•..

•• :

.!:.'"

Figure 5 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1250°C Interdendritic Fe3P-carbide-austenite eutectic (E) (approximately 0,1 vol-%). The eutectic contains 14% Cr and 5% P.

'-E

x 1000 • t

•

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 850°C After cooling to 850°C, small amounts of the eutectic shown in figure 5 remained. (Annealing for 4 h at 1200°C completely eliminated the eutectic.) x 1000

55

3. Chromium Steels Steels with chromium as the only, or the dominant alloying element are normally called chromium steels. The two common groups included here are steels with 5 and 13% chromium. In the first family the alloying addition is used to increase hardenability and to give the final product a favourable combination of strength and toughness. In the 13% Cr-steels, chromium imparts both corrosion resistance and strength. With reference to the structure of the steel products, the group comprises ferritic stainless (C < 0,08%), hardenable martensitic stainless (C ~ 0,09%), and low carbon hardenable martensitic stainless steels with 4-6% nickel. Because of their constitutional similarity at high temperatures, the 5 and 13% chromium steels are kept together in this work, rather than grouping the 13% Cr- steels with the Cr-Ni stainless materials.

Temperature

1600 I

1400

1300 1200 l+y+Kc

900

Si

301 302 303 304

0,13 0,35 0,50 0,96

0,4 1,0 1,0 0,3

Mn

Cr

0,4 0,5 0,5 0,7

5,0 5,2 5,1 5,2

Ni 0,2 0,2 0,1

Mo 0,6 1,3 1,4 1,2

V

l

a

Chromium steels are produced as castings and ingots of moderate size, continuous casting is unusual.

C

I

1500

1000

No.

5% Cr

I

l+a

Steels containing 17-25% chromium have not been examined. They are similar to the 13 % Cr-group in regard to solidification and structure at high temperatures.

Both the groups of steels investigated are made with a wide range of carbon contents. For a given chromium level the solidification mode is strongly dependent on carbon; this can be seen in the pseudobinary phase diagrams, figures 3.1 and 3.2. Account was taken of this effect of carbon when chosing the production steels for examination; these are given in tables 3.1 and 3.2:

;C

o

1

Weight Figure

3.1

Fe-5Cr-C

5% chromium

-4 -%carbon

system

Temperature~C %

1600 13 % Cr

1,0 1,2 0,2

1500 L

a Table 3.1

3

2

steels

1400 1300

No.

C

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

305 306 307 308 309

0,04 0,07 0,14 0,32 0,69

0,5 0,5 0,2 0,2 0,4

0,6 0,5 0,7 0,3 0,6

13,4 12,9 12,0 13,9 13,1

5,5 0,2 1,2 0,2 0,2

%

1200

Table 3.2

13% chromium

1100 y+K2

1000

steels (see also table 4.1)

a 900 As indicated in figures 3.1 and 3.2 these grades cover the following solidification processes: •

primary ferrite formation

•

primary ferrite formation tion

•

by a peritectic

reac-

2

1

3 Weight - % carbon

Figure

followed

0 O'+y+K

3.2

Fe-13Cr-C

system

(Figures 3.1 and 3.2 after Bungardt (1958) 3, 193-203, Kc = Fe3 C, K,

=

et al. Arch. EisenhOttenw. M23C6, K2 = M7C3)

29

primary austenite formation

It should be noted that the pseudobinary phase diagrams are strictly valid for ternary Fe-Cr-C-alloys only. The superimposed lines for the commercial steel grades are therefore only indicative.

References The solidification of chromium steels has not been widely studied. General aspects of the process have been reported, [55-59]. Research work on microsegregation is described in references [60-64].

56 • Steel 301

STEEL 301.

0,1 % C

5 % CHROMIUM STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

501

1.7362

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,13

0,36

0,37

0,003

0,007

5,0

0,01

0,58

0,02

Thermal Analysis

fs

0)

T

0,4

0,6

0,8 0,9

v

W 0,01

N

0,01

0,009

0,006

1,0

dT d't

CD

(OC)

(OC/s)

~

1500

+1,5 +1,0

1450 +0,5 0

1400

-0,5

dT dt

1350

-1,0 -1,5

R

= 0,5 C/s

1300

Q

'[(5)

200

100

0

Average Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

ferritic

of austenite

temperature,

QC

Solidification

range, QC

Solidification

time, s

primary

formation,

CD

phase, QC QC

CD

CD

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

1,1

1,4

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1375 QC

0,5

0,1

1508

1501

1506

1443

1426

1444

1405

1415

1440

105

85

65

85

190

790

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1495°C d = 65 j.Lm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400 j.Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1375°C d = 85 j.Lm Figures 2 - 4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction. x 25

400 j.Lm

x 25

400j.Lm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= O,5°C/s

= 1375°C = 160j.Lm

;. I 't .••••

".

Figure 4 R Tq d

= O,1°C/s = 1375°C = 275 j.Lm

",... ff

". J

x 25

400j.Lm

58 • Steel 302

STEEL 302.

0,35 % C Mo V

5 % CHROMIUM

STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2242

H 13

1.2344

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,35

1,03

0,46

0,020

0,007

5,2

0,23

1,34

0,11

Thermal Analysis

Is

D)

0,0

T

0,4

0,6

W

v

N

0,091,00,013

0,026

1,0

0,8

dT dt

CD

(OC)

f

(OC/s)

1450

+1,5 +1,0

1400 +0,5 0

1350

-0,5 1300

-1,0 -1,5

R

1250

= 0,5 C/s Q

0

100

Average

Liquidus Solidus

0,1

1471

1464

1470

1370

1387

1412

1335

1360

1380

range, QC

135

105

90

time, s

100

250

990

ferritic

of austenite

Solidification

QC

primary

formation,

0)

phase, QC QC

CD

CD

Precipitates

Small amount

of eutectic

carbide.

Microsegregation Element

Cooling Rate,R, rC/s) 0,5

temperature,

Solidification

't (5)

2,0

temperature,

Temperature

300

200

Cr

Ni

Mo

v

1,2

1,0

1,5

1,7

R = 0,5 QCIs Tq = 1300 QC

Steel 302 • 59

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0.5°C/s Tq = 1450°C d = 55fLm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400 fLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2.0°C/s Tq = 1300°C d = 70 fLm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, transformed to y by the peritectic reaction. x 25

400 fLm

x 25

400 fLm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0.5°C/s = 1300°C = BOfLm

• ••~

.J '" <

.

.. •. ..•... " '

\

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0.1°C/s = 1300°C = 120fLm

x 25

400fLm

{

.

\ ,

.'

""-.

'.i'

60 • Steel 303

STEEL 303.

0,5 % C Mo V

5 % CHROMIUM STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

0,50

1,00

p

Mn

0,48

S

0,025

0,010

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

W

v

5,1

0,18

1,36

0,10

0,02

1,20

0,2

DJ.

0,6

N

0,013

0,036

1,0

0,8 0,9

dT d't

CD

(QC)

(QCls)

t

1450

T 1l.O0

1350

0

1300

1250

-1,5 R

1200

0,5°C/s

=

o

100

300

200

Average

Cooling Rate,R, rC/s)

2,0

Liquidus temperature,

ferritic

primary phase, QC

Temperature

of austenite formation,

Temperature

of formation

Solidus temperature,

QC

QC

CD

of MC-austenite

CD

CD

eutectic,QC

CD

0,5

0,1

1460

1460

1460

1410

1410

1412

1320-1240

1345-1300

-1320

1140

1240

1260

Solidification

range, cC

320

220

200

Solidification

time, s

170

380

1900

Precipitates

1. Interdendritic MC-austenite eutectic, MC was of the VC type, (see figures 6-8). 2. Small amount of interdendritic M23C6-austenite eutectic,(M was Cr, Fe and Mo), precipitated

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

v

1,3

1,5

1,3

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1200 QC

after the MC carbide.

Steel 303 • 61

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1445°C d = 55 j.Lm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400

j.Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1140°C d = 60 j.Lm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites, (transformed to y by the peritectic reaction), and interdendritic carbide eutectic. x 25

400

j.Lm

x 25

400

j.Lm

x 25

400

j.Lm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s

= 1200°C = 80

j.Lm

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1200°C =

110j.Lm

62 • Steel 303 it

.•.

\

,

"

'\ ,/"

~.

,'/

~.~" ' •• \ I \";;

Figure 5

"I

t.

t,' ("

i11'~ "

'

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1290°C Quenched liquid.

r '
'

' '-.'

,

10

jLm

x 1000

\

"

Figure 6

,

,

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1200°C Eutectic formation of MC. (L->MC+y)

",

I

/ /

x 1000 \

.•

.

\

Figure 7 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1000°C Morphology of MC. x 1000

.1 I

""';'

'--

, ~.,

"

,. ,/ I.

..•.

"-

..•..

•

l'

'(

•.....

-{

Figure 8 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1000°C Interdendritic distribution x 150

of MC .

Steel 304 • 63

STEEL 304.

1,0 % C Mo

5 % CHROMIUM

STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2260

A2

1.2363

Composition

(wt-%)

Nr

C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

0,96

0,29

0,67

0,020

0,015

5,2

0,13

1,19

0,09

W 0,05

v 0,21

N

0,014

0,024

Is 0,0

Thermal Analysis

0,2

0,4

0,8

0,6

0,9

1,0

CD W

1400

+1,5 +1,0

1350

+0,5

o

1300

-0,5 1250

-1,0 -1,5

R = 0,5 C/s

1200

Q

o

100

200

300

400

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

austenitic

of formation

temperature,

QC

primary

of eutectic,

CD

QC

phase, QC

CD

CD

L(S)

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1435

1434

1438

1150-1130

-1200

1130

1200

-1215 1215

Solidification

range, QC

305

235

225

Solidification

time, s

185

440

2700

Precipitates

M7C3 - austenite

Interdendritic

eutectic,

(see figures

5-7).

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

v

1,4

1,9

1,7

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1200 QC

64 • Steel 304

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5 C/s Tq = 1420'C d = 55 j.Lm y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). 400 j.Lm

x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R Tq

= 2,0 C/s =

1130"C

d

=

65 j.Lm

Figures 2-4: y-dendrites carbide eutectic.

Figure 3 R Tq d

= = =

0,5°C/s 1200 C 80 j.Lm

400 j.Lm

,.I

,,'

x 25

" .~ .'~ '"

,..j

.' "
.r

,)

Figure 4 R Tq d

=

=

OYC/s 1200°C 110j.Lm

400 j.Lm

x 25

and

interdendritic

Steel

304 • 65

.•...,. "

Figure 5 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1200°C Quenched liquid. x 1000

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1000°C Morphology of M7C3. x 1000

Figure 7 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1000°C Interdendritic distribution

of M 7 C3. x 150

I

,.

66 • Steel 305

STEEL 305.

0,04 % C

5 % Ni

13 % CHROMIUM

Werkstoff

Nr

STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

W

0,04

0,54

0,61

0,010

0,009

13,4

5,5

0,07

0,07

0,01

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0,2

0,6

0,4

0,01

N

0,019

0,032

1,0

0,8 0.9

dT dt (oC/s)

Q)

+CD

(OC)

v

+

T

1450

+1,5 +1,0

1400 +0,5 1350

0

---

dT dt

-0,5

1300

-1,0 -1,5

R

= 0,5°C/s

1250

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Temperature

ferritic primary phase, °C

of austenite formation, °C

Solidus temperature, °C Solidification Solidification

CD

CD

CD

range, °C

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

1,1

1,2

R =

O,5°C/s

Tq = 1350 °C

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s) 0,5

0,1

1470

1476

1476

1410

1419

1425

1355

1395

1420

115

80

60

230

670

100

time, s

t(s)

300

200

100

0

Steel

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1473°C d = 75ILm I)-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1350°C d = 140 ILm Figures 2-4: Formerl)-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). Most of the I) transformed to y by the peritectic reaction. x 25

400 ILm

x 25

400 ILm

x 25

400 ILm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1350°C = 240 ILm

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1350°C = 520 ILm

305 • 67

68 • Steel 305

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C (d12oo = 260 Mm) Former 8-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). Most of the 8 transformed to y by th9 peritectic reaction. 400 Mm

·1

\\

,

'. _."

.\

x 25

•

.

Figure 6

\.

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1350°C Residual dendritic in the y-matrix.

.'

ferrite (il)

x 600

~~

.

\ \.

;,\

\ '\

I

.

'~~

/ Figure 7

)

R =0,1°C/s Tq = 1350°C Residual dendritic in the y-matrix. x 600

ferrite (r';)

Steel

STEEL 306.

0,07 % C

306 • 69

13 % CHROMIUM STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2301

410 S

1.4000

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

5

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

W

0,07

0,54

0,48

0,020

0,006

12,9

0,17

0,02

0,10

0,01

Average

Liquidus temperature, Solidus temperature,

ferritic primary phase, QC QC

CD

Temperature

of solid phase transformation

Solidification

range, QC

Solidification

time, s

CD CD

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

1,0

1,0

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1400 QC

::; 0,01

Cooling

N

0,026

0,039

Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1497

1500

1500

1440

1455

1435 of ferrite to austenite, QC

v

1325-1270

1330-1290

65

60

45

80

210

610

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= 0,5°C/s

= 1498°C = 90 Mm

o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). 400 Mm

x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1400°C d = 205 Mm Figures 2-3: o-dendrites. Light interdendritic areas. (Interference contrast.)

400 Mm

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1400°C = 260 Mm

400 Mm

x 25

Figure 4 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1400°C d No dendrites visible due to absence of segregation. Austenite (dark) precipitated during quenching. 400 Mm

x 25

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1400°C Austenite from 1400 (dark C . ) precipitated

during

quenching .

0

x 25

400

JLm

Figure 6 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C Austenite ( ) 12000C (SOli~ st~~:ciPitated during (d12oo= 270 JLm) transformation).

x 25

cooling

400

to

JLm

72 • Steel 307

STEEL 307.

0,1 % C

Ni

12 % CHROMIUM

STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2302

(414)

1.4008

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

p

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

W

V

0,14

0,19

0,68

0,009

0,014

12,0

1,20

0,01

0,03

0,01

0,02

fs 0,0

Thermal Analysis

T

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

Altot

N

0,001

0,040

1,0

dT dt

.CD

(OC)

(OC/s)

T 1450

+1,5 +1,0

1400

+0,5 1350

-

0

Ql dt

-0,5

1300 -1, 0 1250

R = O,SQC/s

-1,5 0

100

200

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

ferritic

of austenite

temperature,

C

Solidification

range, QC

Solidification

time, s

primary

formation,

CD

phase, QC QC

CD

CD

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

1,1

1,3

R = 0,5 QCls Tq = 1360 QC

300

'[(5)

Cooling Rate,R, ( C/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1490

1495

1494

1416

1425

1401

1390

1400

1400

100

95

95

95

255

1070

Steel 307 • 73

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1493°C d = 75/-Lm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400/-Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1360°C d = 150 /-Lm Figures 2 - 4: Former o-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.)

x 25

400/-Lm

x 25

400/-Lm

x 25

400/-Lm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1360°C

= 180

/-Lm

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1360°C = 470/-Lm

74 • Steel 307

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C (d12oo= 250 fLm) Former o-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.) 400 fLm

x 25

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1360°C Residual dendritic

,1

I

ferrite (0) in the y-matrix.

,

x 600 /

Figure 7 /

\'

'j

I

J

--~

R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1360°C Residual dendritic ferrite (0) in the y-matrix. Figures 6-7: Note the influence of cooling on ferrite coarseness.

I x 600

rate

Steel 308 • 75

STEEL 308.

0,3 % C

14 % CHROMIUM STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2304

(420)

1.4028

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

0,32

0,15

p

Mn

0,30

S 0,008

0,009

fs

Thermal Analysis

Cr

Ni

Mo

13,9

0,16

0,01

0,0

O,L.

v

Cu

W

0,01

0,22

0,03

0,8

0,6

N

0,003

0,013

1.0 dT dT

T (OC)

(OC/s)

1L.50

+1.5 +1.0

1L.00

+0,5 0 -0,5 1300

-1,0 -1.5

1250

R = 0,5°C/s

0

100

300

200

L

(5)

Average Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Temperature

ferritic primary phase, °C

of austenite formation,

Solidus temperature,

°C

CD

°C

CD

CD

0,5

0,1

1480

1483

1482

1400

1407

1401

1370

1375

1390

Solidification

range, °C

110

105

90

Solidification

time, s

100

290

1100

Precipitates

Interdendritic

ferrite, (see figures 7 - 8).

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Ni

1,2

1,0

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1345 °C

76 • Steel 308

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1410°C d = 75 fLm 8-dendrites (almost completely transformed to y) and quenched liquid (L), (compare figure 6). x 25

400 fLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1345°C d = 75 fLm Figures 2-4: Former 8-dendrites, (transformed to y by the peritectic reaction), and interdendritic ferrite (8).

400 fLm

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1345°C = 100 fLm

x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1345°C =210fLm

400 fLm

x 25

Steel 308 • 77

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C

(d12oo = 110 j.Lm)

Former o-dendrites, (transformed to y by the peritectic reaction), and interdendritic ferrite (0).

x 25

400 j.Lm

Figure 6 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1410°C Former o-dendrite, almost completely transformed to y by the peritectic reaction, with residual o in the centre. L = quenched liquid. x 150

Figure 7 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1345°C Interdendritic ferrite (0). x 150

Figure 8 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C Interdendritic ferrite (0). x 150

78 • Steel 309

STEEL 309.

0,7 % C

13 % CHROMIUM STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

W

V

Altot

0,69

0,43

0,64

0,014

0,005

13,1

0,20

0,07

0,02

0,22

0,03

0,002

Thermal Analysis

fs

0,0

0,2

0.4

0.6

0,025

0.95 1,0

0,9

0,8

N

dT dt (OC/s)

T (OC)

Q)

1450

~

+3.0 +2.5

1400

+2,0 1350

+1,5 +1,0

1300

1250

-t-- --

-dT dT

1200

-0,5 -1,0

1150

100

0

ferritic

Temperature

of austenite

Temperature

of formation

Solidus

Solidification

formation,

phase, QC QC

of eutectic,

CD

CD CD

CD

Cooling

0,5

0,1

1442

1448

1444

1422

1414 1240-1195

QC

Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

1250-1240

1415 1260-1245 1245

1195

1240

range, QC

245

210

200

time, s

160

405

2140

temperature,

Solidification

primary

t(s)

400

300

200

Average

temperature,

QC

Precipitates

Interdendritic M7C3-austenite (see figures 5-8).

eutectic.

The amount

of carbide

eutectic

increased

Microsegregation Element

0

-1,5

R = O,SQC/s

Liquidus

+0,5

G)© t 4

Cr

Ni

1,2

1,0

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1240 C Q

with increasing

cooling

rate,

Steel 309 • 79

Partly solidified Figure 1 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 141BoC d = 50 fLm Former 8-dendrites, (completely transformed to y by the peritectic reaction), and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400 fLm

Completely solidified Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1195°C d = 65 fLm Figures 2-4: Former 8-dendrites, (transformed to y by the peritectic reaction). Interdendritic carbide eutectic (compare figures 5-B). x 25

400 fLm

x 25

400 fLm

x 25

400 fLm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1240°C = BOfLm

Figure 4 R Tq d

= O,1°C/s = 1240°C

=

130fLm

80 • Steel 309

, .J--'

"

f

, ..

~" /

.t

\..

">

""'\-;

.".

4

J

•... ~

l~~\

.,

'y "A..

.cv

'"

f

Figure 5 t

-\.

\

•

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1240°C Interdendritic M7C3-Y eutectic. 3,5 vol-% carbide . 100 Mm

x 150

il..

Figure 6 R Tq

= 2,0°C/s

= 1195°C M7C3-Y eutectic. 4,5 vol-% carbide. 25 Mm

x 600

.0

Figure 7

R

= 0,5°Cts

= 1245°C M7C3-Y eutectic (E) and small amounts of

Tq

liquid (L).

f .I

I,

25 Mm

x 600

Figure 8 R Tq

= 0,1°C/s =

1240°C

M7C3-Y eutectic. 2,4 vol-% carbide. 25 Mm

x 600

81

4. Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels The main alloying element is chromium in amounts between 12 and 30%. Most common stainless steels also contain considerable quantities of other alloying elements of which molybdenum and nickel are the most important. The main object of these additions is to increase the corrosion resistance of the steel and to control the phase composition of the microstructure in the final product. Most commercial stainless and heat resistant steels are found in the following range of standardized compositions, table 4.1: Structure

of the steel product

Ferritic

Martensitic

Ferritic-austen

itic

Austenitic Table 4.1

Classification

Cr

C

Ni%

-0,08 -0,10 -0,25 -0,08 0,090,15-

12-14 16-19 24-28 12-14 12-14 16-18

1,3-2,5

-0,10

18-30

4,5-14

-0,50

16-26

7-35

3-6

Other common alloying elements are molybdenum up to 5% and copper up to 3%. Nitrogen, which is usually present at residual levels of about 0,03-0,06%, can also be used as an alloying addition of up to 0,2%. Austenitic steels are produced as castings, ingots of all sizes and as continuously cast billets and slabs. The other types of stainless and heat resistant materials mentioned in table 4.1 are cast predominantly as ingots of a moderate size, although martensitic and ferritic-austenitic steels are also commonly used as castings. The solidification behaviour is governed by the proportions of austenite- and ferrite-forming elements present. The first group comprises carbon, nitrogen, nickel, manganese, copper and cobalt. (At high concentrations manganese has been reported to be a ferrite former, [66].) The most important ferrite formers are chromium, silicon, molybdenum, niobium, titanium and aluminium. The ferritic and martensitic grades have already been described in chapter 3. The alloys of the present section, belonging to the ferritic-austenitic and the austenitic groups were chosen to give examples of the different solidification paths. The alloys are listed in table 4.2 in order of increasing tendency to solidify as austenite: No.

C

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409

0,04 0,01 0,02 0,04 0,07 0,05 0,02 0,05 0,02 0,01 0,06 0,13 0,01 0,41 0,07

0,9 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,6 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,2 1,2 0,5 0,5 1,0 0,6

0,8 1,8 0,9 1,2 1,4 1,7 1,6 1,7 1,8

25,1 19,8 19,5 18,4 17,2 17,2 17,2 17,7 17,4

4,7 9,9 10,3 9,1 10,3 12,6 13,5 13,4 12,8

1,2

1,8 1,8 1,7 1,7 1,3 0,6

25,1 24,2 24,3 19,2 25,2 21,1

22,2 20,4 20,5 25,1 20,6 31,0

Table 4.2

The types of solidification

are:

•

primary ferrite formation

•

primary ferrite formation followed reaction between liquid, 0 and y.

•

primary ferrite and austenite formation

•

primary austenite formation

by a three-phase

In this work the transition 0 + liquid ~ y is called peritectic reaction as long as the 0- phase is in direct contact with the liquid. When 0 is completely surrounded by y -phase and the reaction rate is governed by solid state diffusion of the alloying elements through y, the process is denoted peritectic transformation. The relative amount of austenite usually increases below the solidus temperature, i.e. the remaining o-ferrite content is dependent on temperature. In alloys with a high carbon content carbides precipitate during solidification.

of stainless and heat resistant steels

The structure of the filial product should not be confused with the structures present during and immediately after solidification. Many austenitic steels for instance contain considerable quantities of ferrite in their solidification structure.

410 411 412 413 414 415

The choice of these alloys was based on the solidification modes indicated by the pseudobinary phase diagrams, such as that shown in figure 4.1.

0,4 0,5 2,8 2,6 2,7 2,8

Others%

0,5 Ti 0,5 Nb

0,19 N

2,3

4,4

Stainless and heat resistant steels

1,5 Cu

Temperature,OC 1500

L+

1400

Y

y

1300

1200

1100

o

5

10

15

20

I

I

I

I

I

30

25

20

15

10

Figure 4.1 Phase diagram Fe-Cr-Ni Handbook, Vol 8, 1973,424-425)

25 30 Weight-% Ni I

I

5 0 Weight-% Cr

at 70% Fe. (After

Metals

References The solidification of stainless and heat resistant alloys has been the subject of many research reports. Papers on general aspects of solidification and phase equilibria include references [65-77]. Quantitative discussions of microsegregation have been presented, [68, 69, 71, 73, 77-82]. Finally, solidification under welding conditions received attention, [72, 79, 83-86].

has also

82 • Steel 401

STEEL 401.

0,04 % C 25 % Cr 5 % Ni Mo

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2324

(329)

(1.4460)

Nr

Composition (wt-%) Si

Mn

0,86

0,76

C

0,042 Creq Nieq

_ -

S

P

0,031

0,010

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

25,1

4,7

1,22

0,08

Altot

Co

0,08

N

,:::;0,002

0,077

4,01

fs Thermal Analysis

0.0

T

0.2

0,4

0,6

0.8

1,0

dT dt

.CD

(OCl

(OCls)

T

1450

+1,5 +1.0

1400

+0.5 1350

--

0

dT dt

-0.5

1300

-1.0 -1.5

R

1250

= 0,5°C/s

0

100

200

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Solidus temperature, Solidification

ferritic primary phase, °C °C

CD

CD

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

Fraction solidified

as ferrite, %

300

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

0,5

1465

1471

1469

1410

1420

75 80

60

50

205

770

100

100

100

M23C6particles and austenite in grain boundaries and M23C6particles in the matrix, (see figures 5-8). The carbide and austenite were precipitated during quenching from 1360°C.

Element

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,3

1,0

1,2

1,3

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1360 °C

0,1

1390

Precipitates

Microsegregation

t (s)

Steel 401 • 83

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1468°C d = 70 JLm a-dendrites and quenched

liquid (L).

x 25

400 JLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R 2,0°C/s Tq 1360°C d 115 JLm Figures 2-4: a-dendrites. White interdendritic areas (ID). Grain boundaries (G) also visible.

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

0,5°C/s 1360°C 280 JLm x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°C/s = 1360°C = 550JLm

x 25

84 • Steel 401

Figure 5 R Tq A B C

= O,5°C/s = 1360°C

grain boundary with austenite. grain boundary with carbide particles. ferritic matrix with carbide and austenite precipitates.

100 f-Lm

,

, "

.

x 150

/' \J

' , \1"

Figure 6 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1360°C Austenite, formed during boundary as in fig 5 at A.

quenching,

in grain

x 1000

Figure 7 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1360°C Carbide particles (M23C6), formed during quenching, in a grain boundary as in fig 5 at B. Electron micrograph of thin foil (TEM).

x 30000

Figure 8 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1360°C Carbide particles (M23C6), formed during quenching, in the ferritic matrix as in fig 5 at C. Electron micrograph of thin foil (TEM). x 15000

Steel 402 • 85

STEEL 402.

0,01 % C 20 % Cr 10 % Ni

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

30BL

1.4316

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Altot

N

0,012

0,31

1,76

O,OOB

O,OOB

19,B

9,9

0,10

0,04

0,02

0,004

0,031

Creq Nieq

= 1,B2 fs

Thermal Analysis

0,2

0,0

T

0,6

0,4

1,0

0,8

dT dt

CD

(OC)

t 1450

(OC/s)

T

+1,5 +1,0

1400

+0,5 1350

--

0

dT dt

-0,5

1300

-1,0 -1,5

1250

R = 0,5°C/s

0

Average

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, °C Temperature of austenite formation, °C Solidus temperature, °C Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

CD

(3)

Fraction solidified as ferrite, %

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni c _ n ~ 0f'./c

300

200

100

Cooling

'('(5)

Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1447 1366 1325 120 105 92

1454 1391 1360 95 255 91

1449 1405 1390 60 690 97

86 • Steel 402

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R 0.5°C/s Tq 1450°C d 60 [Lm o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).

400

[Lm

x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R 2.0°C/s Tq 1325°C d 150[Lm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the ,) transformed to y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.) x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d 400

0.5°C/s 1325°C 270 [Lm x 25

[Lm

Figure 4 R Tq

O.1°C/s 1325°C

Steel

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C

= 300 JLm) Former o-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the 0 transformed to 'Y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.) (d1200

x 25

400 JLm

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1325°C 13 vol-% dendritic ferrite. Figures 6-9: Note that the residual ferrite only appears in the former o-dendrites.

x 150

Figure 7

Figure 8

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1325°C 19 vol-% dendritic ferrite (0).

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 9 vol-% dendritic ferrite (0). x 150

Figure 9 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1325°C 20 vol-% dendritic ferrite. x 150

402 • 87

88 • Steel 403

STEEL 403.

0,02 % C 19 % Cr 10 % Ni

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

(2352)

304L

1.4316

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Altot

N

0,019

0,31

0,94

0,009

0,010

19,5

10,2

0,11

0,03

0,05

0,002

0,044

Creq Nieq

= 1,74

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T (OCl

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,80,9

1.0 dT dT (OC/s)

CD + T

+1,5 +1,0

1400

+0,5 1350

-

0 dT dT

-0,5

1300

-1.0 -1,5

R = O,soC/s

1250 0

100

200

Average

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

ferritic

of austenite

cC

temperature,

primary

formation,

CD

phase, °C °C

CD

CD

300

'[(5)

Cooling Rate,R, (CC/s)

0,5

0,1

1447

1455

1453

1404

1415

1418 1405

1365

1390

Solidification

range, °C

80

65

50

Solidification

time, s

90

220

610

91

92

98

Fraction

solidified

as ferrite,

%

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

I

1,6

1,5

1,1 1,2

1,5 0,7

PD

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1340 °C

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = 0,5°Cts Tq = 1450°C d = 65 jLm <,)-dendrites and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400

jLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R Tq

= 2,0°Cts

d

= 130jLm

= 1340°C

Figures 2-4: Former <,)-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the <')transformed to'Y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.) x 25

400

jLm

x 25

400

jLm

x 25

400

jLm

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°Cts = 1340°C = 160 jLm

Figure 4 R Tq d

= 0,1°Cts

= 1340°C = 500 jLm

90 • Steel 403

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C (d12oo = 170Mm) Former o-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.)

400 Mm

x 25

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1340°C 11 vol-% dendritic ferrite. Figures 6-9: Note that the residual ferrite only appears in the former o-dendrites (D).

100 Mm

x 150

-"

./

.'

/'

./

Figure 7

Figure 8

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1340°C 13 vol-% dendritic (D) ferrite (0).

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 5,8 vol-% dendritic

100 Mm

x 150

•

I

"

Figure 9 ,

.

.,

,

\,

. '. _.,~

.' .,- ' . \.

"

R = O,1°C/s Tq = 1340°C 9 vol-% dendritic 100 Mm

ferrite .

x 150

ferrite.

Steel 404 • 91

STEEL 404.

0,04 % C 18 % Cr 9 % Ni

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2333

304

1.4301

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Altot

N

0,036

0,44

1,25

0,025

0,010

18,4

9,1

0,38

0,20

0,25

0,002

0,081

Creq Nieq

=

1,68

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1.0

dT d't

CD

(OC)

+

14S0

(OC/s)

T

1400 +O,S 13S0

-

0

dT dt

-a,s

1300

-1,0 -1,5

R = 0,5°C/s

12S0 0

100

200

Average

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, °C Temperature of austenite formation, °C Solidus temperature, °C Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

Fraction solidified

CD

CD

CD

as ferrite, %

Precipitates

Microsegregation Element

Mn

Cr

Ni

I

1,2

1,1 1,2

1,3 0,7

PD

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1340 °C

300

T(s)

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1452

1451

1452

1423

1409

1424

1365

1385

1405

90

65

50

100

250

720

84

82

86

92 • Steel 404

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R 0,5°C/s Tq 1447°C d 40/Lm I)-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400/Lm

<:~~~:iV j-:_~~":.'"--.1$ :~-,

~.~~!~~~'?Y:I.~ -~::'~i.~ :.~ :'":\~"\ :;.~,'t'$:"/~:'.1' '", i:t~~i%~; -.,~ >. li;--,:?J!)t·":;:'-:,d".··;,,,:,?!,·~.1.~y{f.::1; ",I;" .. ,~ .. '\;/ .", -' /p.:'"'''''' ,.1. .' ?;f.~",' •••. ".' ., ,!",-, ,'I :1~~' f·- ~}'r.J: 'Y--\l{•..~'+{.··rJ ~'e;. t".~~ :~;~ ...: ' 'A\'_ ~;~. , -j"':; ;/.t;:~ti',.t.~: }:: '4,< '~Y' t~;.;f: ~,'.'. ·t_'~;\·Sj.4~./oI··it,\"..$) ..:.;..j'.)o\:'·~:" ;~ .• ;' ~~(~

••

:~:\!.:r'ti!lf;ai~~..rtt.~I'·,;,;J)};;~:;;·!;.;'\;Jll,

""";'

::i: •••• ~;.,.

'"vl~"P

?-'1i~~>;:

': "',' \ ' " .,~,~

t,.~.,~~,tli. 'c ••.·., ..•

Completely solidified

:·;~f:;,,;';;):)4,\'. '. <~(~:':.:j>
..

I;

.'\.c: ;-!~,.. ~~

':";:·'.;·":~tt:.:t·

).1.•; •••.:

;"T'

·~~/~,_·

-;'.',.,~:. '~.

·\IJ··;~·,,:~·l.;

';~~\"''-''~~'''/)J·?, .. •

... ~

tv'

._~,~ ~

~.(.

·.i'l-:'l,\~. /".

~,

Figure 2

R 2,0°C/s Tq = 1340°C d = 125/Lm Figures 2-4: Former I)-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the I) transformed to'Y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.)

"""~<~f~;';: '.~. "

~··!::~~~·;:~?~~itfli~1~:~51:~¥~S:~~:+:·.~~~·i~:,~;-~i'; ~~:lf::~ t\~~ ',l\ .••. '.,,':.,~

~

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

O,5°C/s 1340°C 190/Lm x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

0.1°C/s 1340°C 340/Lm x 25

Steel

404 • 93

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C

(d12oo

=

200fLm)

Former {)-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the {) transformed to 'Y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.) x 25

400 fLm

"'~ ' ,. ,\ . :\ .. ,"

\'

~,'" \

\ .-'

f

-

If'

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1340°C 2,3 vol-% dendritic ferrite. Figures 6-9: Note that the residual ferrite only appears in the former {)-dendrites (D).

\

r(-d'~ •

.

. \

\

1

J

•

.;J

JJ.......

';'.'

\

/

x 150

100 fLm

Figure 7

Figure 8

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1340°C 4,7 vol-% dendritic ferrite.

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 2,0 vol-% dendritic ferrite. x 150

100 fLm

x 150

100 fLm

Figure 9 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1340°C 10 vol-% dendritic ferrite.

-. I

_

---'"-

.'

'.

•

.

,

.'~

94 • Steel 405

STEEL 405.

0,07 % C 17 % Cr 10 % Ni Ti

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2337

321

1.4541

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

0,068 Creq Nieq

=

Si

Mn

0,59

1,44

P

S

0,028

0,001

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

17,2

10,3

0,47

0,24

0,27

Ti

0,51

Altot

N

0,048

0,005

1,61

fs

Thermal Analysis

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

1.0

0.8

T

dT d'(

re)

CD

(OCts)

t

1450

+1.5

T +1.0

1400

+0.5 1350

--

0

dT dt

-0.5

1300

R

=

-1.0 -1.5

1250

0,5°C/s

0

200

100

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

ferritic

of austenite

temperature,

°C

primary

formation,

CD

phase, °C °C

CD

CD

300

'((5)

Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1436

1440

1440

1397

1406

1412

1335

1370

1390

Solidification

range, QC

100

70

50

Solidification

time, s

105

235

680

82

82

82

Fraction

solidified

as ferrite,

%

Precipitates

Ti(CN), (see figures

6-8).

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

1,6

1,6

1,1

1,5

1,2

0,7

R = 0,5 QCIs Tq = 1320 QC

Steel 405 • 95

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R 0.5°C/s Tq 1430°C d 50l-tm o-dendrites and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400l-tm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R 2,0°C/s Tq = 1320°C d = 85l-tm Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.) x

25

x

25

Figure 3 R Tq d

0,5°C/s 1320°C 110 I-tm

Figure 4 R Tq d

0.1°C/s 1320°C 200 I-tm x 25

96 • Steel 405

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C

= 150fLm) Former <,)-dendrites (D). White interdendritic areas (ID). (Most of the <')transformed to y by the peritectic reaction and transformation.) (d1200

400 fLm

x 25

Figure 6 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1380°C Ti (C,N)

t7-Tj(~,N)

10 fLm

x 1000

I.

•

,

,

c Figure 7

~~

TiCQ,N)

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C Coalesced eutectic

Ti(C,N).

/ 10 fLm

x 1000

Figure 8 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1380°C Formation of eutectic (L -'> Ti(C,N) + y)

10 fLm

x 1000

Ti(C,N).

Figure 9 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1320°C 6 vol-% dendritic ferrite. . Figures 9 -12: Note that the r~sidual fernte only appears in the former 8-dendntes (D).

x 150

100

JLm

x 150

100

JLm

x 150

100

JLm

Figure 10 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1320°C . 8 vol-% dendritic fernte.

Figure 11 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 4,1 vol-% dendritic ferrite

~ {/- .'

-. ".'

\

l

"

'\)

.

"

~

.

•. J

,/

,

,

\

b

\ \. ".",

Figure 12 R = O,1°C/s Tq = 1320°C 4,8 vol-% dendritic ferrite

..

t

x 150

100

JLm

-

'--: ..

.

?

" 1 l

(/ 'j

, /~

.. ).

//

1 '\

'"

.

98 • Steel 406

STEEL 406.

0,05 % C 17 % Cr 12 % Ni 2,8 %Mo Nb

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

316 Cb

1.4583

Nr

Average

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

ferritic

and austenitic

Temperature

of maximum

Temperature

of carbide formation,

Solidus

temperature,

Solidification

°C

rate of formation

CD

QC

CD

primary

phases, QC

of austenite,

QC

CD

CD

Solidification time, s Fraction solidified as ferrite,

%

Precipitates

1. Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 4, 6 -11). 2. Eutectic NbC, (see figures 6,7,9-11).

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

I Po PlO

1,7

1,5

1,1 1,3 1,1

1,4 0,6 0,8

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1285 QC

0.,5

0,1

1420

1423

1424

1410

1418

1417

1330-1275

range, °C

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

1330-1290

1330-1305 1305

1275

1290

145

130

120

130

300

1240

<60

<45

<42

Partly solidified Figure 1a

Figure 1b

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1423°C d = 45 p,m o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1415°C d = 45p,m o-dendrites, y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). Peritectic reaction (P). x 25

400p,m

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R Tq

= 2,O°C/s

= 1270°C = 65 p,m Figures 2-3: Former o-dendrites,

d

dendritic and interdendritic gures 8-9).

y-dendrites, ferrite, (compare fi-

x

25

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1285°C

= 80p,m x 25

Figure 4 R 0,1°C/s Tq = 1300°C d = 135p,m Former o-dendrites, dendritic ferrite, (compare figure 11).

and interdendritic

x

25

100 • Steel 406

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C (d12oo = 85fLm) Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites, dendritic interdendritic ferrite, (compare figure 10).

400 fLm

and

x 25

NbC/

-/"' I

"

Figure 6 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C Eutectic NbC and dendritic

(D) ferrite (0).

x 600

Figure 7 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C Solid state precipitation dendritic ferrite (100). 25 fLm \

x 600

of NbC around

inter-

Figure 8 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1270°C 4,0 vol-% ferrite, dendritic tic (108).

(08) and interdendri-

x 150

100 JLm

Figure 9 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1285°C 4,0 vol-% ferrite, dendritic tic (108).

(08) and interdendri-

x 150

100 JLm

Figure 10 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 2,9 vol-% ferrite, dendritic (08) and interdendritic (108). x 150

100 JLm

7 ;

Figure 11 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1300°C 3,9 vol-% ferrite, dendritic tic (108).

(08) and interdendri-

x 150

100 JLm

.'

",17

~ ~

'

102 • Steel 407

STEEL 407.

0,02 % C 17 % Cr 13 % Ni 2,5 % Mo

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2353

316 L

1.4435

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Altot

N

0,023

0,53

1,58

0,020

0,006

17,2

13,5

2,63

0,19

0,07

0,004

0,031

Creq = 1,43 Nieq

fs

Thermal Analysis

O,L.

0.2

0.0

T

+CD

(OCl

0.6

1.0

0.8

dT dL'

,'1)

T

(OC/sl

1400

+1.5 +1,0

1350 +0.5 1300

--

0

dT dL'

-0.5

1250

-1.0 -1.5

1200

R = 0,5°C/s

Average

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

ferritic

of maximum

temperature,

Solidification

°C

and austenitic

rate of formation

CD

primary

phases, °C

of austenite,

°C

CD

CD

range, °C

Solidification time, s Fraction solidified as ferrite,

Precipitates

Interdendritic

ferrite,

(see figures,

5, 8 -12).

Microsegregation Element

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,5

1,2 1,2

1,2

2,2

0,8

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1320 °C

Cooling

L'(s)

Rate,R, (OC/s)

0,5

0,1

1423

1427

1428

1418

1421

1425

1345

1375

1380

80

50

45

100

210

660

<46

%

300

200

100

0

<50

<34

Steel 407 • 103

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

d

= O,5°C/s

= 1427"C = 55 fLm

0- and y- dendrites, growing simultaneously quenched liquid (L).

x 25

and

400 fLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1320°C d = 40 fLm Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites, dendritic interdendritic ferrite, (compare figure 9).

x 25

and

400 fLm

Figure 3 R Tq

= O,5°C/s

d

=

= 1320°C

90 fLm Figures 3-4: Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendritic ferrite, (compare figures 10 and 12). x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

= O,1°C/s 1320°C = 100fLm

400 fLm

104 • Steel407

Figure 5 R Tq (d1200

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C = 100 ILm)

Former I)-dendrites, y-dendrites tic ferrite, (compare figure11).

400 ILm

and interdendri-

x 25

Figure 6 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1427°C I)-dendrites and quenched figure 1).

liquid (L), (compare

x 150

Figure 7 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1415°C y growing into both I)-dendrites and liquid. x 150

'-. ..-;;.~

..

~.

... ','~

.

'"

y Figure 8

~_r"'-/ ~

""-

..;

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1320°C Austenite precipitated in interdendritic ferrite during quenching. Dark structure in figure 10.

Steel 407 • 105

Ii.

-,' ':. ". ~> " .... ~

1 ..•.

Figure 9 J

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1320°C 5,5 vol-% ferrite, dendritic tic (100).

(i,

. --.

,...,

f.~. ~; .

I

--

"''.

(Do) and interdendriV

;/

x 150

\

100 fLm '"". of"

• I

(

J.

r-"

/'-:

,

'(

" '.J,"4"j. 1'1'

••.

{,

"

Figure 10 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1320°C 5,6 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic

• (100). ,~,

x 150

/

I1

j)

~ Figure 11 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 3,5 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic

108-

e,/. 15

(100).

)7 ~ {I

x 150

~

/

•

\ L

{ ()

( 7 Figure 12 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1320°C 4,4 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic

(100).

•

o

,

~

-

•

<

1.

106 • Steel 408

STEEL 408.

0,05 % C 18 % Cr 13 % Ni 2,5 % Mo

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2343

316

1.4401

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Altot

N

0,048

0,63

1,65

0,018

0,007

17,7

13,4

2,68

0,15

0,07

0,004

0,045

Creq Nieq

= 1,42

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0,2

0,4

.CD

(OC)

0,6

0,8

1,0

dT d't

+Q)

(OC/s)

T 1400

+1.5 +1,0

1350 +0,5 1300

--

0

dT d't

-0,5

1250

R = O,soC/s

-1,0 -1.5

1200 100

0

200

Average

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

temperature,

Solidification

and austenitic

rate of formation

primary

CD

phases, °C

of austenite,

°C

CD

°C

range, °C

Solidification Fraction

ferritic

of maximum

time, s

solidified

as ferrite,

Precipitates

Interdendritic

ferrite,

(see figures,

5, 8 -11).

Microsegregation Element

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

I

1,6

1,2 1.2

1,2 07

2,1

R PlO

Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1305 °C

'[(5)

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

0,5

0,1

1419

1423

1421

1414

1422

1415

1330

1360

1370

85

60

50

100

220

670

<36

%

300

<35

<34

Steel 408 • 107

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R

= O,5°C/s

Tq d

= 1423°C = 50 JLm

0- and y- dendrites, growing simultaneously, quenched liquid (L). x 25

400

and

JLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R

= 2,O°C/s

Tq

= 1305°C d = 55 JLm Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendritic ferrite. Some dendritic ferrite can also be seen, (compare figure 8).

x 25

Figure 3 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1305°C d = 85 JLm Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites tic ferrite, (compare figure 9).

and interdendri-

x 25

Figure 4 R

= O,1°C/s

Tq

= 1305°C

d = 140 JLm Former o-dendrites and y-dendrites. White interdendritic areas, (compare figure 11). x 25

108 • Steel 408

.....• ,

. '

.

.•.

.~

'- .!...,4

"

_.

.,'

. .•.

/

"-.,.

. '",

"..•.

' • ..J.

-

.

..

f'

•.

'"

~...

• '.

.~

:;>'.

J...••

" •

• '1.

'('

'''4l.

-.

,...'

.

r'.

,/

~

.l' 7'

"

"

~

\..

I

~../

• >' ,-:

'./, ~', \. .~

. T" ')

,,-

\. ~

j f'\',; ('....

;'

••.••••

J

./ '/·r· / ..

',-

, ....

!

~. •••

.

y..

1

'')

,<jl-~

•• r'

~,

/

.

,J:

'.t·~

I ••

'

!--;.

:\,.

'

..

~

-/ (. ,

,. ... , J~

I

~

'-t.' ,

(",..

,; , _ J.

.",

.

~...•.

'

'f

,~

t..

.

,

~. •

1;

. _ .....•.

'(

- " ...•.... . . .~. . / .•...,

~

J

(

..

.

,,'

, , ."

.,I

'.

R Tq

= O,5°C/s

= 1200°C (d1200 = 190 f.Lm)

Former a-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendritic ferrite, (compare figure 10),

J ....

,"

,

Figure 5

400 f.Lm

x 25

I

Figure 6 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1420°C Simultaneous transformation tectic reaction gure 7). L = quenched

200 f.Lm

growth of 15- and y- dendrites. The of into y can also be seen, (periand transformation, compare fi-

a

liquid.

x 50

Figure 7 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1420°C Transformation of a-dendrites. Detail of figure 6, 100f.Lm

x 150

- .~ :(

'-."..•.

\

"

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1305°C 4,0 vol-% ferrite, dendritic tic (100).

"\

x 150

100 Mm

.,

.

)

-

'\}

f

.

--<Jl>,

\

.-

......

'-

.

•..•.

0

-..:

oS

~

<{

'.

.-

• \

"

(l

I~S.~ . " -

~

"\

'"

'--

r

.

\)

.\

--d'

)

&

J

J

(

"'-

=-'1

)

\

,.

/ .'

•

~

P

c

-.;-

.

'-

.;

tJ

. '"

, .t : . "

i

o

J"

/~

Y

it'"OS-,.....

1

-

. IOS.

(Do) and interdendri-

",

..••.

~ "

Figure 8

,

•

<1 Q

I

;-..,

\l

6.....

-.

Figure 9 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1305°C 5,0 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic (Dark structure (A), austenite precipitated rite during quenching.)

x 150

., (100). in fer-

100 Mm

".

Figure 10 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 0,1 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic.

x 150

• 100 Mm

~.

~~~ v

Figure 11 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1305°C 5,5 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic. x 150

100 Mm

109

~

) C'

.

408

Steel

f.r' _ -.~. ..... '-,

110 • Steel 409

STEEL 409.

0,02 % C 17 % Cr 13 % Ni 2,5 % Mo 0,2 % N

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2375

316 N

1.4429

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Altot

N

0,024

0,58

1,79

0,009

0,011

17,4

12,8

2,77

0,03

0,03

0,002

0,20

Creq Nieq

=

1,32

fs Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

dT

@

(OCl

d'[ (OC/sl

T 1400

+1,5 +1,0

1350 +0,5 1300

-

0 dT d't

-0,5

1250

R

=

-1,0 -1,5

1200

0,5°C/s

0

100

200

Average

Liquidus Solidus

temperature, temperature,

austenitic °C

Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

primary

phase, °C

CD

Precipitates

Interdendritic

ferrite,

(see figures

5, 8-11).

Microsegregation Element

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,6

1,2

1,1

2,1

R = 0,5 aCls Tq = 1305 °C

300

Cooling

't(s)

Rate,R, eeC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1411

1421

1422

1310

1350

1370

105

70

50

85

245

640

Steel 409 ° 111

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R Tq

= 0.5°C/s

=

1415°C

d

=

40

J-Lm

y-dendrites

and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400 J-Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2.0°C/s Tq = 1305°C d = 45 J-Lm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites rite.

and interdendritic

fer-

x 25

400 J-Lm

x 25

400 J-Lm

Figure 3 R Tq d

=

0.5°C/s

= 1305°C = 70 J-Lm

. .0'.#,., '\::..\"·i.

•• •

~ .", '"

•

,"

~

'" ,'~ ••• .r' ,..

•

tI ••

•

e •..•

.

.

•

*

~

•

•••••

.., ,,;. ,.t

R Tq d

1305°C

t

•

.' ;

,.

.

•• __,-

x 25

..

'A"

••

~•• :~

•

e ••.•.•

t

',-

'

•

III

•

•.

••••

•

'.' "

••

•

.•

"..__• •

(I

••

I

•

•

t

'~.'

•

'

;."

,,~..

•• Or-.

,.

.4)•••••• '

4

e.~._"

•

\

~.' A';.

f

.•

·'

. .., ".. ':' .. ;

;

.~

..,

.

'.

f.,.

,

e.•

• ,

./ ••••.

'\0

.•

:..

• 'A

..•• ,"

•• ' ,,0 "e::J. ~

= 105 J-Lm

~

••

.J1

~

~

= 0,1°C/s

=

••

t

IQ."

.'~

f

.

""',.

• ••..,.1

•

•

•

• (, •.,-,

" 0,/ t

,_,

,t .t.' .,•...... ~

"' ••

• "';

~.

•••

~.A~"

•.•

.. ~' ..••.•.. *~.:-

'. I

Figure 4

•

.".,'.

:'J. •

-tOo

.

l) •••4$.

"'*c.":ooo'"

• .'

'..-, '.'

n . cl

9#t'tJa"."

:

0.-

"'. •

'.

~. '

• •.•.•_tll· _...

:......

~ •• '\..

•

•.• .•• ••

~••••••••

r·.

•

\ ..I- •••~ ..•••.•••

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s

= 1200°C (d1200 = 75 p,m)

y-dendrites 400 p,m

and interdendritic x 25

..

Figure 9

~-.

•

•

R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1305°C 0,8 vol-% interdendritic x 150

ferrite.

ferrite.

Steel

STEEL 410.

0,01 % C 25 % Cr 22 % Ni 2 % Mo

410 • 113

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

Werkstoff

AISI

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

0,008 Creq

Nieq

=

P

Si

Mn

0,24

1,77

S

0,009

0,008

Cr

Ni

25,1

22,2

Mo

Cu

2,3

0,02

Co

Ti

Altot

N

0,02

0,08

0,002

0,067

1,21

fs

Thermal Analysis

0.0

T

,

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

dT dT

CD

(OCl

1400

(OC/s)

T

+1.5 +1,0

1350

+0.5 1300

--

0

dT d't'

-0.5

1250

R

1200

= 0,5°C/s

-1.0 -1.5 0

100

200

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Solidus temperature,

austenitic primary phase, °C °C

Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

CD

Precipitates

1. Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 8-11). 2. Sigma-phase, (see figures 6 and 7).

Microsegregation Element

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,6

1,2 1,2

1,1 0,8

2,3

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1310 °C

300

Cooling

'[(5)

Rate,R, eC/s)

0,5

0,1

1401

1402

1401

1335

1345

1355

65 95

60

45

225

700

114 • Steel 410

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1398°C d = 60 J.Lm y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).

400 J.Lm

x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1310°C d = 60J.Lm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites. White interdendritic areas.

400 J.Lm

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

= O,5°C/s = 1310°C = 80 J.Lm

400 J.Lm

x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

= O,1°C/s = 1310°C

= 160J.Lm

400 J.Lm

x 25

Steel 410 • 115

Figure 5

R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C

(d1200 = 110 J.Lm) y-dendrites. White interdendritic

areas.

x

25

400 J.Lm

Figure 6

R = O,l°C/s Tq = 1310°C Sigma-phase precipitated ture in figures 9 and 11).

in ferrite,

x 600

Figure 7

R = O,l°C/s Tq = 1310°C Sigma-phase precipitated (Electron micrograph.)

in ferrite.

(dark struc-

25J.Lm

Figure 8

R

= 2,O°C/s Tq = 1310°C 1,0 vol-% interdendritic

,,

..

'.

.f'

100J.Lm

ferrite.

x 150

\ ,'r

),

:>

'\

J

l

•

Figure 9

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1310°C 1,0 vol-% interdendritic

ferrite.

x 150

"

•

\ \7-_

Figure 10

o

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C 0,7 vol-% interdendritic

ferrite.

o

x 150 ."'C

•

•

v .~

\

Figure 11

./

:J

I

•

, f'.

(-

~

J

R = O,l°C/s Tq = 1310°C 1,0 vol-% interdendritic 100 urn

)( 1<;n

ferrite.

Steel 411 • 117

STEEL 411.

0,07 % C 24 % Cr 20 % Ni

HEAT RESISTANT STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2361

310 S

1.4842

Nr

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Ti

Altot

N

0,055

1,20

1,75

0,011

0,008

24,2

20,4

0,08

0,02

0,03

0,09

0,015

0,051

Creq

Nieq

=

1,15

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

0.4

0.2

0,6

0,8

1,0 dT dT (OC/sl

,

T (OCl

CD

1400

+1.5

T

+1,0 1350 +0.5 1300

-

0 dT dt

-0.5

1250

-1.0 -1.5

R

= a,SOCts

1200 0

200

100

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Solidus temperature,

austenitic QC

Solidification

range, QC

Solidification

time, s

primary phase, °C

CD

(3)

Precipitates

Interdendritic

ferrite, (see figures 6-8).

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

2,4

1,9

1,2

1,2

R = 0,5 QCts Tq = 1290 QC

300

T(s)

Cooling Rate,R, (eC/s)

0,5

0,1

1399

1401

1399

1315

1330

1350

80

70

105

230

50 750

Partly solidifjed

Figure 1

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1395°C d = 65ILm y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).

400 ILm

x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2

R

= 2,0°C/s Tq = 1290°C d = 55ILm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.

x

25

Figure 3

R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s

1290°C 85ILm x 25

.".~'..

,',

1 .'

• I

. . :... , ,

..I',

..

.. .,. ...."-;,( (-)

~

;."''''

.•..

,

"..

-I.

...

t_.

~

-

\

..•., 1'- •~"

... . _. ,-,... ~'

'

!. •

'",..

,

..•.

"., f

''''''- ... _ ..

,

Figure 4

R Tq d

0,1°C/s 1290°C 125ILm

\ ""

x 25

Steel 411 • 119

Figure 5 R Tq (d1200

= O,5°C/s = 1200°C =

90

fLm)

y-dendrites.

x 25

400 fLm

•

'0

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1290°C Figures 6-8: Small amounts ferrite.

of interdendritic

.,

p

,

"

x 150

,

/

..;

120 • Steel 412

STEEL 412.

0,1 % C 24 % Cr 20 % Ni

HEAT RESISTANT STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

310

Composition

1.4845

(wt-%)

C

Si

Mn

0,13

0,52

1,67

Creq

Nieq

=

Nr

P

0,009

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Ti

Altot

N

0,003

24,3

20,5

0,11

0,03

0,04

0,08

0,023

0,053

1,03

fs

Thermal Analysis

0,0

T

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

dT dt

CD

(OC)

+ 1400

ft/s)

T

+1.5 +1,0

1350 +0,5 1300

--

0

dT dt

-0,5

1250

R

=

-1,0 -1.5

1200

O,5°C/s

0

100

200

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Solidus temperature,

austenitic °C

Solidification

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

primary phase, °C

CD

Precipitates

Interdendritic

ferrite, (see figures 6-8).

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

2,5

1,9

1,2

1,2

R = 0,5 °C/s Tq = 1300 °C

300

Cooling

"((5)

Rate,R, (OCts)

0,5

0,1

1405

1407

1405

1325

1335

1355

80 95

230

70

50 690

Steel 412 • 121

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1400°C d = 60/-Lm y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400/-Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1300°C d = 65/-Lm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites. x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s = 1300°C = 90/-Lm

x 25 •

•

I'

~"

',_

J :

. ... ' .. .. .. .•...~.... . ..,.. . . ...

,

•••

:'

'-."

•

,.

f

t

••

,

-•.

•

:'.,

"

..

J

~f,

I

",

1

~4·*,· \. ~~.\

,

--.

.•

#

1···· t....

,-/'.1" , .. ,..

•.

J ..•

t I

....:

.... ,

•

j

....'" ~.'"

,. .,

••••. ..,,'

,.

Figure 4 R Tq d

f

I'

••

= 0,1°C/s

1300°C 125/-Lm x 25

.,

122 • Steel 412 \, ,\

" ..• , 1

\

.'

..

'/

'/

",

. I

,

I.

I

•

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s = 1200°C

(d1200 = 100 ~m) y-dendrites ..

400 ~m

"'",

.. .

x 25

~ l Q

•.!

(

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1300°C 0,5 vol-% interdendritic

,

ferrite.

'

x 150

o

••

.~

...

o Figure 8 R = O,1°C/s Tq = 1300°C 0,5 vol-% interdendritic x 150

ferrite.

Steel

STEEL 413.

O,Ol%C

19%Cr

25%Ni

4%Mo

1,5%Cu

413 • 123

STAINLESS STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

Nr

1.4539

Composition (wt-%) C

Si

Mn

0,013

0,48

1,74

Creq Nieq

=

P

S

Cr

0,007

0,003

19,2

Ni

Mo

Cu

25,1

4,44

1,51

0,0

0,2

Co

Ti

0,07

0,02

Ce

Altot

N

0,07

0,034

0,035

0,94

f5 Thermal Analysis

T (OCl

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0 dT dT (OC/s)

,

CD

1400

+1,5

T

+1,0 1350 +0,5 0 dT dT

-0,5

1250

R

=

-1,0 -1,5

1200

O,5°C/s

0

100

Average

2,0 Liquidus temperature, Solidus temperature, Solidification

austenitic °C

CD

primary phase, °C

range, °C

Solidification

time, s

CD

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

1,8

1,7

1;2

1,1

2,0

Rate,R, (OC/s)

0,5

0,1

1389

1391

1391

1315

1345

85

75

45

100

230

760

Microsegregation Si

Cooling

'"[(5)

1305

Precipitates

Element

300

200

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1280 °C

124 • Steel 413

Partly solidified

Figure 1

= 0,5°C/s

R Tq

= 1385°C

d

= 70 JLm

y-dendrites 400 JLm

and quenched

liquid (L).

x 25

Completely solidified

Figure 2

= 2,0°C/s = 1280°C d = 55 JLm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites. R Tq

White interdendritic

400 JLm

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

= 0,5°C/s

= 1280°C = 80 JLm

400 JLm

x 25

Figure 4 R Tq d

= O,1°C/s = 1280°C = 120JLm

400 JLm

x 25

areas.

Steel 413 • 12,5

Figure 5 R Tq (d1200

= 0,5°C/s = 12000C =

90 JLm)

y-dendrites. White interdendritic

areas. x 25

400 JLm

126 • Steel 414

STEEL 414.

0,4 % C 25 % Cr 20 % Ni

HEAT RESISTANT STEEL

Designations SIS

Werkstoff

AISI

Nr

310 HC

Composition

(wt-%)

C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Ti

Altot

0,41

1,00

1,34

0,007

0,010

25,2

20,6

0,08

0,02

0,06

0,10

0,016

N

0,022

Creq Nieq

= 0,89

fs

0.2

0.0

0.4

0.8

0.6

0.86

1.0

T

dT dt

(OCl

CD

Thermal Analysis

(OC/s)

t

1400

+1.5

T 1350

R = O,5°C/s

o

100

200

Average

Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

austenitic

of formation

temperature,

°C

primary

of eutectic,

CD

phase, °C

°C

CD

CD

300

Cooling

1:'(5)

Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0

0,5

0,1

1383

1385

1385

1275-1260

1285-1275

1260

1275

1290-1280 1280

Solidification

range, °C

125

110

105

Solidification

time, s

125

290

1140

Precipitates

Interdendritic M23CS - eutectic. (see figures 6-12).

The amount

of carbide

eutectic

increased

with increasing

Microsegregation Element

I PlO

Si

2,1 Carbide/-y

Mn

Cr

Ni

1,6

1,2 1,6

1,1

R = O,5°C/s Tn = 1?~n or.

cooling

rate,

Steel 414 • 127

Partly solidified

Figure 1

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1375°C d = 60 ILm y-dendrites and quenched

liquid (L). x 25

400 ILm

Completely solidified

Figure 2

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1230°C d = 50 ILm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites and interdendritic bide eutectic, (compare figures 6-10, 12). x 25

Figure 3

R

= 0,5°C/s

Tq d

= 80 ILm

= 1230°C

x 25

Figure 4

R

= O,l°C/s

Tq d

= 1230°C = 105ILm

car-

400 ILm

Figure 5 R Tq

= 0,5°C/s

(dlloo

= 1100°C = 90/-Lm)

y-dendrites and interdendritic (compare figure 11).

400/-Lm

carbide

eutectic,

x 25

Figure 6 R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1230°C M23C6-Y eutectic Figures 6-8: Note the influence on carbide coarseness. 25/-Lm

x 600

Figure 7 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1230°C M23C6-Y eutectic (E) and residual melt (L). 25/-Lm

x 600

Figure 8 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1230°C M23C6-y eutectic.

of cooling

rate

Steel 414 • 129 ./

..~-. i

,".j

"

".

Figure 9 = 2,0°C/s q = 1230°C 11,4 vol-o;;° M 23 C6.

~

/"

x 150

100 JLrn

Figure 10 ~

q

= O,5°C/s = 1230°C

8,0 vol-Ol 10 M23 C6. x 150

Figure 11 = 0,5°C/s q = 1100°C 10,7 vol-o;;° M 23 C6.

~

x 150

\

. \

Figure 12 R T q 7,2

- 0 1°C/s -,

= 1230°C vol-Ol 10 M 23 C6. x 150

100 JLrn

\

.'

.-""-\-

.,

130 • 51eel415

STEEL 415.

0,07% C 21 % Cr 31 % Ni

STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTANT STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

WerksteH

Alloy 800

Composition

Nr

1.4876

(wt-%)

C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

Ti

0,07

0,62

0,56

0,007

0,003

21,1

30,9

0,06

0,02

0,02

0,40

Creq Nieq

=

N

0,39

0,019

0,71

fs The •••

Altot

0,0

T

Annl,ria

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0 dT dT

CD

(OC)

(OC/s)

~ 1400

+1,5

T

+1,0 1350

~.~----

Q) 1300

--

+0,5 0

dT dT

-0,5

1250

R

-1.0 -1,5

=

1200

0,5 C/s Q

0

100

200

Average

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Solidus

austenitic

of formation

temperature,

QC

primary

of titanium

CD

phase, QC

compounds,

CD CD

1399

QC

1305-1280 1280

300

Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

0,5 1401 1310-1295 1295

Solidification

range, QC

120

105

Solidification

time, s

125

280

Precipitates

Ti (C,N) and sulphides

containing

titanium,

(see figures

6 and 7).

Microsegregation Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

2,3

1,7

1,2

1,1

R = 0,5 QC/s Tq = 1290 .QC

t(s)

0,1 1400 1350-1330 1330

70 810

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R 0,5°C/s Tq 1390°C d 80 ILm y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L). x 25

400 ILm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R Tq

2,0°C/s 1280°C d 50 ILm Figures 2 - 4: y-dendrites.

x 25

Figure 3 R Tq d

0,5°C/s 1290°C 95ILm x 25

f' .' '. )': \ .1 • ." 'If

.~.. _. i

\

l..

\. :

.,

\

\

f

\.

\

J...•.• J I,

.*""'( {

\

\

,

\

.~,. "

.. .. .,~ ...;;.~

,.

,.

.-y,.

<#

.

\!

. 1.,;-'

J

/... r, \

.\. '.

<11

.,

,~~"

'!

:

:,'~-

0,1°C/s 1290°C 145ILm

'.

\

,l.,'

/.~..

•

~

J

.",,;.. # •.•• "

,

•••

~•.

:",

f

•

..; • ~

:.

'j •••

~

Y

..

J

t'"

t.

~"

• •••.. ~i

"'" •

"'I

x 25

.-

y

..

~....,

• _

-"

~

I, \

~ I'

Figure 4 R Tq d

I

("~

..

•••

_~

132 • Steel 415

Figure 5 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C (d12oo = 1051Lm) y-dendrites (dark).

-400 ILm

x 25

- '• /

Figure 6

I

\

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1290°C TiN, TiC and sulphides

/ A 11

containing

titanium

TiC~25ILm

x 600

(I'

0

A

y~

~

/
~

Figure 7 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1200°C TiC and sulphides

A

\ o

-

25ILm

x 600

containing

titanium

(A).

(A).

133

5. High Speed Steels High speed steels are highly alloyed tool steels which exhibit enhanced hardness and wear resistance at high temperatures. These steels have a high carbon content and varying amounts of chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium. The wide solidification ranges and microsegregation of alloying elements in these steels limit their production to small ingots for rolling and forging. Continuous casting is not practised. Considerable use is made of powder metallurgical methods to produce homogeneous, isotropic material. Although the solidification of high speed steels studied in great detail for many years, they were in the present study for the sake of uniformity comparison with other alloys. The two most commercial high speed steels were chosen, with compositions according to table 5.1:

has been included and for common chemical

No.

C

Si

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

W

V%

501 502

0,9 1,0

0,3 0,4

0,3 0,4

3,9 3,8

0,4 0,1

4,9 9,2

6,1 1,5

1,9 2,0

Table 5.1

High speed steels

The pseudobinary equilibrium phase diagram in figure 5.1 illustrates schematically the complicated solidification sequence, which is roughly the same for both steels. The following reactions take place in order with falling temperature: •

primary ferrite formation

•

peritectic stenite

•

eutectic reaction producing

reaction and transformation

producing

au-

austenite and carbides

The distinction, used in this work, between peritectic reaction and transformation is defined in chapter 4.

Temperature 1600

:C

L 1500

1400

1300

1200

a+K

y+K

1100

1000

o

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

1,2 1,4 1,6 Weight-% carbon

Figure 5.1 Phase diagram for steel with approx. 4% Cr, 5% Mo, 6% Wand 2% V. (After Horn E. & Brandis H., DEW- Techn. Ber. 11 (1971),147-154)

[89]

References General investigations of the solidification of high speed steels dealing with development of the structure, constitution and reaction mechanisms have been reported, [8795]. Quantitative data on microsegregation may be found in references [90, 91, 94, 98]. Factors controlling dendrite arm spacings and carbide sizes are discussed in references [93, 96, 97].

134 • Steel 501

STEEL 501.

0,9 % C 4 % Cr 5 % Mo 6 % W 2 % V

HIGH SPEED STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2722

M2

1.3343

Composition

(wt-%)

Nr

C

Si

Mn

p

S

0,88

0,30

0,32

0,030

0,017

Thermal Analysis

Cr

3,9

0,2

v

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

W

0,36

4,9

0,10

0,30

6,1

0,7

0,80.9

0,4

0.5 0,6

1,9

0,022

0,036

1,0

dT d't (OC/s)

+3,0 +2,5 +2,0 +1,5 +1,0 +0,5 0 -0,5 -1,0

R

-1,5

1100

= 0,5°C/s

o

200

100

400

300

1'(5)

Average Cooling Rate,R, rc/s)

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

ferritic

primary

Temperature

of start of austenite

Temperature

of start of MC-austenite

Temp. of M2C- and M6C-austenite Solidus

temperature,

°C

CD

phase, °C

formation,

°C

eutectic

eutectic

CD CD

formation,

formation,

°C

°C

CD

CD

0,1

0,5

1414

1423

1427

1341

1342

1350

1260

1260

1270

1228

1232

1255

1175

1185

1220

Solidification

range, °C

240

240

210

Solidification

time, s

170

455

2500

Precipitates MC-M2C- and M6C-austenite (see figures 6-9,11-14). MC contained contained

approximately

mainly Fe, Wand

eutectic.

The amount

45% V, 17% Wand

of carbide

eutectic

decreased

11 % Mo, and M2C approximately

Mo.

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

W

v

1,6

1,2

0,8

0,9

with increasing

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1155 °C

cooling

rate,

37% W, 28% Mo and 12% V. M6C

Steel 501 • 137

Figure 10

Figure 11

R

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1245°C MC" eutectic. The MC carbide is the first carbide to precipitate. 0,1 vol-% MCcarbide.

= 0,5°C/s

Tq = 1335°C Peritectic reaction. WidmanstiHten austenite (Yw) precipitated in 0 during quenching.

x 600

25 p'm

Figure 12

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1155°C Figures 12-14:

Carbide morphologies. x 600

25 p'm

•

,

, MC . 6

Figure 13

R

= 0,5°C/s

Tq

= 1155°C

x 600

25 p'm

x 600

25 p'm

Figure 14

R

= 0,1°C/s

Tq

= 1155°C

••

~

138 • Steel 502

STEEL 502.

1,0 % C 4 % Cr 9 % Mo 1,5 % W 2 % V

HIGH SPEED STEEL

Designations SIS

AISI

Werkstoff

2782

M7

1.3348

Composition

(wt-%)

Nr

C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

W

1,0

0,38

0,38

0,010

0,037

3,8

0,14

9,2

0,11

0,05

1,5

fs

Thermal Analysis

0.0

0,4

0,2

0,45

N

2,0

0,6 0.8

0.5

0,010

0,036

1,0

dT dt

T (OCl

(OC/s) 1400 +3.0 +2,5

1350

+2,0 1300

+1,5 +1.0

1250 +0,5 0

1200 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

-0.5 1150

R

-1,0 -1.5

1100

= 0,5°C/s

o

100

200

400

300

't" (5)

Average Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0 Liquidus

temperature,

Temperature Temperature Solidus

ferritic

primary

phase, °C

of start of austenite formation, °C of MC- and M2C-austenite eutectic

temperature,

°C

CD

CD

formation,

CD

°C

CD

0,5

0,1

1401

1400

1400

1305

1315

1322

1222

1226

1233

1175

1180

1185

Solidification

range, °C

225

220

215

Solidification

time, s

170

410

2100

The second peak on the cooling rate curve is split into two peaks, corresponding to the peritectic reaction, followed by the Iiquid-to-austenite transformation.

Precipitates MC- and M2C-austenite M2C contained

eutectic,

approximately

(see figures

7-9,12-14).

57 % Mo, 11 % V and 9 % W. MC was of the VC type.

Microsegregation Element

Cr

Mo

W

v

1,8

1,1

0,6

0,7

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1155 °C

Steel

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1310°C d = 35 fLm 8-dendrites, partly transformed to y, and quenched liquid (L), (compare figures 5 and 6).

x 25

400

fLm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1155°C d = 25 fLm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites (compare figure 7).

and carbide

x 25

Figure 3 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1155°C d = 35 fLm (Compare figure 8.) x 25

Figure 4 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1155°C d = 70 fLm (Compare figure 9.)

x 25

eutectics,

502 • 139

140 • Steel 502

Figure 5 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1310°C Peritectic reaction and transformation, (compare figure 10.)

lOOl-tm

Figure 6

R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1260°C Growth of austenite, 8 ~ y and L ~ y. Extensive nucleation of y after the peritectic reaction, (see cooling curve and compare steel 501, figure 6).

x 150

Figure 7 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1155°C Figures 7-9: Carbide structure. Note the influence of cooling rate on carbide coarseness, (compare figure 12). x 150 \

'~.

Figure 8 R = O,5°C/s Tq = 1155°C 9 vol-% carbides (MC and M2C), (compare figure 13). x 150

•

•

• •

:A.;\ <:p'

J.. ,

•

.- 'j

".

Figure 9 R = O,l°C/s Tq = 1155°C 10 vol-% carbides (MC and M2C), (compare figure 14). x 150

Partly solidified

Figure 1 R 0,5°C/s Tq = 1335°C d = 35/-Lm a-dendrites, partly transformed to y, and quenched liquid (L), (compare figures 5 and 6). x

25

400/-Lm

Completely solidified

Figure 2 R = 2,O°C/s Tq = 1155°C d = 30/-Lm Figures 2-4: y-dendrites (compare figure 7).

and carbide eutectics,

x 25

400/-Lm

x 25

400/-Lm

x 25

400/-Lm

Figure 3 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1155°C d = 40/-Lm (Compare figure 8.)

Figure 4 R Tq

= O,1°C/s = 1155°C

d = 85/-Lm (Compare figure 9.)

136 • Steel 501

Figure 5

Figure 6

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1335°C Peritectic reaction and transformation, (compare figure

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1245°C Growth of austenite, o~y and L~y, and MC-y eutectic. 0,1 vol-% MC carbide, (compare fig 11).

100/-l-m

10).

x 150

Figure 7

;..

.

-=-~ I

•

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1155°C Figures 7-9: Carbide structure. Note the influence of cooling rate on carbide coarseness, (compare figure 12).

x 150

Figure 8 R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1155°C 9 vol-% carbides, (MC, M2C and M6C), (compare figure 13).

x 150 .~-

Figure 9 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1155°C 12 vol-% carbides, (MC, M2C and M6C), Melted areas (L) in the centres of the dendrites. (Compare figure 14).

,

x 150

Steel

Figure 10

Figure 11

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1310°C a-dendrite, surrounded by y formed by th~ peritectic reaction. Widmanstatten austenite (Yw) precipitated in a during cooling and quenching.

R = 0,5°C/s Tq = 1260°C y, residual a, and liquid (L). (No carbides.)

25J.Lm

Figure 12

Carbide morphologies. x 600

25J.Lm

x 600

25J.Lm

Figure 13 R Tq

1 (

x 600

R = 2,0°C/s Tq = 1155°C Figures 12-14:

502 • 141

= 0,5°C/s

= 1155°C

Figure 14 R = 0,1°C/s Tq = 1155°C Remelted areas (L) in the centres of the dendrites. x 600

25J.Lm

•••

142

Temperature,oC

6. Conclusions and Comments In the preceeding chapters, detailed results have been reported for individual steel compositions. The purpose of this section is to illustrate general relationships for groups of steels. The fact that many of the important solidification parameters follow a general pattern justifies interpolation between the steels the behaviour of which has been described. This allows data to be estimated for many types of steel which have not been included.

1500

Thermal analysis

1400

The results on liquid us, solidus and peritectic temperatures, measured for the three cooling rates, are shown as a function of the carbon content in figures 6.1 - 6.4 for carbon, low alloy and chromium steels. The thermal data for the stainless and heat resistant alloys are plotted as a function of alloy content, expressed as equivalents of chromium and nickel, in figure 6.6.

1300

Temperature,

+ 0,1°C/s • 0,5 02,0

°C

2.0

••

~o~

-~.~

1500

t

Liquidus 1200

.~~T;~~~~----

,i~

"~:

Peritectic

.~.

0,5

0,3

0,7

1,0 Weight-% carbon

.~~.

•.•....•• ~.

o

0,1

~,1

0,5 & 2,0

Figure 6.2 alloy steels

Liquidus, peritectic

and solidus temperatures

for low

0

Temperature,oC

1400

302

301

304

303

1500 Solidus

1300

.0,1

°C/s

·0,5 02,0

1400

1200 0,1

0,3

0,5

0.7

1,0 Weight - % carbon 1300

Figure 6.1 Liquidus, carbon steels

peritectic

and solidus

temperatures

for

The general shape of pseudobinary diagrams of the type Fe-C-M is shown in figures 3.1 and 3.2. It is seen in these diagrams that the peritectic line of the binary Fe-C-diagram (figure 2.1) is substituted by a triangular three-phase area, but this is not equivalent to the area marked "peritectic" in figures 6.1-6.4, The experimental points here indicate the maximum temperature of the peritectic reaction. The scatter in the experimental results depended on the varying degree of supercooling, as discussed in chapter 1, However, the highest temperatures given probably represent the start of the peritectic reaction. in large scale ingots, The reason for the spread in solidus values was partly the experimental problems described in chapter 1, but also the fact that the commercial steels used contained different amounts of alloying and impurity elements.

+ 0,1°C/s • 0,5 o 2,0 iC 0,1 (peritect.)

1200

:~+01 • 0,5

0_ -0

1100 0,1

0,3

0,5

0,7 Weight-

Figure 6.3 Liquidus, peritectic chromium steels

2,0

1,0 % carbon

and solidus temperatures

for 5%

143

As shown in figures 6.3 and 6.4, steels 303, 304 and 309 had very low solidus temperatures explained by eutectic carbide precipitation, The pseudobinary equilibrium phase diagrams for Fe - 5Cr - C and Fe - 13Cr - C, figures 3.1 and 3.2, indicate a eutectic reaction for carbon contents of 1,2 and 0,8 % respectively. The appearance of carbide eutectics at much lower carbon concentrations is a result of microsegregation. In figure 6.4 the solidus lines have been interrupted between steels 308 and 309, as it is certain that eutectic precipitation of carbides will take place in steels with carbon contents lower than that of steel number 309. The solidification range widened with an increasing rate of cooling, see figure 6,5. The constitutional influence of high carbon and chromium contents was very strong,

Temperature,·C 305 306 307

1500

308

309

~+.

~.. ~.~. /

0+--""'"

•

~

••

..-

Perltectlc 0

""""-'..-"""" I

Q

•

.•.•.• N({{Ui!i. .•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•""""" _

.

'b-"" If. 0

~

1400 ~

~;'-

o

~ Solidus

1300 + 0,1 ·C/s • 0,5 o 2,0 '" 0,1 (Peritect)

+

•

1200

o

Solidification 0,1

0,3

0,5

0,7 0,9 Weight -%carbon

range,

Tliq - Tsol

·C 1C5Cr

Figure 6.4 Liquidus, 13% chromium steels

peritectic

and solidus

temperatures

o

for

The tendency was for the liquidus and the peritectic temperatures to be independent of cooling rate, whereas the solidus was markedly lower at a higher cooling rate, The reason for this is the higher degree of backdiffusion and homogenization possible at a low cooling rate, The main difference between the carbon and low alloy steels, shown in figures 6,1 and 6,2, was the lowering of the solidus lines by alloying elements, The liquidus temperatures were also decreased somewhat. It has not been possible to calculate the factors for the temperature depression by, for example, nickel and chromium, as the levels of other elements were not held constant in the present work. However, at the low contents present, the influence of minor changes in composition can be estimated from the binary phase diagrams, In figure 6.4, the abnormal behaviour shown by steel number 305, containing 0,04% C, 13% Cr, 5,5% Ni, reflects the depression of both liquidus and solidus temperatures by nickel. At the 13% Cr- level the mean effect was roughly 5 and 10 degrees per weight percent of nickel for the liquidus and solidus respectively, In spite of the very low carbon content, steel number 305 had a peritectic reaction. This is an effect of nickel, as steel number 306 with a higher carbon content solidified completely to ferri-

300

0,7C13Cr

250

0

+~. ____ 200

e

+ 1C1,5Cr 0

150

+

/.

+ 100

0

---~ O,1C5Cr

.--/.-

+

1C

•

•

O,1C13Cr _0

0,2C

+/ 50

+

te.

0,1

0,5

2.0 Cooling rate, °C/s

Figure 6.5 Solidification ranges for carbon, low alloy and chromium steels as function of cooling rate

144

Liquidus and solidus temperatures of the stainless and heat resistant steels are shown in figure 6.6, as a function of alloy content, expressed as equivalents of chromium and nickel as follows, [78,83): Creq = Cr Nieq = Ni

+ 1.37Mo + 1.5Si + 2Nb + 3Ti + 0.31 Mn + 22C + 14.2N + 1Cu

From the thermal analysis data for the stainless and heat resistant steels, the fraction solidified primarily as o-ferrite was evaluated. The results are given in figure 6.7 as a function of the ratio between the chromium and nickel equivalents, as defined above. It may be seen that a drastic change in solidification behaviour takes place between Cr and Ni equivalent ratio values of 1,35 and 1,80; alloys with values below this range solidify as 100 % austenite, above this range as 100% ferrite. Behaviour of this kind may also be seen in figure 4.1. No substantial influence of cooling rate on the fraction of o-ferrite formed was observed.

(The elements are expressed in weight percentages.)

Temperature, °C

~ ~

~Jt5cr5NiMO +

1400

+ +~+

ri~~

•

LiQuidus

---_L&~

0

t;;-

0

&tg ~

o~o·~--o·.__ ===~+~C25c/r21Ni ,...."".

,...

1300

+

a

v~

._

f1 o---~~~

0

0

+

~.I:l

~ 17/12 MoNb sol.

The effect of carbon can be seen in alloy 414, with 25 % Cr, 21 % Ni, 0,4% C. This had a solidification range of 105125°C, and very low solidus temperatures as a result of interdendritic segregation.

The two high speed steels, (numbers 501 and 502), had solidification ranges wider than 200°C, which is in good agreement with their high concentration of carbon and alloying elements. The highest cooling rate corresponded to the lowest solidus temperature and the widest solidification range, as for the other alloy systems in this work, (see figure 6.5).

0

~

1200 + 0,1 ·C/s • 0,5 02,0

1100

L.-

~

-+

-+-

~

~ Alloy content

Figure 6.6 Liquidus heat resistant steels

~

~

Creq + Nieq weight-%

and solidus temperatures

for stainless and

Fraction solidified as primary ferrite, 0/0 ~o

100

90

80

70

60

50

Again, the highest cooling rate led to the lowest solidus temperature and the widest solidification range. These ranges were comparatively narrow for this group of steels, in most cases 100°C or less (compare figure 6.5). Two of the alloys, numbers 401 with 25% Cr, 5% Ni, 1% Mo, and 406 with 17% Cr, 12% Ni, Mo-Nb, did not follow the general trend. The ferritic alloy, 401, exhibited the highest liquidus and solidus temperatures of all the stainless and heat resistant steels examined; a constitutional effect in full agreement with the Fe-Cr-Ni equilibrium phase diagram in figure 4.1. This diagram also indicates a narrow solidification range for this composition. Alloy 406 showed very low solidus temperatures and a wide solidification range, 120-150°C. The reason was the pronounced interdendritic segregation of, mainly, niobium and carbon.

•

40 + 0,1°C/s • 0,5 o 2,0

30

20

10

0 2

3

4 Creq Nieq

Figure 6.7

Fraction solidified

as /I-ferrite

in stainless steels

145

I (er)

Microsegregation The microprobe results were derived from samples cooled at O,5°C/s and quenched from just below the solidus temperature. The dependence on carbon level of the microsegregation of manganese and chromium in carbon, low alloy and chromium steels is shown in figures 6.8 and 6.9. The high values of the segregation ratio I found at high carbon levels were caused by slow backdiffusion in austenite, and by a negative interaction known to exist at least between carbon and chromium, [31, 47]. Primary formation of austenite was noted at a carbon content above some 0,4% in carbon and low alloy steels, (chapter 2), whereas no chromium steel solidified by formation of primary austenite, (chapter 3). As shown in figure 6.9, the chromium steel number 306, with 0,07% C and 13% Cr, which solidified completely as ferrite, had no measurable chromium segregation; emphasizing the importance of diffusion in ferrite during solidification in reducing the observed segregation. In contrast, steel number 305, with 0,04% C, 13% Cr, 5,5% Ni, solidified partly to austenite and showed chromium segregation, despite having a lower carbon content. Molybdenum, which was present in appreciable amounts in all the 5% chromium steels, displayed the same segregation behaviour as chromium in relation to carbon, figure 6.10.

•

2,5

•• 2,0

• •• 1,5

1,0 0,1

0,3

Figure 6.9 Microsegregation chromium steels

0,5

0,7 1,0 Weight- % carbon

of chromium

in low alloy

and

I (Mn)

I (Mo) 2,0

2,0

•

1.5

1,5

1,0

1,0 0,1

Figure 6.8

0,3

Microsegregation

0,5

0,7 1,0 Weight -%carbon

of manganese in carbon steels

0,1

Figure 6.10 steels

0,3

Microsegregation

0,5

0,7 1,0 Weight -% carbon

of molybdenum

in 5% chromium

146

As shown by comparison between figures 6.9 and 6.11, nickel segregated less than chromium in the low alloy steels, the segregation ratio for the element having an inverse relationship with carbon.

The segregation ratio, I, and partition ratios of chromium and nickel in the stainless and heat resistant steels are shown in figures 6.12 and 6.13. These ratios were defined in chapter 1 as follows:

cX,

cx,

I (Ni)

ID D

Cx,OD Cx'YD

2.0

Cx,OID Cx,YID where D and ID represent dendrites and interdendritic areas; Cx is the mean value of the concentration in these regions. The chromium-nickel equivalent ratio decreases from left to right in figures 6.12 and 6.13. The corresponding alloy compositions are given in table 4.2.

1,5

1.0 0,1

Figure 6.11

0,3

0,5

Microsegregation

0,7 Weight-%

1.0 carbon

of nickel in low alloy steels

In a steel solidifying completely as ferrite, number 401, chromium did not segregate at all but nickel did. When both austenite and ferrite were formed, in steels such as numbers 402-406, strong nickel segregation was observed together with slight, hardly measurable segregation of chromium. In the fully austenitic mode of solidification, numbers 409-415, chromium and nickel both segregated moderately. Steels 407 and 408, which formed the smallest amount of primary ferrite, were similar to the fully austenitic steels in regard to microsegregation of chromium and nickel. The interpretation of these results is that, in the austenitic mode of solidification, both chromium and nickel segregate to the interdendritic liquid, whereas only nickel segregates in the ferritic mode. The high I (Ni)-values in the ferritic-austenitic steels are remarkable.

I (C'r) 1,4

1,2

1,0 Steel

401

I (Nj)

1,6

1,4

1,2

1,0 Steel

401

402

403

404

405

Creq

4,01

1,82

1,74

1,68

1,61 1,58

406

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

1,43

1,42

1,32

1,21

1,15

1,03

0,94

0,89

0,71

Nieq

Figure 6.12 Microsegregation less and heat resistant steels

of chromium

and nickel in stain-

147

The segregation of silicon, manganese and molybdenum in stainless and heat resistant steels is shown in figures 6.14 a and b. The interdendritic areas were enriched by all these elements and the interdendritic segregation of both manganese and silicon was higher in the fully austenitic, as compared to the ferritic-austenitic solidification mode. On changing from a fully ferritic solidification path, as in steel 401 , to one producing a fully austenitic structure, the intensity of molybdenum (and manganese) segregation increased markedly.

Cr

-

1,2

-.

r-

~

ill

1,0

Steel Creq Nieq

402 403 404 405

406

407 408

1,821,74 1,68 1,61

1,58 1,43 1,42

410 1,21

PO' PlO

-

Ni 1,2

~ 1,0

~ 0,8

;;;;

~ 0,6

"-

~

Steel 401

~. ~.

L-

402 403 404 405

406 407 408

410

Titanium in steel number 405 was found both in the interdendritic austenite and in the carbides. Niobium in steel 406 segregated to the interdendritic ferrite and was also present as carbides. In steel 413, the interdendritic areas were enriched with copper. In high speed steels, the segregation measurements on the alloying elements showed that these were present mainly as constituents of carbide phases. It should be noted that the amount of eutectic carbides decreased with increasing cooling rate. The reverse behaviour was found for the austenitic steel number 414, with 0,4 % C, 25 % Cr, 21 % Ni and steel number 309, with 0,7% C, 13% Cr. The eutectic carbide content of these steels rose as the cooling rate was increased. The observed phenomena are in full agreement with earlier reports, [62, 63, 94]. Finally, when following the details of the solidification of the two high speed steels, it will be seen that they differed in regard to the types of carbides precipitated.

Figure 6.13 Partition ratios for chromium and nickel in stainless and heat resistant steels.

Strictly, the segregation ratio I should only be determined in a truly single phase structure, which was not the case for most of the stainless steels studied. The partition ratio Po, between ferrite and austenite due to the peritectic reaction and the solid phase transformation of the dendrites, is shown in figure 6.13 for steels 402-406, which formed the most ferrite on solidification. From number 406 onwards the primary ferrite was gradually substituted by austenite as the primary phase, until from number 409 onwards austenite was the only primary phase, see figure 6.7. However, as chromium and other ferrite-forming elements such as molybdenum, niobium and silicon segregate from the growing austenitic phase, ferrite can form interdendritically. When the fraction of austenite-forming elements in the steel increases, the amount of interdendritic ferrite decreases. The content of interdendritic ferrite, first seen in significant amounts in steel number 406, thus passed through a maximum on going from a ferritic to an austenitic solidification path. The partition ratio PlO, between the interdendritic ferrite and austenite, is shown for steels 406-410. The P-values show the enrichment of chromium in ferrite and that of nickel in austenite.

I (Si) 2,5

2.0

I--

-

1,5

-

1,0 402 403

405 406

411 412 413414 415 Steel

1,82 1,74

1,61 1,58

1,15 1,03 ,94 ,89 ,71 Creq Nieq

148

I (Mn) 2,0

I--

-

1,5

1,0 401

402

403

404

405

406

407 408

-

409

-

f----

f----

-

-

-

410

411

412

413

414 415

411

412

413

414

I (Mo) 3,0

I--

2,0

- 408- 409-

1,0

401

402

4,01

1,82 1,74 1,68 1,61

403

404

405

I--

406

407

410

1,58

1,43 1,42 1,32

1,21 1,15 1,03 0,94

415 Steel 0,89 0,71 Creq Nieq

Figure 6.14 b steels.

Segregation

of manganese and molybdenum

Ferrite in stainless steels As discussed in the preceeding paragraph, the I)-ferrite in the solidification structure of stainless steels may be of either or both dendritic or interdendritic forms. The dendritic ferrite formed as a primary phase is not enriched in solute elements, unlike the interdendritic I)-ferrite, which forms as a result of segregation. The latter type was usually seen to be larger in size than the residual, dendritic I)-ferrite. As a consequence of this difference in size and degree of segregation, the non-equilibrium dendritic ferrite will in most cases disappear more quickly than the interdendritic form during homogenizing heat treatments. Ferrite contents were obtained by both magnetic measurempntc.

~nrf

("'\nti,...~1 ""'" ....• ..-: •..•....•. +: .....-

"T"l-_

-----.--

in stainless and heat resistant

There was some scatter in the ferrite measurements and the data fell into two groups with no steels in the region between the two populations. However, the measurements can be interpreted in terms of the solidification behaviour. Figure 6.15 shows that the ferrite content at the solidus was not influenced by cooling rate, but was governed by the composition. It was shown previously, in figure 6.7, that no primary ferrite is formed when the er-Ni equivalent ratio is less than 1,35. The two populations shown in figures 6.15 and 6.16 therefore represent steels forming predominantly interdendritic and dendritic ferrite respectively. For a given homogenization time the steels with mainly dendritic ferrite, which solidify with a higher

149

These findings can be used to explain the observation that the surface regions of stainless steel ingots, or continuously cast billets and slabs, have a lower ferrite content than the central regions. As described above, there is no effect of cooling rate on ferrite content at the solidus. However, the faster cooling rate at the surface, compared to the centre, produces a finer dendrite arm spacing. The resultant fine structure is more rapidly homogenized on cooling below the solidus.

Ferrite.%

+

20

+ O.l°C/s • 0.5 02.0

Primary

Y

I

10

I

8

I

Primary

Ferrite .% 20

8

•

: JY ~+Y 2 0+_'1'

•

1.0

.0.5'C/s

,solidus

x 0.5 °C/s . 1200'C

•

o

Creq Nieq

/

Primary

P

2.0

8 Figure 6.15

('l-ferrite in stainless steels at the solidus.

tic to dendritic forms of ferrite which explains the higher ferrite contents shown in figures 6.15 and 6.16 for steels of er-Ni equivalent ratio of about 1,4, compared to those at about 1,6. This is further supported by the amount of interdendritic ferrite probably reaching a maximum at equivalent ratios of about 1,4.

Primary

I I I

10

1.5

I

6

I

4

~'. I

15

I

•

Solidus

2 •

•x

•

x-x

x

2.0

1.5

1.0 Figure 6.16 1200°C.

Creq Nieq

1200"C

('l-ferrite

in stainless

steels

Secondary dendrite arm spacing. pm 400

300

0

1 2 3 4 5

0

o 250

@ o

200

150

o

c.

• C!l

o

Carbon steels Low alloy steels 5% Cr-steels Stainless & heat resistant High speed steels Mean value

steels

No.406-415

x.

.: ---~--- i e

80

x

8

~ 100

0

4

0

------.:-....::

60

40

30

20 0.1

0.5

2.0

at the

solidus

and

150

Secondary

dendrite arm spacings

A summary of the results is presented in figures 6.17 and 6.18. In figure 6.17 the effect of cooling rate and alloy content can be seen. It is accepted that the arm spacing decreases when the alloy content increases, although a linear relationship has not been detected. The results for 13% Cr-steels and the stainless steels numbers 401-405 are not presented in figure 6.17 because of the difficulties in measuring arm spacings accurately. The dendrites were poorly defined because of the high degree of homogenization occurring in these steels during solidification. For the 13% Cr-steels it was seen that the dendrite arm

spacings decreased when the carbon content increased, and there was also a tendency in this direction for other groups of steels. This would partly account for the large spread between individual points in figure 6.17. The well known coarsening process which occurs during solidification may be seen by comparing values at 0,5°C/s obtained in samples partly and completely solidified, figure 6.18. The final arm spacings of the dendrites are determined by the local solidification time, which here is roughly the reciprocal of the cooling rate. The results are accordingly in agreement with previously reported data, see for example figure 1.2.

Mean secondary dendrite arm spacing. IIm 150

• •

100

80

0

•

Completely

o

Partly

•

sol idified.

solidified,

0.5"C/s

0,5"(;/s

• 0

0

60

0

0

0

•o

40

30

steel no

Figure 6.18

Carbon

Low alloy

201-207

208-216

5%Cr 301-304

Dendrite arm coarsening

13%Cr

Stainless

Stainless

High speed

401-405

406 -415

501-502

305-309

during solidification

151

7. References Experimental

techniques

and general

1. Jonsson K. 0., Solidification studies with radioactive isotopes and thermocouples. Jernkont. Ann., 153 (1969), 193-199 2. Chuang Y. K. & Schwerdtfeger K., Erstarrungsgeschwindigkeit van Eisen-Kohlenstoff Legierungen mit 0.6 bis 1.85 % C beim Brammenguss. Z. Metallkunde, 64 (1973) 672-677 3. Jacobi H., Einfluss der 6-y-Umwandlung des Eisens auf den Warmeubergang zwischen Block und wassergekuhlter Kupferkokille. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes., 47 (1976),6,345-350 4. Lepie G. & Rellermeyer H., Untersuchungen uber den Erstarrungsverlauf in Gussblocken. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes., 37 (1966) 12,925-934 5. Mizikar E. A., Mathematical heat transfer model for solidification of continuously cast steel slabs. Trans. A/ME, 239 (1967) 1747-1753

22. Eisen W. B. & Campagna A., Computer simulation of consumable melted slabs. Metall. Trans. (1970) 849-856 23. Oeters F. & Sardemann K., Untersuchungen zum zeitlichen Verlauf der Erstarrung in der Randzone erstarrenden Eisens. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes., 45 (1974) 8, 517-524 Carbon and low alloy steels

24. Kattamis T & Flemings M. C., Dendrite Morphology, microsegregation and homogenisation of low alloy steels, Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 1965,5,992-999

25. Ahearn P. J. & Quigley F. C., Dendritic morphology of high strength steel castings.JISI,

204 (1966) 16-22

26. Doherty R. D. & Melford D. A., Solidification

and microsegregation in killed steel ingots with particular reference to 1% C 1.5% Cr-steel. JIS/, (1966) 11311143

6. Baumann H. G., Temperaturprofile gegossener Stahlstrange. Stah/ u. Eisen, 89 (1969) 26, 1467 -1473

27. Tresh H. et aI., Microsegregation in steel castings, Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 242 (1968) 853-858

7. Thomas J. D. & Tzavaras A. A., Solidification and solidification rates in continuous casting of steel. Proceedings of the Continuous Casting Symposium of the 102 A/ME annual meeting, Metallurgical Society of AIME, 1973, 125-140

28. Suzuki A. et aI., On secondary dendrite arm spacing in commercial carbon steels with different carbon content. J. Japan Inst. of Metals, (1968) 1301 -1305

8. Holzgruber W. & Tarmann B., Secondary cooling in continuous casting and it's influence on solidification parameters. Steel Times, 195 (1967) 217 - 225 9. Petrov A. K. et ai, Solidification of metal powders during the atomization of a liquid phase. Sov. Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 12 (1973) 1, 13-16 10. Dorschu K. E., Control of cooling rates in steel weld metal. Weld. J., Res. Suppl., 47 (1968) 49 s-62 s 11. Schulze G. & Krafka H., Untersuchungen uber den Einfluss von Erwarm- und Abkuhlgeschwindigkeit auf das Zahigkeitsverhalten unlegierter und niedriglegierter Stahle. Schweissen u. Schneiden, 29 (1977) 5, 179-183 12. Ericson L. & Fridfeldt C., Thesis Royal Technology, Stockholm, 1970

Institute

of

13. Laren I. & Fredriksson H., Relations between ingot size and microsegregation. Scand. J. Metallurgy. 1 (1972) 59-68 14. Backerud L. & Edvardsson T, Influence of process variables during submerged arc welding on the primary structure, Scand. J. Metallurgy, 4 (1975) 267272 15. Modin H. & Modin S., Metallurgical terworths, London (1973)

microscopy. But-

16. Wlodawer R., Die technologische Schweizer Archiv, 37 (1971), 72-85

Kalorimetrie.

17. Rabus D., Deutung von Erstarrungsvorgangen in beliebigen realen Gussti.icken mittels differenzierter technologischer Kalorimeterkurven. Schweizer Archiv 38 (1972), 79 - 88 18. Hribovsek B. & Marincek B., Einige Bemerkungen zur Erstarrungsgleichung. Material und Technik, (1973) 2, 69-71

29. Rose A. & Boer H. & Hougardy H. P., Einfluss einiger Elemente auf die Kristallisation starrung. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes.

von Eisen bei der Er39 (1968), 793-797

30. Flemings M. C. et aI., Microsegregation alloys. JISI, 208 (1970) 371-381

in iron base

31. Hammar O. & Grunbaum G., Influence of backdiffusion on microsegregation during solidification of low alloy steels. Scand. J. Metallurgy. 3 (1974) 11 - 20 32. Chuang Y. K. & Reinisch R. & Schwerdtfeger K., Kinetics of the diffusion controlled peritectic reaction during solidification of iron-carbon alloys. Metall. Trans. A, 6 (1975) 235-238 33. Steinmetz E. & Kast M., Vorgange bei der schnellen Erstarrung von Eisen mit gelostem Sauerstoff und Schwefel, Arch Eisenhuttenw. 46 (1975) 629 - 634 34. Ohashi T. et aI., A study on solidification, segregation and fluid flow of molten steel in continuously cast slabs. Trans ISIJ, 15 (1975) 571-579

35. Edvardsson T & Fredriksson H. & Svensson I., A study of the solidification process in low carbon manganese steels. Metal Science, 10 (1976) 298-306 36. Choudhury A. & Jauch R. & Lowenkamp H., Primarstruktur und Innenbeschaffenheit herkommlicher und nach dem Elektro-Schlacke-Umschmelzverfahren hergestellter Blocke. Stahl U. Eisen, 96 (1976) 946951 37. Jacobi H. & Schwerdtfeger K., Dendrite morphology of steady state unidirectionally solidified steel. Metall. Trans., A, 7(1976) 811-820

38. Clayton D. B. & Smith T. B. & Brown J. R., Application of electronprobe microanalysis to the study of micro segregation in a low alloy steel. J. Inst. of Metals 90 (1961-62) 224-228 39. SmithT. B., Microsegregation & Steel, 37 (1964) 536-541

in low alloy steels. Iron

19. Hribovsek B. & Marincek B., Bestimmung der gesamten freiwerdenden Warme und des Kristallisationswarmeanteiles aus der Abkuhlungskurve einer Schmelze. Z. Metallkunde, 65 (1974) 242-245

40. Philibert J. & Weinryb E. & Ancey M., A quantitative study of dendritic segregation in iron-base alloys with the electronprobe microanalyzer. Metallurgie, (1965) 203- 211

20. Takada H., An evaluation of the electroslag remelted ingot. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on ESR, Mellon Inst, 1969

41. Ward R. G., Effect of annealing on the dendritic se-

21. Grunbaum G. & Gustafsson K., Electroslag remelting

gregation 930-932 ..•.•

_1._1-

--_

of manganese . r

T

0

~

••••.••..•••.•.• "

in steel. JISI, 0

li

194 (1956)

~J1i,...,..nC::::QnrQn;:::lti()n

in

152

43. SchneidhoferA. & Plessing R. & Krainer E., Betriebserfahrungen mit Elektroschlacke-Umschmelzanlagen. Berg- u. Huttenm. Mh, 115, (1970),11,367-373

62. Fredriksson H., The mechanism of the peritectic reaction in iron-base alloys. Metal Science, 10 (1976) 77-86

44. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerungen und eutektische Karbidausscheidungen in Eisen-Kohlenstoff-Molybdan-Legierungen. Arch. Eisenhuttenw., 43 (1972) 689-692

63. Fredriksson H., Segregation phenomena in iron-base alloys. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 5 (1976), 27-32

45. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerungen und eutektische Karbidausscheidungen in Eisen-Kohlenstoff-Vanadin-Legierungen. Arch. Eisenhuttenw., 44 (1973) 349-355 46. Chuang Y. K. & Wepner W. & Schwerdtfeger K., Berechnung der interdendritischen Anreicherung von Kohlenstoff und Sauerstoff bei der Erstarrung von Stahl. Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 44 (1973) 243-250 47. Fredriksson H. & Hellner L., The influence of carbon on the segregation of chromium in steel. Scand. J. Metallurgy 3 (1974), 61-68 48. Burns D. & Beech J., Blowhole formation during solidification of iron alloys.lronmaking and steelmaking (Quarterly), (1974) 4, 239-250 49. Fuchs E. G. & Roosz A., Homogenization of iron base cast alloys. Metal Science, 9 (1975) 111 -118 50. Fredriksson H. & Stjerndahl J., On the formation of a liquid phase during cooling of steel. Metall. Trans. B, 6 (1975) 661-664 51. Ohide T. & Ohira G., The solidification structures of iron-carbon-phosphorous ternary alloys. Brit. Foundryman, 68 (1975) 4,106-115 52. Bibby P. A. & Beech J., Solidification behaviour low alloy steel castings, JISI 211 (1973),290-292

of

64. Maim S., Influence of Si and Mn on the solidification of 1.5 % C - 11% Cr-steels. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 5 (1976) 137-144

Stainless

and heat resistant steels

65. Mayerhofer S. & Kohl H., Matematisch-statistische Untersuchungen uber den Deltaferritgehalt bei austenitischen Stahlen. Berg- u. huttenm. Mh, 111 (1966) 9, 443 - 453 66. Guiraldenq P., Action alphagene et gammagene des principaux elements d'addition dans les aciers inoxydables nick'el-chrome derives du type 18-10. Mem. Sci. Rev. Met., 64 (1967),907-938 67. Kohl H., Der Delta-Ferritgehalt austenitischer Chrom-Nickel-Stahle im Gleichgewichtsund Ungleichgewichtszustand. Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 40 (1969) 143-146 68. Lefevre I. & Tricot R. & Castro R., Segregation et homogemeisation des aciers inoxydables austenitiques. Mem. Sci. Rev. Met., 66 (1969) 517-529 69. Blanc G. & Tricot R., Solidification, segregation et homogemeisation des aciers inoxydables austenitiques contenant de la ferrite delta. Mem. Sci. Rev. Met., 68 (1971),735-753

53. Jacobi H. & Pitsch W., Untersuchung der Kristallisationsabfolge bei der Erstarrung niedriglegierter Stahle, Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 46 (1975) 417 - 422

70. von Fircks H. J., Gluhtemperaturabhangige Bildung von b-Ferrit in austenitisch-ferritischen Chrom-Nickel-Stahlen. Neue Hutte, 17 (1972) 210-215

54. Schmidt L. & Fredriksson H., Formation of macro segregation and centre-line cracks in continuously cast steel. Iron making and Steelmaking (Quarterly), 2 (1975) 61-67

71. Fredriksson H., The solidification sequence in an 18- 8 stainless steel investigated by directional solidification. Metall. Trans., 3 (1972), 2989 - 2997

Chromium steels

73. Heritier J. & Levy J., On the mechanisms of melting of Fe-Cr-Ni-alloys in the two-phase solid-liquid region. Scripta Met. 10 (1976),107-110 or in Mem. Sci. Rev. Met. 73 (1976), 523 - 535

55. Subramanian S. V. & Haworth C. W. & Kirkwood D. H., Growth morphology and solute segregation in the solidification of some iron alloys. JISI, 206 (1968), 1027 -1 032 56. Staska E. & Bloch R. & Kulmberg A., Untersuchungen an Fe-Cr-C-Legierungen mit Zusatzen von karbidbildenden Elementen. Mikrochimica Acta, (1970), suppl IV, 62-74 57. Barthel A. & Hoffmeister H. & Schurmann E., Einfluss der chemischen Zusammensetzung und der Abkuhlungsbedingungen auf den Gefugezustand von Gusseisen mit rd. 3% C und 14% Cr fUr Walzen. Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 45 (1974) 795-801 58. Staska E. & Bloch R. & Kulmberg A., Untersuchungen an Fe-Cr-C-Legierungen mit Molybdanzusatzen. Mikrochimica Acta, (1974) suppl V, 111-127 59. Fredriksson H. & Brising S. & Remeus B., Studium av karbidutskiljning vid stelning av verktygssUll. Del 11 Kromstal. Jernkontoret, Stockholm, Rep. 0 114, 1975 60. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerungen und primare Karbidausscheidungen in chromlegierten gegossenen Werkzeugstahlen. Giessereiforschung, 22 (1970), 3, 121-127 61. Straube H. & Bloch R. & Plockinger E., Die Abhangigkeit der Kohlenstoffverteilung im Dreistoffsystem Eisen-Chrom-Kohlenstoff von der erstarrungsbedingten Kri~t::lII~Ain~nlnn

rioe- f'hrr"· .... ..,... ,,",...,.,..,11

1"'\1'\

I •• n~r\

,....

72. Masumoto J. et aI., Einfluss der Primarkristallisation bei peritektischer Reaktion auf die Heissrissneigung von Stahlschweissgut. Schweissen u. Schneiden, 27 (1975),450-454

74. Dacker C. A. & Fredriksson H., Fororeningars inverkan pa varmsprickbenagenheten i rostfria stal. Styr. f. tekn. utveckl. report, Stockholm, March 1976 75. Schurmann E. & Brauckmann J., Untersuchungen uber die Schmelzgleichgewichte in der Eisenecke des Dreistoffsystems Eisen-Chrom-Nickel. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes. 48 (1977) 3-7 76. Leffler B. & Maim S., Volume changes accompanying solidification of some austenitic stainless steels. Metals Technology 4 (1977), 81-90 77. Schurmann E. & Voss H. J., Seigerungsverhalten der Legierungselemente in Eisen-Chrom-Nickel-Schmelzen und bei Zusatz von Molybdan und Vanadin. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes. 48 (1977) 129-132 78. Hammar O. & Svensson U., The influence of steel composition on segregation and microstructure during solidification of austenitic stainless steels. Solidification Conf., Sheffield, 1977 79. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerung und Deltaferritbildung in austenitischem Schweissgut. Schweisen u. Schneiden, 25 (1973) 164-166 80. Siegel U. & Gunzel M., Mikroseigerung in austenitischen Chrom-Nickel-Stahlen, Teil I, Neue Hutte 18

153

81. Moharil D. B. & Jin I. & Purdy G. R., The effect of D-ferrite formation on the post-solidification homogenization of alloy steels. Metall. Trans, 5 (1974), 59-63 82. Spies H. J., Beitrag zur Kennzeichnung erstarrungsbedingter Entmischungen in SHihlen, Neue Hutte, 21 (1976) 344-348 83. Hull F. C., Delta ferrite and martensite formation in stainless steels. Weld. J. Res. Suppl., 52 (1973) 193s-203s 84. Delong W. T., Ferrite in austenitic stainless steel weld metal. Weld. Res. Suppl. 53 (1974), 273s-286s 85. Astr6m H. et aI., Hot cracking and microsegregation in 18-10 stainless steel welds. Metal Science, 10 (1976) 225-234 86. Thier H., Delta-Ferrit und Heissrisse beim Schweissen chemisch bestandiger austenitischer Stahle. Dtsch. Verlag fur Schweisstechnik (DVS) Dusseldorf 1976, 100-104

High speed steels 87. Kunze E. & Horn E., Zusammenhang zwischen Erstarrungsverlauf und Gefugeausbildung von Schnellarbeitsstahlen. DEW-Techn. Ber. 1 (1961),6-15 88. Brandis H. & Wiebking K., Einfluss einer Legierungsanderung beim Stahl S6-5-2 (Mo 20) auf seinen Erstarrungsund Aufschmelzverlauf. DEW- Techn. Ber. 11 (1971),139-146 89. Horn E. & Brandis H., Betrachtung zur Ausbildung der Phasen im Schnellarbeitsstahl S6-5-2 (Mo 20) mit abnehmendem Kohlenstoffgehalt. DEW- Techn. Ber. 11 (1971) 147-154 90. Backerud L. & Pfeifer H. U., Structure development in some tool steels during the solidification process. Scand. J. Metallurgy 1 (1972),159-165 91. Barkalow R. & Kraft R. W. & Goldstein J. I., Solidification of M2 high speed steel. Metall. Trans. 3 (1972), 919-926 92. Galda E. J. & Kraft R. W., The effect of Mo and W on solidification of high speed steels. Metall. Trans., 5 (1974),1727-1733 93. Gunji K. et aI., Solidification structure of high speed tool steel. Trans. ISIJ, 14 (1974),257266 94. Fredriksson H. & Brising S., The formation of carbides during solidification of high speed steels. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 5 (1976), 268-275 95. Kulmburg A. & Wilmes S. & Korntheuer F., Zeit-Temperatur-Aufschmelzschaubilder einiger gebrauchlicher Schnellarbeitstahle. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes. 47 (1976) 319-324 96. Brandis H. & Wiebking K., Einfluss von Giesstemperatur und Erstarrungsverlauf auf die Gefugeausbildung von Schnellarbeitsstahl. DEW-Techn. Ber., 11 (1971) 158-165 97. Mellberg P. O. & Sandberg H., Solidification studied by ESR remelting of high speed steel. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 2 (1973) 83-86 98. Sandberg H., Influence of titanium on micro segregations in high-speed steel ingots. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 2 (1973), 233-241

154

8. Alloy Index Table 8.1

Index to the steels.

Steel Number

201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309

Page

...........

. . .. .

18

20 22

~

...................

...

26

.

28

..

32 .

. . 34

........

.. .........

36 . 39

...

.. 41 . .... 43

................ ...

.. 45 .......

47 ....

49

52 ............

....

. .. 56

.............

. .....

........

58

60

.......

63 .

...........

.......

.

~ 69 72

75 78

401 . 82 402 85 403 88 404 ... 91 405 94 406 ...................... 98 407 .. ........ . .102 408 . .. . 106 409 ............... .. 110 410 .113 411 ................... 117 412 ..................................................... 120 413 .123 414 ...... ........ .126 415 ..... ......... ...... .130 501 502

..... ..134 .. .. . .. .. .. . .

.. 138

155

Carbon

Table 8.2 a: Steel Number

and Low Alloy Steels, composition

C

Si

Mn

P

0,11 0,12

0,12 0,27

1,25 1,53 1,26 1,42

0,016 0,012

(wt-%).

S

Cr

Ni

0,040

0,018

0,010

0,005

0,06 0,02

0,03 0,03

0,025

0,01

0,02

0,007

0,07

0,13

Mo

Cu

Altot

N

Others

Carbon: 201 202

0,07 ~0,03 0,06 0,02

0,07

0,038

0,05

0,029

0,012 0,011

0,03Ce

0,02

0,004

0,007

0,03Nb

0,08

0,006

0,005

203 204

0,18

0,44

0,19

0,40

205

0,36

0,27

0,58

0,015

0,012

0,08

0,05

0,02

0,12

0,004

0,007

206

0,69

0,23

0,72

0,022

0,024

0,02

0,02

0,01

0,03

0,006

0,002

207

1,01

0,25

0,46

0,012

0,009

0,02

0,03

0,02

0,03

0,002

~0,004

Low Alloy: 208

0,10

0,28

0,57

0,008

0,009

1,14

3,3

0,14

0,11

0,013

0,009

209

0,20

0,25

0,90

0,014

0,039

0,81

1,05

0,06

0,07

0,036

0,009

0,02 V 0,02 V

210

0,27

0,02

0,32

0,006

0,008

1,66

3,5

0,42

0,04

0,044

0,007

0,08 V

211

0,29

0,21

0,62

0,012

0,006

1,11

0,15

0,21

0,04

0,011

0,004

0,04 V

212

0,29

0,22

0,52

0,010

0,25

0,005

0,03 V

0,24

0,67

0,05

0,19

0,05 0,07

0,010

0,35

1,02 0,92

3,2

213

0,009 0,010

~0,004

0,008

0,02 V

214

0,52

0,22

0,85

0,07

0,07

0,27

0,50

3,0

0,31

~0,004 0,011

0,008

0,14 V 0,08 V

0,23

0,33

0,021

0,026

0,99 1,55

0,04 0,06

0,008

0,55 1,01

0,006 0,012

1,07

215

0,010 0,019

0,02

0,01

0,04

0,011

0,003

0,04 V

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

216

Table 8.2 b:

Chromium

Steels, composition

Steel Number

C

Si

0,020

(wt-%).

P

Mn

W

V

Altot

N

301

0,13

0,36

0,37

0,003

0,007

5,0

0,01

0,58

0,02

0,01

0,01

0,009

0,006

302

0,35

1,03

0,46

0,020

0,007

0,23

1,34

0,11

0,09

1,0

0,013

0,026

303 304

0,50

1,00

0,48

0,025

0,010

5,2 5,1

0,18

1,36

0,10

0,02

1,20

0,013

0,036

0,96

0,29

0,67

0,020

0,015

5,2

0,13

1,19

0,09

0,05

0,21

0,014

0,024

305

0,04

0,54

0,61

0,010

0,009

13,4

5,5

0,07

0,07

0,01

0,01

0,019

0,032

306

0,07

0,54

0,48

0,020

0,006

12,9

0,17

0,02

0,10

0,01

~0,01

0,026

0,039

307

0,14

0,19

0,68

0,009

0,014

12,0

1,20

0,01

0,03

0,01

0,02

0,001

0,040

308

0,32

0,15

0,30

0,009

0,008

13,9

0,16

0,01

0,01

0,22

0,03

0,003

0,013

309

0,69

0,43

0,64

0,014

0,005

13,1

0,20

0,07

0,02

0,22

0,03

0,002

0,025

Table

8.2 c:

Steel Number

Stainless

C

and Heat Resistant

Si

Mn

Steels, composition

P

S

(wt-%)

Cr

and Cr-Ni equivalent

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

ratios.'

Altot

N

Others

Creq Nleq

401

0,042

0,86

0,76

0,031

0,010

25,1

4,7

1,22

402

0,012

0,31

1,76

0,008

0,008

19,8

9,9

0,08 0,04

0,02

0,004

403 404

0,019

0,94

0,009

0,010

0,03

0,05

0,002

1,25

0,025

0,010

19,5 18,4

10,2

0,036

0,31 0,44

0,10 0,11

9,1

0,38

0,20

0,25

0,002

0,081

405

0,068

0,59

1,44

0,028

0,001

17,2

10,3

0,47

0,24

0,27

0,048

0,005

0,51Ti 0,54Nb

0,08

~0,002

0,077

4,01

0,031 0,044

1,82 1,74 1,68 1,61

406

0,052

0,44

1,71

0,013

0,007

17,2

12,6

2,80

0,03

0,03

0,004

0,010

407 408

0,023 0,048

0,53 0,63

1,58 1,65

0,020 0,018

0,006 0,007

17,2 17,7

13,5 13,4

2,63

0,19

0,004

2,68

0,15

0,07 0,07

0,004

0,031 0,045

1,43 1,42

1,58

409

0,024

0,58

1,79

0,009

0,011

17,4

12,8

2,77

0,03

0,03

0,002

0,20

1,32

410

0,008

0,24

1,77

0,009

0,008

25,1

22,2

2,3

0,02

0,02

0,002

0,067

0,08Ti

1,21

411

0,055 0,13

1,20

1,75 1,67

0,011

0,008 0,003

24,2

20,4

0,02

0,03 0,04

0,015

0,051

1,15 1,03

412 413

24,3

20,5

0,003

19,2

25,1

4,44

0,03 1,51

0,02

0,023 0,034

0,053

1,74

0,009 0,007

0,09Ti 0,08Ti

0,013

0,52 0,48

0,08 0,11

0,035

O,07Ti 0,07Ce

0,94

414

0,41

1,00

1,34

0,007

0,010

25,2

20,6

0,08

0,02

0,06

0,016

0,022

0,10Ti

0,89

415

0,07

0,62

0,56

0,007

0,003

21,1

30,9

0,06

0,02

0,02

0,39

0,019

0,40Ti

0,71

Altot

N

• Equivalents according to [78, 83J see chapter 6.

Table 8.2 d:

High Speed Steels, composition

Steel Number

C

Si

Mn

P

0,88

0,30

0,32

0,030

501

(wt-%).

S

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cu

Co

W

V

0,017

3,9

0,10 011

0,30

0,022

0,036

0.05

6,1 1,5

1,9

'l

0,36 n 14

4,9

n n~"'7

2,0

0,010

0,036

Q

q?

156

Table 8.3 a: Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, liquidus and solidus temperatures and temperatures of formation of austenite and precipitates. Average Cooling Rate °C/s

Temperatures, Liquidus

2,0 0,5 0,1

1513 1513 1515

1476 1476 1475

1445 1450 1455

0,12% C

2,0 0,5 0,1

1514 1515 1514

1471 1475 1477

1440 1440 1460

203

0,18% C

2,0 0,5 0,1

1507 1506 1507

1467 1470 1473

1415 1430 1460

204

0,2%C

2,0 0,5 0,1

1503 1503 1506

1480 1477 1480

1425 1440 1460

205

0,4% C

2,0 0,5 0,1

/)

1496 1498 1501

1479 1480 1483

1415 1425 1440

2,0 0,5 0,1

y

1471 1466 1474

2,0 0,5 0,1

y

1457 1457 1459

Type Analyses

Carbon: 201

0,1 % C

202

206

207

0,7% C

1,0% C

Low Alloy: 0,1 %C 208

Cr

Primary Phase

of

cC, of

Formation Austenite

Steel Number

Formation of Precipitates

1370-1335 Fe3P-Fe3C1370-1355-austenite 1420-1370 eutectic

Solidus

1335 1355 1370 1310 1320 1340

Ni

2,0 0,5 0,1

1501 1501 1502

1485 1485 1487

1450 1450 1465

0,2%C

Cr Ni

2,0 0,5 0,1

1502 1502 1503

1474 1474 1465

210

0,3%C

Cr

Ni Mo

2,0 0,5 0,1

1487 1493 1492

1471 1490 1490

1395 1430 1445

211

0,3% C

Cr

Mo

2,0 0,5 0,1

1501 1501 1503

1460 1471 1475

1420 1435 1450

1486 1487 1486

1478 1477

1415 1425 1435

1479 1474 1480

1405 1415 1425

212

213

214

215

216

0,3%C

0,35% C

0,5% C

0,55% C

1,0%C

Cr Ni Mo

Cr

Mo

Cr

Cr

Cr

Ni Mo

2,0 0,5 0,1

/)

y /) b

1460-1420 1460-1425 MnS -1445

1420 1425 1445

209

2,0 0,5 0,1

/)

1494 1493 1495

2,0 0,5 0,1

y

1482 1482 1483

2,0 0,5 0,1

y

1471 1471 1472

1365-1335 carbide-1370 -austenite -1375 eutectic

1335 1370 1375

2,0 0,5 0,1

y

1450 1450 1451

1320-1270 Fe3P-carbide1340-1300 -austenite -1300 eutectic

1270 1300 1300

1380 1385 1400

157

Table

8.3 b:

Chromium

Steels, liquidus

Steel Number

Type Analyses

301

0,1 %C

302

303

304

and solidus temperatures Average Cooling Rate °C/s

O,5%C

Mo

Mo

Mo

1,0%C

5% Cr

V

V

5% Cr

5% Cr

306

0,04% C

0,07% C

5% Ni

13% Cr

13% Cr

of austenite and precipitates.

of

Liquidus

1508 1501

1443 1426

1405

0,5 0,1

1506

1444

1440

2,0

1471

1370

1335

0,5 0,1

1464 1470

1387 1412

1360 1380

2,0

1460

1410

1320-1240 MC-

1140

0,5 0,1

1460 1460

1410 1412

1345-1300-austenite

1240

-1320 eutecti c

1260

2,0

1435

1150-1130 M7C3-

1434

y

308

309

Table

Ni

14% Cr

0,3%C

0,7% C

8.3 d:

12% Cr

13% Cr

High Speed Steels, liquidus

1438

Type Analyses

501

0,9%C 6%W

502

4% Cr 2%V

1,0% C 4%Cr 1,5%W

2%V

5%Mo

9%Mo

2,0

1215

1470

1410

1355

0,5

1476

1419

1395

0,1

1476

1425

1420

2,0

1497

1435

0,5

1500

1440

0,1

1500

1455 solid phase 6~y

1325-1270 1330-1290

2,0

1490

1416

1390

0,5

1495

1425

1400

0,1

1494

1401

1400

2,0

1480

1400

1370

0,5

1483

1407

1375

0,1

1482

1401

2,0

1442

1414

1240-1195 M7C3-

1195

0,5 0,1

1448 1444

1422 1415

1250-1240-austenite

1240

1260-1245 eutectic

1245

and temperatures

of formation

1390

of austenite and precipitates.

Temperatures,

Steel Number

1200

2,0

and solidus temperatures

Average Cooling Rate, °C/s

1130

-1200-austenite -1215 eutectic

0,5 0,1 %C

Solidus

1415

2,0

307

QC,of

Formation of Precipitates

Formation Austenite

0,5 0,1 305

of formation

Temperatures, Primary Phase

2,0

5% Cr

0,35% C

and temperatures

Primary Phase

Liquidus

Start of Formation of Austenite

QC,of

Start of Formation of MC-Austenite Eutectic

Formation of Carbide -Austenite Eutectic

1260

1175 1228 1232 M2C + MsC 1185 1255 1220

Solidus

0,5 0,1

1414 1423

1341 1342

1427

1350

2,0

1401

1305

1222

1175

0,5

1400

1315

1226 MC+M2C

1180

0,1

1400

1322

1233

1185

1260 1270

158

Table

8.3 c:

Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, liquidus precipitates.

Steel Number

Type Analyses

401

0,04% C

402

403

404

405

406

25% Cr

0,01 % C 20% Cr

0,02% C

0,04% C

0,07% C

0,05% C

19%Cr

18%Cr

17 % Cr

17% Cr

Average Cooling Rate °C/s

5% Ni

Mo

10% Ni

10%Ni

9% Ni

10% Ni

12% Ni

Ti

2,8% Mo Nb

0,02% C

17% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

0,05% C

18% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

Temperatures, Primary Phase

0,01 % C

25% Cr

22% Ni

1410

1469

1420

2,0

1447

1366

1325

0,5 0,1

1454 1449

1391 1405

1360 1390

2,0

1447

1404

1365

0,5

1455

1415

1390

0,1

1453

1418

1405

2,0

1452

1423

1365

0,5

1451

1409

1385

0,1

1452

1424

1405

2,0

1436

1397

1335

0,5

1440

1406

1370

0,1

1440

1412

1390

1420

1410'

1330-1275 NbC-

1275

o+y

1423 1424

1418' 1417*

1330-1290-austenite 1330-1305 eutectic

1290 1305

1423

1418'

1345

o+y

1427

1421'

1375

1428

1425'

1380

1419

1414'

1330

1423 1421

1422' 1415'

1360 1370

2,0

2,0

2,0

o+y

Y

2,0 0,5

411

0,07% C

24% Cr

20% Ni

24% Cr

O,1%C

0,01 % C

19% Cr

25% Ni

1,5%Cu

4% Mo

0,4% C 25% Cr

20% Ni

31 % Ni

refer to the maximum

1345

1401 1399

1330

1405

1325

1407 1405

1335 1355

1389 1391

1305 1315

1391

1345

2,0 0,5

y

Y

Y

2,0

y

2,0 0,5 0,1

, The temperatures

1335

1402

1355

0,1 0,07% C 21 % Cr

1401

1315

0,5

415

1370

1399

0,1 414

1350

1422

2,0

2,0

20% Ni

1310

1421

1401

0,5 0,1 413

y

1411

0,1 0,5 0,1 412

Solidus

0,1

2,0 0,5

2% Mo

°C, of

Formation of Precipitates

1390

0,1

410

of

and

1465

0,1 0,02% C 17 %Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 0,2% N

Liquidus

Formation Austenite

of austenite

1471

0,5 409

of formation

2,0

0,5 0,1 408

and temperatures

0,5

0,5 0,1 407

and solidus temperatures

rate of formation

Y

of austenite.

1350

1383

1275-1260 M23C6-

1260

1385

1275

1385

1285-1275-austenite 1290-1280 eutectic

1399

1305-1280 formation

1401 1400

1310-1295 of titanium 1350-1330 compounds

1280 1295 1330

1280

159

Table 8.4 a:

Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, secondary

dendrite arm spacings (f.lm). Partly Solidified Average Cooling Rate, QC/s

Steel Number

Completely Solidified Average Cooling Rate, QC/s

Type Analyses

0,5

2,0

0,5

0,1

201

0,1 %C

65

80

130

300

202

0,12% C

70

85

200

390

203 204

0,18% C

65

80

190

250

0,2 %C

85

75

120

230

Carbon:

205

0,4 % C

206

0,7 %C

50 70

85 75

90 130

280 160

207

1,0 %C

50

70

80

210

Low Alloy: 208

0,1 %C

Cr

Ni

70

75

110

250

209

0,2 %C

Cr

Ni

60

85

110

180

210 211

0,3 %C

Cr

Ni

Mo

60

70

90

160

Cr Cr

Mo Ni Mo

60 70

70

212

0,3 %C 0,3 %C

75

90 110

150 180

213

0,35% C

Cr

Mo

65

80

100

190

214

0,5 % C

Cr

55

75

90

140

215

0,55% C 1,0 %C

65

70

90

130

Cr

60

75

90

140

216

Table 8.4 b:

Steel Number

Chromium

Cr

Ni

Mo

Steels, secondary

dendrite

arm spacings (f.lm). Partly Solidified Average Cooling Rate, QC/s

Type Analyses

0,5

301

0,1 %C

5 % Cr

302

0,35% C

V

303 304

0,5 %C 1,0 % C

Mo Mo Mo

5 % Cr

V

5 %Cr 5 % Cr

2,0

0,5

0,1

65

85

160

275

55

70

80

120

55

60

80

110

55

65

80

110 520

305

0,04% C

5% Ni

75

140

240

306 307

0,07% C

13%Cr

90

205

260

0,1 %C 0,3 % C

Ni

14% Cr

75 75

150 75

180 100

470

308 309

0,7 % C

13% Cr

50

65

80

130

Table

8.4 c:

13% Cr

Completely Solidified Average Cooling Rate, QC/s

12 % Cr

Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, secondary

dendrite arm spacings (f.lm). Partly Solidified Average Cooling Rate, QC/s

Steel Number

210

Type Analyses

0,5 Mo

Completely Solidified Average Cooling Rate, QC/s 2,0

0,5

0,1

401

0,04% C

25% Cr

5 %Ni

70

115

280

550

402

0,01 % C

20% Cr

10% Ni

60

150

270

450

403 404

0,02% C

19% Cr

10% Ni

18% Cr

9 %Ni

65 40

130 125

160

0,04% C

190

500 340

405

50

85

110

200

Ti

0,07% C

17% Cr

10% Ni

406

0,05% C

17% Cr

12% Ni

2,8% Mo

407

0,02% C

17%Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

408

0,05% C 0,02% C

18% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

409

17% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

410

0,01 % C

25% Cr

22% Ni

2% Mo

411

0,07% C

24% Cr

20% Ni

412

0,1 %C

24% Cr

20% Ni

413

0,01 % C

19%Cr

25% Ni

414

0,4 %C

25% Cr

20% Ni

4%Mo

Nb

0,2% N

1,5% Cu

45

65

80

135

55

40

90

100 140

50

55

40

45

85 70

60

60

80

160

65

55

85

125

60

65

90

125

70

55

80

120

60

105

50

80

105

<;n

Q<;

14<;

160

Table 8.4 d:

High Speed Steels, secondary dendrite arm spacings (J.'m). Partly Solidified Average Cooling Rate,oC/s

Steel Number

Type Analyses

501

0,9%C

4%Cr

5%Mo

6%W

502

1,0%C

4%Cr

9%Mo

1,5%W

Table 8.5 a: Carbon Steels, microsegregation solidified samples, (average cooling rate 0,5°C/s). Steel Number

Type Analyses

Element

201

0,1%C

Mn

0,12%C

Mn

1,4

203

0,18% C

Mn

1,4

204 205

0,2%C 0,4% C

Mn Mn

1,6

206 207

0,7%C 1,0% C

Mn Mn

2,1

Steel Number

Type Analyses

208

0,1 % C

209 210

211 212

213 214 215

216

0,2%C 0,3%C

0,3%C 0,3%C

0,35% C

Cr Cr

Cr

Ni

Ni

Mo

Mo

Cr

Ni

Cr

Mo

Mo

0,5% C Cr 0,55% C

1,0% C

Cr

Ni

Mo

Cr

Type Analyses

501

0,9%C

502

in completely

4%Cr

solidified

1,0% C 4% Cr

9% Mo

30

40

85

25

35

70

Ni

1,3 1,4

Steels, microsegregation

samples, (average cooling

Steel Number

Type Analyses

301

0,1 % C

in completely

rate 0,5°C/s). Element

Cr

5 % Cr

Mo

1,1 1,4

Mo

2,5

Cr

1,2

Cr

1,5

Ni

1,0

Ni

1,4

Mo

1,5

Cr

1,6

V

1,7

Ni

1,3

Cr

1,3

Mo

2,2

Mo

1,5

V

2,0

V

1,3

Cr

1,6

Mo

302

0,35%C

303

Mo

0,5% C

Mo

V 5%Cr

V 5% Cr

Cr

1,4

2,0

Mo

1,9

Cr

1,7

V

1,7

Ni

1,4 Cr

1,1

Ni

1,2

Cr

1,0

Ni

1,0

Cr

1,1

Ni

1,3

Cr

1,2

Mo

2,2

Cr

1,5

Mo

2,4

304

0,07% C

306

2,1

V

1,9

Cr

2,1

Ni

308

Mo

1,2 2,5

V

2,0

309

Cr

2,6

0,1 % C

307

solidified

6%W

1,5% W

2%V

2% V

Cr

Mo

0,04% C

305

Cr

in completely

1% C

0,3%C 0,7% C

5 % Cr

5% Ni

1,6

Mo

1,2

W V

0,8

Cr

1,8

0,9

Mo

1,1

W

0,6

13% Cr

13% Cr Ni

12% Cr

14% Cr 13% Cr

samples, (average cooling

Element 5%Mo

35 35

Table 8.5 c: Chromium

rate 0,5°C/s).

Table 8.5 e: High Speed Steels, microsegregation Steel Number

0,1

1,7

Cr

Ni

0,5

1,6

Element

Cr

2,0

1,3

Table 8.5 b: Low Alloy Steels, microsegregation samples, (average cooling

2%V

0,5

in completely

202

solidified

2%V

Completely Solidified Average Cooling Rate,oC/s

Ni

1,0

Cr

1,2

Ni

1,0

rate 0,5°C/s).

161

Table 8.5 d:

Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, microsegregation

Type Analyses

401

0,04% C

25% Cr

5% Ni

402

0,01 % C

20% Cr

10% Ni

404

405

406

407

408

0,02%C

0,04% C

O,07%C

0,05%C

O,02%C

0,05% C

19%Cr

18% Cr

17%Cr

17%Cr

17%Cr

18% Cr

Mo

10%Ni

9% Ni

10%Ni

12%Ni

13%Ni

13% Ni

Ti

2,8%Mo

2,5% Mo

O,02%C

17%Cr

13%Ni

2,5%Mo

410

0,01%C

25%Cr

22%Ni

2%Mo

0,07% C 24% Cr

412

0,1 % C

413

0,01 % C

414

0,4% C 25% Cr

415

O,07%C

24% Cr

19% Cr

21%Cr

Nb

2,5%Mo

409

411

solidified

samples, (average cooling

Element

Steel Number

403

in completely

O,2%N

20% Ni

20% Ni

25% Ni

20% Ni

31%Ni

4% Mo

1,5% Cu

Mn Cr Ni Mo Si Mn Cr Ni Si Mn Cr Ni

1,3 1,0 1,2 1,3 1,7 1,4 1,0 1,5

1,2 0,7

1,6 1,5 1,1 1,5

1,2 0,7

Mn Cr Ni

1,2 1,1 1,3

1,2 0,7

Si Mn Cr Ni

1,6 1,6 1,1 1,5

1,2 0,7

Si Mn Cr Ni

1,7 1,5 1,1 1,4

1,3 0,6

Mn Cr Ni Mo Mn Cr Ni Mo

1,5 1,2 1,2 2,2 1,6 1,2 1,2 2,1

Mn Cr Ni Mo

1,6 1,2 1,1 2,1

Mn Cr Ni Mo Si Mn Cr Ni Si Mn Cr Ni

1,6 1,2 1,1 2,3 2,4 1,9 1,2 1,2 2,5 1,9 1,2 1,2

Si Mn Cr Ni Mo

1,8 1,7 1,2 1,1 2,0

Si Mn Cr Ni Si Mn Cr Ni

2,1 1,6 1,2 1,1 2,3 1,7 1,2 1,1

1,1 0,8 1,2 0,8

1,2 0,7

1,2 0,8

rate 0,5°C/s).

162

Table 8.6: Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, formation solidus temperature and at 1200°C.

Steel Number

Type Analyses

401

0,04% C 25% Cr

402

0,01 % C 20% Cr

5%Ni

of primary <'i-ferrite and ferrite content

Mo

10% Ni

in completely

Average Cooling Rate,OC/s

Solidified as Primary <'i,%

solidified

Ferrite in Completely Solidified Sample, %

2,0

100

0,5

100

0,1

100

2,0

92

13

0,5 0,1

91

19

97

20

2,0

91

11

0,5

92

13

0,1

98

0,5 (1200°C) 403

0,02% C

19% Cr

10% Ni

9

9

0,5 (1200°C) 404

0,04% C

18% Cr

9%Ni

5,8

2,0

84

2,3

0,5 0,1

82

4,7 10

86

0,5 (1200°C) 405

0,07% C

17% Cr

10% Ni

Ti

2,0

2,0

82

6

0,5

82

0,1

82

8 4,8

0,5 (1200°C) 406

0,05% C

17% Cr

12% Ni

2,8% Mo

Nb

4,1

< 60 < 45 < 42

2,0 0,5 0,1

4,0 4,0 3,9

0,5 (1200°C) 407

0,02% C

17% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

2,9

< 46 < 50 < 34

2,0 0,5 0,1

5,5 5,6 4,4

0,5 (1200°C) 408

0,05% C

18% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

3,5

< 36 < 35 < 34

2,0 0,5 0,1

4,0 5,0 5,5

0,5 (1200°C) 409

0,02% C

17% Cr

13% Ni

2,5% Mo

0,2% N

0,1

2,0

0

0,8

0,5 0,1

0 0

0,8 0,8

0,5 (1200°C) 410

0,01 % C 25% Cr

22% Ni

2%Mo

0,1

2,0

0

1,0

0,5 0,1

0 0

1,0 1,0

0

0,5

0,5

0

0,5

0,1

0

0,5

0,5 (1200°C) 412

O,1%C

24% Cr

20% Ni

2,0

0,7

0,5 (1200°C)

Table 8.7:

Chromium,

Heat Resistant and High Speed Steels, carbide content

in completely

0,4

solidified

samples (vol-%).

Average Steel Number

Type Analyses

309

O,7%C

414

O,4%C

Chromium

Type of Carbide

samples at the

Cooling

Rate, °C/s

2,0

0,5

0,1

4,5

3,5

2,4

8,0 (1230°C)

7,2

Steel 13%Cr

Heat Resistant Steel 25%C

11,4

20%Ni

10,7 (1100°C) High Speed Steels 501

O,9%C

4%Cr

5%Mo

6%W

502

1,0% C

4% Cr

9% Mo

1,5% W

2%V 2% V

MC+M2C+MsC

9

12

MC + M2C

9

10

A Guide to the Solidification of Steels

Read more

The Alloy Tree: A Guide to Low-alloy Steels, Stainless Steels and Nickel-base Alloys

Read more

The Alloy Tree: A Guide to Low-alloy Steels, Stainless Steels and Nickel-base Alloys

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Theory of solidification

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Theory of Solidification

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Weldability of Ferritic Steels

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Solidification and casting

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Solidification and Crystallization

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Tool Steels

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Surface Hardening of Steels: Understanding the Basics

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Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels

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Machinability of Powder Metallurgy Steels

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A Guide to the Beetles of Australia

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A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe

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Adams, Douglas A Guide To The Guide

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Creep Resistant Steels

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Creep Resistant Steels

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