A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha'i Faith (Concise Encyclopedia of World Faiths)

BAHA'~FAITH

Wrltten by a well-known author &I the 5eld of BaWi studies, this ia a comprehennive and aocessible e n q d c + i a to the yMmgest of the

1 world diglom. Regarded aa the mend most widespread faith after ChWatdtp, with adherents in almost every m t qaround the globe, the BaM'i , F&th is d 8 8 8 udamllk to many. Here Dr Bmith traces the origias and development of the mugion from nfn-th-centutp Iran \ to the modem day, introdwlng its central @area and mejor Wried . ev~dts.ComblnIng breadth with a readable yet c o n o h style, he I provide8 a balanced overview of BaM'l scriptures, dootrines and pracwes, sootrl tmehga and organbation. Prea dear and knowledgeabie view .of a f%a&WW new digbn, M a is II unique and invaluablereferenae work.

PETER SMITH is the B o d Bcienoea Co-ordinatol at bdahidd UnivW~ Ptexnatiod Cone@ in Thadand whem he teaches w& history, 80cfolo#, and anlhropoiagy.He is the author of several books in the fieM of BaM'i Studies, including TheJ36bt and W 1 6 4RefWms (Cambrid&e Univer~ityReas) and The M Y FafL. A Short I I h f o ~ (-om.

'

[BACK COVER]

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA

of the

A Concise Encyclopedia of Christianity, Geoffrey Parrindcq ISBN 1-85166174-4 A Concise Encyclopedia ofjudaimt, Dan Cohn-Sherbk, ISBN 1-85168-176-0 A Concise Encyclopedirr of Hinduism, Klaur K. Klostermaier, ISBN 1-85168-175-2 A Concise Encyclopedia of Islom, Cordon D. Newby, ISBN 1-85168-295-3 A Concise Enryclopedia of Buddhism, John Powers. ISRN 1-85168-233-3

The Gardeners of Cod: An Encounter ruith Five Million Bohd'ir, Colene Gauvion and Philippe Jouvion, ISBN 1-85168-052-7 The Hiddm \Vords of Bahd'u'lloh, ISRN 1-8Sl6R-007-1 Olyab Stny: A Survivor> Drumalic Account of the Pnremtion of Bohd'is in Revobrtionory Iran, Olya Rrmhiradegan, ISBN l-85168473-X 77lc Seven Vallqs of Bahd'u'lloh, ISBN I-85168-031-4 The Bohd'iFaith: A Short Hbtoy, Peter Smith, ISBN 1-85168-20X-2 The Rahh'i Faith: A Short Innuductior,. Moojan Momen, ISBN 1-8.7168-209-0 William Henry Rundall: Disciple of 'Ahdu'l Bahd, Rahiyyih Randall-Wincklcrwith Mnbrl

Gnrir, ISBN I-XS16R124-8

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA of the

B A E ~ FAITH ' ~

PETER SMITH

O N E W O R L D O X F O R D

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE B A H FAITH ~ ~ Oneworld Publications (Sales and Editorial) 185 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7AR England www.onewarld-publicatio~~com

6 Peter Smith 2000 Reprinred 2002

All rights reserved. Copyright under Bcrne Convention A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-85168-184-1 Cover design by Design Deluxc Typeset by LaserScript Ltd, Mitcham, Surrey Prinred in England by Clays Ltd, St Ivcs plc

To Philip and Parry Harvey and Betty Reed, and to the memory of Chattida Suwansathien ('Maw') (2509-2537 Buddhist Era1196694 CE).

'All that the sages and mystics have said or written have never exceeded, nor can they ever hope to exceed, the limitations to which man's finite mind hath been strictly subjected'. Bahi'u'llih (Gleanings, p. 316 no. 148). 'All human attainment moveth upon a lame ass, whilst Truth, riding upon the wind, darteth across space'. Islamic tradition, cited by Bahl'u'llih (~itib-i-fqrin,p. 120).

Contents

List of maps Preface

ix

Introduction

xiii

Chronology

1

List of abbreviations

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha'i Faith Further Reading Bibliography Thematic Index

11

Preface

Maps

Important Bahi'i sites in and around Akka

34

The Journeys of Bahb'u'llih from Baghdad to Akka

75

Iran, Iraq and the Levant in the 19th Century

205

T

his book differs from its companion volumes in that the BahB'i Faith is comparatively recent in its origins and, despite a growing body of academic studies, is not yet studied in the same detail and comprehensiveness as the other religions covered in the series. There are several earlier reference works - the most important in English being Wendi Momen's A Basic Bahd'iDictionary (1989) (261 pp.) but there is an obvious need for a more encyclopedic study. A large-scale 'Bahi'i Encyclopedia' project is at present under way in the United States, but its completion date is uncertain. In the interim, it is hoped that the present work will be of value to those who are seeking basic information about the BahB'i Faith and the Bibi movement from which it emerged. I am couscious of the limitations of this work. It is something of a pioneer effort, and no single writer can hope to have a comprehensive knowledge of all aspects of a religion -its history, doctrines, practices, and social embodiment in diverse cultures. Again, in some areas, there is as yet little primary research, so that my own remarks are necessarily highly provisional. I can aim only to provide a basic summary of our present knowledge, and to point readers in the direction of other works they might consult on particular topics. I am solely responsible for such mistakes as the reader may discover. Writing an encyclopedia is a good way for any author to lcarn more about their area of research - and also to become more conscious of their own ignorance. In preparing this work, I have accumulated the following debts of gratitude: most particularly to Moojan Momen and Susan Maneck for having read through the entire manuscript and commenting on it; to Juan Cole, Graham Hassall, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Chile, Charles Nolley, Vaughan Smith, Robert Stauffer and Will van den Hoonaard for their responses to specific queries; to Jackson Armstrong-Ingram, Richard Hollinger, and

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A Concire Encvrlo~ediao f the B a h n Faith

x

Moojan Momen for the provision of unpublished work; to Firouz Anaraki, Mozhdeh and Check Woo Foo, Victor Greenspoon, Virginia Harden, Sammi Smith and Dale Walton for their encouragement and assistance; and to those family members and friends who endured the considerable disruptions to everyday life caused by the writing of the book.

On language and names The English language is implicitly 'sexist' (referring in the abstract to the third person singular, an author is forced to use 'he' or 'she'; many terms, such as 'mankind', contain gender references). Growing awareness of this reality has led many writers to question the use of what were formerly common turns of phrase. A 'non-sexist' English usage generally acceptable to most readers has yet to emerge, however. It is easy enough to substitute terms such as 'humanity' for 'mankind' (the latter is common in older Bahl'i texts), but other issues are more difficult to resolve, notably the third person singular, both regarding people and God. For the latter, I bave followed contemporary Bahd'i usage - itself reflecting traditional biblical English - by referring to God as 'he', this despite the Bahb'i view that God is beyond gender, and is neither 'he' nor 'she'. Traditional Persian, Arabic and Turkish names can be quite confusing for those who are not Middle Easterners. Prior to the twentieth century, there were no surnames, and individuals might be known by a variety of names and titles. A personal name might be bracketed by various titles (Mirzi Taqi Khln), or prefixed by a string of titles (Hlji MirzB Sayyid 'Ali), or an individual might become known by a religious or state title, or by a succession of such titles (MirzB Taqi Khln is most commonly known as AMIR KABIR).Prefixes included Arabic religious titles, such as 'HBji' (a man who has made the pilgrimage (hdj) to Mecca), 'Mulll' (an Islamic cleric), 'Sayyid' (a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad), and 'Shaykh' (commonly a religious leader or teacher), as well as the secular 'Mirza', which in 19thcentury Iran had come to be used to indicate a respectable educated man. Suffixes included titles of social rank such as the Persian 'Khan' (originally a ruler or military chieftain, but by the early 20th century, s u ) and 'Khinum' ('lady'), and their Turkish equivalents: 'Effendi' and 'Bagum'. The titles of social rank have also been subject to change over time. Other suffixes indicated place of origin ('Tihrlni', one from Tehran), or, less commonly, occupation, and bave often been the basis for the surnames adopted during the 20th century. z . 3

1

U

Preface

The format adopted here is t o generally refer to individuals by and whatever name or title they are most well known. Thus 'QIJDD~IS', not '(Mulll) Muhammad-'Ali' or 'Blrfu~sbi', and to provide crossreferences where this seems helpful. As the Bahb'i Faith developed in a 19thsentury Context in which all the major Middle Eastern languages were used, Bahl'i literature often melds Persian and Arabic (Bahl'i writings in Persian commonly include much Arabic vocabulary; Arabic writings may include Persian constructions). In the matter of names, however, I have generally sought to use personal names and technical terms in their original language.

References, lronsliteration and abbreviations References to articles in the Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahd'i Faith are indicated by text in small capitals, e.g. PRAYER. The transliteration of Arabic and Persian follows an adapted version of that used by Bahb'is, itself based on that of the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists (1894). Ottoman Turkish names are given in their modern Turkish form. Oriental names in common use are given without transliteration ('Tehran' not 'Tihrin'). Dates are given according to the Gregorian ('Common Era') calendar, but in some cases are preceded by the Muslim lunar date (e.g. AH 126011844). A list of abbreviations used in bibliographic references is given on pp. 11-12. Recommended reading on specific areas appears in a special font within or at the end of entries, e.g. BKGII-12.AS the book is intended for an English-language readership, few references are given to works in other languages. A number of works of evident value arrived on my desk as I was finishing off the present manuscript (by Juan Cole (on BAH~U.LLAH); Charles Lerche (Towards the Most Great justice); Diana Malouf (on the and Moojan HIDDENWORDS);Velda Metelmann (on Lua GETSINGER); Momen (Scripture and Revelation)). I have included these in the bibliography, but was not able to use them in the preparation of this book. Peter Smith, Bangkok

1

Introduction

T

he Bahi'i Faith centres on the person and teachings of Bahb'u'llih (1817-92),the religion's prophet-founder. For Bahi'is, Bahi'u'llih is the latest in a succession of Manifestations of God, divine teachers who have revealed God's will to humankind over the millennia and have founded the world's great religions. From this perspective, all of these revelatory teachers - including Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, the Buddha, Jesus and Muhammad - have contributed to a single process of progressive revelation, designed to lead humanity ever forward towards a future kingdom of God on Earth, which Bahb'u'llih termed the 'Most Great Peace'. The Bahi'i teachings are regarded as the blueprint for that future global society and the BahH'i community as a leaven for its accomplishment. Bahi'u'llih's religion of birth was the Shi'i form of Islam, hut while still a young man he announced his adherence to the religion of the Bib (1819-1850),a youthful merchant who was eventually to lay public claim to being the promised Mahdi. Those who followed the Bib -the Bibis - quickly became a significant element in Iranian religious life, and the new movement was violently persecuted, in large part at the instigation of the religious establishment, provoking what were regarded by their opponents as Bibi rebellions in various parts of Iran. The Bib himself was eventually executed (1850),and most of the BiM leadership killed. For his part, Bahb'u'llbh was exiled to the Ottoman Empire, initially as a free man in Baghdad, but later as a prisoner, and finally consigned to Akka in Ottoman Syria. From exile, he was able to contact the Bibi remnant in Iran, reinvigorating the Bibis as a community through his writings, and subsequently gaining their allegiance for his claims to be the promised one foretold by the Bib (and indeed by the founders of all the religions). A vigorous campaign of BahH'i missionary expansion followed, which under the guidance of BahP'u'llih's

I

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bah6'i Faith

xiv

successors - his son, 'Abdu'l-BahP (1844-1921), and great-grandson, Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957) -took on an increasingly global dimension. Thus, what had originally been seen as a religious movement amongst mostly Iranian Shi'i Muslims emerged as a world religion, with several million followers widely spread across the entire world, and comprising individuals from perhaps every religious background. A short summary of these historical developments is provided in the Chronology following this Introduction (pp. 1-10). The Bahl'i teachings are derived from a corpus of canonical texts, mostly by BahP'u'llPh, 'Abdu'l-BahP and Shoghi Effendi, and to a I extent the Bib and the Universal House of Justice, an elected which has led the Bahl'i world since 1963. Central beliefs includs idea of successive divine revelations (see above) and of a successio.. vl authoritative and divinely sanctioned leaders of the Bahl'i Faith itself (the Covenant doctrine); the conviction that the purpose of human life is to know God, follow his teachings as given by his prophets, and to develop spiritual qualities; the belief that society as well as the individual can be reshaped according to the prescriptions of sacred law and the promulgation of a range of Bahl'i principles; the expectation that this reshaping of society will eventually lead to the development of a spiritualized and unified human race in a new World Order (the Biblical 'Kingdom of God on Earth'); and faith that the system of Bahb'i administration provides a divinely-sanctioned means for the expansion of the Bahl'i religion as well as a model for the organization of human society. Specific teachings include the beliefs that:

( I ) God in essence is unknowable, and that he can instead be best known through the Manifestations of God (2) true religion is essential to human progress (3) the major religions of the world share a common divine origin and 'fundamental unity' (religious diversity) (4) reason and science are important sources of knowledge, and there is an essential harmony between true religion and science (5) the progress of the individual soul involves the pursuit of the spiritual path (6) the hwnan race is one, God making no distinction between people on the basis of race (7) human civilization depends on spiritual as well as material progress (8) divine love is a powerful force

Important aspects of Bahi'i practice include the cultivation of prayer and meditation, fasting, the development of Bahl'i community and family life, consultation as a means of problem solving, the exercise of rolerance, freedom from prejudice, the non-use of alcohol and drugs, the value of work, particularly when performed in the spirit of service to others, the promotion of socio-economic development, and the endeavour of teaching the BahP'i Faith and principles to others. Moral development is understood mostly in terms of the acquisition of spiritual qualities (including charity, chastity, detachment, the fear of God, trustworthiness, truthfulness, and wisdom). Important Bahl'i social teachings deal with the topics of agriculture, economics, education, the environment, government, human rights, indigenous peoples, justice, the need for a universal language, social order, war and the advancement of women. The Thematic Index at the end of the hook (pp. 388-96) provides listings of entries on (1) 'The principle figures and periods of BBhiBahB'i history' -including listings of the major Bahb'i texts referred to; (2) 'Aspects of Baha'i belief and practice' and (3) 'People and places' of significance.

I

iI I

Chronology

R

esearch is gradually establishing a fairly reliable chronology for the Bihi and early Bah6'i period, but many obscurities still remain, and conflicting dates are given for a number of events. Cameron's Bahd'i Chronology makes a commendable attempt to bring together available dates. His neglect of the works by Amanat (ARR) and MacEoin represents a serious shortcoming for the early Bibi period, but his dating of Bahi'i developments is invaluable.

The early Babi period, 1844-53 The emergence of the Bibi movement, centring on the BAB. The movement spreads to Iraq and much of IRAN,generating increasing opposition and persecution. The BBb's claim to he the MAHD~/QA.IM (1848) and a growing radicalism on the part of many of his followers (BABI RADICALISM) leads to a more confrontational relationship with the authorities: armed conflicts break out (1848-53), and the movement is suppressed. 1843/4

Death of Sayyid KAZIMRashti (31 Decemherll/2 January). The search for a successor.

1844

The Bib's revelatory dream. His declaration of mission to Mulli HUSAYN Buswnir.i (22-23 May), and composition of the Q A Y Y U M U . L - AThe S M ~conversion . of the LETTERS01: THE LIVING. The Rib's pilgrimage to Mecca (beginning September) and declaration of mission there (December).

1845

Trial of Mulli ' A L ~BAST AM^, the Bib's emissary in Iraq (13 January). The Bib cancels his plans to meet his followers in KARRAI.A, and after two months in Muscat (March-April)

I

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A Concise Encyclopedia of the Boh8i Faith

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returns to Iran (15 May). In Shiriz, a group of Bibis is severely punished for adding the Bib's name t o the Muslim call to prayer, and following his return to the city (early July) the Bib himself is arrested, interrogated and forced to make a M composes the first public recantation. In Kirmin K A R ~KHAN Bihis (July). Secret propaganda of his attacks on the and HUJJAT.TAHIRIH continues, with the conversion of VAH~D establishes Karbali as an important Bdbi centre. 1846

The Bib escapes from Shiriz (23 September) and proceeds to Isfihin, where he is favourably received by the governor, MANUCHIHR KHAN.

1847

Following the death of Manhchihr Khin (21 February) the Bib is taken to Kulayn (March-April) and then to the fortress-prison of MAKU(July). Tihirih is expelled from Iraq (March), and eventually returns to Qazvin (July). The murder BARAGHAN~ (August-September?) of Mulli MUHAMMAD-TAQ~ leads to Tihirih's confinement, and persecution of the Qazvin Bibis. The first killings of Bibis occur. The Bib begins his composition of the BAYAN.

1848

1849 1850

Mulli Husayn journeys t o see the Bib in Mikh, reaching there in March. He then visits Qunous in Birfurhsh, before returning to Mashhad. The Bib is transferred to the fortress Q He is brought for trial in Tabriz, of C H I H R ~(April-May). and makes public claim to be the Qa'im (JulyIAugust), and later denounces Hiji Mirzd AQAS~.A group of Bibis gathers in BADASHT (June), Quddhs is later arrested. Mull& Husayn (July), and leads a growing band raises the BLACK STANDARD of followers from Khhrasin to MBzandarin. Following the SHAH(4 September) the conflict of death of MUHAMMAD Shaykh TABARS~ begins (10 Octoher-10 May 1849).

c. 2 January 1851). The Bib is executed at the instructions of A M ~ R (819 July). 1851

The Zanjin conflict ends (January). Bahi'u'llih leaves Iran for Karbali at the urging of Amir Kabir (June(?)-April/ May(?) 1852). Several Bihis are killed in Yazd and elsewhere.

1852

Amir Kabir is killed at the order of the king (January). One Bihi faction (headed by A z i ~makes ) an attempt on the life of NA$IRU.D-DIN SHAH(15 August). Many Bibis are killed, including Tihirih. Bahi'u'llih is arrested (16 August) and (August-December). where he imprisoned in the S~YAH-CHAL experiences his initiatory vision.

1853

~ e n e w e dconflict in Nayriz (March-October).

The development of Babism, 1853-66 The Bihi remnant in Iran maintains a more or less underground existence, and is divided into factions following different claimants to Suhh-i-AZAL in BAGHDAD may have leadership, including DAYYAN. exercised an ineffective overall headship, but from 1856 onwards he is increasingly eclipsed by B A H ~ U ' L L A who H , both revives and remodels Bihism. 1853

Bahi'u'llih is exiled from Iran. He and his family journey from Tehran to Baghdad (12 January-8 April).

1854-6

Bahi'u'llih leaves Baghdad for Kurdistan (10 April 1854-19 March 1856).

1856-63 Bahi'u'llih gradually revivifies the Bihi community, and his writings, such as the H ~ D D EWORDS N (c. 1858) and Kitlib-i~QAN (18621, are widely

circulated. He becomes the dominant Bihi leader. Suhh-i-Azal remains in hiding.

The Taharsi conflict ends (10 May). Quddhs is taken to Birfurhsh and killed (16 May).

1863

The SEVENMARTYRS O F TEHRAN are executed (19120 February). Vahid's preaching in Yazd leads to disturbances (January-February). He goes to N ~ y n i z :an armed struggle between the Bibis and their opponents follows (27 May-21 (c. 13 MayJune). An armed struggle also occurs in ZANJAN

Bahi'u'llih stays in the garden of RIDVAN(22 April-3 May) prior t o his journey to Istanbul (3 May-16 August). He remains in Istanbul until his journey to Edirne (1-12 December). Claims to divinely-bestowed authority become prominent in his writings.

1864

Major persecution of Bibis in Najafibid by Shaykh Muhammad-Biqir (the 'WOLF').

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c. 1865

i

The emergence of the Baha'i Faith, 1866-92

4

Bahb'u'llih is poisoned (by Azal), but survives. Western scholarly interest in Bibism begins with the publication of and Mirza Kazem-Beg. works by GOBINEAU

The development of the Bahl'i Faith as a new religion centring on Bahl'u'llih.

I

1866

Bahi'u'llih makes formal announcement to Azal to be HE Goo SHALL M A K E MANIFEST in the Sdri-yi-Amr ('Chapter of Command'), and refers for the first time to his followers as 'the people of Bahd'. He withdraws to the house of Ridi Big (10 March). The 'Most Great Separation' continues for two months, during which the Edirne Bibis are asked to choose between Bahi and Azal. Most follow Bahi'u'llih. Bahb'i missionaries begin to convert the Bibi remnant in Iran, leading in some instances to confrontations between the Bahi'is and the now-emergent Azali Bbbis.

WHOM

1867

1868

Azal challenges Bahl'u'llbh to let God judge between them ( M U ~ A H A I . ~ ) ,but does not attend the proiected meeting. Bahi'u'llih begins his proclamation to the RULERS. Execution of three Bahi'is in Tabriz. Persecutions in various parts of Iran. Arrest of Bahi'is in Egypt and Baghdad. Conversion of first Bahi'i of Christian background. Bahb'u'llih is banished to AKKAunder an order of life imprisonment (he and his companions leave Edirne on 12 August and reach Akka on 31 August). Azal and some others are sent to Famagusta (arr. 5 September).

5

Chronology

1873

The new governor of Akka becomes sympathetic to the Bahi'is. Bahb'u'lllh completes the Kitib-i-AQDAS.'Abdu'lBahi marries (8 March).

1875

'Abdu'l-Bahi writes the SECRETO F D I V ~ NCIV~LIZATION E (lithographed, 1882). Bahb'u'llih sends JAMALEFFENDIto India as a missionary.

1876

Deposition of Sultan ABDULAZIZ (30 May).

1877

Bahi'u'llih leaves Akka, and moves to Mazra'ih (June).

1879

Execution of the KINGAND BELOVED OF MARTYRS in Isfihin (17 March). Bahi'u'lMh moves to BAHJ~ (September).

1889

1892

murder of a Bahi'i in ASHKHABAD by Shi'is (8 September) prompts Russian intervention. The Bahl'is in Turkistan henceforth emerge as a separate religious community free of persecution.

I

I !

I I

Death of Bahi'u'llih (29 May). He designates 'Abdu'l-Bahb as head of the Faith.

The period of 'Abdu'l-BahC's leadership (1892-1921) 'ABDU.L.BAHA becomes the leader of the Bahi'i movement; oversees its expansion to the West; and initiates administrative and other develop ments. He faces the persistent opposition of his half-brother MUHAM. MA~-'ALI and other family members, which causes him to stress the doctrine of the COVENANT, and to denounce his opponents as COVI.:NANTBREAKERS.

1894

Ibrahim KHEIRALLA begins Bahi'i teaching activity in Chicago. Conversion of the first American Bahi'is.

1896

Assassination of Nisiru'd-din S h i h by a follower of JAMALU'D-DIN 'al-Afghini' (1 May). 'Abdu'l-Bahb moves to the House of 'Abdu'llih Pishi.

1869

BAD^‘ delivers Bahi'u'llih's letter to Nisim'd-din Shih, and is tortured and killed.

1870

Death of Mirzi MTHDI(23 June). Bahl'u'llbh leaves the Akka barracks, and lives under house arrest in the city (from October).

1897

Birth of Shoghi Effendi (1 March). Consultative council of HANOS OFT HE CAUSE^^ Tehran prepares for the formation of a Bahi'i ASSEMBLY (1899).

1872

Three Azalis are murdered by Bahl'i hotheads in Akka (22 January).

1898

Tarbiyat Bahi'i school for boys established in Tehran. The first Western pilgrims arrive in Akka (December).

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6

7

Bahl'is lose possession (1922). Leonora ARMSTRONG arrives in Brazil. The first Race Amity Conference is held in the USA. 'Abdu'l- Bahi dies (28 November).

Bahd'i activities begin in Paris and London. Kheiralla returns to America. A leadership crisis develops, finally marked by Kheiralla renouncing 'Abdu'l-Bahi (1900). Construction of the Bahl'i temple in Ashkhabad begins. Bahb'i activities begin in Germany. The Constitutional Revolution in Iran. The Young Turk Revolution transforms Ottoman government and releases political and religious prisoners. 'Abdu'l-Bahb is released from Ottoman confinement, and subsequently moves his family to Haifa (1909). The remains of the Bib are interred in a shrine on Mount Carmel (21 March). The BAHAITEMPLEUNITY is established in Chicago. 'Ahdu'l-Bahh travels to Egypt (10 August). Establishment of a BahB'i girls' school in Tehran. 'Abdu'l-Bahi completes his first tour of Europe (AugustDecember). A systematic teaching campaign is launched in India.

The guardianship of Shoghi Effendi, 1922-57 SHOCHIEFFENDI is head of the Faith. Process of administrative consolidation (see ADMINISTRATION) begins (1922). Systematic planning becomes part of regular Bahi'i activity (from 1937) (see PLANS). Largescale conversions of Bahi'is in various parts of the 'Third World' begin in the 1950s (see EXPANSION). 1922

Shoghi Effendi is publicly named as Guardian (January). He calls a conference of leading Bahi'is to discuss the future of the Faith. His first general letter on Bahb'i administration is sent t o the West ( 5 March).

1923

Shoghi Effendi's second general letter on administration (12 March). National assemblies are elected in Britain, Germany and India.

1925

The INTERNATIONALBAHM BUREAU is established in Geneva. A Bahi'i ESPERANTO magazine begins publication in Germany. An Egyptian court declares the Bahi'i Faith to be separate from Islam. Shoghi Effendi establishes definite qualifications for Bahi'i membership. QAJARrule in Iran formally comes to an end, and Reza Khan becomes Shah.

1926

Queen MARIEof Romania meets Martha ROOTand pays public tribute to the Faith. Ruth WHITEbegins her campaign of opposition to the Baha'i administration.

1927

The American national assembly adopts a Declaration of Trust preparatory to legal incorporation (May 1929).

1928

Persecution of the Bahi'is in Soviet Asia. The case of Bahi'u'llbh's House in Baghdad is brought before the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations, which finds in favour of the Bahi'is.

1929

New History Society founded by Ahmad SOHRAB in New York. His de facto excommunication ensues. Shoghi Effendi obtains possession of the mansion at Bahji, and begins work

'Abdu'l-Bahi begins his second Western tour (North America, 11 April-S December; Europe, 13 December-13 June 1913). He returns to Haifa on 5 December. World War I begins. Bahi'i activity started in Japan. British take Palestine from the Turks, ensuring 'Abdu'l-Bahb's safety. World War I ends. The Tablets of the Divine Plan are ceremonially 'unveiled' in New York. Martha ROOTtravels to Latin America to teach the Bahb'i Faith. 'Abdu'l-Bahb composes his Tablet to The HAGIIE. Hyde and Clara DUNNarrive in Australia. Famy KNOBLOCH arrives in South Africa. Work begins at the site of the proposed Bahs'i House of Worship at Wilmette, Illinois. The first All-India Bahi'i Convention is held. 'Abdu'l-Bahi is knighted by the British. Shi'is seek to gain possession of the House of Bahi'u'llih in BAGHDAD (January; long-running legal dispute ensues, but

Chronology

i on the expansion of the SHRINEOF THE BAB. He begins his 'WORLDORDER'letters (until 1936). 1932

BAHIYYIH KHANUMdies (15 July). Shoghi Effendi publishes DAWN-BREAKERS.

1934

Bahi'i schools in Iran closed. Purge of Bahi'is in government employment. Mounting campaign of official persecution (to 1941). National assembly established for Australia and New Zealand. The Egyptian assembly secures legal incorporation. OF BAHA.U.LLAH (8 Shoghi Effendi issues The DISPENSATION February).

1937

1938

II.

Shoghi Effendi publishes G o o PASSES BY.

1

Systematic campaign begins to establish the Bahl'i Faith throughout Western Europe.

1948

Establishment of the B A H ~ ~ ~ N T E R N ACOMMUNITY T I O N A L (BIC) affiliated with the United Nations. The state of Israel comes into being. Construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Bib begins (to 1953).

1951

INTERNATIONAL B A H COUNCIL ~ ~ inaugurated. A systematic campaign to establish the Faith in Africa begins. Shoghi Effendi's first appointment of Hands of the Cause.

1953

TENYEARCRUSADE begins (to 1963). A series of intercontinental teaching CONFERENCES is held. The Bahi'i temple in Wilmette is dedicated for worship.

1954

Women become eligible to serve on Bahi'i ASSEMBLIES in Iran. BOARDS. Shoghi Effendi establishes the A~XTLIARY Construction of the INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES building begins

Chronology

I

(to 1957). National campaign of persecution against the Bahl'is in Iran. 1957

I

II

I 1

1 I

Death of Shoghi Effendi in London (4 November). The Hands assume leadership of the Bahl'i world.

The custodianship of the Hands, 1957-63 An 'interregnum' between the death of Shoghi Effendi and the election of the Universal House of Justice during which the Hands seek t o complete the Ten Year Crusade, and prepare for the election of the House. 1960

Mason REMEYmakes claim to be the second Guardian, and is declared a Covenant-breaker. All Bahi'i activities in Egypt are banned by presidential decree (August).

1961

The Bahi'i temples in Kampala and Sydney are dedicated for worship. 'Mass teaching' begins in India. The International Bahb'i Council changes from an appointed to an elected body.

1962

Persecution of Bahl'is in Morocco (to 1963). Bahi'i institutions are banned in Indonesia.

Mass arrests and exile of Bahi'is in Soviet Asia. The Ashkhabad temple is turned into an art gallery.

1944

1955

I

Shoghi Effendi marries RB~lyyrHKHANUM (25 March). First American Seven Year Plan (to 1944) marks beginning of a systematic campaign to establish the Faith in Latin America. Other national PLANS follow (1938-53). The Bahl'i Faith is banned in Nazi Germany.

1939-45 World War

9

9

I

The Universal House of Justice, from 1963 The UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICEbecomes head of the Faith, and oversees its continued expansion and administrative development, as I CENTRE. Political well as substantial developments at the B A H ~WORLD revolution in IRANprofoundly affects the Bahi'is world-wide. 1963

Establishment of the Universal House of Justice (21-22 April). It announces that it knows of no way in which further Guardians can be appointed (6 October). Fist Bahl'i world congress held in London (28 April-2 May).

1964

The Bahi'i temple in Frankfurt is dedicated for worship. The Universal House of Justice declares that there is no way to appoint further Hands of the Cause. The Nine Year Plan begins (to 1973). Other international plans follow.

1967

Permanent BIC office established in New York. The Universal House of Justice issues The Proclamation of Bahd'u'liih and

A Concire Encyclopedia of the BolG'i Faith

10

presents copies t o many world leaders. Global PROCI.AMATION campaign begins. Establishment of the CONTINENTAL BOARDS OF COUNSELLORS.

Abbreviations

AIl Bahl'i institutions and activities are banned in Iraq. The BIC gains consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Panama temple is dedicated for worship. The Universal House of Justice adopts its constitution. CENTRE. Establishment of the INTERNATIONALTEACHING The Bahi'i Faith is bamed in Ketnam. BIC is granted consultative status with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). First Bahi'i radio station established in Latin America (Ecuador). The first of a series of international Bahb'i women's conferences is held. Islamic revolution in Iran. Major persecution of Bahh'is begins. The House of the Bbb is destroyed. Seat of the Universal House of Justice comes into use. Office of Social and Economic Development established. The Bahb'i Faith is officially banned in Iran. Bahb'i temple in Apia dedicated for worship. International Bahb'i Refugee Office established. The Universal House of Justice issues its statement The PROMISE OF WORLD PEACE. The Bahb'i temple in New Delhi is dedicated for worship. The Bahi'i Office of the Environment is established as part of BIC. European Bahi'i Youth Council established. Collapse of communist rule in Eastern Europe.

A special teaching plan for former Fastem Bloc countries is launched (to 1992). Second BaM'i world congress in New York. Publication of the Kitdb-i-AQDAS. HUQUQU.LLAH becomes universally applicable. BIC Office for the Advancement of Women is established.

AB AD1 ARR BA BFA BFSH BKG BW BWNS CC

H.M. Balyuzi, 'Abdu'l-Bahd Shoghi Effendi, The Advent of Diuine Justice A. Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal Shoghi Effendi, Bahd'i Administration R.H. Stockman, The Bahd'i Faith in America (2 vols) Smith, The Bahd'i Faith: A Short History H.M. Balyuzi, BahZu'lldh: The King of Glory BaU'i World (19 vols to date) Bahd'i World, New Series (5 vols to date) Universal House of Justice, Compilation of Compilations (2 vols) CF Shoghi Effendi, Citadel of Faith: Messages to America EB H.M. Balyuzi, Eminent Bahd'is in the Time of BaM'u'Ndh EGBBF H.M. Balyozi, Edward Granville Browne and the Bahd'i Faith El2 The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn. ESW Bahb'u'llbh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf Faith Shoghi Effendi, The Faith of Bahd'u'lldh, A World Religion Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By GPB GWB Bahl'u'lllh, Gleanings from the Writings of BaM'u'lldh Bahi'u'llbh, The Hidden Words (a=Arabic; p=Persian) HW Bahi'u'llih, The Kitdb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book KA Kl Bahi'u'llih, The ~itab-i-fqdn:The Book of Certitude LG H. Hornby, Lights of Guidance MBBR M. Momen (ed.), The Bdbiand Baha"i Religions, 1844-1 944 MBW Shoghi Effendi, Messaxes to the Bahd'i World, 1950-1957 McR D. MacEoin, Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism McS D. MacEoin, The Sources for Early Babi Doctrine and History MF 'Abdu'l-Bahl, Memorials of the Faithful

1

12

A Concise Encyclopedia of the BnhliT Faith

MMS M. Momen, unpublished manuscripts MUHJ Universal House o f Justice, Messages . . . 1963-1986 Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is Come PDC PM Bahl'u'llbh, Prayers and Meditations Proclamation Bahl'u'llbh, The Proclamation o f Bahri'u'lldh PT 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Paris Talks PUP 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Promulgation o f Universal Peace RB A. Taherzadeh, The Revelation o f Bahri'u'lldh ( 4 vols) SAQ 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Some Answered Questions SBBR P. Smith, The Babi and Baha'i Religions 'Abdu'l-Bahb, The Secret of Divine Civilization SDC Star Star of the West 'Survey' P. Smith, and M. Momen, 'The Baha'i Faith 1957-1988: A survey o f contemporary developments' SV Bahb'u'llbh, Seven Valleys 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahd SWAB TB Bahb'u'llbh, Tablets of Bdha'u'lldh Revealed after the Kitdb-iAqdas TCB A. Taherzadeh, The Covenant o f BaM'u'lldh TDP 'Abdul'l-Bahi, Tablets o f the Divine Plan TI E.G. Browne, The Tdrikh-i-Jadid TN E.G. Browne, A Traveller's Narrative UHJC Universal House o f Justice, Constitution WEBW 0.2. Whitehead, Some Early Babd'is of the West 'Ahdu'l-Bahb, Will and Testament Will WOB Shoghi Effendi, The World Order o f Bahd'u'llib WSBR O.Z. Whitehead, Some Bahd'is to Remember

.

'Abbas N t r i , Mirza Buzurg (d. 1839)

The father of BahB'u'lllh. 'Abbls came from an eminent family in the Iranian province of Mizandarin which traced its ancestry back to the last pre-Islamic Sassanian king of Iran, Yazdigird In. The family's ancestral lands were around the village of TBkur in the district of Nhr. 'AbbAs served as minister

..

'Abbbd, lly61 (d. 1878)

'9 <. *

Arabic Bahi'i Studies Bulletin Continental Board o f Counsellors International Teaching Centre (Kalimbt)Studies in Bdbi and Bahi'i History (Kalimbt)Studies in the Bdbiand BaM'i Religions national spiritual assembly Persianized Arabic Persian Universal House o f Justice Universal House o f Justice, Research Department

.

Christian merchant of Akka. Owner of the larger (seaward facing) pan of what

,

is now tenned the house of 'Ahbhd occupied by BahB'u'llBh. (See also AKKA.) I

'Abduh. Shavkh Muhammad (d. 1905) Leading Muslim reformer whose ideas were influential throughout much of the Islamic world. Grand mufti of Egypt, 1889-1905. He met 'Abdu'l-Bahl in Bcirut in 1878 and became his fervent admirer. AB38; EG~BFS;GPB 193

Other abbreviations Ar. BSB CBC ITC KSBBH KSBBR NSA PA Pers. UHJ UHJRD

(vazir) t o one of the sons of Fath-'Ali Shlh (reg. 1797-1834) and later as a provincial governor for Burhjird and Luristin. The enmity,of the new chief minister, Hlji Mirzi Aglsl ('Abbls had been a friend of AqBsiVs rival and predecessor), led t o the loss of his political power in 1835 and m severe financial prohlems. BKG 11-12. (See also Nvni FAMILY.)

Abdulaziz (1830-76)

'Abbis NCrr ( M i r z i Rururg), fnrher of Bohri'u'ildh

'Ahdu'l-'Aziz, *OMAN sultan, 186176, w h o advanced the Tanzimar reforms, but opposed liberalism; the first sultan t o visit Western Europe. He was deposed in 1876 (30 Mavl, . . and shortly after either comrn~rtedsuicide o r was murdered. It was dur~nghis reign that

I I

'Abdu'l-BahLthe successive exiles of Bahi'u'llih within the Ottoman empire took place. After receiving the order of banishment t o Edirne, Bahi'u'lllh sent him a strongly worded tablet in which the sultan's ministers were censured (see ALIPAW;RIATRIA). He later addressed the sultan in the SGra of the KINCS, calling upon him nor t o e n m s t the affairs of stare inro the hands of corrupt and godless ministers, bur himself t o rule with justice and fear God. He was God'; 'shadow on earth' (a traditional royal title), and as such should he detached from the world and ensure the wellbeing of his subjects. Bahi'u'llih also deplored the extrcmes of wealth and poverty he witnessed in I~TANBUL,and protested his own innocence of any wrongdoing that would have merited his hanishmcnt. The sultan's downfall was prophesied in Bahi'u'llih's tablet to Fuat P a p . GPB1 S W . 172-3. IPS+ PDC 11. 37dO. 614. M.71; RB2: 312-15.

'Abdu'l-BahL (Ar., 'Servant of Bahi') (184&1921)

l

Tirle of Bahl'u'llih's successor. -. , .

eldest son and

..-~w

F

R

'

W

T I T L E S A N D APPOINTMENT

His given name was 'Abhis, but his father alsp referred to him as the 'Master' (Aqi) and the 'Most Great (or Mighty) Branch' (ghurn-i-o'vrn), the 'Mystery of God' (rinu'lldh), the 'Limb of the Law of God' who 'encornpasred the whole of creation', and the apple of his eye. During the period of his leadership (1892-1921), he preferred to be known as 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and iris hy this title thar he is now generally known. Bahi'u'llih explicitly named him as his successor in his will, the Book of the but prior t o this had impliCOVENANT, citly directed thar after his own death, his followers should turn to 'Ahdu'lBahi as their leader and as the interpreter of his writings (KA 63 kl21, 82 k174). In the Tablet of the BRnucH, a letter t o an individual Baha'i, composed in the 1860s when 'Abdu'l-Rahi was only in his nvcntics, BahB'u'llih had also stared that those who had turned towards 'Abdu'l-Bahi had turned towards God, and that those who rejected him had repudiated Bahi'u'llih and transgressed against him (WOB 135), EARLY LIFE

According t o tradition 'Abdu'l-Ball5 was born on the very night of the RAE'S dcclararion (23 May 1844). His mother ~. was Bahi'u'llih'r first wife, N A V V AAs a boy he experienced the shocks of his father's arrest in 1852, the subsequent exile m Iraq (he himself suffered from frost-bite during the journey in the bitter cold), and BahB'u'llih's withdrstwal to the mountains of Kurdistan (18546). Greatly attached to his father, he hegan t o assie him whilst still in his teens, increasingly taking rcsponsihility for the practical affairs of the family and acting as one of his father's secretaries. By the rime of the move to Akka (1868) he had become effecrivelv resoonsihle for the whole exile community (Bahi'u'llih's

.

',lhili('l Bnbii os o yuarrg

,>to,, ;ti

1.ilirrir

.

family and disciples) and its relations ters, together with a Surviving uncle and with Ottoman officialdom. Although his family, remained loyal. Unable to never attending any school he evidently shake the allegiance of the mass of the read widely and became well known and Baha'is, this campaign led t o recurrent respected amongst Ortoman officials problems for 'Ahdu'l-BahB with the and reformers, including several of the Turkish authorities, including the reimprovincial governors in their various position of confinement in Akka (1901) places of exile and figures such as and the appointment of two official Midhat Pasha and the Egyptian Shaykh commissions of enquiry, the second of Muhammad 'AEOUH. After his father which (1907-8) was expected t o cause moved out of Akka (1877) he condnued his exile to North Africa. This prolonged t o live in the city, increasingly gaining opposition caused 'Abdu'l-Bahi to give acceptance as a local notable despite great emphasis to the doctrine that there continuing t o live under the governwhich ensured was a sacred COVENANT ment's order of banishment. Giving alms the preservarion of Baha'i unity through t o the poor and regularly attending the abedicnce ro the properly appointed local mosque, he came t o be seen by the leaders of the Faith. Those who broke local population as a pious, albeit this covenant, such as 'Muhammad-!Ali heterodox Muslim leader rather than and his associates, were denounced as as the son of the founder of a new 'Covenant-breakers' and were ultireligion. In 1873, he married M U N ~ R I Hmately cxcommunicated. Nahri (1847-1938), a girl from a During this period 'Abdu'l-BahB prominent lgfihini BahB'i merchant soupht to ensure thar the Faith would remain co-ordinnted and protected from family. Thc couple had four daughten who survived to adulthood, in addition his opmnents even if somethina were to .. t o two sons and three daughters who happen to him, writing his WILLAND died in childhood (see NOnl FAMILY). TESTAMENT, in which he appoinad his Unlike his father, grandfather and EFFENDI - then eldest grandson, SHOCHI uncles, all of whom followed the constill a child - t o be the Guardian of the temporary upperslasr Muslim practice Faith after him; outlining the system to bc employed for the election of the of having several wives, 'AMu'l-BahB rcmained monogamous. UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE rcfcrred t o by Bahi'u'llih; and excluding MuhamMINISTRY (1892-1921) mad-'Ali from succession on account of 'Ahdu'l-Bahi's ministry can he divided his Covenant-breaking. He also began t o into three phases: encourage the formation of locally elected Baha'i coi~ncils(ASSEMBLIES) in (1) 1892-1908 various pans of the Bahi'i world, as The first phase was one of persistent well as of several 'narionay bodies. difficulq and danger. Although most of Other developments of this period the BahB'is readily accepted BahB'u'Illh's were the composition of 'Ahdu'l-Rshi's clear appointment of 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and Treatise on Porfrrcs (1892-3), written as gave him their devotion, members of a guide for the Iranian Bahi'is at n rime Bahi'u'llih's extended family, lcd by of growing polirical instability; the emer'Ahdu'l-Bahi's haif-brother, MUHAMMAD-gencc of Baha'i groups in North America 'All, rejected his authority, and hegan an and Europe, and the first pilgrimage visit at first covert and then open campaign from Western Baha'is t o Akka (1898-9); t o discredit him (see COVENANT.RREAK'Abdu'lLB3hi's encouragement of educaEns). Of the family, only his sister tional, mcdical and economic develop (BAHIYYIH K H ~ N U Mwife ) , and daughmen1 among the Fastem Bahi'is; the

!

I

l

I

I !

1 I

Egypt, he made a longer second journey beginning of the consrmction of the first t o visit the Western Bahi'is (March Bahbr house of worship in the city of 1912-June 1913). After fourteen AIHKHABAD in Russian Turkestan; and the construction of the SHR~NEOPTIIEBABmonths of extensive travelling in the United States and Canada, during on Mount Carmel. which he visited thirty-eight cities, he (2) 1908-14 returned t o Europe, where he visited Britain, France, Germany, and AustriaIn 1908 the Young Turk revolution led Hungary. He remned to Egypt Uune t o the freeing of Ottoman political 1913) and to Haifa (Decemherl in a prisoners, and the dangers that had stare of exhaustion. faced 'Abdu'l-Bahi in Akka came m an The journeys were of major imporend. In 1910 he moved across the bay tance: (1) they contributed t o the confrom Akka to the newly developing city solidation of the fledgling Western of Harm, which thenceforth was to Bahi'i communities, giving the Bahi'is remain the hcadquarters of the Faith. a wider vision of their faith and The Bib's remains were interred in thc encouraging them to greater action; (2) complutcd Shrine there on 21 March they attracted considerahlc public atten1909, giving Haifa additional spiritual tion - including extensive sympathetic importance for Bahi'is. newspaper coverage - so that many Taking advantage of his new freepeople heard of the Bahi'i teachings dom of movement 'Abdu'l-Bahb, now for the first time; (3) 'Abdu'l-Bahi met in his late sinies and far from well, many eminent people (including churchmoved to Egypt in 1910, and then men such as Archdeacon Wilherforce embarked on a three-month journey to and T.K. Chcyne in England; academics visit the new Bahi'is of England and France (September-December 1911) such as the comparative religionist J. Estlin Carpenter, David Starr Jordan of (see p. 17). Rcsring for the winter in

Rnemry of 'Abdu'l-Bahd: Egypt and the iourneys to the West ECWI

1910 Leaves Haifa, ? Aug. Porr Said Alexandria (Ramlih),to 11 Aug. 1911 THE FIRST VISITTO € m o r n

19 11 [.ondon, 6 2 3 Scpt. Brirtol, 23-25 Sept. London, 25 Sept.4 O n . Paris, 3 0ct.-2 Dcc. Returns to Egypt NORTH AMERICA Tlui EASTCOAST 1912 Leaves Alexandria, 25 March

New York, 11-20 April Washington DC, 20-28 April Chicago, 29 April4 May Cleveland, OH, 6-7 May Pittsburgh 7-8 M a y Washington DC, 8-1 l May New York, 11-14 May (Monrclair, NJ, 12 May) Lake.Mahonk, NY,14-16 May New Yark, 16-22 ,May Barton, 22-26 May (Worcester, MA, 23 May) New York, 26-31 May Fanwood, NJ, 31 May-l June New York, 1-3 Junc Milford, PA, 3 June New Yark, 4-8 June Philadelphia, 8-10 June New York, 10-20 June Monrclair, NJ, 20-25 June New York, 25-29 June Wesr Englewwd, NJ, 29-30 June Morristown, NJ, 30 June New Ynrk, 30 June-23 July (West Englewood, NJ, 14 July) Boston, 23-24 July Dublin, NH,24 July-16 Aug. Greenacre, nr Eliot, ME, 1 6 2 3 Aug. Malden, MA, 23-29 Aug. ,Uonrrcal, Quebec, 30 Aug.-9 Scpt. Buffalo, NY, 9-12 Sepr. Txn Moo-Wsi

Chicago, 12-15 Sept. Kcnosha, WI, 15-16 Scpt.

Chicago, 16 Sept. Minneapolis, 16-21 Sept. T~lrWEST

Omaha, NB, 21 Sept. Lincoln, NB, 23 Sept. Denver, CO, 24-27 Sept. Glenwoad Springs, CO, 28 Sept. Salt Lake Ciry, UT,29-30 Sepr. San Francisco, 1-13 Ocr. Pleasanton, CA, 13-16 Oct. San Franciwo, 16-18 On. Lor Angeles, 18-21 Oet. San Francisco, 21-25 Oct. Sacramento, 25-26 Oct. Denver, 28-29 Ocr. R~cxrorur FAST

Chicago, 31 On-3 Nov. Cincinnati, OH, 5-6 Nov. Washington, DC, 6-11 Nav. Baltimore, 11 Nov. Philadelphia, 11 Nov. New York, 12 No".-5 Dec. THE SECOND VlSII TO EUROPE BRTTAIN

Liverpool, England, 13-16 Dee. London, 16 Dcc.4 Jan. 1913 (Oxford, 31 Dec.) 1913 Edinburgh, 6-11 Jan. London, 11-15 Jan. Bristol, 15-16 Jan. London, 16-21 Jan. (Woking, 18 Jan.) Com~wr~rnr fil~ove

Paris, 22 Jan.-30 March

Sruttgan, 1-8 April (Bad Mergentheim, 7-8 April) Vienna, 8 April Budnpst, 9-19 April Vienna, 19-24 April Sturrgart, 25 April-1 May Paris, 2 May-12 Junc Marseilles, 12-13 June ECWI AGAIN

Port Said, 17 June-11 July Ismi'iliyyah, 11-17 July Alexandria (Ramlih), 17 July-2 Dec. Returns to Haifa, 5 Dcc.

I

I

Stanford University, the orientalist Arminius Vambery, and the philosophers John Dewey and Henti Bergson; the suffragette leader Emmeline Pankhursr; Annie Besant, the president of the Theosophical Society; and the author Kahlil Gibran) and addressed members of sympathetic organizations such as peace societies and the Esperantists; and (4) 'Abdu'l-BahB's public addresses were a n importanr addition t o the corpus of BahB'i scripture. Apart from specific religious issues, he addressed a number of social issues, including PEACE and RACE.He also made a point of visiting the poor. Given his status as an Iranian exile and former Onoman prisoner, his reception in the United States by the Turkish ambassador and the Iranian chargd d'affaires (at that time h ~ - K W LKHAN. I a Bahi'i) were particularly significant.

(3) 1 9 1 4 2 1 The onset of World War 1 (1914-18) prevented any further travel, and led to

new threat. against 'Abdu'l-Bahi's life (from the Turkish army chief, Cemal (Jamil) Pap. This danger ended with rhc collapsc of Turkish rule and the establishment of the British mandate. The war years and their immediate aftermath also brought famine t o Palestine, 'Abdu'l-Bahi averting local catastrophe through the supply of grain stocks. He gained the respect of the newly established British authorities who secured him the award of a knighthood (1920). The past-war years were spent attending to the work of directing rhe affairs of the Faith. In addition to being a prominent and widely respected local notable, 'Abdu'l-Bahi was now clearly recognized as the head of a n international religious movement. He died peacefully on 28 November 1921, his funeral being marked by the great number and religious diversity of its mourners. He was survived by his sister, wife, and daughters and their families. Shoghi Effendi succeeded him as head of the Faith.

PERSONALITY

For Bahi'is 'Abdu'l-Bahi is the perfect exemplar of their faith, and stories about him are commonly presented as representing the ideal of Bahi'i behaviour. Many nondahi'is also referred to him as a powerful and impressive personality, as did E.G. Browne, who wrote of his eloquence, wide religious knowledge, and 'majestic' and 'genial' bearing ('IN m i ) . Hc was both a commanding presence and intensely approachable, with a ready sense of humour. He sought t o avoid religious disputation, but was uncompromising on matters of principle, as when he very deliberately scandalized social convention in Washington DC in order t o demonstrate the Bahi'i belief in racial equality by insisting that a leading black Y) sit next Bahi'i (Louis G R E G O ~should to him at a prestigious dinner. Many Western Bahi'is werc inclined to see him in Christ-like terms as the personification of love and compassion.

wery Bahi'i virtue; the 'Mainspring' of the oneness of humanity; the 'Architect' of Bahl'u'llhh's WORLDORDER;and the 'Ensign' of the 'Most Great Peace' (GPB 245; WOB 134). 'Abdu'l-Bahi reflected 'the glory and power' of the MANIFESTAnoNr 07 GOD to a degree that no other human being could rival. In his person 'the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection' had been blended and 'completely harmonized' (WOB 134). He was not a Manifestation, however. Like a perfect mirror, he reflected 'the rays of Bahi'u'llih's glory', and he derived his lipht, inspiration and sustenance from that source. His words possessed 'an equal validity' with those bf Bahi'u'llih, but they were not equal in rank (WOB 139). Contrary to the beliefs of various Bahi'is in the early part of the century, 'Ahdu'l-Bahi's

THEO~OGICALSTATUS

Funeral proccssiun of 'Abdu'l Aohd, 1921

Whilst stressing the Covenant doctrine and his authority as BahP'u'llih's successor and interpreter, 'Abdu'l-Bahi otherwire insisted that his station was one of servitude t o his father, and strongly discouraged both Iranian and American Baha'is from describing him in exalted terms. The definitive official statement of his status was given by Shoghi Effendi, who identified 'Abdu'l-Bahi as the rhird of the rhree 'Central Figures' of the Faith (after Baha'u'llih and thc Bib): he was 'the Center and Pivot' of BahB'u'llih's covenant; his vicegerent on earth; the executive of his authority; the shepherd of his flock; the stainless mirror of his light; Bahi'u'llih's 'most exalted handiwork'; the perfect exemplar of his teachings; the unerring interpreter of his mind and word; the embodiment of every Bahl'i ideal; the incarnation of

'Abdu'l Bohd m a n older m n -on inrage frequently displayed in Bahd'i homes

Ybdu'l-Bahb's writinas and talk TARLETS OF THE DlvlNe PLAN (191617), the Toblets t o the HAGUE (1919) and to Dr. FOREL(1921). and his WILL AND TESTAMENT. 'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote mostly in Persian, but also in Arabic, and a small number of items in Otroman Tmkish are extant. Many of his leners to Western Bahi'is wcrc published in English translation in the Star of the West (see P E ~ T ~ D I C and A L STablets ) of Abdul Baha Abbas. A small compilation of his writings is also available (Selections fmm the Writings of 'Abdtr'l48; w o h GPB 23732; K h u n W ; MBBR 31550; Bahd). In addition to individual tens, MuMiir. M y l l n y d M ;NSAafConado; BFSH74-07; there is also a collection of his writings Wad. Mcmairs inclvd. B b m W : Blomlicld and Shqhl EHadi: 8-n: Cham; b i l , Shalccing Branch: Caaloll in Persian (Makotib-i-'Abdu'l-Rohd, 8 mdC-s Grumh/; H o m d ; Ires; Maxwell: Porn,; vols.). Collins, Bibliography, 9-17, lists Phslp.; Sohrob. Abdul Baho in Egypt Thompson; titles under his name in English. Wilhmlm d 01; Wincklmr On 'AMu'L8.M 0%=iernplor Of his authenticated recorded oral roe Honnald. On his'sfefion' me WOB 131-9. teachings. . the most important works in English are SOMEANSWERED QUESTIONS 'Abdu'l-Bahb's writings and OFTHE FAITH(1904-6) and MEMORIALS talks FUL (1915). There are several volumes recording 'Abdu'l-Bahi's talks in the Baha'is regard 'Abdu'l-Bahl as the . authoritative interpreter of his father's West (1911-13). These mostly represent writings. - The comus of his writings and rranscriprs or reconstiruted notes of the authenticated talks thus form a major oral translation in English or French part t o rhe BahB'i 'canon' of sacred made by 'Abdu'l-Bahi's various interliarature. In addition t o several books, preters, and have nor yet been systemover 27,000 of his letters have survived. atically checked against the Persian There is also n substantial body of transcripts or notes which were made unanrhcnticatcd 'PILGRIMS. NOTES' of at the time by 'Abdu'l-Bahl's secretaries. conversations with him, but these are Although no doubt generally accurate, specifically excluded from the canon and they can nor be regarded in their present have no binding authority. form as completely authoritative or Most of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's writings dare scriptural. The hest known of these from after his accession to leadership in works are 'Abdu'l-Bnhri in London (Hammond); Paris Talks; and Promul1892, but during his father's lifetime he had written a treatise on the 'modemigation of Universal Peace. All three of zation' of Iran (SECRETOF D I V I N E these arc widely used by Bahi'is as Crvrrrznno~,1875), as well as a shorr sources of doctrine, despite the caveat history of the Bibi and Bahi'i religions regarding their authoritativeness noted (TRAVELLER.SNARRATIYE, 1886) and his above. Notes on 'Abdu'l-Bahl's talks O N 'I WAS A H I D D E N during his second visit to Paris are given COMMENTARY TREASURE'. The first nvo of rhese at in Chamberlain. least have been accorded the same canonical status as his later writings. Abdulhamit ll (1842-1918) Later works include his Treatise on POLITICS(189213). the Tablet of ONE 'Abdu'l-Hamid, Otroman sultan, 18761909. Initially approving a consrirution THOUSANDVERSES(189718). the station was not identical o r in some way equivalent ro that of his father. Nor was there any 'mystic unity' between 'Abdu'l-Bahi and his father. Nor was 'Abdu'l-Bahi the return of Jesus Christ ( W O E 138-9). Such beliefs were impious and heretical. His function was unique, nor only in relationship to the Bahi'i dispensation, but in the entire field of religious history. No other figure had ever occupied a comparable station (WOE 131-2).

~

and parliament, he became increasingly aurocratic in his rule, arresting opponents and establishing an extensive network of spies. He lost power following the Young Turk Revolution (July 1908). and was deposed on 27 April 1909, following the failure of a n attempted counterrevolurion. Late in his reign, Ottoman commissions of enquiry were sent to investigate 'Abdu'l-Bshi. His overthrow led t o the freeing of prisoners of stare, including 'Abdu'l-Bahi. (See also OTT~MANS).

'Abdu'llah Pbshb Governor of AKKA,1819-31, and holder of extensive lands in the area. The building he had used as his governorate in the city ('the House of 'Abdu'lllh Plshl') was later rented by 'Abdu'lBahl, as also was the mansion of Mazra'ih. The original (1821) s m n u r e of BAHJ~ was built by him. a v h s z o ~ .

Traditional system of giving numerical values t o the letters of rhe Arabic alphabet. Individual words could thus be represented by numbers equalling the sum of their component lctters (thus

bahd' ('glory') has a numerical value of h=S, I i=l,' '=I). 9, with y b=2, The system was still much in use in 19th-century Iran, and was employed by both the Bib and Bahi'u'llih to make linkages between concepts, and t o 'convert' the names of rhcir prominent followers into titles which might honour the individuals involved at the same time as sometimes concealing their rrue identities in correspondence ('Muhammad' becomes N a b 'Yahyi' becomes 'Vahid'; etc.). The importance attached to the numbers 9 and 19 is also partly . . derived on the basis of this system. k ~ o i n .~Hiaorchy' 109; LG 414. (See also

*

ablutions (Ar.: wudri') In the Kitdb-i-AQDASBahi'u'llih prescribed the performance of ritual ablutions (thc washing of hands and face) both before saying obligatory ramanr and the repetition of the GREATEST N A M E and of the special verse t o be said by menstruating women. They should be performed even if one has just bathed. Fresh ablutions should be performed for each devotional act unless several prayers are being offered a t the same time. If no water is available, or if its use

The abjad numbering system

q

&t&thdhd J 2 - -

100 200

" .t i & I ; k

300

400

SO0

600

700

800

z

g

h

900 1000

Adib, Mi& [Muhornmad-)Hasm would be harmful t o the hands or face, the believer should instead repeat the words 'In the Name of God, the Most Pure, the Most Pure' five times before prayer. Warm water may be used if the weather is cold. ~n 23 k~o.1113.26 k18. 959. 1 1 2 3 q18. 122 qS1. 125 q62. 126q6-5. 129q77. 132q86. 1467. 171-2 "16. 18&1 "34; lG468.

abortion For Baha'is the human soul appears at conception. Abortion merely t o prevent the birth of an unwanted child is therefore forbidden. Abortion for medical reasons is permitted, however, after due reflection on the ethical issues by those concerned. In practice, all such matters are left up to the judgement of the parents. IG 344.

Abraham Biblical patriarch and Quranic prophet OF GOD recognized as a MANIFESTATIOX by Bahi'is, and as the originator of monotheistic religion. In Islamic and Bahi'i texts he is often referred to as 'the Fricnd of God'. Through his son Isaac he is regarded as the father of the Jewish people, and through his son Ishmael (Ismi'il) as the progenitor of the Arabs. His descendants included the Jewish prophets, Muhammad, the Bib and (through his third wife, Kamrah) Bnhi'u'llih. 'Abdu'l-Bahi compared Bahi'u'llih's exile to rhat of Abraham's in terms of in historical consequences 36; SAQ 123. and religious impact.

Abu'l-Fadl Gulp6yg6ni. Mirza Muhammad (1844-1914) Leading Iranian Bahi'i scholar and reacher. Abu'l-Fadl ('the Father of Virtue') was his adopted epithet, but 'Ahdu'l-Bahi often referred t o him as Abu'l-Fadi'il ('the Father of All Virtues'). Born into a prominent clerical family, his own clerical education was wide ranging, including rational and gnnstic philosophy as well as thc mainstream Islamic sciences. His intelfec~al interests included European science and Buddhism. Hc taught speculative theology (kalrinr) a t one of the religious colleges in Tehran. In about 1876 he met a number of BahB'is and converted following the fulfilment of Bahi'u'llih's prophectes regarding the fall of Sultan A o u u ~ ~ z r zOpenly . talking about his new faith, he war dismissed from his post and imprisoned for some months. Altogether he was imprisoned for his Bahi'i activities for almost four oilt the next ten years. He then bcgan t o travel within I n n , teach in^ the Faith and arrracring many new Bahi'is, including a number of lews and cwo QPiar princes in ~ a m a d c n .In 1889 he went t o ASHKHAOAD, where he became a focal point in the developing Bahb'i commu-

niry, making journeys t o Samarqand and individual's present life or in the afrerlife (TB189). Bukhara to promote the Faith. In 1894 he iourneyed to Akka and after ten where months there proceeded to EGYPT, Adam he gained recognition as an Islamic Biblical and Quranic figure reaarded as scholar a t al-Azhar University and sucthe father of 'humankiid. ~ e g a r d e dby ceeded in converting some of his SNBaha'is as the fist known MnKlmsTAdents, including 'Abdu'l-Jalil SXD. For TION OF GOD, preceded by others in a the first time the BahB'i community preliterate world. The story of Adam came t o include a number of native and Eve is seen as symbolic: Eve Egyptians. In Egypt he also wrote represents Adam's soul, and the serpent extensively. In 1901 at 'Abdu'l-Bahi's attachment to the human world ( i t . instruction he went t o the United States SIN). Ever since Adam's 'fall', humans in order t o combat the influence of had lived with the consciousness of good and deepen the lbrahim KHEIRALLA and evil. That all human beings were knowledge of the Bahi'is. En route he regarded as descended from Adam also visited the Paris Bahi'is. In 1904 he indicated their essential unity. The 'Adareturned to Fsypr, which remained his mic Cycle', starring with Adam, and base until his death. 'Abdu'l-Bahi dating back about six thousand yean, named one of the doors of the S H R ~ N E was the period of known religious OFTHEBIB in his honour. Shoghi Effendi history; it had been consummated by OF named him as one of the APOSTLES Baha'u'llih's revelation (see ME). ~ ~ BAH~.U,LLAH. &9; SAQ 122-26. Abu'l-Fadl wrote a number of impatrant works in both Persian and Arabic. Adib, Mirza (Muhammad-) Some of these deal with historical and Hasan (1848-1919) doctrinal questions, others are concerned with prophetic proofs of Iranian =NO OF THE CAUSE.He was Bahi'u'llih's mission, and yet orhen born inm a prominent clerical family in are responses to criticisms of the Faith Talaqin and received a clerical educaby various clerics. His work includes tion. He worked with the Q i j i r princes I'tididu's-saltanih and Mu'tamidu'dsome of the first presentations of Baha'i ideas for Jewish, Christian and Zoroasdawlih on their literary works, and for a time was a teacher and leader of the trian readers. Those of his writings rhat have been translated into English Friday prayers a t the Diru'l-Funhn include: a/-Hujaju'l-Bahi'iyyih (The college. He was also an accomplished Rehai Proofs, trans. 1902); ad-Durpoet, and was given the title Adibu'laru'l-Bahiyyih ('The Shining Pearls', 'ulamri (litterateur of the 'ulami). He mans. as Miracles ond Metaphors); and became a Bahi'i in about 1889 after a collection of Letters and Essays. The prolonged conversations with NAB~L-Ifront matter of these books contains A ~ s n n ,and was named a Hand of the information about his life. €6 2634. Cause by Bahi'u'llih shortly after this. He travelled within Iran, and also t o India and Burma, in part with the action and merit American Bahi'i Sydney Sprague, For those who are detached, good deeds author of the book A Year With the Bohoir in Indin and R u m (1908). are regarded as their own reward, but all actions also bring existential conse- Shoghi Effendi named him as one of quences, such that g w d deeds will be €8 272a; the A ~ o s n r sOF BAH~.U,LL~H. rewarded by God, whether in the H o w 17-18: r(BC 312-14.

i

e

administration The current organization of the Bahi'i Faith is often referred t o as the 'Administrative Order'. As it developed it increasingly replaced the more personalized and informal patterns of local leadership and organization thar had previously prevailed. sseR 1 2 l r a . 1324. EARLY ORGANIZATION

I

I

As they grow religious movements need to develnp some system of organization if they are to remain cohesive in doctrine and srntcture. In the case of Bibism, key elements wcre the imponance of clerical leadership (often of a highly charismatic kind), a t both a local and national level, and of itinerant couriers, these providing effective internal communications (and hence cohesion) within the movement, a need given particular significance by the Bib's separation in imprisoned exile from the mass of his followers. Given that Iran was then a traditionalistic society with a very low level of literacy, the prominence of clerics in the movement is not surprising. It was natural for such individuals t o assume msitions of leadership and for the Iairy to defer t o them. Indeed, in some cases - notably HUJJAT in ZANJ*Nand V~rvinin NArniz - the local Bibis fallowed their traditional leader ~ n t othe new religion (Smith and Momen, 'Bibi movement' 56-62). Both these elements - local clerical leadership and interlinking by couriers - reappeared in the early development of rhc Bahi'i Faith. With Bahi'u'llih removed to various and remote parts of the Ottoman empire and the mass of his followers in Iran, the need for effective internally organized communications was again crucial (only with the EXPANSION of the Bahl'i Faith into areas where it was not subject t o persecution could public systems of cornmunicacion be relied on). In the case of local leadership there was a change, however. Whilst most 19th-century

Bahl'i leaden (including the HANOSOF THE CAUSEappointed by Bahi'u'llih) were still clerics, who had normally completed a naditional Islamic education prior t o rheir conversion, prominent Bahi'i merchants, such as the AFNANS and, in Isfihin, the Nahri family, also assumed positions of importance. Bahi'u'llih's reference to future elected HOUSES OF JUSTICE a150 promised the development of a quite different form of organization. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER

Bahl'u'llih had appointed certain prominent Bahi'is as Hands of the Cause, and referred t o future houses of justice. 'Abdu'l-Bahi in turn encouraged the formation of various locally elected Bahl'i counsels, and in his WILLAND TESTAMEN?;outlined a comprehensive administrative system under the joint headship of a succession of Guardians (CUARD~ANSHIP) and the elected UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE. The establishment and elaboration of that system developed during the period of SHOGHI euardianshi~(in EFFENDI'S . rwo senarare phases), and was subsequently augmented by the Universal House of Justice.

-

.

1920s Shoghi Effendi regularized and extended the system of clected spiritual ASSF.MRI.IES. The basic elements were laid our in 1922-3. All Bahs'i groups in which there were at lcasr nine adult Bahi'is (twenty-one years old and above) were called upon to form rheir own local spiritual assemblies, each assembly superintending all BahP'i activities in its locnliry. In all 'national' communities in which there was a sufficient number of Bahi'is, national spiritual assemblies were to hc elected by a delegate CONVENTION. Both local and national asremblies were to establish rheir own FUNDS and necessary committees to help them in their work of promoting Bahi'i THE

teaching endeavour; publishing; and organizing the communirv life of the . Bahi'is. There were subsequent elaborations of detail, bur in its key. asvects . the system has not changed t o the present day. Other administrative developments from the 1920s included the delineation of specific requirements for voting membership of the Bahl'i community (see E1.ECTlONS); the establishment of national administrative centres (H~zlnA~uz.Qoos), each overseen by the elected secretary of the relevant national spiritual assembly, the secretaryship in some cases becoming a fullrime occupation; and the introdunion of membership rolls, of enrolment cards to record professions of faith, and of credential cards or letters ro validate membership. The regular nineteen day FEASTS were also strongly emphasized and came to include a period of consultation on local Bahi'i activities and assembly directives. Wherever possible, the national and local assemblies secured some form of legal identity, enabling them to own property (see INCORPORATION). The overall effects of these developments were to create a far more tightly organized network of Bahi'i communities. Organization came t o be a central element in Bahi'i community life and was invested with spiritual and moral importance. Levels of adminisnative functioning varied of course, but by the 1930s a generally efficient system was in place, the establishment of local and national spiritual assemblies coming to provide one of the major goals of Bahl'i activity as well as a significant measure of Bahi'i expansion PLANS.

body, chargcd with assisting Shoghi Efkndi in his work in Haifa. It was also seen as the precursor of the future Universal House of Justice. (2) The HANDS OF THE CAUSE OF GOD, revived in 1951 as a functioning group of senior BahP'is, responsible for assisting the national spiritual assemblies achieve their goals, and later with the protection of the Faith from enernal and internal attacks. An initial group of twelve was increased to twenty-seven by 1957, comprising individuals in all continents and including several members of the fint International Council. Organized by continent, the Hands provided the Bahl'is with a system of transnational co-ordination, as well as a form of leadership quite different from that of the assemblies. They also unexpectedly came t o exercise overall headship of the Bahi'is during the 'interregnum' between the death of Shoghi Effendi and the establishment of thc Universal House of Justice (1957-63). (3) The AUXILIARYBOARDS, whose members were to act as the 'deputies, assistants and advisors' t o the Hands. Two Boards were established, each organized on a continental lcvcl: one concerned with the propagation and expansion of the Faith (1954), and a second with its protection (1957). THE ESTABLISIIMENT OF THE UNIVERSAL

HOUSE OF JUSTICE

The formation of the House of Justice in 1963 marked a major transition in Bahi'i administration, as overall leadership of the Faith for the first time became vested in an elected body. The House confirmed its own authority as Three administrative instirutions were 'the supreme institution' of the Adminnewly created or reanimated during this istrative Order in its Constitution period. (1972). It had earlier stated thar it was (1) The INTERNATIONAL BAHNCOUNCIL not possible to appoint funher Goar(1950/5143), an initially appointed dians (October 1963) ( M U H ] 1 4 no. 5),

I

administration

administration

so there was no longer a living Guardianship. Administrative developments since 1963 may be summarized as follows:

(2) Responses to. the need for administration to cope with the growing extent and complexity of the Bahi'i community. Thus the enormous increase in the number of Auxiliary (1)The House's ruling that it was no Board members (from 72 in 1957 to longer possible to appoint Hands of 846 in 1991); the introduction of the Cause (November 1964) (MUHJ ASSISTANTS to the Board members 44 no. 20.4), and the subsequent (1973); and, in certain countries, the development of new institutions to B A H ~ ~ establishment of REGIONAL fulfil their functions: the CONTINENCOUNCIL^ (first tried experimentally TAL BOARDS OF COUNSELLORS (1968) from 1986 onwards, formalized in and the INTERNATIONAL TEACHING 1997), intermediate bodies between CENTRE (1973). the national and local assemblies. Present structure of Bahi'i administration

The Universal House of Justice: centre of the religion and sole recipient of infallibledivine guidance

Agencies:

Departments: Secretariat,

International Community, etc.

and other

International Teaching Centre: comprises the Hands of the Cause and a number of

National committees Auxiliary Boards for propagation and protection of the faith

the members of the Auxiliary Boards Institutions of the Rulers Direction and administration

Key: -, formalauthority; - - -, consultive relationship

Institutions of the Learned Advice and encouragement

(3) The introduction of various speciaWOB 144). At the same time he list committees and agencies: the emphasized its evolutionary nature, Continental Pioneer Committees and warned the B a h s s not to reify their (1965) (MUH] 47-50 no. 22) to present institutions or procedures. The organize the movement of PIONEERS; administration was an instrument of the the various bodies linked to the Faith, not a substitute for it. Bahi'i BAHki INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY,administrators, in particular, should including a Haifa-based Office of exercise great care to gain the support, Public Information; and a network respect and affection of Bahi'is. This of H U Q ~ Q U . L L deputies AH and was only possible through 'extreme representatives. h~unility'and selfless devotion on their (4) A massive increase in the number of part, together with loving CONSIILTATION staff working at the B ~ ~ k WORLD i'i with the mass of the Bahi'is. The 'right' CENTREin Haifa-Akka. of individual self-expression was fundamental. The assemblies should not overTHE RULERS A N D THE LEARNED administer, or get bogged down in Most Bibi and early Bahi'i leaders were matters of detail that obscured the vision of the Faith and dampened its spirit (BA Islamic clerics, 'the learned' ('ULAMA). The role of such individuals became 63-4, 103; WOB 9). transformed with the passage of time, He also emphasized the distinctivehowever. Executive authority came to ness of the Administrative Order. Unlike rest with elected bodies, leaving Bahi'i the organizational forms that had devel'learned' with responsibilities for TEACH- oped in other divine religions, it was ING and providing moral leadership. directly rooted in the writings of the Those 'learned' who yearned for power Faith's founder and his appointed sucanalogous to many of their Shi'i countercessor (i.e. Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'lparts were out of place, as perhaps Bahi). Nor was it like any of the various evidenced by the 'rebellions' of, JAMAI. organizational systems human beings BURQIRD~ and 'Abdu'l-Husayn AVARIH. had created: instead, it blended the In terms of their relationship to the beneficent elements of several systems. Its supreme institutions (the guardianAdministrative Order, a distinction is ship and the Universal House of Justice) thus now made between the 'rulers' and were assured of divine guidance and the 'learned' of the Faith, the former protection, but the Bahi'i system was being the members of the Universal House of Justice and national and local unlike any former theocracy: it had no PRIESTHOOD; the Guardians did not have assemblies, and the latter, the Hands, Counsellors, Board members, and their the absolutist powers of the popes or IMAMS.It was 'non-autocratic' and assistants, all of whom perform an educative and inspirational role. Other inclined towards 'democratic methods', eminent Bahi'i teachers are also impli- with elected houses of justice/assemblies citly included in this second category (at the local level by universal suffrage), but whilst the members of these houses (MUHJ 214-17). See 'LEARNED'. were bound to acquaint themselves with PURPOSE, SPIRIT A N D FORM the conditions of the Bahi'i community, they did not draw their mandate from Shoghi Effendi linked the Administrative 'the people': they were answerable to Order to the emergence of Bah6'u'llih's promised WORLD ORDER, describing it as their own consciences and not to the the 'nucleus' and 'Charter' of that Order, feelings of the mass of the Bah6'is (thus and the basis for the future 'Bahi'i avoiding the dangers of demagogy). It World Commonwealth' (GPB 324-5; upheld the 'hereditary principle'

I I

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administrative rights

(through the guardianship), but it was not a system of aristocracy (GPB 324-7; WOB 144-7, 152-7).

29

Offences that may entail loss of administrative rights are:

(1)Flagrant immorality (drinking, active HOMOSEXUALITY, companioWith the exception of the Universal nate MARRIAGE, sexual impropriety, House of Justice and the guardianship etc.). In cases of immorality the all Bahi'i administrative institutions are assembly should be compassionate now open to both women and men. towards human frailty. If the offence Unremarkable as this may be in the is not widely known, it is not West, it has been of major significance in flagrant. It is only if the behaviour the Middle East and those parts of the in question is in blatant and public 'Third World' in which women have disregard of BahH'i law, particularly traditionally occupied a subordinate if it is a cause of public scandal, that social role (see WOMEN). the assembly should act. In these circumstances the assembly should OPPOSITION T O THE lovingly offer advice, encourage the ADMINISTRATION individual to rectify their conduct, Whilst accepted by the majority of and ultimately warn them of the Bahi'is, Shoghi Effendi's emphasis on consequences of their actions. Only administrative development initially if repeated warnings go unheeded encountered some opposition, notably should the assembly then deprive the from Ruth WHITEand Ahmad Sol-IRAB. individual of their rights. (2) Breach of Bahi'i marriage laws (marriage without a Bahi'i ceremony administrative rights or without parental consent; marryMembership of the Bahi'i community ing a third party before the 'year of confers rights, particularly in relationpatience' required for a Bahi'i ship to administrative participation: DIVORCE is completed). If possible, e.g. to attend the nineteen day FEAST; the situation should be rectified. If to contribute to the Bahi'i FUND; to vote not, rights should be removed. in Bahi'i elections; to serve on Bahi'i (3) Public dissimulation of faith (e.g. ASSEMBLIES and committees; to represent making a promise to raise one's the Faith publicly (as a speaker at a children in another religion; going public meeting, etc.); and to be married through the marriage ceremony of according to Bahi'i law. Flagrant another religion as if one was breach of certain Bahi'i laws may lead actually an adherent of that religion; to the loss of some or all of these rights. holding religious office in another In such cases, it is the responsibility of religion). As (2). the relevant national spiritual assembly (4) Persistent political involvement to investigate the matter properly, and (refusal to dissociate oneself from if necessary deprive the offending indipolitical activity or office; membervidual of their rights. This action is ship of a secret society). As (2), but considered as extremely severe, and prompt action on the part of the should only be taken as a last resort. assembly may be necessary in order Offenders should first be lovingly counto protect the Faith. selled and given sufficient time to (5) Severe forms of mental illness which change their behaviour. Each case debar the individual from normal should be considered on its own merits. social involvement. Extreme care LG 50-62. should be taken in such cases, and WOMEN

deprivation of rights is not to be regarded as a sanction, but as a recognition of the individual's incapacity. (6) Criminal activities that seriously injure the reputation of the Faith. The assembly needs to exercise great discretion in such cases. Criminality of itself does not automatically debar an individual from participation in the BahYi community. Adrianople

See EDIRNE. adultery and fornication

(Ar.: zind) Bahi'is recognize MARRIAGE as the only legitimate basis for a sexual relationship. Pre- and extra-marital relationships are therefore forbidden under Bahi'i law. They are regarded as retarding the progress of the soul. In the Kitdb-iAQDASBahi'u'llih prescribes that adulterers should pay a fine to the HOIJSE OF JUSTICE (9 mithqrils (32.775 grams) of gold for the first offence, and progressively doubled thereafter) and states that they would suffer a 'humiliating torment' in the afterlife. More detailed legislation would be determined by the house of justice. KA 26 k19. 37 k49, 114 q23, 121 q49, 181 n36,200 n77;LG 34d-5.

Advent o f Divine Justice

Book-length letter from Shoghi Effendi to the North American Bahi'is, dated 25 December 1938. Written shortly after the beginning of the first American Seven Year Plan (1937-44) (see PLANS), the letter focuses on three major themes.

At a time of widespread social disruption, when the Bahi'is in IRAN,Central Asia and Germany faced restriction, the North American Bahi'is had become the 'chief remaining citadel' of the Faith.

Advent of Divine Justice

The Bahh'i prophecy of a special role for the AMERICAS was emphasized. THE 'SPIRITUAL PREREQUISITES' FOR THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE PLAN

These were: (1)moral rectitude (JUSTICE, honesty, TRUSTWORTHINESS, etc.), especially by members of local and national spiritual ASSEMBLIES, but also by all Bahi'is in their business and professional dealings, private lives, and the conduct of all Bahi'i activities; (2) absolute CHASTITY, especially by BahL'i YOUTH; and (3) complete freedom from PREIUDICE regarding RACE, class or creed. A 'double crusade' was called for: to regenerate the inner life of the BahP'i community by adhering to these principles, and to attack certain long-standing evils of American society, with its widespread deceit, corruption, moral laxity and licentiousness, and racial prejudice. The Bahi'is should not be surprised when they encountered O P P O S I T I ~ Nin this endeavour. THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE TEACHING CAMPAIGN

It was the duty of every individual believer to support the Plan, working with the Bahi'i administrative institutions, but not waiting for any specific appeal or initiative. Teaching should become the 'all-pervading concern' in the life of every Bahh'i. Each should consider every approach available to them, seeking out those who might become interested in the Faith, attracting them to the Faith, and subsequently nursing them into full maturity as Bahi'is. In so doing, the teachers should be sensitive to the hearer's degree of receptivity, and also ensure that the dignity of the Faith was preserved. By way of preparation, they should (1) thoroughly study the history and teachings of the Bahb'i Faith; (2) gain a sound knowledge of ISLAM; and (3) acquire a basic knowledge of the languages and cultures of the peoples they would

i

Afghani, al-

contact in their teaching endeavours (in this case, of the Latin Americans). PIONEERS and travelling Bahi'i teachers were needed. Translations and literature needed to be prepared. The Bahb'is should also seek to increase the racial diversity of their community. Afghani, al-

See JAMALU'D-D~N, SAYYID. Af nan (Ar., 'Twigs' of the sacred lote-

tree) Title given to the maternal relatives of the Bib by Bahi'u'llih, and adopted as a surname by their descendants. During the late 19th-century the family built up an extensive trading empire based in Shiriz and Yazd, with offices in Bombay, Hong Kong, ASHKHABAD, and Beirut. Some of the first Bahi'i printed literature was produced on their printing press in Bombay. ARR 121-4; BKG 388-9, (see also BAB,FAMILY OF). ages (of the Bahi'i Era)

agriculture

In his Tablet of the WORLD,Bahii'u'llih refers to five 'fundamental principles' for the administration of human affairs and the advancement of the world, the most important of which was the promotion of agriculture. He deplored its neglect in IRANand noted the attention given to it elsewhere (TB 89-90). 'Abdu'l-Bahi identified agriculture as the 'fundamental basis' of the community, and in a context in which farmers comprised the majority of the population, as the basis for the economic system (LG 547; PUP 217). He also praised study of 'the science of agriculture', describing devotion to such study as an act of worship (SWAB 144-5). Village communities should organize their own affairs under the control of a board of 'wise men', and establish a 'general storehouse' designed to fund local community development, fulfil financial obligations to the state, and support the local poor. This would be funded by graduated local taxes, treasure trove, and voluntary contributions (LG 547-48). cci: 81.

See n M E .

'Ahd, Kitirb-iSee COVENANT. BOOKOR

Aghsan (Ar., 'Branches'; sing. ghusn) The generic title for the male descendants of Bahi'u'llih, including 'ABDU'L- Ahmad, Tablets of BAHA,the 'Most Great Branch' (ghusn-i- Two tablets of Bahi'u'lldh, both coma'zam); MUHAMMAD-'ALi, the 'Greater posed in Edirne for men named Ahmad. Branch' (ghusn-i-akbar); and Mirzi M I H D ~the , 'Purest Branch' (ghusn-i- (1)The more well known of the two tablets is in Arabic and was revealed athar). Bahi'u'llih bade the Bahi'is to in about 1282, ~ ~ 1 1 8 6 5It . is show kindness to his 'kindred', but regarded by Bahi'is as having a denied his descendants any right 'to the special potency, and is frequently property of others', though they were used at times of difficulty or distress. made responsible for charitable endowIn it Bahi'u'llih describes himself as ments prior to the election of the 'the Nightingale of Paradise', whose Universal House of Justice (this is in song guides the lovers of God to 'this contrast to Shi'i Islam, in which sayyids resplendent Beauty', foretold in the were given special financial rights on a holy books and through whom permanent basis) KA 35 k42.41 k61, 203 n85; 'truth shall be distinguished from a 222. 'Abdu'l-Bahi directed that the error'. Those who turned away from GUARDIANSHIP should be confined to the Aghsrin (Will 12). (See ak'o NUR~FAMILY.) him had also turned away from the

divine messengers of the past. The recipient, a Bibi and former dervish, was counselled t o remember Bahi'u'llih's distress and banishment; to be 'steadfast in My love' in the face of persecution; and not be troubled if he encountered affliction in 'My path'. This Ahmad then returned to Iran, where he became one of the leading figures in gaining the allegiance of the remaining Bihis for Bahii'u'llih. He died in 1902 at an extremely advanced age. RB2 10716, I I 9-20. This tablet is found in most Bahb'i prayer books. (2) The second tablet, in Persian, was addressed to Hiji Mirzi Ahmad of Kishin, half-brother of the Bibi chronicler Hiji Mirzi Jini and of D H A B ~ of M I < i s h i n . O n e of Bahi'u'llih's companions in Edirne, this second A h m a d rejected Bahi'u'llih's claims and became a partisan of Subh-~-AzAL.The tablet to him states that Bahi'u'llih's revelation is like a fathomless and surging ocean which is closer to the individual than his 'life-vein', and warns of the need to protect 'the flame of the love of God', so that 'the evil whisperings of the ungodly' do not extinguish it in the believer's heart. The believer should regard the world as a vain and empty show which only had 'the semblance of reality', and should not set his affections On it. GWB nos. clii, cliii; RB2: 137-40. Ahmad al-Ahsa'i, Shaykh

(1753-1826) Founder of the Shaykhi school of Shi'i Islam. He was born in the Hasi region of eastern Arabia. He migrated to the Shi'i shrine cities in Iraq in the early 1790s, quickly gaining a reputation for piety and learning, and attracting a growing following. In 1806 he moved to Iran, where he gained the support of

many members of the' QAJARfamily, including the reigning monarch, Fath'Ali Shih. In about 1822 he was accused of heresy by Hiji Mulli MUHAMMADT A Q BARAGHAN~, ~ one of the leading clerics in Qazvin. He returned to Iraq (1822), but encountered such resentment from some other clerics that after a few years he determined to migrate to Mecca. He died en route and was buried at Medina. He was succeeded by his chief disciple, Sayyid KAZIMRASHT~, as leader of what had now become a distinctive sect within SH~SISM. Shaykh Ahmad's teachings were complex, and he often resorted to the Shi'i practice of pious dissimulation (taqiyya) to conceal his more controversial ideas from his opponents. He emphasized the mystical dimension of religious faith and claimed to unveil deeper esoteric truths. He believed that he had a special relationship with the IMAMS, whom he encountered in visionary experiences and from whom he derived his authority. (See also SHAYKHISM.) ~ k h i r n d H6ji , (c. 1842-1910)

Hiji Mulli 'Ali-Akbar Shahmirzidi, Iranian HANDOF THE CAUSE.In thc writings of Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'lBahi he is addressed as "Ali qabl-iAkbar'. His father was a village cleric in Shahmirzid (near Simndn) who had at one time been active as a Bdbi. Hiji AkhGnd himself became a Bibi in about 1861 after reading Bahi'u'llih's Kitrib-iiQ,iN and meeting with the Bibis. He was at that time a seminary student in Mashhad and his open efforts to convert his fellow students enraged the local religious authorities. Returning to Shahmirzid he debated religion with local clerics until forced to flee to Tehran, where he was subjected to the first of a series of imprisonments for his religious activities (1868).He soon became one of the focal points within the Tehran Bahi'i community, and was appointed as one of

Akka

34

35

Alexander II

The Ridurin garden a t the Na'mayn River

Aerial view of Akka showing the barracks in the foregrozrnd

The House 1 Abdu'ltih Past

/

humans beings with reason, and intoxicants take it away. Neither should Bahi'is consume alcohol-flavoured This island garden was rented by foods or serve alcohol to non-Bahi'i 'Abdu'l-Bahi in 1875 and visited by guests in formal Bahi'i contexts. In Bahi'u'llih from 1877 onwards. He ambiguous situations they should be loved its beauty and named it Ridurin (Paradise), after the original RIDVAN guided by 'their own conscience or consult with a spiritual ASSEMBLY. It is Garden near Baghdad, and 'Our Verdant preferable not to work in occupations Isle'. It was the site of Bahb'u'llbh's involving the manufacture of alcohol or vision of Trustworthiness (TB 37-8). its large-scale sale. In the case of those Iranian Bahi'is brought seedlings to Bahi'is who are persistent drinkers, grow in it. Two other Bahi'i gardens assemblies should first lovingly exhort (Firdaws and Ashraf) are nearby. them to stop. Later, if these exhortations The mansion of Bahji and the Shrine of are unheeded, they may warn them, and Baha"u'l1dh finally deprive them of their ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS. Bahb'is who are alcoholics should seek the help of doctors or organizations such as Alcoholics Anon'A16'i, Shu'a'u'llah (1889-1984) ymous. KA 62 k1 19, 226-7 "144;LG 349-52. (See also WINE). Iranian HANDOF THE CAUSE.He was born in Tehran into a prominent family: his father was set to become a cleric, but Alexander, Agnes Baldwin had converted to the Bahi'i Faith, 11875-1971) subsequently becoming physician to the OFTHE CAUSE. Born into American HAND royal household. He himself studied a Hawaiian Christian missionary accountancy, after which he pursued a family, she became a Bahi'i during a distinguished career in various fields of visit to Italy in 1900. She returned to government service, becoming chief conHawaii in December 1901 as the first troller of army finances (with the rank of Bahi'i on the islands, becoming instrugeneral). He was elected on to the mental in the growth of a Bahb'i Tehran Bahi'i assembly in 1913, and community there. After the deaths of the newly formed Iranian Bahi'i her parents she moved to the American national assembly in 1934, often serving mainland, and then, at the request of as its chairman. Shoghi Effendi 'Abdu'l-Bahb, moved to Japan. Reachappointed him as one of the first group ing there in November 1914, she of Hands in 1952, and thereafter he worked with George AUGURand his travelled extensively, visiting Bahi'i wife to establish a Bahi'i community, communities in many parts of the world. spending much of the rest of her life in He left Iran in 1978, spending the last the country. She was also the first to few years of his life in France and then present the Bahi'i teachings in Korea Arizona. Horper 335-8. (1921). She was appointed a Hand on 27 March 1957. She died in Hawaii. Alexander, Hisbry; Personal Recollections; BW15:423alcohol Bahl'is are prohibited from drinking any form of alcohol (unless prescribed by a physician) on the grounds that intoxicants lead the mind astray and weaken the body: God has endowed

30;Harper 145-55.

Alexanderll (1818-81) Russian tsar, 1855-81 ('the Liberator'). He emancipated the serfs in 1861, but

!

'Ali, Hiii M i d Sayyid dent opposition. Denounced as a heretic, he was arrested, and eventually tried before a joint tribunal of Sunni and Shi'i 'ulamd in January 1845 - an unprecedented event. The tribunal was unanimous in condemning the as yet unnamed author of the Qayyrimu'lasmri as an unbeliever, but disagreed as to the fate of the messenger. Finally, in April, on instructions from the Ottoman government, Bastimi was transferred to Istanbul, where he was sentenced to hard labour in the naval dockyard, and died shortly thereafter. ARR 1754,211-37; TJ

later became increasingly reactionary. He was assassinated by nihilists. Bahi'u'llih wrote to him from Akka, summoning him to listen to the voice of God and himself call the nations unto God. He should beware that nothing deter him from this and that he did not barter away the 'sublime station' he occupied by dint of the offer of refuge given to Bahi'u'llih by the Russian minister when he had been released The tsar's prayer from the S~YAH-CHAL. - according to one account to make his forces victorious against the Ottomans had been heard and answered. ~sW56-9;

401; TN 248-9; MBBR 83-90; Momen, 'Trial of Mu116

PDC 32-4, 57; RB3: 118-23.

'Ali Baqbmi'; Nobil66-9, 88-92.

'Ali, Haji Mirza Sayyid (d. 1850) A leading merchant of Shiriz and the Bib's maternal uncle and guardian. He was one of the first after the LETTERS OF: TrrE LIVINGto accept his nephew's claims. He was executed as a Bibi in 1850. (See also BAn, FAMILY OF; SEVEN MAICTYRS OF TEHRAN.)

Ali-Kuli Khan (c. 1879-1966) Also known as Nabilu'd-dawlih. Eminent Iranian Bahi'i. He served brietly as 'Abdu'l-Bahi's Enghsh-language secretary (1899-1901) and was subsequently sent to h c r i c a whcre he translatcd several Bahi'i books into English as well as continuing to translate 'Abdu'l-Bahi's correspondence with the American Bahi'is. I-Ie was appointed Iranian chargi d'affaires in Washington in 1910 and later served in various high-ranking diplomatic posts. His marriage to Florence Breed (1875-1950) in 1904 was praised hy 'Abdu'l-Bahi as the first betwccn East and West. Their daughter, Marzieh Gail (1908-93), also became an eminent Baha'i translator. sw1.7:703-4; BW14: 3513;

'Ali Basfami, Mu116 (d. 1845) One of the Bib's first group of disciples (LKITERS O F .THELIVING), and formerly one of the leading students of Sayyid K A Z I MRASHTI,who joined Mu116 HUSAYN BUSHRV'~ in religious retreat following the Kizim's death, and subsequently joined him in Shiriz, where he Goil, Arch- of the Yews; Gail, Summon up Remembrance. became the 'second who believed'. The On Goil see Bda'i Studies Review 6 (1996): 135-9. Bib identified him with the I m h 'Ali, and sent him to the Shi'i shrine cities of Iraq (particularly Najaf and KARBALA) to proclaim the Bbb's advent. Arriving in 'Ali Pbshi, OTTOMANstatesman and AugustISeptember 1844, Bastimi reformer who was grand vizier during appears initially to have gained the the 1850s and again from 1867 to 1871 support of most of the local Shaykhis. As such, Distributing extracts from the QAYYU- under Sultan ABDULAZIZ. MU'L-ASMA and presenting Bbbi claims Bahi'u'llih held him responsible for the ordcr of banishment to Akka, and directly to Shaykh Muhammad-Hasan reproved his actions in the two Tablets Najafi, one of the pre-eminent Shi'i of RnSls and the tablet to FUATPASA, clerics of the day, he provoked both widespread millenarian fervour and stripredicting his downfall. GPB IM),196.

'Ali Turshizi, Mulla Shaykh

aboriginal inhabitants were likened to the ancient Arabians who had become so enkindled by the 'Muhammadan Light' that they had illumined the world 'All Food', Tablet of (TDP 32-3, 59-60). The Bahi'is of the (PA: Lawh-i-Kulln't-ta'rim) United States and Canada were given a special mission to take the Bahfi teachArabic tablet of Bahi'u'llih composed ings to the rest of the world. Under during the first period of his stay in Shoghi Effendi's direction the North Baghdad (18534). American Bahi'is began to realize this It was addressed to Hiji Mirzi mission in their first Seven Year PLAN Kamilu'd-din Nariqi (d. c.1881) in (1937-44). Shoghi Effendi also commentary on a Quranic verse ('All described the American BahL'i cornmufood was allowed to the children of nity as the 'cradle' and 'stronghold' of Israel except what Israel made unlawful the futurc Bahi'i WORLD ORDER, and as for itself'). In it Bahi'u'llih stated that the 'prime mover and pattern' of Bahi'i the verse had infinite meanings in the communities in the rest of the Americas. various worlds of God, each word in it They were the spiritual descendants of being multivalent (e.g. 'food' as 'knowlthe Bibis, and their sacrificial services in edge', as recognition of the Manifestathe administrative and teachmg work of tion of God, etc.). He also lamented his the Faith were much praised (AD] 5-9). own sufferings and referred to the As to the United States of America, greatness of Quooirs. The tablet was Shoghi Effendi noted in December 1938 significant in the developing tension between Bahi'u'llih and Subh-i-AZAL: its inevitable role in the developing world crisis, and predicted that it would Nariqi had first requested Azal to rise to fulfil its destiny - to 'lay the comment on the verse, but was so corner-stone of a universal and enduring disappointed with his answer that he peace', proclaim the solidarity of the became disillusioned with his leadership. human race, and establish righteousness Bahi'u'llih's commentary, by contrast, on earth - after involvement in a second won his admiration, and he became a world war (AD] 72-7). devotee. Cole. 'Boh6'u'll6h and the NaqrhbandiSufis' See Az~M.

12-13; GPB 116-17; Lombdan, 'AlaMet'; RBI: 55-60.

Amin, Haji (c. 1831-1928) Americas In thc Kitdb-i-AQDAS Bahi'u'llih addressed the rulers of the American republics, announcing that he was God's promised one to whom they should turn, and counselling them to 'adorn the temple of dominion' with the ornament of justice, the fear of God and divine remembrance. They should bind 'the broken' with 'the hands of justice', and 'crush the oppressor' with the rod of divine commandments (KA 52 k88). 'Abdu'l-Bahi referred to the Americas as the home of the righteous and the gathering place of the free. In them God's light would be revealed. Their

Hiji Abu'l-Hasan Ardikini, prominent Iranian Bahi'i, also known as Amin-iIlrihi (the trustee of God). He became a Bibi in about 1851, and after accepting Bahi'u'llih's claims converted many Bibi families to the Bahi'i Faith. He later became the assistant to H6ji ShihMullammad Manshidi (Amii7u'l-Bayrin), who had been appointed by Bahi'u'llih as collector of H ~ ~ r i ~ l 1 ' 1and, .1.~ after ~ his death in 1880, succeeded him in that position. These tasks involved him in lengthy journeys during which he would visit Bahi'u'llih in Akka to deliver money and letters from BahL'is and then visit various parts of Iran distributing

I

I I

I

1

Amir Kabir, Mirzb Taqi Khbn ~~

-

Bahi'u'llih's letters to the Bahl'is. He first visited Akka in ~ ~ 1 2 8 6 1 1 8 6 and 9, was able to bring back the news to the Innian Bahi'is that Bahi'u'llih was safe. He was one of the prominent Bahi'is imprisoned in 1891-3. He travelled less as he got older and eventually chose Hiji Ghulim-Ridi as his assistant, gradually delegating his functions to him. He died in his nineties. 'Abdu'l-Bahi named one OFTHE BAB in of the doors of the SHRINE his honour. Shoghi Effendi posthumously named him as one of the HANDS OF THE CAUSE and listed him among the h o s TLES OP BAIIA'U'LLAH. Harpsr 536. Amir Kabir, Mirza Taqi Khan (180718-52)

First of NASIRU'D-DIN SHAH'Sprime ministers, 19 October 1848-13 November 1851. He was subsequently killed (bled to death) on the shah's order. He is now best remembered for his efforts to introduce government reform and his

establishment of the Dim'l-Funh college. Determined and capable, he regarded the Bibis as a serious threat to civil order and repressed them. He was instrumental in the suppression of the Bibi upheavals of 1848-51 and personally ordered the execution of the SEVEN MARTYRS OF TEHRAN and of the Bib, in this last case entrusting his brother, M i n i Hasan Khin, the vazirnizdm (army commander in Azerbaijan), with the task of superintending the execution. He credited Bahi'u'llih with having given decisive support to the Bibis at TABARS~ and induced him to retire to the Shi'i shrines in Iraq in 1851. 'Abdu'l-BahH referred to him as the greatest of the Faith's oppressors but also acknowledged his significance as a government reformer. MBBR 1605. Andalib ('Nightingale'), Aq6 'Ali-Ashraf (d. 1920)

Prominent Iranian Bahi'i teacher famed as a poet. EB 60-74. angels

Anrir Kabir, chief rnirristcr of Nasiru'd din Shlih

Spiritual beings, traditionally believed to be attendant upon God, who serve as messengers or executors of the divine will. The concept is found in several religions. In the Kitdb-~-IQAN Bahi'u'llih referred to angels as those people who have consumed 'all human traits and limitations' with 'the fire of the love of God', and have 'clothed themselves' with angelic qualities and become 'endowed with the attributes of the spiritual' (KI 50-1). 'Abdu'l-Bahi stated that 'angels' are both 'the confirmations of God and His celestial powers' by which certain holy people were supported, and those 'blessed beings', who have 'severed all ties with the nether world' and 'been released from the chains of self', and become the 'revealers of God's abounding grace' (SWAB 81, 166,287-8). There are also references to an angelic host - the 'Concourse on

high' - who aid those who serve the Bahi'i Cause, and to celestial figures, notably the M A I D O F HEAVENof Bahi'u'llih's visions. animals

Cruelty to animals is condemned. 'Abdu'l-BahL taught that Bahi'is should treat animals with loving-kindness and compassion, and should train their children to care for animals. Cruelty to animals is unjust: they can experience pain in the same way as human beings can but unlike humans cannot complain to the authorities about their oppressors. Again, they are innocent whilst humans are sinful. The only exception is those animals that are dangerous to people and other animals: to deal with these is to protect those they might attack (SWAB 58-60). Vivisection for research purposes is regarded as permissible as long as the animal is anaesthetized and does not suffer (LG 292-3 no. 993-5). Bahi'u'llih stated that no one should burden an animal with more than it can bear (KA 87 k187). VEGETARIANISM

For 'Abdu'l-Bahi eating animals was 'somewhat contrary' to compassion. He taught that whilst a vegetarian DIET is commendable, and would become increasingly favoured by people in the future, there is no requirement to adopt it (LG 295). It is also necessary to remember that, with every breath of air or drink of water, humans swallow a multitude of microscopic animal life: they too are part of the web of life (SWAB 157). HUNTING

Bahi'u'llih stated that hunting was lawful, but should not be excessive. In response to the complex of Islamic laws regarding the lawfulness of eating animals that had been hunted, he prohibited eating those creatures that had been

found dead in snares or traps, but permitted eating those that had been shot, or caught using beasts or birds of prey. In this latter case, the hunter should invoke God's name when they sent out their hunting animal. t a 40 k60, 115 q24.203 "83-4.

antichrist (Ar.: dajjdl)

Expected figure in Christian and Islamic apocalypticism. Shoghi Effendi identified Hiji Mirzi A Q A S ~ as the antichrist of the Bibi dispensation for having turned MUHAMMAD SHAHagainst the Bib, and Sayyid MUHAMMAD IQFAHAN~ as the antichrist of the Bahi'i dispensation for having misled Subh-i-AZAL(GPB 164). In both cases, the antichrist had manipulated a weak person who was in a position of influence in order to oppose Cod's Cause. For the Bibis, KAR~MKHAN K I R M Aassumed N~ a similar oppositional role (SDDR 18). TN304-5. apocalypticism

See CALAMIT~; MILLENARIANISM. apologetics

That branch of theology concerned with the rational justification of a religion. Bahl'is commonly believe that religious truth can be 'proved', and that INDEPENDENTINVFSTIGATIoN OFTRUTH will invariably lead the seeker who is pure in heart to acceptance of the Dahi'i Faith. PROOF

For Bahi'is the validity of each of the MANIFESTATIONS 01: GODis shown by the following: (1) The compelling power of the WORD OF GOD: those who recognized its truth were transformed, obeying the Prophets' teachings and laws (e.g. fasting, going on pilgrimage, abandoning wrongdoing), even when this involved inconvenience; being brought together in unity, thereby

apostasy overcoming pre-existing divisions (Jew and Gentile, black and white, etc.); and being ready to die for the sake of their convictions. Ultimately, a new civilization developed from the impetus the Prophets gave to their followers. (2) The REVELATION of divine verses: particularly emphasized by both the Bib and BahL'u'llLh as the primary proof of their mission. Correspondingly, BahL'u'llLh challenged Subh-iAZALto produce a single verse if he wished to prove that he possessed divinely inspired knowledge (TB 756). (3) The characteristics of the Manifestation himself: the integrity of his life and teachings, his willingness to suffcr for the sake of the truth, his endurance and steadfastness in the face of opposition, and his innate . . knowledge. (4) PROPHECY: the latest Manifestation both fulfilled the prophecies of those who preceded him and foretold the future. ( 5 ) The Prophet's teachings, which were attractive, challenging and appropriate to the age to which he came. ( 6 ) Thc dcfcat of those who opposed divine truth, often expressed in specific nlvrNE JUDGEMENT. MIRACLES are not generally regarded as an adequate proof of divine mission, though Shoghi Effendi included the 'marvelous happenings' that had heralded the Bib's advent and the 'miraculous tragedy' of his martyrdom as amongst the 'sufficient evidence' for the validity of his claim (along with the dramatic circumstances of his life, and the 'magic' of the influence he had exerted on the most eminent and powerful among his countrymen) (WOB 124). Lorn+. APOLOGETIC LITERATURE

Both the Bib ( S E V EPROOFS) ~ and Bahi'u'llih (Kitdb-i-IQAN)presented

40

41

Apostles of Bah3u'llCh --

'proofs' of their religion, the fqdn remaining a primary proof text for Bahi'is. 'Abdu'l-BahL often offered proofs of his father's mission during his talks in the West (1911-13). Of other Bahh'i apologists, the most important who wrote was MirzL ABU'L-FADL, books in support of Bahi'i claims addressed to Muslims, Iranian Jews and Western Christians. Given the BahL'i acceptance of other religions as true (see RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY), there is a growing body of BahL'i apologetic literature addressed to the members of the various world religions (in English, but also BUDmostly CI-IRISTIANITY, DI-LISM; Hinduism (see INDIAN RELIGIONS); I N D I G E N O U S RELIGIONS; and ISLAM), as well as more 'secular' works (such as Huddleston, Earth).

Abandonment of one's religious faith. Regarded as a cardinal sin by the early Christians and theoretically (and sometimes in practice) punished with death in Islam. The Bahi'i belief in the INDEFENDENT INVESTIGATION OF TRUTH entails freedom of religious belief, so that those who no longer accept the Bahi'i Faith as true are free to leave. National ASSEMBLIES generally ask for formal letters or statements of resignation before officially accepting a person's withdrawal from the Faith. The term 'apostate' is not used except to refer to those former Bahi'is, such as the Iranian historian AVARIH, who volubly attack the Faith and its institutions.

Apostles of Bahir'u'llirh Honorific designation by Shoghi Effendi for nineteen prominent early Bahi'is (BW3: 80-1). They are also termed LE~ 'Pillars of the Faith' (cf. D T S C ~ POF 'ABDU.L-BAHA). The list comprises: (1) Mirzd MirsA, Bahi'u'llih's true brother'

'only

The Apostles of BahliSl'llrih (see text for key)

appeals

-. -

Aadas, Kit6b-i-

-

(2) Mirzi Buzurg B~oi.,'youthful marappeals tyr', the bearer of Bahi'u'llih's Individuals may appeal against decisions letter to NASIRU'D-DIN SHAH of their local or national ASSEMBLIES, in (3) Sayyid Hasan, the KINGOF MARTYRSthe first instance to the assembly itself, (4) Mulli Abu'l-Hasan Ardikini, surand subsequently to a higher authority (to named hi^, 'faithful steward' of the respective national assembly and the Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi Universal House of Justice). Differences (5) Mirzi ABU'L-FADL Gulpiygini between local assemblies that cannot be (6) Mirzi 'Ali-Muhammad V A R Q ~ , amicably resolved between themselves 'poet, teacher, and martyr' should be addressed to the respective (7) M r z i Mahm6d FURUGH~, 'an indonational assembly. LG62-4;UHIC no. viii. mitable spirit and jealous defender of the Faith' 6 q 6 JCn KCshCni, MirzC (8) Mu116 'Ali-Akbar Shahmirzidi, (c. 1837-1901) also known as Hiji AKHUND, 'a Secretary of Bahb'u'llih. Born into a flame of zeal and devotion' (9) Mulli Muhammad Qi'ini, NAB~L-I-merchant family, he became a Bibi as a AKBAR,'learned and steadfast youth. He was still only sixteen when he first met Bahi'u'llih in Karbali in 1853 exponent of the Bahi'i Revelation' (10) H i j i M i r z i M U H A M M A D - T A Qand ~ , became his fervent disciple, being accorded the status of being 'the first to Vakil~dd-dawlih, 'Kabir-i-Afnan', believe' in him. Some time after 'chief builder' of the Mashuiqu'lBahC'u'llih's return from Kurdistan, Adhkdr of Ashkhabad Aqi Jbn became his attendant and chief (11)H i j i M i r z i Muhammad-Taqi secretary, subsequently accompanying Abhari, IBN-I-ABHAR, 'prominent him on the various stages of his exile. teacher' Bahi'u'llih called him Khddimw'llih (12) M u l l i M u h a m m a d Z a r a n d i , ('servant of God'),. Towards the end of N A B ~ L - 1 - ~ Z 'poet, A M , historian, Bahi'u'llih's life Aqi JBn fell into some and teacher of the Faith' (13) Shaykh Kizim SAMANDAR, 'a flame d i s f a v o u r w i t h him, a n d a f t e r Bahi'u'llih's passing Aqi Jin joined of the love of God, favored of and the partisans of MUHAMMAD-'AL~ Bahi'u'llih' was declared a COVENANT-BREAKER by (14) Mirzi MUHAMMAD MUSTAFA al'Abdu'l-Bahi. BKGI 09-1 2; TCB181-92. (See Baghdidi, 'brave and vigilant cusalso REVELATION,) todian and bearer of the remains of the Bib' (15) Mirzi Husayn MISHKIN-QALAM,AqC Khan-i-Nirri, M i r z b calligrapher and Bahb'u'llih's com( N a p r u ' l l a h ) (d. 1865) panion-in-exile SHAH'S prime Second of NASIRWD-D~N (16) Mirzi Hasan, AD~B, 'devoted teaministers (1851-8), successor of AM~R cher of the Cause' KAB~R, whose downfall he helped engiQkl~i, (17) Shaykh MUHAMMAD-'AL~ neer. He oversaw the execution of Bibis 'eloquent and learned champion in the aftermath of the attempt on the of the Faith in Russian Turkistin' life of the shah. He was distantly related (18) Mu116 Zaynu'LCAbidin, ZAYNU~Lto Bahi'u'llih. MBBR1 3 5 4 . 165-7. IMUQARRAB~N, 'noted scribe' and chief among the exiles of Mosul (19) Mirzb 'Ali-Muhammad, IBN-I- Aqasi, H a j i M i r z a (c. 1783-1849) ASDAQ,'zealous advocate' of the Chief minister of MU~IAMMAD SHAH, Covenant. 1835-48. He dominated his master, in

part through his role as his religious guide. He became greatly opposed to the BAB, presumably seeing him as a potential threat to his own position, and successfully endeavoured to ensure that he was never received by the shah. After the death of MAN~JCHIHR KHAN, Aqisi had the Bib imprisoned in MAKU, a village under his influence. He later had him transferred to CHIHR~Q and arranged for him to be tried in Tabriz in 1848. The,Bib wrote a number of letters to Aqisi and also addressed him in ,various of his writings. Finally, when Aqisi's enmity was clearly evident, he referred to him as Satan and condemned him unreservedly in the Khutbi-yj-Qahriyyih ('Sermon of Wrath'). Aqisi fell from power with the death of his master in 1848 and had to flee from Tehran to escape his many enemies. Shoghi Effendi stigmatized him as the ANTICHRIST of the 'Rbbi Revelation' (GPB 164). MBBR 154-6.

messenger is only complete by acceptance of what he has revealed and observance of his law (KA 19 Itl; TB 50). This is not a 'mere code of laws', but a 'choice Wine' (KA 21 k5). The laws are 'the breath of life' for 'all created things' (GPB 215), and 'the highest means for the maintenance of order in the world and the security of its peoples' (KA 19 It2). Acceptance of God's messenger requires also acceptance of his laws. They should be followed out of love for his 'beauty', and for the 'sweetness' of their taste (KA 20 k3, 4), and even if they cause 'the heaven of every religion to be cleft asunder' (KA 21 k7). They are God's laws. Conscious breach of them indicates heedlessness, and both God and Bahi'u'llih would 'be clear of such a one' (TB 188-9). 'True liberty' consists in obedience to these laws (KA 63 k125). They suffuse the heart of the true believer with light, and should be obeyed with 'joy and gladness' (KA 73 k148). Shoghi Effendi described the Aqdas, Kitbb-iAqdas as the 'Mothcr Book' of the (PA, 'The Most Holy Book') BahL'i dispensation; the 'brightest emaBahi'u'llih's book of holy law. He nation of the mind of Bahi'u'llih'; and composed it in Arabic, and completed the charter of his 'New World Order', it around 1873 whilst he was still in the foretold in the Bible in such phrases as city of Akka. It was supplemented by the promised 'new hcaven' and 'new various later writings (TB), and by earth' (GPB 213). Bahi'u'llih's replies to a series of quesThe laws themselves partly follow the tions about it posed by one of his pattern of the Islamic and Bibi holy law, Secretaries, ZAYNVL-MUQARRAB~N, himand include: self an expert in Islamic law. It was first published in Bombay in 1890/1. (1) personal obligations towards God BahL'u'llih stated that it was revcalcd (obligatory PRAYER, FASTING, PILin response to repeated requests from his G R I M A G E , ZAKAT, H U Q C ~ Q U ' L L A H , followers for laws to follow (KA 55-6 daily repetition of God's name (see k98). DEVOTIONALISM)); For Bahi'u'llih, the Aqdas is God's (2) the regulation of personal status and proof 'unto all who are in hcaven and all contracts (MARRIAGE, DIVORCE, the who are on earth' (KA 3). It is also his age of MATURITY; INHERITANCE; 'unerring Balance', whereby all the WILLS, endowments); (3) community life (CALENDAR, certain peoples of the world are tested (I
45

Aqdas, Law&;-

(4) prohibitions (against ADULTERY, pedASCETICISM, erasty, ALCOHOL, DRUGS, MONASTICISM, BEGGING, GAMBLING,

the kissing of the hands, sedition, the s u v e TRADE, use of insanitary Iranian public baths, overburdening ANIMALS); ( 5 ) exhortations ( t o goodly deeds CONFESSION OF SINS,

CLEANLINESS, DETACHMENT, TRUSTWORTHINESS,

WORK,

SOCIAL ORDER,

to associate amicably with the followers of all religions, to promote the development of countries and cities, to adopt a single world LANGUAGE); and (6) punishments for CRIME and breaches of certain social laws. Bahi'u'llih also abrogated Islamic teachings of ritual impurity, the Islamic prohibitions against MUSIC and the use of vessels of gold and silver, and the Bihi prohibition against marrying non-believers; called upon the KINGS of the world to recognize him; addressed specific RULERS (see also FRANZ-JOSEPH, WILHELM I), the presidents of the American republics (see AMERICAS), the inhabitants of ISTANBUL and TEHRAN; emphasized the INFALLIBILITY of the MANIPESTATIONS OF GOD; warned against pride and perverse interpretation of God's laws; warned RELIGIOUS LEADERS not to evaluate the Aqdas by their own criteria or to prevent the people from recognizing Bahi'u'llih; warned thc Bibis not to reject him; directed the Bahi'is to follow 'Him Whom God hath purposed' amongst his sons after his death (see CoveNANT); and stated that there would be no further Manifestation of God for a thousand years. An English translation was made in about 1900 and circulated amongst the

early American Bahl'is, and a literalistic non-Bahi'i translation was published in 1961. An official Bahi'i translation was long delayed, however, and it was not until 1973 that the Universal House of Justice published a Synopsis and Codification of the text, and 1992 that a full translation was made available. Accompanied by the supplementary questions and answers, and by copious notes, this edition was designed to help readers from a non-Islamic background understand aspects of the book that would have otherwise seemed strange or obscure to them. GPB 2 13-1 6; KA; MUW 67-9 no. 27,231 no. 125,272-3 no. 145,277-9 no. 147, 447-51 no. 251; RB3: 275499; BFSH 71-3; UHI, Synopsis; Wolbridge, Sacred 248-52.

Aqdas, Lawh-i(PA, 'The Most Holy Tablet') Arabic tablet of Bahi'u'llih revealed in Akka, sometimes also referred to as the Tablet to the Christians. The recipient was possibly Firis Effendi, a Baha'i of Syrian Christian background (BKG 267-78; RB3 5-11). The tablet addresses all Christians; proclaims that Bah5'u'llih is the promised Spirit of Truth who has come to guide them to all truth; and asks them not to be like the Jewish Pharisees who awaited the advent of the Messiah but were unable to recognize Jesus when he came. The leaders of society were now pleased to call themselves Christians, but when Jesus came the most learned of his own people condemned him to death, whilst he was recognized by a humble fisherman. Present Christian leaders were specifically summoned: the priests should leave their churches and proclaim Bahi'u'llih's Cause and the monks become the 'heirs of My Kingdom'. The fall of bishops ('the stars of the heaven of My knowledge') was stated to be by divine justice. rs 7-17; SOWS, 5)v.d~;RB4: 227-35. (See also CHRISTIANITY.)

Arc, buildings of

Arc, buildings of

the buildings of the Arc. Its choice of architect, H u s a y n Amanat, was In his Tablet of CARMELBahi'u'llih announced in 1973. Work started in stated that God would 'sail His Ark' 1975 and was completed in 1982. The upon the mountain, a prophecy which building was formally occupied in 1983. Shoghi Effendi interpreted to refer to the The Seat, located at the apex of the Arc, future establishment of the Universal is a large building comprising five-and-aHouse of Justice. More widely, it was half storeys. In addition to the council linked to the evolution of a number of chamber of the House of Justice and 'world-shaking' administrative instituconsiderable office space, it includes a tions which would be sited on Mount reception concourse, banquet room, Carmel, the focal centre of which was reference library and storage vaults. the grave of BAHIYYIH KHANUM (see also The exterior is constructed in classical HAIFA). These institutions would be built style, with a colonnade of Corinthian along an 'Arc' which Shoghi Effendi columns, and is topped by a low dome. traced along the flank of the mountain The decision to construct two further above the grave. The completion of buildings of the Arc was announced by these buildings is regarded by Bahb'is as being linked to the onset of the Lesser the Universal House of Justice in 1987: PEACE. The first of the buildings to be (1)the seat of the INTERNATIONAL constructed for these institutions was TEACHING CENTRE. that for the INTERNATIONALARCHIVES, its (2) the Centre for the Study of the Texts, stately, classical style setting a model for a n institution of scholars which the rest. would assist the House of Justice in In 1972 the Universal House of consulting the Bahl'i sacred writings Justice announced that it would initiate and prepare translations and complanning for its own Seat, the second of mentaries. It would represent the

A model of the buildings of the Arc. In the centre is the Seat of the Universal House of lustice; on the left is the International Library and the Seat of the international Teaching Centre; on the right is the Centre for the Study of the Sacred Texts and the International Archives Building.

architecture

46

'efflorescence' of the Research conditions of humanity. It is intended to Department of the BAHMWORLD become a centre of knowledge in all fields and give rise to institutions of CENTRE. scientific discovery. It is to be located at pending the Work On these was the far end of the Arc from the Archives co'lection of sufficient building. BwJe:465-72; BWNS 19923; 169-76; beginning in 1992' It is now in an 1993-4: 67-75; 1994-5: 65-73; ,9956: 5 5 4 4 ; advanced state. The architect was aaain .. . Ruhe 1 / 2 4 . Husayn Amanat. The buildings are located on either side of the Seat-of the architecture Universal House of Tustice. At the same time, a large underground extension to There is no distinctive style of Bahi'i the International Archives building and architecture. The various Bahi,i the terraces above and below the SHRINE ples' (See MASHRIQU'L-ADHKAR) conOF THE BABare being constructed. The form to the same basic pattern; they are nine-sided with domes, architect for the terraces is Fariborz " banaa. but are otherwise extremely diverse in A final building is projected for style. Several incorporate indigenous construction at some point in the next elements and motifs (notably the Kamcentury: an International Bahi'i Library. pala, Panama, Apia, and New Delhi This will extend the activities of the temples). The Wilmette and New Delhi present Bahi'i World Centre Library, temples have attracted considerable and is to serve both as the central interest among architects for their depository of all literature on thc Bahi'i originality of construction. Shoghi Faith and as a resource centre on Effendi's artistic taste has been a major subjects relating to the Faith and the influence on the design of many of the

-

3

,

Some major Baha'i edifices BIJILDING

1'ERIOD OF CONSTRUCTlON

Inner Shrine of the Bib Ashkhabad temple

189911900-7 1902-8 (Outer decoration completed in 1919) 1920-53 194819-53 1955-7 195841 1958-61 1960-4 1967-72 1975-83

Wilmette temple Outer Shrine of the Bib International Archives Kampala temple Sydney temple Langenhain temple Panama temple Seat of the Universal House of Justice New Delhi temple Apia temple Arc buildings Mt. Carmel terraces

ARCHITECT

Ustid 'Ali-Akbar BanniVVolkov Louis Bourgeois Sutherland Maxwell Andrea RoccaIShoghi Effendi Mason Remey Mason Remey Teuto Rocholl Peter Tillotson Husayn Amanat Fariborz Sahba Husayn Amanat Husayn Amanat Fariborz Sahba

most important Bah5'i buildings in the world, notably those of the ARCat the BAHki WORLDCENTRE,and several of the temples. The buildings of the Arc follow a general classical style established by Shoghi Effendi in the design for the INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES building. His view was that classical Greek buildings were not only beautiful and dignified (both qualities he wanted in the structure), but had also proved to be of enduring value. Much modern architecture, by contrast, he regarded as ugly and experimental (and therefore transient), and he vetoed the original design for the Kampala temple on this basis. (RW13: 705; Rabbani, Priceless Pearl 264, 359). National and local Bahi'i centres and other Bahi'i buildings in various parts of the world conform to no particular style. archives

armaments

Bahi'u'llih desired that war weapons be converted into 'instruments of reconstruction' so that conflict might cease (TB 23). If the world's rulers established PEACE between the nations, then the need for armaments would disappear, apart from the limited quantities required for defence and to maintain internal order in each country (P~oclamation13; TB 165). Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahi deplored the economic burden that armament development placed on the hapless masses who were required to pay for it. I-Ie taught that internationally agreed and enforced limits should be placed on the extent of each nation's armaments. This would obviate the 'crazed competition' to develop new weapons and increase the size of armed forces which itself aroused the suspicions of others (SDC 61-2,65-6; Esslemont A 148-9/B 157; see also WAR).

Bahi'i archival collections comprise Armstrong, Leonora Stirling both historical documents and relics. ( n i e Holsapple) (1895-1980) Shoghi Effendi emphasized the importance of individual, local and national American PIONEER to Brazil (1921-80) Bahii'i archives, and himself built up and first Bahi'i resident in South Amerthe extensive INTERNATIONAL ARCI-IIVES, ica. She translated Bahi'i literature into which were eventually housed in a Portnguese and Spanish, and during a stately building in Haifa (1957). He short visit to Spain (1930) formed the also published copies of much original first Bahi'i group in that country. She documentation relating to Bahh'i hiswas appointed t o the CONTINENTAL tory in the series B A H A ~WORLD.He BOARDOF COUNSELLORS in 1973. The urged ASSEMBLIES to be cautious in the Universal House of Justice described her disposal of their papers as these might as the 'spiritual mother' of South Amerbe of unexpected value to future historica. ~ ~ 1733-8. 8 : ians, and directed that such disposal should be checked by an appointed art committee rather than being entrusted to an individual. At the BAHki WORLD Bahi'u'llih praised CRAPTSMANSIIIP; it reflects God's name, 'the Fashioner'. As CENTRE there are now well-established with other types of WORK it is a form of programmes to collect, classify and worship, and those who follow a panipreserve documents and relics as part cular craft or art should attain the of the work of the archives office. greatest proficiency in it, for God loves Similar departments have also becn 'the highest perfection'. Shoghi Effendi established by the American Bahi'i noted that the spirit of every religion had national assembly. IG95-7. come to be expressed in art. What

artificial fertilization

Bahi'i artists and architects had so far produced was only the first rays of the dawn. Thcre was as yet no 'Bahi'i art' (or music, literature, and architecture), as this would be the flower of a fun~re Bahi'i civilization. Then, when Bahl'i played a larger role in society, its spirit would find f ~ ~ l lexpression er in the work of artists and would act to ennoble peoples' sentiments and attract them to the Faith. ccr: 1 4 . Rahi'is are not permitted to portray any MANI~ESTATIONOF GODin any of the visual or dramatic arts. Such portrayals in past religions include great works made in a spirit of reverencc and lovc, but according to the Bahi'i view, greater human maturity should now engendcr a higher sense of reverence. IG97-100. Of the visual arts, C A L L I G R A P H Y occupies an honoured place in the Iranian cultural tradition, and there have been a number of eminent Bahi'is who were gifted calligraphers, notably MISHK~N-QALA Amongst M. Western BahH'is, the potter Bernard LEACH and achieved interthe painter Mark TOBEY national renown. Also increasingly well known is the South African paintcr Rcginald Turvey. The South African Bahi'i community has now established a Bahi'i association for the arts, and holds an annual art exhibition. An international Bahi'i Association for Arts was formed in 1986 based in the Netherlands. A Canadian Bahi'i acts council was started in 1988. F~tzgerald; BWNS 1994-5: 243-72.

artificial fertilization

Childless couples can use artificial insemination and in-vitro fertilization methods as long as it is the husband's own sperm that fertilizes the wife's own ovum. Surrogate motherhood is not permitted on account of its complex spiritual and social implications. LG 288 nor. 9735.348 no. 1168.

48 Asadu'llCh Khu'i, Mulla

asceticism

Bahi'u'llih

taught the importance of and piety, but forbade asceticism (TB 71). God created the bounties of the world for human beings to enjoy, and ascetic practices such as those of some Sufis (e.g. seclusion in mountain caves and graveyards) and Hindus were not the means of approaching God (KA 31 k36). Again, whilst the pious dccdq of Christian monks wcre to bc praiscd, they should now abandon seclusion and live in the 'open world'. (See also MONASTICISM). DETACHMENT

Ashkhabad (Pers.: 'Ishqibid)

Capital of Turkmenistan, and of the former imperial Russian governorate of Turkestan. The city is close to the Iranian border, and received large numbers of Iranian immigrants from the 1880s onwards. These included Bahi'is, many of them merchants and builders, who were seeking both economic opportunity and the chance to escape persccution in their homeland. Their numbers soon rose to about four hundred. The Rahi'i presence led to growing antiBahi'i sentiment amongst the Iranian Shi'i settlers, culminating in the brutal public murder of a prominent Bahi'i (Hiji Muhammad-Ridi Isfihini) on 8 Scptember 1889, preliminary to a projected general attack on the Bahi'is. To the assailants' surprise, however, the Russian authorities intervened to protect the Rahi'is, and arrcsted the murderers and their backers, sentencing several to death or internal exile, the sevcrcr sentences only being commuted at the request of the BahP'is. The trial served to mark off the Bahl'is as a separate religious community recognized and protected by the government - a situation unique at the time. Ashkhabad

49

assemblies

the local ' U L A M A ordered his execuhon, thenceforth attracted more Bahi'i immialong with that of his fellow Bahi'i Aqi grants, and the community rapidly Naqd-'Ali (born blind, but named Abudeveloped into a model of the Bahl'i Basir (the 'Father of Insight') by ideal, establishing a 'Spiritual Board of Counsel' (1895-6, possibly the first Bahi'u'llih). Ashraf's refusal to recant Bahi'i ASSEMBLY in the world), and - he was related to one of the leading constructing a travellers' hospice; disclerics of the city who sought to interpensary and clinic; schools for boys vene on his hehalf - and the constancy of his mother, Umm Ashraf, were praised (1894) and girls (1897); cemetery; kindergartens (1917-18); and reading room by Bahi'u'llih. He was also the recipient of an Arahic tablet from Bahi'u'llih (the and library. Of particular significance was the building of the first Bahi'i Lawh-i-Ashraf, see GWB no. 52). RBZ: House of Worship ( M A S H R I Q U ' L -223-35; EB 245. ADHKAR) (1902-7), the foundation stone (2)M ~ R Z AASHRAF OF ABADIH of which was laid by the Russian governor-general, General Subotich, in A respected clderly Bahi'i of clerical 1904. In accordance with Russian law, background, he was executed in Isfihin there was no attempt to gain ethnic on 23 Octobcr 1888 and his body Russian converts. The situation changed subj,ected to various barbarities by order following the two Russian revolutions of of Aqi Najafi (the Son of the WOLF). 1917. Initially the Bahi'is were able to MBBR 277-80; EB 25. 29-32; RB4: 385-6. teach their religion openly, but opposition from the Communist Party organizations mountcd, and in 1928 the See WORDS O F WISDOM. temple was confiscated. The closure of the schools and the arrest of some of the assemblies ('spiritual assemblies', Bahi'is followed. The community - now PA sing, nzabfil-i-rawha'ni) consisting of about 1,400 families - was Elected Bahi'i administrative councils at effectively destroyed in 1938, with the local and national level. s w r a : 456-7.536 arrest and exile of many of the men, and 45,554-67; CC2: 29-60. 83-136; GPB 3306; U W the deportation of the women and children and the remainder of the men nos. ii.iv. (See also ADMINISTRATION; CONto Iran. Whcn conditions in the Soviet VENTION; REGIONAL BAtIki COUNCILS.) Union were finally relaxed, the AshkhaBahi'u'llih called for the establishbad Bahi'i nsscmbly was the first to ment of MOUSES or;jus~lcein every city to reform (1989). Lee. 'Rise'; MBBR 29&300, 473; administer Rahi'i affairs, calling upon Mamen, 'Baho't community'; SBBR 91, 173. their members to be 'the trusted ones of the Merciful', and to meet together as if in the presence of God (KA 29 k30). At Ashraf 'Abdu'l-Bahb's direction or with his encouragement, a varicty of local counName of two Bahi'i martyrs in Iran. cils in various parts of the world were (1)SAYYID ('AL~-)ASHRAPOF ZANJAN formcd from thc 1890s onwards. These (from He was also called Ashrafu'sh-shuhada' included assemblies at ASHKHABAD 189516) and Tehran (from 189719); and (the 'Noblest of Martyrs'). A son of one 'Council Boards' and other bodies in of the martyrs of ZANJAN, he became a several American cities (1899-1900). Bahi'i, and travcllcd to EDIRNE to meet (BFAI: 112, 169-70, 174; BFA2: 11Bahi'u'llih. Returning to Zanjin, he 15, 67-8, 323, 394-6; EB 175, 268, succeeded in converting many of the 272; GPB 260; BFSH 91-4; Smith, Bibis. Fearing a reanimation of Bibism,

1I

assemblies

'American Bahi'i community' 137-43.) These bodies varied in their names, manner of formation and number of members. Those in the West came to have members of both sexes, whilst those in Iran were confined to men. There was also an evident need for more 'national' bodies to superintend activities in their respective countries. This was met by the Tehran and Ashkhabad ('Central') assemblies coming to assume a more general directive role, and the formation of the North American BAHAI TEMPLE UNITY(1909), elected by delegates from the various local communities. T h e concept of national ('secondary') houses of justice was formally introduced by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. The present system of spiritual assemblies (as the forebears of future houses of Justice) was standardized and EFFENDI at the very developed by SHOGHI onset of his ministry in two general letters to the Western Bahi'is, dated 5 March 1922 and 12 March 1923 (BA 17-25, 34-43). Local spiritual assemblies were to be established forthwith wherever there were nine or more adult Bahi'is (aged twenty-one or above). They would be directly elected by the and local adult Bahl'is (ELECTIONS), have authority over all local Bahi'i activities. National spiritual assemblies were to be established in all the larger communities (Britain, 1923; Germany, 1923; India and Burma, 1923; Egypt (with the Sudan), 1924; Turkistan, 1925; and the Caucasus, 1925); and the executive committee of the American Babai Temple Unity transformed into a similar body. These would be elected indirectly by an electoral college of locally elected delegates, and would have authority over national Bahi'i activities, including the local assemblies under their jurisdiction. They were also to keep in regular contact with the BAHki WORLDCENTRE.Both types of assembly would be re-elected annually; have nine members; use the principles of

assistants --

and CONSULTATION in their decision making; establish their own FUNDS; and elect their own officers (chairman or president, vice-chairman, secretary, treasurer). With modification of details, this has remained the main element in Bahi'i ADMINISTRATION until the present day. Shoghi Effendi also outlined the 'most outstanding obligations' of the spiritual assemblies: (1) directing the TEACHING work; (2) protecting the Bahi'i Faith from its enemies; ( 3 ) promoting amity amongst the Bahi'is and their active service to the Faith; (4) assisting the poor, sick, disabled, orphaned and widowed, 'irrespective of colour, caste and creed'; (5) promoting the material and spiritual enlightenment of youth and child education; (6) maintaining regular correspondence with Bahi'i centres throughout the world and sharing news of their activities; (7) stimulating the development of Bahb'i PERIODICALS; ( 8 ) arranging regular Bahi'i meetings (see FEAST; HOLY DAYS), together with gatherings to promote 'the social, intellectual and spiritual interests of their fellow-men'; and (9) REVIEW of all Bahi'i publications and translations (whilst the Faith was 'still in its infancy'), and provision for their distribution to the public (BA 37-8). Another responsibility was superintending the application of Bahl'i LAW where this was applicable. Where necessary, the assemblies should delegate particular areas of activity to appointed committees. They were strictly to eschew any political involvement (BA 24). In a letter to the Eastern Bahi'is (1926)he noted the 'basic' and 'inescapable' responsibilities of assembly members: they should embody SPIRITUAL QUALITIES, such as TRUSTWORTHINESS, TRUTHFULNESS, DETACHMENT, courage, kindliness and purity of motive; develop self-reliance; exercise MODERATION; be efficient in the management of the assemblies' affairs; serve the general PRAYER

interests of the people; study the Bahi'i sider to be wrong (including appeal to a texts and apply their guidance to the higher administrative body). There has been a vast increase in the needs of modern society, working to improve morals; spread learning and number of assemblies over the past 75 years. By May 1994 there was a total of enlightenment (making 'detailed inquiry' into contemporary arts and 172 national assemblies or their regional equivalents and 17,780 local assemblies sciences); support and revere scholars and the exponents of arts and sciences; (BWNS 1994-5: 317; see also EXPANeradicate ignorance and prejudice; SION). Individual assemblies clearly vary uphold the right of freedom of conin their 'style' of functioning, as well as science; support agricultural and industheir efficiency and maturity in applying trial development; and promote the Bahi'i principles. Several national emancipation and advancement of assemblies have produced their own women, compulsory education for both administrative manuals (e.g. NSA of sexes, mutual assistance and co-operathe Bahi'is of the United Kingdom, tion, and 'the principles of consultation Principles). among all classes'. They must be sincerely obedient to the laws of the assistants country; strictly avoid entanglement in political and theological controversies; Institution created by the Universal and abstain from criticizing the beliefs House of Justice in June 1973 to provide and customs of other individuals and assistance to the members of the AUXILIARY BOARDS.Given the rapid peoples (CC2: 347-9). Both Shoghi Effendi and the Univer- EXPANSION of the Faith, the work load sal House of Justice have written of individual Board members in some extensively on the importance of assem- parts of the world had enormously blies and their manner of functioning; increased, and it was no longer possible emphasized the responsibilities of memfor them to discharge all their duties bership; stressed the need for the assemadequately: to encourage (and where blies t o gain 'the confidence and necessary activate) all the local spiritual affection of those whom it is their ASSEMBLIES and communities in their privilege to serve' (BA 143); encouraged area; conduct DEEPENING classes for the assemblies to gain legal status (com- Bahi'is; stimulate TEACHING etc. Theremonly requiring the adoption of a fore, subject to the approval of the constitution consisting of a declaration relevant CONTINENTAL BOARDOF COUNof trust and by-laws (see CONSTITUTIONS; SELLORS, individual Board members INCORPORATION)), facilitating the holdwere encouraged to appoint assistants ing of land and property; warned of the for specific tasks or to be responsible for dangers of personalistic leadership and particular areas. Subsequent experience of over-administration (excessive ~ l e also indicated their value in promoting making and regulation is to be avoided); specific qualitative goals, such as and encouraged flexibility in 'secondary increasing the role of WOMEN in Bahl'i matters', whilst strictly adhering to administration. The assistants could basic principles. Individual Baha'is are include young people (see YOUTH), and advised t o consult their respective they could continue to serve as elected assembly regarding the course of action assembly members. The Board members in Bahl'i activities and obey it (BA 21). would be responsible for training the They also have the right to consult assistants and supervising their activassemblies on matters of concern, and ities. CBC in Europe 135-49; LG332-4;MUH1255-6 to appeal against decisions they conno. 137, 359-60 no. 189.2.

Azal, Subh-ithe purview of both a member of the propagation and protection Boards. The The Bahb'i teachings reject astrology as work of the Boards has expanded since imagination and, in large part, super1963 with the further EXPANSION of the stition. Bahi'is should not regard the Bahi'i community world-wide. Under stars and planets as guiding their lives or the Universal House of Justice, Board influencing their health or wealth. They members have been freed from membershould be patient and tolerant with ship of national assemblies so that they those who do believe in such things, can concentrate on their own tasks however. LG 5 1 6 1 7 nos. 174652; SAQ 245-7. (1963); responsibility for the work of the Boards has been transferred to the Augur, George (1853-1927) more recently formed CONTINENTAL and Ruth (d. 1936) OF COUNSELLORS (1968); the BOARDS Board members are empowered to Prominent early Hawaiian Bahi'is, who appoint ASSISTANTS to help them in their converted around 1906. George was the work (1973); five-year (reappointable) first Bahb'i to live in Japan (1914-19), terms of service to the Boards have been where he was later joined by his wife and set (from November 1986); and the total by Agnes ALEXANDER. Shoghi Effendi number of possible Board members named him as one of the DISCIPLES OF enormously increased: to 270 in 1973, ' ~ D u ' L - B A HWA SB.R 187-98. 378 in 1976, 756 in 1986, and 846 in 1991. The House has stressed the diviAuxiliary Boards sion of responsibility between the two arms of the Bahb'i ADMINISTRATION, Institution created by Shoghi Effendi to noting that it was the function of the OF THE provide assistance to the HANDS Board members to help arouse and CAUSE.These Boards were first appointed by the Hands in April (RID- release the energies of the Bahi'is to accomplish the goals of the Faith, and VAN) 1954. The members of each Board not to impinge on the local ASSEMBLIES' were to act as the deputies, assistants administrative work. They were to and advisers of the Hands in the work of reinforce the work of the assemblies the TEN YEARCRUSADE. They were organized on a continental basis (initi- and committees; consolidate local communities; enthuse thc Bahi'is; and deeally nine members each in Africa, the pen their understanding of the Faith. LG Americas and Europe; seven in Asia; and 328-38; MEW 44. 58-9, 63, 128, MUHJ 24 no. I 1 two in Australasia), and were responsi132 no. 59.5, 1 5 0 3 no. 72, 255-6 no. 137, 323-5 ble to the Hands in their respective no. 170, 350 no. 182 7, 367 no. 194, 622 no. 394.3; continents. Continental FUNDS were UHJC no. x. established to support their work. The appointment of a second sct of Boards was called for in October 1957. These ~ v i r r i h ,MirzC 'Abdu'lwere to be responsible for the security of Husayn Tafti (129011873-1953), thc Faith ('Protection', i.e. safeguarding Former cleric, also known as ~ ~ a twho i, the unity of the Baha'i community and responding to attacks by COVENANT-became one of the most prominent Iranian Bahi'is. He wrote what was BREAKERS and non-Bahi'i opponents), regarded at the time as a particularly whilst the original Boards focused their authoritative history of the Bdbi and attention o n the T E A C H I N G work Bahb'i religions, al-Kawdkib ad-duriyya ('Propagation'). The individual members became responsible for specific geogra- fi ma'dthir al-Bahi'iyya (2 vols. Cairo, 134211923). Frustrated in his apparent phical areas, and each area came under

astrology

desire for a position of leadership (1924), he withdrew from the Faith and later wrote extensively to try to discredit it (Kashfu'l-hiyal, 'The Uncovering of Trickery', 3 vols. Tehran). BA 137-9; McS 174; Miller 275; TCB 334-42.

Ayyam-;-Ha (PA, 'the days of Ha") Intercalary days introduced into the Badi' CALENDAR (of 1 9 x 19 months (=361 days)), to make it equivalent to a solar year. In ordinary years there are four days, and in leap years five (the Arabic letter Hd has a numerical equivalent of 5). Bahi'u'llih specified that these days occur immediately before the month of FASTING. They should be a period of celebration, charity, hospitality and gift giving. KA 25 k16.178-9 n27-9; Walbridge, Sacred 2 16.

Azal, Subh-i(PA, 'Morn of Eternity') Religious title of Mirzi Yahyb (1831121912), son of Mitzi 'ABBASby Kiichik Khinum, one of his concubines (see N u ~ FAMILY). i He was a younger halfbrother of Bahb'u'lllh, and was raised by him following their father's death (1839). He was presumably introduced to the Bbbi religion by his brother. His exact status within the Bbbi community is a mattcr of considerahle controversy. The Bib bestowed various cxaltcd titlcs on him - 'Everlasting Mirror' (Mir'dtri'lazaliyya), 'Name of Eternity' (Ismu'lazal), and 'Fruit of the Baybn' (Thamara-i-Baydn) - and in about 1849, despite Azal's youth (he was then about scventcen), appointed him to 'preserve what hath been revealed in the Baydn', 'for verily thou art a Great Way of Truth' (EGBBF 38-9; Brownc, Selections 302-3; TJ 426-7), a n appointment 'Abdu'l-Bahb regarded as a stratagem to divert attention away from Bahb'u'llhh (TN 62-3). Although later understood by Azal's followers as a clear appointment of succession, his

position within the Bibi community following the Bib's execution (1850) seems vague, with strong centrifugal forces, including a large number of separate claims to special spiritual authority, threatening to tear the movement apart. At some point he became the 'recognized chief of the community' (GPB 163), but his headship seems to have been to little effect. In 1852 he was associated with Azii - an older Bbbi cleric of considerable repute, who had become the leader of the militant faction of the Bibis - and sought to ferment an uprising in Tikur, seemingly to coincide with the attempt on the life of the shah (BKG 90-1). After this he fled in disguise, later joining Bahi'u'llih in Baghdad, where he maintained a semisecret existence, secluding himself from most of the Bbbis. In 1856 he ordered the killing of DAYYAN, perhaps the most important of those claiming leadership of the fragmented Bbbi remnant. Bahi'i sources accuse him of increasing jealousy towards Bahl'u'llih, whose growing pre-eminence he resented. Azal accompanied his brother to Edirne, and there began to conspire against him, eventually trying to poison him (again according to the Bahi'i account). A definite separation between the two brothers then occurred, and BahH'u'llbh made open claim to be HE WHOM GOD SHALL MAKE MANIFEST, the great majority of the Bdbis eventually becoming his followers as Bahb'is, whilst a small minority continued to acknowledge Azal as thcir leader (see AZALIS). Meanwhile, accusations that Azal and Sayyid MUHAMMAD ISFAHAMhad made to the Ottoman authorities against BahH'u'llbh led to a further order of exile, Bahb'u'lllh and most of his companions being sent to Akka, whilst Azal and a few others were sent to Famagusta in Cyprus. His order of exile ended in 1881, when the British acquired Cyprus. Azal remained on the island as a British pensioner until his death (29 April

1912). Although continuing to write a great deal, Azal was reclusive, and does not appear to have maintained close contact with his followers in Iran. In Cyprus itself he came to be regarded as a Muslim holy man, receiving a Muslim burial, and his grave being regarded as Muslim shrine. Contrary to the supposition of E.G. BROWNE. he was never one OF THE LIVING. Variant of the LETTERS Azali and Bahi'i accounts make it difficult to reconstruct an 'objective' account of the dispute between the two groups. BKG; Blomfield 48-52; Browne, Molerials 31 1-14; EGBBF; GPB 11 2-17, 124-5, 163-70, 179, 233; SBBR 59-52, 66-9.

FAMILY

Azal had a number of wives during his lifetime (eleven, twelve, fourteen, or seventeen, according t o different sources), including four whom he married in Iran, and at least five in Baghdad. He briefly married the second wife of the Bib (see BAB, FAMILY OF). There were perhaps twenty-five children in all. Some of his descendants remained as Azalis, a few established contact with the Bahi'is, and some became Christians, but in Cyprus at least, most seem eventually to have become de facto Muslims. Momen,

he appointed HAD^ DAWLATABAD~ in his stead. By the 1970s there were perhaps only 500-5,000 Azalis left in Iran, seemingly with no formal leadership. One of Azal's grandsons, Jalal Azal (d. 1971), was involved in an attempt to bring together the various groups of 'COVENANT-BREAKERS' during the 1950s. Despite their small numbers the Azalis have included several prominent Iranian political and literary figures, notably Shaykh Ahmad RGF and Mirzi Aqi Khin Kirmini, both sons-in-law of Azal, as well as supporters of Sayyid JAMALU'D-D~N 'al-Afghini', and both executed following the assassination of NASIRU'DDIN SHAH(1896). EGBBF; Momen, 'Cyprus exiles', see Boyat on Kirmirni.

Azim (Ar., 'Great') Title of the Bibi leader Mulli Shaykh 'Ali Turshizi (d. 1852). Formerly a leading Shaykhi cleric, he came to prominence as a Bibi during the period of the Bib's imprisonment in Azerbaijin, acting as his chief agent and leader of the growing number of Bibis in the region. He was the recipient of the Bib's proclamatory sermon in which the open claim to be the Q.4.r~was finally made, copies of which he distributed exten'Cyprus exiles'. sively. He also made efforts to present the Bib's claims to government leaders; and in 1849, and again in 1852, was Those BBbis who follow Subh-i-AZAL organizing conspiracies to overthrow and deny Bahi'u'llih's claim to be HE the government. Living in Tehran, he W I ~ O MGODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST. During became the leader of those BHbi who the 1860s and 1870s the great majority favoured militancy. He was arrested and of the Bibis became Bahl'is, leaving a executed following the unsuccessful minority of 'Azali' Bibis in scveral cities. attempt on the life of NASIRU'D-DiN SHAH Over the years their numbers dimin(1852), for which he claimed responsiished, some becoming Bahi'is and bility. ARR 280-1, 375-7, 383; BKG 74, 101-1 1; others Muslims. Azal had originally McS 16-17. 82; Nobil 313, 599; Tj240. 353, 368-9, intended one of his sons to be his 388, 392-3. 4 2 0 5 . 434-41; M 53". 184-5, 191, successor, but following a family dispute 261, 276. 329, 374.

B a b (At, 'Gate')

Bushire, at first in his uncle's business and then independently. Religious title assumed by Sayyid 'AliLater accounts emphasize 'AliMuhammad Shirizi (1819-50), the proMuhammad's extreme piety as a youth, phet-founder of the Bibi religion. and religious concerns eventually Among Iranian Bahi'is he is commonly impelled him to close his office in referred to as Hadrat-i-a'la' ('His HoliBushire (1840) and embark on an ness the Exalted One') or Hadrat-iextended pilgrimage to the Shi'i shrine rabb-i-a'ld ('His Holiness the Most cities in Iraq, remaining there for about Exalted Lord'). ARR; Bolyuzi, 866; GPB 3-36, a year. During this time he attended 49-60; Kazem-Beg; Lambden, 'Episode'; Nobil; some of the classes of the Shaykhi leader MocEoin, 'From Shaykhism'; MBBR 69-82; SBBR 13Sayyid KAZIMRASHT~ (see also SHAYKH29; BFSH 19-47; TJ; TN; WOE 123-8. For popular ISM), and attracted the attention of some Boh6'i accounk see Perkins and Sears, Release the Sun. of the Sayyid's disciples by his great (See also BAB, WRITINGS OF; SH~KAZ: piety. He did not embark on any formal House OF THE BAB.) course of religious training, however, and eventually returned to Shiriz where EARLY LIFE he married a cousin, KHAD~JIH BAGUM, in The Bib was born into a family of August 1842, and established a housetraders and merchants in the southern hold. The young couple had one son, Iranian city of Shiriz on 1 Muharram Ahmad, who died in infancy (1843). 1235120 October 1819. His father, During these years in Shiriz the Sayyid Muhammad-Ridh, died when he fervent devotionalism of 'Ali- Muhamwas still a child (c. 1826), and he grew mad's childhood and youth continued, up with his mother, FBtima Bagum, and but he now experienced a number of under the guardianship of one of her visionary dreams, in the most dramatic brothers, Hiji M r z i Sayyid 'Ali (see of which he later described how he saw BAB, FAMILY OF). He had no brothers or the severed head of the Imim HUSAYN, sisters. Little is known about his early whose blood he drank, and from the years. As a child he attended a local grace of which he felt that his breast had Quranic school and received an elemenbeen filled with 'convincing verses and tary education. He also gained the mighty prayers' (MacEoin, 'From commercial training necessary to join Shaykhism' 141). The spirit of God the trading operations run by members having 'permeated and taken possession of his mother's family. In 1835 he began of My soul', 'the mysteries of His to work as a merchant in the port city of Revelation were unfolded before my

mission. Occurring within the context of the Shaykhi succession crisis following the death of Sayyid Kizim, these developments marked the Bib as the promised messianic leader expected by many Shaykhis. Announcing the near advent of the RESURRECTION, and making claims to divinely appointed authority, the Bib also potentially addressed the entire Muslim world, and was soon DECLARATION AND EARLY MINISTRY widely understood to be claiming to be the 'gate' (Ba'b) to the Hidden Imbm: (MAY 1844-MARCH 1847) thus the title 'Bib' and the description of The development of a distinct religious his followers as 'Bibis' came into genmovement centring on 'Ali-Muhammad eral use (See 'The Bib's claims' below). is traditionally dated to the night of 22 Directing his disciples to announce May 1844, with the conversion of Mulli his cause (but without divulging his HUSAYN BUSHRU'~ as the first of his inner name), the Bib himself, together with OF THE circle of disciples, the LETTERS his disciple QUDDUS, and his servant, LIVING, and the beginning of the comMubirak, left Shiriz (September 1844) position of the QAYY~~MU'L-ASMA., effecand set out for Mecca to make a public tively the Bib's own declaration of proclamation of his mission. This act was in deliberate fulfilment of Islamic prophecy regarding the time of the return of the Imim M A H D ~From . Mecca, he intended to join his followers in Iraq, again in fulfilment of messianic prophecy. In the event, his proclamation during his stay in Mecca (12 December 1844-7 January 1845) went largely unheeded and his chief emissary to the shrine cities of Iraq, Mulli 'AL~ BAST AM^, met with concerted opposition from the Shi'i clerics, and was eventually imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities. In consequence of this the Bib announced a change in the divine decree (BADA), and returned to Bushire. His emissaries in Shiriz had, however, caused such a stir (by adding the Bib's name to the Muslim call to prayer) that the governor of Shiriz, Husayn Khin, sent a detachment of troops to arrest the Bib en route from Bushire. The Bib then returned to Shiriz (early July 1845) to face a stormy interview at the court of the governor, after which he was released to the charge of his uncle, and required to make a public recantation of the claim The room where the B6b declared his mission in 1844 to be the Ba'b of the Imim. eyes in all their glory' (Nabil 253). He began to write what, by the early months of 1844 if not earlier, he regarded as divinely inspired verses. He also apparently began to gain a reputation as a holy ascetic, blessed with the grace of the Hidden Imim (see IMAMS), and miracles may have been attributed to him (Kazem-Beg 71339).

Writing extensively, and covertly receiving visitors, including Sayyid Yahyi DBribi (VAH~D), and a representative of Mulli Muhammad Zanjini (HUJJAT) - prominent clerics who converted to his cause - the Bib was now the identified leader of a heterodox religious movement. In September 1846 the Bib was arrested again, but, in the chaotic conditions in ShirAz that followed an outbreak of cholera, he left Shkiz, and moved to Isfihin. There he remained until March 1847, as a guest of its governor, MANUCHIHR KHAN, whose sympathetic support seemed to promise a possible meeting with MUHAMMAD SHAH,SO that the Bib could proclaim his claims directly to the king.

Maniichihr Khin's death in February 1847 marked a major turn in the Bib's fortunes. Muhammad Shih appears to have been sympathetic towards the Bib at this stage, but Hiji Mitzi A Q A ~the ~, shah's chief minister, undoubtedly saw in the Bib's growing popularity as a religious leader a potential threat to his own position. At Aqisi's order then, the Bib was made an effective prisoner of state and transferred to the remote fortress of MAKW in Azerbaijin (July 1847-April 1848) and later to the fortress of CI-IIIIR~Q (April 1848-~une 1850). The period of the Bib's captivity in Azerbaijin was one in which both the Bibi movement and its relationship with Iranian society were profoundly transformed. The Bib himself, early in 1848, made open claim to his followers to be the Mahdi, and as such declared the abrogation of Islamic holy law. This was to be replaced by a new order, which he delincatcd in his book, the BAYAN. The Bib also denounced the shah and his chief minister in letters which he sent to them. The radical break with SWi Islam was reinforced in July 1848 with two

events that occurred almost simultaneously: in Tabriz, the provincial capital of Azerbaijin, the Bib was brought before a tribunal of clerics presided over by the crown prince (the future NASIRU'D-D~N SHAH)and made public claim to he the Mahdi (in response to which he received the bastinado in the house of one of the leading clerics). Meanwhile, a gathering of leading Bibis at BADASHT announced the termination of the Islamic era and the inauguration of a new dispensation (see B A BRADIC~ ALISM).

By this time the increasing fervour of the Bib's followers and the consolidation of clerical opposition had already led to a number of confrontations between the Bibis and their opponents. Then, after the death of Muhammad Shih (September 1848), an armed struggle broke out at TABARS~, in which government troops eventually extirpated the Bibi combatants. Other conflicts ensued in 1850, convincing the new chief minister, Mitzi Taqi Khin, AMiR KAB~R, that the whole Bibi movement was a threat to public order, which could best be ended by depriving it of its central focus. Accordingly, the Bib was brought again to Tabriz, and executed in public by a firing squad on 27/28 Sha'bin 126618-9 July 1850. With him died one of his dedicated followers, M i r z i Muhammad 'Ali Zuniizi (Anis). The events of the execution - the first (Christian) regiment missed, leaving the Bib unscathed, and had to be replaced by a second Muslim regiment which completed the task ensured that an aura of the miraculous accompanied the Bib to his death. The remains of the Bib and his companion were later secured by the Bihis and kept hidden in various locations ~ u ~ tthey i l were finally transferred to the Holy Land in 1899 at the instruction of 'Abdu'l-Bahi. They were interred on Mount Carmel in 1909 (see SHRINE OF THE DAB).

59 THE

BART

CLAIMS

THE B ~ ~ k iVIEW ' i OF THE BAB

The exact nature of the Bib's claims at For Bahi'is the B i b was both an different stages of his mission is compliindependent Manifestation of God, and cated, and sometimes veiled by his the forerunner of Bahl'u'llih, 'Abdu'lallusive and esoteric language. There is Bahi declaring that this was one of the an overt progression of claims, with the foundations of Bahl'i belief (Will 19). Bib first claiming in Shiriz to be the The Bib's exact doctrinal stanis was 'Remembrance' (dhikr) and 'Gate' (bab) delineated by Shoghi Effendi: (1) His of God and of the Hidden Imim, whilst twofold station was 'the most distinctive in Azerbaijin he laid claim to be the feature of the Bahi'i Dispensation', Mahdi (i.e. the Hidden Imim himself) adding to its strength and its 'mysterious and beyond that to be a MANIFESTATION power and authority'. (2) His primary OF GOD,empowered to abrogate Islamic role and the major source of his greatholy law and replace it with his own ness was his rank as a self-sufficient (thus deviating radically from Shi'i Manifestation of God. In this role, expectations of the role of the Mahdi). Bahi'u'llih described him as one whose He also referred to himself as the 'Primal rank excelled that of all previous proPoint' (nuqti-yi-tila') from which all phets. (3) As forerunner, he was allied things have been created, and foretold with Bahi'u'llih (though subordinate in the coming of a further messianic figure, rank), and with him presided over the HE WHOM GODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST - destinies of the Bahi'i 'Dispensation'. It again in obvious divergence from tradiwas the inauguration of the Bib's mistional Shi'i expectations regarding the sion that in fact constituted 'the foundresurrection. ing of the Faith of Bahi'u'llih'. (4) He Whether these changes represent the had inaugurated a new universal proprudential unveiling of implicit claims phetic cycle (see TIME), and the 'creative (as modern Bahi'is believe) or the energies' released at the hour of the birth development of the Bib's own selfof his revelation and the spiritual impact understanding is not easy to establish. of his mission and martyrdom had the title Bdb However, whilst in SH~'ISM endowed mankind with the potentialrefers in the first instance to the four ities of the attainment of maturity, and men who successively claimed to be the were now deranging the existing equili'gates' (abwdb) of the Hidden Imim, brium of human society so as to prepare and it was in this sense that many it for its future unity. (5) His greatness understood the Bib's early claims, the was not affected by the 'short duration Quyyzimu'l-asma" itself is presented as of His Dispensation' (i.e. the very brief the 'descent' of divine verses, and was period of time that elapsed before written in the style of the Quran - a Bahi'u'llih, as the next Manifestation radical gesture noted by the Bib's of God, replaced the Bib as central clerical opponents, whilst from the outreligious focus) or by the 'restricted set the Bib laid claim to being the range' within which his laws were ever recipient of some form of divine revelaable to operate. ( 6 ) The Bib was the tion, and to have supreme authority object and fulfilment of all the prophets from God. Again, the term 'Gate of who had gone before him. He was the God' could also be given wider inter' ~ s h i d a r - ~ i hreferred ' to in Znroaspretation, having been used to refer to trian scriptures, the return of Elijah for divine PROPHETS, Imims and saints Jews, the return of John the Baptist for (Lawson, 'Remembrance' 23-42). Christians, the 'second woe' referred to in the book of Revelation, and the Q k r ~

Wb, family of

MARTYRS OF TEHRAN(1850); and (3) and Mahdi expected by Muslims. Hiji Mirzi Hasan-'Ali, Kha'l-i-asghar (7) Contrary to common Western Bahi'i (the 'Younger Uncle'). Muhammad's views in the 1930s, he was 'not to be the son, Hiji Mirzi MUHAMMAD-TAQ~, regarded merely as an inspired Precursor Vakilu'd-dawlih, was the chief builder of of the Bahi'i Revelation' (Shoghi Effendi t h e Bahi'i House of Worship in stated that his 'chief motive' in editing and translating The DAWN-BREAKERS ASHKHABAD. BAGUM, The Bib's first wife, KHAD~J~H had been to enable the Western Bahi'is the niece of his mother's father, had two both 'to better understand and more brothers and a sister. The brothers were readily grasp the tremendous implicaHiji Mirzi Abu'l-Qisim (1811-87), tions of (the Bib's) exalted station' and Saqqa-khini, and Hiji Mirzi Sayyid 'to more ardently admire and love Hasan (d. 1892), Afna'n-i-kabir (the Him'). CF 8 0 3 ; GPB 57-8; WOE 97,123-4. 'Great Afnin'), both of whom had sons who married daughters of 'Abdu'l-Bahi Bab, family of (Mirzi Hidi, who married Diyi'iyyih, and was the father of SHOCHIEFFENDI, The Bib was born into a merchant family and Mirzi Muhsin, who married Thbi, in Shiriz. Following the death of his and was the father of R u ~ AFNAN i (see father, he came under the guardianship of also NORi FAMILY). Another son of one of his mother's brothers, later joining Hasan, Hiji Mirzi Sayyid 'Mi, married his maternal family in business. He Bahi'u'llih's daughter, Furhghiyyih. married one of his mother's cousins Khadijih's sister, Z a h r i Bagum (1842), by whom he had one son, (d. 1889), married Mirzi Zaynu'l-'AbiAhmad, who died in infancy. He married din, a cousin of the Bib's father. a second wife in Isfihin, but had no children by her. During his own lifetime, THE PATERNAL FAMILY out of his family, only his wives and Details of the family of the Bib's father, guardian accepted his religious claims, Mir Muhammad-Ridi, are less readily other family members opposing him or available: most did not become Bahi'is. remaining neutral. Later, many of his Two of his father's cousins were eminent maternal relatives - his uncles and the Shi'i clerics, Mirzi-yi-S~in~zi(1815siblings of his first wife - became Bahi'is, 95), the leading MCIITAHID of his time, and were given the title AFNAN by and Hiji Sayyid Javid (d. 1870/1), the BahH'u'llih. For o gensolcgicol b M e of the m o m o l leader of the Friday prayers (imamfornib see Nabil lix (facing toble). For o bble of purl of Ihe jum'a) in Kirmin. Both are said t o have paternol farnib we BKG 404. Sen o b ARR 1 12. been secret BiMsIRahi'is, and t o have THE MATERNAL FAMILY protected Bibis and Bahi'is from persecution (ARR 118-19; BKG 403-4). The Bib's mother, Fitimih Bagum, had Other cousins of the Bib's were Mirzi three brothers: (1) Hiji Mirzi Sayyid Muhammad (d. 1876), Kha'l-i-akbar (the 'Ali-Akbar, a close associate of the Bibi leader DAYYAN, and Hhji Mirzi Zaynu'l'Greatest Uncle'), the recipient of the bidi in, who married Zahri Bagum, the ~ita'h-i-~QAN, who became a believer sister of,the B i F wife. The son of after his receipt of this book; (2) Hiji Mirzi Sayyid 'Ali, known as Kha'l-i- Zaynu'l-Abidin, Aqi Mirzi Aqi (18421903), became a Bihi (the second male a'zam (the 'Most Great Uncle'), the member of the Rftb's family to do so) in Bib's guardian following his father's his teens, and was later an active Bahl'i death, the first male member of the teacher, responsible for the conversion family to accept his nephew's claims, and subsequently one of the SEVEN of other members of his extended family.

I

B6b, house of

I

Babi and Bahb'i Studies

60

He was honoured by Bah2u'llih with the title NJnr'd-din ('Light of Faith'), and was the recipient of the Tablet of the WORLD.Bah2u'Ilih appointed the descendants of Zahri to be the hereditary custodians of the House of the Bib (BKG 403-6,410; EB 216-36).

(Qahir). Despite the Bib's instructions that his wives should remain unmarried after his death, Subh-i-AZAL briefly married the second wife (for one month), but then divorced her and married her ISFAHAN~ instead to Sayyid MUHAMMAD (EGBBF 34-51; BKG 418).

Whilst he was in Isfihin (1846-7), the Bhb married a second wife, Fitimih (d. 1916), the sister of Mulli Rajab-'Ali

Bab, house of See SHIRAZ: THE

HOUSE OF THE BAs.

Facsimile of the Bdb's Tablet to the first Letter of the Living

Bab, Shrine of See SHRINE OF THE BAB.

Bab, writings of The Bib wrote extensively, either in his own hand - mostly during the early stage of his mission - or dictated to his companion and secretary, Sayyid Husayn Yazdi ('Aziz'), one of the LETTERS OF THE LIVING. He himself refers to having composed 500,000 verses (by 1848 - i.e. the equivalent of eighty books the size of the Quran), one-fifth of which had been disseminated. Although the suppression of Bibism led to the loss of a considerable quantity of his writings, widespread copying has ensured the survival of many manuscripts. Little of this is as yet generally accessible - even in the original Arabic and Persian, let alone European languages (there is one volume of selected extracts published in English, and three titles in French). Five works are known from prior to his initial declaration of mission in May 1844, including a Quran commentary, a treatise on 'right behaviour', and a pilgrimage prayer in honour of Muhammad, his daughter Fitima, and the IMAMS(tablets of VISITATION). The first work of his mission was the QAYYUMU~L-ASMAS (May-June 1844). Subsequent works composed up until the Bib's departure for Isfihin (September 1846) include eleven more commentaries on Quranic verses or Islamic traditions, the best known being on the Chapter of Kawthar, composed thirteen treatises on theolofor VAH~D; gical and legal issues, including elements of specifically Bibi ritual; homilies; and collections of prayers. Works composed in Isfihin (September 1846-March 1847) include a commentary on the Quranic sJra of Wa'l-'asr, written for the ima'm-jum'a (Friday prayer leader), Sayyid Muhammad, and a treatise on the 'specific prophethood' (nubuwwa kha'ssa) of Muhammad for the city

governor, M A N ~ C H I H KHAN. R Of the Bib's works written after his departure from Isfihin (mostly during the period of hts confinement in Azerbaijan), the most important is his book of laws, the Persian BAYAN and its companion Arabic volume. Others include the SEVEN PROOFS;the Book of NAMES;a further nine commentaries on the whole Quran; and the Kitcib-i-panj sha'n - a book of the 'Five Grades' in which the Bib wrote, i.e. Quranic-style verses in Arabic, prayers, homilies, commentaries, and Persian-language writing. Throughout his ministry the Bib composed numerous letters, including lettyrs to MUHAMMAD SHAH,Hiji Mirzi AQAS~, and to all the leading clerics in Iran. In addition to his writings the Bib also fashioned many TALISMANS. Browne, ~elections 198-239;

GPB 22-7; McS 11-1 03.

Babi and Baha'i Studies

1

Academic study of the Bibi and Bahi'i religions. The term 'Bahi'i Studies' has also come to have a wider usage (see below; see also SCHOLARSHIP). TRADITIONAI. B A H A ' ~SCHOLARSHIP

Many of the prominent early Iranian Bahi'is were former Shi'i 'ULAMA. AS part of their service to the Bahi'i Faith, several of these men wrote apologias for their religion and made compilations of Bahi'i writings and historical documents which were widcly circulated amongst the Bahi'is. Although scholarly and enormously erudite, their work differs from the modern Western field of religious studies in its unambiguous faith commitment: the underlying purpose of their scholarship was to help advance the Bahi'i religion. The only early Bahi'i scholar whose work has been translated into English is Mirzi ARU'L-FADL GULPAYGAN~. Others whose work is highly regarded include FADIL M A Z A N D A R Aand N ~ 'Abdu'l-Hamid ISNRAQ-KHAVAR~. The more recent work

I

BCbi and Bahir'i Studies

63

of Muhammad 'Ali Faizi, 'Azizu'llih Sulaymini, and (in English) of Hasan BALYUZI continue this tradition.

open claim to be the Qd'im (1848) - as made most dramatically during his trial in TABR~Z - and his replacement of Islamic law by his own holy LAW in the BAYAN.This was reflected in the proceedings at BADASHT, and in the antinomian tendencies that were expressed by some of the Bibis thereafter. Meanwhile, the relationship between the Bibis and the surrounding society was rapidly deteriorating. The murder of MullH MUHAMMADT A Q ~BARAGHAN~ (late 1847) - and the laying of the blame for the act on the Bibis (notably his niece TAHIRIH,the leading representative of radical Bibism) - marked a particular catalyst, leading to the killing of a number of Bihis and a hardening of attitudes on all sides. The subsequent 'Bibi upheaval' at TABARS~ (1848-9) and the urban conflicts in N A Y R ~and Z ZANJAN,together with the confused disturbances in YAZD(1850), have been portrayed in various ways - both the Bibis' opponents and some modern writers (e.g. Ivanov; Greussing) seeing the Bibis as insurrectionaries, whilst For a review af English-longuoge sources up to 1985 see modern Bahfis emphasize the defensive SBBR 225-38. nature of the struggles. The reality is undoubtedly complex: the predominance of clerics among the ibis at Babi radicalism Tabarsi makes it unlikely that these were In a traditional Islamic society, such as simply 'primitive rebels', albeit that the Babis may well have wished to see the 19th-century Iran, religious dissent was establishment of a Bibi state, and instead readily seen as a threat to social order and could easily assume political dimenpoints to the importance of symbolic acts sions. This was most particularly the and the motif of sacrificial MARTYRDOM case with the intense messianic expectain the KARBALA tradition. The urban tions associated with the appearance of conflicts, by contrast, whatever wider the M n ~ o i Bibism . from the beginning, implications they had, must also be seen then, represented a major challenge to in terms of existing tensions involving religious and by implication secular local notables and neighbourboods. It is authority, whilst the rising tide of only after the martyrdom of the Bib that PERSECUTION served to alienate 'many we can identify a clearly insurrectionary Bibis from the existing social order. trend, with the formation of an ultraBoth in theological and socio-politi- radical Bibi faction headed by hi^. It was individuals from this group who cal terms, the Bibi movement changed dramatically in 184718. Theologically, attempted to assassinate NASIRUSD-DIN Bibism became radicalized by the BAB'S SHAHin August 1852, thus precipitating

Journal of Bahb'i Studies (from 1988) (BW17: 197-201; 18: 194-200; Danesh). Regarding all Bahi'is as potential scholars, it has promoted a wide EARLY ACADEMIC STUDIES range of activities within the Bahi'i Critical academic studies of Bdbi and community, including in the arts and Bahi'i texts, doctrines and history began health (a Bahi'i International Health with the work of European orientalists Agency was formed under its sponsorin the late 19th and early 20th centuries. ship in 1982). A large number of The most important of these scholars national or regional affiliate associations was E.G. BROWNE. Others of note were have now been established (twenty-two A.L.M. NICOLAS,Victor ROSEN,Alexby 1995, including eight in the Amerander TUMANSKI and Hermann Roemer. icas, six in Europe, three each in Africa The work of the Comte de GOBINEAUand Asia, and two in Australasia). must also be mentioned, not for its Activities of these associations range scholarship, but because of its early date from academic study of aspects of Bahi'i (1865) and its inspiration of subsequent history and belief to studies of the studies. The major works of Browne on possible application of the BahC'i teachthe subject date from 1889-1910. MBBR ings to varied aspects of human life 17-52. (including moral education and the search for a global ethic) and Baha'i THE MODERN PERIOD DEEPENING. Various publications of A new phase in Bibi and Bahfi Studies seminars and the like have been probegan in the 1970s. Although overduced, of very variable quality. In some lapping, two distinct trends may be places the traditional Baha'i SUMMER identified. SCHOOLS have become more rigorous, as in Australia, where a three-year INSTITUTIONAL Certificate Programme in Bahi'i Studies There have been a number of develop- was introduced in 1995. Other instituments sponsored by the BahC'i commutional developments have included the nity. '[Alnimated by the spirit of inquiry establishment of the first Bahi'i Univerinto the limitless meaning of the Divine sity (Universidad NBr) in Santa Cruz, Teachings', these have sought both to Bolivia in 1984, and of Bahi'i-sponsored present the BahH'i Faith and its ideals to Chairs at the Universities of Maryland in a wider intellectual audience and the United States and Indore in India in explore the implications of the Bahi'i 1990. The UK-based ABS affiliate for teachings in all aspects of human life. English-speaking Europe produces the This approach to 'BahC'i Studies' was scholarly Bahri'i Studies Review (from effectively begun with the establishment 1990). B W N S 1994-5. 89-95. 321-4. of The Canadian Association for Studies INDEPENDENT on the Bahi'i Faith in 1975, in response to a call by the Universal House of At the same time there has been renewed Justice. This body aimed to promote interest in the more focused academic lectures and conferences relating to the study of the Babi and Bahi'i religions. BahC'i Faith at Canadian universities. Although most of those involved in this Reflecting international interest, the movement have been Bahi'is or former organization was renamed the AssociaBahi'is they have sought to employ the tion for Bahi'i Studies (ABS) in 1981. It tools of modern critical scholarship to also published a series of Bahb'i Studies advance understanding for its own sake volumes (mostly monographs), and The rather than to promote particular faith

positions. This approach has sometimes engendered tensions with more traditional Bahi'is. Instances of this approach include several series of academic seminars on Bahi'i Studies in Britain and the United States, including at the University of Lancaster in England (1977-80) (BW18: 204-5) and at the American Academy of Religion (from 1984) and Middle East Studies Association (from c.1992); Moojan Momen's collection of source materials, The Bdbi and Bahri'i Religions (MBBR, 1981); new translations of works by Mirzi Abu'l-Fadl (1981, 1985); the Kalimat Press series Studies in Bdbi and Bahi'i History (from 1982); the scholarly journal Bahri'i Studies Bulletin (from 1982); the George Ronald series Bahi'i Studies (from 1996); the internet discussion forum 'H-Bahai' (from 1997) (one of the H-Net humanities list sites); and a flurry of doctoral and other dissertations on Bahi'i-related topics from the mid1970s onwards (Collins, Bibliography, 303-lo), some of which have since found their way into print (Amanat (ARR); MacEoin (McS); Smith (SBBR)).

Babi radicalism

backbiting--

65

a bloody pogrom against the remaining Bibis. Whilst the radical tradition was continued to some extent by Subh-iAZAL,the rise of Bahi'u'llih as preeminent Bibi leader led to a marked change in perspective. This was made explicit in Bahi'u'llih's RIDVAN declaration and in subsequent writings, in which he forbade his followers to engage in HOLY WAR and sedition, or to respond to persecution with violence. The secular radicalism of some AZALIintellectuals in late 19th-century Iran represents a variant expression of the earlier Bibi concerns. Boyat; MacEoin, 'Bobi concept'; 'From

B a r n begins to backbite about another, then their hearers should stop them from continuing. This should be done with tact and friendship, but also with firmness: it is essential. Otherwise the hearer is guilty of complicity. As to those cases in which an individual's behaviour might seem to be harmful to the Faith or contravenes BahL'i law, then others might discuss the matter with them directly, but without adopting a condemnatory attitude. If this is not effective, the issue should be reported to the local spiritual ASSEMBLY. LG 88-94.

Babirmto Baho'ism'; SBBR21-8.51-6,97-9;

bad6 (Ar., 'alteration of God's will') Shi'i doctrine subject to various interpretations. In the stronger (and more heterodox) form, God's will is believed to be alterable in response to changed circumstances: thus those who truly repent are spared destruction; the succession of the IMAMS was changed; and God's command to Abraham to sacrifice his son was rescinded. The BAB seems to have understood the cancellation of his own projected proclamation in KARRAI.A (1845) as bada'. God had 'suspended the appearance of His signs' because of the perversity of those who had rcjccted his call (ARR 250, 252-4; Nabil 158). The cessation of a living G U A R D I A N S H I P following Shoghi Effendi's unexpected death (1957) is also popularly explained in these terms. In perhaps similar vcin Bahi'u'llih, in his ~ i t i b - i - ~ Q Astressed N, that God tested the sincerity of thosc who sought to believe in him by not fulfilling their expectations (KI 5-6,32-3).

Smith and

Momen, 'Bobi movement'; Wolbridge, 'Bobi uprising'.

1

I ~ 1

Badi' - -

backbiting The Bahi'i teachings condemn backbiting categorically, Bahl'u'llih teaching that hackbiting extinguished 'the life of the soul', and 'Abdu'l-Bahi describing it as 'the most great sin' and the most hateful human characteristic. It is a cause of divine wrath: the backbiter is accursed. In thcir conversations, then, Bahi'is should endeavour never to speak of the faults of others in their absence, or to gossip about them. They might speak of their praiseworthy qualities, but rather than even think of the imperfections of others, they should remcmber their own faults and seek to root those out. Each individual is responsible for their own life and perfecting their own character. Bahl'is should show love and patience towards othcrs, encouraging rather than criticizing them, being understanding of human wcakness, and sccking to conciliate. Love and tact can overcome jealousy and pettiness. The difficulty of following this teaching is recognized, 'Ahdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi accepting that backbiting was probably the major cause of disunity amongst Rahi'is (as amongst human beings in general) and of withdrawal from Bahi'i activities. If one

Badasht Hamlet on the borders of eastern Mizandarin off the road to Khurisln, close to Shihrhd. It was the site of a three-week conference of eighty-one Bibis in June-July 1848, including TAHIRIHand Q V D D ~ SDetails . are unclear, but the conference marked a major step in the 'radicalization' of

Bibism. Initial tensions between Tkhirih, proclaiming the advent of a new age and the abrogation of Islamic holy law, and Quddhs, stressing caution, were resolved in favour of the former. To dramatize her position Tihirih appeared unveiled, proclaiming that she was 'the Word' which the QAYM was to utter on the day of judgement, and on another occasion brandished a sword. The more conservative Ribis in attendance were so shocked that several abandoned the movement and one attempted suicide. According to Bahl'i accounts the meeting was organized and financed by Bahi'u'llih, who effected the reconciliation between the two principals and 'revealed' tablets for each of those present. Plans for securing the Bib's release from his captivity may also have been discussed. Reports of the proceedings scandalized many (including Mulli HUSAYN BusHRB'~),and the Bibis werc afterwards dispersed following an attack by Muslim villagers. ARR 3 2 6 8 ; GPB 31-4;

outside to be able to meet Bahi'u'llih there. Bahi'u'llih entrusted him with his letter to the shah and instructed him to return to Iran alone to deliver it, warning that he could easily face death when he had completed his task. Aqi Buzurg approached the Shah whilst the latter was on a hunting trip and delivered the letter to members of the entourage. He was then tortured and killed. Bahi'u'llih named him Bad7 ('wondrous', 'unique', 'new') and the 'Pride of Martyrs' (Fakhru'sh-shuhada"). Shoghi Effendi named him as one of the APOSTLES OF BAH~U'LLAH. BKG 294-309; RB3: 176-91.

Nabil 2 B M W ; T1281-2, 3 5 5 4 , 377; TN 176.

Badi' (c. 1 8 5 2 4 9 ) ~ q (or k Mirzi) Buzurg Khurisini, Iranian Bahi'i youth who delivered Bahi'u'llih's letter to NASIRU'D-DIN SIIAIJ in 1869. He was the son of Hiji 'Abdu'lMajid Nishipiri, onc of the Bibi survivors from the conflict at Shaykh TAnA?si. Initially indifferent to Bibism, Aqi Buzurg later became a fervent believer and set out to visit Bahi'u'llih in Edirne. En routc he stayed for a time in Baghdad, where he volunteered to act as water-carrier for the House of Bahi'u'llih in place of Aqi 'Abdu'rRasbl Qumi who had recently b ~ e n murdered by Muslim zealots. Aqi Buzurg was himself repeatedly anackcd as he performed this task. In 1869 he went to Akka where, as a teenage youth dressed as a poor water-carriet, he was -able to pass the guards and enter the city, becoming one of the first Bahl'is from Badi', Baha'u'lUh's messenger to the Shah

Bagdadi, Zia 'Mabsut' Bagdadi, Zia 'Mabsut' (1884-1937)

Bahb'i Faith Baghdad: the House of Baha'u'llah

Prominent American Bahfi. His father Referred to as 'The Most Great House' was MUHAMMAD MUSTAFA AL-BAGHDADI.(Bayt-i-a'zam) of God. Located in the He was born in Beirut and moved to Karkh district in the west of the city, the Chicago in 1909 to complete his medical house is a large but simple mud brick studies. He came to play a leading role in structure of two to three storeys surthe American Bahl'i community, transrounding a central courtyard. It was at lating letters from 'Abdu'l-Bahi, editing first rented by Mirzi MusA, whilst the Star of the West magazine, and B a h i ' u ' l l i h w a s in K u r d i s t a n . assuming various local and national Bahi'u'llih lived in the house from his administrative responsibilities. em 535-9. return on 19 March 1856 until his departure for the RIDVAN garden on 22 April 1863, and at some point purBaghdad (Baghdid) chased it. It was here that he both wrote most of his early writings and received Capital both of the Abbasid empire and caliphate and of modern IRAQ.Effec- the increasing throng of visitors who recognized his role as the premier Bibi tively autonomous in the 18th century, it leader. He later named it as a place of was restored to direct Ottoman control Bahi'i pilgrimage, the 'Throne of His in 1831. As provincial capital it was the Glory', and the 'Lamp of Salvation site of the trial of Mull6 'ALL BAST AM^ between earth and heaven'. Specific rites (1845), and the place of TAHIRIH'S house of pilgrimage were detailed. arrest (1847). It was also Bahi'u'llih's Bahi'u'llih prophesied that the place of exile from 8 April 1853 until 3 house would later be so abased by the May 1863, apart from a month spent in infidels as to cause tears to flow, but that the nearby Shi'i shrine city of Kizimayn God would eventually exalt it, causing it after his initial arrival in Iraq, and his to become 'the Standard of His Kingtwo-year retreat in Kurdistan (10 April 1854-19 March 1856). From 1856 dom'. Bahi'is interpret subsequent events in the light of these statements. Bahi'u'llih increasingly became the After Bahi'u'llih's departure from predominant figure in the Bibi moveBaghdad the house was held in the name ment, many Bibis from Iran visiting his of various custodians and allowed to fall house in Baghdad. He also gained the into a state of disrepair. At the time of respect of many of the local people and the establishment of the British mandate the provincial governor during this time, over Iraq (1920) 'Abdu'l-Bahi authorand wrote a number of his most ized extensive restoration work under influential writings there. His initial the supervision of Hdji Mahmhd QASdeclaration of mission was made in the S A B C H ~ This . activity attracted the hostile nearby garden of RIDVAN immediately attention of local Shi'is, and after the prior to his departure for Istanbul. death of the old custodian they sued for Bahi'u'llih called Baghdad the 'City of possession (January 1921). In the God', and designated it a centre of absence of proper deeds the Shi'i relipilgrimage (GPB 110). Shoghi Effendi gious court found against the Bahl'is. A designated it the 'third holiest city' in the lengthy and complex legal struggle then Bahi'i world, and wished to have the ensued, which took the case though the 1963 Bahi'i world congress there Iraqi courts and then, through the work (MBW 43, 166). of Mountfort MILLS,to the Permanent Mandates Commission and Council of

the League of Nations. The upshot was twofold: (1) the Iraqi authorities first took possession of the house (February 1922) and subsequently handed it over to the Shi'is (November 1925), who have remained in possession to the present day (it is now used as a place to commemorate the sufferings and (2) martyrdom of the Imim HUSAYN); enormous international publicity and sympathy was generated for the Bahi'is, who were regarded as having suffered a considerable injustice by the League authorities. With the attainment of Iraqi independence in 1932, international interest in the case dropped. BW2: 33-4; 3: 50-5, 198-209; 4: 97-8. 237-47; 5: 31-3,351-9;

GPB 110, 356-60; GWB 111-14 no. 57; Walbridgs, Sacred 1403.

Baha'i Faith TERM

The term Bahi'is most commonly use to describe their own religion in English. The terms 'Cause of God' (Ar. amru'lla'h), 'the Cause' and 'the Faith' are also used. During the earlier part of this century the term 'Bahi'i Movement' was common, reflecting a more inclusivist understanding of their religion by Bahi'is (SBBR 109-14, 145-6; see also BAH~L FAITHAND OTHER RELIGIONS). STATUS

For Shoghi Effendi the Bahi'i Faith was unquestionably a world religion, by dint claims; of the nature of BAH~U'LLAH'S the religion's growth in all continents; and its possession of its own distinctive laws and administration. It was supranational, non-partisan, and non-sectarian (WOB 196-201; see Fazel, 'Is the Baha'i Faith a world religion'). PURPOSE

The purpose of Bahi'u'llih's revelation was 'the rehabilitation of the world and

its nations', such that it might he administered through love and 'the power of utterance' rather than armed might, and its peoples live together in harmony (CC2: 332). He had come to adorn every individual 'with the ornament of holy and goodly deeds' and the 'mantle of a saintly character'. He summoned all peoples to acquire SPIRITUAL QUALITIES (ADJ 24). At a societal level, he had come to bring the 'Most Great PEACE' and to establish WORLD UNITY and a new WORLD ORDER. DEVELOPMENT

Shoghi Effendi regarded Bibi-Bahi'i history as constituting a single evolutionary process in which internal maturation, external expansion and a series of crises (see OPPOSITION; COVENANT-BREAKERS) interacted to impel the Faith towards its destined goal. The potentialities of the Faith were gradually revealed, expressing in the visible world the spiritual forces of divine revelation. Crises, despite the immediate problems they engendered, caused the added release of divine power leading to the 'futther unfoldment' of the Faith (GPB xiii, 409-10). What had originally been 'a heterodox and seemingly negligible offshoot' of SHAYKHISM, itself a sectarian development within S H ~ ~ I Shad M ,become a world religion (GPB xii). The future progress of the Faith would see it develop through the successive stages of: (1)unmitigated obscurity; (2) active repression; (3) complete emancipation; (4) recognition as an independent religion accorded the status of full equality with other faiths; (5) establishment as a state religion; (6) the formation of a Bahi'i state; and (7) the emergence of a worldwide Bahb'i commonwealth 'animated wholly by the spirit, and operating solely in direct conformity with the laws and principles of BahH'u'llih'. ADJ 12; GPB xvii; MBW 155.

Bahb'i Faith and other religions Bahb'i Faith and other religions Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi taught that all divine religions come from the same source (see RELrcrous DNERSITY); emphasized the necessity for religious TOLERANCE; and lamented the consequences of religious hatred and fanaticism. Shoghi Effendi insisted that the Bahi'i Faith upheld the 'eternal verities' enshrined in prcvious religions, and did not belittle their value, distort their tcachings, or deny their 'God-given authority'. It did, however, regard religious truth as relative rather than absolute, and sought to incorporate the world's religions into a single schema of PROGRESSIVE REVELATION (GPB 100; WOB 57-9, 114-15; see also INTERFAITH DIALOGUE).

D A H MEMBERSHIP ~ ~

In many cultures multiple religious identity is regarded as normal, but in others membership of a religious group is seen as excluding other memberships. There has been a significant historical change in Bahl'i practice in this regard. The great majority of Bibis and early Bahi'is were drawn from the milieu of Iranian Shi'ism and, despite the distinctive nature of their own Bahi'i bclicfs, retained much of their traditional religious identity and world-view. Bccausc of the realities of persecution, many also kept their Bahl'i identity relatively secret (see WISDOM). Those who had previously been Islamic clerics often continued to function at least partially in that rolc. 'Abdu'l-Bahi himself continued to attend the mosque whilst he lived in Akka. Issues of communal identity raised by the conversion of religious minority group members in Iran wcrc initially met by the retention of semiseparate identities as 'Muslim-', 'Jcwish-', and 'Zoroastrian-' Bahi'is. Thus marriage networks remained mostly separate, and a separate 'Israelitish' Bahi'i

69

assembly even functioned for a while in Tehran in the early years of the 20th century. Similarly, many early Western Bahi'is retained their former Christian identity, and in some cases their previous church memberships, long after they became Bahi'is. (This included the future HANDSOF THE CAUS' Horace H ~ L L Eand Y George TOWNSHEND. Thus Holley, then American national spiritual assembly secretary, remained closely associated with the Episcopal Church until 1933 and Townshend remained an archdeacon in the Church of Ireland until 1947. Townshend was the highest ranking of a number of Bahi'is who were also ordained Christian ministers. Others included T.K. CHEYNEand Howard Colby IVES.)This retention of multiple religious identity in the West reflected a view that the Bahi'i Cause was an 'inclusive Movement' and a 'spiritual attitude' rather than a separate religion. Shoghi Effendi advanced a more exclusivist conception of Bahi'i identity, however, emphasizing that Bahi'i was a distinct religion 'divorced from every ecclesiastical system', and instructing Bahi'is to sever any affiliations they had with other religious groups. Whilst the Bahi'i Faith sought to instil in its adherents a new love for all the world's religions and an appreciation of their interrelatedness, it was itself an independent world religion, with its own distinctive laws and administration, and Bahi'is could thus not subscribe to the 'obsolescent observances and doctrines' of other religions. They should of course continue to associate with the followers of other religions in a spirit of friendliness and love (LG 52 no. 183, 159-63, 4 2 M ; WOB 196-201). This change was linked to the conception of the Bahi'i Faith as going through a series of stages of development, one of which was its recognition as an indcpendent religion. SBBR 95,109-10, 113, 1456. (See also BnHki FAITH,'development'; PUBLIC RECOGNITION.)

'Bah6'i principles'

Bahb'i International groups has been extensive, frequently Community (BIC) involving the presentation of Bahi'i issues as Term that first came into use to describe Statements On rights, the status of women, education, Bahi'i representation a t the United literacy, racial discrimination, narcotic Nations as a non-governmental organidrugs, the environment and social develzation (NGO). It is now used more opment. Special statements include generally in any context in which the The Prosperity of Mankind (1995), BahC'i Faith is functioning as an NGO dealing with the concept of global in relationship to international or govprosperity in the context of the Bahi'i ernment bodies or to other NGOs, as for example in Bahi'i socro-ECONOMICteachings. Since 1989 it has published a quarterly newsletter, One Country DEVELOPMENT projects. It encompasses ([email protected]),which reports on all Bahi*is in the world. All national Bahi'i activities and issues of global spiritual ASSEMBLIES arc its affiliates. concern. The original English-language edition has now been augmented by HISTORY French, Chinese, Russian, Spanish and The BIC fist came into existence in G,, editions, other activities have 1948 as the agency at the included being a founding member of UN for the eight national assemblies ~~d~~~~~~~ for ~ f ~~~d ~ security: i then extant. It functioned under the ~~~~~~i~~ the ~~~d~~ for women' aegis of the American assembly, with (1988), and the U , , ~ ~ ~ - U N I F E PROM Mrs Mildred Mottahedeh as its accre- JECT (1991-). ~h~ BIG has also heen a dited observer in New York. A full-time major channel for making appeals to the Bahi'i reprcscntative, Dr Victor de international community for support in Araujo, directly responsible to the Uniinstances of yersecution of ~ ~ h i ,most i~, versa1 House of Justice, was appointed notably of those in lRANin in 1967, and BIC involvement with the the UN or in the UN ~ ~on UN significantly incrcascd. Consultative H~~~~ ~ i acting ~ ash a powerful ~ ~ status was granted with the UN EcObrake on action against the Bahi'is (see nOmic and (ECoSOC) in also 0~posr~loN). Bwl2: 597-615; 13: 785j970, and with the UN Fund 802; 14: 277-90; 15: 358-n; 16:327-51; 17: 229(UNICEF) in 1976. With 393-425; 1 % 378-97; NS 1993-4: 131-8, 44; growth, the BIG now has administrative 295-3 I 6; 994-5: 37-46, 39-50,273-96,305-10, offices in Haifa and New York; a United 321-4, Nations Office in New York and Gencva; an Office of Public Information in 'Baha'i principles' Haifa (est. 19RS), with branches in Paris and London; and specialist Offices of the 1, his public talks in the west(1911-13) and 'Abdu'l-Bahi frequently presented a list Advancement of women (1992) in of Bahi'i principles (9, 10, 11, 12, 14 New York. It also has representation at the number varied; there is no definitive regional United Nations offices in Addis list). hi^ listing of principles thenceAbaba, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Sariforth became a common element in tiago and Vienna. It is headed by a Bahi'i literature (the Tablet to The secretary-general based in New HACUR (1919) provides a good examplc). The principles listed included the ACTIVITIES following: ( 1 ) Each individual should BIC involvement in UN commissions, independently investigate TRUTH, putting committees, conferences and working aside historic prejudices. Thus would

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Bahai Temple Unity

they find the one reality which is common to all. (2) All divine religions are one, expressions of a single reality. The teachings of BahC'u'llLh best represented the 'universal religion' needed at the present time (see also RELIGION). (3) Genuine religion is a powerful support for social stability: without it crime and irreligion flourish. (4) For all its fruits, material CIVILIZATION by itself is not sufficient to promote human progress. Only when combined with 'divine civilization' and empowered by the holy spirit will it be the cause of genuine advance. (5) Religion should be the cause of love and unity. If a particular religion only produces hatred and division then it is no longer an expression of true religion and should be abandoned. (6) Religion must be in conformity with SCIENCE and reason; if it is not then it is onlv ignorant superstition. (7) Bahi'ulllih h!ld come ;o establish 'the Most Great PEACE.An international tribunal should be instituted to adjudicate disputes between nations. (8) The whole HUMAN UCE is one, all human beings are equally the children of God, the only differences between them being those of education and spiritual health. (9) Religious, racial, political, national and class PREJUDICES are destructive and based on ignorance, they cause strife and impede moral progress. (10) Human progress can not occur as long as people are still forced to struggle for their daily existence (see ECONOMIC TEACHINGS). (11) Extremes of wealth and more especially of poverty should be abolished; all must have access to the necessities of life. (12) All individuals must be equal before the LAW, and JUSTICE must he securely established in society. (13) WOMENare the equals of Inen and should have equality . of rights, -particularly of educational opportunity. Without such equalicy the progress of both sexes is impeded. (14) All children must receive EDUCATION. (15) There should be an international auxiliary LANGUAGE.

Bahir'i World Centre Although derived in large part from the principles delineated by Bahi'u'llih, these listings and the talks in which particular principles were developed in more detail show significant differences in emphasis from them. This is most obvious in the advocacy of the emancipation and equality of women, a principle that appears to have received little more than passing reference from Bahi'u'lldh, but which was discussed at length by 'Abdu'l-Bahd. Again, 'Abdu'lBahi dealt with economic questions, education, the critique of materialistic philosophies, and the principle of racial equality in far more detail than his father had. Listings of teachngs are also found in several of Bahh'u'llbh's writings - notably BISHARAT - but a number of these are distinctively different from those given by 'Abdu'l-Bahb. Bahai Temple Unity The first representative national Bahb'i administrative body. It was established by the North American BahH'is in 1909 to oversee the project to construct a Bahi'i MASHRIQU'L-ADHKAR in the Chicago area, and consisted of an annual assembly of delegates representing the various local Bahb'i communities. The Temple Unity in turn selected a ninemember Executive Board to superintend the routine progress of the work. Both the Temple Unity and the Board became concerned with wider issues of national Bahb'i activity, and came to provide national organization and leadership. The Executive Board developed into the American national spiritual assembly during the early 1920s. BFAz: 299,30614; Smith. 'Arnericon Baha'i cornmunify' 14350.

project Working with the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the BAHA'I INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY developed a project ('Traditional Media as Change Agent', begun in 1991) to

promote socio-economic development by changing attitudes in local communities towards the status of women through a combination of locally based CONSULTATION and traditional song, dance and drama. Initially organized in three test sites (Bolivia. Cameroon and Malaysia), the project indicated the effectiveness of change generated at the 'grass-roots' level, and has since been emulated elsewhere. As with many other Bahb'i development projects, the focus was on the community as a whole and not just the local Bahi'i minority. Thcre is a video of the project: Two Wings.

a collaboration between Shoghi Effendi and the American national assembly secretary, Horace HOLLEY. A new series of shorter one-year volumes under the same title was started in 1992-3. The years covered in each volume of the original series are as follows:

BWNS 19934: 259-53.

Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women, lndore

Indian rural development institute established in 1983. It aims to improve the lives of rural women through training in literacy, health and income-generating skills. Its activities are directed to the community as a whole and not just to Bahi'is, and it has received support from the Indian government and other external bodies. It emphasizes the importance of Bahi'i moral teachings and the abandonment of caste prejudices. BWNS 1993-4: 255-7, 258.

Baha'i World Series of books recording BahZ activities world-wide. The first volume appeared as a Babd'i Year Book for 1925-6, with subsequent volumes covering varying time spans up to the 1990s. The material in many of the earlier voli~mesin particular is an invaluable historical resource, including international surveys of current Bahi'i activities; copies of significant documents; directories of Bahb'i assemblies and lists of Bahi'i centres world-wide; bibliographies; and articles on particular Bahi'i events. The books are illustrated with numerous photographs. Much of the work on the earlier volumes represents

Baha'i World Centre The spiritual and administrative centre of the Bahb'i Faith, consisting of the Shrine of Bahi'u'llbh at BAHJ~(the Bahi'i QIBLAH); the SHRINE OF THE BAB in HAIFA(which includes the Shrine of 'Abdu'l-Bahi); and the various buildings associated with the Faith in the HaifaAKKAarea in northern Israel.

1868-1921 Bahb'u'llih's arrival in Akka (31 August 1868), then part of Ottoman Syria, occurred shortly after the emergence of a distinctive Bahb'i community. Lines of communication were soon established with the Bahi'is in Iran and elsewhere, with special couriers conveying correspondence between Bahb'u'llbh and his followers. Akka became the directive centre of an expanding network of BahL'i groups in the Middle East, India and Central Asia. As conditions of confinement eased an increasing number of pilgrims also made the long journey to see Bahi'u'llih, BahH'i 'agents' in Beirut and other staging posts assisting them in their journeys. With the introduction of HUQVQU~LLAH (1878), its trustees made regular journeys to deliver contributions from the BahH'is. Akka was also given a

BahC'i World Centre wider importance by dint of its location in a land hallowed both by the JudaeoChristian Bible and Islam, Bahl'u'llih himself regarding his arrival in the city as a sign of divine providence in fulfilment across the of PROPHECY. Mount CARMEL, bay from Akka, was also given prophetic significance for the future. This situation continued under 'Abdu'l-Bahi, with three major changes: the establishment of Babl'i centres in the West - and hence an increase in correspondence; the placement of the Bib's remains in the newly constructed Shrine on Carmel in 1909; and the transfer of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's residence from Akka to Haifa, thenceforth the administrative headquarters of the Faith, in 1910. The increasing flow of correspondence necessitated employment of a number of secretaries, some fluent in Western languages. The flow of pilgrims led to the provision of a pilgrim house in Haifa.

(1955-7), the two buildings together with the gardens becoming a major Haifa landmark. He also enjoyed an entirely different public status from that of 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Although coming to be regarded as a important local notable, 'Abdu'l-Bahi had been a prisoner or under threat of renewed incarceration almost to the end of his life. By contrast, both under the British Mandate (192048) and the newly established state of Israel (from 1948), Shoghi Effendi was accorded the status of the head of an independent religion. In the earliest days of his ministry members of his family and the BahH'i spiritual assembly in Haifa had functioned as a secretariat. This took a more institutionalized form in 1950, with the establishment of the B A HCOUNCIL. ~ ~ INTERNATIONAL

Like Shoghi Effendi the Universal House of Justice has worked to secure owner1922-63 ship of sites associated with the central figures of the Faith - such as the house in Under Shoghi Effendi's direction, there was considerable development involving which 'Abdu'l-Bahi lived in Akka (the House of 'Abdu'llih Pishi) - and to a number of separate projects. In the extend and beautify the gardens surAkka area he obtained the mansion of rounding thc Bah.i'i shrines in Haifa and Bahi'u'llih at Bahji in 1929 and began Bahji. Most dramatic has becn its conan extensive renovation. Later, during struction of a large stately building to the 1950s, he secured legal possession of serve as its own seat in Haifa (197.7-83) the surrounding lands and created a and the extensive project (begun in number of gardens and installed orna1992) to construct the buildings of the mental lighting. He also renovated the ARCon Mount Carmel and complete the house in which Bahl'u'llih had spent terraces of the Bib's Shrine. The Bahi'i most of his years in Akka (the House of administrative staff have enormously 'Abbbd), and obtained posscssion of increased in numbers - to several hunother sites associated with Bahi'u'llih. dred, reflecting both the growth of the In Haifa he extended the shrine complex Faith internationally and the increasing in which the Bib and 'Abdu'l-Bahl wcre range of work undertaken at the Bahi'i interred (1929), and had an elaborate World Centre, both by the House of golden-domed superstructure conJustice's own specialized departments structed to envelop the shrine (1948(secretariat, finance, research, archives, 53). He also purchased the surrounding statistics, maintenance (of the gardens lands and created gardens, again with and buildings), etc.), and those of other ornamental lighting. Above the shrine, he had the Parthenon-like INTERNA- bodies, such as the INTERNATIONAL TEACHING CENTREand the Office for TIONAL ARCHIVES building constructed Socio-Economic Development. to house BahH'i relics and scriptures

Baha'u'llah (Ar., the 'Splendour' or

amul, where be was bastinadoed. Following the death of so many of the leading Bibis at Tabarsi, a new pattern The religious title of Mirzi Husayn-'Ali of Bibi leadership developed, with the Nhri, the prophet-founder of the Bahi'i Bib in correspondence with various of Faith. his followers, including BahH'u'llih and his young half-brother, Mirzi Yahyi LIFE Subh-i-AZAL,the latter being appointed IRAN BEFORE 1853 by the Bib to 'preserve' his religion BahH'u'llBh was born on 12 November (according to the Bahi'i account, to 1817 in Tehran, the son of MirzB shield Bahi'u'llih). It was Bahi'u'llhh, 'ABBAs, a landowning notable from however, who was seen by the new chief Nbr in Mizandarin (see NvRi FAMILY), minister, A M ~ R K A B ~ Ras, the major whose family traced its origins back to directive force behind the remaining the ancient Sassanian kings of Iran. Bibis, and who at his urging left Iran Bahi'is also believe that he was a in June 1851, only returnfor KARBALA descendant of the prophets ABRAHAM ing (AprilIMay 1852) after Amir Kabir's (through his wife Katurah) and Zoroasfall from power, and at the invitation of ter (see ZOROASTRIANISM). His father his replacement, Mirzi Aql Khin Nfiri, was a rising government official until himself distantly related to Bahi'u'llih. forced out of office in 1835 and ruined Following the attempt on the life of by Hiji Mirzi AgAsi. Bahi'u'llih himNASIRU'D-DIN SHAHby the militant Bibi self subsequently refused all official faction headed by AziM (15 August appointments, and later recalled a child1852), all prominent Bibis, including hood memory of a puppet play of a many who were not involved in the royal court, in which he saw the plot, were arrested. This included transience of worldly grandeur revealed Bahi'u'llih, who had been staying with when the puppets and their finery were the chief minister's brother at the time. taken from the stage and put away in Any hopes he may have had for a their box. As a youth he showed strong rapprochement with the new governreligious and mystical tendencies, and in ment were ended, and he was thrown 1844 became a Bibi, promulgating the dungeon (August). into the S~YAH-CHAL new religion among his kinsfolk and in Despite his proven innocence, he was his native province. He married his first threatened with life imprisonment. Howwife, Asiyih (NAVVAB), in 1835, and his ever, following representations by his second, Fitimih (Mahd-i-'Ulyi), in 1849. family and the Russian envoy he was His three eldest children ('ABDu.I.-BAHA, finally released after four months BAHIYYIH KHANUM, Mirzi M I H D ~were ) (December) and banished from Iran, all born in Tehran. leaving Tehran on 12 January 1853. One of the most socially eminent of During his imprisonment, heavily the Bibis, he began to assume an chained and suffering great privations, increasing prominence within the relihe had undergone a series of mystical gion - one of the few non-clerics to do experiences, in one of which he had had escape from so - organizing TAHIRIH'S a vision of a heavenly maiden (see MAID Qazvin in 1847, and in 1848 he was one OF HEAVEN) who assured him of his of the principal figures at the BADASHT divine mission, and rejoiced his soul conference, where he took the name with the promise of divine assistance Bahli. Attempting to join the Bibis at an event regarded by Bahi'is as marking TABARS~, he was arrested, and taken to the birth of the Bahi'i revelation. 'Glory of God'), (1817-92)

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The trij hat of Bahri'u'llah

that his 'withdrawal contemplated no return' (KI 160). Initially living as a hermit in a cave in the mountains at SarAccompanied by his family (his wives, Galh, he 'communed with [his] spirit' eldest two children, and brothers, Mirzl Mirsk and Mirzd MUHAMMAD-QuL~) oblivious of the world. Later he came into contact with Sufi leaders in the Bahi'u'llih made the difficult winter regional centre of Sulaymlniyya, where journey over the mountains to Ottoman he came to be regarded highly as a Iraq, arriving in BAGHDAD on 8 April 1853. Here they were later joined by mystic and spiritual teacher, and wrote Azal, who had gone into hiding follow- the ODEOF THE DOVE.After two years ing the attempt on the life of the shah. he returned to Baghdad (19 March What happened next is difficult to 1856), to find the Bdbi remnant in sorry establish in detail, and is coloured by disarray; dispirited and divided into the later partisan accounts of BahC'is factions, with Azal unable to provide and AZALIS, but in essence it would seem effective leadership and continuing a that Bahi'u'llih began to eclipse Azal as policy of militancy rejected by Bahi'u'llih a leader (e.g. see Tablet of 'ALL FOOD'), (e.g. see DAYYAN). Bahi'u'llih now a development increasingly resented by began to work to revive the Bibi the latter, who yet insisted on maintaincommunity, both in Iraq and, through ing a hidden existence from most of the correspondence, in Iran, attracting a band of dedicated personal disciples. Bibis for his own protection. The Writing extensively, he began to give tensions were such that Bahi'u'llih the Bdbis a new understanding of their finally decided to abandon the city to pursue the life of a solitary mystic in the religion. Of particular importance were mountains of Kurdistan, leaving his the HIDDEN WORDS(c.1858)and Kitcibi-IQAN (1862), in which he emphasized family in the care of Mirzi Mhsl. He left Baghdad on 10 April 1854, accomthe importance of the 'SPIRITUAL PATH', panied by a single servant, later writing and outlined the practical, ethical and

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remained in the capital until 1 Decemreligious goals of the spiritual life. In the Iqa'n he also provided the Bibis with a ber, when they were transferred to clear account of their own religious EDIRNE, in European Turkey, seemingly doctrines, particularly the concept of a as a result of pressure from the Iranian progression of MANIFESTATIONS O F GOD ambassador, M i r z i HUSAYN KHAN. and the fulfilment of prophecy. Also of Whereas previously Bahi'u'llih had note are his writings addressed to been treated as an honoured guest of prominent Sufis - the FOUR VALLEYS the Ottoman authorities, he was now and SEVENVALLEYS - dealing with the evidently an exile. concerns of Islamic mysticism (SUFISM); Bahi'u'llih and his entourage stayed in Edirne for four-and-a-half years (12 his frequent reference to and evident December 1863-12 August 1868). Durknowledge of the Judaeo-Christian ing this period the tensions between BIBLE;and his references to his own intense religious experiences, including Bahi'u'llih and Azal came to a head, continuing visions of the MAIDO P probably because the gradual circulation of Bahi'u'llih's claims to be the Bibi HEAVEN. He was soon recognized as the pre-eminent Bibi leader, both by the promised one undermined Azal's authorBibis and by the Iranian and Ottoman ity and intensified his jealousy. Although authorities. Outside the Bibi community not included in the Ottoman invitation, Azal had joined the Bibi exiles during he also gained increasing sympathy from both residents and visitors in Baghdad, the iourney from Baghdad, initially including Ottoman officials, Iranian concealing his identity. In Edirne, notables, and even Sunni and Shi'i according to the Bahi'i account, he clerics, and was widely regarded as an began to plot against Bahi'u'llih, finally important personage. He married a third making an attempt to poison him wife (Gawhar) whilst in Baghdad, but (c.1865; Azali sources make the counthe date is unknown. ter-accusation that Bahi'u'llih tried to poison Azal but consumed the poison himself by accident. Whatever the case, Fearing a revival of Bihism, the Iranian Bahi'u'llih became very sick, and the government requcsted that the Ottoman effects of the poison were felt for the rest authorities return Bahi'u'llih to Iran. of his life: his hair turned white and he Refusing, the Ottomans instead invited could no longer write without his hand Bahh'u'llih - now an Ottoman citizen - shaking). to Istanbul. Immediately prior to his Following this, Bahi'u'llih laid open departurc from Baghdad he stayed for claim to be HE WHOM GODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST, and began to refer to his own twelve days in a garden outside the city which he named &?VAN('Paradise') (22 followers as the 'people of Bahi' (i.c. Dahi'is) (c. March 1866). He then April-3 May 1863). Here he bade farewell to well-wishers, and made known isolated himself from the Bihis in Edirne to some of his immediate disciples his for a two-month period (the 'Most claim to he the Bibi promised onc. He Great Separation'), instructing them to also commanded them strictly to avoid choose whether to follow Azal or sedition. Then, dressed as a Sufi leader, himself. Almost all chose Bahi'u'llih, as also increasingly did the Bibis in Iran. he together with his family and compaA great outflow of writings from nions - some seventy or so persons in all - made the long overland journcy to Bahi'u'llih followed, including the Samsun on the Black Sea, and from beginning of his proclamation to the thence continued to ISTANBUL by boat, RULERS (specifically the Stira of the arriving on 16 August (see map). They KINGS(c.1867) and the first tablet to

NAPOLEON 111. Bahi'u'llih's ascendency over Azal was further reinforced in September 1867, when Azal challenged him to MUBAIIALA - to appear together at a local mosque and await God's judgement to decide between them but then declined to attend the arranged meeting. Thereafter the Azali group sought to discredit Bahi'u'llih with the Ottoman authorities, accusing him of sedition. The resultant investigation cleared Bah5'u'llih of these charges, but alerted the authorities to the fact that both Bahi'u'llih and Azal were making and propagating religious claims. This, it was decided, represented a potential source of disorder and merited the further exile of the 'Bibi' leaders. Accordingly, a royal command was issued (26 July 1868) condemning them to perpetual banishment, imprisonment and isolation. BahiYu'llPh's property in Baghdad was also confiscated at this time, and the leading Bibisl Bahi'is of Baghdad arrested and exiled to Mosul.

SYRIA. 1868-92 T h e Ottomans decided t o exile Bahi'u'llih and his entourage to AKKA in the province of Syria, and Azal and a few others to Famagusta in Cyprus. The whole group departed from Edime on 12 August 1868 under armed escort, and was taken first to Gailipoli, and thence by sea to their respective destinations, the ship going by way of Egypt. The Akka group arrived in the city on 31 August, and were confined in the barrackscitadel. They were sixty-seven in numher: Bahi'u'llih, his brothers, and their families, servants, other Bahi'is, and two Azalis, the latter no doubt intended to serve as spies on the rest. Living conditions were at first appalling, with everyone becoming sick, and three of the exiles dying. Bahi'u'llih's son Mirzi Mihdi also died, following a fall (23 June 1870). Conditions improved after they left the barracks (4 November 1870), although the exiles were still confined to the city. A major crisis occurred in 1872, when a few Bahi'i

The barracks block in Akka where Bahd'u'llih was imprisoned

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Bah&u'Il&h hotheads finally murdered the resident Azalis who had been making difficulties for them (22 January). This action was strongly condemned by Bahb'u'llbh. Thereafter, however, relations between the BahL'is and the local authorities and inhabitants eased, Bahi'u'llbh's eldest son, the future 'Abdu'l-Bahb, in particular acting as an effective go-between. Finally, following the overthrow of Sultan A B D U L A(30 ~ I ~May 1876), it became possible for Bahb'u'llih to leave the city. Initially residing in the mansion of Mazra'ih ( f r o m June 1 8 7 7 ) , Bahb'u'llbh subsequently moved to BAHJ~(September 1879), remaining there, apart from visits to Mount CARMEL, for the remainder of his life. He died at Bahji on 29 May 1892 following a slight fever, and was buried in a room in an adjoining house. He was then aged seventy-four. He appointed 'Abdu'lBahb to be his successor (Book of the COVENANT). During this final twenty-four years of his exile the distinctive features of the Bahb'i Faith as a religious movement were developed. An effective system of communications was established between Bahb'u'llbh and his immediate entourage (s,pecifically his chief secretary, Mirzb AQAJAN,and 'Abdu'l-Bahb, who acted as his father's principal assistant) and the BahL'is in IRAN;the Iranian Bahb'is themselves became coordinated and developed a sense of cohesion as a distinct religious community; and exrANsroN of the community to India and Asiatic Russia was accomplished. With much of the practical management of the movement in the hands of 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Bahb'u'llbh was able to spend much of his time in 'the revelation of verses' and, from 1877, in the enjoyment of nature. His writings during this period include his proclamatory letters to the rulers; his book of (c.1873) (see laws, the Kitib-~-AQDAS also LAW); and a series of letters in which he called for the establishment of just

Bah&u'Ilah, writings of GOVERNMENT and world PEACE, and outlined various 'social' teachings, such as the need for a world LANGUAGE and the development of AGRICULTURE. Themes from his earlier writings are also continued, as in the emphasis on the need for piety and ethical action on the part of his followers (see DEVOTIONALISM; PRAYE.R; S P I R I T U A L Q U A L I T I E S ) ; the announcement that this is the 'day of God'; and his references to the immediacy of the relationship he felt with the Godhead (BFSH 64-73).

PERSONALITY

The great devotion and love that his followers felt for Bahb'u'llbh makes it difficult for us to gain an impression of what he was actually like. Thus their accounts of Bahb'u'llbh emphasize his overwhelming and ineffable presence, one writer stating that it was almost impossible for anyone to look into his eyes or utter a complete sentence in his presence. The English orientalist E.G. BROWNE, who had had an audience with him in 1890, described him as 'a wondrous and venerable figure', whose face he could neither describe nor forget, and whose piercing eyes 'seemed to read one's very soul'. Though his face was deeply lined with age, his 'ample brow' emanated power and authority. He wore both his hair and beard long (the beard almost to his waist) and dyed them jetblack. In addition to his robes he wore a tall dervish hat, round the base of which was wound a small white turban (TN mix-XI). THEOLOGICAL STATUS

Bahb'is regard Bahb'u'llbh as the Manifestation of God for the present age; the promised messianic figure of all previous religions; and the inaugurator of a new universal religious cycle (see TIME), who has come to establish the millennia1 Most Great Peace, unify the human race, and found a new WORLD ORDERand civilization. All the former

books of God referred to him and extolled his glory. For Jews he was the 'Everlasting Father', the 'Lord of Hosts' come down 'with ten thousands of saints'; for Christians Christ returned 'in the glory of the Father'; for Shi'i Muslims the return of the Imbm HUSAYN; for Sunnis the descent of Jesus, the 'Spirit of God'; for Zoroastrians, Shih-Bahrbm; for Hindus the reincarnation of Krishna; and for Buddhists the fifth Buddha (GPB 94). For the Bibis he was HE WHOM GODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST. AS the divine messenger for the present day, knowledge of God and attainment of the divine presence could now only be reached through him. Through his potency all hidden truths were now unveiled (TB 50). He was the guiding light that illumined the way, and all should seek him and none other, lest they be bereft of all things (TB 169). He was the 'Fountain-Head' of God's wisdom and utterance; the revealer of God's oneness, who had been invested with divine sovereignty, power and glory; the lawgiver and redeemer of the entire human race; the 'Day-Star of the Universe'; the 'Eternal Truth'; the 'Lord of all men'; the 'Lord of the Day of Reckoning'; the 'mighty Trumpet' whose blast was to signal the resurrection of all humanity; God's lamp, light, voice, testimony and proof; the river of life; the refuge of the fearful; the 'True Physician'; the 'Beloved' and 'Desire' of the world; the 'Most Great Ocean'; and the 'Sifter of Men' (GPB 94; Rabbani, Desire of the World 175-86). He shared with the other Manifestations of God the dual station of having a human life whilst acting as a divine agent. Thus BahL'u'llbh described himself as having been 'a man like others' until the 'breezes' of God were 'wafted' over him, and taught him 'the knowledge of all that hath been'. He spoke because God had commanded him to speak, and not of his own choosing (ESW 11-12). At the same time, however, in many of

his writings he expressed his sense of exaltation and identity with the divine presence: he was the bearer of God's GREATEST NAME (Bahci), 'the Speaker on Sinai' - the voice that called from the Burning Bush - who was now seated upon 'the throne of Revelation' (TB 107); 'the Unconditioned', who had come in 'clouds of light' to 'quicken all created things with the breezes of his Name' (ESW 46); the 'Face of God', the revealer of God's own self, and the manifestation of his essence (Rabbani, Desire, 176). Yet he denied accusations that he had laid claim to divinity (TB 49) - a question that appears to have generated discussion amongst his followers (RBI: 303), and Shoghi Effendi was insistent that whilst Bahb'u'llbh had spoken with the voice of God, this was not to be misconceived or misinterpreted: he was a great Being, and incarnated the names and attributes of God to an extraordinary degree, but his 'human temple' remained 'entirely distinguished' from that 'eternal Essence of Essences' that was GOD. This was a major Bahb'i belief and should never be obscured or compromised (WOB 11214). (See GPB 93-102; Lambden, 'Sinaitic mysteries'.) A R R 361-6; BKG; Cole, 'Bahb'u'lldh and the Naqrhbandi Sufis'; Cole, 'Iranian rnillenarianirm'; EB; Furinon, Stories; GPB 66-72, 89224; Haydor-'All; M B B R 177-240; Nabil; RB; Solrnbni; SBBR 57-70; B F S H 51-62; TN.

Bahb'u'llbh, House of

1

See BAGHDAD: THEHOUSE OF BAII~U'LLAH.

1

Bahb'u'llah, Shrine of

1

Baha'u'llbh, writings of

I

Bahb'u'llbh wrote extensively. Some 15,000 'tablets' by him have been identified so far (see LAWH). Many of these are short letters to Bahb'is, but they also include major works dealing

81

Bah6'u'116h, writings of with religious doctrine; the proclamation of Bahi'u'llih's claims; Bahi'i law; and social and moral teachings, in addition to prayers, ecstatic poems, and visionary accounts of BahL'uYllCh'sreligious experiences. All are regarded by Bah6'is as divine revelations, including those written prior to the announcement of Bahi'u'llih's prophetic claims. The writings can be subdivided by time period into those composed ('revealed') in Iran (up to 1853); Iraq (BaghdadIKurdistan, 1853-63); Rumelia (Istanbul/Edirne, 1863-8); and Ottoman Syria (Akkal MazraCih/Bahji,1868-92). Only a fraction of this material has been translated into English as yet, albeit that the writings that have been translated include many of the most important. B W l 8 : 8 3 3 6 provide a poriiallisting of t i t L . For summaries of some of b e works ree Browne, Selech'mr 248-88; GPB 1 1 6 1 7,

12C-1, 123, 137-41. 170-6.205-20; RE.

The following is a summary of some of Bahi'u'llih's better-known works, with dates of composition where known. (Abbreviations used: AkE early Akka, in the barracks; AUK in the house of ' ~ d Khammlr; i EB Baghdad 11, early; LB Baghdad 11, late; *see relevant entry in this volume.) TEHRAN

Sa'qi az ghayb-i-baqd ('The Cup-bearer from the Eternal Unseen'). Persian ode. RBI: 64. Az bdgh-i-iia'hi ('From the Divine Garden'). LB. Persian and Arabic. Ecstatic poem, in which BahL'u'Ilih announces the advent of the Day of God. RBI: 21s-9. FOURVALLEYS (Chahdr vdd~?.EB. Persian. Mystical work addressed to Shaykh 'Abdu'r-Rabin Tilabini, a Qddiri Sufi leader.* Halih-halih yd bishdrat ('Jubilation! Glad Tidings!'). LB. Persian. Ecstatic poem announcing the Day of Cod and Bahi'u'llih's station. RBI: 219-20. HIDDENWORDS(Kalimdt-i-makntinih). c.1858. Persian and Arabic. A collection of counsels on the spiritual and ethical life.* Hunifit-i-'illin ('The Exalted Letters'). Arabic and Persian. Written in honour of Bahib'llih's deceased cousin, Mirzi Muhammad Vazir, and to console Maryam and Havvi, the man's sister and wife. It describes God's bounties to the human soul, the soul's immortality, and the reality of physical death. RBI: 122-5; Walbridge, Sacred 267-8.

Htir-i-'ujdb ('The Wondrous Maiden'). Rashh-i-'Amd ('The Sprinkling of the LB. Arabic. Refers to the unveiling of Cloud'). Short poem of exaltation Rahi'u'llih's station. RBI: 21 8. Cole, composed in the SIYAH-CHAL. Javdhitw'l-asrdr ('The Essence of Mys'bh$'u'llhh and the Naqshbondi Sufis', I&11; teries'). c.1860-1. Arabic. Written for RBI: 45-6. Hiji Sayyid Muhammad Isfihbni, a prominent Shi'i cleric who became a THE IRAQI PERIOD Bdbi following receipt of thc tablct. It describes the stages of the spiritual quest, comments on biblical propheLawh-i-Kullu't-ta'dm ('Tablet of "ALI. cies and Quranic verses related to the FOOD"'). Arabic. Addressed to Hiji coming of the MAHO~, and discusses M i n i Kamilu'd-din Nariqi in comvarious theological concepts. In some mcntary on a verse of thc Quran." of its themes it prefigures the Kitdh-iKURDISTAN. 1854-6 IQAN.RBl: 149-52. ~ Book of Certitude). Qapida al- Warqd'iyyah (Pers. Qasidi-yi- ~ i t d b - i - i Q A(The 1862. Persian. BahL'u'llih's foremost Varqd'iyyih) ('ODE OF THE DOVE'). theological work.' Arabic mystical work.*

~awh-i-Ayi-yi-nir('Tablet of the Verse of Light'). Also known as the Tafsir-iHunifdt-i-muqatta'ah ('Commentary on the Isolated Letters'). Arabic. Interpretation of a particular verse of the Quran, and of the letters which appear at the bcginning of many of its chapters. Written for Mirzi Aqi Rikib-Siz. RBI: 1 2 5 6 . kwh-i-B~~lbuiu'l-firdq('Tablet of the Nightingale of Separation'). LB. Announces that the 'nightingale of paradise' (himself) is now about to establish a new nest, and warns his followers of the 'birds of night'. RBI: 244-5.

Lawh-i-Fitnah ('Tablet of the Test'). Arabic. Possibly written in the Edirne period. Written for Shams-i-Jihin, a QAJAR princess who became a Bahi'i. It declares that the whole of creation is tested at the coming of a new Manifestation of God, such that the faithful and faithless may be distinguished. Many religious leaders - the stars of the heaven of knowledge will fall. RBI: 12837. Lawb-i-Ghulimu'l-khuld ('The Tablet of the Deathless Youth'). ?1863. Arabic and Persian. Written to commemorate the anniversary of the declaration of the Bib ('the deathless youth'). RBI: 213-14; Walbridge, Socred 161-3.

Lawh-i-Hziriyyah ('Tablet of the Maiden'). Arabic. Rccounts a visionary meeting between Bahi'u'llih and the RBI 125; Walbridge, MAIDOF HEAVEN. Sacred 160-1.

Lawh-i-Malla'hrt'l-quds (Tablet of the Holy Mariner). 1863. Arabic and Persian. Visionary rhymed prose concerning thc dwcllcrs of thc 'ark' of God's cause. Regarded by Bahi'is as prophetic. RBI: 228-44; Walbridge, Socrsd 163-5.

Madinatu'r-ridi ('City of Radiant Acquiescence'). Arabic. Counsels that contentment requires detachment and humility. RB 1: 108-9.

Madinatu't-tawhid ('City of Unity'). Arabic. Discusses the nature of God and the Manifestations of God. It was N , courwritten for Shaykh S A L M ~the ier of BahL'u'llih's letters. RBI: l w - 1 8 . Sahifi-yi-Shattiyyih ('Book of the River'). Persian. Compares the power of God's cause to that of an irresistible river which overcomes all obstructions to its progress. RBI: 105-8. SEVEN VALLEYS (Haft vddi). EB. Persian. Bahi'u'llih's best-known mystical work, written in reply to Shaykh Muhiyu'd-din, a Qidiri Sufi.' Shikkar shikan shavand ('They Shall Crack Sugar'). Persian. Addressed to a promincnt Iranian (variously identified), who had suggested that Bahi'u'llih leave Baghdad for his own safety. The tablet announces the imminence of persecution, but states that no calamity can lessen Bahi'u'llih's ardour in God's path, or defcat God's power. BKG 149, 446; RBI: 147-9.

Subhdna rabbiya'l-arid ('Praise be my Lord, the most exalted'). Arabic. Written for 1:Iiji Mirzi Mfisi Javihiri, the owner of Bahi'u'llbh's house in Baghdad. It announces the advent of the Day of God and warns the faithful to expect tests of their faithfulness. RBI: 21 1-13. Sirattr'lldh ('The Chapter of God'). LB or Edirne. Announces Bahi'u'llih's station to the Bibis and rebukes those who oppose him. RBI: 245. Stiri-yi-Nush ('Chapter of Exhortation'). Written for Sayyid Ja'far Yazdi, one of the survivors of the NAYR~Z conflict. It refers to the various prophets of God; thcir suffcrings at the hands of the religious leaders of their day; and their ultimate victory. Shaykh 'Abdu'l-Husayn Tihrini, a Shi'i cleric who sought to persecute Rahi'u'llih and the Bibis in Baghdad, is condemned as one who 'drew the sword of his self against the face of God'. GPB 141; RBI: 137-47.

I I

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BahL'u'Ilah, writings of

BahL'u'llbh, writings of Sliri-yi-Qadir ('Chapter of the Omnipotent'). Declares that the revelation of this tablet has caused the release of divine power and might into the world. RBI: 119-22. Stiri-yi-Sabr ('Chapter of Patience'). Also known as the kwh-i-Ayytib ('Tablet of Job'). 1863. Arabic. Written for Hiji Muhammad-Taqi, one of conflict. the survivors of the NAYR~I. In it Bahi'u'llih praises the Bibis at Nayriz, portrays their sufferings, and condemns their persecutors. Further, he details the sufferings of the biblical Job; extols fortitude and patience in the face of suffering; and notes the continuity of divine revelation. RBI: 263-73. FKOM BAGHDAD TO ISTANBUL

Lawh-i-Hawdaj ('Tablet of the Howdah'). Arabic. Revealed at Samsun on sighting the Black Sea. Linked to the Tdhlet of the Holy Mariner, it warned of 'grievous and tormenting mischief' which would assail the companions. RB2: 6-7.

THE RUMELIAN PERIOD

advent of the day of God, and to the 'Day-star of truth' which illumines all created things, but which only those with new (spiritual) eyes are able to see. RB2: 29-31. Kitdb-i-Badi ('The Wondrous Book'). Mostly in Persian. Lengthy apologia for Bahi'u'llih, written in reply to a letter from Mirzi Mihdi Gilbni, one of the Bibis who rejected his claims, to A q i Muhammad-'Ali, one of Bahi'u'llih's close con~panions.The book emphasizes the importance of the Bibi messianic figure of I-IE WHOM GODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST; proclaims Bahl'u'llib's fulfilment of this promise, and the outpouring of divine verses from his pen; and counters the arguments of those who would support Subh-i-AZAL.Mihdi himself is condemned as 'he who contends with God' and warned of divine wrath. RB2: 370-81.

L U W ~ - ~ - A H M( 2A)D. Two tablets, one each in Arabic and Persian, for two separate men.' Lawh-i-Ashraf. Tablet for ASHRAF (no.

1). RB2: 230-2.* L a w i l - i - ' A h d i - a va vukald. Tablet to and his ministers. Sultan AUDULA~II. Lengthy letter revealed on receipt of the order of: banishment to Edirne and sent to ALIPASAcondemning the ministers for this action. No extant copy has as yet been discovered. GPB 160.

Lawh-i-Ndqtis ('Tablet of the Bell'). Also called Suhhdnika-yd-hi ('Praise be to Him!'). Arabic. Revealed on 18 October (on the eve of the anniversary of the Bib's declaration). Its pulsating rhythm lends itself t o ecstatic chanting. It declares that 'the Day of God' has now come. RB2: 18-20.

Mathnavi-~i-mubdrak ('The great poem'). Persian poem. Refers to the

Lawh-i-Bahri ('Tablet of Glory'). Arabic and Persian. Revealed for Khdhn Jdn Farhidi of Qazvin. In it, Bahi'u'llih lamented the attacks made on him by his (Azali) opponents, stigmatizing them as the hosts of Satan. He compared his sufferings to those of Abraham and Joseph, and referred to his followers as the 'people of BahB' (i.e. Bahl'is rather than Bdbis). RB2: 171, 178-80.

Lawh-i-Khalil. Tablet to Hiji Muhammad-Ibrihim of Qazvin, 'Khalil' ('Friend'), responding to the confusion caused by ~MirziMUIIAMMADa ~ ~ i 'distribution s of Arabic verses which he claimed were from God. In it Bahi'u'llih stated that as long as his sons believed in him and obeyed his commandments, they remained

members of his family and the mercy of God would be revealed through them. RB2: 25961. Lawh-i-Luylatu'l-quds ('Tablet of the Holy Night'). Wrinen for Sidq-'Ali the dervish. It calls on Bah6'u'llBh's followers to be united and detached from worldly things. A second tablet by the same title was revealed in Akka. RB2: 18E9. Lawh-i-Mubdhilih ('Tablet of the Challenge'). Tablet revealed at the time of the MUBAHALA challenge with Subh-iAzal. RB2: 293. Lawb-i-Ndpulylin I. The first tablet to NAPOLEON 111.' 'awh-i-Nasir. Persian. Tablet for Hiii Muhammad-Nasir of Qazvin (martyred in 1888), who was praised for his steadfasmess. It announces the excellence of the present Day when the 'Celestial Youth' (Bahi'u'llih) had come; calls on the BBhis to tear asunder the veils that had prevented them from recognizing him in the face; and reveals the exalted station of the true believer. Brome, Selections255M): RB2: 245-55.

Lawh-i-Rtih ('Tablet of the Spirit'). Arabic. It proclaims Bahi'u'llih's mission; states that the value of one's faith in God is today dependent on recognizing him; predicts the triumph of his cause; calls upon his followers to be united through the love of God; and laments the treachery of Azal and his followers. RB2: 181-2, 186-8. Lawh-i-Salmrin I. Tablet for Bahi'u'l121s' messenger, Shaykh Salmin. In it Bahl'u'Uih bids him to journey with steadfasmess, detachment and the love of God; complains of his own sufferings at the hands of Subh-iAzal; exalts the station of the true believer; comments on the Islamic phrase 'There is no god but God'; and explains the meaning of a line of poetry by Rhmi. RB2: 263-4.283-9. Lawb-i-Sayyrib. Tab!et to 'Sayya'h' ('Traveller'), Mulli Adi-Guzal (MirzB

'Ali), the Bib's courier. In i t Bahi'u'llih stated that he was the 'Ancient Beauty' through whose command the whole of creation came into being; declared that if the peoples of the world wish to hear the voice of God, they should listen to his verses; and warned that this is the day of tests on which the deeds of all human beings will be weighed with justice. RB2: 210-15.

1-awb-i-Sirdj. Tablet t o Mulli 'AliMuhammad-i-Sirij of I s f i h i n , brother of the Bib's second wife, and a supporter of Subh-i-Azal. It announces Bahi'u'llih's cause; laments Azal's behaviour; and explains why Azal should now be denounced despite his former high religious station. RB2: 2623,268-9. Lawh-;-SULTAN('Tablet of the King'). Arahic and Persian. To NASIRU'D-D~N SHAH.* Mundjdt-ha'-yi-Siya'm('Prayers for Fasting'). Sliri-yi-Amr ('Chapter of Command'). c. March 1866. Statement of Bahi'u'lIih's status as a divine revealer, read aloud a,t his order to Subh-i-Azal by Mirzi AQAJAN,and shortly followed by the 'Most Great Separation', and the split between the Bahb'is and the Azalis. RB2: 161-5. Stiri-yi-Ashdb ('Chapter of the Companions'). Arabic. Lengthy tablet addressed to Mirzi A q i Munib ( M u n i r ) , ' H a b i b ' ('Friend') Bahi'u'llih's companion and lantern-bearer on the journey from Baghdad to Istanbul - proclaiming Bahi'u'llih's status as a divine revealer; warning the Bibis not to reject his claims; and calling upon Munib to awaken the Bibis to his call. It played a significant role in the subsequent conversion of the majority of the Bibis. RB2: 65, 72-7.84.91. Sliri-yi-Damm ('Chapter of Blood'). Arabic. Tablet addressed to NABIL-IA ~ ~ Atelling M , him ro teach the Bibis

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Bah&u'Il&h, writings of

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Lawh-i-Fu'rid. Composed following the in Iran about Bahi'u'llih, but flee death of the Ottoman minister FUAT from those who show enmity; and to be resigned and submissive in the face PASA(1869). It rebukes Fuat for the of oppression. RB2: 23640. wrongs he had inflicted upon Stiri-yi-Gltusn ('Tablet of the BRANCH'). Bahi'u'llih; states that God had taken Arabic. * his life as a punishment; and predicts the downfall of Ali P a ~ aand Sultan Stiri-yi-Hajj 1 6 11('Chapters of Pilgrirnage'). Tablets detailing the rites of Abdulaziz. It was addressed to Shaykh pilgrimage to the House of the Rib in Kizim SAMANDAR. The sultan's downShiriz and the House of Bahi'u'llih fall (1876) and the fulfilment of the prophecy was instrumental in the in Baghdad. These were sent to Nabil-i-A'zam, who became the first RB3: conversion of Mirzi ARU-L-FAUL. 87-8.91-2,99-102. person to perform the rites. RB2: 240. Stiri-yi-'Ibrid ('Chapter of the Servants'). Lawb-i-Haft pursish ('Tablet of the Arabic. Tablet for Sayyid Mihdi Seven Questions'). Tablet to one of Dahaji, the caretaker of Bahi'u'llih's thc early Zoroastrian Bahi'is, Ustid house in Baghdad, who subsequently Javin-mard, 'Shir-mard'. It is written became a prominent Bahi'i teacher, in 'pure' Persian without any Arabic and later a follower of Muhammadadmixture. It includes an appeal to the Zoroastrian priests to invcstigate 'Ali. It urges him to live a pious life, detached from the world, his own self Bahi'u'llih's cause. REP 272-3. and all created things. It recounts the Lawh-i-Hirtik. AUK. Arabic. Tablet for details of Bahi'u'llih's journey to David Hardegg (Hirtik), the leader of Edirne and calls upon all the believers the TEMPLE SOCIETY in I-laifa. In it to be steadfast and united. ~ m2:7 2 4 . Bahi'u'llih states that people were kept back from recognizing truth in SBri-yi-Multik (Stira of the KINGS). this day by their own idle imaginings, Arabic. c.1867.) just as in the days of Christ, when PROM EDIRNE TO AKKA simple fishermen were the first to recognize him, whilst the learned Stiri-yi-Ra'is ('Chapter of the Chief'). denied him. RB3: 28-31. Arabic. 1868. Tablet to Hiji Muhammad-Ismi'il Kishini,- D H A B ~ Hi t, Lawh-i-Malikih. Arabic. Tablet to includes an address to Ali Paga ('The Queen Vlcro~m.'' Chief'). Writtcn on the journey to Lawh-i-Malik-i-Rtis. Arabic. Tablet to Tsar ALEXANDER Gallipoli. See Tablets of RAsis.' ll.* Lawh-i-Minikchi Srihib. Tablet to the Indian Zoroastrian representative in THE SYRIAN PERIOD Iran, Minikchi. It is written in 'pure' Persian without any Arabic admixKitrib-i-AQDAS ('The Most Holy Book'). ture. It invites the people of the world Arabic. c.1873. Bahi'u'llih's book of to 'drink' from the 'springs' of his laws.* knowledge, and refers to Bahi'u'llih Lawh-i-Ahbrib ('Tablet of the Friends'). as the 'All-Knowing Physician' who c.1870. Arabic. Counsels addressed has his finger on the pulse of manto the Rahi'is to be detached from all kind. R e 2 270-1. else but God, and united amongst Lawh-i-Nipulytin 11. 1869. Arabic. Secthemselves; to live their lives in ond tablet to Napoleon 111, which accordance with his commandments; predicts his downfall. * and to teach the Faith with wisdom. Lawh-i-Prip. c.1869. Arabic. Tablet to RB3: 258-9. Pope Plus IX.'

Lawb-i-Pisar-'amm ('Tablet of the Cousin'). AkE. Written for Mirzd Hasan Mizandarini, a paternal cousin of Bahi'u'llih who was also a believer. It celebrates the ties of kinship when reinforced by religious faith, and exhorts Hasan to good deeds. RB3: 216-18.

RB3: 133-7, 140-6; Walbridge, Socred 165-9.

BAHJ~, 1873-92 ('WORDSOF WIS-

LATE AKKA. MAZRA'IH AND

Asl-i-kullu'l-khayr DOM')."

Lawb-i-Qad ihtaraqa'l-mukhlistin ('Tablet of "Indced the hearts of the sincere are consumed.. ."').Generally known as 'The Fire Tablct'. c.1871. Arabic. Written for Hiji Sayyid 'AliAkbar Dahaji. A dialogue between Bahi'u'llih, who complains of his sufferings, and God, who comforts and reassures him. Its rhymed verse has a powerful invocatory quality even in English translation. Bahb'u'llbh, Writings 697-701; RB3: 2 2 6 9 .

Lawh-i-Ra'is. AkE. Pcrsian. Second pf the Tablets of Ra'is, addressed to Ali P a ~ a the , Ottoman minister." Lawh-i-Ru'yi ('Tablet of the Vision'). 1873, AUK. Arabic. Portrays a vision of the Maid of Heaven, and alludes to Bahi'u'llih's own death. RB3. 2 2 3 4 ; Wolbridge, &red

toria, and Nisiru'd-din Shih in the form of a pentacle symbolizing the 'human temple'. GPE 212-13; PDC 47-8;

16 1

.

kwh-i-Salmrin I1. AkE. Another tablet composed for Bahi'u'llih's messenger, Shaykh Salmin. It counsels resignation to the will of God and acceptance of trials in his path. R E 3 25-6.

Lawh-i-Tibb ('Tablet of MEDICINE')." Skratu'l-Haykal ('Chapter of the Temple'). Arabic. First composed in Edirne, and subsequently revised in Akka (c.1869). A symbolic tablet in which Bahi'u'llih, speaking with the voice of God, addresses Bahi'u'116h as the promised biblical 'Temple of God', and expresses his sense of identiy with God. He also refers to his sufferings at the hands of Azal and his followers, and to the transformarive power of divine creation. Bahi'u'llih ordered this tablet to be copied together with his letters to Pius IX, Napoleon 111, Alexander 11, Vic-

BISHARAT ('Glad-tidings').' I,T!!RAQAT ('Splendour~').~ Kalimrit-i-Firdawsiyyih ('WORDSO F PARADISE'). c.1890.* I,awh-i-Ard-i-bri ('Tablet of the Land of "B" [Beirut]'). 1879. Composed on the occasion of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's visit to Beirut, it expresses Bahi'u'llih's regard for his eldest son 'round Whom all names revolve'. RE4 240-1; TB 227-8.

' ~ W ~ - ~ - A Q D('The A S M o s t Holy Tablet'). Bahi'u'llih's tablet to the Christians.* Lawh-i-BUR~~AN ('Tablet of the Proof'). 1879.* Lawb-i-Dunyri ('Tablet of the WORLD'). 1891.* LUW/?-~-HIKMAT ('Tablet of Wisdom'). 187314.' Lawh-i-Ittiha'd ('Tablet of Unity'). Addressed to Sayyid Asadu'llih, it describes diffcrent forms of unity: the unity of a common faith; unity of speech; unity of deeds; the unity of peoples; and the unity of earthly possession (advocating generosity and self-sacrifice on behalf of others). RB4

191-5.

'awh-i-M~QsOo. Tablet to Maqsitd.' Latuh-i-Sayyid MihdiDahaji. A tablet to Sayyid M I H D ~by, this time one of the most prominent Bahl'i teachers. Re4 236-8; TB 195-201

.'

Law[?-;-Times ('Tablet to The Times'). 1891. Composed after the killing of the first 'Seven Martyrs of Yazd' (19 May 1891). It includes an address to The Times of London (the 'dawning place of news') calling for the paper, and newspapers throughout the world, to concern themselves with

Bahiyyih Khbnum

Bahii

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the plight of the persecuted Bahfis in Iran. RB4 34550. Lawb-i-Kamil ('Tablet of CARMEL'). 1891." Lawb-i-lbn-i-dhi'b ( ' E r r s r ~ eTO THE SON OF THE WOLF'). 1891/2.* Stiri-~~-VAFA. Tablet in honour of Shaykh Muhammad-Husayn, 'Vafa".* TAIALL~YAT ('Effulgences'). c.188516.' TARAZAT ('Ornaments'). c.1889.*

Bahiyyih Khanurn (1846-1932)

I

Eldest daughter of Bahb'u'llbh by his first wife, NAVVAB, and 'Abdu'l-Bahi's full sister. She w a s d e v o t e d t o Bahi'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi, and on several occasions acted

Bahilyib Khdnum with Shoghi Effendi before he left to study in England

as head of the Faith. She was only six or seven years old when her father was imprisoned in the SIYAH-CHAL in 1852, and thereafter shared the poverty, exile and sufferings of Bahb'u'llih's family. Dedicated t o serving her father, she renounced the idea of marriage. In Akka (1868-1909110) she managed the affairs of the household; attended t o her father's daily needs; and cultivated social relationships with the wives of local notables and officials which might shield her father and brother. In the aftermath of Bahi'u'llLh's passing she led the minority of family members who supported 'Abdu'l-Bahi against the 'machiand his nations' of MUHAMMAD-'AL~ associates. With the end of the government's restrictions on the family (1908) - though already in poor health - she received the increasing number of Bahi'i pilgrims from both East and West, and during 'Abdu'l-Bahi's Western tours (1911-13) she assumed management of Bahb'i affairs in the Holy Land. During World War 1 (1914-18) she superintended with her brother the distribution of considerable amounts of food, clothing and medical aid to a local population suffering both from maladministration and potential starvation. After 'Abdu'l-Bahi's death (1921) she supported and advised the youthful Shoghi Effendi during the early years of his guardianship, and during his several prolonged absences from Haifa acted as head of the Faith. In the late 1920s her health suffered further decline. She died at the age of eightysix, one hour after midnight on I S July 1932, from respiratory failure, and was buried on Mount Carmel near the joint shrine of the Bib and 'Abdu'l-Bahi (see HAIFA).Her funeral was massively attended by the general public, and was reminiscent of that of 'Abdu'l-Bahi in the prestige and religious diversity of the mourners. Shoghi Effendi was devastated by her death, recalling her resignation, serenity,

cheerfulness and love for all, and praying that she would intercede for him and for 'the toiling masses of thy ardent lovers'. He quickly had constructed a domed, pillared, Carrara marble monument t o mark her grave, this later coming t o mark the focal centre for the administrative buildings of the 'ARC'. H e praised her heavenly qualities, describing her as a 'pure angelic soul', and attributed t o her the power of intercession for all humankind: she was in direct communion with God, and watched over the Rahi'is and sent them her blessings. For their part, Bahi'is should take her as a model of how thcy should live a spiritual life of selfabnegation and service. He compared her station to that of the heroines of previous religions: Sarah, wife of Abraham; Asiya, the wife of Pharaoh who sought to intercede for Moses; the Virgin Mary; Fbtima, the daughter of Muhammad and wife of the I m i m 'Ali; and the Bibi leader TAHIRIH.BA 187-96: GPB 347: UHIRD, Bahiyyih Khbnum.

Bahj i (Ar., 'Delight') Mansion north of Akka occupied by Bahb'u'llih from September 1879 until his death in 1892. The present structure was built by 'Udi Khammir, the Christian merchant whose house in AKKAhad earlier been occupied by Bahi'u'llih, and was completed in 1870. It was here that Bahi'u'llih wrote most of his later writings, and also received the English o r i e n t a l i s t E.G. R R O W N E .W h e n Bahi'u'llih died he was interred in a room in one of the surrounding buildings occupied by his daughter Furhghiyyih Khinum and her husband, Sayyid 'Ali Afnin. That room became the Shrine of BahL'u'llih, and is regarded by Rahi'is as the most sacred place on earth. It is the QrnLArl t o which Bahb'is turn in prayer. Many members of Bahb'u'llbh's family had lived with him at Bahji, in

the mansion itself .or in a number of smaller buildings s u r r o u n d i n g it. 'Abdu'l-Bahb and his family had cont i n u e d t o live i n A k k a . A f t e r Bahi'u'llih's passing a complex situation developed, in which 'Abdu'l-Bahi was the majority (two-thirds) owner of the mansion, but the actual occupants were his half-brothers, headed by MUIIAMMAD-'AL~, together with their families and supporters. Given the increasingly open animosity displayed by this group towards 'Abdu'l-BahL (see COVENANT-BREAKERS), visits t o the Shrine of Rahi'u'llih subsequently became fraught, 'Abdu'l-Bahi obtaining a small 'tea-house' in the vicinity so that he could visit his father's Shrine in greater serenity. He also rented an adjoining building to serve as a pilgrim house. A Bahi'i loyal t o 'Abdu'l-Bahi was appointed caretaker of the Shrine itself. After 'Abdu'l-Bahb's death Muhammad'Ali made legal claim to become the custodian of the Shrine, forcing the issue by having the keys seized (30 January 1922). The British authorities then intervened and retained the keys until February 1923 when they decided the case in Shoghi Effendi's favour. Thenceforth the Shrine remained in uncontested Bahb'i possession. The mansion meanwhile was falling into increasing disrepair, until Muhammad-'Ali was finally forced t o abandon it in November 1929. Shoghi Effendi straightaway began to have the building restored, furnishing it as a Bahb'i museum and place of pilgrimage (by 1932). Complete ownership of the building was only secured in 1957, however. THE GARDENS

With possession of the mansion, Shoghi Effendi began to beautify the small amount of land that by then still remained with the building. In 1952 he was able t o acquire more land (over 145,000 sq.m.) and t o begin an extensive project t o surround the Shrine and

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Bahji

88

89

mansion with ornamental gardens, personally supervising the construction of the Haram-i-Aqdas. (the Most Holy Precincts or Sanctuary), comprising the north-western quadrant next to the Shrine itself. He was also able to appropriate and begin the demolition of houses adjoining the mansion which had been occupied by Covenant-breakers. The last of these, a large two-storey structure immediately to the north of the mansion, was demolished shortly after his death, this action being regarded as a final 'cleansing' of the site. The material from these demolitions was used to construct terraces within the gardens. Further land acquisitions have been made by the Universal House of Justice, and the remaining three quadrants completed. Ruhe 105-22; Robbani, Priceless Pearl, 53-4, 71, 2314; Giochery 123-47.

Aerial view showing the complex o f buildings at Bahji.

I

Baker, Dorothy B. (1898-1954) of New American HANDOF THE CAUSE England Protestant background. Her paternal grandmother, 'Mother (Ellen Tuller) Beecher', was a well-known early American Bahi'i. Dorothy became active as a Bahi'i public speaker during the 1930s, and became heavily involved in local and national Bahi'i administration. Ln 1937 she was elected on to the American national spiritual assembly. She also wrote Baht pamphlets and radio scripts. During the 1940s she travelled extensively in Latin America and Europe to promote the Faith. She was appointed a Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effendi in December 1951. She died in an air crash in January 1954. BW12: 670-4; Freemon; Harper 191-201.

Baker, Richard St. Barbe (1889-1982)

1

The interior of Bahd'u'llihk room at Bahji

English environmentalist and pioneer of 'social forestry'. Concerned with the problems of deforestation in colonial Kenya, he appealed for help from the Kikuyu people and in 1922 established

~

Balyuzi, Hasan M.

Richard St. Barbe Baker, pioneer social forester

with them an organization to protect the trees. This subsequently became an international organization ('The Men of the Trees', later the International Tree Foundation. HRH the Prince of Wales is the foundation's patron), and Baker became involved in conservation and reforestation projects in various parts of the world. He was also a prolific author. He became a Bahi'i in London around 1924. Shoghi Effendi became the first life member of the Men of the Trees. Bwls: 802-5. (See also ENVIRONMENT.) Balyuzi, Hasan M. (1908-1980)

Iranian-born HANDOF THE CAUSEand leading Bahi'i scholar who spent most of his life in Britain. His father was governor of the Persian Gulf ports and later Iranian minister of the interior. Although a descendant of the Bib's family on both sides of his family (i.e. an AFNAN), the young Balyuzi remained a Muslim until he met Shoghi Effendi in 1925 and became a devoted Bahi'i. In 1932 he proceeded to Britain to study for a Master's degree in diplomatic history at the London School 'of Economics. His hopes of completing a doctorate were dashed by the onset of

.

Banani, Musa (1886-1971)

Iranian HANDOF THE CAUSEof Jewish background. He became a Bahi'i in 1913. In 1951, accompanied by his wife, daughter and her family, he became a Bahl'i PIONEER in Uganda. Shoghi Effendi referred to him as the 'spiritual conqueror' of Africa, and appointed him as a Hand of the Cause in February 1952. He oversaw many of the subsequent developments of the Faith in Uganda, and also did much to coordinate activities in the continent as a whole. BWl5: 421-3; Harper 339-48. Hasatz M. Balyuzi, Iranian-British Bahd'i scholar and Hand of the Cause, c. 19.51 World War 11, and he subsequently became a senior member of the BBC's newly established Persian section. Balyuzi's arrival in Britain contributed towards a revival in Bahi'i activities there, and he was elected on to the national spiritual ASSEMBLY in 1933 -he was only twenty-four - remaining on that hody until ill-health forced his retirement in 1960. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effendi in October 19.57, and acted as one of the transistors at the Conclaves of the Hands. Increasingly, health problems prevented him from travelling to visit the Bahl'is and he turned to scholarly research (see BAni A N D BAHA'ISTUDIRS). A string of books followed: detailed studies of the lives of the central figures of the Faith - on 'Ahdu'l-Rahd (1971), The Bdb (1973), and Baha"u'l1dh (1980);a monograph, Edward Granville Brotvne and the Bahi'i Faith (1970); and a study of Islam, Muhammad and the Course of Islam (1976). Two further books were published posthumously: Khadijih Bagrtm (1981), and Eminent Bahd'is in the Time of Bahd'u'lldh (1985). BWIB: 635-51; Harper 41 1-25; Momen, 'Haran M. Balvuzi'.

Bible

91

Banani, Musa

baptism

Christian practice. 'Ahdu'l-Bahi regarded (adult) baptism as having been a physical symbol of purification from SIN. The true 'baptism' was spiritual, and required genuine REPENTANCE. The practice had now become little more than a cultural trait, and was not followed by Bahi'is (or Muslims). Infant baptism was an empty ceremony which entailed no spiritual benefit for the child, i.e. of itself it led neither to religious faith nor spiritual awakening. SAQ9l-6. BarfurGsh (Bibul; 1868 pop. est. 10,000)

Town in the northern Iranian province of Mbzandarin, close to the Caspian Sea. It was the birthplace of Quoous and his place of martyrdom. The shrine of Shaykh TABARS~ is nearby. BarfurGshi, Mu116 Muhammad-'Ali

See QUDDUS. Bastami, Mu116 'Ali

See A ' LL BAST AM^. Bausani, Alessandro (1921-88)

Prominent Italian academic and Bahd'i. He had wide-ranging scholarly interests

in the fields of linguistics, Islamic studies and comparative religion. Academic positions included professor of Persian language and literature a t the Oriental Institute in Naples (1956-71) and of Islamic Studies at the University of Rome (1971-88). He became a Bahi'i in 1950 and served on the Italo-Swiss and Italian national spiritual ASSEMBLIES for most of the period from 1953 to 1984. His publications include Persia Religiosa: Da Zaratustra a Bahd'u'lldh (Milan, 1959), one of the few studies to treat the Bahb'i Faith as an important and integral part of Iranian religious history. Bayan (Ar., 'Exposition', 'Explanation')

Title of two works of the Bib, a longer one in Persian written whilst he was a prisoner in MKU (1847-8), and a shorter one in Arabic from the same period. Both books were left incomplete: they were envisaged as consisting of nineteen 'unities' (vdbids), each of nincteen chapters (i.e. 19 x 19 = 361), this having numerological significance (see NUMBERS), but stop in their ninth and eleventh 'unity' respectively, the Bbh leaving their completion to the prophetic figure HE WHOM GODSHALL M A K E MANIFEST (Man-yuzhiruhu'lldb; Bahi'is regard Bahi'u'llih's Kitdb-~-IQAN as the completion). The major contents of the book are the elements of Bihi religious LAW;discussion of various religious concepts; and glorification of the expected Man-yuzhiruhu'l[rih. Shoghi Effendi regarded it primarily as 'a eulogy of the Promised OneY,which had at the same time abrogated the laws of Islam; proclaimed the advent of the Day (of REFIIRRECTION); and prophesied the future rise of the Bahi'i WORLD ORDER (GPB 24-6). There are French translations of both works (by Nicolas), and an abstract and index of the Persian Baydn by Browne (Selections 316-406; Kitib-iNuqtatu'l-Kdf liv-xcv). English transla-

tions of selected extracts are in Bib, St?!ectionS 77-1 13. ARR 409-10; Brome, Selections 22439: McS 83-5; SBBR 365; Wilson, 'Bayan'. begging

Bahb'u'llbh forbade begging, referring to beggars as the most despised of men in God's sight. In what appears to be a reference to a future more ideal society, it was also forbidden to give to beggars (certainly, 'Abdu'l-Bahi gave food to beggars in Alcka in the absence of any effective poor relief (AB 351)).The Bahi'i view is that everyone should work for a living and that it is wrong to waste one's time in idleness and sloth. Those who are unable to work or in dire poverty should be given adequate provision by the relevant authorities (the HOUSES OF JUSTICE) and by the rich. Ideally, it is believed, mendicancy should be totally abolished in the future. 30 kl3,72 kl47, I 92-3 "56, 235 "162; LG I 20; TB 26. (See also CHARITY; ECONOMIC TEACHINGS; WORK.)

Benke, (George) Adam (1878-1932)

Prominent European Bahi'i. Born into a Gcrman-speaking family in Russia, he migrated to Germany with his wife at the end of World War I. There they became Bahi'is. During 1931 and 1932 Benke was energetically involved in promoting the Faith in Bulgaria, particularly amongst Esperantists. He died unexpectedly whilst still in Bulgaria, and Shoghi Effendi subsequently accorded him the spiritual status of being the first European martyr for the Faith in recognition of his dedication (see also M A R TYRDOM). BW5: 416-18.

Bible

Collection of Jewish and Christian scriptures. Bahi'is regard the Bible as a holy book 'in substance', recognizing that not every word is necessarily the

birth control authentic sayings of the Prophets, and believing that some sections - such as the Genesis creation account - are to be taken figuratively rather than literally (LG 494 nos. 1658-60; see INTERPRETATION). 'Abdu'l-BahP described it as celestially inspired; the mystery and light of God's kingdom; the sign of his guidance; the book of salvation; and a divine bounty (AB 145). Because they embody the teachings of MOSESand JESUSrespectively, the Torah (Pentateuch) and Gospels are regarded as the WORDOF GOD.Reference to competent Bible scholars should be made for further understanding. For a discussion of the Bible from a BahP'i perspective, see the works of Michael Sours. (See also CHRISTIANITY; JUDAISM.) Bahi'u'llih's evident knowledge of the Bible (as indicated in such works as the Kita'b-i-IQAN)is highly unusual in a 19th-century Muslim context. He also evidenced sympathy for Christianity in general, and rejected the common Muslim belief that the Jews and Christians had perverted their scriptures so as to expunge prophetic references t o Muhammad: those who loved their sacred writings would not knowingly mutilate them. RELIGIOUS LEADERS (such as those rabbis who opposed Muhammad) would interpret their scriptures according to their own prejudices, however, and it was this that was referred to in the relevant Quranic verses (KI 54581. birth control For Bahi'is the primary purpose of is the procreation of children. Thus whilst Bahi'i couples may use contraception (or abstain from sex) to limit the total number of children they have, they should not use it to avoid having children completely, unless for medical reasons. Birth-control methods involving the ABORTION of the fertilized egg or the permanent sterilization of MARRIAGE

Blomfield. k d v Sam Louisa either partner are not permitted, again unless for medical reasons (e.g. a threat to the mother's health; the risk of severe genetic defects). In such matters, couples should make their own judgement on the basis of the Bahi'i teachings and competent medical advice. LG 344-9, nor. 1 155-70.

Bishirrir t (Pers., 'Glad-Tidings') Persian tablet of BahP'u'll5.h revealed at Bahji. It is also called the Tablet of the Call (Lawh-i-Nida'). In it BahA'u'llPh announces fifteen 'glad-tidings'. These comprise: (1) The abolition of various Islamic and Bdbi laws and practices: of HOLY WAR (no. 1);of restrictions on association between believers and those of other religions (no. 2); of how they should DRESS and wear their hair (no. 7); and what subjects they might study (no. 11;See also KNOWLEDGE); of the (Bibi) law regarding the destruction of books (no. 10); of the Shi'i encouragement to make special journeys to visit the graves of the dead (other than formal PILGRIMAGE) (no. 14). (2) Instructions to Bahi'is regarding their relations to secular powers: Bahd'is should love and serve any king who protects their community (no. 4); wherever they reside, they should be loyal, honest and truthful in their behaviour towards the government (no. 5). (3) The statement that the government of human affairs was entrusted to the (Universal) House of Justice, whilst acts of worship were to be observed according to the God's book (i.e. the AQDAS) (no. 13). (4) Instructions to the world's rulers: that they choose a single LANGUAGE and script to be taught universally to all schoolchildren (no. 3); conversion of weapons of war into instruments of reconstruction (no. 5); the

establishment of the Lesser PEACE (no. 6); that the ideal form of government was a combination of republicanism with kingship (i.e. as in a constitutional monarchy) (no. 15); that they enforce holy LAW (TB 29). (5) Various injunctions: to associate with the followers of other religions 'in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship' (no. 2; see also TOLERANCE); that all the peoples of the world should aid Bahi'u'llih's Cause (no. 5); that Christian monks and priests should abandon seclusion and live in the 'open world', working, marrying and having children (no. 8); that CONFESSION OP SINS should be made to God, and not to other people (no. 9); that every person should have an occupation, their WORK being a form of worship; and the condemnation of idleness and BEGGING (no. 12). RB4

Lady Sara Louisa Blomfield, prominent early British Bahd'i

death in 1899 she became increasingly interested in movements such as Theosophy, and in 1907 encountered the Bahi'is in Paris. Her home (97 Cadogan Black Standard Gardens) was 'Abdu'l-Bahi's base durIslamic messianic symbol. The Prophet ing his visits to Britain (1911, 1912-13). M~thammadis reported to have said that She and her daughters also attended one of the signs of the advent of the 'Abdu'l-BahP in Paris and published M A H Dwould ~ be 'Black Standards' their notes on his talks (Talks by Abdul proceeding from the north-eastern Baha Given In Paris, 1912; later retitled Iranian province of Khurisin. In accorParis Talks). After World War I she dance with this prophecy, and at the BPb's instructions, Mulli HUSAYN BUSH- became involved in the work of the Save the Children Fund and sought to pro~ i r .left i Mashhad with his followers and mote the BahP'i teachings within League raised a Black Standard for his proclaof Nations circles. She accompanied matory westward journey (21 July Shoghi Effendi back to Haifa after 1848). It flew over the Bdbi 'fortress' at 'Abdu'l-BahL's death and wrote with TABARS~. Nobil325, 351. him the memorial booklet The Passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahd (1922). She was Blomfield, Lady Sara Louisa amongst the group of prominent Wes(1859-1939) tern RahP'is who consulted with Shoghi Prominent British Bahi'i, named Sitirih Effendi about the future progress of the ('star') Khinum by 'Abdu'l-Bahd. Of Faith in 1922, and was subsequently mixed Catholic-Protestant Irish backinvolved with the development of the ground, she became part of London high BahL'i administration in Britain. During society, marrying the architect Sir lengthy stays in Haifa she gathered notes Arthur William Blomfield, a son of the on Bahi'i history - many of them from bishop of London. After her husband's the sister, wife and one of the daughters 160-7; TB 19-29.

Buddhism

Bourgeois, Jean-Baptiste Louis

of 'Abdu'l-Bahl. These were subsequently published as The Chosen Highway (1940). BWE: 651-6;WEBW101-10.

translations of certain passages (WOB 135, 137). RB2: 388-9. The text of the earlier tronrlation is awilable in Covenant o ~ B a h d t ' 1 l ~49-53 h ond Forghoni 159-62.

Bourgeois, Jean-Baptiste Louis (1856-1930)

Brauns, Artur (d. 1925) and Marta (1888-1948) French-Canadian designer of the Wilmette House of Worship (MASHRIQU'L-Prominent German Bahb'is. Artur was a ADHKAR). Born in rural Quebec, he left doctor, and was seemingly honoured by Canada following the death of his first Shoghi Effendi as one of the DISCIPLES OF wife. He later established himself as an 'ABDU'L-BAHA. Marta was Swiss by birth architect-designer in the United States, (the daughter of August FOREL)and, working in various cities. He and his after her husband's early death in a second wife, Alice (daughter of the canoeing accident, became a major painter Paul delongpre), encountered promoter of the Faith as well as of Bahl'is in the early 1900s. His basic various social causes in Germany. BWII: design for Wilmette was accepted in 481-3. 1920 by the BAHAI TEMPLE UNITY,and he continued to work on detailed drawings Breakwell, Thomas for the building during the years before (c.1872-1902) his death. The artist's studio he had Young Englishman who became a Bahl'i constructed close to the site of the future in Paris in 1901. His fervour and Temple later became the residence of the detachment attracted much admiration secretary of the American national from other Bahl'is, including 'Abdu'lspiritual assembly. Bahl, who composed a eulogy in his honour following his early death. Shoghi Branch, Tablet of the Effendi later referred to him as a (At.: Suri-yi-Ghusn) 'luminary' of the Faith. AB 74-80; WEBW Arabic tablet of Bah2u'llLh composed 65-72. during the Edirne period (1864-8). It is addressed to Mirzl 'Ali-Ridb Mustawfi, Brittingham, lsabella D. Mustasha'ru'd-dawlih (EB 52-5), and (1852-1924) concerns the station of 'Abdu'l-Bahl, Prominent early American Bahl'i. She identified only as the 'Branch' (ghupn, pl. became a Bahl'i in 1898 in New York, AGHSAN), and then in his twenties. This and soon became one of the most was 'the branch of command' which energetic teachers of the Faith, lecturing encompassed all existence. The people extensively in many cities. She also should seek its shelter and taste the fruits wrote one of the most popular early of its knowledge and wisdom. Those introductory books, The Revelation of who did not would perish. Bahl'is were Baha-ullah in a Sequence of Four bidden to teach their religion and avoid Lessons (1902). Shoghi Effendi hondisputation and corruption. The tablet is oured her as one of the DISCIPLES OF regarded as an important textual source 'ABDU'L-BAHA. WEBW 131-8. for the COVENANT doctrine, and several English translations were made during the early years of the century. Shoghi Browne, Edward Granville (1862-1926) Effendi was dissatisfied with the available translation, regarding it as doctrinEnglish orientalist who wrote extenally misleading, and making his own sively on the Blbi and Bahl'i religions.

He was Sir Thomas Adam's Professor of Arabic at the University of Cambridge from 1902, and is well known for his pioneering work on Persian literature and his support for the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-9. He first made contact with Bahl'is and Azalis during his visit to Iran in 1887-8 (his experiences are described in A Year Amongst the Persians (1893)), and in 1890 visited both Subh-i-Azal in Cyprus and Bahi'u'llih at Bahji (his well-known description of his first meeting with Bahi'u'llih is in TN xxxix-xli). He collected a large number of manuscripts, publishing some and providing summaries of others. His major publications in this area were: (1)text and translation of 'Abdu'l-Bahl's TRAVELLERT NARRATIVE, together with extensive notes (1891); (2) translation of The Ta'rikh-i-]adid or New History of Mirzn' 'Ali Muhammad the Ba'b, again with extensive notes (1893); (3) Persian text of the Kita'b-iNuqtatu'l-Ka'f, together with a lengthy introduction in English (the Persian introduction was almost certainly not by him) (1910); (4) Materials for the Study of the Ba'biReligion (1918). Other published materials relating to the Faith are in Browne, Selections. His position on the Bahb'i-Azali split is the subject of considerable controversy. EGBBF; MBBR 2936. (See also B A BAND ~ B A HSTUDIES.) ~ ~ Buddhism

E. G. Browne as a young matt in Persian costume

tices were necessarily in accord with the Both 'Abdu'l-Bahb and Shoghi Effendi Buddha's teachings (CC1: 15-23). referred to Buddhism, and included the Interest in Buddhism amongst Buddha in the succession of MANIFESTA-Bahl'is has increased in recent years, TIONS OF GOD.Buddhism was regarded and there are a growing number of as one of nine known revealed religions, Bahb'is of Buddhist background. Given and its scriptures as predictive of the very different religious concepts Bahl'u'lllh (identified as the messianic characteristic of Buddhism and the 'Fifth Buddha' Maitreya). Much of the Semitic tradition (of which Bahl'i forms original teachings of the Buddha had a part: see RELIGION), the inclusion of been lost, however, and the authenticity Buddhism in the list of Bahi'i revealed of the present Buddhist canon of scrip- religions poses questions for Bahl'i hire was regarded as uncertain. Not all religious scholarship. Two quite differpresent-day Buddhist beliefs and pracent responses to these questions are

97 I

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I

offered by Jamshed Fozdar (The God of Buddha; Buddha Maitrya-Amitabha has Appeared) and Moojan Momen (Buddhism and the Baha'i Faith), with Fozdar seeking to establish the reality in Buddhist terms of an unknowable reality equivalent to the concept of God and presenting the Bahi'i Faith as the prophetic fulfilment of Buddhism, whilst Momen details the considerable similarities of ethical teachings between Theravadan Buddhism and Bahi'i, and argues that metaphysical differences between the two reflect culture-bound terminologies. He notes also that both religions emphasize religious practice and regard many metaphysical issues as being unknowable. Burhtin, Lawh-i(PA, Tablet of the Proofl

A tablet of Bahi'u'llih composed in 1879 shortly after the execution of the KING A N D BELOVED OF MARTYRS. It is addressed to Shaykh Muhammad-Bbqir - stigmatized by Bahi'u'llih as the WOLI:(Dhi'b) - one of the two Isfihini clerics responsible for the deaths. Bahi'u'llih rebukes him for his tyranny and injustice, and compares him to those Jewish leaders who were responsible for the crucifixion of Christ, but assures him that he neither fears his cruelty nor hates him for his falsity and folly. He was like one of 'the last traces of sunlight upon the mountain-top', and would soon fade away. He and those like him had subverted Islam. Nevertheless, repentance would evoke divine forgiveness. The second cleric involved in the executions - and the prime mover - Mirzb Muhammad-l-lusayn, is referred to as the She-Serpent (Raqshd), who had stung the children of the Prophet (The martyrs were both sayyids). He had acted out of a desire for material gain, but his possessions would not avail him: he would shortly encounter divine chastisement and his fire would be quenched

(TB 203-16; RB4: 91-102). Muhammad-Husayn's subsequent disgrace and awful death are regarded by Bahi'is as vivid fulfilment of the prophecy. burial

Bahi'is bury their dead, regarding this as being in accord with the natural process of decomposition. CREMATION, by contrast, is seen as unnatural. Bahi'i law stipulates that burial should not be at a place more than one hour's journey from the place of death (a contrast with the 19thsentury Shi'i practice of transporting bodies for burial at distant shrines), and should be preceded by the recitation of a specific prayer. Other provisions which at present are only widely practised by Middle Eastern Bahi'is include first washing the corpse and shrouding it in silk or cotton cloth; placing a ring on its finger, with a specially inscribed verse ('I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His name, the Merciful, the Compassionate'); using a coffin of durable wood, stone, or crystal (so as to show respect for the body as the former 'temple of the spirit'); and burying the body with its feet facing towards the Bahb'i QIBLAH (i.e. BAHJ~). The special prayer and the placement of the ring are applicable only if the deceased has reached the age of MATURITY (i.e. fifteen). Several of these provisions follow Bibi law. Additionally, the body should bc buried as soon as possible after death; it should not be embalmed; ideally, it should not be buried at sea. Bodies can be left for medical research, as long as it is stipulated that they will eventually be buried. The bodies of foetuses should also be treated with respect. Bahi'is should not let burials become ritualistic; they should pray for the dead; and state in their W n ~ sthat they wish to be buried according to Bahb'i law. The Bahi'i form of burial can be followed

Buzurg, Mini

for non-BahH'is if their families so wish, organizations have been formed. One of and non-Bahi'is can be buried in Bahi'i the best known is the European Bahi'i cemeteries. CCI:~-13; ~ ~ 6 4 k128-30,101-2. -6 Business Forum (established in 1990), 111-12q16.123 $6, 127q70.228-30n149.151which provides a forum for the discus2; LG 196202;McR 31-2. 60-1; Walbridge, Socred sion of Bahi'i approaches to business 77-82. (See also DEATH.) matters; holds seminars on raising the standards of business ethics; and has established contacts with educational BGshihr (Bushue; 1868 pop. est. centres in several countries, including 18,000) Albania, Bulgaria and Rumania. Other Southern Iranian port on the Persian associations have been established in Gulf. The Bib began his merchant career Australia and Hong Kong (BWNS there, and it was his port of embarkation 1994-5: 124). There are a number of and return when he made the pilgrimage organizations for Bahi'is involved in to Mecca. medicine and health care (see HEALTH Bushrir'i, Mulla Husayn

See HUSAYN BUSHRU'~, MULLA. business and professional organizations

In recent years an increasing number of BahH'i-based business and professional

A N D HEALING).

Buzurg, M i r z i

See LA^^^^ Nil~f.

calendar

99

The Baha'i calendar

calamity Bahi'u'llih referred to 'an unforeseen calamity' and 'grievous retribution' which would befall 'the peoples of the world' (HWp no. 63), and to calamities and commotions which would afflict the world as a consequence of its failure to heed the divine summons (TB 166). At 'the appointed hour' there would 'suddenly appear' that which would 'cause the limbs of mankind to quake', after which 'the Divine Standard' would be unfurled (GWB 118 no. Ixi). God's 'wrathful anger' would 'cleanse the earth' from the defilement of those who had corrupted it, and give it to those who were 'nigh unto Him' (ADJ 68-9). These apocalyptic prophecies were combined with a millennia1 vision of a future 'the Most Great PEACE'. Shoghi Effendi reiterated these warnings, and placed them in the context of what he saw as a titanic spiritual struggle between the forces of construction and disintegration, in part connected to the rise of the Faith and OPPOSITION to it. Outworn institutions incompatible with the new age were being swept away. The promised new WORLDORDERwas likely only to be attained through 'a period of intense turmoil and wide-spread suffering'. SECULARISM, increasingly prevalent in the world, eroded both the power of established religions and the basis for

social morality. Economic problems, wars and international instability threatened the world, hut also underlined the need for the principle of collective security outlined by Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi (ADJ 6809; WOB 161-2, 170-1, 180-91). Speculation as to the nature and timing of the expected calamity has periodically become a focus of popular Bahl'i concern. Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice have called upon Bahi'is not to dwell on such issues, however, nor to despair in the face of the world's sufferings. They should rather increase their efforts to spread their religion and exemplify the love and unity that it inculcated. The main cause of SUFFERING at the societal level was the corruption of human morals, and this could only be rectified by the spiritual rejuvenation of humanity which the Bahi'i were trying to accomplish. LG 126-37; MUW 153-4 no. 73, 281 no. 149, 282-3 no. 151, 4 3 4 5 no. 246.24, 451-2 "0.252.

(See also MILLENARIANISM.)

calendar The Bib established a new 'Badi" (wondrous) calendar, which Bahi'u'IIih subsequently amended slightly as the form of a distinctive Bahi'i calendar. Beginning on the ancient Iranian new year (NAw-Rrjz)at the spring equinox normally 21 March - the year is divided into nineteen months of nineteen days,

The names of the months are as follows, together with their English equivalents and first days: 1. Bahd Splendour 21 March 2. Jaldl Glory 9 April 3. Jamdl Beauty 28 April 4. 'Azamat Grandeur 1 7 May 5. Nur Light 5 June 6. Rabmat Mercy 24 June 7. Kalimdt Words 13 July 8. Kamdl Perfection 1 August 9. Asmi' Names 20 August Might 8 September 10. 'lzzat 11. Mashiyyat Will 2 7 September Knowledge 1 6 October 12. 'Ilm 13. Qudrat Power 4 November 14. Qawl Speech 23 November 15. Mad'il Questions 12 December 16. Sharaf Honour 31 December Sovereignty 19 January 17. Sultan 18. Mulk Dominion 7 February 19. 'Ali' Loftiness 2 March The nineteen day feast is usually held on the first day of each month. Days are named both as days of the week and as days of the month. In this latter case the days are named in the same way as the months (e.g. the fourteenth day of the month is Qawl). The weekday names are: Jaldl 1. Glory Saturday 2. Jamdl Beauty Sunday Kamdl 3. Perfection Monday 4. Pida'l Grace Tuesday 5. 'Ida'l Justice Wednesday Istijldl Majesty 6. Thursday 7. Istiqlril Independence Friday The day begins at sunset (21 April begins at sunset on the previous day). The first day of the week is Saturday Ualdl). Friday (Istiqdl) is the day of rest. Years are named as follows: 1. Alif A 11. Bahhrij Delightful 2. Ba' B 12. JavLb Answer 3. Ab Father 13. Abad Single 4. Da1 D 14. VahhLib Bountiful 5. Rib Gate 15. Vidad Affection 6. Vdu V 16. BadZ Beginning 7. Abad Eternity 17. Bahi Luminous 8. Jdd Generosity 18. Abhd Most luminous 9. Bahd Splendour 19. Vdhid Unity 10. Hubb Love The name of each year has a numerical value equal to the number of the year (see ABIAD). The cycle of 19 years is called a vdbid ('unity' =19), that of 361 years a kull-ishay' ('all things' ~ 3 6 1 ) .

m

caliphate with four intercalary days (five in a leap year) being added t o make up a full solar year of 365 days (19 x 19 = 361). The months are named after attributes of God. The first year of the calendar is 1844, the year of the Bib's declaration (the Bad7 year 156 begins a t Naw-Rziz 1999). The days of the month and week are also named, and the years are grouped into cycles of 1 9 and 361 (19 x 19) years. At the present time only the monthly divisions are in common use, as these fix the dates of the regular nineteen day FEASTS held in local Bahi'i communities. The Badi' year numbers arc also sometimes used. The intercalary days (AYYAM-!-HA)are placed between the cightcenth and nineteenth months. The last month ('Ali') is the Bahi'i month of FASTING. KA 64 k127. 177-8 n26-7; BW 18: 598601; Wolbridge, Socred 181-205. WoI. I

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charity

100 - .

calligraphy In the Iranian cultural tradition calligraphy is highly regarded as an art form, reflecting both the Islamic emphasis on the importance of the word of God and its prohibition of the visual representation of humans and animals. This high regard for calligraphy is also expresscd in the Bibi-Iranian Bahi'i tradition. Thus both the Bib and Bahi'u'llih were famcd for the beauty of their handwriting and praised calligraphic skill. There have been a number of eminent Iranian Bahi'is who were gifted calligraphers, notably MISHK~N-QALAM. canonical texts

The most important category of Bahi'i LITERATURE is what we may term the religion's 'canonical texts'. These comprise the writings of the Bib, Bahi'u'llih, bridge discusser. the signiliconce of the nomer of Ihe 'Abdu'l-BahL, Shoghi Effendi and the wrious months, doys ond ywrr. (See also HOLY Universal House of Justice, together DAYS.) with the authenticated talks of 'Abdu'lBahi. Of thcsc, the writings of the Bib caliphate and Bahi'u'lllh are regarded as divine REVELATION; the writings and talks of Islamic institution established after the 'Ahdu'l-Bahi and the writings of Shoghi death of the Prophet Muhammad. The Effendi as authoritativc I N ~ ~ E R ~ R E T A T I O N ; caliph (khalifa) came t o be rcgarded as and those of the Universal House of the viceregent of God and the Prophet. Justice as authoritative legislation (LAW) He was 'Commander of the Faithful', and elucidation. In all cases some i.e. theoretically the leader of all Musmeasure of divine guidance is assumed. lims everywhere. By the 19th century, The authenticated writings of secretaries the title rested with the OTTOMAN rulers. written on behalf of the principals are Bahi'is follow the Shi'i position and included, in so far as these were either consider the rightful successors t o Muhammad to have been the IMAMS, dictated or read and approved hy the principal. The terms 'SCRIPTURE' or and the caliphate therefore t o have been 'sacred texts' can be applied to the illegitimate. The abolition of the caliphate by the new Turkish republic ( 3 writings of the Bib, Bahl'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi. (See also 'ABDU'L-BAHA, March 1924) was regarded by Shoghi WRITINGS AND TALKS OF; BAB, WRITINGS Effcndi as a 'retributive act' directed OF; BAH~U'LLAH, WRITINGS OF; SHOGHI against the 'arch-enemy' of the Bahi'i EFFENDI,WRITINGS OF.) Faith, and as a 'catastrophic fall' of the 'mightiest institution' of Islam, which had 'irretrievably shattered' its unity. GPB NON-AUTHORITATIVE TEXTS Transcripts of the extempore oral trans228. 407; PDC 98-102; WOB 178. (See also lations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's talks into DIVINE JUDGEMENT, SULTANATE.) Western languages (e.g. Paris Talks;

Promulgation of Universal Peace) occupy an ambiguous status: officially they arc cxcluded from the scriptural canon, but are popularly accorded authoritative status by many Bahi'is. Little work has yet been done t o compare these Western transcripts with authenticated texts in the original Persian where thcsc exist. 'PILGRIMS' NOTES' record the memories of individual Bahi'is of thc words spoken by an a u t h o r i t a t i v e leader, p a r t i c u l a r l y 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi (i.e. they are the equivalent of the Islamic traditions ( H A D ~ T H ) ) .They are not regarded as canonical. BELIEF AND PRACTICE

The canonical texts have diffcrcnt levels of importancc: (1)Those of Bahi'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi are normative for Bahi'i practice and belief; they are sources of law and doctrine. (2) Those of the Rib are important doctrinally, and as a source of inspiration, but they are not binding in terms of practice, the laws of the BAYANhaving been superseded by those of the Kita'b-iAQDAS.(3) Thosc of the House of Justice are concerned with the leadership of the Bahi'i community and the supplementary legislation necessary for a particular time in its development. They are not a source of doctrine. Carmel, Mount A range of hills in northern Israel associated with the biblical prophet Elijah (9th century BCE). Thc main ridge runs some 1 2 miles inland from the sea at HAIFAand reaches a height of about 1,740 fcct. Jews, Christians, Muslims and Druze regard particular places on the mountain as holy places. Bahi'u'llih visited the mountain during his trips t o Haifa, and during a lcngthy visit in 1891 pitched his tent on the mountainside, close t o the Carmelite monastery at the upper Cave of Elijah. It was here that he

revealed the Tablet of CARMEL.Shoghi Effendi applies biblical references t o the 'mountain of the Lord' and God's 'Vineyard' t o C a r m e l ; refers t o Bahi'u'llih as the 'Lord of the Vineyard'; and identifies the Bib as the returned Elijah, his entombment on Carmel (see SHRINEOF THE BAB) thus assuming particular significance. GPB 58. 194, 276-7; Ruhe 1334, 183-8. Carmel, Tablet of (PA: Lawb-i-l<armil) S h o r t A r a b i c t a b l e t revealed by Bahi'u'llih during a visit t o Mount CARMEL,almost certainly in 1891. It takes the form of a dialogue between Bahi'u'llih and the personified mountain, in which Bahi'u'llih bids Carmel rejoice that God 'hath in this Day established upon thee His throne'. The tablet is exultant in tone, and is regarded as a prophetic foretelling of the building of the SHRINEO F THE BAB and the establishment of the BAliki WORLD CENTREand of the Universal House of Justice (God's 'Ark'). TB 1-5; RB4: 351-67; Giochery 209-1 1; Ruhe 170-2. 'Central Figures' Term commonly used t o refer t o the Bib, Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and meaning the Centres of the Faith. Centre for the Study of the Texts See ARC,BUILDINGS OF. charity Bahi'u'llih praised charity, making it an obligation on the rich t o help support those in dire need (KA 72 k147; TB 71). More generally, Bahi'is should bring 'good cheer' to the poor and needy during the intercalary days (AYYAM-IHA) (KA 2 5 k16). The future HOUSE OF JUSTICE would be a shelter for the needy (KA 3 7 k48). 'Abdu'l-Bahi engaged in

~1 i

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I

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Chase, ( J a m Bmwn) Thornton

considerable charity, regularly feeding many of the poor of Akka, and on occasion personally nursing some of them. He also distributed money and goods to poor people during his Western tours. During World War I he was able to organize extensive food distribution in the Galilee region which helped avert a famine (AB 98-101, 176-8, 196,239, 351, 418-19, 435,459). Shoghi Effendi specified that one of the duties of every local Bahi'i ASSEMBLY was to endeavour to help the poor, the sick, the disabled, orphans and widows 'irrespective of color, caste and creed' (BA 38), and that in the future the BahL'i temple complex (MASHRIQU'L-ADHKAR) would afford 'sustenance to the poor', including free schooline and medical services ( K A 191 1153, LG-121 no. 411). For the'present, Bahi'is - at least in countries with numerous governmental and private bodies already assisting the poor should temper their charitable concerns with the realization that they were the only ones who could contribute to the Bahi'i FUNDS, by means of which the Faith would be enabled to create the spiritual basis for a new social order freed from many of the sufferings and injustices now prevalent in the world. The Universal House of Justice has stressed the value of Bahi'is entering professions in which they can help other people, and encouraged the initiation of SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT projects which can alleviate the material and social conditions causing poverty and other social ills. LG 120-5. (See also ~ c o -

102

Thornton Chase, 'tl7e first American Baha'i' Bah8. I-le played a key role in the organization of the Chicago BahH'is, and was a prominent teacher of the Faith. An insurance salesman, he travelled extensively, visiting Bahi'is as he went. Through an extensive correspondence he was one of the focal points of the developing American Bahi'i community. He visited 'Abdu'l-BahC in Altlia in 1907, recording his impressions in In Galilee. He also wrote a short introduction to the Bahi'i teachings (1909). He died in Los Angeles, 'Abdu'l-BahH making a special point of visiting his grave. Shoghi Effendi honoured him as one of the DISCIPLES OF 'ABDU'L-BAHA. BFAI:33-6,

Cheyne, Thomas K.

103

Effendi sketched the elements of such a sanctified life: modesty, purity, temperance, decency and clean-mindedness; moderation in dress, language, amusements, and all artistic and literary pursuits; daily vigilance in the control of one's carnal desires; the abandonment of frivolous conduct; and total abstinence from all DRUGS, including ALCOHOL. In the face of the declining standards of a decadent age Bahi'is should purge themselves and their community from all moral laxity. There can be no compromise: promiscuity, easy familiarity, sexual vices, infidelity in marital relationships, companionate marriage, nudism and the prostitution of art and literature are all to be condemned. At the same time, however, Bahi'is are to avoid ASCETICISM or an 'excessive and bigoted puritanism': God had created the good things of the world, and these should be enjoyed. The Universal House of Justice has emphasized the importance of individuals using their own judgement and conscience in following these teachings,

and has refused to issue detailed instructions. Individuals should by all means turn for guidance to their parents and the Bahi'i institutions, but what is needed is a prayerful life, oriented towards service to Bahi'u'llhh, and not a set of rigid regulations of behaviour. The present life consists of a series of spiritual struggles and tests, the development of self-control being an important element in character building as well preparing the individual soul for the next life. To become a slave to one's animal impulses brings no lasting happiness. The teachings on chastity are of particular relevance to Bahi'i YOUTH. AD1 24-8; LG35864. (See also ADULTERY; SEX.) Cheyne, Thomas K. (1841-1915)

Prominent British biblical scholar (Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture at the University of Oxford, 1885-1908) who became a Bahi'i. 'Abdu'l-Bahi visited him in Oxford in 1912. He was the author of The Reconciliation of Races and Religions.

95;BFAZ; GPB 257; WEBW 1-12.

NOMIC TEACHINGS.)

chastity Chase, (James Brown) Thornton (1847-1912) I

I I

One of Ibrahim KHEIRALLA'S first group of four students of the Bahi'i teachings (1894), and the only one to remain a Bahi'i after 1900. 'Abdu'l-Bahi named him Thdbit ('Steadfast'), and accorded him the status of the first American

Bahi'u'llhh called upon his followers to lead chaste and holy lives, escaping from their own 'evil and corrupt desires', so that neither a valley of pure gold nor the most comely of women would distract them from their spiritual path. Those who follow their lusts are of the lost, and dissipate their efforts. Shoghi

The castle of Chihriq, near the Turkish and Iraqi borders, where the Bdb was imprisoned, 1848-50

,

I

Chihria Chihriq

I

Fortress in north-westem Iran (Azerbaijin), in the region of Uriimiyyih, in which the Bib was imprisoned for nvo years prior to his execution (April 1848June 1850). The Bib was transferred to Chihriq from MAKO. The Bib called it the 'Grievous Mountain' uabal-i-shadid), to differentiate it from Mikh (the 'Open Mountain'), although the pattern of imprisonment was similar, with initial strictncss eventually giving way to comparative freedom, as the warden, Yahyi Khin, became devoted to his prisoner. Even more than at Mikh the Bib received large numbers of visitors. Incidents of note during this period include the conversion of DAYYAN; the popular enthusiasm that greeted the Bib's arrival in Urhmiyyih (including the taking of the water in the public bath after he had used it because the water was thus assumed to have acquired holiness); and the despatch of the Bib's 'Sermon of Wrath' (Khutbi-yi-qahriyyih) for Hiji Mirzi AQAs~,following the Tabriz trial (July 1848). ARR380-1; Bolyuzi, B6b 134-9, 147; MBBR 73-4; McS 16-17, 88-95; Nobil 301-1 1.

children

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See EDUCATION; FAMILY LIFE. Chinese religion

Traditional Chinese religion re synthesis of elements from C ism, Daoism and BUDDHISM. lnere are very few references in the Bahi'i writings to these traditions: 'Abdu'l-BahC described Conf~icius as a blessed soul who had 'renewed morals and ancient virtues', and become 'the cause of civilisation, advancement and prosperity' for the Chinese. Present-day Confucian rites and beliefs were not in accordance with his teachings, however. Shoghi Effendi explicitly excluded Confucius and Lao-tse from the list of ~ N ~ F E S T A T I O NOF S GOD recognized by

circumcision

Bahi'is: Confucius had been a great moral reformer, but not a prophet (CCI: 15-16, 20, 21). Parallels between Chinese and Bahi'i beliefs and moral concepts have been examined in a recent book by Phyllis Chew, The Chinese Religion and the Bahd'i Faith. Christ

See JESUS. Christianity

Bahi'is regard Christianity as one of the nine known revealed religions and include JESUSin their list of MANIPESTATIONS OF GOD. The divine origin of Christianity and the Gospels (see BIBLE), and the divinity and sonship of Jesus Christ, are all acknowledged, as are his immaculate conception (i.e. the belief that Jesus' conception was through the intervention of the Holy Spirit whilst Mary was still a virgin), and the primacy of Peter as 'the Prince of the Apostles' (PDC 113-14). Christianity is regarded as the prophetic fulfilment of JUDAISM, and the harbinger of ISLAM.'AbdullBahi frequently referred to Christian history in his writings and talks, praising in particular the early Christians. Persecuted outcasts, they had propagated Jesus' cause far and wide. Their nobility of spirit and action had attracted the praise of non-Christian philosophers such as Galen. They had founded hospitals, schools and other philanthropic institutions. Later, however, control over Christian affairs passed into the hands of unenlightened ecclesiastics. These had rejected MUYAMMAD. During thc following ccnturics Europe languished in its Dark Ages, much of its later civilization being gained from the influence of Islamic civilization by way of Islamic Spain and through its impact on the crusaders. In the 16th century the Protestant Reformation successfully challenged the authority of the pope, in part because Luther's views on various

issues were 'demonstrably correct'. In more recent times the dedication of Christian missionaries had led t o world-wide conversions and the establishment of schools amongst formerly pagan peoples (SDC 41-3, 80-7,90-4). Christian doctrines and institutions discussed in the BahL'i writings include BAPTISM, CONFESSION OF SINS; MIRACLES; MONASTICISM; PRIESTHOOD; R E S U R R E C TION. Fazel, "Abdu'l-Boh6'; Heggie 40-2; LG 489-

94; SAC3 16-17. 83-137.

BahC'is believe that the Bib was the spiritual RETURN of John the Baptist, and Bahi'u'llih Christ returned 'in the glory of the Father' (GPB 58, 94), and view the future of Christianity as depending on Christians' response to Bahi'u'llih's call. In various tablets Bahi'u'llih addressed Christian leaders - including Pope Plus IX - calling upon them to hearken to the 'Everlasting Father' and 'King of the Day of Reckoning' who had now come (PDC 104-7; see also Lawbi-AQDAS). For Shoghi Effendi organized Christianiry was now experiencing the impact of this divine summons, beginning with the papacy's loss of temporal power (1870). Christian institutions were being assailed by the forces of SECUI.ARISM, becoming riven by division, watering down their creeds, and losing their hold on human conduct. Numerous obscure cults had emerged, reflecting 'the confused aspirations of the disillusioned masses': a situation similar to that in the Roman empire at the time of the expansion of Christianity. The fratricidal nature of the fighting in Europe during World War I1 offered yet further proof of the failure of the contemporary Christian churches. PDC 107-1 I; WOB 180-6. (See also RELrGIous LEADERS.)

The first Christian to become a BahC'i was probably a Syrian doctor named Fbris, resident in Egypt, taught whilst in prison in by NAB~L-I-A'ZAM Alexandria in 1868. He was probably the recipient of the Lawh-i-AQDAS

(Bahi'u'llih's 'Tablet to the Christians') (RB3: 5-11). The Christian minorities in Iran did not respond to the Bah6'i teachings (unlike the Jews and Zoroastrians), but a number of Levantine Christians became Bahi'is, including who became the Ibrahim KHEIRALLA, pioneer Bahi'i teacher in the United States (from 1894). Most of the Westerners who initially became Bahi'is were of Christian background, including some who were deeply knowledgeable in their religion and were able to present the Bahi'i teachings in a 'language' adapted to Christian hearers. Several clergymen also converted. Bahi'i EXPANSION into Latin America, Africa and the Pacific has also involved the conversion of Christians. SBBR 83-4, 93-6, 188. There are a number of secondary works (of very uneven quality) on the relationship between the Bahi'i Faith and Christianity. Those by Bahi'is include studies by Backwell, Sours and Townshend. Moffett, Riggs and Sears are particularly concerned with Christian prophecy. Stephens presents Bahi'i in relationship to the Latter-day Saints (Mormons). cinema and film

For Shoghi Effendi any films about Bahi'i history or teachings should he of the highest quality. Acting in and watching movies was permissible, but he deplored the excessive corruption that prevailed in the industry and thus discouraged movie acting as a career (LG 99-100). Unlike other areas of the arts, film acting seems to have attracted few BahB'is. The 1930s film star Carolc Lombard (1908-42) is probably the best known (BW9: 635-7). circumcision

Male circumcision is a requirement of Jewish law, and has become a universal Islamic practice. Many Bahi'is of Jewish or Muslim background continue the

communism

civilization

practice, but it is neither encouraged nor forbidden in Bahi'i law. civilization

For all its benefits, Bahb'is regard material civilization by itself as insufficient to promote human progress. Only when combined with 'divine civilization' and empowered by the holy spirit will it be the cause of genuine advance. Bahi'u'llbh stated that whatever passed beyond the bounds of MODERATION will cease to exert a beneficial influence. Thus, carried to excess, material civilization - as embodied by the technological advances of the WEST- has become pernicious in its influence, producing terrible weapons of destruction (GWB 341-2; TB 69, 169). A true and 'everadvancing' civilization is based on the development of virtues which enhance human dignity (GWB 214 no. 109). 'Abdu'l-Bahi emphasized that human success and prosperity depend on the combination of material progress (including wise laws; just government; the promotion of the arts and sciences; discovery; the expansion of trade; the development of industry; and the beautification of the country) with spiritual and moral guidance. By itself, material civilization also gives birth to forces of destruction, and has been conjoined to barbarism (CCI: 6 no. 22; SWAB 2835, 303). He also held that moral behaviour and SPIRITUAL QUALITIES have been established amongst peoples in the past as a result of divine teachings, 'even the minutest details of civilized life' deriving from the grace of the PROPHETS of God. Through their influence individuals can put aside their own intcrcsts for the sake of the common good (SDC 95-7). JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY, and ISLAM all provide clear cxamples of the way in which divine revelation has initiated a process that leads to the growth of both spiritual and material civilization. (See also SECRETOF DIVINECIVILIZAI.ION.)

they were created. Both viewpoints could be supported by logical argument, and for 'Abdu'l-Bahb the difference between the two rested with the mystical state of their respective proponents rather than the characteristics of what they were trying to describe.

cleanliness

Bahi'u'llih emphasized the importance of extreme cleanliness and refinement (litifat), instructing Bahri'is to bathe regularly (at least once a week) and pare their nails, to wash their feet (daily in summer, every three days in winter), and to endeavour that no trace of dirt be seen on their garments. The water used for bathing and cleaning should be pure, and the fetid water of Iranian public bath houses and courtyard pools should specifically be avoided. Warm water was preferable. Rose-water and other pure perfumes should also be used. Bahi'is should also try to renew their household furnishings once every nineteen years. 'Abdu'l-Bahi noted that physical cleanliness was conducive to spirituality, and discouraged SMOKING, in part because of its uncleanliness. There is no concept of ritual impurity. KA 46-7 k74, k76, 57-8 k106, 74-5 k151-2, 135 q97, 162, 199 1174,212 "104-5, 222 nl31-2,236-7,11667: Wolbridge. Socred63-7. (See also PURITY.) clergy

See PRIESTHOOD. Collins, Amelia ('Milly') E. (1873-1962)

American H A N DO F THE CAUSEof Lutheran background. She became a Bahi'i in 1919 and was elected onto the American national spiritual ASSEMBLY in 1924, serving on that body for over twenty years. Wealthy as a result of her marriage, she was able to make large donations to various Bahi'i projects, including the Western Pilgrim House in HAIFA,the buildings for the original Geyserville SUMMER SCHOOL in the USA, O F THE the superstructure of the SHRINE BAB, the land for the future Bahi'i Temple on Mount Carmel, and the INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES building. She travelled extensively in Latin America and Europe to promote the Faith, and

Momen, "Abdu'l-Bah6'r commentary'; Mornen, 'Reloti. visrn'.

Commentary on the Srira o f the Sun (Ar.:Tafiirsdrat wa'sh-shams)

Amelia Collins, leading American Bahi'i and Hand of the Cause

in January 1951 was appointed as VicePresident of the newly established BAHA'i COUNCIL. Already INTERNATIONAL privately named as a Hand of the Cause in 1947 by Shoghi Effendi, she was publicly appointed t o this rank in December 1951. BWI3: 834-41; Foizi; Harper 202-10. Commentary on 'I was a Hidden Treasure' (PA.: Tafsir-i-Kuntu kanzan makhfiyan)

Commentary on an Islamic tradition ('I was a hidden treasure and loved to be known. Therefore I created the creation that I might be known') by 'Ahdu'l-Bahi, composed in Baghdad at the request of Ali Sevket P a ~ a('Ali Shawkat Pishb). It is concerned with various themes related to Islamic mystical philosophy, including the stages of divine love and the unknowability of God. 'Abdu'l-Bahi also addressed the traditional argumcnt bctween those who believed that archetypal forms were eternal and pre-existed with God and those who believed that

Arabic Tablet of Bahi'u'llih, probably composed during the Akka period, partly in commentary on sdra 91 of the Quran. In it Bahi'u'llih states that the meaning of the word of God could never be exhausted. Only those who were God's appointed representatives could comprehend its 'manifold wisdom', however. They were the root of knowledge, and all others should cleave to them, freeing themsclvcs from the exponents of human learning (GWB 17.5-6 no. 89). Quranic commentary required that the reader harmonize the literal and metaphorical meanings of scripture. Those who clung only to the outward sense of the words were ignorant, whilst those who ignored the obvious meaning in favour of esoteric exegesis (ta'wil) were heedless. Thus, in this sdra, 'the sun' refers to the physical sun; God's messengers, who are 'the suns' of God's names and attributes, and illumined human beings with their divine knowledge; and the 'friends and lovers of God', who diffuse his light in the gloomy world. Cole, 'Commentary'. communism

Several early Western commentators interpreted Bibism as a form of revolutionary communism (MBBR 6, 16), a view echoed by some historians (Ivanov; Greussing), who emphasized the elements of social protest expressed in Bibism from about 1848 onwards. Without denying the importance of

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social discontent in the development of other religious groups - have suffered the movement, such characterizations persecution in several communist states, are misleading, even for the later radical including the effective suppression of the ~ once flourishing Bahl'i community of stage of the movement (see B A BRADICAI.ISM), and in the case of the early ASHKHABAD by the Soviet authorities accounts reflected concerns a b o u t during the 1930s. increasing contemporary radicalism in Europe. community Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi advoBahi'is commonly refer t o their local cated the economic restructuring of congregations and national membcrsociety so as to end the scourge of ships as 'communities'. They also somepovcrty (see ECONOMIC TEACHINGS), and times refer t o the 'world-wide BahL'i emphasized the dignity and legal rights community'. This usage reflects the ideal of all human beings regardless of gender of Bahi'i collective life, i.e. Rahi'is are or social station, hut they also upheld cncouraged to develop a strong sense of the validity of social status differences, shared identity, expressed in mutual and 'Abdu'l-Bahi stated unambiguously concern and care, and not just common that economic equality was impossible attendance at the formal succession of t o maintain: even if it was ever attained, Bahi'i meetings. The extent t o which it would lead to social disorder and this ideal is attained evidently varies 'universal disappointment' (PT 157; greatly from one Bahi'i 'community' to SAQ 274). In 1920 'Abdu'l-Bahi preanother: it is easier to develop a sense of dicted that the 'movement of the left' communal solidarity in large Bahi'i would acquire great importance in the congregations in Third World villages future, and its inflocncc spread (WOB than among a small scattering of Baha'is 30). The subsequent expansion and later in a large city. Such practices as comcollapse of communist states are thus munal dawn prayers are intended to both regarded as having been foretold enhance this solidarity (MUH] 269 no. ( M a t t h e w s 66-9). Shoghi Effendi 142.14,311 no. 162.37). All Bahi'is are regardcd communism as one of the urged t o build up unity within their own 'attendant evils' of the 'excessive growth communities; to learn t o overlook the of industrialism', and noted its inability faults of others with a 'sin-covering eye'; t o create a genuinely egalitarian society to be loving, forbearing, patient and (WOB 182, 190); characterized it as one merciful; t o resolutely abstain from of the three 'false gods' of SECULARISM, gossip and BACKBI.I.ING (described by which rather than creating a just socicty 'Abdu'l-Bahi as 'the most great sin' tolerated the dominance of one priviand as the cause of divine wrath); to leged group over the rest of society and, overcome personal differences and petty along with militant NATIONALISM, conpreoccupations; t o use CONSIII.TATION to vulsed society and engendered war solve problems; to take responsibility for (PDC 117-18); and condcmned it their own lives rather than focusing on together with American capitalism the faults of others; t o avoid criticizing for its materialistic philosophy and its others and using harsh language against ncglect of 'those spiritual values and them (LC 88-94). Bahi'is should daily eternal verities', which alone provided strive t o become more united and loving the basis for a stable CIVILIZATION (CF ('as one being and one soul') (SWAB .7r\ ILJJ. 203; see also LOVE). For on occount of possible Given the policies of 'militant interperronol problems in a Bah6'i communiiy see atheism' adopted by most communist Nsrenberg. governments, the Bahi'is - along with

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conferences and congresses, international --

conferences a n d congresses, international

International contacts between Bahi'is have been an important part of Bahi'i life since the expansion of the Faith beyond its original Islamic milieu, reflecting the self-consciously global sense of identity felt by many Bahi'is. Since the 1950s one major factor encouraging this sense of wider identity has been the holding of a number of international Bahi'i conferences, commonly organized in groups on a continental basis. The first of these were organized by Shoghi Effendi in 1953 at the beginning of the Ten Year PLAN,with one conference each for Africa, the Americas, Asia and Europe. Including those held in 1953 there have been a total of t h i - e i g h t such conferences held to date (see below), in addition t o two world congresses: London, 1963, t o celebrate the ending of the Ten Year

Plan; and New York, 1992, as part of the HOLY YEAR commemorations. In addition t o the formal programmes of these meetings (talks, musical entertainments, etc.), they provide a setting for Bahi'is of different backgrounds t o meet, socialize and discuss matters of common concern. With improvements in communications technology, link-ups betwecn conferences have now become common, further enhancing the sense of the BahB'is as members of a single global community. Of note, as an indication of Rahi'i growth, is thc increase in the number of participants a t the two congresses: about 6,000 in London and 27,000 in New York. In addition there have been various conferences conccrned with specific issues and interests (e.g. collaboration between national assemblies, MUSIC festivals, EDUCATION), or catering for particular groups (e.g. WOMEN, YOUTH).

The 1963 Congress m progress in the Royal Albert Hall, London

consultofion

confession of sins INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES AND

CONGRESSES

1953

1958

1963 1967

4 conferences: Kampala, Uganda; Chicago, USA; New Delhi, India; Stockholm, Sweden 5 confercnces: Kampala; Wilmette, USA; Singapore (as replacement for a proposed conference in Jakarta); Sydney, Australia; Frankfurt, Germany London World Congress, United Kingdom 6 conferences: Kampala; ChicagolWilmette; Panama City, Panama; New Delhi; Sydney; Frankfurt

1968-72 Series of 10 conferences: (1)Palermo, Italy, fo!lowcd by 1968 mass pilgrimage to the Baha'i World Centre (2) Rose Hill, Mauritius; La 1970 Paz, Bolivia 1971 (6) Monrovia, Liberia; Kingston, Jamaica; Singapore; Sapparo, Japan; Suva, Fiji; Reykjavik, Iceland 1972 (1) Panama City, including Temple dedication 1976-7 1976

1977

1982

1992

Series of 8 conferences: (5)Nairobi, Kenya; Anchorage, Alaska; Hong Kong; Helsinki, Finland; Paris, France (3) Bahia, Brazil; Merida, Mexico; Auckland, Ncw Zealand 5 conferences: I,agos, Nigeria; Montreal, Canada; Quito, Ecuador; Canberra, Australia; Dublin, Ircland New York World Congress

confession of sins

Bahi'u'llih forbade the practice ot confession of sins to another human being (as it occurs in the Roman Catholic sacrament of penance), stating that this causes humiliation. The sinner should

instead seek detachment and beg forgiveness from God (KA 30 k34, 194 11.58; TB 24-5). Various prayers imploring forgiveness were given. Bahi'u'llih counselled his followers to bring themselves 'to account' each day 'ere thou art summoned to a reckoning; for death, unheralded, shall come upon thee and thou shalt be called to give account for thy deeds' (HWa no. 31). conscience

Bahi'is emphasize the importance of the individual acquiring a sense of right and wrong. Human beings have FREE WILL, and can choose to develop good or bad qualities in themselves. Accordingly, it is essential for them to develop a moral sense. This is an essential element in the EDUCATION of a child, and a basic purpose of RELIGION. Fear of worldly punishment might make people outwardly avoid wrongdoing, but only with moral education and the growth of conscience will people abstain from wrongdoing of their own accord (see CRIME AND PUNISHMENT). Bah?~ moral teachings often emphasize general principles rather than giving detailed instructions for behaviour. In applying these principles Bahl'is should use their own consciences in the particular contexts of their livcs. consolidation

The process of Babi'i community development. This has assumed major importance following the great EXPANSION in Bahi'i numbers that began in various parts of the world in the 1950s and 1960s, the Universal I-louse of Justice indicating that it was of coequal importance with TEACHING in its contribution to Eahi'i growth. Without it growth could not be maintained. By its means new Bahi'is would become spiritually transformed, united and devoted to the Faith, and continue the work of teaching and administrative development for

themselves. It comprises the establishment of Bahi'i administrative institutions; DEEPENING of Baha'is in the Faith's 'fundamental verities', spiritual principles, administration and 'prime purpose' of establishing human unity; and instruction in the behavioural standards of Bahh'i life (particularly of daily PRAYER, the EDUCATION of children, observance of the M A R R I A G E laws: abstention from POLITICS, the obligation to contribute to the YUND; the practice of equality between men and W O M E N ) ; and encouragement of local spiritual ASSEMBI.IBS to discharge their primary duties. National assemblies should promote it through sending deepened Bahi'is to visit new communities; organizing SUMMER SCHOOLS, INSTITUTES, COrrespondence courses, etc.; disseminating literature; and holding training courses for local assembly members. Whcrc appropriatc, the use of R A D I O and other mass media could be highly effective. MUHJ9no.2.7, 80-1 no.34.13.301 no. 162.5.3045 no. 162.14-15. 485 no. 280.4-7, 487no. 280.13. 623 no. 394.7.

Constantinople

See ISTANBUL. constitutions

Fundamental principles governing the regulation of a state or organization, normally embodied in a specific document. The prototype of all national Bahi'i constitutions was the Declaration of Trust and its associated by-laws adopted by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United States and Canada in 1927, and the prototype of all local constitutions was the similar document adopted by the New York local assembly in November 1931. The Universal House of Justice adopted its constitution on 26 November 1972. BW3: 95-1 04; 4: 159-65; GPB 335-6; IG 64-6; UHIC.

consultation

Discussion in order to reach decisions or gain advice. It is much emphasized in Bahl'i writings, particularly with regard to all levels of BahH'i administration, but also in relation to GOVERNMENT, community affairs, business, family life and individual decision making. Bahi'u'llih taught that consultation enhances understanding, awareness and certitude. It is a light in the heaven of divine wisdom and a prerequisite of human well-being. 'Abdu'l-Bahi regarded it as a potent means of advancing any project, great or small. It is bctter to seck the views of many than iust to have the views of one. It leads to fresh insights. Consultation does not consist of the mcre voicing of personal views, however. This can lead to altercation and useless quibbling, which are always destructive to truth (he attended a meeting of the French senate, which he criticized 011 these grounds). Those who consult together need to have a sense of mutual fellowship and unity. They should carefully consider the views expressed by others, and express their own views with thc utmost courtesy, dignity, care and moderation. They should search out the truth, weighing all the views expressed with calmness and composure. If the views expressed by someone else seem better than their own, they should support those, and not wilfi~llycling to thcir own opinions. All should be able to express their views with 'absolute frcedom'. N o one should belittle the thoughts of another, or feel hurt if others oppose their own views. Only if matters are fully discussed will the right way be found, and the 'shining spark of truth' emerge out of the 'clash of differing opinions'. It is important thcrcfore to avoid feelings of ill-will and discord, and if these develop the discussions should straightaway be stoppcd, and postponed until a more propitious time. When a decision has been reached it should be

Continental Boards of Counsellors

conversion

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followed. True consultation (as between the members of a Bahl'i ASSEMBLY) should be a 'spiritual conference' characterized by love and harmony between those consulting. These should be sincere, pure in their motives, spiritually radiant, attracted t o God and detached from all else, humble, patient and devoted t o service. They should discuss matters so thoroughly that a unanimity of views will emerge. If it does not then a majority vote should prevail, all supporting that decision. Whatever is arranged with harmony, love and purity of motive will attract divine assistance, and result in light. Shoghi Effendi describcd consultation as the 'bedrock' of the Bahi'i administrative order. Assembly members should not only consult amongst themselves, but consult as much as possible with the wider community they represent. The Universal I-Iouse of Justice has stated that there was no one set way of dealing with personal problems and decisions: the individual can use PRAYER, consult with an assembly, or anyone they chose. ccr: 93-1 10; LG 17680. See also Kolrtoe, Conrulfotion;

liaison between the House of Justice and the Boards. In 1973 the INTERNATIONAI. TEACH~NC CENTRE assumed responsibility for the direction of the Boards. Initially, eleven Boards were formed (three each in Africa, the Americas and Asia; one each for Australasia and Europe) with a total of thuty-six C o u & l o r s . The Board areas were subsequently changed (in 1973 they were increased to twelve, and in 1980 reduced t o five: one per continent), and the number of Counsellors increased (to fifty-seven in 1973, and seventy-two in 1985). The term of appointment was set at five years, beginning in 1980. The Counsellors' rank is lower than that of the Hands, whose functions they took over. The Boards outrank the national assemblies, but their role is only advisory: administrative authority rests with the assemblies (see ADMINISTRATION). Since 1985-6, a numher of international conferences have been held in Haifa for all Counsellors. MUHI 1 3 U nor. 58-60, 149no. 70,24653 no. 132,3234 no. 170,345no. 180,373 no. 200.464-6 no. 267, 583 no. 366, 606 no. 382, 696-8 no. 439: LG 324-7.

Kolrlw. Developing Genius.

contraception

Continental Boards of Counsellors

Institution created by the Universal House of Justice in 1968 t o perpetuate the functions of the HANDS OFTHE CAUSE, specifically the protection and propagation of the Faith. They were made responsible for overseeing the work of the AUXILIARY BOARDS;consulting and collaborating with the national spiritual ASSEMBLIES; and informing the Hands and the House of Justice of developments in their areas. One Counsellor on each Board was appointed as trustee of their respective continental fund. The Hands were thus freed from many routine responsibilities, and were able to concentrate their energies on more general tasks. At first the Hands in Haifa acted as

See BIRTH CONTROL. convention

A type of electoral gathering. At the present time there are three main forms of Bahl'i convention: (1)Unit conventions: local or regional meetings t o elect delegates for national convention. They are normally held once a year at a time specified by the national spiritual assembly, which also determines the number and location of the electoral units. All adult Bahi'is of good standing resident in the unit may participate as electors. This has become the standard system for electing delegates world-wide since 1985 (see ELEC'TIONS).

(2) National conventions: meetings of delegates t o elect the members of their national spiritual assembly (see ASSEMBLIES). They are normally held once a year during the RIDVAN period (21 April-2 may). The total number of delegates is determined by the centre of the Faith (now the Universal House of Justice) in rough proportion t o the numerical size of the national Bahi'i community. The format was established by Shoghi Effendi during the 1920s and 1930s. (3) International convention: meeting of the mcmbcrs of all national spiritual assemblies t o elect the members of the UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE. At present, this is held once every five years (the first in 1963). In some national communities, sub-unit and state conventions may also be held. LG 14-23,

All these conventions have two functions: the election of their respective delegates, assembly or House members; and as consultative bodies (see CONSULTATION). If circumstances necessitate it the election may be conducted by postal vote. The role of the national conventions was describcd by Shoghi Effendi as that of a temporary advisory body to the national assembly. The delegates had the 'vital duty' t o consult fully and freely with the assembly (they should 'unburden their hearts' and 'state their grievances'), whilst the assembly's duty was to 'give earnest, prompt and prayerful consideration' to the delegates' views (JAG18 no. 59). Although the assembly remained the supreme administrative hody for its Bahi'i community, the proceedings of the convention were to be entirely under its own control, and the assembly should not interfere. Thus the delegates elected their own officers, and might invite whom they wished t o address them. The convention was not a permanent body akin t o a parliament, however. Only for the short period of

time during which it was in session (a weekend in many countries) was it an advisory body. For the rest of the year, the normal means by which the community could make its views known t o the national assembly was through local assemblies and nineteen day FEASTS. CCZ: 98-105. conversion

The process of changing one's religion. Bahi'is are of a multitude of religious and non-religious backgrounds, and there is no single way of being or becoming a Bahi'i. Fundamental t o Bahi'i identity is the personal spiritual bond of acceptance of Bahl'u'llih as a MANIPESTATION OF GOD. Beyond this, social recognition as a Bahi'i requires acceptance into a particular BahP'i COMM U N I T Y (see also MEMBERSHIP). The factors that have attracted different people t o the BahP'l Faith vary widely. E i h i and early Bahi'i conversion accounts from the Middle East include many that emphasize the transforming impact of witnessing the REVELATION of verses by the Bib or Bahi'u'llih, or of reading them or hearing them recited (see WORD or: GOD). The sacrificial heroism displayed by martyrs was also a factor for some. In the early Western Bahi'i communities the charismatic figure of 'Abdu'l-Bahi appears to have been a frequent factor of appeal. Other accounts, both in the 19th century and in various parts of the world today, refer t o the perceived htlfilment of PROPHECY or t o 'logical proofs' (APOLOGETICS); the 'modernism' of the Bahi'i social teachings; thc attractive nature of the BahL'i community, particularly its unity and freedom from religious or racial PREIUDICE, and its loving welcome; and the lay rather than priestly nature of Bahi'i decision making and communal authority (SBBR 39-40, 93-7, 188-90). There arc references to some Western Bahi'i conversions in Ehaugh and Vaughn, and

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Covenant

Ullman. Gottlieb and Gottlieb provide a diverse selection of autobiographical 'conversion' accounts by North American Bahi'is. There has as yet been no study of 'withdrawals' (i.e. 'deconversions') from the Faith. Covenant (Ac: 'ahd)

in this chain of succession are regarded as COVENANCBREAKERS, and as having rejected Bahi'u'llih. 'Abdu'l-Bahi described the Covenant doctrine as 'the most great characteristic' of Bahi'u'Ilih's religion. Through it the unity of the Bahi'i Faith was assured and schism prevented. It was 'the pivot of the oneness of mankind', and its light educated hearts and souls. It was a fortress to protect the Bahi'is, and all Bahi'is were called to make their steps firm in its path. Thus would they become the recipients of divine confirmations. Shoghi Effendi emphasized the particular importance of Bahi'is gaining a proper understanding of this doctrine.

An agreement between parties which binds them together and carries mutually recognized obligations. For Bahi'is there are two specific forms of covenant which operate within religious history: (1) The 'Greater Covenant' betweell each ~ N I F E S T A T ~ O OF N GOD and his followers regarding the promise of the next Manifestation. This is CCI: 11 1-29; CovenantoiBah6'u'fi6h; LG 181-3; TCB. expressed in PROPHECY. Thus, in the There is also reference to a more Western tradition, each Manifestation general covenant by which God bestows in the series ABRAHAM, MOSES,JESUS, his bounties on humanity and in return MUHAMMAD, the BAB and BAH~U'LLAHdemands recognition of his messengers prophesied the appearance of the next, and obedience to his laws. Faithfulness and their respective followers were duty to this covenant on the part of the bound to investigate the claims of the individual requires a distinctive pattern following Manifestation. of behaviour marked by morality and (2) The 'Lesser Covenant' which a piety. Manifestation of God makes concerning his immediate successor to whom his Covenant, Book of the (PA: followers should turn and obey, as per Kitrib-i-'Ahd, also known as Kita'b-ithe appointment of the apostle Peter by 'Ahdi, 'The Book of my Covenant') Jesus, the Imim 'Ali by Muhammad, and 'Ahdu'l-Bahi by Bahi'u'llih. In the Bahi'u'llih's last testament, written in case of Peter and 'Ali, their covenants of Arabic in his own handwriting, and appointment were neither written nor given to 'Abdu'l-Bahi during his final sufficiently explicit for them to gain illness (May 1892). The document was universal acceptance, with the result read both to a select group of witnesses that both Christianity and Islam became and to a large gathering of Bahi'is on riven by contending sects. By contrast, the ninth day after Bahi'u'llih's passing. the Bahi'i Lesser Covenant was both It explicitly appoints 'Abdu'l-Bahi (the explicit and in written form. Thus ghusn-i-a'zam, the Most Great (or Bahi'u'llih appointed 'Ahdu'l-Bahi as Mighty) Branch) as Bahi'u'llih's succescentre of his covenant in his Book of the sor, and directs his family and the AFNAN COVENANT, and 'Abdu'l-BahL in his relatives of the Bib to turn to him. Other WILL A N D TESTAMENT directed the provisions were: Bahi'u'llih's second Bahi'is to follow SHOCHIEFFENDI, and S~t'viving son, Mirzi MUHAMMAD-'ALi at the same time made a promise of (the ghusn-i-akbar, the Greatest Branch) divine guidance and protection for the as was subordinate to 'Abdu'l-Bahh; the HOUSE OF JUS- Bahb'is should love Bahi'u'llih's sons yet unelected UNIVERSAL TICE. Those who reject any of the links (the Aghsrin), but the sons had no rights

/

over the orooertv of others: all should HISTORY respect the Afnin; the Aghsin, the Afnin As the appointed centre of his father's and other members of Bahi'u'llih's Covenant, 'Abdu'l-Bahi regarded the family were to fear God and perform actions of his half-brother, Mirzi praiseworthy deeds; Bahi'u'llih's purMUHAMMAD-'AL~, as a rebellion against pose in revealing verses had been to God, and not simply as insubordination establish concord and tranquillity; God's to him personally. He therefore declared religion should not be made a cause of Muhammad-'Ali and his followers to be enmity; conflict was forbidden; God's Covenant-breakers, thus expelling the domain was the hearts of men: rulership larger part of Bahi'u'llih's family from was entrusted to the kings, themselves the Faith, as well as such pro~ninent the manifestations of divine power; the Bahi'is as JamLl BURUJIRD~ and Ibrahim rulers (umari) and learned (.ULAMA) KHEIRALLA. He also finally expelled Dr among the Bahi'is were Bahi'u'llih's Ameen U. Fareed (Aminu'llih Farid), his trustees. TB 217-23; GPB237-9. wife's neohew., who had used his oosition as one of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's entourage to extract money from some of the Covenant-breakers American Bahi'is, and who later (Ar.: ndqidin) returned to America in breach of Bahi'i term for those Bahi'is who have 'Abdu'l-Bahi's cxplicit instructions broken (naqd) the COVENANT, by which (TCB 341). the official succession of Centres of the Following the passing of 'Abdu'lFaith was established, 1.e. de~iialof the Bahi (1921) there was almost universal legitimacy of 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Shoghi acceptance of Shoghi Effendi as GuarEffendi or the Universal House of dian, 'Abdu'l-Bahi's emphatic insistence Justice, or wilful opposition to their on his in his W ~ L 'A N D TESTAMENT authority. The term is also used to refer successor's authority making effective to AZALIBibis. It does not apply to opposition to Shoghi Effendi extremely those who have simply left the Faith difficult to mount in Bahi'i terms. Thus because they no longer believe in it (see the only immediate opposition came A P O S T A S Y ) . 'Abdu'l-Bahi likened from Muhammad-'Ali and his followers, Covenant-breakers to the carriers of a who asserted his claims to leadership on spiritual disease, and instructed that the basis of Bahi'u'llih's will (the Book they were to he avoided by others of the COVENANT). Given Muhammmad-'Ali's existing separation from the because of the danger of infection. Bahi'is therefore avoid association with Bahi'i community, this claim was unideclared Covenant-breakers, even when versally rejected by the Bahi'is. Opposisuch individuals are family members. tion to Shoghi Effendi's leadership from Only the Centres of the Faith, or those recognized Bahi'is did emerge, however, appointed by them - specifically the most notably in response to his emphasis HANDS ofi THE CAUSE- are entitled to on the development of Bahi'i ADMINISdeclare someone a Covenant-breaker, TRATION, which some BahP'is saw as a thereby excommunicating them from deviation from 'Abdu'l-Bahi's policies. the Faith. The Counsellors and members The frustrated desire for leadership also of the AUXILIARY BOARDS have a partiappears to havc bccn a factor in some cular responsibility to watch oat for cases. This opposition took its most 'internal opposition' to the Centres of organized form in the United States, the Faith, and to report such activity. LG where it came to centre on the activities 183-90. of Ruth WHITE(who also had followers L

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craftsmanship

in Germany) and Ahmad SOHRAB. There was also a short-lived opposition movement in Egypt, whilst in Iran one of the most prominent Bahfis, AVARIH, apostatized and began to attack the Faith in his writings. In a separate series of events Shoghi Effendi expelled a widening circle of his relatives from the Faith, primarily because of the marriages that several contracted with existing Covenant-breaking members of Bahi'u'llih's family. (See also N u ~ FAMILY; i Ruvi AFNAN.) After the death of Shoghi Effendi (1957) the only significant oppositional movement was that led by the veteran American Bahi'i C.M. REMEY,who claimed to be the second Guardian. The movement subsequently splintered, some groups remaining active (see REMEYITE GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS).

Some attempts were made during the 1950s and 1960s to bring together the disparate groups of Covenant-breakers, but these had little effect. Globally, the Bahb'i community has maintained its unity. TCB. craftsmanship

Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi praised craftsmanship, and equated such WORK with worship. God, himself, 'the Fashioner', loves craftsmanship. Craftsmen should be treated with deference, and not looked down on and abused as has been their lot in the past. They should endeavour to achieve EXCELLENCE in their work. C C ~ 1-6. : creation

In Graeco-Islamic philosophy, the Aristotelian view of the eternity of the world conflicted with the orthodox understanding of the world as created by God. Bahi'u'llih held that both views could be regarded as correct: the material universe has always existed, albeit in different form, but its generating impulse was the WORDO F GOD.Nature

Custodians

is the expression of God's will in the contingent world. It will not decay (TB 140-2). Thus, creation as a whole has neither beginning nor end, though individual objects within it (e.g. the planet earth; an individual human body) will come into being at a particular moment in time, and subsequently cease to exist, breaking down into their component elements (SAQ 180-3, 203-4). BahL'is also believe that creation is not confined to the material universe: there are many 'worlds of God'. (See also METAPHYSICS.) cremation

BahC'i law stipulates BURIAL of the dead, and forbids cremation. 'Abdu'l-Bahi taught that just as the human body has been formed gradually, so should it decompose slowly and naturally. Bahl'is who leave their bodies for medical research should stipulate that they want their remains to be eventually buried and not cremated. LG200-2. crime and punishment

'Abdu'l-BahL stated that society has the right to impose punishments on criminals in order to protect its members. The individual who has been wronged by the criminal does not have the right to take revenge, which is despised by God, but does have the right of SELF-DEFENCE. The purpose of civil punishment is social protection and not vengcance. Some individuals are like 'bloodthirsty wolves', and the community has to protect itself from them. Community life depends on JUSTICE, not forgiveness. In the long run, however, communities need to educate their citizens in morality, so that conscience deters crime. Passing penal laws and building prisons are not in themselves the solution to crime. Punishment is necessary, but it also serves to further pervert the morality and character of the criminal. KA 203; SAQ 268-72. BahP'i LAW specifies general punishments for a number of criminal offences.

In the Kitrib-i-AQDASBahi'u'llih prescribed the death penalty both for intentional arson and murder, with life imprisonment as an alternative punishment. In the case of unintentional lalling (manslaughter) the killer should pay the family of the deceased an indemnity of 100 mithqrils (=364 grams) of gold. Theft was to be punished with exile and imprisonment, with a mark being placed on the forehead of the thief at the third offence, so that they could be publicly identified. Details (degrees of offence; mitigating circumstances; which punishment was to be applied in which circumstance; the manner of application; liability of the criminally insane; etc.) are left for the future decision of the UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE. KA 35-6 k45, 41 k62. 87-8 k188, 121 q49, 198 n70-1, 203-5 n86-7, LG 357, no. 1199.

Bahl'u'llih counselled that these punishments had been ordained by a merciful and compassionate God in order to protect and elevate human beings. They should not be neglected o u t of a sense of compassion: Bahi'u'llih was schooling his followers with 'the rod of wisdom'. Shoghi Effendi commented that concern for the innocent who might occasionally be punished by mistake should not cause a salutary law to be abandoned: in the case of the death penalty, God would compensate a man who was wrongly executed 'a thousandfold' (KA 36, 204). He also stated that in a more evolved society - the future Bahi'i society in which BahL'i law would actually be enforced - the mere threat of such punishments would bc sufficient to deter (LG 357, no. 1198).

At the present time Bahi'i ASSEMBLIES do not enforce criminal law, although they do concern themselves with the legal aspects of matters of personal status, such as marriage and divorce. They may also deprive individuals who have breached aspects of Bahi'i law of their Bahi'i ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS. Bahi'is who have been convicted of criminal offences do not automatically lose their Bahi'i rights, however (LG 356, no. 1194-5). Custodians

Those HANDS OF THE CAUSE who exercised a collective leadership of the Bahi'i Faith from the passing of Shoghi Effendi in November 1957 until the election of the Universal House of Justice in April 1963. Nine Custodians (the term is a legal one) were selected at the first conclave of the Hands in November 1957. Two were later unable to continue their residence in Haiia, one was expelled from the Faith, and one died; all four were replaced by other Hands. The Hands initially selected were: Hasan BALYUZI (replaced by John FenRABY, November 1959); Amelia COLLINS (d. 1962; temporarily replaced by Hasan Balyuzi); 'Ali-Akbar FCJRUTAN; Paul HANEY; Leroy IOAS;Ja161 KHAZEH;Adelbert M~JHL~CHLECEL (shortly replaced by A.Q. Fnlzi); Charles Mason REMEY (replaced by Horace HOLLEY, November 1959; Holley himself died in 1960, and was replaced by William SEARS); and ROI:IIYYIH I
deepening

See SEVEN PROOFS. dancing

There is nothing in the Bahb'i teachings against dancing, hut Shoghi Effendi emphasized that it should conform to the Bahi'i standards of modesty and chastity. Bahi'is should never be vulgar in their actions or indecently clad. Classical dancing was seen as harmless, but the atmosphere of smoking, drinking and promiscuity common in modern (1952) dance halls was harmful. LG 98. (See also DRAMA AND DANCE.) Dawn-Breakers

Shoghi Effendi's translation of an early narrative of Bibi history, the Tdrikh-iNabil (Nabil's Narrative), composed by N A B ~ L - I - A ~inA M AH1305/1887-8. Although written long after the events it describes, the book relies heavily on the memoirs of surviving early Bibis (including the author), and is thus an important source. The publication of the English translation in 1932 had an enormous impact on Western Bah6'is' understanding of their religion, firmly linking it to Ribism, and to the heroic acts and martyrdoms of the Bibis. Shoghi Effendi specifically intended the book to inspire the reader to greater dedication and self-sacrifice. As yet the

work is only available in edited translation, the Persian original being in manuscript only. The introduction to the English edition is by George TOWNSHEND. McS 166-9; CCI: 216, nos. 463-4; Robboni,

Pricelerr Pearl 217-1 8.

Dayyan (Ar., 'Judge') Bibi title of Mulli (or Mirzi) Asadu'llih Khu'i (d. 1856) of Khuy in western Azerbaijin. He converted during the period of the Bih's exile in the province, and soon gained the Bib's praise for a learned apologia he wrote for the new faith. He was unusual for the range of his learning, which included knowledge of Syriac and Hebrew. He was the recipient of the Bih's Lawh-i-Hurzifa't ('Tablet of the Letters'). In the confused period of the early 1850s he was one of those who laid claim to Bibi leadership, and gained a following. He was finally murdered in Baghdad, seemingly at the instigation of Subh-i-A~AL, who had denounced him as the 'father of iniquities', and questioned why his followers did not 'transfix him with their spears', or 'rend his bowels with their hands'. ARR 383, 384; EGsBF43-4; BKG 123-4; Brawne, Materink 218-19; GPB 124-5; McS 23-24 n77,88-90; Nobil303-4.

death and the afterlife

Bahi'is are instructed to bury their dead (see BURIAL), and to write a WILL. SUICIDE is condemned.

For Bahi'is the death and decomposition of the body are a natural pan of human life. We may lament the death of those we love, but for the individual death represents a potential liberation whereby the eternal SOUL is freed from the fetters of material existence and progresses towards God's presence throughout eternity. Thus death can be seen as a 'messenger of joy' (HWa no. 32). 'Abdu'l-Bahi compared the afterlife of the soul to the birth of a child. Just as for the child whose uterine existence is a preparation for its life after birth, so is the present life a period of preparation for the soul before it enters its eternal environment. In both cases the period of preparation is of vital importance, but it does not stand by itself. Only if the soul has become purified from worldly attachment will it be able to breathe 'the sweet scents of holiness' in the afterlife (SWAB 184-5). The actual nature of the afterlife is beyond the understanding of those who are still living, just as the present world would be to the unborn foetus (LG 204, 2089). The soul is immortal, and spiritual progress in the afterlife without limit (SAQ 233-7). Infants who die are under the mercy and bounty of God (SAQ 240). The doctrine of REINCARNATION is rejected. After death souls retain their individuality and consciousness. They are ablc to recognize and commune spiritually with other souls, including former marriage partners on the basis of 'profound friendship of spirit'. The souls of those who are close to God are able to intercede on behalf of the living, but those who are far from God have no impact on the living: they are spiritually as dead, and have no power. There are no 'earth-hound souls' or ghosts (see EVIL SPIRITS). LG 206-7; SAQ 231. INTERCESSION

Charitable donations and good deeds done in the name of the dead are

approved, and are regarded as helpful to the development of the soul in the afterlife. Children should implore pardon and forgiveness before God for their deceased parents. All may pray for the spiritual progress of the dead. The wealthy may perhaps gain merit before God if they bequeath wealth to the poor. LG 204; SAQ 231-2, 240.

deepening

The Bahi'i term for the process by which individuals deepen their knowledge and understanding of the Bahi'i Faith through study, discussion and MEDITATION. Bahi'u'llih bade his followers to 'immerse' themselves in 'the ocean' of his words so that they might discover 'the pearls of wisdom' that lay hidden in its depths. They should read his verses every morning and evening to uplift their souls; reflect and meditate on what they read; and strive to translate it into action. True understanding depends on purity of heart, and not acquired learning (KA 73 k149, 85 k182; CC1: 187-93). 'Abdu'l-Bahi called on the Bahi'is to seek KNOWLEDGE and WISDOM, increasing their knowledge of scripturc and their ability to present the 'divine proofs', and holding meetings for this purpose. They should both memorize Bahi'u'llih's writings (such as the HinD E N WORDS)and pray fervently that they might be enabled to live their lives in accordance with his counsels (CCI: 193-204). Shoghi Effendi directed Bahb'is to deepen the 'Spirit' of the Cause in their own lives and exemplify it in their conduct. They should study the 'fundamentals of the Faith', its history, administration, COVENANT, and spiritual, ethical and social teachings; constantly endeavour to understand better 'the significance' of Bahi'u'llih's revelation; and widen their vision. To study was a 'sacred obligation'. Without deepening, the TEACHING work would be ineffective, and new Bahi'is would not

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become firmly committed to the Faith. They should rather place their 'whole Bah6'is should study the actual writings reliance' on him (CC2: 333). Even if of BahL'u'llLh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and they pass through cities of gold and not rely unduly on accounts of the silver, they should not deign to look at writings given by others. They should them, nor be seduced by their allure also study the DAWN-BREAKERS and the (CC2: 330). Worldly attachment causes QURAN.SUMMER SCHOOLS and similar people to follow their own covetous institutions are intended as means of desires, and hinders them from entering helping Bahi'is to deepen. There is no God's 'straight and glorious path' (AD] limit to the study of the Faith. SCHOLAR- 26). At the same time, God ordained the SHIP is also needed (CC1: 204-34). The good things of the world for those who Universal House of Justice has stated believe in him. Thus, so long as believers that deepening is more a matter of do not let 'the ornaments of the earth' developing a spiritual attitude, devotion become a barrier, they can adorn themand selflessness than of acquiring inforselves with them and partake of their mation as such (important though that benefits, and no harm will befall them is). Bahi'is should ask themselves: what (AD] 28). Detachment applies not only is God's purpose (through BahL'u'llih) to earthly delights, but to the desire for for the human race? What are the paradise, pride in one's knowledge or profound changes that he will bring attainments, and attachment to the self about? What is the goal of a new WORLD (RB2: 35-44). O R D E R ?And why did the B i b , Bahi'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi development of the Faith Effendi submit themselves to the sufferSee BAHkl FAITH. ings that were heaped upon them? (MUHJ 106-7 no. 42.22-6, 499 no. development, social and 289.4, 571 no. 353). (See also CONSOLIeconomic DATION.) See soclo-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. detachment Bahi'u'llih taught that the world, its vanities and glories are worthless, more contemptible than 'dust and ashes' (AD,/ 25). Worldly possessions and dominion are transient. They should not become the cause of exultation. The whole world should be seen as no more valuable than the black in the eye of a dead ant. The tombs of the proud are an object lesson for the beholder, who should flee the world and turn to God's kingdom (ESW 56). The 'glamour' of the world is deceptive. The world itself is impermanent. What now is left of the rich and powerful of past ages, or of their treasures and palaces? The faithful believer should not let such trappings cut them off from 'God's enduring bestowals' and 'spiritual sustenance'.

devil See EVIL;

SATAN.

devotionalism Consciousness of God should pervade the thoughts and actions of the believer's daily lifc. Religion is not to be regarded as a separate sphere of life. As regular devotions, Bahi'is should perform daily obligatory PRAYER; read from the writings of RahH'u'llih every morning and evening, contemplating on what they read; and invoke God by his G R E A ~ S T NAME (Baha') ninety-five times each day. Additional use of prayer as the individual wishes is encouraged, but Bahi'is are bidden to link devotionalism to action (see SPIRITUAL PATH).Devotional practices ordained by the Bib were

detailed and extensive, such that the believer would be 'in an almost constant state of remembrance of God' (Walbridge, Sacred 42-5). The daily readings from the writings are regarded as obligatory, failure to do so being regarded as a lack of faithfulness to God's COVENANT. Their purpose is to draw the believer closer to God. To this end, it is better to read one verse 'with joy and radiance' than to read 'all the Holy Books' with lassitude. The soul should be uplifted not wearied. Nor should anyone pride themselves on their piety (KA 73-4 k149, 127 q68, 236 11165).

Dha bih (Ac, 'Sacrifice') Name given by Bahi'u'llih to two of his followers.

(1) SAYYID I S M A ' ~ LZAVARIH~ An early Bibi who became a devotee of Bahi'u'llih when the latter was in Baghdad. As a gesture of humility he undertook the menial task of sweeping the approach to Bahi'u'llih's house. Overcome by his feelings of religious intoxication he became unable to eat or drink, and after a forty-day fast cut his own throat. Bahi'u'llih extolled the purity of the blood thus shed, and also named him 'King and Beloved of Martyrs'. RBI: 101-5.

Also named Anis (Companion). One of his brothers was the Bibi chronicler Hiji Mirzi Jini. He became a devoted follower of Bahi'u'llih, and was imprisoned in Tehran for his efforts to teach the Bahi'i Faith. He died of natural causes, but was given the spiritual station of a martyr by Bahi'u'llih. The Sziratu'l-Ra'is was revealed in his honour. R82: 411-13. (See also Tablets of R~*fs.)

diet There are no dietary restrictions in the Bahi'i Faith other than prohibitions on consuming ALCOHOL and on eating meat from an animal found dead in a trap or snare (KA 40 k60, 115 q24). Thus, in contrast to Islamic practice, Bahi'is can eat pork and the meat of animals that have been shot during a hunt. Bahi'u'llih advocated simplicity of diet and recommended herbal cures for diseases (see Tablet of MEDICINE). Similarly, for 'Abdu'l-Bahi one of the principal causes of disease was chemical imbalance in the body. This imbalance could be corrected by drugs, but natural curing by diet was better. The elements needed by the body were found in plants, and eating specific foods would correct deficiencies of particular nutrients. This is what animals did when they sought particular foodstuffs when their bodies were in imbalance, and for the most part, they suffered from the same maladies as humans. By eating meals with a complex mixture of ingredients, human beings place extra strains on their physical health. A diet of simple foods was better. Future medical research would reveal the best diets to follow. Specifically, abstinence from alcohol, DRIJGS and tobacco SMOKING greatly contributed to health and vigour. 'Abdu'l-Bahi also regarded a vegetarian diet as desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or the sick who might need meat. The health of strictly vegetarian Brahmins in India indicated that it was entirely possible to survive without meat. There was no requirement for Bahi'is to become vegetarians, but in the future people would gradually adopt a diet of fruit and grains. Killing ANIMALS for food was also considered somewhat contrary to compassion. Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice have stated that these teachings did not constitute a

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Disciples of 'Abdu'l-Bahb specific Bahi'i dietary regimen. Bahi'is are entirely free to eat as they choose, and should be tolerant of those who eat differently from them. They should be guided by the growing body of scientific knowledge about diet. CCI:459-88; IG 294-8. (See also HEALTH AND HEALING.) Disciples of 'Abdu'l-Baha Group of nineteen or twenty early Western Bahi'is identified by Shoghi Effendi. He also termed them 'Heralds of the Covenant' (BW3 : 84-5; 4: 11819). The identity of the German Bahi'i so honoured is unclcar. In BW3 he is named as Arthur Brauns, hut in B W4 as Albert Schwarz. The list comprises:

(16) Mrs Mary Virginia THORNBURGHCROPPER, 'a pioneer of the Faith in England' (17) Mr William Henry ('Harry') RANDALL, 'eloquent upholder of the Bahi'i Cause in America' (18) Consul Albert SCHWARZ, 'pioneer worker for the Faith in Germany' (19) Mr C.I. THATCHER, 'zealous Bahi'i worker' (20) Mr Robert TURNER, 'first Bahi'i of the Negro race in America' dispensation Term of Christian origin used by Shoghi Effendi to refer to the period associated with each successive MANIFESTATION OF GOD.(See also TIME.)

(1) Dr J.G. AUGUR,'pioneer of the Faith in the Pacific Islands' (2) Dr Arthur BRAUNS, 'pioneer worker Dispensation of Baha'u'llah for the Faith in Germany' Major letter of Slloghi Effendi to the (3) Mrs Isabella BRITTINGHAM, 'trusted Western Bahh'is, dated 8 February 1934. and energetic sower of the Seed' It is a doctrinal statement in which (4) Mr Thornton Cfr~se,'first Bahi'i Shoghi Effendi delineates the religious in America' 'stations' of the central figures of the (5) Mr Arthur P. DODGE,'staunch Bahi'i Faith (Bahi'u'llih, the Bib and advocate of the Cause' 'Abdu'l-Bahi) as well as the role of the ( 6 ) M. Hippolyte DREYFUS-BARNEY, guardianship and the Universal House 'author, translator, and internaof Justice as the primary institutions of tional promoter of the Faith' the Bahi'i Administrative Order (see (7) Dr John E. ESSLEMONT, 'distinADMINISTRATION). WOE97-157. Bahi'i author' guished (8) iMiss Sarah FARMER, 'founder of divine judgement Green Acre' (9) Mr Charles GREENLEAF, 'firm SUPMajor O P P O S I . ~ O N to God's Cause (and porter of the Faith' in particular P E R ~ E C U T ~ O Nis) believed to (10) Mrs Helen S. GOODALL, 'ardent incur divine wrath, often expressed establisher of the Cause in America' during the lifetime of the offender. (11)Mrs Lua M. GETSINGER, 'renowned Bahi'u'llih stated that whilst his mercy and devoted international Bahi'i had 'encompassed all created things', the teacher' fierceness of his anger against the wicked (12) Mr Joseph HANNEN, 'indefatigable could be terrible, such that they might servant of the Cause' receive grievous chastisement ( GWB (13) Mr William H. HOAR,'prominent 324 no. 153). God did not blink at the Bahi'i teacher' tyranny of the oppressor, and his ven(14) Miss Lillian KAPPES, 'noted teacher geance would he visited on every tyrant of the Tarbiyat School, Tihrin' (GPB 224). Similarly, Shoghi Effendi (15) Mr Howard MACNUTT,'noted referred to the 'rod of Divine chastiseBahi'i teacher' ment' which had afflicted those who had

assailed the Bibi and Bah6'i religions, There are no specific grounds for or, in some instances, those who had divorce in Bahi'i law other than antifailed to respond to its summons. Thus pathy between the partners. If antagonthe early deaths of MUHAMMAD SITAH, ism arises between husband and wife and of-Sultan ABDULAZ~Z and his ministhey should seek to resolve their problems ters, ALI PASAand FUATP A ~ Athe ; through consultation, both between execution or violent deaths of A M ~ R themselves, and jointly with others who f i s h , his brother, Mirzi Hasan Khin, might be of assistance, such as Bahi'i and of the members of the execution ASSEMBLIES and marriage-guidance counregiment who had between them encomsellors. They should be patient with each passed the death of the Bib; the disgrace other and avoid anger, aiming to find some way of overcoming their differand impoverishment of Hiji Mirzi ences. If such endeavour is unavailing, the AQAs~,of the governor of Shirdz who had persecuted the Bib, and of various couple jointly or one partner alone may other Iranian and Ottoman officials; the ask the relevant Bahi'i assembly to set the 'year of waiting' or 'year of patience' foul diseases and awful deaths that necessary for a Bahi'i divorce to he afflicted the clerics responsible for the torture and killing of QUDDUS, applying recognized. The assembly also endeathe bastinado to the Bib, and the deaths vours to secure reconciliation between OF MARTYRS; the couple. During the year, the couple of the KINGAND BELOVED the sufferings of the Iranian people as a live separately and do not engage in whole during the 19th century; and the sexual relations. If they become reconsudden loss of power of NAPOLEON ciled during the year then their marriage III continues. If at the end the year one or and Pope Plus IX. More generally, the decline in the fortunes of monarchy and both remain weconciled, they are conecclesiastical influence was related to sidered divorced according to Bahi'i law. their neglect of Bahi'u'llih's call (see They must also follow whatever proceproclamation to the RULERS), as in dures are necessary to secure a divorce according to the laws of the country in particular with the collapse of the which they live. It is against the spirit of OTTOMAN and QAJARregimes, and the BahL'i law to court a new partner during consequent secularization of Islamic institutions in Turkey and Iran (includ- the year of waiting. ing the CALIPHATE) (GPB 81-5,224-33, Bahl'u'llih specified that the hus317-20, 407-9). Shoghi Effendi also band should support the wife financially described the Roman destruction of during the year of waiting. The UniJerusalem (70 CE) as a divine response versal House of Justice has noted that to the persecution of Jesus (WOB 176). individual cases may occur in which the wife was formerly the family breadwinner, and that in such a case, the divorce (Ar.: taliiq) couple might decide upon a different Divorce is permitted by Bahh'i law, but arrangement (LG 396 no. 1323). In all strongly discouraged and condemned. cases it is the responsibility of the assembly involved to encourage and Bahi'is should regard MARRIAGE as a assist the divorcing couple to work out sacred tie, which is only to be severed in the financial details of their future lives extreme circumstances and as a last between themselves. They should simiresort. The common practice of divorce larly determine suitable arrangements in contemporary society is regarded as for the custody of children, including an indication of the decline of religion, recognition of the continuing role of the and as a major factor leading to societal non-custodial partner as a parent. breakdown.

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Specific circumstances referred to in the Kitrib-i-AQDASare: the prohibition of the Islamic practice of a divorced woman having to marry another man before she can remarry her first husband; there is no need for a year of waiting if the couple decide to divorce before the marriage is consummated (normally assumed to have taken place within twenty-four hours of the marriage ceremony); if differences arise between a couple whilst they are travelling, the husband must ensure that his wife is safely returned to her home in addition to paying her expenses for the journey and the forthcoming year; if the husband disappears, the wife must wait for a year before remarrying; and a wife who is divorced as a consequence of infidelity forfeits her right to receive maintenance during the year of waiting. KA 42-5 k67-70, 1056 q4, 110 qll-12, 113 ql9, 119q38,q40,128q73, 135-6q98. 1523,209-212 n96-102; CCI: 235-44; CC2: 441 -59; [G 390-402. Dodge, Arthur Pillsbury (1849-1 915)

Prominent early American Bahi'i. A lawyer, magazine publisher, and inventor, he became a Bahi'i in 1897. His home in New York City became the meeting place for the newly established Bahi'i community, and he was chosen as its first president (1898). Shoghi Effendi named him as one of the DISCI~I.ES OF 'ABDU'L-BAH.4. BFAI; BFA2; WSBR 1-16. dogma

There are various statements of official Bahi'i belief, notably Shoghi Effendi's DISPENSATION O F BAHA'U'LLAH(1934) and The Faith of Baha"tc311bh (2947), the latter prepared as a summary of Bahi'i beliefs for the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine. The ~~ various listings of ' B A H PRINCIPLES' also summarize aspects of Bahi'i belief. Beyond this there is a strong anti-

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dogmatic element in the Bahi'i teachings. 'Abdo'l-Bahi stated that the 'foundation' of Bahi'i belief was acceptance of the Bbb and Bahi'u'llih as MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD (Will 19), and stressed the necessity for BahH'is to be firm in the COVENANT (i.e. to accept the official line of lcadership succession), and Bahi'i identity focuses more on this common adhesion than on any doctrinal statements as such. In any case, human understanding of religious truth is regarded as limited and relative in nature (Momen, 'Relativism') and certain key concepts - GOD;the Manifestations of God; the SOUL; the afterlife (see DEATH) as being beyond human definition. Thus a variety of individual understandings is regarded as normal, and is accepted as long as there is no attempt by the individual to impose their own INTERPRETATION on others. Again, whilst Bahi'u'llih stated that acceptance of him as a Manifestation of God was inseparably linked to obedience to his laws (KA 19 k l ) , much of Bahi'i law is operable at the level of individual conscience rather t h a n communally enforced orthopraxy as in Islam. Dolgorukov, Prince Dmitri lvanovitch (d. 1867)

Russian minister inTehran from January 1846 until May 1854. His diplomatic dispatches make reference ro the Bib and the emergence of Bibism. A Persian text, purporting to be a translation of his 'Political Confessions', was published in 1943 in Mashhad, seemingly in an attempt to discredit the Bbbi and Bahi'i religions by 'proving' that Bibism had been established as part of a Russian conspiracy to weaken Iran. Although long since shown to be a forgery, the hook has found widespread currency in Iran and the Arab world, and has contributed to the prevalent negative and hostile view of the religions. MBBR; McS 170-1.

drama and dance

'Abdu'l-Bahi referred to the educational potential of drama, and gave one of the Bahi'is an outline of a religious play ('The Drama of the Kingdom', AB 497502). Shoghi Effendi noted the value of stage productions in awakening noble sentiments among the mass of the people and attracting them to the Faith. Such productions could include Bahi'i historical episodes, but there could be no portrayal of any MAN~P~STATION OF GOD, as this would be irreverent. The same applied to films. [G 97-100. Drama and dance performances have become an increasingly common element in Bahi'i conferences in recent years, most notably at the 1992 Bahi'i World Congress in New York. Bahi'i dance groups have proliferated in various parts of the world, mostly made up of enthusiastic amateurs and inspired by local dance traditions. There is at least one semi-professional group, Ballet Shayda in Canada (started in the 1980s). There are several Bahi'i theatre groups, including Afrika Bikonda in the Ivory Coast (started in the mid-1980s). Some of this dance and drama is employed to present Bahi'i ideas to a wider audience (BWNS 1 9 9 4 5 : 251-9). A dramatic pop video, Doug Cameron's Mona and the Children, was made about a group of young women who were executed as Bahi'is in Iran in 1983. (See also GRINEVSKAYA.) dreams and visions

In his writings Bahi'u'llih referred to a number of his own powerful visionary experiences (see MAIDOF HEAVEN) and emphasized the reality of the dream world as a source of foreknowledge and as 'the most mystcrious of the signs of God amongst men' (SV 32-3; TB 1878). However, both 'Abdu'l-Rahi and Shoghi Effendi cautioned that visionary experiences that corresponded with reality were very rare. Visions might

seem real to the individual experiencing them, but simply be the product of thc subconscious mind. Dreams and visions are always coloured by the mind of the dreamer; bad feelings or evil motives warp and distort genuine inspiration. Only by freeing oneself from prejudice and desire can one make one's dreams (as well as conscious thoughts) pure and true. Dreams should be checked against the revealed word to see if they were in harmony with it. Too much significance should not be given to them, and they should never be regarded as being an infallible source of guidance, even for the individual experiencing them. This is particularly the case when an individual believes that they are receiving messages from Bahi'u'llih or 'Abdu'l-Bahi. These holy beings had the channels of the Cause through which to guide the Bahi'is, and had no need to go outside these to send individual revelations. Most of the experiences of those who claim communication with the spirits are 'pure imaginations', have no reality, and yielded no result in terms of human discovery or action. SAQ251-3; LG514-15. (See also PSYCHIC POWERS.) dress

There is no distinctive Bahb'i form of drcss. In contrast to Islamic and to a lesser extent Bibi law, Bahi'u'llih abolished any restrictions on the style and type of dress his followers might adopt, with the proviso that they should not make themselves 'playthings of the ignorant'. Men could also cut their beards as they wished, but were neither to shave their heads nor to let their hair 'pass beyond the limit of the ears' (the precise meaning of this instruction has yet to be clarified, but includes not following the 19th-century Iranian custom of wearing long sidelocks (zulf)) (KA 22 k9, 35 k44, 76-7 k159, 109 q10, 197-8 1168-9, 241-2 111745; TB

Dreyfus-Barney, Hippolyte

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23). The need for 'utmost' CLEANLINESS was emphasized (I
The use of opium, or of any other substance that induces torpor and sluggishness, or which damages the body, is explicitly forbidden in the K i t i b - i AQDAS.'Abdu'l-Bahi described opium smoking as a hideous act which destroys both the mind and conscience, and as a plague that should be opposed by force. All other habit-forming drugs (hashish, marijuana, heroin, hallucinogens such as LSD and peyote, ALCOHOL, etc.) are also forbidden, except when prescribed by a physician. Dealing in any of these drugs is also forbidden. The renunciation of intoxicants increases health, strength and beauty. Those who seek spiritual experience in drugs are mistaken, and should turn instead to Bahi'u'llih. KA 75

Dreyfus-Barney, Hippolyte (1873-1928)

Prominent early French Rahi'i and scholar. An advocate at the Paris Court of Appeal, he became a Bahi'i in 1900, and soon had mastcrcd Persian and Arabic so as to be ahle to translate Bahb'i writings into French. A stream of publications followed (from 1904), such that by 19 13 French readers had available to them a substantial portion of Bahb'u'll5h's major works. He also published an introductory work, Essai sur Ie behaisme (190X), which remains in use. He marricd Laura Barney in 1911, and together they travelled widely to promote the Faith. They were amongst the group of prominent Western Rahi'is whom Shoghi Effcndi consulted rcgarding the future of the Faith in 1922. Shoghi Effendi referred to Hippolytc as one of the Dlsclrres or: 'ABDII'L-BAIIA. BW3 210-1 1.

k155, 88 kl90.238-9 "170; LG 353-4.

Dunn, Clara (1869-1960) O F THE CAUSE of British Australian HAND background. She became a Bahi'i in Washington around 1907, and accompanied her husband, J.H. Hyde Dunn, to Australia in 1920. She was appointed a Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effendi in February 1952. BWl3: 8 5 9 4 2 ; Harper 34941. Dunn, (John Henry) Hyde (1855-1941) English-American BahH'i who, with his wife, Clara, was responsible for the introduction of the Faith to Australia. He became a Bahi'i around 1905 in Seattle, and was an active promoter of the Faith. He married Clara in 1917, and the couple moved to Australia in 1920 in response to 'Abdu'l-BahA's call in the TABLETS OF THE DIVINEPLAN.

Dreyfus-Barney, Laura Clifford (1879-1974)

Prominent expatriate American Rahi'i Hippolyte and Lartra Dreyfirs-Bnnrcjr pr~~rninent early Baha'is in Frarrce who lived for most of her life in France. She came from a well-known liberal artistic family established in Paris and becamc a Bahi'i there around 1900 after meeting May Bolles (MAXWELL).She married Hippolyte Dreyfus in 1911, and until his death in 2928 She made a number of prolonged visits worked closely with him. Later she to see 'Abdu'l-BahH in Akka, and from was greatly involved with activities 1904 onwards began carefully to comassociated with the League of Nations pile 'Abdu'l-Bahi's answers t o her and the International Council of questions. These were published in Women. She was honoured by the English, Persian and French editions in 1908 (see SOME ANSWERED QUESTIONS). French government. awls: 535-38.

Dunn, (John Henry) Hyde

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Clara and Hyde Drrnr7, pioneer Baha'i teachers to Australia, and later Hands of the Cause

Already in his sixties, Hyde became a travelling salesman, using his mobility as a means of presenting the Faith throughout Australia. Shoehi Effendi named him as Australia's 'spiritual conqueror', and in 1952 posthumously designated him a HANDOF THE CAUSE.BW9: 593-7;

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expended to help the mass of the people (through the promotion of education, social welfare and development); and is not possessed by only a few whilst the remainder of the population was impoverished (SDC 24-5). Ultimately, wealth is an illusion, and he condemned those who lusted after it as evil, predicting that they would be 'plunged into confusion and despair' (CC2: 343). THE ABOLITION OF EXTREMES

economic teachings

WEALTH

The Bahi'i teachings value economic activity. Each individual sho~ildwork to support themselves and their families, such work counting as a form of worship, particularly when performed in a spirit of service to others. It should be a means of expressing one's piety and T R U S T W O R T H I N E ~ ~(stressed as a vital quality for economic success). It is not a harrier to service to God (CC2: 341). (See a b o A ~ R I C U L T U R E ; CI~AICITY;GAMBLING; HUQUQIJ.I.LAH; WORK.)

Bahi'u'llih bade the rich to heed 'the midnight sighing of the poor', so that they themselves would not follow 'the path of destruction'. They should be generous, as this reflects the divine quality of generosity, and cleanse themselves from 'the defilement of riches'. The poor are a divine trust, who should be protected by the rich. No one should be proud of their wealth. Wealth itself is a 'mighty barrier' between the seeker and God, and most rich people will thus fail to attain 'the court of His presence'. On the other hand, those who are rich, but who are not hindered thereby from the eternal kingdom, were eulogized, and their spiritual splendour compared to the illumination of the sun (CCI: 496 no. 1123; HWp no. 49, 53-5). He also stated that earthly richcs bring with them fear and peril (TB 219), and could be held but fleetingly: 'tonight thcy are yours, tomorrour others will possess them' (KA 33-4 k40). The seeker should aim for DETACHMENT from worldly things. Those who spend their livcs merely seeking to amass wealth waste their lives (CCI: 505 no. 1145). 'Abdu'l-Bahl noted that whilst detachment from worldly things is a virtue, wealth is not evil in itsclf. Under certain circumstances it might be praiseworthy, specifically if it was acquired through an individual's own efforts; is

POVERTY

Bahi'u'llih regarded the poor as a divine trust (HWp no. 54), and reaffirmed the Islamic practice of ZAKAT, in part a tax-levy to be paid to the poor. Hc also stated that God did not despise people for being poor. Those who were steadfast in patience are exalted (CCI: 496 no. 1123). 'Abdu'l-Rahi saw thc struggle for physical existence as 'the fountain-head of all calamities' and 'the supreme affliction' (SWAB 3 0 2 ) . Poverty degrades and demoralizes people, and in its extreme forms is indicative of tyranny. It is against God's law (PT 159). Every human being has a right to such necessities of life as food, adequate clothing, and rest from labour (PT 134).

'Abdu'l-Bahi taught that it was necessary to abolish the extremes of both poverty and wealth. To let starvation and destitution continue whilst the rich are 'overburdened' with wealth is morally wrong. Effective legislation and the voluntary sharing of their wealth by the rich are both necessary. At the same time, absolute equality is unobtainable, and any forced attempt to achieve it would be both futile - as people vary in their abilities and would soon create new inequalities - and destructive of SOCIAL ORDER (PT 1569; SAQ 273-4; SWAB 115, 302. See COMMUNISM). Shoghi Effendi bade the writcrs of WILLS t o remember the 'social function' of wealth, and the need to avoid its 'over-accumulation and concentration in a few individuals or groups of individuals' (KA 182 1138). RECIPROCITY

'Abdu'l-Rahi noted the reciprocal nature of human life. Human beings are social beings who live together and rely upon each other for their survival. The recognition of this reciprocity is necessary for a just and compassionate society. Thus there should he both mutual concern and legal protection to ensure the welfare of all. This is a single world, and its inhabitants should he like a single family in which the existence of destitution is unacceptable to others (NSA of Canada 31-6).

PROPERTY OWNERSHIP A N D ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Bahi'u'llih legitimized individual property ownership; the right to deed property to others as one wished; and the charging of moderate rates of interest (in contradistinction to Islam, in which all forms of interest on loans is forbidden as usury). It should be remembered that all ultimately belongs to God, however (KA 127 q69; TB 133-4). 'Abdu'l-Bahi advocated the establishment of institutions to ensure protection of the poor, including communal village storehouses, funded in part through a graduated income tax, and responsible for the welfare of all in the village (including orphans and the poor, elderly and incapacitated); adequate wages or benefits to ensure that workers would not be destitute as a result of sickness or old age; and industrial profit sharing, so that workers would have a stake in the company in addition to their wages (NSA of Canada 33-4; SAQ 274-5). INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

'Abdu'l-Bahi regarded strikes as harmful to the common good, and attributed them to economic injustice in society, as well as to the greed of either the employers or the workers. Governments should certainly interfere to prevent labour disputcs, because society is affected by the breakdown of economic life. Thus, they should establish industrial courts with power to establish and enforce just relations betwcen thc two sidcs. SAQ 273,276. Edirne

Ancient city in what is now European Turkey, about 200 kilometres northwest of ISTANRUI.. Europeans commonly used to call it by its old Roman name, Adrianople. Bahi'u'llih and his companions were exiled there by the OTTOMAN authorities in 1863, arriving there on

I

education

1 2 December. They remained until 12 August 1868. During this period the definitive break between Bahi'u'llih and Subh-i-AZALoccurred, and Bahi'u'llih began the proclamations of his claims. In his writings he often referred to the city as 'the Land of Mystery' (ard-i-sin), sirr having the same numerical value as Edirne according to the ABJAD system. The city suffered greatly during the Russian occupation of 1878 and much territory to the north was lost, events regarded by Bahi'is as a fulfilment of Bahi'u'llih's prophecies in the Sfirahr'lRa'is (see Tablcts of R K ~ S ) .One of the houses occupied by Bah6'u'llbh during his stay (the house of Ridi Beg) survives and has become a place of pilgrimage. The other houses no longer exist.

II

education

BahL'is emphasize the importance of education in both its religious and 'secular' aspects, seeing it as a major element in the spiritual and material development of the individual and society as a whole. CCI: 245313. (Seealso KNOWLEDGE; SCHOOLS; SCIENCE.)

DIVINE EDUCATION

Bahi'u'llih taught that the spiritual essence and latent perfections of each human being can only be realized through education in religious principles: one of God's names is 'the Educator', and his purpose in sending Prophets was to guide and educate humanity, so that society might advance, and each individual at the hour of death ascend 'with absolute detachment' to the divine presence. Bahi'is are responsiblc for educating the peoples of the world. HUMANNATURE is such that without spiritual education the individual would be overwhelmed by lusts and attachment to the world. The FEAR OF GOD is a primary factor in education (CCI: 24551). Holy LAW was given as a form of education, so as to elevate the indivi-

130

dual's station, and protect them from that which is harmful (KA 36 k45). Thus, parents should teach their children to be God-fearing and staunch in faith; and schools train them in the principles of RELrGroN - but without making them ignorantly fanatical or bigoted. It is necessary for children to learn to distinguish right from wrong, and follow the divine commandments. They should learn sacred scripture and develop SPIRITUAL QUALITIES (CCI; TB 68; see R E W A R D A N D P U N I S H M E N T ) . 'Abdu'l-BahL stressed that human dignity and good behaviour are only possible as a result of moral education (SDC 97-8). Children should be carefully trained from infancy in morality so as to abhor wrongdoing: beyond puberty, their characters are largely set. The role of the mother as the child's first educator is particularly important (CC1: 262-71). 'SECULAR' EDUCATION

Bahi'u'llih emphasized LITERACY and the moral and social importance of wow. To this end, a father has the obligation to ensure that his children (daughters and sons) learn how to read and write (as well as learning about Rahi'u'llih's teachings). If he does not do this, the responsibility devolves upon the HOUSES OF JUSTICE (KA 37 k48, 138 qlOS; TB 128). Similarly, children have the obligation of 'to exert themselves to the utmost' in becoming literate (CCI: 249 no. 569). All workers, men and women, should contribute financially to the education and training of children (TB 90). It is not necessary for all children to achieve the same level of education: for some a basic education, followed by practical skills training, would be sufficient. In whatever the child does, however, it should seek perfection (CC1: 249 no. 569). Children should also study a universal LANGUAGE, and those arts and sciences that are conducive to human progress (ESW

138; TB 168). 'Abdu'l-Bahi stressed the need for comprehensive education: the 'first attribute of perfection' is learning and 'the cultural attainments of the mind' (SDC 3.5). Children should be taught the various branches of learning; training for a profession or trade; and also CLLANLINESS, health education, MUFIC, kindness to A N I M A I . ~ and courtesy. Particular attcntion should be given to the education of girls - as future mothers and hencc thc first educators of their children, their education is more important than that of boys - and of orphans, who had hitherto been neglccted. Children should be praised and encouraged: beating them perverts their characters. Schools should be well organized, and established in every town and village (CCI: 275-90, 310-13; CC2: 372-8; KA 199-200 1176). SOCIETAL ASPECTS

'Abdu'l-Bahi regarded cducation as an urgent requirement for both socroE C O N O M IIC I E:V E L C I P M E N T and the reform of GOVHI~NMLNT. Ignorance is the principal rcason for national declinc and an underlying cause of social injustice. Only i f the common people arc wcll cducatcd will they be able to appeal against unjust govemance and securc thcir rights. Otherwise, most people lack 'even the vocabulary to explain what they want' (SDC 18). The masses long for happiness hut, knowing nothing of the world, are unable to attain it. Education would release the dynamic power latent in the peoplc (SDC 10912). Education should be systematic and well organized. It should focus on thosc subjccts that are of value to society. Subjects that are of trivial importance or based on supposition should not receive undue attention. Public opinion should be dirccted towards the important issues of the day (SDC 105-6).

EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT

'Abdu'l-Bahi encouraged Bahi'is in Iran and ASFIKIIABAD to establish SCHOOLS which would combine moral and the best 'secular' education. These developed particularly from the 1890s (there were some earlier pioneer efforts), and werc open to children of all religions. In recent years an increasing number of Rahi'i schools, colleges, and pre-schools in various parts of the world have been set up, including hoth official BahL'i institutions, such as thc New Era and Rabhani Schools in India, and institutions established by groups of Bahi'is incorporating Bahi'i principles, such as the Univcrsidad NOr and the Privatc Technical University of Santa Cruz (hoth in Bolivia). As Bahi'i conimunities in many countries have become larger and more visible thcre has been increasing involvement in wider cducational debatcs and training courses conccrncd with moral and religious education (e.g. Bahi'i proposals for national cducational rcform submitted to the government authorities in Cameroon). School textbooks for religious education courses are also now more likely to includc references or sections on the Faith, and in some places Bahi'i is now included as part of thc rcligious cducation syllabus (e.g. the London borough of \Vandsworth). Dahi'i commitment to cducation has gained public recognition in the Marshall Islands, where in 1993-4 the government placed seven elementary schools under Bahi'i supervision for the purpose of upgrading their quality (BWNS 1994-5: 118-23, 128, 131). Far examples of Bahb'i educational thinking see Nikioa and

Vickerr; Rosl, Brilliant Stars.

An early centre of Bahi'i activity in the Middle East. The first Bahi'is in the country were mostly Iranian merchants who settled in the country during the

I

eschatology -

elections

1860s. Action by the local Iranian consul in 1868 led to the arrest of several of these, and the exile of some of them to Khartoum in Sudan (MBBR 257-64). NAB~L-I-A'ZAM was Sent by Bahi'u'llih to make an appeal to the khedive on behalf of the captives, but was himself arrested. During his imprisonment in Alexandria he succeeded in converting Firis Effendi, possibly the first Bahi'i of Christian background (BKG 265-8; RB3: 5-11). From the 1870s a Bahi'i community emerged, including both expatriate Iranians and Egyptian converts of Sunni Muslim and Christian background. Ibrahim KHEIIALLA, a pioneer Bahi'i teacher in the United States, converted in the early 1890s. The Bahi'i scholar Mirzi A ~ u ' L FADLGULPAYGAN~ came to Egypt in 1895, and established himself at alAzhar University. He later publicly identified himself as a BahCi, and published various articles and books. The number of local converts increased. 'Abdu'l-BahL also visited Egypt, staying there for many months before, between and after his Western tours (1910-13). During these visits, he met many local notables, including the khedive ('Abbis Hilmi Pishi) and chief mufti. As the Bahb'is became more organized - forming AssnMBLIes, publishing, trying to establish new groups - so opposition from conservative Muslim elements increased, leading, in 1925, to a legal judgement nationally declaring the Babb'is to be non-Muslims, a statement hailed by Shoghi Effendi as a means of gaining recognition of the independence of the Faith from Islam (GPB 364-9). A national Bahi'i assembly was established in 1924, which was legally incorporated in 1934. Internationally, Egyptian Bahb'is helped establish Bahi'i communities in various parts of Africa, mostly in the 1950s. In 1960 all Bahi'i institutions in Egypt were banned by presidential decree and a number of Bahi'is arrested. The banning order

-

remains in effect. (See also Shaykh Muhammad 'ABDuH; Muhammad-Taqi ISFAHAN~; 'Abdu'l-Jalil Bey SA'D.

are barriers to spiritual development, and envy and rage are physically destructive to the individual experiencing them. They should be avoided.

elections

Fanonapazir and Lombden 40-3; HWp nos. 6, 42.

The members of Bahi'i local and national spiritual ASSEMBLIES, the UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE and some REGIONAL B A H ~COUNCILS .~ are elected, either directly (local assemblies), or indirectly by elected delegates at a CONVENTION. All such elections are carried out by secret ballot by the eligible electors. Nominations, canvassing and all other forms of electioneering are prohibited. There should be no discussion of personalities before the election. Instead, each individual elector should prayerfully follow the dictates of his or her own conscience in determining whom to vote for. In countries where universal literacy prevails the electors write down the names of those they wish to vote for, and appointed tellers then count up the votes. Those with the most votes are elected if eligible to serve: There are procedures for resolving tie votes. Individual Bahi'is bear a spiritual responsibility to vote, familiarize themselves with the qualities required of elected members, and learn about their fellow BahL'is (whom they may wish to vote for) through direct personal experience rather than the opinions of others. Assemblies and committees elect their own officers, but those elected must gain the votes of an absolute majority of the members. Ccl: 315-1 8; LG9-13, 23-8. emotions

Different emotional states have different spiritual and physical consequences. Contentment and happiness are a cause of health, whilst anxiety and depression are afflictions which lay the body open to disease. Contentment can be developed through DETACIIMBNT from material concerns and reliance upon God and receipt of his bounties. Envy and hate

environment

Although several individual BahL'is have had a long and distinguished record of involvement in environmental issues, Bahi'i community interest is comparatively recent, with a particular impetus coming in 1987, when the BAHbi INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY (BIC) joined the Network on Conservation and Religion of the World Wide Fund for Nature, and again in 1989, with the BIC's establishment of a separate Office of the Environment, and its revival of the World Forestry Charter Gatherings first convened by the pioneer promoter of 'social forestry', Richard St Barbe BAKER,in 1945. Also in 1989 the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice issued a con~pilationof Bahi'i writings on 'Conservation of the Earth's Resources' (CC1: 65-91). BahL'is have since become increasingly involved in promoting environmental awareness and working with non-governmental organizations concerned with environmental issues, including in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 'the Earth Summit') in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, and in various follow-up activities. Bahi'i 'environmental philosophy' is based on the beliefs that all of nature expresses God's 'names and attributes'; human life is dependent on nature; the world is one, its component parts interdependent, and its problems require a global vision if they are to be successfully addressed (see WORLD UNITY); co-operation and reciprocity are fundamental to existence; diversity in nature is a source of beauty and a divine bestowal; material CIvILIzA'rloN is by itself inadequate and potentially harmful, and needs to be melded with

spirituality and moral purpose; human beings are able to improve their environment and society by the application of rationality and S C I E N C E ; natural resources are a divine gift and should be both protected and developed for human use; and human beings should exercise MODERATION. (See also AGRICULTURE; ANIMALS.) Baha'i lnternafional Communiiy, World Citizenship; BWNS 1994-5: 112-1 6, 142-3, 147-9;

CCI: 65-91; Doh1 Eco Principle; "World

Order".

Epistle to the Son o f the Wolf (PA: 1,awh-i-Ibn-i-Dhi'b)

Bahi'u'llih's last major work (c.1891), also known as the Latub-i-Shaykb ('Tablet to the Shaykh'). It was composed at BAHJ~, and addresse! to Shaykh Muhammad-Taqi Isfahini (Aqi Najafi), named by Bahi'u'llih 'the Son of the WOLF',a prominent Iranian cleric who persecuted the Bahi'is. Bahi'u'llih called on the shaykh to repent of his wrongdoing and beseech God's forgiveness; declared his own mission to be God's cause; summarized some of his own teachings and cited passages from his own earlier works; noted the transforming effect he had had on the Bibis (turning them away from sedition to goodly deeds); called for protection for his followers from religio~~s persecution and martyrdom; presented biblical prophecies fulfilled by his coming; lamented the behaviour of Subh-i-AZALand his followers; and called on the Bibi leader, m D i DAWLATABAD~, to investigate his cause. ESW;RB4: 368- 412. eschatology

Beliefs concerning 'last things', typically the end of the world and the final condition of homan existence. In Christianity and Islam traditional belief expects the world to end in the ~ s s u a RECTION of the dead and a final judgement, and for individual souls to be assigned to HEAVEN or hell. By contrast,

esotericism

135

superstitions. The BahP'is should be Bah6'is believe that the CREATION has neither beginning nor end (though the patient with those who believed in it, earth itself may cease to exist in the gradually weaning them away from future). Instead, human TIME is marked reliance on such things. They should by a series of revelational and 'universal' themselves attach no importance to cycles. The coming of each MANIFESTA-astrology or horoscopes, nor seek guidance from numerology, or identify it TION OF GODmarks a day of judgement for the adherents of previous religions, with the teachings of the Faith. (See also DREAMS AND VISIONS; MAGIC; PSYCHIC who may choose to enter either the POWERS.) LG 516-22. 'heaven' of belief or the 'hell' of denial in relationship to the new divine messenger. The present age marks the beginning Esperanto of the fulfilment of the prophecies of Artificial language created by Dr Ludprevious religions. As such it is the promised Day of Resurrection. The wik Zamenhof (1859-1917) to promote spiritual progress of each individual inter-ethnic and international understanding. Following publication of the marks their state of SOUL, 'heaven' and 'hell' being regarded as symbolic terms language in 1887 an Esperanto movefor nearness to or distance from God, ment developed. The common commitapproach towards whom is the ultimate ment to the need for an international objective of individual existence. The LANGUAGE and for amity between all objective of the human race as a whole is peoples created an obvious 'elective to progress towards the 'Most Great affinity' between Esperantists and PEACE',the 'kingdom of God on Earth'. Bahi'is, and there were contacts between the two movements from an early date - including an Esperanto esotericism booklet on Bahi'i published in London The concern with occult knowledge, a in 1907. 'Abdu'l-Bahh praised Esperanto major theme in Bibism. Both the Shay- and encouraged BahH'is in both West khi leaders and the Bib believed themand East to learn it. Zamenhof similarly selves to have access to hidden esoteric expressed his admiration for 'Abdu'lknowledge. This was gained both Bahi and the Bahi'i movement. Promidirectly from God or through spiritual nent early Bahi'is who were also active intercourse with the IMAMS, and through Esperantists included Agnes ALEXANDER mastery of the occult sciences of the day and J.E. ESSLEMONT. Bahi'i-Esperanto (especially TALISMANS, gematria and contacts were particularly strong in the alchemy). The Babi'i teachings, by 1920s and 1930s: Hermann GROSSMANN contrast, grcatly dc-emphasize the eso- published a monthly Baha'i Esperanto teric elements of the Bibi tradition magazine (La Nova Tago, 1925-36) and (stressing rationality instead). Esoteri- established a network of Bahi'i Espercism was again briefly important during anto groups in Germany; Martha ROOT the initial EXPANSION of the Faith in the utilized Esperanto contacts in her worldWest, many of the early Western Bahi'is wide travels and began the practice of being drawn from the 'cultic milieu'. having Bahi'i representation at the SBBR 35-8, 84-5, 1 1 1-12, 154-5; Smith, 'Amsrican annual world Esperanto congresses BahB'i communily', 161-70; Smith, 'Realitymogarine'. (from 1925); Lidia ZAMENHOF (Ludwik's With regard to the Western occult daughter) became a Bahi'i (1926) and tradition, Shoghi Effendi was dismissive: translated Bahb'i literature into Esperfor the most part it was a 'pseudoanto; and Muhammad Labib began a science', made up of 'non-sensical' bilingual Esperanto newsletter in Iran

(1926; the introduction of Esperanto into Iran was almost entirely the work of Bahi'is). There has been some revival of Bahi'i Esperanto activities since the 1970s, with the formation of a BahP'i Esperanto League (Bahaa EsperantoLigo) in 1973. Whilst encouraging Bahi'is to learn Esperanto, both Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice have emphasized that there is no official Bahi'i endorsement of Esperanto as a future world language. Esslemont, John E. (1874-1925)

Prominent British Bahi'i, best known for his book Bahri'u'lla'h and the New Era (1923), which even now remains one of the most widely available introductions to the Bahi'i teachings. Both 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi ~ f f e n d isupported his work. He first encountered the Faith in 1914 and was a major figure in its early development in Britain. He became a close friend and confidant of Shoghi Effendi, who invited him to come to Haifa to serve as his English-language secretary in 1924. He was posthumously

evil sairifs

designated a HANDO F THE CAUSE,and was named as one of the DISCIPLES OF 'ABDU'L-BAHA. BWI: 133-6; Harper 72-84;

ethics

Good character is a source of human glory. BahL'is should under all circumstances behave in a manner that is 'seemly', acting in accordance with God's desire. They should be fairminded, pious and upright (TB 36-7). They should never be a cause of grief to another, or curse them, or be a cause of strife (TB 129). Courtesy is the 'prince of virtues' (TB 88). (See also SPIRITUAL QUALIT~ES.)

evil

Evil has no objective reality other than in the ncgativc and destructive behaviour of individual human beings and animals. Individuals are subject to temptation from the lower aspect of their Own HUMAN NATUllE. Baha'is should guard themselves against such influences by turning- towards God. deepeniilr! . ., themselves in the Bahi'i teachings, and seeking the guidance and protection of the holy spirit. Thcy should also be on their guard against the negative influences of others, and seek to replace that evil with good. If this proves impossible and they are unable to exert any positive influence, they should shun the company of such evil ones. ~ ~ 5 1 2 - 1 3 . evil

John E. Esslemont, distinguished early Scottish Rahi'iand author

The spirits (demons, ghosts and the like) which can harm or exert some form of negative influence on human beings (e.g. through demonic possession) is rejected as superstitious in the Bahi'i writings, which emphasize the goodly nature of God's creation and the responsibility of individuals for anv evil acts they might commit (see EVIL; FREE WILL). Individuals who commit evil

evolution

136

may have an enormous influence in this world, but their own souls cease to have any influence after they die and they have no power over the living. There are no non-human evil spirits which human beings should fear or seek to placate. When the New Testament refers to people as being 'possessed' by devils, it is purely symbolic: the individuals concerned have yielded to the 'dark forces' of their own passions and baser natures. LG.512-13.521-2.

the philosophical MATERIALISM that underlies the Darwinian theory of human evolution. The human physical form has changed over the millennia just as the form of the individual changes from that of an embryo to an adult human being - and become more perfect, but the human spirit was always distinctive (SAQ 177-99). (See also SOCIAL EVOLUTION.)

excellence

evolution

'Abdu'l-Bahb emphasized the radical difference between animals and human beings. Animals are captives of the world of nature: they act according to their instincts, possess no power of ideation, and lack 'spiritual susceptibilities'. Humans, by contrast, possess intelligence, moral FREE WILL and the capacities to discover and control the workings of nature and to know and love God (PUP 177-8). He thus rejected

Bahb'u'llbh called on his followers to display 'such deeds and character' that 'all mankind' would profit by their example. They should be the 'lump that would leaven the peoples of the world'. Bahi'is should strive to acquire both inner and outer perfections - both moral virtues (see SPIRITUAL QIIALITIES) and knowledge and skills. Their deeds should not differ from their words; each day they should seek to be better than the day before. 'Abdu'l-Bahb appealed to BahH'is to attain such distinction that

they would be recognized as Bahi'is by their virtues. Whatever work they did, they should strive that it was of the highest standard. From childhood they should be inspired to undertake studies that would benefit humanity. They should exert all their efforts to acquire EDUCATION. Bahb'is should become famous in all branches of knowledge. For Shoghi Effendi to be a 'true' Bahi'i it was necessary to struggle against both the evils that prevailed in the world and the weaknesses, prejudices and selfishness of one's own character. When the Bahi'is did this they would exert a great influence on others, and many would become Bahi'is by the force of their example. CCI:367-84; MUHl no. 303. expansion

There has been a strong missionary emphasis in both the Bibi and Bahi'i religions (see TEACHING), with a determined effort to increase the number of adherents; the geographical range of their locations; and, in the Bahi'i case, their religious and cultural diversity. This is reflected in the present global diffusion of the Bahi'i Faith: by 1995 it was established in 190 countries and 45 dependent territories, and in many parts of the world had succeeded also in gaining or at least settling followers in every major town and island, no matter how remote; over 2,000 tribes and ethnic groups were represented by thc 1980s. THE PATTERN OF EXPANSION

A group of Bahd'b from around the ruorld outside the Seat of the

Universal House of Justice

Geographical and numerical expansion of Bahi'i and its religio-cultural diversification have been closely interlinked, notably in a series of 'geo-cultural breakthroughs' whereby Bahi'i communities have been established in an ever more diverse range of religions and cultural milieux. Three stages and three 'worlds' of Bibi-Bahi'i expansion can be identified: (1)an initial 'Islamic' stage

(1844-c.1892), in which Bibism and the early Bahb'i movement were largely confined to the environing culture and society of the Islamic Middle East; (2) an 'international' stage (c.1892-c.1953), during which Bahb'i missionary expansion succeeded in transcending the religion's Islamic roots, in particular by gaining a small but intensely active Western following; and (3) the present 'global' stage (from c.1953), in which the Faith has begun to assume the characteristics of a world religion, and large numbers of adherents have been gained in the 'Third World'. The recent collapse of the communist regimes of the Soviet Union and its former satellites, and the consequent opening up of these countries to organized activity by religious groups, has enabled Bahl'is finally to establish themselves in every country in the world (with the possible exception of North Korea). 1844-c.1892 Bbbism began as a sectarian movement within SHAYKHISM (GPB xii), in the particular context of the succession crisis following the death of Sayyid KAZIM.The LETTERS OF THE LMNGwere Shaykhis, and the initial expansion of the movement was largely confined within the existing network of Shaykhi communities. Some transcendence of the Shaykhi milieu later occurred, both because the Bib exercised a wider appeal at a popular level in terms of his messianic claims and as a perceived Islamic holy man, and as a result of conversions such as HUJJATand VAH~D, prominent non-Shaykhi clerics, whose followers also became Bibis - making ZANJAN and N A Y R ~major Z Bibi strongholds. Nevertheless, the Bibis remained part of the world of sectarian Shi'ism. Whether or not Bibism in its original form could ever have expanded more widely is unknown - it was all but obliterated as a movement by 1852 -but when it re-emerged in the late 1850s

THE 'ISLAMIC PERIOD',

expansion

expansion

under the direction of BAHA'U'LLAH in INTER NATIONALIZATION', c. 1892-c. 1953 Baghdad, it was something different. During 'Abdu'l-Bahi's leadership Reviving the Bibi movement, he simul(1892-1921) a major change occurred taneously transformed it, laying the in the nature of the Bahb'i community as basis for expansion beyond the Bibi it broke out of the cultural confines of its community by addressing Sufi and traditional Islamic milieu and became a Judaeo-Christian themes, and presenting truly international religious movement. Bibi beliefs in a style that could appeal This process continued under Shoghi directly to literate Iranian Muslims and Effendi, so that by 1952 there were which did not need to be mediated Bahi'is in some 116 countries and major through clerical leaders. Later - from colonial territories (including quite the 1870s onwards - the basis of Bahi'i remote areas such as Greenland and appeal w a s f u r t h e r widened as the Bismarck Archipelago of New GuiBahi'u'llih presented a vision of socionea). The total number of Bahb'is political reconstruction (Western ideas remained small, however (c.200,000), of constitutionalism; a new international and the majority - over 90 per cent world order), whilst 'Abdu'l-Bahi circuwere still Iranian. Nevertheless, the lated a proposal for the 'modernization' cultural adaptability of the Faith and of Iran (see SECRET OF DIVINE CIVILIZA- its potential to attract a wide diversity of TION), and MirzH ABU'L-FADL and others peoples had been vividly demonstrated, developed Bahi'i apologctics addressed and the basis for more global expansion specifically to the Jews, Christians and following the start of the TEN YEAR Zoroastrians. CRUSADE (1953) established. Correspondingly, when the newly emerged Bahi'i Faith began to expand The Faith in the West (from the 1860s), its 'target' population Of key importance in this transformawas much wider than that addressed by tion was the establishment of the Faith in the Bbbis. Most of the new Bahi'is were the West (from 1894; see below). still Iranian Muslims, but they were Although small numbers of non-Muslims joined by small numbers of S~inni had already become Bahi'is in the Muslims in the Ottoman empire and Middle East, they had done so in an Egypt; Jews and Zoroastrians in Iran; Islamic cultural environment, many of and Levantine Christians. There was the values of which they themselves also wider geographical expansion. The shared. By contrast, in the West, the Bibis had been confined to Iran and Bahi'i Faith was somcth~ngallen. A Iraq, but there were Bahi'is among the cultural gap had to be bridged if the Shi'i population of Russian Caucasia, Faith was going to gain followers. Iranian migrants in Russian Turkistan, Significantly, the pioneer Bahi'i teacher and Muslims and Zoroastrians in India in the United States was a recently and Burma. Small groups of Iranian converted Syrian Christian (Ibrahim Bahi'is also established themselves in K'IEIRALLA), who was able to express Iraq, Turkey, Lebanon and Egypt. his own version of the BahYi teachings By 1892, the year of BahP'u'llHh's in a way that appealed to Christian passing and 'Abdu'l-Bahi's accession to sentiment. Subsequently, the newly conleadership, a distinctive BahP'i religion verted American Bahb'is (followed by a had come into being. The total number smaller number of Europeans) played a of BahH'is by this date may have been in major rolc in reformulating the Bahi'i the region of 100,000 (Smith, 'Bibi and teachings in Western and Christian B a h 8 numbers'). terms: composing their own introductions

to the Faith (often quo'ting extensively from the Bible), and continuing to use Christian devotional styles (ArmstrongIngram, Music). In much of this they were supported by 'Abdu'l-Bahb, who took an active role in the process of reformulation: addressing Western religious and social concerns in BahP'i terms in his conversations with Western pilgrims, his letters to the Western Bahi'is, and his talks during his tours of Europe and North America in 1911-13. 'Abdu'lBahH's own personal presence and the enormous devotion he received from so many of his Western followers also acted to consolidate and dynamize the fledgling Western Bahfi communities. Initially, the identification (adamantly repudiated by 'Abdu'l-Bahi) that many early American Bahi'is made between 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Jesus Christ also acted as an important cultural 'bridge'. Administration and planning The other major changes linked to expansion were the twin developments of the system of Bahi'i A D M ~ I S T R A T I O N (begun in 1922) - elected spiritual ASSEMBLIES becoming the directive agencies for organized Bahi'i activities -and systematic planning (from 1937; see PLANS). Both of these were rooted in earlier periods of Bahi'i history, but were given fresh emphasis and form by Shoghi Effendi. The Western Bah%'is, particularly those of the United States, took the lead in both developments. Unlike the BahH'is of the Middle East they enjoyed conditions of religious freedom and material opportunity which enabled them to accomplish Shoghi Effendi's objectives with relative ease, although often also with much personal sacrifice. Shoghi Effendi's expansion plans called for an extension of Bahi'i TEACHING activities; the settlement of PIONEERS in those territories in which there were as yet no Bahi'is; the establishment of local and national assemblies; the acquisition

of properties (temple sites and administrative headquarters); the translation of Bahi'i literature into an increasing range of languages; and the gradual completion of the BahH'i House of Worship in Wilmette. Initially, the plans were assigned individually to each national spiritual assembly (eight by the late 1930s, eleven by 1951), aiming for the expansion of each community's 'home front' (in size and geographical extent) as well as following a strategy of global expansion: North American Bahi'is being required to establish the Faith in Latin America and the Caribbean (1937-53), and later in those areas of post-war Western Europe in which there were few or no Bahi'is (1946-53); those of India and Burma being directed to South-east Asia (1946-53); the Iranians to Afghanistan and the Arab world (1946-50); the Egyptians to Noah Africa (1949-53); and the British, in concert with all the above, to Africa (1951-3). The success of this collaborative inter-assembly 'Africa project' heralded the launching of the Ten Year Crusade (1953-63), which by the extent and magnitude of its accomplishments marked the beginning of a new stage in Bahi'i growth (see below). In terms of geographical diffusion and administrative expansion the results of the plans were impressive: in 1935 Bahi'is resided in 1,034 places in the world (139 with local spiritual assemblies); by 1952 these figures had risen to 2,425 and 611 respectively (SBBR 161). 1953 It is only from the 1950s onwards that the Bahi'i Faith has begun to fulfil the vision of its founders and become a world religion, albeit still small in scale. GLOBAL EXPANSION, FROM

(1) In absolute numbers, the total number of Bahi'is in the world has increased from 200,000 or so in the early 1950s to about 5 million by

expansion - .

the early 1990s. Again, whilst in the 1950s thc number of Bahi'is in most countries was minute (Iran and the USA being the only communities of substantial size), many national Bahi'i communities are now quite large, and in several places (notably some of the Pacific Island nations) they have come to form a significant component in the wider population. More generally, local Bahi'i communities have become more widely diffused, and in many areas strong local roots have been put down, the Bahi'is coming to form an integral part of the environing culture. (2) Thc social composition of many communities has also radically changcd: in 1950, most Bahi'is outside Iran, were drawn from the educated and middle classes, even in countries such as those of Latin America where such social groups were a tiny minority. Now the majority are drawn from the rural and, to a lesser cxtent, urban masscs in the 'Third World' (i.e. Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa and monsoon Asia). Even the North American Baha'i communities now comprise people from a much wider range of social backgrounds, including large numbers of ethnic minority group members. (3) The cultural diversity of thc Bahl'is is now much greater, in terms both of the number of ethnic groups represented within it and the range of cultural expressions of 'being Bahl'i'. There is no longcr the dominance of Iranian or Western cultural styles that characterized carlicr stages in the development of the Faith (for an example see Garlington on the 'Bahi'i Dhajans' of India). Large-scale enrolment This transformational expansion has reflected a fundamental shift in the focus of Bahi'i teaching work. Thus, whilst up

to the 1950s Bahilis commonly concentrated their attention on urban, educated audiences - often utilizing newspaper publicity and public meetings as a major part of their activities - in much of the world they have since adopted 'mass teaching' methods: learning to teach large numbers of often illiterate people directly, and making much greater use of music. Significant contacts with rural populations in several parts of the 'Third World' (Uganda, Bolivia, the Mentawai Islands of Indonesia and the Malwa area of India) began during the Ten Year Crusade, and have subsequently been expanded to many other countries, often with the same results: the influx of hundreds or even thousands of new Bahi'is. Although this sometimes places severe logistical strains on the local and national Bahi'i administrations involved, increasing experience has led to the use of more effcctive mcthods of integrating the new Bahi'is into the community and of deepening their knowledge and commitment to the Faith. The large-scale influx of ncw Bahi'is - often poorly educated, lacking in material means, and remote from thc main centres of population - has prompted the development of new means of communication within the Bahi'i communities involved (e.g. teaching institutes, Bahi'i RADIO stations) as well as increasing concern with I.ITI:RACY programmes, schooling, self-help rural development schemes, and the promotion of indigenous cultural activities (see

One major focus of these plans has been administrative expansion (see Table 1). There had already been substantial increase, but this was dramatically overshadowed by later developments: since 1 9 5 3 the number of localities h a s increased t o over 120,000, of local assemblies to over 17,000 and of national assemblies to 174. Community Developments Since 1953 certain aspects of change within the Bahi'i community have been increasingly emphasized, notably the establishment of Bahb'i SCHOOLS; the promotion of SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOP. MENT projects (particularly LITERACY and primary health care); and the enhanced . schools role of WOMEN and Y O ~ I The and development projects both indicate the increasingly well-established nature of particular Bahi'i communities and, as normally they are made available to non-Bahi'is as well as t o Bahi'is, have

an impact on the wider societies of which these communities form part. Although not designed as a means of propagating the Faith, they have often had that effect. The emphasis on the role of women has caused BahH'is t o think more deeply about the role of women in Bahi'i administration and community life (of major significance in those societies in which male domination is taken for granted); increased the number of those actively involved in Bahi'i teaching work; and promoted a stronger 'familialization' of Bahi'i communities, and hence more effective religious socialization of Bahi'i children (SBBR 92-3). The enhanced role of youth (from the 1960s onwards) gave young people, with their abundant energy and relative freedom from constraining social ties, a leading role in BahP'i activity, particularly the teaching work. It has also had a major impact on Bahi? cultural styles, as with the much greater emphasis now given to music in Western communities.

Table I: Adminishative expansion of the Bahi'i Faith 1928-95

1928 1935 1944 1953 1963 1977 1992 1995

NSAs

LSAs

9 10 7 12 56 123 165 174

102 135 482 670 4,437 17,415 20,435 17,148

LOCALITIES 579 1,034 1,880 2,700 14,437 77,451 120,046 121,058

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT).

Planning and administrative expansion Since 1953 Bahi'i expansion has been channelled by a series of global plans (Shoghi Effendi's Ten Year Crusade (1953-63), and the Nine (1964-73), Five (1974-9), Seven (1979-86), Six (1986-92), Three (1993-6), and Four (1996-2000) Year Plans directed by the Universal House of Justice).

Notes: The 1928 figure for LSAs includes 5 in Germany, undifferentiated in the 1928 directory but assumed to have existed at that time (see the 1930 directory, BW3: 218, 222), and 1 7 for Iran, which represents the total number of 'administrative divisions' rather than of LSAs, for which at that early stage of administrative development in the East figures are unobtainable. Sources: 1928 and 1935 figures calculated from BW2: 189-91 and RW6: 505-24; 194477 figures from Universal I-Iouse of Justice, Department of Statistics, memorandum, 15 May 1988; 1992 figures from Universal House of Justice, Six Year Plan, pp. 111, 114; 1995 figures from BWNS, 1995-6: 317.

1

f G U O O ~ CAREAS AL

1949

LSk

'~lit~~.pt~anbad

knn

Middle&sgsndNorthAbicn(d.knn) CemnlAsir,Cmcssus.edTiq

3or ( s 1 . o ~ 281 (47.1) n(3.7) l(0.2)

222 (37.2) 171 (28.n (2.01 f~~g~~.~ndsc WcemrlE~ 39 (6.5) ~ h c B n l l u n s , B n a r u n ~ ~ R ~0 (0.0)

IbcW NoahAmzica

u

lbl h h i l h hWiin ild ~

subs.huurh Latin America and tbc Csdbbwn ~outh~rir SeudlBucAsia Bpsr Ada

OcsnaiP WToorL

70 (11.7)

l(0.2) 35 (5.9) 2s (4.71 5 (0.8) 1 (03) 0 (0.0) 5%

1964

L0c~rm.s

n(33.8)

ISAS

1992

L~CM~BJ

66 (2.9) 2 (0.1)

594 (13.1) 530 (11.6) 52 (1.1) 12 (0.3)

I 11.1 1,503 (93) U6 (03) 40 (0.3)

1,352 (56.8) I* (52.5) 19 (0.8) 125 (5.4) 1 (0.0)

f37 (13.9) 414 (9.0) 39 (0.9) 182 (4.0) Z (0.0)

&9S9 (19.5)

709 (30.8)

171 (7.4) 8 (0.3) 70 (3.0) 69 (3.0) 7 (0'7) (0.3) 2 (0.1) 2300

=As 162 (0.8) 0 (0.0)~ 88 (0.4) 74 (0.4)

lac~ums 1,396 (1.2) 709 (0~6) 349 (0.3) 35%(0.3)

2,979 (14.6) 1,890 (93) zcs (1.2) 708 (3.5) l26 (0.6)

13,133 (10.8) 8,530 (7.1) 530 (0.4) 3,273 (2.7) 800 (0.7)

3,347 (79.1) 10,547 (695) 17,287 (84.6) 1,327 [29.0) 3,173 (209) 5,877 (28.8) 294 (6.4) 1,456 (9.6) 3,501 (17.1) r , l n (24.3) 4,651 (30.6) 5,676 (27.8) 543 (113) 905 (6.0) 1.426 (7.0) 29 (0.6) 126 (0.8) 193 (0.9) 43 (0.9) 236 (1.6) 614 (3.0) 4,578 15,185 20,428

105, 508 (87.9) 33.040 (27.5) 18,940 (15.8) 37,086 (30.91 21,671 (9.7) 1 9 7 (1.0) 3,564 (3.0) U0.037

2,044 (13.5) 176 (1.2) 726 (4.8) 13 (0.1)

NO& F~inppnndvsesnprrsentthe~geofduworldtotnl. in6titutiom in Iran wore disbanded by govemment ordu in 1983.

b -5

Saacar: W t c d h m BWl1: 519-74; B W l 4 1uC35; Usi*unlHome of Jmda, Deprurmcmof Smtiaico, 'Snda6ul Table, SiY Y w Pka Pied P~WW 20 April 1992'

~~

i

1

t

a b 60 per cent of localities and 37 per m of asscmblies wue in the West (mosdy the USA); and only 7 per cem of IocaIities and 12 per cent of nssunbk in the rest of the world Bv 1964 (after the complerion of the Ten year ~ n k a d e ) the situation had chwcd dramatic all^. Not only had t h e 'been a ma&d increase in the numbez of localities ( x 6.6) and werublies ( x 7.6), but the Islamic heanland and the West wen now wwhadowed by the B&i Third World' (with 70 per a n t of loralities and 73 per cent of asemblies, as compared with 11plr cent and 13 per antfortheblamicbeanlaadand 19per a n t and 14 per cent for the West ~~speccively). Widin this W d World', South Asia (mostly India) and s u b Satistan Africa stood out in paaidas (with mspectively 31 p u cent &d 21 per cenr of tk localities and 24 w cent and 29 pet cent of the amcmbli&). This 'Ihird World' dominance has condnucdto the pnsmt day, with 88 per centofthetotPlloealidesasd85wcent of the assemblies in 1992, as a6inst 11 u e cent ~ and 15 u e cent ~ for t kWest and

popnlaciom alro needs to b cons~&red. A gmenl measure of this is provided by the quotient for the number of local spiritual assemblies pu million poplzlation. Thus, in relation to r o d population figtms the g ~ r e s dmsity c of W ' i l d e s and assemblies in the world is in the Pacific, both 'Oceania' (76 a m blies per million) and the 'Anglo-Padc' (Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii, with 12 anwnblies per million). Tbis is Mowed by Africa (10); the Americas (7 for both North America and Latin b e r k a and the Caribbean); South Asii (4); South Fast Asia (2.4); and Western Europe (1.8). The Jslamic heactland; the Balkans and east em^ Europe; and East Asia all bave 6guns of less than 1per million. TAB 'ISLAMIC HEARTLAND* I~MI

The Bibis snweded in establishing a widespread network of adherents in Iran during the 1840s (Smith and Momeq 'Mbi movement'), the W b later building on that base, eventuaUy -thea~~nirhing-figweof1percentfor embarking on a systematic campaign to both in the Islamic heartland, this latter establish Bahi'i groups and assemblies drop being largely caused by the banning thmugbout the length and breadth of of W i insitutions in Iran. Africa and the country. During the late 19th Sourh Asia coo!hne to stand oxit as the century W'i convenions were gained regions with the greatest numbers of anmagst the Iranian Jewish and Zorlocalities (28 pet fern and 31 per cent) oastrian minorities (but s i g n i h d y andasmbJka (29peromtand28per not amongst the Christiansi Stiles; m ) , bU0wed by Latin America and che SBBR 93-6), thus decisively broadening the religious base of the BaY'i Caribbean, Snuh East Asia and No& America (eqmively 16 per oenr, 10 per commnnity. As the majority of Itanian &his cent and 7 per cent of lodties, and 17 p c r c e n t , 7 p a a n t a n d 9 p e r ~ c n t o f became BaM'is, the present Bahl'l assemblies). By contrast, the Pacific community has e&cdvdy ban in exis[Anglo-Pacilic and Oceania), Europe mafor 150 years. Duringthis period a and the d e s of the firmer Soviet distinctive sense of c o m m d identity Union, the Middle East, North Africa bas developed, supported by the depclandCentralAsin,andEaarAsinwall opment of a variety of BaWi d, educational and admhisuative bodies am0 with compamidy small nambern and by the tendof Innian W i s of assemMies and localities. This is only part of the picture, to mnrrg their M-religionists and the resultsat ' f i u n i t i o n ' of the Faith. howem The relative size of 'host'

Communal identity and a @emendous

INTZRNAPIONM ROLE The Iranian W ' i s have played a massive rob in the global enpansim of the Faith (up until the 1960s the q j o & dB&% in the wodd were hnians or of kanian odgin). The Ir& Bahs'i diaspora now reaches m PLmost every commy in the world, and a sipilkant proponion of these expatdates arc a&c Bahi'i pioneers. In ment years young Wesrernized Iranian profeesionals (donors, Engiaeus, ctc.) have come to play a very important role in the development of m y Third World W l comm&es. lranian B&% have also played a major pan in the imunatiod leadership of the Faith: of thirty-two Hands of the C a w appointed m offia by Shagbi Effendi in the 195% eleven were Iranians, S e v d Ofthcm OMIXeas pioneers; of the 4ixrrcn members of the U n i d Housc of Justice elected to date, five have been fianian. Again, the sad pewcution of Iranian BahH'is since 1979 has also had a global impact, gnining the Babh'is world-wide sympathy and the public support of many gwunmmts and organizations.

century. These groups were initially moady composed of Iranian Bm W g r C bow eve^ Them were few nnvuaions of Arabs, borh hecause most Arabs so S&, suspiaous of BaY'f's IrPllian Shi origins (though Sunni and Christian converts were gained in Egypt), and hecause of p e t s h cons a i n t s on %T misnionsry expansion, including cmemc caution on the paa of the B&% thematbes. It was not posribk for Wh to conduct an open campaign of ceding and pmdamarion of their Faith, or even always m defend themsdves oublidv am&. A , aePinst " modest progtamme of activity was mounted in Egypt and Iraq (with R a t i d nssunblies b E i i estsblished in 1924 and 1931 mpmtively), hut this sparked opposition fiom cowemtive Islamic &ups, leading to the seizute of BahH'u'Ws h o w in BAGHDAD (1922). andasignilicantlegalcaseini?,gypt,in which the BaM'is were nationally prodaimed m be unbeliwas (1925). Them was an increase in the spread andnumaicalbaseofM7sinthe Arab world during the 1940s as a result of pioneer m o w by lraninn BPhah to various Arab countria National assemblies wen established fmm the 1950s onwards, but W i s in the Arab world have also @enced a n w b r of major reverses, indudii a presidential banning order again% the BahYis in Egypt in 1960. Sinre then the BaWi Faith has been banned in several other Arab countries and M s imprisoned in Egypt, Iraq and, for a while, in M o m a , (1962). In sych cireumnaneer it is not possible for the BaWs m w a n i u public activities, although an Arabic-language W'i publishing mtst was established in Lebanon.

B e M a l e Ensf mrd North Afiw A network of W?gmup was e s a b Lisbed is Otrotnan laap,Sylia, Lebanon and Palestine, as wall as in EOYrr and (bridly) Sudan, during the la* 19th

CnmnI Asia, the Onruuuc ad W c y W ' i groups wue established in Turkey, and the provinces of Asiatic Russia adjoining kan during the lifGtimc of Wu'W.

sense of ~a&l

dedication on t h e w of the mosranive Bahi'ia has alro ban iweaad by the intmnmem ontbreaks of pusecution and ma~ytdomthat bave W e n the kanian Bahi'is throughout this period, reaching t k greatest intensity unda tbe p r e ~ l trevolutionary Islamic agiw ( h m 1979). The B&% now possibly coastimte a minority of between 0.5 and 1 per cent of the Iranian population (Smith, 'Ubf and B&'i number^')^ w h i i is probably a Iowa 6gm than in h e past (SBBR 175-8b

Tbe Mmmunirics of the Cawasus and Turkiat~nrapidly became wme of thelnostimponantcenasofm'i amivitp in the Baha'i world, and the

As-n

corninunity in particulax gMt prominola, # by its &ica as the first site for the construction of a Baha'i House of Wm ship. The W % of thest arras werc i n i u y mostly expatriate kanians or culturally &ted A m i %'I T i but with the greater religious freedoms i n i U y gained &the R d a n revolutions of 1917, oppomnities for clpansion beyond these gtoups increased dramatically. Ibe folmu crmrpl assemblies for Turklrtpn and the Caucasus (some of the d c s t Baha'i adminbttative institutions in the world) were also ras national d l i c r in 1925. As communist power was consolidated, however, &ctions on religious amivitizs wwr imposed, and the m'i commudtiea of Sovier Ada cmshed during the 1930s, only re-emerging durina the rrcenr puiod of l i k a b t i o n in the-soviet ~ n i &and the emergence of indewndent mublica A network of ~p61'iMMm"nitikhnsnowbsenesrablished throughout the region, and national asmblies formed in each of the republics (1992t4). The urly BPhar groups in nykey mmsinod largely of wpaaiate hlians, anditwssnotnmiltheestatllishmentof an independent Turkish nation out of the mins of the Omman empire that a genuinely T&h Bahh'i commanity alowly ddoped. Since World Warn: it has come to &1e the W'i commnnities of Europe, experiencing slow, Muislmt g~owthsinrr the 1950s. A national nsxmbly was f o n d in 1959, andT~nowbnsthegreaoannumkr of l d assemblii of any coumry in the Islamic heaIdand

*

I I

THS m T

Thc W d here includcr Europe, North Amu*p and the 'Angl*PacXid ( A w

&,

New Zealnnd and Hawaii). AU thesenrrasshaceaEurope~aCluMan inheritanc~thecul~andpodpland political i&tutiona of North America and the Ado-Pa& havim bcea largely shnpei by ~uro~ean-migrants. Exaluding Russia and the formerly Communistcountries of Eastam Europe, thue is a common pamm of Babar develapmmt throughout much of this area (although also signi6caatl differ cnoes is mspmsivcness: Smith, 'Baha'i Ppitb in the West').

No&

M

a

l l ~ emost imponant area of BUM? expansion in the West has always ban Nonh America, & United States in pnnkuln. M ' i expausion in the Wcst began in Amwica (in Chicago in 1894), and the initial rapid spread of the movcmcnt was at 6nn largdy umfined to the United States. Thus by 1900 then were some 1,500 American Bp61'ia pamrcdacrm 60I d t i e s in 25 states, and by 1916 the numhu of Bahh'ii was approaching 3,000. By contrast, although a n u m l of W'1 gtonpe were estahliahed in Canada and Europe durinEthisdcd.thp,rerMincdfewin num& and d . i n size. It was a h the American W'ii who laved the maior role in the eariy proddon of B &T literature in the WesQ initiated the mammoth projen of corsmcting a Baha'i mople (in the Chicago suburb of Whm); developed the e a t l i a Westun m ' i administrative bodies; and played the major role in the d y introduction of the Faith m other pam of rhc W e AU these activities became more ~ticdurlngthepaiodofshoghi Effendi's guardianship. Numerical expansion was slow (by 1947them were hliUonlyinthe~nof6veVeusand W'ia in North America as a whole, but susmined effort *d to the usation of a well-organized network of spiritual d e s , the CGmpIuim of the W b

of the Faith in N d Am&. The d i e s t gmups formed w m in Park and d l i s h the Faith thronehout Latin London, but by the time of 'Abdu'l~mcaca(from 1933,and consolidate W ' s visits to the condnent in 1911 it in ~ o a W o d dWar U Emwe. and 1913drue was a n m t k of W'is D;rieg the Ten Year &dt & r e in all Flu major European counuh as wesamarkcdin-intheMmbaof well as in s e d of the minor ones. W h to psrhap m d 19,000 fw Camany bPd beMw the major centre nd so & the whole ofNorth America by 1963, as for W'ia c r i d ~ ~ a remined w e l l a s ~ ~ t i n t c m a l d i f f u -the ~ p t i o n of s Wodd War 1 (1914gem the don and wodd-wide pioncmhgndivity. 18). Dkuing the inter-E m wore dramatic growth ocanrrd ~stublishmentof the INTEBNA~ONAL BAHAY Bvae~uin Geneva (1925) came dnting the Lare 1960s and early 197% with a large in8u of young people, and to provide an effEctive Iocus for coms u d 'mess teaEbing amongst the munication for European BaWis, and a tnral black population in the southnmnhr of visiting W % from No& enstern states of the USA. Conwoions Amuica (rg. h&b ROOT) mgodler of members of orher minoricy gmnps withthewodcofEampenn Bahb% led were also made. As a mult, the mtnl numbez of BahP'is incroaeed to an estimated 105,000 by 1973 and of &act@ sympathetic n o n - M h . 179,000 by 1988 (d6@ua cited in The ~ ~ n w r s i oofn the dowager Quem ~ o £ ~ p l s o O F C U ; f F d i n ~ Smith,'Baha'i Faith in the Wd). SiaoifLant mwrh in Canada beam M od, and d u ~ ewas &tion of Bahkl linratnre into many of the in the-194Os, &h the catablishmem&a senanre Canadian national axemblv in Europenn laoguagcs, M well as a con1648 [the Canadian and ~ m c r i & n sidunMc amount of original k m r e Bah&hhad Dbarrd a common national pmdurrd by m s in %rain, Frooce addidration sins 1909). 'Ihe com- and G=mw. munity was early di&&&ed by its The E u r o p n m'i situation hinclnsion of many Nadvc Am+. gedmarkdywiththerigcoftheN~ Outslde the conriguous USA, the Alas- and the subsequent outbreak of World kan (1957) and Hawaiian (1964) War J3 (1939-45). Th Oumnn W'i BnMh also formed their own separate community, thithithe the stnmges in national assemblies and i n a d their Eruopc, was d y pesea~ad,and forced to disband its adminimalive numbus. No& American BaMh have played institutions (1937),and BaM'i activities a maim role in thc intcmational leader- m m u d l o f E ~ a u n e m a h a h f o r t h e ship of the Faith;of tbkty-two W s of duntion of the wnr. The notable excpthe Cause appointed to of& by S h e don m this was Brim& wbichframthe E f t i d h w n 1951 and 1957, tbir- mid-1930s onwards becnme a maim teen wereNo& Amcdcrac, includiag c4naof Baha'i & i . three m pioneers. Of the sixteen AftutbewarmmtofEnmpe wasin members of the Universal Honse of mins. The cask of helping to re-establish Jusda, o*rm have been Amerioans, Bahi'i aaiviry was enrmmd m thc American BahPh under their Second andoneCanadian. Srscn Year Plan (1946-53). Meanwhile, Europe B h i n twBa diffmnt course and, fmm Bahk'i expansion in E u m p began the two-year Africa Plan (1951-3) witbin a few years of the establishment onwstds, h e inueasingly involved ette temple (fhrslly dtdicatal f a worship in 1953)iand the dispatch of picmmrs to

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with Baha'i exmnsion o d d @Euro~e. Strong but small BahB'i communi& w a e soon established in all of Wesmn Europe, but the mtaI numbu of Bahl'is d e e d small. As late as 1952 there wete still only about 1,400 -'is in the whole of Euro~e.and even bv 1963 there wcre fewer&& 5,000. NOictivity was d b l e in the Soviet Union or the commllOiZU1 states of Eastcm Europe and the BdJms. The 1960s also saw the dedication of the European H o w of Worship in Frankfun (1964). As in No& Am& the late 19608 and early 1970s saw an influx of youth, who often added a new dynamism to the vnrious BaM? communities. Compared to America the o v d growth remained small, however, the tom1 number of Bshlb by rhs late 1980s heiog in the region of 25,000. Of maior recent impomrice bas been them~lapseofcommhnismintheSoviet Union and most of Eamm Encow (1989-91). This has created conditions of unexpecred religious freedom which the Ball% as well as many other religious gmups have sought to utilize A special two-year plan (1990-2) was accordingly devised, and extensive expansion of the Faith in this d o n has talrm place so that, by 1992, there were a toral of 112 assunhlies and 757 localities in the forlna Eastern Bloc countries excluding the f o m East

MWiY

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The siae of the vacious Encopean W i c o d e s varies consi&rably, with the largest being Germany, Brirain, France, Ialy, Spain, and the recently established communities in Romania and Albania. Thur are now thirty-four national spiritual as~cmbliesin Europe. The oldoldcrt of these were those of the British Isles (the United Kingdom and Ireland) and Germany and Austria, both estsblishcd in 1923. National d l i i hgan to be formed in other Eumpenn muntrics h m the 1950s onwards (I%reen by 1962).

region. The New Zealand and Ausdian Bahi'io also initiated the international Bahil magazine Herald of the S w h in 1923. Two Hands wete +ad from the d o n i n the 1950s: Qan Lhm and Collisllishmwwowa, both in Australia. A BahBl H o w of Worshio was dcdicared in Sydney in 1961.

Dcs~itechJr limited numbers the ~ u r o & U ' i s have made a major attribution to rhc owall progrceg of the Faith. Early European W ' l s such as Hi~w1vtc . D~svausand 1.E Fssm ~omwrotewo*sof~i;spoto BaM'i literature. Between 1951 and 1957 six of the Hands appointed were Euroneans or rrJidauin Encone. Of the mcm'brrshipof the iira ~ n i v e &HOW l of Justice, two waeEumpeam (British). Many Europennpionecrshave played an imponant role in the expamion of the Faith in other parts of the world, particularly Africa. European Baha'i pnblishing and authorship is of major importance.

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The 'An&-Pacific' The expwion of the Faith into the Pa& with &ll@S ~ E U N D U I ' S D m to Hawaii in 1901. Tile h Baha'iswueestablishedinNewZenlaod and A d iv 1912 and 1920 remctively. The growth of the Faith all three territories was slow, and the numba of BahH'ii rcma&ed small: by theearly 1950sthere were 400 or so,and by 1963, in the rcglon of 1,000. Insritutied growth was also slow, and it was not until 1934 that a joint national assembly for Austda and New ZGalaod was formed. Separate nssemblia for the two countria wue established in 1957 and for Hawaii in 1964. A stcady inin Bahl'i numbers was achieved from the lare 1960s onwards - as m otha parts of the Wea m d e d by youth and by the lacs 1980sthere were wm 10,MM BaM% in the region. By 1992 there wue 255 local assemblies and BahlTs resided in 530 hditis. Although only few in number, rhe Bshils of the rhree territories have played an active role in the overall p m q a of the Faith. Pioorrring work by Haw& BsWis in J a w began as eady as 1914, and from the 1950s thae have bcen pioneus from all thm 'amuiea', pprticulnrlp within the Pacific

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amom mn 1950s Bahi'i expansion into non-Arab Africa was at first acremely limited. There wus Bawls in Southern dfdea from at l a m as euly as 19l2, but their &rs remained M& limited, b i t e the efforts of vadws W*nan -in, notaMy Fanny KNOBLOCH, who arrived in the rraiw in 1920, and Maaha Root, who visiad the area in the t920s. A &OR-livcd l m l d l y came into being in Pretoria (1922-311, but thereaft= oraanized Bahil nctihtiea ehtively & nntil the 1950s. A second early focus of activig was Abyssinia W o p i a ) where an Egyptian BahU pioneer, Sabri Elias, settled during the carly 1930s. Again the reJults appear to have been meagre, and it was not until the late 1940s that a local assembly was established in Addis Ababa. Elanahere these was no sustaincd endeavour to teach the Faith in Afcica, although a small n u m b of individunl B&"i came to live in variow parts of the continent Shoghi Effendi himself visited n o n - h b Africa twice: the &at time by himself in 1929, when he transversed the continent from Cape Town to Cab, and Q second when he made a somewhat similar journey with Ri&iyyih Khinum m 1940 (Rabbani, Pncclcu Pwl180-1). ~ p n l c rCMLPAION, 1951-3: The beginning of 8yaematic Bah6'i teaching work in Africa began with the 'Africa campaign' of 1951-3. Coming to involve thc British. American, Egyptian, THE

Persian and J n d h national assemblies, and cwrdinated by the British, the campaign was intended to lay the structural basis of the Bahi'i administration in the crmtinent The nsults far egfeeded the initial goals, and by 1953 there wm U'isin ninneen &ties of sub-Saharan Africa; rnwm new local assemblies had been formed; and &tiow into six b g e s had been made, with at least anorher eight in p m q w . Tile area of gteaast rrccptiviry was Uganda (with almost 300 Bahi'is drawn from twenty diMrenr tribal p u p s by early 1953), which Shoglu Effendid~tedasthe'hearrofthe continent, and aelected as the venue for the fLar ever African Teachkc Conference(February 1953), theficst&aintacondnwual BaM? conference. U d was also the residence of Africa; first Hand of the Cause, the Iranian pioneer Musa BANANI (1952). THE TEN YEAE CRUSADE,

1953-63:

Growth accelerated during the Cnwade,

and by 1963 thae were probably in excus of 50,000 Bah4'is in the continent, with W ' i s resident in 2,655 localities. some 1,076 of which had l m l assemblies; BaM'i literature had bcen translated into 94 African languager; and 348 Afcicao uibal gc~oups wen repmerited in the Faith (BW13:290, 463, 465-7). This was an im~rwsive achikemen' for cssentially w c l k years of LhH'i activity. . Simificantlv, doneas included newly wnverted A&& The Crusade also saw the formation of four large regional spiritual assemblies to cover the entire continent in 1956; the construction of the Bahs'i Houses of Worship at Kampala, the 'mother tunple of Afcica' (dedicated in January 1961); and the aewinmvnt of thm more .hands of t h y c a w in eta in October 1957: two No& American pioneers John R O B ~ Tand S William Smw anda Ugandan, Enoch OUNGA, the only native A£rican so honoured.

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onmoPMnms UNCE 1963: The ovuall pattern of development since 1963 has been one of impressive growth. Thus the total number of localities has increaxd from over 3,000 in 1964 to over 33,000 in 1992 and the number of local spiritual assemblies from 1,327 to 5,877. There has been considerable variation in the success of Bahl'i mdeavour as between d k n t countries, but large-scale cnroIments of new B&% have occurred in many areas. In many counuics the BahPi communities have a h been able to gain favourable public atcention and government recognition, a tendency suengchened by the increasing emohasis on sociocfonomic develonment projects. In a few cnuntrier, war and civil disorder have disrnnted Bah6'i activity. The number of national assemblies had increased to f i - f o u r in 1992, and considerable a&nisrrative contolidation achieved. The advan.%ment of women within the Baha'i a m mu& and the promotion of literacy have become increasingly imponant themes.

39-74), and Leonora Holsapple A ~ M . senled in B d in 1921, arrrscting sympathizers and mslabhg Bah&'i litcram. A number of Baha'is visited the region in the mid-19305, but it was only the first American Seven Year Plan (1937-44) that a sustained campaign of activity was launched, with pioneers dimacched to all the indeeenbent republies of Latin America (163941); an inter-America committee appointed to cwrdinate activities and an inter-America bull& produced to give news of activities. The resub were very encouraging, the Grst local assmbly of the Plan (Mexico City) b e i i formed in 1938, and by 1943 t h w were ninewen assunblirr in the whole region, and BaM'ii were livine in I&-seven localities in twenty-two countries and territories (BW9: 652-91. AU the independent Gnblics had d c n opened to the Faith, as also had Jamaica and Puem Rim. Many of the new groups were also extremely active, sending teachers to open new localities; organizing Bahi'i radio programmes; uanslating BahB'i writings (eventually including such heavyweight volumes as the D a m Breakers); publishing their own newsUP TO THE 19500: In his TABLE~S OP ma l m u s and pamphlets and holding chilDivim PLAN'Abdu'l-B& c d e d for dren's classes. Most teaching effort was North American Bahl'is to travel to directed towards the urban and eduLatin America and the Caribbean to cated population. The fiFa Latin Amer teach the Faith, emphasizing in p a d - ican B&? congress was subxquently Iar the impomnce of contacting the held in Panama (1945) with native Amerindian peoples and of visiting Bahi'is from ten of the countries in Bahia in Brazil (because of the resem- attendance. Expansion continued durina blance of its name to 'BaU'i') and the second Se&n Year Plan (1946-53); Panama (because of its location) (TDP and by 1953 BahPis were living in a 32-3,954). The initial response to this total of 124 localities in the region, was largely wn6ncd to the activities of 40 of which had local spiritual assemtwo women: Martha R o q who made a blies. Co-ordination of BaM? activities threemonth voyage in 1919, during was transferred from North to Latin which she visited seven Latin American American bands in 1947, with the countries, concarring nmpapers, pla- cnablishment of two regional teaching cing W i literature in libraries and committees (for Central and South English club, and giving talks to groups America respectively), and in 1951 these such as the Esperantists and Theosoph- were replaced by regional national ists (Garis 87-110; Ztaky and Baram spiritual assemblies. ~ O N G who ,

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THKTSNYEAECRUSADE,

1953-63: DtUhg

this period the regional assemblies were replaced by new national assemblies in all twenty independent states of the region (1961),with an additional assembly in Jamaica as a bonus. L a r g d e conwsions of Amerindians a h began, most dramatically in Bolivia (from 1956) where, by 1963, there were an and 98 assemestimated 8,000 -'is blies (BW13: 25869). A similar breakthrough occurred in Panama (from c.1961), and more limited convusions occurred in several other countries. Given the largely middle-class, educated Latino background of most of the early Latin AmW'is this was a major shifr in mmmunio membenhia Other achievements of the Plan in&ded the d e m e n t of W ' i s on several of the islands of the Caribbean, as well as on other islands such as Easter Island and the Falklands; the formation of assemblies in several Caribbean territories: the translation of BaM'i literature inio a number of Amerindian languages; the establishment of instimfe8 for the h e r indians of Bolivia and Ecuador; and the formation of BahPi publishing rrum in Bueuos M e s (Spanish) and Rio de Janeim (Portuguese). 1963: Since 1963 there has been a massive increase in the number of Baha'is in the region, such that there may now be in excess of 700,000, with 3,501 local assemblies establiicd by 1992, and B&'is residing in a h w t 19,000 localities. This growth rcpmmta the successful e n sion of 'mass teaching' probably to most territories of the region, involving bvth Amerindians and those of African and East Indian descent. National spiritual assemblies have also been established in the newly independent scares of the Caribbean; the firat Bak'i ccmple of Latin America consmuted in Panama (dedicated in 1972); and six BaM'i UDIO stations set up. Activity designed lUE RECENI P l u u O a PROM

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Ugrandon

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to foster indigenous culture bas also been emphasized, including holding W ' i conferences in Qushua for the Andean counties; usiw W i radio scations to l o c a i c u l d evento; and the dcvclo~mcmof the Guavmi culrural centre Panama. Given .the despised and disadvantaaed status of the ~'erican Indians in many counuies, this promotion has considerable sign& cance. <ural promotiw has also been used as a means of oroclaimioa the Faith regionally and internationally, as in the Inter-American 'Trail of Light', mvolving Amerindian -'is from all the Americas, and the folk-singing group 'El Viento Canta' ('The Wind Sings'). Rwiyy-ih Khhum's South American journey, 'The Green Light Ikpcdition' (1975), and the fim of it chat she produced have also had wide interntioual wverage, including a showing on Chinese television.

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S o d Asia South Asia c o n s h of the Indian subcontinent and its surrounding islands.

w TO 1960: A smaU number of Indian Muslims bbcame Bhbis, but there is no evidence chat the BLbi religion ever beame established in the subcontinent. Indian Bahi'i history e n s with the misoionary journeys of J & & P ~ D I in the 1870%A small number of convcm were gained, including Siyyid Mustafa RUMI.Other Bahi'i teachers followed, and by rhe early 1900s BaM? groups had been established in a number of towns, and some W?l i t e r a m p u b lished in Urdu and English. Most of the Bahi?s were h e r Muslims or ZOP oasuians, but there were also orhers, most prominently Ritam SINGH,a S i and ~ a r a ~ a n r aVoA K a , a high-caste Hindu. A national m'iteaching plan was launched in 1910, and in Gil a national teaching council formed to coordinate activities. The Grst All-India BaM'i Convention was held in Bombay

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in 1920. leadina to the fannation of a nnrionnls p ~ d l foryIndin and Bin 1923. The &st s u m sehool was held in 1938. b e was a h a sucwsbn of teaching plans (1938-531, and -1 litmature was anslated into a number of major Indian languagp. Although these activities served to incnar the number of -'Is, groups and assemblies, the total number of B&'isrrmainedd(kssthnn400 in India itself by 1961). The wrc of the community remained largely 'Pusiemte'; Hindu-backgmwl BalG'Is werc a minority; and the q l e of teaching was gumally 'UiW in aimtation (lcdun tours; contact with universities) and coflcentpnhd in wba4l aresS with little contact with the maas of the ~ppulatiou lmunatiod contributions induded the publication of the &st B&'I boob (in Paainn and Arabic) from the 1880s. and the dispatch of B&'I pioneers to SMn6 &st Asia from the 1940s. Separag national asscmblie~were f d in Pakistan (1957), India (1959), Burma (1959) and Sri Lanka (then Ceylon, 1962).

smca ~ 1 9 6 0 The : BahB'i nitustion in kulia chDnged drawtially in 1 9 6 M when, with the cncoungemem of &matu'llLh MuItbna, the fine swtained otaching campaigns wen mounted in lhdian vikes. hter adOPtM( ah in ~alrirranand -dcsh (~mongnthe non-Muslim minoriciesl, these led to lpge-scae inauxesof mainly pooq,rnrnl and often illiterate peoples, including many who came £ram a&duled cases and tribal gmups. As 'maas teach* was extended to m o n areas of the county, the n& of Babi'is steadily inereascdr by 1973 there were dose on and bv 1993 400.000 Indian B&%. I& had the largest B&? c-onitg in the world with more than 2 3 million members (living in mcr 30,W I d ities, some 3,674 of which had l o 4 assemblies). The mture of the -1

wmmunity was uaerly transformed: appmches to Pachiag nad P-LNG wur dcsigncd to cam for a largely illiterate audience (including the use of *is& aids and music and the establishment of 'tutoxial SCHOOL~'), and began to nfer to Hindu c u l d themes. Othu major developmenm indude the wnsuuuism of a W1House of Wonahip in New Delhi (@shed in 19861, which amnas thownnds of averseas visitors every day (appawntly morc tban the Tni Mahal); and the development of -a NAL ('State') BAHASI c o u ~ c n s(from 1986) to dcvolve Bahl'i a h i n h a d v e wo~kin a country of enormous sizt and c u l d complahy. National d l i e s wur esabliahd in Sikim (1967-92), Nepal (19n), Bangladesh [1972), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islandn (1984). (See oloo INDIAN R~LIGIONS.) South Eqt Asirr

vr TO wow, wan 11: B&1 expansion into SwthEut Asia begnn in 1878 with the visit of J d I Effmdi and Siyyid Mustafa Rumi to Burma. Going &st to Rangoon and lam w Mandalay, they aught the Faith qniedy amongst rhe Muslim Pading community, itself h@1y of Indian origin. Tbe response was facgrcamthaoinIndin,andafcuIwo yausmorcchan200newBehs%had b&e convmed. Rumi lam settled in Raagoon and was immmmral in the maas conversion of the villa~enof ~aidanaw+ He also kamt B& and vublirhed the &st Burmese-lma~e &'I bo& (6.2907) a8 well as &tiow of B E ~ &scripture. ? A strong &Irmese B&Y commmky came into being, and by the 1930s rhcr.m e faut I d spidtunl assemblies. Ekewhere in South East A& l a d and Rumi also visited s i p & Pnd a number of the islands of what wa8 thm the Dutch Eaat Iudiw (now Indo&), pining converts amomat the native elite of Snlawcsi ~ u m i - a hvisited Penang on the Malay

Peninsula. In the absence of fur& visits thex efforts did not by W I tea* lead to the formadon of wrmanem -'I groups. Even by the i930s there were only a few isolnted individual B&% l i > i in the oshu countries of the region.

fi l k B

m B&'I community was seuedy dimpted by the chaotic Umditior!a h t w e d during World War U, and Rumi was m d u e d (1942). With help from thc Indian W i s a M y rapid rororrrg was made nhp. the was howew, with local assemblies b e i i A r m e d and B&'i activities reawned Sigr&cant expansion began in the Ten Year Dusade (1952-63), the total n& of aswmhlies m 1964 m c b g eleven, and of localities, twenty-si-r. A national spiritual ~mwmhlywas established in 1959. Sustained B n M activity ako now begnn in the rest of South East &a, vtih the Rourand-a-Half Year Plan of (1946-50) and the the Indian B&% setdement of pioneers in S i p o r c , Indonesia and Thailand. Pmgres was zit &st slow, but during the Ten Year Crusade increasing endeavour, supponed by the arrival of more pioneers, saw the beginning of sustained gmwtb. Expusion into the remaining countries of the region was ah started. Thc rrsults were gmerally impressive, espc dally in V i m m (195 local spkitual asmblics by 1964), the Philippines (150), Malaysia (97) and Indonesia (63). in all of which there were lamescale enrolments of new B a ~ s . - h several ~ C C itPis of note that the new B&'is included m e d m of the various 'aborieinal' oeo~lesof the region, as amo& the ibai of Sarawak and the Mcutawai idandm of Indonesia. A regional s p u d assembly was formed in 1957, most of the component counniu establishingtheir o m national assemblies in 1964. Since 1964 the SNcsWORI.DWAR

BalG'I communities of the region have undergone a diwrdty of urpdences, restrictions on -ous activities being i n d u c e d in s o w countries, but with more or less oustained urpansion elsewhere. Enst Asia history of E m Asia kgan with the settlement of Iranian BahB'i merchants in Shanghai, the earliw in the 1860s, hut there sams to have been little sustained -6% activity in the region until 1914, with the rrrival of Hawaiian Bahl'i pionsers in Japan (George A u ~ mand Agnea U r n ) and of more LPnian -'is in Shanghai (notably Husap Uskuli (d. 1956) and his family). International teachers induded Manha Root, who visited the region fom times in the 1920s and 1930e, spcakii extensively in univaoities and collgeq and meeting dignitaries. Some cmineut people became BalGC ' LII - notably Dr Y.S. -0, the prcaident of Tsing Hua (Xlnhua) University and translations of BahH'I literature war made, but the overall m p o m to these effm was wtmmely meagre. Very few Chinese or Japanese became BaU'is, and by 1933there were only two local spirimal assemblies [both in Japan) and eight localities where Bab&"~resided in the whole region. T h d e r a prolonged period of war£are, devastation and intmal political strnggles made any BahB'I activities difkdt. -'I activities in Japan mumed afm the end of World Wat I1 in 1945, and were aided by the arrival of American and IrPninn B&'Is, Activities in South Kom and Taiwan began in the 1950s. Given the strong anti-digious policies adopted in the new communist states, thae wen no Bah6'I activities in Mongolia or rhe Pwple's Republic of China until the 1990s. Dramatic political changes in Mongolia coincided with themdanentofthehtBaU'iinthe

The -'I

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country in 1988, and thaw has since been some modest gmwth. In Chiua meanwhile there has been some liberalization of of6ciaI policies regarding religion and there are now a small uumbtr of Ba&'ii, but no formal Babi'i ocganhtion. As far as is known, No& Korea &the only country in the world (spur fkom the VWatiean)in wbicb there ure no W 7 g A regional spiritid assembly for Noxth East Asia was formod in 1957, based in Japan, and sqmate assemblies fox Korea, Taiwan, Hong KO% japan, Macnu and Mongolia have since been formed. The numkr of Wls in the region rmuins

d. Ocannio There were a few BaM'i rmlers and visitors m the region during the 19u)s aad 19300 (notably in Tahiti) but, excluding tbe 'Anglo-Pacific' (see above), wstPined and s ~ . BPhHl c a & i n A ~ & ~ d n c h g thrl950p. m d v in connectionwith the (1953-63), during Tm Y& &de which BaW p i o m senled in many of the island groups. OveraU progress was at &st slow, with the exception of the Gilbat Islands Wkibsti), but by 1964 thaw were forty-three Lacal spidtud d l i e o in the whole region. A & regional assembly of the %I& P was d W in 1959. Tcanslptinur of W ' i literame into s a d local languages were made during this early pcricd. In some islands oppwition from the & b d churches was mcnmtend, sometimes amwdnp w a d persemion of newly dadared %*i. Riendlmess hy whire pioneus towards

the hdigcnous population dso attracted the oppaai€kbl of colonial aurhOIitie4 in some tuaaaccs. J i m 1963 there has bem a d e d imrrsg in the uant and success of W ' i apivities throughout m w d the region. L q c nnmhrs of convuts have been gained, such that r signi6cant proportion of rhc popularion of some island groups is now W'i (above 5 per cent in several island groups, and perhaps almost 20 per a t in Wbati), The W'i# gcnudy now enjoy good relations with dY various govemmcncs and churches of the mgim By 1992 Q total umber of I& in which W% midad in the region was over 3500, of which 614 had local asaemblia. Fourteen national assnmblia had

public obedience and 'unconscious obcf6diI (Fazsl) M&xandariuri, Mirz6 Aradu'llLh 01880-1957) dience m the will of God', only rarely does it conni~tethat 'disaming faith' B ~ i . i dohand On a me of teacher. 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi both him with impop comprehension of his words (%h6'1 World Fa# 364, 382). Faith is only ant -w iduding to hq, N ~ ~ andh&, A ~ H~& prrpand ~ a possible when compatible with RWON voluminous history of the BHbI and (PUP 181). W ' i relieions IZuhiirrr'l-Hmu. 'The

Lmw

b64fonned.Therearcdwanmnberof schooh in the &on as well as

B&'i

numerous socio-sonomic development pmiecrs. Ocher developmats of note include the conversion of Mplictoa TANUWRLI Il (19681, thc h d of state of Weaem Samoaj and the consmaion of the firsr Mrrrhriqu'l-A&& in the region at Apia in Wetem Samoa (dedicated in 1984).

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pa of which has ever beon published Fouowing OV and a five-volume didonary of the two Iranian -dies at the American UnivMitp in religions ( ~ a d n r ~ ~ ~ f iHC d,A ). on the B&T -,,blies of lrpn and &i"V, he aught Bahs'I children in the Tehran. 8WlA 3%.

MJ 174-3.

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ad.wh*-mMu*.ana aaS aFn;H d l w Markon; M. ' M mW T ~ n u + / ; h \ h n d n ~ l . ~ lhlllp Jnsh; Slond*bnann; w&m; ~ . ~ ~ , h n a d R % & mq -a 'W. @ *t Fa* In Nl@d: WISz4 Culo: U n g m '%dm bhopd: '8daT -78da1 hi+*;

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For W ' u ' W the 'm' of faith was 'fewnes of words and abundana of deeds' ITB 156). True belief' in God rquiras acceptance and observance of whatever he has revealed, whilst steadfastness in God's C a w rests upon faith that 7-k . ~ dmth whacsuever He will&'. Le. a complete acceptance of God's authority as revealed thmugh the Mmm m o ov~ G ~ D Ultimately . no one can M o m 'Q manifold exigen& of God's comumnatc wisdom'. Thus if the Madesation waw m pmnomce earth

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wbehcaventhmnoombastherightm question his authority (TB 50-1). 'Abdu.l-Bab6 both faith and taught !umvMge that the Do SOUL acqneeds urie

Abdl-QdsimIh*(,p i o m m L i a ~ t e n c b n

divine pcdeaioua Faith can email both

in Arabia and later Hand of rha Cunsa

villege of NajPMW Pfm the dosvre of their d o n l by the govanmat autho dties (19308).In 1939he married G l o b ' M Y . In 1941, the couple moved m Imq, and in the foUowing year to Bahrain as Ball5 PIONEERS. Shoghi Effendi desiguated Poizi as ' s p W conquaor' of Arabia, and appornted him a Hand of the Caw in October 1957. After Shoghi Effendi's death Fnizl g e d y w e d as d a m r bnwm the Mand Eoglish-apdhg HDnds and was one of fhQBe chosen to mmain in Haifa as one of the Cusronm ofthe Faith. Afru the election of the U n i v d H o w of Justice i m 1963 he mv*Ld 4 v d y . visiting W'i communities. He dso published a numbec of essays and translations m both Pusian and Er!&sh swrr65(Wiw42e43.

family life The B U i rcachings emphasize the importance and sanctity of Mnralhca and family life. Bahh'u'UPh tau& that p-rs sh'ould raise thcL child& to k nlimous lbut not fanaticall. God fear& a n d moral; and praised barwxhood (both natural and adoptive), equating raising on& own son or the son of anothuwithraioingoneofhisownm (TB 128). The father is ppMsibie for enswing that both bis daaghtccs and sons. become literate and learn abont the BaWi teaching6 (me ~ U C A ~ O N chil). dren have a dun, to obey their parem. Such service is equated with obeying God, and takes pnadcsce over sesvice to Bah&'u3Uh. 'kbdu'l-Bah6 arrsscd the impoapnce of love, unity and CONSuLTAlYON bcnueen family m&S; wtcd that each memhr had his or her rigbts and pmmgatiw which should be nspectd called on -7s to make thdr homes centres 'for the diffusion of the iiphtqfdivirtcguidance' (CCI: 392); and equated a mother's education of her child with worship, d n g her as the child's &st teacher, who normally aeta

thepammofimmorOland&ionslife (CCZ: 2864). Shcgbi Effendi connd e d W ' i s to balance dKi desire to m e the Faith with their nsponsibC itics towards their ~ m ms w , l a ~ gand children, if neceisary liiting their W'i activities so as to m m e family unity, This is paniculariy i m p o m ih those cases where the ww is not a W ' j . H e also deplored the weakening of p a d control and the r i s i i tide of divorce in American sodiq, seeing them as evidences of m o d laxity and Lnsponsibiity (PDC 119). The Udd Hcmse of Justice has n o d tbat whilst the BaM'i tencbings mp6sJiw gender equality (see w o w ) , this docs not imply identity of function within the family the thwnmnm of individd W e s vary greatly, but in general a mother bas the primary obligation to nunwe her child and n forreponding right to receive material support from her husband. The husband in turn would normdb be considered the 'head' of the family, although this implies no ovemidiq authority or right of domination. AU form of family injustice and violence are to he condemned. GI:sW416. There was extensive W ' i activity as pert of the United Nations Inaraat i 4 Y w ofthe Family (1994). ilvdudine a svmoosi~m on violence-free

Farmer, Sarah (1347-1916)

Early Ibmaican Baha'i of New Eagknd Transcendentalist background. In 1894 she was the driving force in the enablishmmt of the Gnem A m conference centre at Eliot, Maine. She bcuune a BnbP'i in 1900. She suffered from bouts of ill-health which later led to her b e i i con6nedinamentalasylum.Hermental

aprr beume the focns of a bimt 142-6; Mdn, Ub ad ClIStdy bad?.

by &dock. K * P W ~ I O , ~ I I , M ~ ~ ~ , I I ~ 118 q36,lW-8 +'1,129 +'5-5,ISl fl,,-I

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171 014. 1767 nl3-5, IW "30-2, E25 nl98i 10 'm-6.

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fartima

The BAb o d d n d a nhretere-day fast for his follwem duting the %hi month of 'A&'. In the Kitrfbi-AQDS W u ' W orm&md boththe fastandthecalendaq &dug the month 06 fasting as in~mrsdiatebetrmre4theink4arydaysandthe newfetid of &wIIR6z, i r nor-

mnUy2-20~r)miog&momth Baha'is between the sgcs ofand m v e n t y ~ ~ ~ t o f

Eoh 'Abdn'l-W taught that human beings should both rely on God's d l and at tbe same time cake all wise pnuudoas against ad~ersicy (PUP 46-8; SAQ 244). Such find eventualities as death muld not bc avoided, and should be acccptedasanaturalpartofmistenrr, but the iudividud should seek protee tion n n from , ~ the cdamitics of human wdstence if possible. S W Effendi commented that whiln illness and povmy might be imocpble, they d d o h be avoided. No one knows what theii hltM holaa, or to what d e w they are spoiling or onatiDg i t Oas should do one's daily best and l a the furum take care of its& (LC515 no. l7+, 516 no. 1750). hgnin, God's d is not mgadcd as immutable (sasB&), and whilst raomscv reflects divine fo&owledge it docs not CPW LhD eveors it foreabadows, any more than asrronomic calculations c a w a predicted (SAQ 138-9)-

hfw4drinkandsmDJdngbetwem sunrise and sunset Eampzions are gwt€dtodksiclqprrgbndtandmensutlatinn womca, auraiw, studms and those wko areinheavy labusor aretcaveuk'Ihe&onfortlarmtnlIers is d&d as cove& joumeps of n i n e h o u ~ o r r n o n(ortwobouts by foot), and to indude a pdod of nst if away h m home. 'Ibaoe who are.txcased from fasing on m u n t of their work am encouraged to eat frogally and in pdvsa to show respect fot the fiwr. If those W'i HOLY DAY3 Chat Wac -ed k the lunar calendar during the fasc,rhealaaingisnoto~qon drose&ys.Thosewhowi&tomake fear religious vows to fast during additional Lb&%&odd k God-fearing (saa m a periods of time outside the mend, of OF GOD), but should secL not to be W n g (a Muslim and Wi praciicc) catl overwhelmed by d y fears. TO overdo so,but they arc advised rhar vows tbat come their own fears they should d y bcn& ma&d are better in the sight of llponOodforguikandhelp,tmtin T with o@rory )urn, Him, and save the Faith. This will give God & tkfastis~~ofthepillamofdivine~w,them gram strength. They should tum &w& the bJievCI dose1 tQ Cob It away from ideas that weaken the soul, inmded to be a puiod of mdhtion and suchasfcaroffuturc~andofdeath. prayer, during which the individual No one Bows whpr the futurc holds in P b n a i n s f r o m ~ d c d r r a n d s a k s t o their present life, but faith in an afrrrlife m r i e a h i s o r h m l i f e t o n i n ~ t h e lcsgens Iear. LGU68. inna spirinul b m of the sod. Fasting is an individual spiritunloMisat;on and fear of God &itdons responsibility, a d ~&'i have no right to &IOC it. In high Wu'llBh taught thar the fear of God l a t i n r d e s t h e t i m * i f O r ~ ~ Wis the main dnurent against human

wrongdoing and hence a protection for humanldad. Ody a minority of people posses an inner agency a sense of which deters them from shame wrongdoing (TB 63). Fear of punishment leads to outward conformity to the law, but the fear of God also leads to inward observance (TB 93). It encompasses all things and tends to praiseworthy behaviour (TB126).Children should be taught to he Godleating. We should fear God because he is just and we are &&id: though God's m a y exceeds his justice, we should still fear his righteons anger at o m wrongdoing. Few can be disciplined by love alone (LG 236-8). (See d s o

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REWARD ANO PUMSRMENT.)

feart, nineteen day (h&ydfatAIcrn,asdab-&h) .:

The BPb h m c t e d his followers to offer hospitality once in ninereen days, and BaM'u'Lllh contirmed this practice in the Kitib-~AQDAS. The purpose was to 'bind hearts togerher' through both material and heavenly means. The feast itself might be simple even consisting of only the serving of water. It was not obligatory. 'Abdu'l-Ball developed &IS feast into a communal institution at which as a regular monthly meethe B&'is came together to pray and eat together. For W a r n Wi of Christian background, the analogy with the Lord's Supper was explicitly made. The present format of the feast was established by Shoghi Effendi, who introduced consultation betwecn the local Bahl'i community and its spiritual MSEMBLY as an additional dement. The feast should thus consist of three distinct sections: an initial devotional, mainly consisting of prayers and othv writings from Bahl'u'UHh, 'Abdu'lBah& and thc Mb; an administrative period for community consultation and reports from the assembly; and a fural social section with fellowship between

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the BahaBahaw. Music is also permitted The feast should be held on the &st day of each Bahh'i month if possible, and all BaM'is a n encouraged to attend To ensure freedom of discussion during the consultative portion of the feast, only recognized BahH'is may attend. The local asmmbly of the area is responsible for nnarrging the feast K* 40 157, 121 prl8.202 "82; 1023945; Wok&*. Sad20611.

Featherstone, (Howard) Coilis (1913-90) Australian HMm OP ma CAUSE. An engineer and businessman from the Adelaide area, Collis and his wife, Madge, b e Bahk'is in 1944, their home becoming a centre for B&'i activity. He served on the Australian national spiritual ASSEMSLY from 1949 until 1962, ofno as its chairman, and in 1954 was appoinad as one of two AUXURYBOARDmembers for AusrraIasia. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause by Shogbi E h d i in October 1957, subsequently travelling extensively to encourage BaM'i activity, particularly in the Paciiic region and parts of Asia. He died in Kadunaadu during avisirto the -3 of Nepal (14 %ptCmber1990). H ~ p-8r. Ferraby, John (1914-73) British HAND or THE CAUSEof Liberal Jewish badigtound. He became a Babd'i in 1941, and in 1946 was elected as gccmary of the British national spiritVal ASSRMSLY, remaining in that position until he moved to Haifa in 1959. In 1957 be published what remnios one of the most comprehensive innoduaory books on BabP'i, AN Things Made New. In Ocmber of the same year Shoghi Effendi a p p i n t d him as a Hand of the Cause. Hc saved as one of the sustodial Hands at the BabU World C e n a from 1959 mril1963. swra 51tI2;hURY.

finances, BahL'i Sac PWS; ~ I u Q ~ Q u - ~ A H UKAT. ;

great authority, implying perhaps a station greater than that of a Suii teacher. sv w:MI: 104: WIhk!p# Sad

fireside Informal meeting for the purpose of TBACHlNG enquirers about the BaM'i Faith. It is commonly held in an mdividd's bayx on a regular basis. Shoghi Effmdi encouraged all B&% to bold such a meeting at lea* once in every -3 month (i.r every nineteen days), and regarded this method of reaching to h fa^ more effcmve in gaining ntm B?ha% tban advertising and public lectures. The term '&side' in this context appears to be of Amican origin. LGw-9.

157-8.

Fozdar, Shirin (1905-92) Indian -7 of Iranian Zo&n background who achieved promimnce as an advocate of women's ri&ts and as a promoter of thc W'i Faith in South East Asia. She bKsM a membu d thc mcutive cornminee of the All-Asian Women's C o n h n c e in the cady 19309 and repmmted chis M y at the League of Nations to press for a Universal Declaration of Women$ Riehts. In 1936 she became the &st w o m elected ~ on to the Indian -7 national ASSEMBLY. In 1940 she and her husband, Dt Forel, Augusf (1848-1931) Swiss psychiatrist, entomolopist and K.M. F d a r ( d 1958), the firex W'i social reformer who became a Bawl in of nativc Parsi Indian b&groun& went 1921. A l n a r to 'Abdn'l-Bah6 a s k ' i as W'i PIONIIBRS to S i p o r e . She how he d d combincBa69'i bclicfwith established the S i p o r e Council of his own a g n d and monist philm- Women of which she became seoetarypbical position &tal the Tabled ro Dr general. She was active in promoting Pm1, in which 'Abdu'l-W discussed B&'i in other parts of South East Asia, notably Thailand where she lived from thebeofofandthcspirid u a t u r e o f h u m a n b e i o g r . ~ ~ ; 1961 ~ m 1971. BW13: 892-3; Chw, *Sincwd-. Four Valleys (Pea Chahdr V W ) Shon mystical work by BahP'u'lKh composed in Baghdad some time after his return from K d r a n (1856).It is addread to Shy!& 'Abdu'r-l%dmAn TPlabAni of Kirk& leader of thc Kurdish Qidiri Sufi, with whom Bahi'u'llPh had been in cktzxt in Sulaymhiyya (GPB U2).It describes four 'stations' the mysticmight attain in relationship to God, each w~n?spondingto a pyrtular aspectofthedipine:'rhcsetfthatiswell pleasii to Gcd'; attainment of the uue m d p r d of knowledge; seeing the isau realiq of the divine; and 'the realm of full awareness [and] umr self-effacem a d , which is 'free of all the attributes of [the] earth'. M ' u ' W wtim with

Franr-Joseph (1830-1916) Hapsburg emperor of Austria-Hungary, 1848-1916. B&'u'W addressed him in the Khib-i-AQrolls, reproving him for not baving enqnircd about BaM'u'lkb duting a visit the emperor had made rn Jerusalem in 1869. BahH'u'lKh stated that he was with the emperor 'at all times', and appealed to him to open his q e s so that he would see the promised one. Shoghi Effendi noted the rep& tragedies of his reign, and implied that the eventual collapse of the empire at the end of World War I represented a consequence of the emperor's f a i l n ~to~ heed Baha'n'lKP summons. K*SW 1615, 216nl16 PCCSILM.

I

I

hw will

160

flu. will 'Abdu'l-Bahs tanght that buman b h g s havc free will. Thcy can choose commit good or evil actions, to be just or unjust, m praise God, pmaise philanthropy, ctc. They ace rsponsible for their mom1 actions. On the other hand, they are not responsible for those aspects of their lives over which tbey have no control, such as unavoidable illncs or misfortune. Thcy alno have to d m such inwirabilities of human &ace as deep and death. Under all arcumsrpnces, they are dependent upon God. (Sce also e m . ) s . 4 ~ ~ .

The flow of concribmiom ceprc)suted the 'life-blood' of these institdins. All Bnh448 m encotuad to snppmt the timds ' W y and owl+. andin a 8oiritd cawilia. T b is a &I& of spirit& blessings. Givicg is a means whrchy indidduab can test the udmt of their own devotion and spiritUPl~.Thueikm1Ldit;itisthe trcawrrt.

Although the Mb &d to donadonu being made m h i m d and to the h m u e H E WHOM GO0 SHALL U A U W I T (Walbddgc, Sllcrd 95-6),00 organized funding system ever seems to have M o p e d am* the M k . By contrast, &h&'u'UPb noted that 'the progrm and promotion of the causeof God depend on m a t e d means' (CCI: 4891, and d e d upon his Mowers volunradly to comribu~ea apcci6ed proportion of their wealth. This was the Hun$ QWLAH (enablished c.1873, implcmcnted 1878). He Bbo refmed to the future caablishment of an alms-tax (ZAKAT). The Vi@q was payable at first m Bah@u'Ikh, and later m his mccmors O r r o r a r u r s t a a s m a n a n d ~ u n d u a8 centres of the Faith, and was used for Sultan A a n u m . He was grand vizier such plupDsa as the support of Barn almost continuously fmm 1861 until teschcrs. Its payment remained largely 1866 and also at v&ous rimes fo confined to Middle Esspm BnbB'is uodl minisru He w o h d c l d y with 1992. h addition m thc ff&, early P ~ ABabl'u'lkh . m d e d him as shar- -'is also made g i b to W u ' W ing responsibility for the exile of the and later m 'Abdul-Bah&& and expended Bshi'is from Edirne to Akka, and resources on panifular pmjecm which rebuked him in the Lnwb-i- PuYd, they considered important, snch as the written shortly after Fuat's death, stating building of l d Bahl'i rmtres and the t h his life had been taken by God, ASHKHABAD temple (MASHR~QU,L. whose wrath he now f'aced. The tabla rn~nAn).The eady Wesrun BahH'is also prophesied the imminent downfall did not pay Hug*q, but they followed of hi Pap and-Abdulaziz; the s u b - the example of their Middle E s m coquent death of Ali (1871) followed by religioninr in making donations and the sultan's deposition and probable supporting I d projects such as pubmurder (1876) being regarded by lishing and the planned temple near B W s as a vivid example of DIVINE Chicago (mBAHNTWLEUNITY).

%

JlJDGBMENT. RE? 874.

LOCU AND NATIOUU W N D S

funds The activities of the Bahl'i Faith ate 6umced by the volumary contributions of Wb. No solidtation of comributions ia allowed other than general appeals for donations. Only donations &om Bah&%are accepted fo~ support of the propagation work of the Faith, but ourside assistma is allowed in funding charitable and sooro-ECONOMIC OEVEL. O P projects. ~

161

The overall system of funding was regularkd by Shoghi Effendi. In 1923 he b e d that all local and national Assemues should establish their own funds. These would he under their exclusive control, and should be orpended as they saw fit m promote the interestF of the Faith (e.& for TEAMING campaigns; help for the needy; eouc~now).Thc fonds would be administered by the assemblies' elected

'M pvrki&onM1 in gi* pm pared g u i d c b for o r a e ~ s u r r r aand study moterials on Tmsraommrss; and direcad that d l i e s adopt proper mensurrs of auditing aad upendimn cOIlUOl. 1 G Y P d S ; W 10 n a 2 1 1 . W n a 13. bS(c? na 419.6769 m. 43s.

OTHER PUNDS

extu~toftheeacrifiancttheaaual Shoghi F&ndi d c s i i t e d the monies amonnt that is imporrant They s h d d undcr his conaol as head of the Faith as b4 ' u n M $ thoughts of pouety' the Intanntionnl Fund. This was used and reliant on W s bouatg, hut Bbo for the innmntiod profects of the wisc and not inau bbts or -use Faith, including the programme of hdfe+ tb others in order m donate. L d wcmblia M w d as individuals

building and land acquisition at the BnMt W o w C~NTRI* international should support thdr respective d i o d C O N ~ C P S and , the subsidy of activfunds Ail donations should be UIWY ities and property aoqni&iC.ns in poorer of rhe BPhi'i wodd. Individuals v o I i i , and w 6ne dm& @q Ik *.wpnas~ ~, ,~ : . d &m:.giving. and local and n a n d &lies were If& .&J, baspr* all mconiaged to contribute m it. h dual sliould LUbwihe dicui~~l of his or 1954 he insti& five continental h d s ha om ~onscience.They arr he m SUppofi the work of the It\NDS OPTHE mnke theiI ,connibutiC.ns a n o n ~ m o ~CAUSE ~ and the newly established Amormdveamceiptfxomtheapsura IUARY ~ A R D (MBW S 59,63). Under the They ace also he m earmark donations Univasal H o w of Justiec the demands for ipecihpn-. ~ o n for h phihnon the internatianaifund have incrcascd thropic and srrictly aabh'i Pdminigrs- enormodv (almost doubled from 1963 tive and naching purposes should be m 1967 ;lone), both bsawie of the differcntiatcd, with only -7s being inawing range of activities and proPUowed m contribute to the lam (those jeers at the World Cmhe and the ANBnhB'is who havc been deprived of their SION of B&l communities in poorer countries which needed subsidy. W hoLuMSrUnvEatom WCIC not allowed the 'bounty' of contcibuting to the local and national commonitks have funds). The monies available m W'ls bee0 urged m b m e self-supporxbg. m limited in extent, and the bemblies but this is evidently all but impossible in shnuld cnsm that the funds under their some poorer coumcies. A number of conml arc atpended wisely and care- crises have thueforc developed, the fully. Heavy budgets should not be most serious in the wake of the lslamic impxed on weak &hi? eommonities. molution in h (1979), when the CCI:S2%50. & i of the Iranian W h m m u Since 1963 the Universal H o w of nity drastically reduced what had Justice has 4 . 4 various mamn of hitherto bea the major source of interdetail regarding fond-mising and disbur uational funding. Nevertheless, these semcnt (e.g. d n g that rafEes and crises have been overcome, and an 'gatage sales' were inappropriate e v m g e of activities ~ under ~ means), and has stand that goveInmcn- taken. The H o w has alno wablished d a d other public funds could be applied fix to snppan BPhi'I humanitarian vurmrrs. It has also appepkd for &d m fund the extensive building

P u w M i d hb+ntd

162

projcCtS of thc ARC.

MLKU267 m 13.62 m. 24.1 1,974 w. 40.178-9 no. 87,412 .m 223.

FurBghi, Mirz6 MabmBd (d. 192718) Prominent W a n B&?. He was born in the Khurisid village of M&W, itself faUed Pvnlgh ('Splendnur', 'Light') by Bahb'u'lh His father was M d b M I d Md-, an influential cleric who became a Mbi and was one of the survivors of the Shaykh parart muggle. Fu16ghl became a s t a d BaM'i whose zeal agitated orthodox Muslim clerics, bm impreseed metel munbar of the Qbibr adrninistntion. He was subject to several imprimnmmtr, beatings and attempts on his life before being finally poisoned. In addition to promotk the Paith in lran he travelled to &bad and Ewot.as weU as visitins 'Abdn'l-Baha. He mok a leading pan Mkq pmmbvnt 11&n oppsing the influence of COVENANT- 'A#-Akbm Bahd'irmd Hond of tkc O n u s ~RUAKERSsuch as JAMAL BUR(IIIRDI, and was able m have an extended intavicw with Mu&add&n ShBh, to aasw hun of the loyalty of the B&"i. Sbaghi and r e ~ m e dto Iran, wbuc he estabEffendi named him as one of the lished a school for BahYis in one of the A~osnesor BAHPU~LLAH. E(I 15670. villages. In 1934 he was elected on to the newly formed Iranian national spiritual FurLtan, 'Ali-Akbar (b. 1905) ASSEMBLYand semed as itr secretary umil Iranian HAIUD or T H CAUSE. ~ In the face the death of Shnghi Effendi He was also of snstaincd persecution, Forirtan's appointed as principal of rhe Tarbiyat family left their native city of Sabzivt school for boys (see SCHOOLS) until its in Khuridn in 1914 and settled in closare, and mote m d y books for BaWl children's claws which a n still Ashltbahad a a m the Russian border. The yowig FurGtan became an active in use. He was appointed a Hand of the member of the local BaMT community C a w by Sboghi Effendi in the f i r s and,wbilstnillinhisteens,bspmFa condogent in December 1951. In 1957 teacher in its school. lo 1926 he won a he became one of thc custodial Hands in schohdip to the University of Mcwow Haifa. Hin Pemian pllhlications are d v e , and meral have been naristo study education and cbildpsycbology. In 1930 he was expelled hthe Soviet l a d into %Iglioh. S(y d y w, Union on account of bis Baha? activities H ~ 2 1 1 - 2 2 . "7-

*.

in c k go* ErmHiEt t)s.ocjned with & d i m K~~RIR~LA's ddccdoa Both Gambuq is forbidden in the Kkibiwere 8eoc by ' A b d d l - m as m'l AQDAS, but the U n i d H o w of teachers to W a in 19a4,but it was Lua Justice hap yet to apcdfg exactly w h activitiu n t ~to be included in this who acbicval p d d a c renown as an h r n a t i o d BaM'f teach= 'Abdu'lpdibitim, insnad ad* W t to Bahh cpUed her 'LivB ('Banner'), and daaminethcirownactionsontbchasis her with a spedal mission m of individual consdeuce, and not to pcntnwnd a pition for the proradon of make gambling an issue within the the W a n W?nto Mulafferu'ddh wmmrmiy. They note 'AWL-Bahhk description of bming on horse cam as a Shah whilst the latter was visiting Paris. She died in Gairo. Shoghi Effendi 'punidow disease' that c a w enorhonoured her as one of tbe DIsmm mous dismss, and have ruled thar Cuds or 'Asou.~.amA and as 'mother teacher for the Faith should not be d s h d through lomrieq raf8ca and games of of the W a f . aw6:4 W ; -257; hkdmnni b dtall*; *7/4: 2940. cham. a75 k ~ sa , 74 "169;LO w-8. gambling

gender equality

Getringor, Rdward (1866-1935) and Louisa ('Lua') Aurora Moore (1871-1916) Ptomhreut d y -can BaMr4 who convclled and married in 1897, swn assumlngaleadingm*sstcachersof the Faith. It was who i n d u c e d PhoebamARST to the new religion, and t h y accompanied her in the &st goup of Waaun pilgrimP to visit 'Abdu'lBnha (1898-9). The Grot of the Amcricnas to arrive, they remained for iive months, again making lcngdty visits in 1900 and 1901. Edward waa prominent

Oiachery, Uga (1896-1989) ltalian H n ~ o o e ~ ~ 6 C A uBorn s e . into an aristocratic family ill Palerrno, he received a docaoral degree inchadmy. Mtu World Wor I he migrated m the United Sam, whcn he met and married bis wife, Angeline W~tergren, and kecame a Baha'i (c.1926). The couple Bat&? moved m Italy in 1947as~1ossgn taa~henill the s s f d American sewn YW P U N , C S f S b w thUIdvCS in Rome. Ugo mmpleted the ppnslarion of a large number of Wl baoks into Itpliaa From 1948 anwards he hecam hcnvily involved in secoring thc marble and various buildmg supplies for the c o m r d o n of the snpgarmentrr of the SHRINEOF THE BAB SIld the INTXRNA.

Oobinuou, Joseph Arthur, Comte de (181682) Fmch diplomat and writer, who is puhaps now bert known for his racist philosopkq ( h i nrr I'agalitd & races humaincs, 1854). He was appointed to various porn in Iran (1854-8, 1862-3; rhis last as whassador) dudog which he l e d of the Bib1 movemw latet givingvivid acc(runaj of Mbl heroism in his Religionr n philosophies dmrs I'ade M I f m I c (1865). This book proved enormously i n 0 4 m amacting attention to the religion amongst educated Eumpns, and specisally prompted both EG. B n o m and A.L.M. Nlcous m begin their studies of Bibism. Some of thc historid and dacuinal details in the book arc and Hand of the Ow, 1973

/

God For W i s God in aismce is unknown o ~ n ~ h o - building in tIpifs. One able, being exalted above human amiof the doors of the Sbdne was later hutes and understanding (KI 63). named after him. Shoghi Effendi Human conceptions of God are mere appoimed him as a Hnnd of the Csuse imaghsaticns, whida some individuals in Dcccmba 1951, and as a member-at- mistake for d i q (SWAB 53-4 no. l a r ~ eof the ~NTERUATLONALBhifI.1 24). It iu impassible to m n hint at the &NCU in March 1952. He was d d nature of Gal's essence (GWB 3-4 no. & a h a n of the ncwl~formed nadonal I). Knowledge of God is therefore ~ p i r i ~ASSWLV al of idYand s w i m - prmuvily to be achieved by way of the land in 1953. As a Hand he mveUed ? ~ A N ~ P P S T A ~ O NORS GOD, who aCt 88 extensively world-wide. In Westem God's lnessengers and r e & c 'his' amiSamoa he was able to tncsent the W i butes. More generally, every created teachings to the heid of state, dxe *in the universe is a 'sign' of God's Malietoa T A N U M AII,~ who subse- sovereigmy, and a 'door' leading to quently became a Bahi'I. Giachuy knowledge of him (GWE 160 no. 82). himself died dwhg a later visit to the AU exbncc dects his image ( G W island and is b u d there. w h y ; ~np 165no. 84). His 'signs' -his andbutes DMZ. arcnanledmastpPrdculrtlyin hlrmnn (seeIWMANNANR~). Thus d W S who turn their gaze m their own selves Gillerpie, (John Birkes) will find God (HWa no. 13). Shoghi D (1917-93) Effendi d&bed God as one, pusonnl, Leadiogjazztrumpnawhobaamea unknowable, inaccessible, eternal. Bah6'i in 1968. With Qnrlie Parker he omnisc;ent, o m d and ~ almi!#lry aeated and devdopd the 'bebop' style (GPB 139); and as b e i i SnLinible yet in the 19408.(See cover imagr) rational' (WOB 112); a supreme rrali~

(LG 477 no. 1274). He r e j d intionist, pantheistic and anthropomorphic conceptions of God (WOB 11243). The Bah6'i w&gs abound with the names and attributes of God. These include: All-Knowing; AUSuffidng, All-L* Msst Compasdonate; Ever-Forgiving; Ever-Faithful; Lord of all Lord of gracc abounding; King of the mlms of justia, Shapu of d the natioq Sourn: of all Souras; Caw of cauus; c h t i s e t ; Inspinr, Help in P+ E d Tn& central Orb of the univem, its Ikmce and ultimate Purpose; Fountain-Head of all Bevelations; and Wd-Spridg of d Lights.

w,

au

WbmL M n d b W 16W4.

'Abdu'l-Bahi presented various proofs for the cxktencc of Cod: thue must be an & b a t e came; m m p k i o n of elements cannot be the wsult of accident or inherent properties; human qualitiessuch as volition are aceptional in nanue and s n g q s a aeator with similar qualities. a&? h&as~ PCP; w 2 ~ (See . also ME.TAPHYSICS.)

God Passes By Historical work by Shoghi Effendi, published in 1944, and d & b i the frrst hundred yean of the 'BabP'i Em' and 'Cycle' (i.e. incorpoating the Mbi as well as the BaM'i 'Dispnsations'; (see WE). It WBS not intended to be a 'detailed history' and, whih evidendy dtawin~on extensive march. does not inclndcdctheacademic appanm; of notes, +ces and bibliomaohv. Rather. it presented the BahAP with a review &d interpretation of their religion, and its ansfonnation from 'a h o d o x and seemingly negligible ofbhoot of the Sbaykhi x h ~ oof l the &A-'AshPriyyih [Twelvcr] s a t of Shi'ah L h ' into a world religion (p. xii).It k i k s WfBah%'ihistoy in terms of four distinct periods, centdng m p e u h l y on the missions of the Mb, Bab&'u'U&b and

'Abdu'l-Bahl, and on the rise of the w'i ADMINISIRN'ION, thene mgethn bcmin~a s i d e indivisible divine drama and ev~lutio&ryprocess. It summarizes the main events, and the writings and teachings of the Bahh'I C m . u FIG. urn; provides chPractwizations of the main participants bclicws and their o p m daails the prophetic role of the Bib and BaWu'W, and the implememation of the Baht4 C o v m o q and instances examples of ommjuoceMnm. on those who had anacked the Faith. Its major importance for U ' i s lies less in its presmtation of h i s o r i d dotail than in its vision of the onward prof the Faith in the face of oppoairion and tribulation, and the docainal dm&cance it gives m the event8 and process it desaibes, Shodi ELndi also eom-

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s i o s the LawbiQarn.

GPB; aobbni,

~1k*or~d222-.5.

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(Iolden rule The ethical rule that we should cnar others as we would wish to be treated It is found in m w religions, including the Bahi'i Faith. Thus B ~ u ' l b btaught char che individual should 'choose.. for thy neighbour that which thou choose for t h ~ W (TB 64). and not wish for others 'what ye wish not for yotmelves' (KA73 k148). and 'ascribe not to any soul that which thou wouldst not havi ascribed to thee' (HWa no. 29). h t ,

.

OddnRuk

Goodall, Helen 5. (1847-1922) Leading early BaM'i in the San Francisco area. She and her danghter, EUa Cooper (1870-1951). began m study the Bahi'i Faith in 1898, end subsequently b e the focus of W'i activities in California. ELla joined the &st Western pilgrimage group to A k a (1899). Maher and daughter &o virjted Akka in 1908. Shoghi EffendihououmdHelen as one of the DISCIPLBS OF 'Axou~~.BmA,

o

and Ella as a ' W d ' of the Covenant BWt2681-4;ff 162;Sla13/B:ZW; WBW2I34.

government

Jusncz W u ' W emphasized the need for J U s n c s in governmmr: God has comm i d government into the bands of d e m that they migbt rule with justice over their people, safeguarding the rights of the downpodden, caring for the poor and pIuli&lg wrongdoers. If they do not do this they ate in grievous error, and will be judged by God (GWB 246 no. 116, 250-1 no. 118). Those guilty of tyranny, injunice and o p p m sion ate answerable to God (HWp no. 64). Governments are obliged t o acquaint themlves with the ronditiws of those whom they a o w a , confer of6ce on the basis of && and ensure that thme who are appointed are not unjust (TB127). Thc rulm should regad the people as their treasure, far by them they rule, s u k t , and conquer. Y e absolutist regimes disdain them (the people), robbing them in order to build palaces and burdening them in order m pursue their own extravagances. The 19th-cennuy rulers, who held their peoples at their muep, w m 'so drunk with pride' that they could not even d i m their own best advantage. Even at theit beat, their mofives were thcir own gain (PDC 26). Those rulers who governed with justice and wisdom are blessed by God (TB 164). The persecution of religious minorities, such as fews in ewrain European counuies (TB 170) and BnhiVi in the Middle East (GWB 1 2 M no. 65), was unjust, and was condemned ('Abdu'lBnhi also cited the existence of e m poverty and starvation as evidw~eof tyranny (PT159)). A just society also requires that there be equality Mare the LAW. S o u N ORDER depends on thue being just government.

W u U Mpraised constitutional monarchy as a form of government. Repub %an government by itself profit8 'all the peoples of the world', but it is bemr when mmbined with 'the majesty of +hip' (as one of 'the sign. of God' (see ma))(TB 28). The British system of representative government was particularly &red to in this contexr IPDC 35; TB 93; see Vtcroau). Such views were radical in a 19thsentury Middle Eastern context (Cole, 'Iranian millenarianism'), as was the Bahel advocacy of a separation of church and state and l i e of c o n m y (Bayat 130; RI 160-5: see as0 wtzx on POLIT~~J). 'Abdu'l-B& also held that there should be a separation of lcnislative and e x m tive m I I ~ ~ ( S D37); C viewed constitutional monarchy as having a mndnuity and stability lacking in n p u b licao regimes; spoke against a hereditary aristocracy (Esslemont A 123-4); and regarded centralization of government as promoting dspatism, predicting that fedwalism would become the future pamrn of govunmenr (PUP 167). WRRUYnON

'Abdu'l-Bahb argued that not until government o f l i d s at all levels were Lac from corruption could Iran (and by extension any othu country) be prop erly administered. Good and orderly government was essential if national development was to occur. Establishing consultative assemblies elected by universal s w e is the 'bedrock' of governmcnt. But rbue assemblies can only be effective if mioisnn and the elected rrp~cntativesan righteous and uncorrupt. If the elected represulmtivos an ignorant and corrupt there will just be more people demanding bribes. N a t i o ~ a ~ u C A is n onmPsPIy ~ SO that the cpmmon people can check govanmental injuJdce (SDC 16-21.234.

obey just kings, and regard disloyalty m Bahi'n'UHh W e d national political to them as disloyalty towards God; and development to the achievement of not meddle in political &aim (SWAB international PMCB and w the lessening 293-4, 319; Will 8). M i % in public of the rax burden consequent upon the employ should be exunpkuy in thcii duction of pmcurrments. honesty, integrity, uustwocthinesr, j u s Both be and 'Abdu'l-Bahi also Linked it tice and service (CC2: 341-5; LG 4524). Sboghi Effendi forbade any pangto economic development (see nonmninvolvement on the part of the m;SEORMT OP DIVJNEC ~ V ~ L I Z A ~ Opolitical N). W i s ( x e som~cs),and insisted that He also stated that those who wen members of constitutional assemhlies Bahl'is obey the laws and government (specifically the British Parliament) of any state, even if t h q petsonally should take counsel together and seek rrgatd them as unjust, as long as t h r s that which would profit the condition of do not necessitate them denying their humanity, entering the assembly for the basic nligious beliefs as Bahi'is. If this sake of God, and praying for divine obedience requires the dismantling of assistance in that which would cause the the W'ibDMwsrnUnoN, thm Bnhi'is afhirs of the people to prospu (ESW should accept that wnsequeuce, and not 61-2). Contemporary advocacy of compromise with the principle (seealso W'I ideas regatding govemmmt has PBRSBCUTION) (LG 445-52). included contributions to the national debate in the process of preparing new greatest name national constitutions (EthiopL, 1994); commentary on general foreign policy According to Islamic belief Goo bas (Canada, 1994; Inland, 1994); and ninety-nine names (compaMionate, mer assistance inre-cstablishing a parlinmm- dful etc.). In esoteric tradition it is my group for world govcmmmt (UK, believed that there is ako a hundredth name - the gnatst which has spedal 1994) ( B m S 1994-5: 123-4). potenq. For Baha'i this 'greatca name' (ism-i-a'qma) is bahd ('glory', 'splengovernment, lah&'f attitude dour'), as used in the religious title of towards their own foundu, Bah1'u'llih. 'Abdu'l% ~ W d ofl B*sf MDIWSM WPP W referred m it as a name of comfort liuked m increasingly milit~orattimdes and protection. Expressions using this which contributed to the conflicts with name or derivatives of it ate commonly Thus the invocation, Q i j t state, and Lam fed a small group used by W%. of Mbfs to make an attempt on the life of NA$IRWD.D~N S.Bah&u'l& ' by conuaa, opposed militancy from an early datc, and later abrogated the Islnmic-MY laws of HOLY wnr (1863), and insisted that his foUoww strictly avoid sedition. W ' i s w m m be loyal, hones and mnhful in their dealings with the government of whichever country they inhabited (TB 22-3). None should conhod with those in lawful authority (KA 54 k95). Similarly, 'Abdu'l-BeM instructed the Bahe'is to The 'Gremert Name', in the cnlligrqhy of Mishlln-Qah he the well-wishers of governments;

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alkibu'abhri ~AUlrh-u-AbM', 'God is Oreanleaf, Charles (185617Most Glorious'), which B M l s are 1920) and Elizabeth (1863-1941) hidden to repcat ninery-he tLnes each P r o m i D m t e a d y A m ~ W L s . T h c g day PS a devotional aad which is convected in 1897. Charles became a widely used as a gr* d~ phrase yd member of Chicngo's 6rst BPhP1 admiobahd'u'l4bd ('0Glory of the Mon isuative body, the Board of Council Glorious'), wbith appears in a calli- (19001, and nd lam named by Shogbi graphic device designed by MISUK~N-Effendi as one of the DISCIPLES OP Qw, which mauy W k wt as a 'As~u~r-Bwa. Ahether hwband's death wd and the 'dngeroae sgm- Eliibab becgmc one of the leading bol', with a c o d p a t i o n of tho Arnhii teachen of rbe BaM'i Faith in North Imcrs 'b' and 'h', which is featured on America, being inrrmmeutal in irs W T rings, It should be used with growth in Cnnade and Florida. am proper digniq and m (nor used Wa, Ws&r 97-1 17. on nntionuy or as a car sticker, for example); neither should it bc 4 on gravestones). According to the MJAD sy~mm,babd tias a numerical quiva- Promhcnt African-American BaMT. lenoeof9,hmethekequmtuseofdrat Bom of slave pa~entrinSouth Carolina, numbcrinBPhP'I symbolirm. wzsk18,as he lpar graduated from Howa~dUniversity with a degree in law. He beamc LTl. M LIP, 180 &3. 224 "137; 10 ~ . S o a d W . a W'i in Wnshiagton DC in 1909. ALePdy an adof racial equality, ~ w t n g e d d s ~ o s ~ t i o n

inthelocalBPhPTcomm~.InInb o d facility at Eliot, Maine, first opened by Sarah FAfx%t in 1894. Initinlly i t featured a varie of summu courses on subjsrs such as Trensczndentnlism, mlutiw, comparative mligion and the 'Metaphysical Movanent' tbeu in oope (New Thought, em.). Wllowing Fanner's conwsion in 1900 Bahh'i speakers were increasingly in eviderq in dud in^ AWL-FWL(1902) and 'Abdu'l-BaM (1912). 'Ihe came under BaWL control in 1913, and the w&-w&g edeeticism of the d y years was iaaePsingly t e p l a d by a kurrin*un fonwd on the B&'i Faith. Itwssfomallycodiutoa~a ached fnin 19W, and bcc~methe pLototypC of BaWt SUMMeR SCHOOLS world-WMb. WA2 l a . 217-18; SBR 104; S o H h . 6 h n s o a ~ r a n ~ l r IW6.mdmd.m ,' C

pmlda~hod*~dlh.~'lt&POnn h.

was s u p p o d by 'Abdu'l-Baha, who formed national spiritual ASSEMOLY. He dmiag his mu visit to Wcsbgton DC was pa&darly active in W'i child (1912) deliberately snt Grrgon next to education and the BPM'i ESPEIUNTO him at a fond luncheon in clear movement, which he organized in Gtrmany. He also wmte a uumbu of books disregPnl of social convautioa 'Abdu'lB a b P p l p o a ~ ~ t V P g e d b k n t o m p t r y ontbeFaith(inOaman)~dtranslated Louisa Mathew (1866-1956), a white Babi'i literature. A h tho banning of Eogliabwoman, thia being rbe first the W'i Faith by the Nazi regime in bLPd-white mPniagc in the Amer&an May 1937 he suffered inturnittent BPhP'i community, and an am rquidng persewtion, id* the confisaaon c o w courage in the social con- and dcsmction of much of his BaM'i diriow of rhe Gngorg undutook library and archives and a s i x d d v c travels to promote the Faith, puiod of impciwommtInJune 1945he p.rrkukrly in the d e t n stpas. He was abk to start the B&i played a leading role in the advocacy of communities in the Ametican zone of racialcqdity b y t h e W s , a n d f o r a occupntion in south-wesmm Gumnny. number of years nd the only black He was among the first contingent of BaM'i on the American national qiri- t h w appoimd HPDd8 of the Caw by cud ascmhly. Shoghi Effendi pesthu- Shq@ Hfwdi in December 1951. As a mouslynancdhim as a H A N D W M H ~and k made &yeral cxbndcd visit6 to CAvm. Lo+ was prominent in BaM'I pronmte the Faith in S o d America BWr4.41~l;thprZ4342. cenchiag a&tiCs in thcaallrpar, awl*

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18 W68; b p r 0S-W # k b n .

Qrinevskaya, Irabella Arkadevna (1864-1944) RwiPn Baui', drgm~tistand writer. Hadcamat3cpamBob-pmthe BPb-s life rind teach+ was pubfished

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in St Pecusburg in 1903 and pccfocmed on sragt the followingJanuay, receiving enormous acdaim from literay fisurrs, induding Leo TOLSTOY. A sswnd &a*tic poem, Bskha-UUa (Wu'Ubb) was mitten in 1912, again b * n ~ wdl t o i d Grhewkaya a h lecnued on .the Mb and Bahl'u'W to acadamic societies. She met AMuWl-BaMin Egypt in 1910, EWS: 707-12; M S a - I .

guardianship Institution mated by 'AMu'l-BahP to provide a line of b e hen& of the Eaith. IR many respects it is rroainisMt of the Sbl'l imamate (seeIMAMS). In his WILLAND TBSTAWBNT'Abdu'lB$IH appointed SHOOHI PPPZNDI as his ~uamiughimasGuardianof~ Cause of God (Wlfmaarr'W),and the first in a pprojeQed line of Guardia~.As such he was 'cxpouudex of the words of Go*, and undu the protection of

Baba'u'llOhend~BBbObcdicacer0

him was obligatory on all W k (see C~VBNAN~). The Ttrelhu of GoardisllP would follow on amonga the mrk desrrndanrs of BahaWUQh(AGHIAN~,id call^ t k o u ~ I ~ Ororrmann, Hermann the firatborn of the lineal &tie. (1899-1968) acundioa to the M a k of -n r i m -dOaman HAND OP THB CAUSE. Bom in M). I ;was iicun&t upon each e ~ h e m o v e d w h b h i s h m i t y t o Guardian to appoint his mmxsor d Germany in 1909. In 1920 he both h i s o w n l i f e r i m e M , & a t ~ the B&% would na yin pfnr bccuneaBPhP~andmethisfuturcwifc, amAnna Hartm&. He was able to pro- h i s d e a t h I n t b i s , k B h o u l d ~ t h a t mote the W'i Peith in various pam of b i s ~ h a d t h e ~ s u y p o d l y Geoneny and lam amd on the newly c h p M U ( f h P f t b e c h i l d w n s ~ ~

170 of i b Sire; the q d t k r q d oftheappimd~werednah menr from waldly things,pudry, the fear of God, knowledw, wisdom and laming). The approval of his choice by che elected representative Hnms oe m CnusFJ wns a h tsquirrd llu Guardian would be the sacred head of the UNIVWALHouse. ORJusnol following its atablishment. and a lifelong manbu He was authorized to erpel nay of its mrmbus who commida 'iniutious to the common w d . Hc wwld a h be mpomible fa the receipt of the ~~UQBQWLLKH,and appoiattheHaadsoftheCnt~,eand dirrdthtminthcirwork.ALIwarmbe submidve and subardhate to him. Commauingonthe~eofthe hip in the DISPENSAT~ON OP BAHI.V.LLAH (19341, Shogbi Etfoedi essslu~e'

able to take a long and uninteuupted view of developmots and defim the Hotlae's sphere of legislative action). He also emthe dishtion b e e s che8pirihdstatimoftheGuPrdiaasand

that of 'Abdn'l-BahP: the distance bnwem them was gcearrr than that whichsepnr~mdthedof'hbdd1-Bah6 from that of his fsthu; &e 'Abdu+ Bah& no Guardian would ever be a p d m exemplar of BaW'u'MH aach h. a would be W~OW t h u e f o ~for any W Y to addresthe Guardian as lord, seek hir bencdicrion, or ~ommeolorate events associated with his life (WOE 132, 147-52). Elsewhue he ItrrsscdthathisownlNP~~l~anrmlJy mendedmmatmsrelatingtotheF.itb, andnottorubiecgsrvhasccw&aud seicna (LG 30S13). %c& Mendi did not have nay nondthateachGeardiPRwnaempow- childrro,andduringthecouroeofhis eredtobeabk'tonvealrhepluporraqd own lifetime expelled hip broChPP and disbse the implidoid of the urn- cousins fmm the Pnith as C o v n ~ m DWRS. By the 1950s there were none ila~esof Bah6'u'W a d 'AbduS1-W. among the male descendants of Such inmpnmtiioar m e ' n M v e and biadiaa. Toacthawithth U n i d Baha'dlhh who rrmained 1oyaL PreHouse of justG, the guardipnship was sumably fm this r e a m Shoghi Effendi a b o t o ~ t o e n s u r e t h e c ~ klt h himself unable to appoint a sumsof divinely appointed authority wirhin th; sor,aqdinthc~ntlcfrnowill.Apan Fairb: vfraunrd the unity of its followas; h the pIactiCPl i s m of sucaspion n h t a b &c q t y ndd flexibility of i& (SC. &ms OF m &use). his death in 1957 therefore created edmicnl promchinps.admlniaer and m-ordinae irs n c t i ~ i d e S ; ~ o t e i t s i n ~ w a a n c i tblems s ku the Bahhls.Thc newly formed laws; and d&d ip subidiacy innitu- Universal House of Justice d a l d in tiom In this rhe two in.uiNtiox wen October 1963chat a0 huther GuPrdinnr complrmmaery. Each had its own apccifr could be appoind. In subsequent letsphere of jwhdhion Thus the Guar ters they made it clear drat their own cliaos could only intespmt what had legislative functioning was m a k t d by almady barn revealed, and muld ody the absma of a G~~ldian. Mwow legislarrinthcLcapacitya6mmrbaaof thay wem also a m d of divine p m theffinlKofJlacice.Thepmuld~ don and guidance by 'Abdu'l-W, and t h a t a p a r t i c h l e & a & c ~ o n b e were thus able to aanrmc the W o n of M e r 4 but not d i m e the actidcb head of the Faith (in. the Covenanr was and prdm of the House. Sbogbi mure). In thdl legidation they wue F&ndiItrrsscdthemen&lnatutofthe also able to turn to the great mass of ipunlianship (without the g u a r d i d p , iarrtpmation left by Shoghi Effendi No the W ' i world arder would be wuti- ncw audlositltive htqntation would land, af6caing the Faith's aability and he available, h o w * (MUHJ 14 no. 5, ~ o d y t h e G ~ w o u l d b 83-90 e no. 35,15661 ilo. 75).

~

H6di Dawlat6bLdi. Mirr6 (d1908) Well-Imown Wfini duic who b m e a B&i and later a w p p m of S11bb-iAzu, who appointed him his ccpmm tative inlran and bir suceesso~Ahu the m of M3r& AQIw(2) 6f Abidih (Ckmbu 1888), the Leading dericAq6 Najafi (the 'Son of the Wou') denounced H4di as a Bibi and demanded his death. Ridl ( h e r r u p made a public m t a t i o n although he remaioedanAralileadainsecret,an act of duplicity for which he was condaMcd by BabP'uSUih (ESW 86-8; TB 42). After Hidi's death Azal appointed the man's son, Ij&ji Mid Ygy6,as hntlrr head ofthe Azrws, bur he had W e involvmrmt with them (McS 38n).

'

hadith Islamic traditional saying amibuted to the Pmphet Mdpmmad or (for SWi) to onc of the [MAW. Hdtbs mcy gceady in their reliability, and many we now supposed to be f o z p i i c s . Both Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi cite m t b s inwrmitings. Hague, Tablet to The Latar of 'Abdu'l-&hi to the h e mmmineeoftheheOrgauization for a Durable Pea~e(based at The

Hague), dared 17 December 1919. It is an i m p o m aanmtar of the Bnwki PRrslClPUS. In it 'Abdu'l-BahP DM the anPiommt of i n m m t i o d - m c a within the context of the need for wider political, economic and c u l d rhenge, and stated that the newlv created Learnre of~ationswastoo&ctedto such an objective. edml lnJaia, 208-19; SWB 2063ML: M 43840.

Hlrifa (1995 pop. 2522.00) Modem port city in northrro Israel locand on the slopes ofMwnt C ~ R M ~ L . The town was auite small in the 19th century, but beg& to grow mom rapidly Pftcr it became a -inn mint on the the Hijaz railway from &-t& (1905). Growth was even more &ad from the 1920s andwhen, bnZ the Bdrish ma& HPifa imo a0 oil pon and naval bum, and, later, the city became a maior ~Iaceof d e m e n t for immipsent and mcuo&lis, and would &and to join up to h a . B&%s note the accuracy of this prophecy. I U 1386. ~ IW,174-83-

6&t m R Y W u ' W and his companions in exile wem briefly in Ha& in 1868 (31 August) d i n they e-hipped horn the steamer that had brought them from

Ak*andria to a sailing boat which mok them to Akke. After BahH'u~Ugh's release from the prison city he visited Haifa three rimes (1883, 1890 end 1891), the l i d vidt lilsbhg for senral months, d* which he indicated to 'Abdu'l-Ball the site for the future Shrine of the Bhb end revealed his Tzbk of CUML.'AMu*I-BaM organized the building ofthe Shrine of the Bgb (18991907) whilst he was still mikt in A h . At the slme time, with the assismce of Laura Clifford oxeupus. BAUNXY,he p w c h e d lend lower down the mountuinend had a h o w builtnear m the Eerman T B HSoc. ~ ~ colonx From Pebmary 1907 he began to transfu membas of his family from Aldu to IInife, and moved rh&e himself in A n p t 1910, m&ng Iiaifa his offidpi midence.TheremainaoftheBgbwm fomauyiaMnodintbeShdacon21 March 1909, asluarPLaowurthoseof 'Abdu'l-BohH himself (29 November 1921). Zhe city has since remained chr adminimtive centre of the BaM'I Fnith (see -1 Wonw CENTRE), as well as the site of mne of the moat impomt Bahn saaed placm.

s~nb.1 s m m MA These are numemus. The mast importPnt aR dK 6 e N E 0s IFE3 m; the INTBRNNTONAL A I c m building; and the Seat of the Unived House of Jusdce and the other buildings of the ARC. Other sig&nmt sites include: Lpta the reridma of Shogh~%di, and now of his widow, RWWWH KHANUM. LO

the eady 1920s Shoghi Effendi had an apamnen consumed on rhe roof m m e as his q w n . Rooms on the ground floor associated with 'Abdu'lBnM are visited by pilgrim. THB PU.oanCHOUSB

Built in 1909in the viciniy of rhe Shrine oftheBhbbyone of theBahi'lsfmm

Ashkhabad, M h 4 Ja%r RabW, it bwnms the resideocc of visiting BnhB'I p i l g t h fmm the East (see PILCRRUOS). An annex was mnwucced in 1935. By 1969, with tht inaepde in their nnmbe% it was no longer possible to accammodnte pilgrim, and the main pan of the building was ronvsned into a pilgcim cam, with a library, teatoon& admhismtive of& ecr Othu pnas of the complex are used ae midfor the custodian of the Shrine and other

aeft TttB PORMBRWeFTBRtJPILOIIM H O W

Built in the w l y 1920s with funds provided by W h Hvry RANDALL and Amclip C o w , it is close to the House of 'Abdu'l-BabP and was intended to accommodare the Wesmn pilgrims. In 1951 it became the seat of the Iwrm~nanrhLW1COUNCIL. and later of the U n i v d I-bm of Justice (1963-82) and then of the ~ W L N A n0NALTEAWINO Q m a (from 1982). THE BNTA'! CIMEtEILY

A six-am plot dooc to the loww Caw of Wjah on Mount Camel, the rite wap purchased on 'Abdu'l-BahB's insnuctions. Those h i e d there include a number of eminent Bsh6'is. Thc earlirliesr rsnded b d was of the Bib%cousin, MIai M ~ ~ ~ . M D . T A Q f nI i Vuglu'd-dawlih, in August 1911. ntB MOmRWNT GmDENS

Shoghi Effendi constructed a series 0s monruauus a the v d u s memhcrs of 'Abdu'l-Bas family on cbe hillside above the Shrine d the Mb.These are now surrounded by gardens. The fim to be built was a columned and domed monument at the gave of 'AMu'lBahi's sister, B A H ~ IKHANUM H (d. 1932). Smaller monuments werc later wnsuuacd at the graves of 'Abdu'lBnh&!s wife, MUN~RIH KH~NIIM(d. 1938), and of his moth- and brother, NAVVAB and MIr& mnnt, whose

l%a PWm Houn inHaifn built in 1909, and now a cantrs ofpilgrbnnga athities

I

remains Shoghi Wmdi had moved from their origbal graves in in December 1939 (Rabbani PriceIess Peal 259-63). Shoghi Effendi designated Bahiyyih KhPnum's gtavc as the focal point of the fnhue institutions of the Arc.

~

THE a

r r o msmrpum.mHxAa ~ ~ An area at the head of Mount Camel c h a m b~ Sho& Effendi as the site for a f u n k B&'S Houre of Worship. The site is above the U D Cave ~ of Elijah, in the viciniG of which B M u ' l k h rrvealed the Tablet of Clmnel. In Apd 1955 Shoghi Effendi announced the acadsition of an area of 36,000 sq.m. 6 r the site. He also commissioned an obcllsk to be built in Italy to mark the site. Tbb wan dnatly erected in Augnrt 1971 following lengthy nwtiationu m ~n planning permission from the h c l i Ghorities (Giachery 170-4).

I

The ranbs of BaWn'Ikib's jirst wife h%mdb,a d k =son, Mirnri Mibdi m tbs Mowmmc Garb Haifa

I I

Institution of prominent Bahl'ls m l by eke h a of hha

mBAllLYEANDs

The imitutiun was 6mt established by BahB.'U'll6h, sad he named fout duals m this rank between 1887 and about 1890 (see list Mow). ThL group m o d as one of the channels of communication h e m BphB'uZIPh and the ~ I s i n I r a a T b e y l a m p h y c d key a rok in consulidatiog support for thc suceeJsion of 'Abdu'l-BaM and, undu his dlanicM, IormLd thc n d u s for the Tehnn M 4 M S E ~ L Y , ewbW in 11199. 'Abdul-BahB. did not appoint any fortharimiividnalstothisc&btlam poahmnouaf~dmigmted a dundm of pmmiomt Bahl'ls ns Hands, in this way etiagtheheasanMriKc.

w-

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~N-I-ABEUR

NAMED BY s n a o l r (Thin ~ ~ list is not kucemdy extianstin) (1)Mup~rau~p-RtpA MubPmJnndh b n d t Ya& MullL (2) NAU~L-I--a, Shaykh MtrbammPd Q6'inl (3) Mull6 $brq a&& 'MwquddaJ: h'llBhu'&*q (4) M b 6 'AU-Muhammad VARQA,the

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In his WILL AND TEST^, 'AMu'lBahn w c amhoriy m thc future Guar *of theFaithtoappointIIandsofthe

Csuse.'IzlcHasdbwerctobeundahis ~ G i l d s h a d o w . ~ l h e g ~ t o

ele~tnineofdLekrrumbermworkinhis service, and, in secret ballot, give apetod to his choke of sucoepsor (sse GUARD~SH Tht I P )obligations . were to 'difhrsc the Divine Fragcmas,'edify the souls of men', 'promote learning', 'improve the h n e r of all mm', and be always ' d e d and dcmckzd from d y rhinpp' (WiU 12-13). DURING THE MINISTRY OP S H O W

EPPBNDI

B e r n 1925 and 1952, Shoghi Effeodi honoured several B&9s as Hands posrhumously (see list MOW). In 1951, he began to appoint hctioniug Hands with an initial group of welve (24 Deambu 1951), xran m i d m nineteen (29 Febcuaq 1952). A hmbu five individuds we% appointed between 1952 and 1957 m replace Hands who kid died (in rwo reses, replldog par cnrs). Thc total ntunber of Hands was raised Pgaia to memyin October 1957, ahoaly b&xe Shaghi Efbdik

Hands of che Cww d Ood

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death. Mmt of those appointed wue assigned responsibilities in the continents in which they resided, notably m assist In the achievement of teachng PLAN goals. Five were appointed from or as members of the newly formed INTKRNATIONAL B A H COUNCIL ~ ~ (created 1950).The Hands were also later given responsibility to protect the Faith by exercising vigilance against attacks from its external and internal enemies (see OPPOSITION). TO assist them in their work they were authorized to appoint ALIXIUARY BOARDS (hom 1954). NAMEII Y-

BY SHOOHI1-

(dates named appear in parentheres) (1) John E. ESLEMONT (30 Nov. 1925) (2) wji AMIN,Yiji Abu'l-Hasan Ardi& !f (July 1928) (3) Keith RANSOM.KENLER (28 Oct. 1933) (4) Martha ROOT(2 Oct. 1939) (5) 'Abdu'l-Jalil Bey SA~D(25 June 1942) (6) Siyyid M u d RUMI(14July1945) (7) Muhammad-Taqi I$rAHANl (15 k c . 1946) (8) Louis C. GREGORY (5 Aug. 1951) (9) Roy C. WIU.IELM (23 Dec. 1951) (10) John Henry Hyde DUNN(26 Apt 1952)

177

Second contingmt, 29 Pebnuny 1952

(13) Shuah'u'll&h'ALA*~(1889-1984) (14) Musa BANAN!(188M971) (15) Clara DUNN(186>1960) (16) Z W a b KXADEM(1904-1986) (17) Adelbert M ~ ~ S C H L E (1897GEL 1980) (1877(18) Siegfried SCHOP~LOCHER 1953) (19) Codnne TRUE(1861-1961) Appointed indi&Ily (20) R ~ ~ I Y Y KHANUM, IH Amam'l-BahP (b. 1910),26 Mar& 1952 (21) Jalll KHAZEH(1897-1990). 7 December 1953 (22) Paul E. HANEY (1909-821, 19 March 1954 (23) 'Ali-Mu$umnad VARQA(b. 19111, I5 November 1955

Third contingent, October 1957 (25) Hasan BALYUZI (1908-80) (26) Abu'l-Qisim FNZI(1906-80) (27) CoUis FEATHERSTONE (1913-90) (28) John FERSABY (1914-73) (29) R&matu'll& MUHAJIR(1923-79) (30) E n d OUNGA (192679) (31) John ROBARTS (1901-91) (1911-92) (32) William SEARS

Apsormeu BY SHOGHI EFFENDI. 1951-7 THE TNTBBREGNUM'. 195743 Fiw contingent. 24 Decmnber 1951 Shoghi Effendi's death (4 November (1) Dorothy B. BMER(1898-1954) 1957) came as an unexpected blow to (2) Amelia E. COLLINS Bahl'is. Gathering cogether in Hale (1873-1962) (18-25 Novaober), the Hands discov(3) 'All-Akhar Fua(n&~ (b. 1905) (4) Ugo QACHERY (18964989) ered that Shoghi had left no will or any (5) Hnmann GROSSMANN (18994968) instructions as to what was to be done (6) Horan HOLLEY (1887-1960) regarding the fmorc lcadcrship of the (7) Leroy IOAS(189&1965) B&'is. However, in his last general (8) William Sutherland MAXWELLleaer to the -'is he had referred to the Hands as the 'Chief Stewards' of the (1874-1952) (9) Charles Mason REMEY (18744974) Faith, and it was in this capacity that 110) 'jkAru'Ulh SAMANDARI (1874- they now acted, assuming temporary 1968) headship of the Bahl'ii and elecdng nine of their numbu m serve as 'Gusto (11) Gwrge TOWNSHEND (18764957) dians' in Haifa to ovusec the continued (12) Vallyu'llHh VAUQA(1884-1955)

lknw, Paul .E

progrca~of Shoghi Effendi's plans. They m c e 1963 received the worldwide support of the The Hands ham w e d the Universal Babi'is. Meeting in annual conclave, the H o w of Justice since its f o d o n The Hands derumined that the best response House determined that it was not to the absence of a Guardian was the possible to appoint any fnrther Hands rapid establishment of the UNIVERSAL(1964). and sought ways of both d e v Housa OF ]USTIC& R body guatanteed ing the Hvlds ftom unnecessary admiadivine guidance and protection by kkative work so that they could devote 'Abdn'l-Bahi in his WILLAND T B ~ M ~ N Tthemselves . m inspiring Baha'ip throughTo this end, they called for the latema- out the world and of creating new tional Council m become an elected institutions to continue the Hands' body in 1961, and for thc Houee itself functions of the propagation and protecm be e l d in April 1963. They asked tion of the Faith into the future. The that they themselves shouldnot bc voted new institutions created were the f o Support ~ for this policy &om the CONTINENTAL BOARDS OP COLINSSLLORS BahiTs was almost universal, the main (1968) and the ~IERNKCIONALTEACHopposition coming from the veteran ING CEMRE (1973). Meanwhile, the Amedcm Hand C.M. Remey, President passing y e w greatly reduced the numof the arisring Council, who kid claim ber of Hands, such that by the end of m be the second Gwdian (1960). a 1998 only three remained. claim that was rejected by all bur a and number of Bahih. The Hands d their headship until 1963 and the elec- Hanoy, Paul E. (1909-82) or THE CAUSE of Bahi? tions for the iirst Universal House of American HANO V t a g e . He was active in American Justice

T h H d of (hc O n r of ~ God a! their P l e ~ Meting, ~y April 1963

hnhhand h#Eng

179

m ' i adminisuation, and was a mbcr of the national spiritual assembly from 1946 until 1957. He was appointed a Hand of the Caue by Shoghi Effendi in on 19 M a d 1954, andbecameoneofthentsmdiPlHands living in Ha& after Shoghi Effendi's dtath. awl& 613-l8;nolprlSt43. Hannen, Joseph (d. 1920) and Pauline (d. 1939) Prominem early American Bakh from Washington DC. They played a major role in promoting racial unity in the Bah6'i community. Shoghi Effendi honoured Joseph as one of the Drsmm OP 'AUDIJL-BA~A (BW8: 660-1; Srm 10119 3454. Yaydar-'Ali I+fhhbni, YLji MirzL (d1920) Emineot Itanian MI.He became a Blbi in Igfihln, and subsequently became a learned and effective B&'i teacher, travelling widely in h n and the O m m n empire. He was acrested by the icanian c o d g e n e r a l in (1867). and with other BahVis eale to Sudan of monaous hardship. in conditio~~s They were eventually released by Goneral Gordon (1877). He l a m settled in AkUHnifa (1903). EMPcts from his memoirs, Bihiaw'ppdr (The Deli& of Hearts), have been published in Englhh. EU 23740; rsZ 43-0.

fjaqimtu'l-Quds (h, 'Sacred Fold') kah6'1 administrative headquarters. ' C ~to&be National ~ ~ m u r r began established in the 19406 at Shoghi Effendi's direction, aU national spidtual s m m s ~ u u u a l l ybeing directed to obtain one. These were to be the seats of their respective assemblies, and so would provide office space for the national mremiai and aeasnry, and a meedog room for the assembly. They should also include an archives, library, publishing office, assetably ball and him' hostel. If there was no do: ila>e available they might also w e as a meplace for the local BaMY community, its assembly and commiaar. They should embody the Wl ideal of service, both to the Faith and humanity in general. Although essauidy administrative buildings, t h q wuld also be d f0r a 0cd OM SU& ilS d d b @ and hmenls. Dancing was not to be pvmimd in them,howew In the future the &girdu'I-Qnds would be located in the environs of rhe M A ~ H R ~ Q U ~ L ADHKA~, the two institutions bciw compluncntary in rhcir fumfions. a h b and committeew m h would then gatha for dawn prayers at the Mashriqn'dBdbkdr before beginning their dey's wotk. In larger B&i communicis it has become inawinaly commonfor then to be l d or r e g i d ~ r m u ' G Q n & .wcrsl39-do; ronl-4.

--

health and healing Hayden, Robert a. (1913-80) The -1 writiuga praise mcdidne as African-Aaauicvr p o a of considerable the noblest of yimes (see Tublei of repute who b a Baha in 1943. H is MEDICINE), and CMourage its mdy. poetry a m p ~ n dinternational a W v n Medical work, offed in a spirit of andhe bocamethefirecbla.&Amui~~~~ service, is regarded as a means of tobesppoinredascomukaminp~ praising God. Those who me sick should to the Library of CwgrrJs (1976-8), the consult com~cmuphysician6 andfoUow e q n i d ~ l tof poet i a m t e . J.s. H a k ; their insen;tio* (men if they are Avnd BWl& 71S17. p h W m t h d v e s ) . They ahodd also tumtoCod,andanumberofWi healing prayus are provided for Or%

to use. The individual's spiritual and emotio1~1state (sea EMOTIONS) is their physical regarded as off* health. 'Abdu'l-Bah6 taught that ill health can result from both physical and spiritual causes, and accordingly can be seated by both maoerial and spiritn~dhealing. He said that a major cause of physical ill health was chemical imbalanecs in the body c a u d by poor m m die* and herbal remedies wem the apvropriate resvonse m these maladies ~ o d & t i o n&d simplicity in eating were advised). Same h e w s result from emotional shccks, fcaq and the cxperierne of sumeumc: these should he anted spiritwuy. Ingeneral a persoo's s ~ i r ihas t a emat effect on their ~hvsical . obndidoh 6 is therefore important for donors to bring comfort and joy to their patienrs, even if it invool~not telling the truth about the nature of their condition (the only circunmnce in which this is permitted: see m~nlpm~ess).S i l y , everyone should visit the sick, showing them kindnes, and seeking to bring them love and happiness; pi* m& to tmat a phy&aI ailment 1s only part of the cute. Specific forms of split& healing inclvd; tnminp, m God, ~narm,and the healer co--mt& his mind on a sick person whohasfaiththatthiswilleffecracure. This latter method requires a cordial relaticdip between the two. Sometima a healer laying hii or her hands on a aotient mi&t also have an effect. ~ e a l &un d&be e&cted through the wwer of ths Holy SvLit and a Ball? B ~ ~ P U for ~ U power and guidance in effecting a cute. Responding to qncstions, Shoghi Effendi noted the complementarity of spiritual and material healing methods, and stlessed that spirimal healing should not be regarded as a substitute for material healing, and that those who practise it should not regard themselves as W'i healers', as thue is no such thing. He also stressed thcimpartance of

nun m

gndnssufIicientslcep,andtakiag*~rr of one's health. Again, he noted char psychiatric mcdicine was as yet in its inhncy - psychiamsts were neither always wise not always right - and refused to comment on a variety of issueq including the value of Freudian w c h 0 8 d ~ s i 6or chirovractic. If an inhividual lk? found i &me particular method bcnehiaLthw were welcome to use it and recommend it to others. The Univusal House of lustice has stated that although mental L e k s may impede an individual's strivina for p~idtual progress, it is not in itself a spiritual maladv. It bas also swmsted that in some of such illoeSqprayq mdy, work and involvemenr in U'i activities may aid the sufferer to recover (LC 2834). CCl: 459-W; L0275-94.

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eascS

OTRBP MEDICAL lSSUBS M I L D CARE

'Abdu'l-Bah4 emphasized the importance of proper child care: from birth, each infant should he provided with whatever is condncive to its health; unless impossible, this should idclude the mother's breast milk as this is best suited to the child. Children should a h receive physical education to ensure rhek strength and growrh (CC1: 461 no. 1026; LC 2 9 3 4 nos. 998-1000). EUTHANMlA

There is as yet no W i policy on euthanasia or the removal of life support in rrrtain medical situations. Baha'is are reminded that God is the giver of li, ~ and that be alone can d i s 6 of it as he deems best, but the decision is left to the consciences of the individuals involved (LC 290-1 no. 985, no. 987). ORGAN DONATION

This is mmmended, but the donor's body andorrransshouldhecceatedwithreslrea as the F i r 'tanples of rhe human &it

(LC 290-1 no. 984, no. 986).

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HMLTH-CABB PBOPBSSIONAM

Given the grut i m p o m a given to medicine in the BabB'i wdtings, is is not surprising that many BaWis have become doctom or other healthcam professionals. Health care has also become an important pnrt of Baha'i SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT work. This has involved numerous medical projects, including many trmporary medical camps orgsnized in poorer ewnuies or diaaicLI to pmvide free or reduccdcost medical suviccs by groups of doctors and other health pro& sionals. A number of B&'i medical associatiom and M t h agencies have d y been established, notably the B&? lnternatioml Health Agency (BIHA, 1982), and also o d t i o m in Britain, Canada, Prance, India and the United States, as well as European continend associations (indudkg one for W'i d a d ) . 8W1~ZOl;NSlWA&11618. (see a[so ABORnON;

A R ~ C U F B U ~ O N

BIRTH CONTROL;

CUMU US ION.)

Hearrt, Phoebe (18424919) Millionaire widow of Smm George Hears. She became a Bahi'L nfru meeting Edward and Lua G F I S I N(1898). ~ and subsequently invited the CHsinaaf, 4 ofher &ti* and cmplo& q d e r with LG. KHBoUW and his wife, to join her in a aip to the Middle East, includinz a visit to 'Abdu'l-Mi in Akka which cotlstituted the f i wemm Baha'i pilgrimage (1898-9). Aftu her mum to the United States she playid an imponant role in holding the fledgling Baha'i cormgunicy togaher dudng the time of Kheiralla's defection. Sbc & quently became alienated from the commauity after a fcw B&'is had .I sought to importune m o w from & She retained her regprd for 'Abdu'lB&, whom she hosted during his visit to San F&o (1912). H I : 139-45.155, 168-9; WEtlW13-19.

hmaven and hell For Bahi'is heaven and hell am states of the SOUL, which may be e n t e d both in the prermt life and the afnrlife (sm DEATH). The pUrpOs0 of human wdstence ism know and love Gcd.To come c l w to Godhrltisthispurposeandraiaesthe individual to a heavenly stan: one attains 'etunal Life' and entus the 'Kingdom of God'. To nun away kom God and become immcrscd in worldly attachmentsis to rebel against the divine purpose, and will ultimately lead to -&adation and despgir Ea& individual has m WILL, by which they can choose to develop the heavenly 4;lities that are their n a n d ootenrial, or adovt qualities that am kianic (see H U M ~ N NATURE). Aftu death those who ate nea~ to God rejoice, whilst those who are distant from him l a m . The soul is a non-material reality, and heaven and hell am not phwcal places (ESW 132; SAQ 241-3; see METAPHYSICS). The ; wming of each ~ ~ ~ I P ~ S T A TOPI O GOD N also separates the faithful from the unbelievers 01, metaphorically, the living from the dead. Acceptance of Godk masenger is equivalent to 'life', 'paadisc', and 'resurrection'; rejection to 'death' and 'hell' (ia72-9). He whom God shall make manifest (Ac: M m - y u e W l k f b ) Mbi messianic f i g w repeatedly Rfured to by the B6b in the BAYAN.This personage was said to be the origin of all divine names and anriburn; his command was equivalent to God's command. AU should seek refuge in him. Not to believe in him would be to cease to be a believer. A thousand peruspLs of the Buy&n w e not equal to reading one of his verses. The Bay& was itself a gift to him, and evolved around his word The day of his advent was known only to God, but would cerraiuly occm. It was impassible for anyone to falsely claim to be him. He

would be known by his own self, and not by the Boy&. In the meantime, all must rire on hePring his name and in e m mcerinn a vacant o l a a was to be Ieftiorh~aAfter theB4b's execution 11850)and the d u g of Bibism as an orgnhizFd movement (1852), several Blbis c b e d hiph-mnking spiritual stations, including that of Manyryhinrhu'M&. BaJ~Vu'llih himself eventually laid claim to be the Bib1 promised one in the 1860s. The AZALISobjected to &Iha'uall$h's claim, on the g o d that the BBb had stated that the promised one would come b e f m the number of 'mustagh6th' ('the Easeched', a divine attribute; the word is numerically equivalent t o 2,001 years), o r 'aghyatb'Pghiy4fh' ('the Most Succour in& ~1.511years), i.e. in the distant &e. The BP~P'I~ counteted by strrssins that rhe M b had also said that the Man-yyhimhu'lldh would adse suddenly at a time known only to God, a h 'a while' ()in, =68, ir. 1268 ~ d l 8 5 1 - 2 ml. and had w e d the signiscana of th; 'year nine' (i.e. of his own disoensation. =1269/1852-3). the year o i W ~ ; I I ~ W ~ arrival id I~. Baghdad. EW39-40; M ~ E O'niwac)rl 123-35.

Hidden Words (PA: Kalbtuai-MakmW) Collenion of Arnbk and Pusian rrrsur by Bphh'u'llsh composed in Baghdad in 1274 ~1d1857-8 ca. Identified by B M u ' l U with thc 'Hidden Book of Piima', which in Shi'i tradition had been addressedto the Pmphet'sdanghter to console her a h her father's death. It is presented as the 'inner e*of what had kcnrnceled by the prophets ofdupast,'asamkmofgraaunrothe righteous', that they might be f a i M to God's Covenant, Live according to his W t , and obtain 'thc gem of Divine virtue'. She@ Effendi dewibed it as

Bphh'u'Ws presminmt ethical work (GPB 140). In it Bphh'u'I1Ph ~amresthe reader of God's love. God has made human beings mbk, and they should dcms their h r t s so that they might h d the divine light withi dmnsdves. The bvman hean is God's home and the human spirit his placeof revelorion. This is th*r natural station, but human beings busy themaelms with the world ('chat vhich &wish&'), and thus l w sight of their true nanua. rnscea4 they shotlld commune with God and free themselves &om the 'priron' of slf and the 'fencrs' of worldly acdunmts. They should bung &vca to account eacb day; eonow only at rheir wpmtion from God; not fax && follow divine law; submit themselvca to God; aaept aids for God's sake; ready themxdves for mawrdom: neither fePr a h s e m m nor mjo& inpmspui% not vaunt themselves over the mor (who am ~ o d mw), k but -Ltow a d ' s wealth upon thew not bruthe the dm of others, nor 4 t themselves over others, nor commit iniquity; eschew covetousness, mvy and malice; be for beaing with othus; avoid fellowship with the ungodly; disdnguisb chem&ea by their dads; plant only 'the IOX of love' in the garden of the heact; and work to suppon themselves. They should know that a 'new garden' had appeared, inhabited by heavenly beHgp. They should &s to leam the mysteries of inr love and wisdom. God is always close to dKm,but they heedlessly ignore him. They should seize their chana before the '8ecting momenf of their KVW is ended. H ' 4 & b k I s J .71-03. ljikrnat, Lawij-1(PA, Tablet of Wisdom)

Early A!&-period tablet of W'u'llsh wmposcd in 187314 and a d d r d to N ~ ~ t ~ t - A uaa edhiqphhed , BaM'I, well vuscd in Islamic philosophy. It discusses a n u m b of topis, includiog:

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CRBATION, thc Word of GOD;PHILOSOPHT, and the importance of TEACHING,

which it prcsmts as encompasing the SPIRnVAL PATR. 1II 13SJ2; cd..%&M d dxondod;53-49.

Hinduism SSC b W N RELIGIONS.

secretary almost continuously from 1924 to 1959. In this mle he played a &d O W in the doeloC+IWUt of the W'i ~ M I N L S T M ~ O Nin 'North Amuifa. He.as0 was Shoehi Effdi's dosan cobboramr in the iroducdon of the BAMA~IWORLD voluma. He was among the Jim contingar of Hands of the Cause appointed by Shoghi Wendi in Dmmbcr 1951. He lam became one of the cusmdid Hands in Haifa. swl+ arc^ 50; W M.

Hoar, William H. (1856-1922) Pmmincnt carly Amrxicau W'i. He convemd in Chicago in 1895/6, and subsequently became one of the Ileading holy days Bahn'is of New York. Shoghi Effendi h o n o d him as one of the DKWLESOP In the Kitdb-i-Apors, Bah5'u'llPh o r d a i d two 'MostGreat Festivals' for 'hoIJ.bBAKA. &lZ/l9IIpul: 311. the BaM'ls to celebrate: the annivusaries of the BQb's declaration of mission Holley, Horace H. (1887-1960) in 1844 (when God 'shed upon the whole of maion the dhlgent glory of England background. Holley first His most excellent Names') and encountered the B&'i teaching6 in BaM'u'lW's own declaration in thc 1909 en route ro Europe. He larer b v h Garden in 1863. 'thc King of enablirhed himself in New York, and Fcstivalsals.He also idc&cd NAW-R~Z in 1923 was e l d to the American (NewYear)and the birthdays of the BPb national spiritualASSWLY, serving as its and himself as holy days, and dirccrcd chat these T w i n Binhdays' (they uxur on the fint and second days of the Muslim month of M&amm rcr;pectively) be accounted as one. During W'u'Ws r i W ' i s as0 rammcmoraml the annivusvg of the martyrdom of the Bhb. The anniversary of Wu'uph's paging was s-umdy commemorated as a holy day. 'Abdu'lB& did not wish BahH'is to celebrate his own bidday (it coincided with the annivof rhc Bib's declaration). Instead, he allowed them m celebrate the W'i covenant of leud&p and his own amrsion, hut appointed a date for this 180 days after Baha'u'llHb's passing. The annivusary of his own pPsDing was also lPocr wmmmorated. Shoghi E f h d i did not permit any d a m wnoecbdtohislifer0bemadvdas holy aPys. The dam of wmmuooration of the major BPhP7 holy days are as follows:

.

N~Iw-RJe, 21 March The RidVan Festival, 21 April-2 May, with rhc h, ninrh, and twelfth days (21,W ApdlJMayI bd0swxiE-b markd as boly days (rhas comwmorate the pnivd of BaKa'u'llPh at the Garda,the~valofhisfamily,pnd his fionl depblralre). Sh celebration of the fint day of Ri@n should be at 3 o'clock in the afmnoon, markkg the thne of Babi'ullsh's MiVal Dcdnrstiun of the B6b. ZUU May. Cmnncmorated at about two hours after sunset on the twenty-second Ascension of BaM'u'Uh. 29 May

~ a n y r & mof the BPb, 9 July. Commcmomd at noon Birth of the Bib, 20 October B f i of B a W u ' W 12 N d W'isshould abstain from work on the three spsial days of RiW and on the Mhcr major boly days. At pwmt, the 'nvin birthdays' are alebraced acaxdhg to the lskmic lunar d m d a r in the Middle East, bur according to the Grcgo- deadar ekmrhere. There is no set format for t h e vviow commemontions, and B&'i wmmunitio organize tbcir own for thuu as they see fa. Dcvotiod programmu of prayers and spxi6c writings for the holy day pa&datly BBhP'uUllPh6tablet of VISKA. noN forthe day of his passing and for the muty4dom ofthe B5b-are commonly orpized. Public celebmtim and comare often held on N a w munal .b R*r and the b i i d a y of W'ullhh. The two minor holy days on which work is not suspmded arc

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Day of the Covenant, 26 November Passingof'Abdu'l-Bahb,28 Nownbu. C o ~ n t c at d about 1 o'clock in

Agaii thuc is no set format for these

days, and Baha'i wmmunides o@ their own meetings.

Shoghi Effendi emphasized the importance of W'is abstaining from work on the major Bahi'i holy days, d e s a this was spxi6caUy disaUowad mder the nrms of rh*r employment. Such abstention was an important

muns of gaining ~ m u ilecocmoa c of the Faith. BaWi parents should similrlp seek to gain psrmkion for rhsi children not to attend school on these days. He also encouraged the -'is not to celebrate the holy days of other religions among themselves. KA 5WO kI 10-12,105gl-2,2216 n13840;tGZPe 303; Forphd; n i ; , ~183-4,ZlW. .---I

In Islam, holy war (iihrld) against u n W v e r s has been regsrded as a means of cxpuudhg and debding the Islpmic rrnlm.

and d k q m s hu as0 " b legimkwd. The messianic 6 p - e of the Mnllol is expected to lead a fiaa jihdd against the forces of unbelief. The BQb's major rdcrenco to the s u b i ~occnr in his QAYY~IAZ- ASH^., &ten during the wrly 'Islamic' phase of his mission. There, in keeping with traditional Islamic ~ t i o n s he , bade his followen, prepare for 'the day of slaughter' that would accompany the advent of the prcdicred Mahdi, and promised tbe desanr of angels to help them slay the unbelievers. In his l a m -+dings the B6b made it clear that the iihrld could only be called by the Mohdi. However, foIlowin&his own ope. claim to chat station. no such call was ever issned, and the BQb instead insmuted fume Bib1 kings to bdeg the peoples of the world to the Bibi & i o n and not to allow unbelie vus - with the cxccption of trader6 to live in their territories. The manner in which the Bhbl 'upheavals' (see BAsf RA~ICAUSM) involved concepts of holy war remains conaoversiaL Certainly the w Iighters saw h r e l v e s Engpged in a holy sm~gglcagainst unbelievers, but

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no declarations of jihrid ever appear t o have been made, even though a t T A B A R Sboth ~, QUDDOS and Mulll HUSAYN were accorded messianic starus, and as such could have taken the role of the Mahdi in leading a jihrid. The struggles may perhaps be seen as 'defensive jihrids', in which the paradigm of MARTYRDOM at the hands of the ungodly coexisted with the use of the sword as a means of proving God's truth. UmEoln, 'MU c a u e p l of holy rmr'; SBBR 21-2. 27, 44-5; Wolbridgs. '866 uw-ring'.

In marked contrast t o Blbism and Islam, the Bahi'i Faith explicitly rejects the concept of jihU. One of the statements made by Bahi'u'llih at the time declaration (1863) was to of his RIDVAN forbid holy war, a command later reiterated in his writings (RBI 278; TB 21, 28, 91; SBBR 79). Instead, Bahl'is should teach the Bahi'i cause with moral example and peaceful persuasion (see TEACHING). If they were persecuted for this, they should be willing to accept martyrdom. It is of note, how eve^ that 'military' imagery remains common in Bahi'i references to the teaching work. Thus 'Abdu'l-Bahl referred t o Bahl'is as the 'armies of God' who, supported by 'the cohorts of the Supreme Concourse', would defeat the 'hosts' and 'legions' of the nations and become the 'conquerors' of East and West (TDP 47-9). and Shoghi Effendi called upon them t o 'mount the steed of steadfastness, unfurl the banner of renunciation, don the armor of utter consecration to God's Cause, gird themselves with the girdle of a chaste and holy life, [and] unsheathe the sword of Bahi'u'llih's utterance' (MBW 49). Again, the first international reaching PLAN was designared as a 'Global Crusade', and its PIONEERS as OF BAHVU.LLAI.I.. 'KNIGHTS

holy years Shoghi Effendi declared 1952-3 (from October to October) t o be a holy year,

commemorating the centenary of the 'birth' of Bahi'u'llih's revelatory mission in the S~YAH-CHIL. It was marked by the fitst series of international Bahi'i CONFERENCES; the start of the TENYEAR CRUSADE; and the dedication t o public worship of the Bahl'i temple a t Wilmette (BW12: 115-88). The Universal House of Justice declared the period from Ridvln 1992 to Ridvin 1993 to be a second holy year, marking the cent e n w of Bahl'u'llih's passing.and the inauguration of his COVENANT. Events of the vear included a n international gathering of Bahi'is a t the BAHM W&LO CENTRE(27-30 May 19921, a t which a scroll with the names of the pioneers of the Ten Year Crusade (the KNIGHTS OF B A H ~ U , L Lwas ~ Hceremonially ) interred at the Shrine of Bahi'u'lllh, and the holding of the second Bahi'i World Congress in New York City (23-26 November). The authorized Englishlanguage translation of the Kitdb-iAQDASwas also published during the came year, and the law of HUQOQU,LLAN into general effect (BWNS 1992: 1 9 4 6 , 95-1021.

homosexuality In the Kitkb-i-AQDASBahi'u'lllh forbade pederasty. Shoghi Effendi interpreted this t o imply a general prohibition on all forms of homosexual activity, regarding it as 'spiritually condemned'. Love people of the same sex between two . . may be very devoted, but to express this love in a sexual relationship is considered wrong. Homosexuality is an affliction, and a Bahi'i who is homosexual should struggle against his or her condition. if necessary seekinrc .medical advice. Such a struggle may be very hard, but will lead t o spiritual growth. Daily spiritual struggle to conform t o God's standard is something all devoted Bahi'is strive f o ~ as , with the unmarried heterosexual who seeks t o remain chaste. Bahi'i institutions should offer

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loving counsel to homosexuals, and only consider administrative sanctions in the case of public scandal. u s 8 tl07.223n131; IG36d-a. (See also SEX.)

houses of justice

Bahl,u,llih called for the fume establishment of~housesof justice' in each city t o administer Bahl'i affairs (KA 2 9 k301, the present 'local spiritual ASSEMBLIES' being- rqarded as precursors of these. He honorific titles also envisaged theestahiishment of what The BLb gave various of his followers is now referred t o as the UNIVERSAL honorific religious titles. The best HOUSEOF JUSTICE, as the d i n g body of known of these are rhe LERERSOF THE k42). In some instances the Faith (KA 35 LIVING.Others were named 'Mirrors'. it i s not clear which of these bodies is Individuals were also given specific being referred to; some responsibilities S religious names: Q U D D ~ ('Holy'), EDUCATION and care for the poor T A H l R l H ('Pure'), VAH~D ('Unique'), HC. perhap being assigned t o both (KA 37 Similarly, BahB'u'llih gave a number of k48, 72 k147, 185 1142). 'Abdu'l-Bahl his early followers titles, including some introduced the concept of 'secondary' or recognizing various names of God national houses of justice (the present (Imu'l-lldh, the 'Name of God'). These spirihlal assemblies') to act as 'national included M u l l l SADIQ K h u r l s i n i the electors of the Universal House of (Imu'lldhu'l-Asdaq, the 'name of God, the most truthful') and Sayyid M I H D ~ Justice (CC1: 322, 325). D A H A IiImu'lldhu'/-Mihdr7. ~ He also HOd appointed four of his followers as OF THE CAUSE OF GOD, a title that HANDS Q u r a n i c p r o p h e t referred t o by was both a rank and came to entail an BahB'u'llih (KI 6-7). administrative h n m o n . 'Abdu'l-Bahl posthumously identified a number of Hujiat (Ar., 'Proof') individuals as Hands. He also gave some of his Western followers Persian names Religious title of rhe Blbi leader in indicative of spiritual qualities and ZANJ~N, M d I l M&mmad-'Mi 7~r1jhd referred to some as 'Handmaiden of (181U3-50). Hujjat was already a leadBah.5' (Amafu'l-Bahri) or 'Handmaiden ing clerical figure in his home town when of the Most High' (Amafu'l-A%). Shohe received a copy of some of rhe Bib's ghi Effendi named various early Bahl'is writings, and his conversion was folas APOSTLES OF BAH;\.U.LLAH and DIS- lowed by that of several thousand of his CIPLES OF 'ABDU.L-BAHA. He also named fcllow townsmen. He was a conrrovera number of BahL'is as Hands, and gave sial figure prior to his conversion, adhcrPloNaEns during the TENY'AR CRUSADE ing t o the minority Akhblil school of OF BAH~U.LLAH'. Shi'ism, and war summoned to Tehran the title of 'KNIGHTS on several occasions ahcr accusations were made against him by other clerics in House of the Bob Zanjln. Greatly revered by his followers, See SninAz: HOUSE OF THE BAB. he became the focal point of the lengthy struggle between rhe local Babis and House of Bahb'u'llbh government forces. His death 0 2 9 December 1850) precipitated the surrenSee BAGHDAD: HOUSE OF BAH~U.LLAH. der of the remaining Bibis. ARR 101-2; Browne, 'Personal reminiscences'; GP8 12; House of Worship MBBP 1 IC23:MES 11617; Nobtl 175-9.529-73: TJ 135-70, 3715; M 9-10: Wolbridgs. 'B6bl upilng'. See MASHRIQU'L-ADHKAR.

human life,

DUIDOK

human rights -~.

of

~

human life, purpose of Bahl'is believe that the purpose of life is for the individual to know, love and worship God and to contribute to the onward progress of humanity. To these ends, all human beings are called upon of GOD to recognize the MANIFE~TATI~N (i.e. at the present time, Bahl'u'lllh); to follow his laws and teachings; to seek to develop SPIRITUALQUALITIFS, SO that they draw closer to God, receive his grace and realize their own spiritual potential; and to work for the betterment of the world, through both TEACHING the Rahl'i Fairh and spreading and imple~ (EDUCAmenting the B A H APRINCIPLES noN. racial and gender equality, ctc.). GWBbSno. 27.214ro. 109:KAI91;1, IW-I.

human nature

they are able to advance towards moral perfection, ultimately becoming heavenly kings but they can also . (ANGELS), turn to degradation, acquire 'satanic qualities', and become viler than the most savage beast. They can acquire spiritual characteristics, or they can accustom themselves to wrongdoing, thus perverting their natural potential (SAQ 214,235-7; SWAB 287-8). Divine education is essential. Self-love is 'kneaded' into the human clay. It is mistaken to believe that there is 'an innate sense of human dignity' which prevenn the individual from committing evil and ensures the attainment of perfection. Infants display signs of aggression and lawlessness, and if they do nor receive the instruction of a teacher their undesirable qualities increase. Through the force of divine RELICION human beings are able to overcome their innatc selfishness and S lives express SPIRITUAL Q U A ~ . ~ - ~in~ Etheir (SDC 96-9). Individuals differ in their innate, inherited characteristics, but whatever these are, they can be transformed, both as a result of education and the capacities the individual acquires for good or evil through the life rhey lead (CCI: 257-60; SAQ 212-16).

For Baha'u'lllh human kings arc created becausc of divine love, and in order that they might in turn love God (HWa nos. 3, 4). Uniquely, the human reality (see SOUL) is able to mirror ail of Gon's names and attributes: howsoever imperfcctly rhey might do this, humans have been made in the 'image' of God (CWR 65 no. 27; HWa no. 3). They are 'as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value*. But these treasures can only he revealed, and individuals achieve their potential, if human race thc human 'mirror' is cleansed 'from the UNITY dross of carthly dcfilements', and this in turn is to br achieved through divine Bahi'u'llhh taught that the human race grace and the spiritual E D U C A T I O N is one indivisible whole: 'the fruits of cxpresscd through the MANIFESTATION(S) one nee. and the leaves of one branch' OF Gon and their scriptures (GWB 65 (TB 164). The canh is a s i n ~ l chomeland, and peaplc should work for the no. 27,261-2 no. 124; TB 161-2). God has given humans FNEI WII.L, howcvcr, well-being of all humankind. Glory lies and it is thus first neccss.aty for the in uprighr conduct, not in nationality or individual to dccide to turn to God rank (TB 67-8). Thc vision of the (GWB 148 no. 77). If people only Rahl'is should be world embracing. rcalizc the grcamess of their own staThey should lavc thc whalc world and tion. they will manifest .. zoodlv. conduct not just their own nation (TB 87-8, (TB 172;. 127). SERVICE to the entire human race Similarlv. .. 'Abdo'l-Bahl referred to and promotion of its hcst interests is human beings as having both an angelic called for (TB 167). Unity would be and an animal namre: if they choose, promoted by TOI.ERANCE and the adop-

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tion of a universal LANGUAGE, and most of all by the union of all the world's peoples in one common faith, religion being a 'binding force' which unites people of different beliefs, creeds and temperaments (K1 72-3). 'Abdu'l-Bahl compared the human race to a flower garden, made beautiful by its diversity of colour and form (SWAB 290-2). Shoghi Effendi identified the principle nf the oneness of mankind as the pivotal teaching of the Bahl'i Fairh (WOE 423). (See also PEACE; RACE; SOCIAL EVOLUTION; WORLD ORDER; wonm U N I . ) MATURITY

Bahi'u'llih stared that the adoption of a universal language; the ability to transmute elements; and the refusal by individuals to accept the burden of kingship would all be signs of the maturity of the human race (KA 88 k189,250-1 11194).

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human rights HUMAN RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

The Bahl'i view of human riahts is based on conceptions of divinely revealed standards of social justice and of the responsibilities of human beings towards each other and towards God. Human responsibiliticr include both those of individuals and those of Eovernmenrs. Specific teachings include: (1)Economic Individuals have the righr to life, food, clothing, adequate wages and rest from labour, private properry and familial inheritance; as well as freedom from both chattel and economic slavery (see ECONOMIC TEACHINGS; SLAVE TRADE). Governments have a responsibility to care for the poor, to institute equitable systems of taxation, to intervene in industrial disputes, and to promote AGKICULNKE and economic development. The rich have a moral responsibility to help the poor. Everyone

has a responsibility to WORK. Everyone has a right to receive a basic EDUCATION and to become literate (see LITEKACY), and parents and the community have a responsibility to ensure that all children are educated. has the (2) Politicnl A GOVERNMENT responsibility to rule with JUSTICE, and to combat CRIME. Arbitrary rule is to k condemned, and should be checked by the existence of consultative assemblies, an educated populace and a free press. Individuals have the right to be neared equally before the LAW, and only to be sentenced aher due legal process. NF.WSPAPERS have a responsibility to report with 'fair speech and truthfulness'. Bahi'is have an obligation to be loyal to government. (3) International and moral order Governments have a responsibility to work for PEACE and international accord, and to promote RF.l.lc1oN. (4) Human equality In the estimation of God all human beings are cqual, and 'an cqual standard of human rights must be recognized and adopted' (PUP 182). WOMENhave equal rights with men (education, work, political participation). All have a responsibility to counter racism (see RACE). Special considcrarion should be given to MINORITIES. (5) Family Individuals have the right to choose their own MARRIAGE partner subject to parental consent, and to determine the number of childtcn rhey have (see BIRTH CONTROL). Everyone within a FAMILY has rights and responsibilities. No one has the right to domination. The BmPi INTERNATIONAL COMMUN~~Y has issued a number of statements relating to various aspects of human rights. These include Religious Intolerance (1995) and Violence Against Women (1995) (BW NS 1994-5: 297-

303).

human rights RELIGIOUS LIBERALISM AND RELIGlOUS AUTHORITY

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Bahl'is are enjoined to 'consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship' (TB 22); religious intolerance and perrccution are condemned; the principle of the INDEPENDENT INVESTIGATION OF TRUTH is upheld; and Bahl'i children are free, if they wish, to choose their own religion (LG 153-6 no. 512, 519-23); Again, wirhin the Bahi'i community 'the undoubted right of the individual t o self-expression, his freedom t o declare his conscience and set forth his views' is stated t o be at 'the very root of the Cause' (BA 63). In seeming contrast t o these 'liberal' teachings, however, Bahi'is also have a suong belief in the vital importance of religious authority. The most important expressions of this are in the claims of the successive Bahi'i leaders (BahB'u'Uih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice) to various forms of divinely bestowed authority and infallible guiand in the dance (see INVALUBILITY), the concept of the Bahi'i COVENANT, belief thar there is a clear chain of authoritative succession thar links these leaders together. Those Bahl'is who reiect the authority claims of some of these centres of the Faith whilst claiming t o accept the authority of others are deemed t o have broken this Covenant and are expelled from the religion as COVENANT-BREAKERS. Other expressions of the concern with authority are the emphasis on obedience to the BahP'i ADMINISTRATION; the deprivation o f ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS of those who seriously breach Bahl'i moral and cerrain social teachings; and the system of official REVIEW of Bahl'i literature. For the great majority of Bahi'is the coexistence of these 'liberal' and 'authoritarian' elements wirhin their Faith has probahly been unproblematic: the two elements arc seen as component

parts of a single religious system. Some Bahl'is, however, have experienced difficulty wirh the assertion of authority within their religion. Given that Western liberal ideas are most firmly established as part of popular consciousness in the West, it is not surprising . .that it has been in the Western BahH'i communities, particularly thar of the United States of America, that issues of authority have led t o difficulties. Thus divergent artitudes towards authority and organization can be traced within the American community from the turn of the century through t o the late 1920s and early 1930s (SBBR 122-26). The contradiction between Western liberalism and the Bahi'i insistence on religious authority has again become a n issue in the American Bahl'i community in recent years, as is evidenced by the statement of the Universal House of Justice to the American Bahi'is, on individual Rights and Freedom (29 December 1988). THE B A H CRITIQUE ~ ~ OF WESTERN LIBERALISM

Part of the distinctiveness of the Bahi'i position on issues of freedom and authority derives from the complex anitude that Bahb'u'llih and 'Abdu'lBahi took towards Western civilization in general: they condemned tyranny and oppressive governments and pratscd the democratic rights and freedoms of the West, but werc also extremely critical of what they saw as the excesses of thc WEST,particularly its MATERIALISM and immorality. For them true civilization could only develop on the basis of true religion ('the highest means for the maintenance of order in the world and the security of its peoples' (KA 1 9 k2; cf. ESW 28, TB 6 3 4 ) ) and the FEAR OF GOD. Again, Bahi'u'llih wrote that he approved of LIBERTY in certain circumstances, but refused t o sanction it in others. Absolute liberty was licence. True liberty consisted 'in man's submission unto My commandments' (KA 63

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k122-5). Similarly, the Universal House of Justice regards liberty as having been carried t o excess in the modem world. Its promotion originally emerged in the struggle against social oppression and injustice, but it has became a wideranging philosophy which promotes the interests of the individual even to the detriment of wider society, leading t o the rejection of all forms of authority and social institutions, whether of government, religion or marriage (UHJ, individual Rights 11). Civilized life depends upon 'the utmost degree of understanding and cooperation between society and the individual'. There has t o be a correct balance between the rights of the individual and the integrity of the social group. The progress and viability of society depends on the development of individual potential and the exercise of individual initiative. It is, therefore, one of the responsibilities of Bahi'i institutions t o safeguard the rights of the individual. At the same time, 'the subordination of the individual will to that of society' is a basic principle of BahB'u'llihS world order (UHJ, individual Rights 20).

Huqirqv'llah (Ar., 'the Right of God') Monetary payment to be made t o the head of the Faith by all Bahl'is able t o afford it. It was established in the Kitdb~-AQDAS by Bahi'u'llih, who described payment as a spiritual bounty which brings the individual closer to God and purifies their possessions. Payment is an individual spiritual obligation, and no Bahl'i is t o Ire solicited for it. It should be offered in a spirit of joy. It is to be paid when a person's property exceeds 1 9 MITI~QALS of gold (2.2 troy ounces) in value. It then amounts t o 19 percent of the value of all wealth other than one's residence, place of business and household furnishings. The payment is t o be made only once on any particular

amount, and subsequent payments become payable on funher increments of wealth after necessary expenses have been deducted. Payment of Huqdq should precede division of a deceased's estate, but after the settlement of funeral expenses and debts. Those who are unable to pay are exempt. Payment also precedes donations t o other Bahi'i FUNDS. The payment is made t o the Centre of the Faith, who determines how it is to be disbursed. Expenditures may be used for such purposes as the promotion of the Bahl'i religion; the upkeep of its propertieq and general charity. K4 28 k28. 55 k97. 108-9 q8-9. 120-1 qA2, q A A 4 . 132-3 q89-99. 135 q9S. 137-8 q102. 187-8 d7.21&19 "125: CCI;489-527; lG3068; W~lbrIdg~. *red 9&101. HISTORY

Bahi'u'llih promulgated the law of Huqdq in 1873, bur initially declined to accept payments. In 1878, however, he appointed Hiji Shlh-Muhammad Manshidi, Aminu'l-Boydn (trustee of the Baydn) as the first Trustee of the Huqdqu'llih, charged wirh collecting the Huqdq from the Bahi'is in Iran. Payments were also made via ZAYNU.LM U Q A R R A in B ~Mosul. N The successive trustees following Manshidi's death in 1881 were: HIii A M ~ N(Abdu'l-Hasan Ardiklni), Amin-i-Ildhi ('trusrec of God'; 1881-1928); HBji Ghulim- Ridi, Amin-i-Amin ('trustee of the trustee'; 1928-38); Valiyu'llih VARQA(193855); and 'Ali-Muhammad VARQA (from 1955). Hiji Amin was posthumously and the named as a HANDOFTHECAUSE, two Varqbs (father and son) wcre appointed to this rank directly. After ~ahl'u'lllh", death in 1892 the'successive Centres of the Faith have been the recipients of the Huqdq, expending it largely for the promotion and practical needs of the religion as it expanded world-wide. Payment of Huqdq was a t first mostly confined t o the Bahi'is of the Middle East, this being one of a

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H u s g Khbn, M i d , Mushihirv'd-drmrlih

Husv number of laws (see LAW) that were deliberately not applied universally throughout. the ~ a h a ' world. i lnformition about the Huatla was made freely available to ~ a h l ' kelsewhere in 1985 (increasing the potential number who might pay if they wished), but the law was nor made universally applicable until 1992. As the numbcr of Bahi'is paying Huqtlq has increased, a nerwork of dcpurics and representatives has been appointed t o receive the payments. A central office of Huqciqu'llih was estahlished in Haifa in 1991. Haqtlq resembles the Shi'i payment of khumr, 'the fifth' of gained wealth, in p a n payable to the representatives of the IMAMS.The term also occurs in the BAYAN.MUHl 637-8 no. 404. 670 "0. 430; Walbridge, Sacrd9L8.

Hurayn (626-80)

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Third of the Shi'i IMAME; killed at KARBALA. Having refused to pledge his allegiance ro rhe Umayyad caliph Yazid, Husayn, with a small group of supportcrs, was confronted hy the Ummayad forces. All the fighting men were killed, apart from Husayn's son 'Ali, the future Fourth Imlm, and the women and children captured. Husayn's death is by Shi'is as sacrificial Mnnrvn~ regarded n0.u for the cause of truth against the forces of impiety. It is annually commemorated with great emotional fcrvour hy Shi'is during the holy month of Muharram and continues t o inspire Shi'is t o sacrificial action. Husayn is expected to return following the advent of the Mnlmi. Baha'u'llih eulogized Husayn, claimed to he his RETURN and identified himself with him, and prrr mised that God would soon 'torment' those who had waged war apainst him (a prophecy that BahB'is associate with the sultans and downfall of the *OMAN the cn~.~virrn-r). Shoghi Effendi referred to Husayn's uniqueness, and stated that he had k e n endowed wirh a special

'grace and power' amongst the Imims. 2833. 288-9. Hqlgie 86-8; 1G 496.4W: Maman. ShRl&m

Hurayn BurhrG'i, Mu116 (c.181449) The first of the Blb's disciples (see OF THE LIVING), and ialled by LETTERS him the B6buPl-bib('Gate of the Gate'). He was born in the hamlet of Zirak near the small town of Bushrhyih in the north-eastern Iranian province of Khurisin. His father appears to have k e n a wealthy cloth dyer who was also a local cleric. His mother was a respecred poet. Hc furthered his own religious studies in Mashhad and Igfihln, and then went to Karbali as one of the students of the Shaykhi leader Sayyid K;\ZIMRASHTI, becoming so highly respected that some thought that he nrighr he his successor. He was sent as Rashri's representative to defend Shaykhi views before Mu116 Muhammad-BBqir Shafri, the preeminent Shi'i cleric of his age. Returning to Karbali shonly after Rashti's dcarh (31 December 184311 January 1844), he became leader of a group of younger Shaykhis who held messianic cxpectations. After a period of religious retrrar he travelled to S ~ i x l z ,perhaps intcnding to travel on to Kirmin to meet KAniM KHAN,one of the claimants to Shaykhi leadership. Insread, he met the RAn and, after a period of hesitation (douhring thar a non-cleric could have a station of Icadership), accepted his claims, the night of his acceptance (22 May) effectively marking rhc start of Bibism as a religious movement. Others of his companions followed his lead, including his brother and nephew. He then iourneyed to Isfhhln, Klshin and Tehran (where he fonvardcd a lerter from the Bll? to M U I I A M M SHAII A ~ and HQji M i n i A ~ h s i ) ,gaining convem in each (including Mull6 SAmq Khurlsini and B A H ~ W L L AkHf o) ,r c returning to his home province, where he established

1

himself in Mashhad, mak~nga a focal point h Bibi mission H e travelled extensively, including visiting the BBb again in Shirlx and M A K O . In July 1848, a t the Bib's insmucrions, he left Mashhad at the head of a eroun of followers. carrying the messianic symbol of the Evenrually reaching BLACKSTANDARD. Blrfurhsh, the parry was anacked, leadins to the Shavkh TABARSI 'u~heaval'. , . -~~~ during which Mu116 Husayn was killed ( 2 February 1849). Accounts of this conflict note his physical frailry, and contrast his former life as a scholar to his new life as a fearless and muchfeared warrior. AaR 155-74. 2615, 2673; Mshrobkhoni: Nabil 19-24 47-67, 85-7, 97-108.

- .

the volume of the Quran. BahB'u'llih stated thar if it had not k e n for him God 'would not have ascended the throne of eternal glory'. GPB7.50; MarEoin. '~iermrck/10s-8.

...

Husayn Khan, MirzL, Mushiru'd-dawlih (Ar., 'Counsellor of stare') (d. 1881)

~~~

~~

123-8.I594l.170.254-57.28E91.324-68.379-

83: TI 32-9. 4355. 67-71, 934. 1 W . 335-6. 3442.35943; IN 24GI. Thc Blbis accorded Mu116 Husayn an exalted station. He was the 'gate' to the Blb, acting as his deputy; 'the first to believe'; and the ' ~ r i m a lmirror'. He was also regarded by some as the 'RETURN' of the Prophet Muhammad and of the Imlm Husayn, as well as the Q A I M of Khurisin. The Bib's eulogies and prayers for him amount to three rimes

As Iranian minister in Istanbul, 1859-

70, he was responsible for discussions wirh the Ottoman authorities regarding the exiles of Baha'u'lllh. He became NA$IRU.D-D~N SFIAH'Schief minister in 1871, and embarked on an energetic campaign of government reform. Opposition t o his policies led to his dismissal in 1873. He remained an influential political figure far a few more years, but was then increasingly marginalized. He died under mysterious circumstances -poisoned by order of the shah according t o some. Bahl'u'llih held him responsible for his own exile to Akka, but praised his honesty and dedication to his country, and asked for divine forgiveness for him (ESW 68-9). bLhosh n-132; Comb+ H ; W d l m n 7 184-$0.

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Im(lms

Agdaq visited ~ahl'u'llbh in Baghdad Hiji Mirzi Muhammad-Taqi Ahhari, with his father in 1861-3, and father and Iranian HAND0s THE CAUSE.He was son were imprisoned together an BahP'is born into a family of respecred TILAMA in shortly after their return to Iran. He the villape of Abhar (between Qazvin and longed to attain the station of a martyr Zanjln). His father kcame a Blhi in for the Faith and wrote to Bahl'u'llih to 1847 and later a BahP'i. After the murder supplicate for this. BahCu'lllh replied of his father in 1874 and threats to his (in 1880) that what was called for was own life, Ibn-i-Abhar moved to Zanjin service to the Cause, and in particular and brought the large Bibi community TEACHING it with wisdom. Such endeathere to an acceptance of Bahi'u'lllh. He travelled extensively in lran, consolidat- vour might have the status of MARTYRing the network of Bahl'i communities DOM even though no blood was shed. In 1882 Bahi'u'lllh gave ibn-i-Asdaq the and teaching the Faith. Bahl'u'llih title of 'Martyr, son of a martyr' (Shohid appointed him a Hand of the Cause in ibn-i-shohid). Meanwhile Ihn-i-Agdaq about 1886. He was imprisoned for his Bahi'i activities in 1878-9 and again had begun to devote himself to extenswe between 1890 and 1894. He was one of a group that travelled to India to promote the Faith in 1907, and also visited Turkistan and the Caucasus. His wife, Munifih Khinum (d. 1957), daughter of Hiji AKH~JND, was involved in the esrab lishment of a BahlY school for girls in Tehran, and hoth she and her husband were members of a Bahi'i committee for the advancement of women formed in 1909 (see WOMEN). Shoghi Effendi named OF BAH~U.LL~\H. him one of the APOSTLES

travels within lran to promote the Faith. In 1887 he was desimated a Hand of the Cause by ~ a h i ' d l l i h and he was involved in the subsequent work of that body in Tehran. ~hro;gh his marriage to 'Udhrl Khinum Id. 19231, a member of the Q6j.i~ nobility, h e w a s able to contact members of the ruling stratum and inform them about the Faith. He was also able to deliver 'Abdu'l-Bahi's 'Treatise on POLITICS' (Rislili-yi-Siyiisipjh) to the shah. He later travelled widely in India, Burma, the Caucasus and Russian Turkistan. In 1919, together with Ahmad Yazdini, he delivered 'Abdu'l-Bahi's letter to the Central Organization for a Durable Peace in The Hague (see Tablet to the HAGUE). Shoghi Effendi named him as one of the APOSTLES OF BAH~U.LLAH. EB 1714; H o p r 9-12; RU.3014 iconography There is little in the way of a distinctive BahP'i iconography. Calligraphic representations of the GREATEST NAME in Arabic are commonly found as wall hangings and on the covers of some older BahP'i books. Many Bahl'is place photographs of 'Abdu'l-Bah6 in their homes (hut never those of Bahl'u'llih, as a mark of respect for his sanctity). Much Bahi'i AncHlrEcTunE at the BAHM WORLDCENTREis classical (largely Greek) in inspiration, but other buildings, particularly the Houses of Worship (MASH~IQWL-ADHKAR) reflect the indigenous styles of their localities. The Houses of Worship do not contain any figurative representations. Nine-pointed stars (see NUMBERS) are sometimes used as a decorative motif. (See also ART; CALLIGRAPHY.)

EB26B; Harp. 13-16; R E 4 30612.

I b n - i - A r d a q , (c.1850-1928) Mirzi 'Ali-Muhammad. Iranian &ND CAUSE.He was the son of the revered Blhi and Bahi'i teacher Mu116

OF THE

Ibn-i~Alddq,o m offhc IIarrds of the Cnlrre

appointed by RoU'~r'1ldb

Imams In general, Islamic religious leaders (At.: imim, lit. 'one who stands in front'), including the leader of the Friday communal prayers (imrim-jum'a).

In Twelvcr S H ~ I Sthe M term designates specifically the succession of twelve legitimate leaders after the Prophet Muhammad. Denied their rightful role as rulers of the Islamic community, they guided their followers in the path of true faith. They were the signs of Cod on earth. Created from divine light, they received inspiration from God. They were the best of men, immune from sin and error. It was the duty of every person to recognize the lmim of the age: those who did not were nor true believers. Each received the specific designation (nos?) of his predecessor. The Twelver succession is as follows (other Shi'i groups having different lists):

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(1) 'Ali ibn Ahi Tilib. The cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. Briefly caliph, 656-61. His shrine is at Najaf in Iraq. (2) Hasan Id. 669). Eldest son of 'Ali by his wife (Muhammad's daughter) Fltima. He was buried in Medina. (3) HUSAYN (626-80). Second son of 'Ali and Fitim? Killed at K*RBALA. (4) 'Ali, Zaynu'l-'Abidin (658-71213). Son of the I m i m Husayn by ShahrhlnO, daughter of the last Sassanian ruler of Iran. He was huried in Mcdina. (5) Muhammad al-Blqir (676-?735). Son of the Fourth lmlm and a daughter of the Imlm Hasan. He was buried in Medina. His halfbrother, Zayd, revolted against Ummayad rule in 740, and was the originator of Zaydi Shi'ism. (6) Ja'far as-Sidiq (d. 765). Son of the Fifth Imlm and of a great-granddaughter of the first caliph, Abh Bakr. The Isml'ili Shi'i lmlms traced their descent from his eldest son, Ismi'il, who predeceased his father. (7) Mhsl al-Klzim (d. 799). Son of the Sixth lmlm and a Berber slave. Poisoned by order of the Ahhasid

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Imbrie, Major Robeti caliph Hiar-Rashid. His shrine is in what became the Kizimayn suburb of Baghdad. (8) 'Ali ar-Rid6 (765-818). Son of the Seventh Imim and a slave. He died in Khurlsin, and his shrine is in whar is now the Iranian city of MASHHAD. The shrine of his sister, Finma, is in the Iranian city of Qum. (9) Mu!mmmad at-Taqi (81CL33). Son of the Eighth lmim and a Nubian slave. He was buried in whar is now Kizimayn. (10) 'Ali al-Hidi (82719-68). Son of the Ninth lmim and a Moroccan slave. He spent most of his adult life under house arrest in the Iraqi city of Simarrb. (11) Hasan al-'Askari (?84&7314). Son of the Tenth Imim and a slave. He spent most of his life in detention at Sirnard. (12) Muhammad al-Mahdi. Supposed son of the Eleventh l m h and a slave. At the time of the Eleventh LmimS death, the Shi'is disagreed as t o whether he had had a son, and if he had, whether this son had survived him, and what hc war called. According to the Twelver Shi'is there was a son, and he disappeared into mysterious occulh e n . $hi? lslom tation (see SH~'ISM). 2345.

Bahl'is accept the validity of the imamarc, Bahi'u'llih referring t o the lmims as 'lights of divine guidance' and 'lamps of certitude' IKI 92.. 98).. and Shoehi Effendi describing the imamate a s a 'divinelv-aoooinred institution' which ' .. was 'the chosen recipient' of divine guidance for some 260 years after the passing of Muhammad, and was (with the Quran) one of the t w o 'most precious legacies' of Islam (WOE 102). Bahi'is do not believe that there was a Twelfth h i m , however. The Bahl'i d m i n e of COVENANT, with its emphasis

on designated succession, and the institution of GurnorANrHrP have obvious similarities to the imamate. Imbrie, M a j o r Robert (d. 18 July 1924) Recently appointed American viceconsul in Tchran, who war murdered by a mob on the mistaken suspicion that he was a Bahi'i. The incident anracred enormous attention in the United States, and indicated the continued force of anti-Bahi'i sentiment in Iran. It had significant diplomatic consequences and prompted the departure of resident American Bahi'is from Tehran. (See also MOODY) MBBR462-5. incorporation Canstitution of an organization as a separate legal entity. It is used by many national and local ASSEMBLIES as a means of gaining a definite legal status, enabling them t o enter into contracts, hold property and receive bequests. The first national assembly m gain this status was that of the United States and Canada in May 1929, and the first local assembly that of Chicago in February 1932, in each case following the adoption of their resoective CONSTITUTIONS. Numerous other assemblies around the world have since followed their examvle. Avart from legal advantages, incorporation has been rcgarded as a means of securing pueLlc RECOGNITION. GP8335-5.

independent investigation of truth Basic Bahi'i principle, repeatedly stressed by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Everyone should investigate truth for themselves rather than following tradition and the beliefs of others. They should depend on their own perceptions and be guided by their own consciencer. They should use the power of REASON, itself a divine creation and gift. In the investigation of

nELlCloN they should seek divine assisScholarly studies relating the nvo relitance for themselves. As reality is one, gions are as yet few. MiBm;~onsn.n;nduim. such investigation will lead to religious uniry and human solidarity. It was the indigenous p e o p l e s blind following of the past that led t o the rejection of the successive MANIFES- Bahi'is believe in the unity and oneness TATIONSOFGOD. Unthinking imitation of of the human race, bur also value the the past smnts the mind. Independent diversity of culture and thought (WOE enquiry frees society from endlessly 41-21, in p a n because this demonstrates reoeahna the mistakes of the Dart IPT the universality of the Faith. Thus ethnic diversity has come to be valued as a characteristic of the world Bahi'i cam4434,454; SWAB 29,248,298). There muniry, Shoghi Effendi noting with is an imdicit contrast here with the Shi'i pleasure the conversion of representaprinciple of raqlid (imitation), whereby tives of an increasing number of ethnic it is considered nccessarv for the ordingroups during the course of Bahi'i ary believer to follow a learned specialist EXPANSION (leaving aside the question in maners of religious law (Momen, of what exactly constitutes an 'ethnic Shi'i Islam 175-6). 'Abdu'l-Bahi was group', a total of 2,112 such groups are rejecting taqlid and the clerical status of now (May 1994) said to be represented certain .ULAMI( (the mujtahids) which in the Faith (BWNS 1994-5: 317)). This rested on it. diversity was well illustrated in the Baha'i World Coneresses of 1963 and 1992 (see CONFERENCES), with Bahb'is in Indian religions indigenous dress from around the world. A complex variety of religious tradiIn a number of national Bahi'i tions coexist in India, many of them communities indigenous peoples have included within the overarching framebecome a significant presence, and comwork of 1-lindoism. Separate and dismunity life has evolved t o reflect their tinctive religious traditions includc concerns, as with the establishment of B U ~ U H I SJainism M, and Sikhism. The Bahi'i nAnto stations in Latin America Baha'i writings contain few cxplicit catering for local needs and promoting references to any of these reliaions - (see Amerindian culture. Members of indiRELIGION). Such refcrcnces as there are - genous groups have also sometimes mostly from Shoahi Effendi - recomize played an international role, as with ~ r i s h n aas a ~ A ~ ~ r s l ' A T r o N o F ~ o ~ Native a n d American Bahi'i musical and Hinduism as one of nine recognized cultural groups which have toured parts revealed religions; doubt the origins of Europe and Asia promoting the Faith, and authcnriciry of the Hindu scripand contacts made by traditional leaders tures; and claim that Bahi'u'llih was among the Bahi'is of various Pacific the prophetic 'tenth avatar' in succesnations with their counterparts in other sion t o Krishna. ccl: 15-22;cde.'~aWu'lh5h pans of the Pacific. Again, Rahb'is have on Hinduism mod Zomor"ioni,m'. participated in such events as the Unitcd The very rapid expansion of the Nations International Year for the Baha'i community in India from the World's Indigenous Peoples (1993) and 1960s onwards has in part rested on a International Decade for Indigenous successful presentation of the Bnhi'i Peoples (launched in December 1994); Faith in popular Hindu terms, and the 'Spiritual Gathering of the Tribes' specifically dc-emphasizing Islamic terbringing together indigenous peoples minology (Garlington, 'Bahb'i hhajuns'). from Siberia and North America; and

indigenous religions the Austtalian Aboriginal Reconciliation Council (BWNS 1994-5: 85-8). (See o/s0 MINORITIES; PREJUDICE; RACE.)

indigenous religions Although now increasingly overlain o r replaced by more universal religious systems, such as Buddhism, Christianity or Islam. localized religions maditionally provided an imporrantbasis for the sen* of identity of 'tribal' and other peoples. . Such 'indigenous religions' vary greatly in their beliefs and practices. They commonly stress a particular pattern of moral and community life, specify techniques for approaching or utilizing sacred power, and provide a n overarching explanation for the way the world is. Animistic and magical elements are often prominent, as they are also in the folk versions of the universal religions. Specific references t o other religions in the Bahl'i writings focus on the 'historic' religions, particularly lslam and Christianity, but it is also believed that God has communicated his will t o all the world's peoples, 'Abdu'l-Baha explicitly stating rhat God's call had undoubtedly been raised in the Americas in the past. Combined with the Bahl'i belief in the common humanity of all peoples, this belief has provided a potential point of contact between Baha'is and indigenous groups in various parts of the world: rather rhan condemning traditional beliefs as 'pagan' - as is sometimes done by the missionaries of other religions - Bahl'is are often able to accept at least elements of traditional religious culture as com. patible with Bahl'i membership. Native American or Native Australian Baha'is, for example, may thus be able t o regard Bahl'i as a fulfilment o f their own traditional beliefs. This is pamcularly relevant when the native tradition contains millenarian elements which can be interpreted in Bahl'i terms. Buck. '% meuenp"'; O3.i; weirs1-n; wi1k.p and nrom. ~

individual For Shoghi Effendi the role of the individual in the progress of the Faith was primary. The fate of the entire Baha'i community depends on its individual members. Only through the support of the 'rank and file' can the Bahl'i aoMrNlsmmoN function effectively, and the Faith's expansion PLANS be accomis depenplished (CF 130-1). TEACHING dent on individual effort (CC2: 320 no. 1991, 324 no. 2004). Again, ultimately the only factor that will secure the 'triumph' of the Cause is the extent t o which the 'inner life' of individual Bahl'is mirrors forth Bahh'u'lllh's principles (BA 66). He also stressed that the right of individual self-expression (in relationship to the administration) lies 'at the very root of the Cause' (BA 63). Similarly, the Universal House of Justice has repeatedly stressed the importance of the individual in accomplishing all Bahl'i plans, staring that through 'universal participation', both the individual and the whole body of believers would be empowered. Each person has their own 'talents and faculties' which they are able to contribute. All can teach, pray, 'fight their own spiritual battles', deepen their knowledge of the Faith, and contribute t o the Bahl'i FUND (MUH] 33 no. 14.7, 42-3 no. 19).

infallibility Being incapable of error, in terms of doctrinal statements. The term used in the Baha'i writings - 'isma means both sinless and infallible, and is of Islamic origin (according t o Shi'i belief Muhammad, Fltima and the Twelvc Imams all possessed 'isma). Bahl'is distinguish between nuo kinds of infallibility. THE 'MOST GREAT 1NFALLIBII.ITY'

Bahl'u'lllh

taught that this was the OF of the MANIFESTATIONS Goo alone, whereby they were both

sanctified from error, and constituted in themselves the standard of truth which others were t o follow. Thus they were not limited by human standards: if they pronounced water to be wine, or heaven t o be earth, it was the truth. It war incumbent on others t o adhere to what they ordained (KA 36-7 k47; TB 10810). Some other individuals might also be guarded from sin, but this was a lesser infallibility. 'Abdu'l-Bahl commented that the Manifestations' infallibility was essential t o themselves and inseparable from them. Thus, whatevcr emanated from them was identical with the truth. Whatever they said was the word of God. Whatever they did was an upright action. No one had the right to criticize. If their words and actions were not understood by people, this was because of human ignorance (SAQ 171-4). 'CONFERRED' OR 'ACQUIRED) INFALLIBILITY

This is granted by God t o tho% who are the mediators of grace and guidance between God and human beings. By this God protects and preserves many 'holy beings' from error, so rhat they may act as guides t o other humans. Such acquired infallibility would not be inherent in their persons, however. 'Abdu'lBahi stated that it would bc granted to S A L OF the as yet unelected U N ~ V ~ HOUSE JUSTICEa s a body, but not t o its individual members (SAQ 172-3); as Guardian of the Bahit'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi would also be under God's uncrring guidancc (see GUARDIANSHIV); whilst as appointed interpreter 'Ahdu'lBahl himself voiced 'the very truth', and whatever his pen recorded was correct (SWAB 214; MUH] 545). Shoghi Effendi defined his own infallibility as being confined t o the INTERI'RETATION and application of scR!PrUnE and t o the protection of the Bahl'i Faith. It did nor extend to economics, science or technical matters. Unlikc the Manifestations of

God he was not 'omniscient at will'. When he stared that something was for the protection of the Faith he should be obeyed, but if he merely gave advice t o an individual, then this was not binding (LG 311 no. 1050, 313 no. 10.55; MUHJ 546"). He also distinguished his own position from that of 'Abdu'l-Bnhl, in whose person human nature and 'superhuman knowledge and perfection' had been blended (WOB 134, 151).

inheritance Bahl'u'lllh instructed his followen t o write WILLS, and specified that they had complete freedom t o dispose of their property as they wished. In cases of intestacy, however, he provided a detailed schedule of inheritance adapted from the provrsions set our by the Bib in the BAYAN. According t o the Bahl'i schema it is necessary fint to ensure that the haneral and burial expenses of the deceased have been paid, then any other outstanding Afrer debn. and then the HUQUQU.LLAH. this the estate is to be divided among scven categories of hcin (the equivalent of three-sevenths to the children, with progressively smaller shares for the spouse, father, mother, brothers, sisters and teachers). In the absence of all or some of these categories the son's children (not the daughter's), nephews and nicces, uncles and aunn, cousins, and the local HOUSE OF JUSTICE may inherit specified portions of the estate. In the absence of any of these relatives the entire estate passes to the house of justice. The deceased's principal house parser to the eldest son, who also has the responsibility to support his widowed mother. Clothing and personal effects generally pass to the same-sex offspring. The proportions allotted to sons are grearer rhan those allotted to daughters. 'Abdu'l-Babl upheld the principle of primogeniture, emphasizing the 'extraordinary distinctions' given to the eldest son in most religions, not only in matters

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of material inheritance, bur also in religious leadership (KA 186: WOB 148). Bath the ~hi'iimamate(see LMAMS) and the Baha'i GuAnolaasnIr are based on the idea of primogeniture. ~n 2 6 8 k20-8, lob9 q5-7. q9, 115-17 q28. 9334. 118 q37.119-20qd1, lZZJq535. 127q69. 128q72. 12930 q78. 130 q80, 13.6-7 qlW. 1534. 182-8 "38-47: Wolbridge. S m d 83-93. institutes

Bahl'i educational and DEEPENING facility. With the large-scale EXPANSION of the Bahl'i Faith into the 'Third World' from the late 1950s onwards, new approaches t o deepening the large number of new and often illiterate rural Baha'is were necessary: it was not feasible to expect the new Bahl'is to journey t o often distant S U M M E R scHoor.s and follow their traditional book-based curriculums. One response increasingly adopted during the 1960s was rural-based 'teaching institutes', held in the areas where the new Bahl'is lived, and often utilizing modest buildings constructed t o serve as village Bahi'i centres. Visiting or local tutors would then present courscs covering the basic rudiments of Baha'i belief and practice and designed t o prepare the new Baha'is for active involvement in the ongoing TEACHING campaigns. The instin~tebuildings were also readily used as a venue for LITERACY CI~SSCS and simple 'tutorial scHooLs. With increasing experience, the institute concept has heen expanded t o include various aspects of human rrsourcc de~~clopmcnr, h a c d on Iwal nrcds and the Rahi'i idml of service to the community (e.g. training courses for teachers and Baha'i administrators). Permanent institutes have now been established in many countries, the Ruhi Institute in Puerro Tejada, Columbia (established 1976), and the Bahl'i Academy in Panchgani, India (1982) being particularly well known. C C k 42-4: LG 5634.

intellect

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The capacity for KNOWLEDGE, understanding and thinking. 'Abdu'l-Bahi regarded it as God's greatest gift to humanity: it is a wonderful power, born of divine light, which enables human beings t o comprehend the material creation. It distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. Through it, human beings are able m develop rheir science and technology by which they understand and to some extent gain control over nature. Its divine purpose is the promotion of human CIVILIZATION, but it can also be misused t o create means of war and destruction (PT32-3, 65). With WISDOM, it is one of the Iwo most luminous lights in creation (SDC 1). Human beings vary in their intellectual capacity, but intellecrua! deuelopmcnt requires EDIJCATION, and through it the ignorant become learned (SAQ 21214). The intellectual faculty is viewed as unlimited, and the source of discoveries, arts, crafts and sciences. No subject should be excluded from its purview. (PUP 63-4, 287).

International Archives

The international archives of the Faith comprise a variety of items, including personal effects of thc B6b, Bahb'u'llih and 'Ahdu'l-Rahi (clothes, pen-cases, rings, watches, ctc.), relics such as locks o f t h e i r hair, a p h o t o g r a p h o f Bahi'u'llhh and a ponrait of the BQb, original manuscripts, and other objects of historical interest such as Mu116 HUSAYN'S sword. Shoghi Effendi wanted to display these in a way in which they could be viewed reverentially by visiting

intercalary days

See AYYAM.I.HA. intercession

See DEATH.

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interfaith dialogue

Bahi'is regard all divine religions as expressions of the same Gad-given truths (see RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY). Nondis~utatiousinterfaith dialogue . is implicirly encouraged, Bahl'is offering their supporr to organizations such as rhe World Fellowship of Faiths and the World Conference on Religion and Peace, and initiating o r supporting interreligious conferences concerned with such topics as the promotion of religious tolerance or the contribution of religion to peace and justicc. American

Bahi'is began celebraring World Religion Day (held on the third Sunday in January) in 1950. It is now celebrated world-wide, and in some countries has generated considerable interest, attracting the support of various religious leaders and other dignitaries. Its format varies, commonly featuring speakers from various religious traditions, but its essential purpose is t o express the need for a single world religion ( L G 507 no. 1710). UWNS i w k ~ 93-4. : 12830; W. h a . b h 0 7 D k I h m q 242.

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Bahi'is. The three new rooms Shoghi OF Effendi had added on t o the SHRINE THE BAB(1929) were at first used for this purpose, becoming the fint 'international Bahi'i Archives'. A second 'minor' archives was later established in a building close to what is now the Monument Gardens. These arrangements were not adequate, and in 1952 Shoghi Effendi announced his decision t o construct a purpose-built archives building. Work began in 1954 and was completed in 1957. The building itself is in the style of the Parthenon in Athens, with a colonnade of fifty Italian marble columns and a green-riled roof. It measures 3 2 x 14 metres and is 12 metres high. The interior consists of a large display hall with a surrounding balcony. Shoghi Effendi referred to the building as the first of the 'stately' edifices of the Bahi'i world administrative centre. A large extension connected to the basement of the original building has been constructed as parr of the present development of the Anc. ~ u h e168-70: nebbani, PrcFk>sPeorl2636; Giochav 14869.

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International kk'iBureau International Baha'i Bureau Office established by Mrs Jean Stannard in Geneva in 1925 following consultations with Shoghi Effendi. It served t o promote Bahi'i teaching activities in Europe, and also as a communications centre between Bahi'i groups internationally. It organized meetings, distributed Bahi'i literature, maintained contacts with the League of Nations as a recognized international organization, and produced various publications and translations, including a trilingual (English, French, German) bulletin. It functioned as an auxiliary t o the Bahi'i administrative centre in Haifa. Its public relations activities were greatly reduced in the worsening political situation of the 1930s. Much of its work was taken over by the BAHki INTERNATIONALCOMMUNITY from 1948 onwards. The Bureau closed following the formation of the national spiritual assembly of Switzerland in 1957. ew4: 25761.6: I3M: GPS 380. lnternational Baha'i Council Institution created in November 1950 by Shoghi Effendi, a n d formally announced t o the Bahi'i world in January 1951 as a forerunner of the UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE. Its initial functions were to forge links with the Israeli authorities and to conduct negotiations regarding matters of personal status with them (i.e. regarding the possibilities of establishing a Bahi'i court), and t o assist Shoghi Effendi in the work of completing the superstrucOF THE BAD.It also ture of the SHRINE served as an international Bahi'i secrctariat. The Council war to be evolutionary in nature. Eight members were initially appointed, and a ninth added in 1955. Five were also appointed as HANDSOF T H F CAUSE.After Shoghi Effendi's death in 1957 the Council operated under the direction of the Custodial Hands in Haifa. The original

appointed Council was reformed as an elected body in Ridv5n 1961. The election was by postal ballot by the members of all national and regional spiritual assemblies formed a t Ridvln 1960; all adult Bahi'is except for the Hands were eligible for election. The Council ceased to exist with the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963. All five of its then male members were elected onto the House. ewrz: 37a W. 13: 39MOl; MBW7-9.22.86;Robbanl. Prhbu Psa( 92-94.249-53. lnternational Baha'i Library Projected future building on the Anc. There is a t present a B ~ n k iWORLD CENTRElibrary which serves as a library of deposit for all Bahi'i publications. lnternational Teaching Centre Bahi'i i n s t i ~ t i o nestablished in Haifa by the Universal House of Justice in June 1973, primarily in order to extend into OF the fut"re the functions of the HANDS THE CAUSE resident at the BahP'i World Centre. l a original duties were: ( I ) to direct and ca-ordinate the work of the CONTINENTAL BOARDS O F COUNSELLORS and t o act as liaison between there Boards and the Universal House of Justice; (2) t o be fully informed of the situation of the Faith in all pans of the world, and on the basis of that knowledge make recommendations to the House of Justice and advise the Continental Counsellors; (3) to be alert to the possibilities for the extension of BahB'i reaching activity; (4)to determine and anticipate needs for literame, PIONaeRs, and travelling teachers (see TEACHING), and to work out regional and global teaching plans for approval by the House of Justice. It directs the work of thc Continenral Pioneer Committees. It is directly responsible to the House of Justice. A building to serve as the permanent seat of the lnternational

International leaching Centm

Members and office-bearers of the IBC

ELECTED

APPOINTED RONlYYlrl KHANUM Amelia COLLINS Charles Mason ~ M E Lotfullah Hakim Jessie Revel Ethel Revel Ben Weeden Gladys Weeden

Y

1950-61 1950-51 1950-61 1950-61 1950-61 1950-61 1950-1 1950-1

LSFlHand WMand PMand AS-E Tr AS-W

Leroy l o ~ s Ugo GIACHERI Sylvia loas

1961-3 VF'

Ali Nakhjavani Charles Wolcott Ian Semple Mildred Mottahedeh Borrah Kavelin

1961-3 1961-3 1961-3 1961-3 1961-3

AS AS-E AS-W LSE MaL P

assistant secretary Eastern assistant secretary Wcrtcrn assistant secretary liaison with Shoghi Effendi member-at-large president

Teaching Centre is a t present under construction (see ARC). swra r11-14. Its original working nucleus comprised the four Hands resident in Haifa (ROHlYYm KHANUM,A.A. F~ROTAN, P. HANEY and A-Q. FAIZ!),coxether with . three newly appointed lnternational Counsellors (see list below). All other Hands were members. The remaining Hands were freed from rerrular involvement with the work of t i c Centre in May 1988, maintaining only an advisory role (only three Hands are now still alive, all based in Haifa). The number of Counsellor members was raised to four in 1979, to seven in 1983, and to nine in 1988. A five-year (reappointable) term of S ~ M Cwas ~ introduced in 1983, and a requirement that a quorum of five should always be present at the Bahi'i World Centre in 1988.

P

1- UHJ)

SG AS

(-r (-r

UHJ) UHJ)

MaL

(-

UHJI

SG

TI VP -t

secretary-general treasurer vice-president UHJ subsequently elected as a member of the Universal House of Justice

COUNSELLOR MEMBERS

Mr H m p r Dunbar

1973-88 (- UI-IJ) Mrs Florence Maybercy 1973-83 (retired) Mr Aziz Yazdi 1973-88 (retired) Miss A ~ e l i e r eBODD .. Dr Maxdalrne Carney Mr Masud Khnmsi

Dr Peter Khan Mrs Isobel Sabri

1979-88 (retired) 1983-91 (d.) 1983-93 1983-7 ( 4UHJ) 1983-92 id.) . .

Dr Famam Arhab 1988-93 (- UHJ) Mr Hanmut Crmrmann 1988Mrr Lauxna King 198& -wDonald 198G98 .MIS Joy Stevenson 1988-98 1Mr Peter Vuyiya 1988-93 Mr Kaiser Barnes MrsJoan Lincoln Mr Shapanr Maadjern Mr Frrd SFhechrer Mrs Kimiko Schwerin

199319931993-8 1993-8 1993-8

Mr Rolf von G i k u s Mrs Wolett Hankc Dr Firaydaun Javaheri Dr Payman Mohajer Dr Penny Walker

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19981998199819981998-

interpretation Bahl'is recognize rwo different kinds of interpretation of their own canonical LITERATIIRE.

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AUTHORITATIVE Both 'Abdu'l-Bahl and Shoghi Effendi were explicitly appointed as authoritative interpreters of the Bahi'i writings (WOE 133, 134, 136, 14&50), and their interpretations are regarded by Bahl'is as infallible (LC311 no. 1050, 313 nos. 1055-6; See INFALLIBILITY). Since the death of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, and the consequent loss of a living GUARDIANSHIP, there is no Bahi'i institution empowered to give authoritative interpretation (LC 310 no. 1049). The Universal House of Justice explicitly refrains from interpretation (MUHJ 87 no. 35.12). The interpretations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi remain a major source of guidance. INDIVIDUAL

In studying the writings, each individual arrivcs at his or her own understanding of the BahB'i teachings. The House of Justice states that such interpretation is to he seen as the fruit of human REASON, and should not be supvressed. What .. should bc avoided is disputation amongst the Bah:,'is regarding - .the reachings, or any insistcncc rhat one's own undcrstanding ir the only correct one. Individuals should make it clcar that rheir views are merely rheir own and not press them on their fellows. Again, they should learn to listen to the views of others without being either overawed or shaken in their faith. They should remember thar individual undersrandings continually change through the

process of DEEPENING. (Taken with the endine of authoritative interuretation. this implies thar a single 'correct'view of the BahB'i Faith is nor possible at the present time: cf. 'Abdu'l-Bahlt statement regarding the limitation of scriprural tradition as a source of KNOWLEDGE.) In previous religions believen had sought to encompass the divine message within the framework of rhcir own limited understanding, defining as doctrines matters rhat were beyond easy simple definition. This tendency had to be avoided (MUH] 87-8 no. 35.1 1-13).

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INTERPRETATION OF THE SCRIPTURES OF OTHER RELIGIONS All three of the Bahl'i 'Central Figures' (the Bib, Bahl'u'lllh and 'Abdu'l-Bahl) wrote commentaries on Quranic verses. Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi also comyenred on bihlical vcrses. In the Kitlib-iI Q ~ Baha'u'llih N states that God's messengers use bath straightforward and concealed language. PROPHECY is offen metaphorical, and to interpret it always in a literalistic fashion leads nor only to a loss of understanding, but to the failure to recognize future promised messengers - as in the Jews' failure to recognize Jesus,and the Christian failure to recognize Muhammad (KI 17, 51-2, 162-3). (See C O M M E N ~OANRTHE Y SORA or;nrr SUN).There is a growing secondary literature concerned with presenting the Bahl'i Faith as rhe prophetic fulfilmcnt of other religions (see ~ro1.0GETITS).

loas, Leroy (1896-1965)

American HANRO F THE CALISE. Both his parents were of German Lutheran hackground and hecame BahB'is in the 1890s. He played a major role in the development of systematic Bahi'i teaching plans in North America, and was elected onto the national spiritual ASSEMBLY in 1932. Shoghi Effendi appointed him a Hand of the Cause in

December 1951 and invited him to Haifa, where he became both secrerarygeneral of the INTERNATIONAL B A H COUNCILand an assistant secretary to Shoghi Effendi. The octagon door of the SHRINEOF THE BADwas named after him.

iq8n, Kit6b-i(PA, Book of Cenitude) The most important and influential of Bahi'u'llSh's early wrirings, regarded by Shoghi Effendi as his outstanding doctrinal work (and as the basis for unity between the religions of the world). Composed in Persian in Baghdad in 1278~~11861-2 cE in response to questions by one of the as yet unconverted maternal uncles of the Bsb, Hlji Mirzl Sayyid Muhammad, it was s w n widely. circulated among the Bihis in Iran. It was also one of the first Rahl'i books to be printed (by lithography in India), perhaps as early as 1882. The first English translation was published in

1900. The present official manslation by Shoghi Effendi was published in 1931. Asked to reconcile the Blb's claim to be the Q.4.r~ with traditional Shi'i expectations, Bahl'u'lllh noted that the contemporary rejection of the Bib echoed similar rejections of the past. In every age, people had expccrcd God's OF GOD), messenger (see MANIFESTATION hut had opposed him when he came. LEADERS had ignored the RELIGIOUS truth, either through ignorance - judging the messengers' claims by their own limited understanding - or because they feared what they saw as a threat to rheir own leadership. Most other people then blindly followed rheir religious leaders in opposition rather than investigating truth for themselves. One persistent 'veil' war literalistic INTERPRETATION of scripture (e.g. of biblical verses regarding 'stars' falling from heaven and the promised one coming in the 'clouds of heaven' (,Matthew 24:29-31)). much of which was ro be understood meraphoriAgain, God was nor bound by ~ call?. ~ human expectations: he chose MOSES,a murderer, and JESUS,with no known father, as messengers, and directed MUHAMMAD to change the QIBLAH - to the consternation of his followers. God tested the people. True understanding was only possihle to those who had put rheir tnlst in Gad and did not use human standards as a measure of God and his prophets. Repeatedly the reader was called upon to 'cleanse' his hearr from worldly standards. The essential proof of any of God's messengers was his own self and the divine word revealed in his scriprure. Other signs were his constancy in proclaiming his cause in the face of opposition; the transforming influence he had on his followers; the willingness of those followers to give their liver for his cause (see MARTYRDOM);and the fulfilment of PROPHECY. All these evidences the Blb had. People expected the messengers to exercise

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worldly sovereignty (as Shi'is did of the QZim), but the messengers' true sovereignty was a spiritual ascendancy which they exercised over all in heaven and on earth. During their liver they suffered from opposition and persecution, and it was only later, when the religions they founded had grown, that peoples bowed before their names. The life of the ImLm HUSAYNwas a vivid example of the sufferings of God's chosen ones. BahB'u'llBh also referred to KNOWLEDGE; the SPIRITUAL PATH; and the future BLbi messianic figure of HEWHOM GODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST, perhaps making cryptic reference t o his own claims, shortly t o be made explicit (1863). He hoped that the BLbi learned would not treat this personage in the same way as the messengers of the past had been rreated. The book is of interest in indicating BahB'u'llBh's knowledge of the BIULE, and his sympathy for CHR~STIANITY, both unusual in a 19thsentury Islamic context. The iqdn became an important element in attracting Bhbis and others to BnhB'u'llLh (including the uncle for whom it was wrinen). A factor in iu appeal was its straightforward Persian prose style, which conuastcd markedly with such BLbi writings then extant, and which made it extremely accessible to ordinary Iranians who had not received a clerical education. Although written prior to BahP'u711Ph's open claim to prophetic status, it was readily accorded the status of divine revelation by Bahh'is KI; Buck, Svbol; G B 138-40; K8I: 15347. lran Birthplace of the BBbi religion and, until the 1960s, homeland of the majority of ~ ; nohoi the world's BahP'is. ~ 8 8 nofoti. comrnuni~';SB8R4856. 8649,

175-80.

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Ancient Iranian empires extended thcir control over large areas of the Middle

East and Central Asia, and embraced ~ R O A S T R I A N ~ Sas M their state religion. The Arab conquest (from 637) gradually led t o the conversion of most Iranians to ISLAM,but did not destroy a sense of separate Persian identity. The establishment of SHVISMas the state religion under rhc Safavid dynasty (1501-1722) served funher to distinguish lran from its Arab, Turkish and Central Asian neighbours, and laid the basis for modern Iranian nationalism. The country's present borders were established during the rule of the Qbjdn dynasty (1794-1925). The country's size (three rimes the size of France) and geography (large areas of semi-desert and mountainous terrain) have favoured regionalism, and it has only been with the development of modern tranrporr and communications that a centralized, unitary state has been able to develop. Although the majority of the population in modern times have been Persianspeaking Shi'is, there are significant minorities of Azeris and other Turkic speakers, together with Arabs, Kurds and Baluchis. There are also Sunni Muslims, and Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian minorities. Until recently the great majority of the population were poor peasant farmers, dominated both by the local urban elites and the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribal groups (such as the Turkoman QLjBrs) who provided the country's main military forces until the development of a modern army. Iran's relative isolation meant that Western influence only became a major influence on Iranian economic and political life in the second half of the 19rh-century. This precipitated a lengthy period of crisis and instabiliry which culminated in the rise to power of the cavalry leader Reza (Ridl) Khan, who proclaimed himself shah in 1925 (with the dynastic name Pahlavi), and embarked on a campaign of modernilation (until 1941). These policies were

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I continued under his son, MohammadReza Shah, but engendered enormous cultural tensions within Iranian society. These werc exacerbated by economic and social problems in the 1970s, leading t o the overthrow of the regime, and the establi!hment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatu'llih Khomeini in 1979. C o r n w e Hisary d imn: Keddia. Rwll oi

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menl'.

BAHMDEVELOPMENT DURING THE QAJAR PERIOD (TO 1925)

Bahi'u'llih both revived and transformed the Bibi movement fallowing THE B A B ~ S its near collapse in the early 1850s. As a movement within Shi'ism, SHAYKI~.Baha'i EXPANsloN (from the 1860s) was correspondingly much broader than ISM drew most of its support from that of the Ribis, encompassing Iranian Iranians, although its centre of operaJews and Zoroastrians as well as Shi'is tions for many years was in Ottoman IRAQ.Similarly, Bibism war essentially (the Bahl'is' acceptance of "on-Musa movement within Shi'ism, and its lims contrasted sharply wirh the Shi'i membership was largely Iranian. Effectreatment of these people as being tive Bibi missionary endeavour sucritually impure, and was a factor in attracting them t o the Rahfi Faith), ceeded in gaining converts widely amongst the sertled population, partiand the reformist nature of the Bahj'i teachings appealing t o some of those cularly in the towns (with perhaps who wanted to see Iran modernized. 100,000 adherents the Bibis may have coasriruted some 2.5 per cent of the Bahi'u'llih sought t o dissociate his followers from Bib1 extremism. and non-nomadic oo~ularionl.Persecution of the Bibis in Iran hegan after the insisted that they be loyal to G0VEP.N. MENT. Although NASIR~I'D.D~N SHAH(r. return of the Rib from his pilgrimage to 1848-96) remained a n t a g o n i s t i c Mecca (1845). Early opposition ro the Bahia came primarily from the Islamic towards the Rahi'is, his successors Iearncd (TILAMA) acting as defcndrrs of and many local governors werc more an Islamic orthodoxy from which the sympathetic - or a t least indifferent. Rahis clearly diverged. Support from Persecutions continued, however, and scveral hundred Bahi'is were killed local governors was a t first limited, and during the Q i i i r period. Opposition motivated by the desire to maintain again came primarily from the 'ulomi, public order which they saw thrcarcncd hy RQhi fervour. Strong action by a who were able t o use their judicial role govcrnor in support of the Bibis (as t o issue sentcnccs of dcath against with MANilclllHn KHAN in I ~ f i h i n was ) Rahj'is as unbelievers as well as sumsufficient t o contain clerical opposition. moning up bands of strong-armed The s i ~ a t i o nchanged wirh the develfollowers and mob acrion t o occasion opment of Rlei RADICALISM: hy protheir death and to intimidate local , Bib laid claiming himself the Q ~ I Mthe governors. Thc situation varied widely implicit claim t o absolute temporal as from region to region depending on the wcll as spiritual authority within a Shi'i power and attitudes of local governors universe, whilst his followers' growing and clerics. Persecution wan not always readiness to respond t o attack made motivated by religious hntrcd alone. confrontarion cvcr more likcly. Attacks Declaring a Rahi'i a n unbclicvcr meant that his property and womenfolk could on the Bibis then led to armed struggles, and the stigmatization of the Ribis be taken wirh impunity, and this could R d , i i ; Imwi.

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as dangerous revolutionaries whose existence threatened the stare. Their extirpation subsequently became a mattcr of state policy. Several thousand were killed. MR;smith and h e n . vobi nune-

..

provide mobs with additional cause t o follow the anri-Bahi'i urgings of clerics. At a more sophisticated icvel, the killOF MARing of the Kixc AND BELOVED Tvns (1879) was evidently t o the pecuniary advantage of the clerics involved. Again, a wily politician such could use persecution as ZILLU.S-SULT*N of Bahi'is for his own political ends. Periods of political unrest also became times when Bahi'is (and other minority groups) could be made scapegoats for the people's discontents and frustrarions. Persecution neither detcrrcd Baha'i missionary endeavour nor the consolidation of the community (with the establishment of Bah&'i SCHOOLS (from c.I870s), children's classes (from 1898), local councils (ASSEMBLIES; from 1899), a RahP'i FUND (1907) and a children's savings fund (1917)). At 'Abdu'l-Bahi's instruction most Bahf'is remained uninvolved in the political movements t h a t buffeted lranian society at the turn of the century.

THE B A H ~ DUR;NG ~ S THE PAHLAVf PERIOD, 192115-79

The establishment of a centralizing, modernizing regime initially seemed t o promise a better situation for the Bahl'is, and an end ro the clerically inspired persecution of the past. Thus during the early years of Pahlavi rule the Bahi'is were able t o expand their activities, and for the first rime to hold large public meetings, sometimes attended by government officials. They also esrablished modem public baths, and were able to organize a national elective system, culminating in the election of the first national spiritual assembly in 1934, and t o consolidate local spiritual assembly administration throughout the country. A campaign of government repression (1932-41) ensued, however, seemingly as part of a n endeavour to cow all potentially independent erouos . in Iranian sociew. Thus, Rahi? schools were closed; Bahb'i meetings prohibited; a number of

Senior Iranion ntilitary olficerr under the Pablovip.uvcmment attacbinp the Notional Bahd'i Centre, Tehrat,, 1955

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Bahl'is dismissed from government population appears t o have declined since the early years of the century employ; and Bahl'is imprisoned for contracting Bahl'i marriages. The offi- (Smith, 'Blbi and Bahl'i numbers'). cial campaign ended only with the over- The Bahl'i birth rate has probably been lower than the Muslim rate (Jensen). throw of Reza Shih by the British and Russians during World War I1 (1941), THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC, FROM 1979 hut was followed by a partial breakIn the early years of the republic there down of public order, and a recrudeswas a massive campaign of persecution cence of locally inspired attacks (clerical against the Baha'is, exacerbated by the and political) on Bahi'is. Internal develactivities of one of the anti-Bahi'i opment of the Baha'i community congroups (thc Hujjutiyyih or Tabligbaf-itinued, wirh the esrablishmcnt of a ls16mr~ which for a while enjoyed Bahi'i-linked hospital and orphanage political influence. Thus there was a in 1940. It was also at this time that Iranian Baha'is began to send P I ~ N E E R ~ systematic endeavour to destroy all Bahi'i organization (including the iudit o neighbouring countries and t o implecia1 murder of many Bahi'i leaders), as ment systcmatic expansion PLANS. A well as to pressurize the rank-and-file to special plan for the advancement of apostatize: Baha'is were arrested; disBahi'i women was also adopted missed from their jobs; and nor allowed (1946-50). and women became eligible t o serve on Bahi'i assemblies for the first to attend school or university. Baha'i sacred sites and burial grounds were also time in 1954. .Major advances in female destroyed. More than two hundred litcracy were also madc. A new wave of Bahi'ir were killcd or have disappeared artacks was mounted against the Bahi'is and are presumed dead. The F&h was in 1951 and 1955 (probably as a officially banned in 1983. and membergovernment sop t o Muslim religious ship o i Bahl'i administrative bodies extremists). Thereafter, the situation made a criminal offence (the Bahi'is eased - in part to protect Iran's public subsequently disbanded all their assemimage abroad - until the rising turmoil blies). There was widespread intemathat presaged the Islamic Revolution. rional condemnation and enormous However, Bahi'is were still not allowed publiciry, which may have contributed to contract legal marriages (leading their t o some easing of the simation since the opponents to accuse them of immoalmid-1980s. Persecution continues, howity); publish lirerature other than by ever, and rhc economic plight of many lithography; or combat the activities of Bahi'is remains dire, with Baha'is being various anti-Bahi'i groups which were disbarred from higher education and able t o operate freely and widely dismany forms of employment. Bahi'is seminate a distorted and intensely haremay not legally inherit property, and it filled propaganda against them, accosing is difficult for them to obtain passports them of political manipulation, acting as o r exit visas. Their marriages and agents of foreign powers, and immordivorces are not recognized. Bahi'i ality. T I e development of a 'culture of graves continue to be desecrated, and harred' resulted. There has been no Bahl'is~rcceive litrle or no protection proper study of lranian Bahl'i demofrom the law, as indicated by the case of gaphics, but the imprcssion is of gratwo Muslims who killed a Baha'i, but dual growth to perhaps 350,000 by were subsequently released from prison 1979. However, this growth seems to because their victim was 'an unprotccrcd have been mainly the result of natural infidel'. The situation apparently varies increase rather than new conversions: from one p a n of the country to another, the proportion of Baha'is in the total

but an official document of 1991 indicared that it was then government pollcy r u stlflr a n y furthrr developn>rnt oi [he Bahl'i community, and, ii possible, to uproot its cultural foundations. Internarional condemnation of human rights abuses in Iran, specifically mentioning the Baha'is, continues. Ironically, the sinele most imoortanr f.actor in amacting international anention to the Bahl'i Faith has orobablv b c n its oersccurion in the land of in hirth. bhb.i lnfamtioml Communny, Bohaix oflrm: BWl8 2914: NS I 9 9 G 133-8: Coop.; GhaneoHsrcack; Lobib; Mocloin. 'Bohoi per=uhons':

89, 173-80; W

D. Morlin. P e o ~ l m o nMBBR; ; SBBR

o k . Ironska&kunumtw.

THE R A H FAITH ~ ~ AND IRAN

persecution. Some of these CmigrCs have hecomr pnonecrs. using their o w n hardshtp as a v~.h~clc for Bahh'i activity. For others religious motivation has been less important, and they have gathered in large 'enclave communities' in various Western cities. In some instances this influx initially created tensions within the rccciving Bahi'i communities, with linguistic and cultural barriers emerging bcrween the incamina Iranians and the indigenous Bahi'is, but such evidence as there is (from Britain and Italy) s u g that succcsnful integration may have occurred quirc rapidly, wirh the 'newcomers soon taking part in the Baha'i administration in rheir adopted homes, and a high level of intermarriage between lranian and Western Baha'is la third of all Bshi'i marriages in Britain in 1984-6) (Momen, 'Integration'; SaintRlancat).

lran remains a sacred land for Baha'is. both as the birthplace of their Faith and as the site of numerous Bahi'i holy places. Until the 1960s the largest single BahiT community in the world war that of Iran, and the majority of Raha'is in lraq the world were Iranians (including lraq has a special significance in S I I ~ I S M expatriates). Correspondingly, a large as the burial place of six of the IMAM^: proportion of prominent Bahl'is havc 'Ali (the First Imhln) at Naiat; H u s , w ~ been lranian (including eleven out of the Mi~saalt h i r t y - t w o H A N D SO r THF. CAUSE (the Third Imim) a t KARBALA; Kigim (the Seventh Imlm) and Muhamappointed by Shoghi Effcndi ktwecn mad at-Taqi (the Ninth Imim) a t Kizi1951 and 1957). and up to the present mayn ((the place of) the two Ki~ims); time Iranian Bahj'is havc continued to and 'Ali al-Hidi (the Tenth Imlm) and play a major role as pioneers and in thc Masan al-'Askari (the Elevcnth Im6m) a t administration of the Faith world-wide. Since the 1960s, however, the c n o r m o ~ ~ s Simarri. Simarri was also the place of the disappearance ('occultation') of the growth of the Faith in the 'Third World' Twelfth Imim. Collectively these shrine(see EXPANSION) has greatly lcssened the cities are known as the 'thresholds' proportion of Bahl'is who are lranian ('atobit), and have assumed a special (perhaps to 6-7 per cent): Prior to the significance, hoth as rcvcred places of Islamic Revolution the Bahb'is o f Iran Shi'i pilgrimage, residence and burial, were the main contributors to Bahl'i and as centres of Shi'i learning, focused international funds, bur this is no l o n g r on the leading 'IJLAMA who lived there possible. (thus Sayyid KATIMR~slr.ri madc KarIRANIAN B A H A ' ~DIASPORA bali the cenne of Shaykhism). During the 19th-century, the shrine cities The largest and most recent dispersion assumed particular importance, because of lranian Bahfis has occurred in the they allowed leading Shi'i clerics to aftermath of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, with many thousand Bahi'is flee- function outside lranian government control (SBBR 7). ing lran m escape actual or possible

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Islam KarbalL was briefly a cenrte of Blbi activity, and BAGHDAD assumed importance during the period of Bahi'u'llih's exile there (1853-63), whilst his twoyear retreat t o the mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan led to important conracrs with Sufi leaders. A small number of Bibis remained in Baghdad after his departure, and these subsequently became Bahl'is. Shi'is murdered one of them in 1868, and the conversion of the son of a prominent Sunni cleric in the same year led to public upraaq and to the exile of thirty o r forty leading Bahl'is to the northern city of Mosul (MBBR 265-71, which for a while became a n imporrant staging post for Iranian Bahi'is journeying t o see Bahi'u'llih. Bahi'i communities developed in various parts of Iraq, gaining a small but significant number of converts. Local assemblies formed from the 1920s, and a national assembly was established in 1931. Also during the 1920s local Shi'is expropriated the House of Bahi'u'llih in Baghdad. The lengthy and unsuccessful litigation by the Baha'is t o hy to recover the building hrought the Bahi'i situation to the attention of the League of Nations. Official action against Bahi'is began in 1965, and since 1970 all Bahi'i activities bavc been banned.

lgfbh6n (1868 pap. est. 60,000)

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Central Iranian provincial capital, formerly seat of the Safavid dynasty (15011732) and an imporrant centre of Bibi and Bahi'i acriviry. The Bib found refuge there under the governorship of MnailCHlHR KHAN.A number of Baha'is were martyred in the city and region during the governorship of ZILLU.S.SLILTAN.

kfahani, Muhammad-Taqi (c.1860-1946) Prominent Egyptian Bahi'i w h o migrated from Iran some time after 1878. A merchant by profession, he

became a centre of Baha'i activities in Egypt, and was posthumously named a HANO OF THE CAUSE by Shoghi Effendi. EW11: 50&2;Hmpr 110-11.

lshr6q6t (Splendouts) Late Syrian-period rablet of Bahi'u'lllh composed in Arabic and Persian for Jalil-i-KhB'i, a Baha'i coppersmith from the province of Azerbaijin. In it Bahi'u'lllh addresses the Bibis (the 'people of the Bayin'), calling upon them t o recognize him and not t o be misled by thcir 'vain imaginings'; proclaims his own coming 'invested with power and sovereignty'; asserts the INFALLIBILITY of the MANIFESTATIONS OF Goo; reveals a long prayer in which the supplicant is to praise God and ask for his mercy, and which sorrows over d ~ e behaviour of Subh-~-AZALtowards Baha'u'llih; proclaims the fulfilment of prophecies regarding the promised one; summons the Bahfis to picry and the development of praiseworthy characters; lamenn the hchaviour of some of his followers; recalls his vision of TRUSTWORTHINES~; complains of the oppressive actions of a recent governor of Akka; a n d permits the charging of moderate interest on loans (in contradistinction to Islamic law). The tablet also includes nine 'splendours' from is Bahi'u'llih's teachings: (1) RELIGION a stronghold for social order and must be supportcd by those in authoriry. (2) KINGS are a mauifestarion of God's power and should uphold the Lesser PEACE.(3) God's LAW brings life to the world. (4) That which best promotes Bahi'u'llih's Cause is the praiseworrhy deeds of the Bahi'is, and these are led by the FEAR OF GOD.(5) A GOVERNMENT has respo~isibilitiestowards its citizenry. (6) The unity of the HUMANRACE is stressed, and the need for a universal LANGUAGE to promote that unity. (7) The importance of parenthood (see FAMILY LIFE) and EOUCATION are emphasized. (8) The

responsibilities of the HOUSE O P JUSTICE and aspects of Baha'i ETHICS are enumerated. (9) The purpose of RELIGION is to establish unity. m w-134:ae4: 1-0.

lslam on the formerly brutish tribes of Arabia, who had thereby become the founders of a brilliant and enlightened civilization, which had in rurn exerred enormous influence on the civilization of Christian Europe (SDC 87-9). He Ishrirq-Khavari, 'Abdu'ldeplored the ignorance and prejudice Hamid (1902-72) of many Western writers on Islam, as Prominent Iranian Baha'i teacher and well as the fanaticism of many Muslims. scholar. He received an Islamic clerical For Shoghi Effendi Islam was 'the source education in Mashhad and was beginand background' of the Baha'i Faith, ning to gain a reputation as an Islamic and a study of Islam was 'ahsolurely teacher when he converted m the Bahi'i indispensable' for Baha'is if they were t o Faith in 1927. He devoted the rest of his gain a sound understanding of their own life to Bahl'i activities: taught in one of rcligion. Western Bahi'is were therefore the Bahl'i SCHOOLS until their closure in encouraged to study the QunAN; the rise 1934, travelled extensively to promote of lslam>ccivilisstion; and the particular the Faith, and produced an enormous institutions and circumstances our of body of compilations of Bahi'i writings, which Bahi'i emerged. He noted that commentaries, apologetic works and the public acknowledgement of the historical studies. swrs: 518-20. validity of lslam by Bahi'is of nonMuslim background (prominently Islam Queen MAnlE of Romania) represented Bahi'is uphold the divine origin and powerful evidence of Bahi'i support for true lslam, and countered the claims of independent status of Islam, regarding it those Muslims who thought rhat Bahi'i as one of thc nine known revealed as a MANI- was anti-Islamic (AD] 41; Hcggie 9 1 4 ; religions. and MUHAMMAD LG 4 9 4 8 , 5 6 1 nos. 1903-4; PDC 112FESTATION O F GOO. They follow what is an essentially Shi'i interpretation of the 14). There is as yet no proper study of the rightful succession following the death Islamic roots of the Baha'i Faith. Baha'i of Muhammad, i.e. accepting the validshares with lslam the belief in a series of ity of rhe imamate a s a divinely divine messengers - generally referred t o appointed institution which continued as PROPI~ETSin Islam, and as Manifestat o bc 'the chosen recipient' of divine tion of God by Bahi'is - but diverges guidance after the death of the Prophet from it in denying that the line of and was 'one of the two most precious legacies of Islam' (i.e. alonz with thc messengers has ended. Specifically, the . QURAN; WOE 102; see ~ M ~ M SHi'l~hl). S ; Quranic statement rhat Muhammad was Bahi'u'llih referred t o Muhammad's the 'Seal of the Prophets' (khdtam annabiwin; 33: 40) is interpreted m mean exalted station, and hlessed his kindrcd that he was the last in the cycle of and companions who had established prophets preparing the way for the the religion of God in the world. The prcsenr Day of R ~ s u n n a ~ ~not l o ~that , enemies of God had finally caused 'the he was the last of God's messengcn banner of lslim to be reversed amongst (popularly, a distinction is made all peoples*, however (TB 162-3). Spebetween the tcrms nabi ('prophet') and cifically, the .urnmA had subverted rnrril ('messenger'll. T h e B6b and Islam, opposed those who sought t o Bahi'u'llbh are thus regarded as having exalt it, and caused the people t o fulfilled Islamic messianic expectations become abased (TB 213). 'Abdu'l-Bahl ~ the descent (for Sunnis as the M A H Dand stressed the transforming impact of early

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of Jesus (the 'Spirit of God') respectively; for Shi'is, as the Q k r ~and the return of (GPB 57-8. 94., 96the Imim HUSAYN 7)), whilst a t the same time functioning as sources of divine revelation and the initiators of the latest expression of God's eternal religion (i.e. Islam; this divergence reflects a quitc different understanding of TIME: Baha'is d o not regard the resurrection as marking the end of time). Bahi'i also shares with lslam the concept of Holy LAWas a necessary guide for human action, and many aspects of Bahl'i law bear a clear relationship to the corresponding elements of Islamic law, although the emphasis in observance is more on individual conscience than communal enforcement. Again, elcments of Bahl'i PHlLOSoPHY and METAPHYSICS are rooted in pans of the Islamic tradition, particularly Mu'tazilite rationalism and Ishriqi ('llluminationisr') Neoplatonism. As a religious movement Blbism can only be understood in the context of Iranian Shi'ism, and it never nansccnded thar milieu (see EXPANSION). Baha(u9116h's teachings represent a significant departure from that context, bur the grcnt majority of early Bahl'is were still former Muslims (mostly Iranian Shi'i), and even the small numbers of nonMuslims who convened during his lifetime were heavily imbued wirh the religion's culture of origin. It was only wirh rhe conversion of Westerners and others from the 1890s onwards thar the Baha'i Faith began t o transcend its Islamic origins. Within the Middle East Bahi'is have been exrremely cautious in rheir TEACHING endeavours, but even outside the region, conversions of Sunni Muslims have been relatively few. Bahi'i apologetics directed a t Muslims commonly focus on passages in the Quran and Traditions ( H ~ ~ T which H) Bahl'is regard as prophetic of rheir own religion. Several such works exist in Persian and Arabic, bur there is linle material in English. Exceptions are

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~ f land ~ Mustafi. i On Bahl'i and lslam in general, see Moayyad.

Isfonbul (1856 pop. est. 430,000) The city of Constantine, the former Eastern RomanlByzantine capital known as Consrantinople. It fell to the OTTOMANS in 1453, and remained their imperial capital until the formal end of rheir empire in 1922. The new Turkish republic relocated the capital t o Ankara (1923). During the Otroman period it was the 'Great City', the seat of the SULTANATE and CALIPHATE, and the premier city o f the Muslim world. Bahi'u'llih and his companions arrived in Istanbul as guests of the Ottoman government on 16 August 1863 and remained until 1 Deccmbcr 1863, when they were rent as exiles to Eoln~E.this change in his political status marking the key event of the soioum. Bahl'u'lllh's eighteen-month-old daughter Sidhijiyyih (Iry his second wife, Mahd-i-'Lnyl) also died during these months and was buried outside the Edime Gate. Neither o f t h e t w o houses occupied by Bahi'u'llih (the houses of Semsi Beg and Visi Pass) now exists. Bahi'u'llih described the city as seat of the 'rhrone of tyranny', in which the foolish ruled over rhc wise, and predicted that its 'outward splcndour' would soon perish, and its people ('sunk in heedlessness') lamenr. BKG I P ~ - Z O ~ : G P1B5 6 6 1 ;~ 5 kg?: 2 PC€ I D I ; RB2: 1-5.55-52.317-19.

Ives, Howard Colby (1867-1941) Unitarian minister in New Jersey, who became a Bahi7 afrer meeting 'Abdu'lBahi during his 1912 visit t o Nonh America. He subsequently devoted much of his life to TEACHING the BahB'i Faith, and wrote Portolr to Freedom (1937), an account of his meetings with 'Abdu'l-Bahl. Shoghi Effendi identified him as an 'outstanding promoter' of the Faith. BW608-13; WEBW13954.

Jack, Marion (1866-1954) Prominent Canadian Bahb'i. She became a Bahi'i in Paris in 1900. In 1908 she taught English to the children of 'Aldu'lBahi's household in Akka. In 1919 rhc and Emogene Hoagg travelled extensively rhroup,h Alaska and the Yukon t o teach the Bahi'i Faith. In 1930 she senled in Bulgaria as a Rahl'i PIONEER, remaining rhcre for rhc rest of her life despite enormous hardships. Shoghi Effendi dmcribed her as an 'immortal heroine' and as a 'shining example' to all Rahb'i pioneers. swrz: 6767.

He came from a promincnr Iranian family in Mlzandsrin, but spent most of his life as a wandering dervish and, following his conversion, as a Bahi'i teacher. Hc was first sent m lndia hy Bahl'a'IIih in around 1875 in response to a request from memhcrs of the AFNAN family in Bomhay far a Bahi'i teacher. For the next clcven years be navelled widely in the subconrincnr, and also visited Sri La& and various pans of South East and Central Asia. He taught the Bahl'i Faith exrcnsively during his travels, gaining a number of important converts, most notably Siyyid Mustafa RUMI.BW4: 285; €5 119-28;M13CB.

Jamhl Burbjirdi

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Prominent lranian BahU who retained his clerical status after becoming a Bahi'i. Enormously respected as a Bah6'i teacher, at one time he insisted on acting as head of the consultative council estahlishcd by the HANDS ~VTIIE CAUSEin Tehran, although nor himself appointed as a Hand. He apparently cravcd a greater position of leadership, but rapidly . . lost his following after giving his allegiance t o MIJI~AMMAD.'AI.I. and becoming his chief lieutenant in Iran. GW

Jam61 Effendi id. 1898) Pioneer Bahl'i reacher in India, also known as Sulaymln Khin Tunuklbuni.

Jamalu'd-din, Soyyid, 'olAfghani' (183819-97) Pan-lslamist Muslim reformer and political activist. He published a n Arabiclanguagc newspaper (01-'Urruats'lwethqci, 'The Sure Handle') in Paris. O n e of his disciples assassinated N;ISIILII.U-OIN SIIAH.He was associated with AZALIfreethinkers in Istanbul, and wrote hostile accounts of the B6his and BahB'is in articles in the Egyptian press and an Arabic encyclopedia puhlished in Beirut ( B u p s al-Bustini's D6'irotu'l-Mo'cirifl. Bahi'u'llih rcprovcd him horh for his writings about the Faith and his political hypocrisy (TB 9G6). Kaddis, %id Jomd d i n ; EGBBF 2341; MBBR 362-3.

Jesus

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Jesus (c.6 BCE-29CE?) other prophets of Israel are also Recognized by Bahl'is as a MANIFESTA-acknowledged, but mostly as 'Lesser PROPHETS'. The Torah is regarded as TION OF GOD. Bahi'u'lllh emphasized divine scripture (see BIBLE).Jewish histhat Jesus' unique station was 'exalted tory is seen as indicative of both the above the imaginings of all rhat dwell power of divine grace to uplift a people on earrh'. At his coming he shed 'the and the consequences of human wrongsplendour of His glory upon all created doing. Thus the Israelites had suffered things'. At the moment of his death 'the oppression in Egypt until Moscr had whole creation wept with a great weepdelivered them our of their wretchedness ing', and by his sacrifice 'a fresh and given them divine teachings. On this capacity war infused into all created basis the ancient Jewish stare had things', the evidences of this 'quickening become a centre of both divine and power' being now manifest in all the material civilization. It was subsequently world's peoples, including in philosoweakened by internal divisions and phy, learning, the arts and the potency idolatry, however, such that it was af statesmanship. He purified the world, destroyed by the Babylonians and its and any man who turned to him, 'with a people made captive. Later returning face beaming with light', was blessed from exile, the Jews rallied to the (PDC 114). 'Abdu'l-Bahl referred to reforms inrroduced by Ezra, but further him as the 'essence' of the Holy Spirit; disobedience towards God, including the cause of the spiritual life of humanthe rejection and persecution of -lasur.. ity; and a ransom for the life of the led to a second destruction of Jerusalem, world. He had brought a 'perfect by the Romans (SDC 75-81; PUP 361example of love into the world'; taught 70, 402-10). a way of life rhar was 'the highest type Bahl'u'lllh denounced European of action on earrh'; and transformed the anti-Semitism as evidence of tyranny, lives of his followers. He had bcen the calling for JUSTICE to be exercised under promised Messiah for the Jews, and had all conditions (TB 170). He also stared abrogated Mosaic law. Though rejected that the long days of the Jews' abaseby most of his own people, he had laid ment were now over: overshadowed by the basis for the eternal glory of the divine bounty, rhey would progress Jews, whose scriptures and prophets (AD] 46). Again, in the 1890s. had bccn glorified by Christians 'Abdu'l-Bahl affirmed rhar the prophethroughout the world. Most of the sied 'ingathering' of the Jcws to Palestine MIRACI.ES artrihuted to him were to be would occur, and thousands of years of interpreted symbolically rather than ignominy (since the denruction of Jerliterally. His REsunnEcnoN was to be usalem in 586 BCE and the beginning of understood as a spiritual rather than the Babylonian captivity) would be physical cvenr. Shoghi Effendi accepted replaced by 'erernal glory', and in the his 'Sonship and Divinity' and the dmrine of the virgin birth (PDC 113). early 1900s stated that rhis process had now begun (LG 499 no. 1677; SAQ 65Hqlgls 1W16; LG 48993: SAQ 1&17: Slakman. 6; GPB 305). Bur he also warned of 'lerur Chris?. (See also CHRIWIANLTI.) future humiliations and, in 1912, referred to the possibility of an uprising Judaism, Jews against the Jews in Europe (PUP 414). Bahl'is regard Judaism as one of the Shoghi Effendi regarded Bahl'u'lllh's nine known revealed religions, and arrival in Akka as 'ushering in' the include ABRAHAMand MOSESin their Jewish return through its prophetic list of MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD. The significance, and the formation of the

nare of Israel (1948) as adding 'notable impehls' to the development of the BAuki WORLDCENTRE(GPB 107; MBW 13, 19). Bahi'u'lllh claimed to be the promised one of all religions, including Judaism. He had come to rule on 'the throne of David' (PDC 78-9). Bahl'is interpret many of the verses of the Jewish prophets as referring to him. Specifically, he was the 'Everlasring Father' and 'Prince of Peace' mentioned by Isaiah, and Davidt 'Lord of Hosts', whilst the BBb was the 'rerurn of Elijah' (GPB 58, 94). Bahh'is also regard Jesus as having been the Jewish Messiah. (Speaking to Jewish congregations in the United States, 'Ahda'l-Bahl was uncompromising in asserting rhat rhey should acknowledge the greatness of Jesus, who himself had fallawed Moses, and whose influence had led to the teachings of Moses becoming known throughout the world (PUP 366-9,407-IS).) A significant number of Iranian Jews became Bahl'is from the 1870s onwards, including a number of crypto-Jews who had previously been forcibly converted to Islam. Same of these had already been attracted by Bibism, particularly by the eloquence of T~ulnlH;others were affected by the rational proofs offered by MirzB AnurFAI)Lin his 'Epistle to A p l b ' (188718) addressed specifically to Jews. The Baha'is' openness towards the Jews, then a deeply despised minority group in Iran, is also likely to have k e n a powerful factor in attracting them to the new religion. (ARR 315,360; RR3: 16871, 260-8; SBBR 93-7). Bahl'u'llih called upon one of his followers of Jewish background to proclaim his Faith to one of the Barons Rothschild, then the

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effenive heads of Western Jewry (RB3: 168,172). A number of eminent Western Bahl'is have been of Jewish background, Lidia including Hippolyte DREYFUS, ZAMFNHOF, Siegfried SCHOPFLOCHER and John FERRABY bur, overall, conversions from Westem Jewry do nor appear to haw been numerous. Musa BANANI was one of the most eminent Middle Eastern Bahl'is of Jewish background. The BahP'i authorities do not allow Bahi'i TEACHING work to be conducted in Israel.

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justice Bahl'u'lkh decried the injustice, ryranny, corruption and dishonesty that prevail in thc world (TB 39.84). He had come as a bringer of justice. The 'best beloved of all things' in the world is justice. It is a divine gift, and thosc who want to approach God cannot neglect it. Through it rhey will see and know for rhcmsclves and not be dependent on others (HWa no. 2). It mains the world (TB 27). The tranquillity of humanity depends upon it. Its radiance is bcyond comparison (AD] 23). Its purpose is to secure human uniry and SOCIAL onurn (TB 67). It is upheld by 'the twin pillars' o f R E W A R D ANII PUNISIIMENT. If the n themselves to world's ~ l e dedicated the highest interests of humanity as a whole, then the reign of justice would be csrablishcd and thc world sanctified from tyranny and utterly transformed ITB 164). The essence of governance is justice (TB 166-7). Again, every individual should be just in their dealings with others; rhis is the 'most fundamental' of human virtues, and a defining qualiry of k i n g truly human (AD] 21). brche, rowd h k t GmolJur?im. (See also LAW.)

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Kappes, Lillian' (d. 1920) most of the non-Bihi Shaykhis afrer the dearh of S a ~ i dKAZIMRAsnri. He American Bahi'i who taughr at rhe claimed to possess superior knowledge Tarhiyar Rahi'i School in Tehran from - his writings being a copy of those of 1911112. Shoghi Effendi honoured her God's eternal hook - and emphasized as one of the DISCIPLES OF 'AHI>u.I.-RAI<~. the need for there always to be a 'Pcrfecr Stor 11/19: 3244. Shi'i' (implicitly himself) to guide the people. He was a vchemcnr oonnnent of Karbala ihc h i h , declaring him to be'& infidel, and 'the gate to hell', and writing sevcral Iraqi city containing the shrines of the books refuting his claims. Opposirion to Imim HUSAYNand his half-brother his own claims. combined wirh a desire 'Ahbls, and the site of the battle of not to be caregorizcd wirh the Blhis as Karhali (10 Muharram 6 1 ~ ~ 1 1Octo0 religio-political dissidents, caused him ro her 680) in which Husayn and his dissimulate many of his earlier procompanions were killed. The b a n k nouncemena in his later public writings became the paradigm for sacrificial MAR(such as his opposition t o rhc powers of T Y R ~ O Mfor Shi'is and also for the Ribis ) , he the Mrrl~AHlosof Useli S H ~ I S Mbut a t T~Bnnsi.The city became a leading continued t o regard rhc non-Shaykhi cenrre of Shi'i scholarship, and was the residence of Sayyid KAZIM.Mulli ' A L ~ Shi'i majority as heretics. He opposed BAST AM^ was sent there by the Bib to rhe spread of Wcstern ideas and educational influences, and declared that anyproclaim his advent, and the Bib's one who befriended a Europcan was an followers were summoned to gather in apostate. Bahl'u'llih regarded him as the city to await the advent of the superficial, conceited and ignorant of MAHni. TAHIRIH made Karhali her base spiritual reality ( K I 118-22), and until expellcd by the Ottoman authoaddressed him in rhe 'Tablet of the Veil' rities, and Bahl'u'lllh retired rhere (1-awh-i-qina'). aaa 28694; B Q ~ ,63-86; briefly in 1851-2. MorEoin. 'brk S w h i &.': Rat: 334: SBBR 17-18. 179. (See o/so SHAYKHISM.) Karim Khbn KirmCni, Mbji (Muhammad-) (1810-71) Kbiim Rashti, Sayyid Son of a wealthy Q i j i r prince who had (d. 184314) been city governor of Kirmin, he was one of the leading grandees of his home city, and gradually became the leader of

Shaykhi leader in succession t o Shaykh MAD a ~ . A ~ r k Born i. in the northern

childhood playmate. She became his first Iranian city of Rasht (c.l790s), he joined wife (Augusr 1842). and aave hirrh t o a Shaykh Ahmad (according t o his own account as a result of a visionary dream) son, ~ h m a d , who die; in infancy (1843). According- to her own later whilst the latter was in Yard, and account she recognized her husband's subsequently became al-Ahsi'i's most religious station before his 'declaration' trusted companion a n d disciple. N of mission to Mulli H U ~ A YBusnnili Appointed as the shaykh's successor, Rashti established himself in the Iraqi (1844). After rhe execution of the Bib holy ciry of K A ~ B A L where and his uncle (hoth 1850) she went to A, he remained for the rest of his life, live with her sister Zahri's family, whilst her mother-in-law moved t o KARBALA. expounding and developing rhe shaykh's Khadijih subsequently hccame a Rahi'i. teachings; consolidating the widespread She and hcr maid - a devoted African network of Shaykhi followers in Iraq, slave-woman named Fiddn, who had Iran and Arabia; and becoming one of rhe major norables of the ciry. During his served the family since rhc rime of Khadijih's marriage - hoth died on 1 5 leadership opposition to Shaykhi views mounted, and Shaykhirm assumed an September 1882, and were buried in rhe increasingly sectarian casr. According t o shrine of Shih-chirlgh in Shiriz. Ralyuzi, Khadijih Ragrmt. (Sec also Bihi-Bahi'i accounts he taught the near advenr of the promised messianic figure Bin.FAMILY O R ) of the Q A w , and afrer his death many Shaykhis followed the example of Mulli Khadijih Khbnum ~ ~ U S A Y Bta~niI'i, N one of the sayyid's The mother of Baha'u'llih, and the leading disciples, and became Bihis. second wife of Mirzi 'Aeabs, whom Various dates are given for Rashti's she married after heing widowed (see death, including 31 December 1843 and NOni FAMILY). She had three children by In January 1844. (See olro SHAYKHISM.) her first marriage, and five by the second, of whom one died. am 13. Khadem, Zikrullah (Dhikru'lllh Khidim) (1904-86) Khammbr, ' ~ d (d. i 1879) OF THE CAUSE. He served Iranian HAND Christian merchant of A K K A .H e on the national spiritual ASSEMBLY from restored and enlarged the mansion of 1938 until 1960, and also performed J~. and his family lived in vnr~ourrnskr lor Shoghi Effendi, ~nclud- R A I ~ Bahl'u'llih his house in Akka after rheir release inc.an exren
1

I

1

Khdmlla, lbmhim George December 1953. He later became one of the custodial Hands in Haifa, and in 1963 moved t o Brazil t o serve as a focal point for Bahl'i acriviries in South America. He returned t o [RAN in 1969. The upheavals of the Islamic Revolution placed him in special danger, and in 1984 he lch the country, eventually senling in Canada. HOW l a - 7 .

Kheiralla, Ibrahim George (1849-1929)

1

1

Pioneer Bahi'i teacher in the United Stares. O f Syrian Christian background, he hecame a Bahi'i in EGYPTin 1889190, and moved t o Chicago in 1893. In 1894 he began a st~ccessfulspiritual healing practice, a t the same time teaching about the Bahi'i Faith t o some of those he mer. This developed inra a sysremaric endeavour t o spread the Bahl'i teachings in America. Initially Kheiralla was exrremely successft~l and, hy 1898, somc 700 Americans had become Bnhl'is. In 1898-9 be made the pilgrimage t o Akka to meet 'Abdu'l-Rahl, who honoured him greatly, describing him as 'BahH's Peter' and the 'Conqueror of America', and having him assisr in laying the foundation stone of the SIIRINI: 01: T I E BAR.On his return t o

Ibnrhrm Cmryc Khermlln. profzrrr I3izhn,,,I teacher to the LISA

kings, kingship --

219

the United Stares (May 1899) difficulties arose, mostly ir would seem because of Kheiralla's wish to be acknowledged as supreme leader of the American Baha'is. Failing to gain 'Abdu'l-Bahl's support for rhis proposal, he turned against him, transferring his allegiance instead t o MIJHAMMAO-'hi (1900). A temporary schism among the American Bahl'is resulted, with a small and declining minority - rermed 'Behaisn' - supporning Kheiralla. Subsequent efforts t o attract new followers wcrc largely unavailing. BFAI. nollinger. ,~heirollo.; SBBR 100-2; smi~h. .~n.ricon ~ a w ~ommunily. i 88-99,

Bahl'i was safe from atrack by those who oooosed the Faith. BahB'u'lllh stigmatized the imam-jum'a as the 'Sl;e-serpent9 (Rnqshi) and rebuked him in his wridngs. €85351: MBBR27d7. The imrim-jrtm'a's subsequent death (21 June 1881) is regarded by Baha'is as a n examole of snecific and hishlv .. . appropriate DIVINE ILIDGEMENT against rheir oooressors: when others had lhcsitared to rake rhc lives of the two brorhcrs he had insisted, saying that any wrong commirted would he upon 'his neck'. He subsequently contracted a loathsome disease which f i s t infected his neck (possibly scrofula o r cancer of the neck) and caused his body ro become so malodorous that members nf his own family refused ro touch him (GPB 232-

..

I

I

..

(See

also EXPANSION; C E T S ~ N G E R ;HEARST.)

King and Beloved of Martyrs Honorific titles bestowed by Bahi'u'llbh on two Baha'i brothers who were martyred for their faith - publicly beheaded - in lsflhln on 1 7 March 1879: M i n i (Muhammad-)Hasan, the King of Mnrryn (St
I

-

. Bahi'u'lllh ~

-~~ -

also gave both titles, i.e. thc king and the Beloved of Manyrs, to one man, Ssyyid Isml'il ZavBrihi. See DllAalH.

kings, kingship

tbfir:lz A 4 t , / ~ o n ~ ~li~~s~rrr ~ ~ o d d r r d ~bI!r:o

Mwhnninmd Hum)frr,pra,,zitre,tt lrorunn Bnhd'i nmnyrr [the kin^' end 'Bclrrucd' of Mamsrsi

ZTLLU,I.SULTAN. The killings were significant in that, as was widely recognized a t the rime, rcligion was being uscd ro mask financial greed on the pan of a leading cleric. They also indicated rhar, regardless of social prominence, no

Bahl'o'lllh regarded 'the majesry of kingship' as one of the 'signs of God'. Kings manifested God's power and grandeur, and were rhe 'dayspring of his authority'. Their rank was divinely ordained (ESW 89; KA 4 9 k82; TB 28, 126, 165). Those kings who were jusr and not corrupted by 'the vainglory of power' occupied a high spiritual station, and should be supported. They were the shadow of God on earth and nearer ro God rhan others (PDC 75; TB 65, 164). He insrmcted the Baha'is to pray for kingly justice and love. and serve any king who came t o the aid of the Bahl'i community (TB 22,65). Such a king was 'the very eye of mankind' and would receive great blessings (KA 50 k84). He favoured consriturional monarchy as a form of GOVERNMENT, because it combined rhe majesry of kingship with the advantages of democratic government for rhe common people (TB 28). For

i

Kings, S ~ of m rhe

I

'Abdu'l-Bahi just kings had a station second only t o the prophets of God (SDC 20). The faults of (absolutist) kings could be great, however, and Bahb'u'lllh condemned their injustice and tyranny, specifically warning several in his proclamation t o the nuLms. In The PROMISED DAY1s COMEShoghi Effendi interpreted the subrcquent decline of monarchy as evidence of I)IVINE JUDGEMENT due m the lack of response to this proclamation. Bahi'u'llih stated that one of the signs of the maturity of the world would be that no one would agree t o bcar the weight of kinrshin. .. with in troubles and dangers, except in ordcr t o nrnclaim God\ cause. hut also nredicted the futore cmcrgence of just kings (PDC 72-6). In the Kitdb-i-AQDASBahi'u'llih declared himself t o be the King of Kings, and the kings of the earth to be but vassals. They should clcansc their hearts from all earthly drfilemcnts and ensure that pride did nor deter them from recognizing him. He had no wish to seize their kingdoms, hut rather to possess the hearts of men (KA 48-50 k78-84, 52 k87). The emergence of future Bahi'i monarchs was also ptedicted. The conversions of (dowager) ~ i Romania (c.1926) and Queen M n n ~ of Malietoa TANULIAFILI 11 of Western Samoa (1968) arc consequently regarded by Bahi'is as highly significant.

Kings, SSra of the iAr.: rbe Sziratrt'l-Miluk) Arabic tablet of Bahi'u'llih composed in Edirne in around 1867, and part of his proclamation to the nul.vas. In it the 'kings of the earth' were summoncd t o heed Bahi'u'llih's call, cast away the things they possesscd, and follow God. Thcy were reproved for having neither recognized nor aided the Bib. The reins of government had been committed into their hands that they might rule

with JUSTICE, safeguarding the rights of the downtrodden, listening t o their appeals, and punishing wrongdoers. If they did nor do this they had no right to vaunt themselves amongst men. Again, the poor were their trust for whom they would answer to God. By increasing their expenditures they were laying an unjust burdcn on their subjects. They should become reconciled among themselves, so that they would no longer need ARMAMENTS except for defence, and thus lessen their outlays. Thcy were called upon to fear God, and warned of his chastisement if they did not heed Bah6'u'lllh's counscls (see D l V l N E j U D G E MENT). Only by adherilig t o and enforcing God's laws would they gain glary. In terms of worldly possessions, the earth itself was richer than them. Christian monarchs were separately addressed, and reminded of thcir ohligation t o hc faithful to Jesus' call t o follow the promised 'Spirit of Truth' who had now appeared. Other passages were addressed t o Sultan A n o u ~ n z ~ z and his ministers. t o the n e o ~ l eof ISTANBUL and their religious leaders, and to the ambassadors of Iran (HWAYN .. KHAN)and France. GPB 1716: mc 2 0 4 ; RB2: 301-25.

. .

Knights of Bahb'u'llbh HONORIPICTITI.F given hy Shoghi Effendi to rloNEEns who opened new territories (1953during the TEN YEARCRUSADE 63). It was not possihle t o open some of the territories during the Crusade itself, and later pioneers to these placcs were also given the title. Shoghi Effendi prepared a Roll of Honour with the names of the Knights in the form of a scroll, a n d this was ceremonially interred a t the entranceway t o the inner Shrine of Bahi'u'llih a t BAHJ~ on 28 May 1992 in the presence of many of the remaining Knighn (BIVNS 1992-3: 98). A partial listing of 246 of the Knights is given in BW13: 449-57.

Knobloch, Alma (c.1863-1943) and Fanny (1859-1949) Prominent earlv American Bahl'is. Alma was a PIONEER Bahi'i reacher in Germany (1907-20). and her sister Fanny in Southern Africa (1923-6, 1928-30). A third sister, Pauline, was nw 661.3; married t o Joseph HANNEN. BWI 1: 4734.

knowledge IMPORTANCE

For Bahi'u'llih knowledge was 'one of the wondrous gifts of God', a ladder for human ascent and a source of gladness. It is incumbent upon everyone to acquire it (TB 39, 52). SELF-KNOWLEDGE is of great importance: whatever serves to increase the individual's inner vision and reduce blindness is worthy of consideration (TB 35). Knowledge of God is attained through recognition of O F GOD for the the MANIFESTATION present age and observance of his laws (TB 50). The technological development of the present age - in which the WESTis preeminent - is of divine origin, reflecting Bahi'u'llih's own revclarion (TB 39). Similarly, for 'Abdu'l-Bahl knowledge war the most glorious divine gift and the most noble of human perfections. Opposition t o knowledge and SCIENCE is a sign of ignorance and condemnable (SAQ 137). There is no limit to knowledge, and individuals could (and should) spend their entire lives learning more. Knowledge should be used for the benefit of orhcrs and to

promote high ideals, such as the establishment of peace (PT 34). (See also INTELLECT; EPISTEMOLOGY

'Abdu'l-Bahl identified four bases for human knowledge: xnse perceptions; reason; scriptural rradition; and inspirano". Each of these is limited and fallible. Thus sense perceptions d o not necessarily represent reality, as in the case af perceptual illusions or seeing a mirage in a desert; reason can lead even the same thinker to different conclusions a t diffcrent times, as with changing cosmological conceptions; scriptural tradition can only be understood by the use of human reason, itself fallible (above); and inspiration (the inner prompting of the human 'heart' or 'SOUL')can be good or bad. Given this epistemological reality, reliable knowlcdge is attainable both through 'the bounty of the Holy Spirit' and combined use of the four methods t o provide a system of cross-checking (PUP 20-2, 253-5; SAQ 297-9). (See also METAPHYSICS.) HUMILITY

True knowledge comes from God and brings understanding and love. 'Satanic' knowledge becomes a veil between human beings and their creator and is a source of conceit (KI 4 4 5 , 119-21).

Kullu'?fa"m,

Law!'-i

See Tablet of 'AI.L FOOD'.

~

mansmission of sciences and am, would become possible. Only wirh the adoption of a universal language could universal PEACE be established (PUP 6C-1, 182, 232-3, 300; SWAB 32). 'Abdu'l-Rahl also praised the ideal of ESPERANTO, and encouraged Bahb'is to learn it.

In the confused conditions of the time these new ordinances d o not appear to have k e n widely circulated or practised amongst the Blbis. Instead, a number of Bibis became antinomian in their behaviour: marking their new religious identity and their hostility towards their Shi'i oppressors by deliberately contravening Islamic pactice.

TEACHING

language

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THE POWER OF THE WORD

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1

Bahl'i reaching emphasize the transforming impact of the divine word, but in general stress the importance of understanding more than the sanctity of the actual words: thus, unlike many religions, BnhH'i has no sacred or liturgical language as such (it also encourages LITERACY, ~ I D U C A T I O N and the TnnwsLATION of in scnlrrr,nes into the various languages of the world). Certain languages do enjoy a special 'canonical' status, however - Arabic, Pcrsian and English. The first two are spccial because they are the languages of the original writings of the Bib, Bshi'u'lllh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi (there are also a few writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahl in Turkish); English because it was (with Persian) the language used by Shoghi Effendi in his internrerations of the Bahi'i writinas, and by ihc Universal House of its nronounccmcnts to the Bahl'i world. English has also kcome the prcdominant language of international communication among Bahi'ir. Given this spccial staNs. many Bahi'is seek t o become fluent in one or more of these languages. Specifically, Persian-spaking Bahj'is commonly learn some Arabic, as Bahl'u'llih's Arabic writings have not been translated into Persian, and many of his writings contain passages in both languages. There is an evident emphasis

usr rice in

here on 'high' literary forms, found also in the English wriringr of Shoghi Effendi, which are not easily accessible m those wirh limited education.

Bahl'u'lllh permimd the learning of foreign languages for the purpose of TEACHING the Bahi'i Faith (KA 6 2 k l l 8 ) ; 'Ahdu'l-Bahi insisted on its importance (TDP 32.38.52). Language was a key to the human heart, and the means to explain the divine teachings ( P U P 60-1). (See also PUBI.ISHING; 'TRANSLATION; WORD O F GOD.)

UMVERSAL LANGUAGE

Bahl'u'lllh insrmctcd the world's parliaments and rulers t o choose one language (existing or new) and script to be taught to schoolchildren throughout t h ~world. This would be 'the gceatest instrument for promoting harmony and civilirarion', and one of the signs of the maturity of the H U M A N RACE. It would be a cause of uniry, so that the world would be regarded as one country. Ulrimatcly, languages would he reduced to one, and the naveller feel that each city was as his home (KA 88 klR9,250 n193; TB 22, 68, 89, 127, 165-6; see also 1.G 340 no. 1141; Froughi and Lamhden). It was a wsstc of human effort to have t o learn many different languages (TB 68). ' ~ b d u ' l - ~ a h l advised that a committee of cxnerts he appointed to sclect a suitable language to be adopted as an auxiliary to the native language in all countries (children would learn two languages: their own and the auxiliary), and stated that adoption of such a language was inevirahlc as divine assistance would aid in its realization. Barriers of language created misunderstandings between nations, but once rhese had been removed, intemadona1 education and naining, and the

law The Bahj'i writings refer to both sacred and secular law. SACRED LAW

In lslam sacred law - rooted in the QunAN and the teachings and example of Muhammad - is seen as providing the ideal pattern for individual human bchaviour and the structuring of human society. Emerging out of lslam, the Blbi and Bahl'i religions reflect this emphasis o n holy law, both the B i b and Bal~Yu'llHh raking the role of sacred law-givers, and revealing books of sacred law, which in part follow the Islamic partern. saeR33-5.80-2, 13940. 198; wo~bridgc. sacred 16-29, (See also LIBERTY.) HISTORY

RAniS They were initially rigorous in their adherence t o the Islamic holy law (sbarr"n), adding t o it various practices of a pietistic nature. This changed dramatically in Bibism's later 'radical' phase (see Bbf ~ A D I C A L I S M ) , when the Bib revealed a new Blbi code of law in the B ~ d l v which , replaced Islamic law. THE EARLY

Blbi antinomian tendencies were sharply condemned by Bahi'u'lllh, both in his initial role as a regenerator of Bihism in Baghdad and later as an independent prophcr. Eventually, in Akka, and partly in response to the requests of his followers, he revealed his own book of law. the Kitdb-i-AQDAS (c.1873). This, together wirh ia supplementary texts, the subsequent interpretations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi, and the legislation of the UNIVErSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICF., consritute the basis for the system of Bahl'i law. Of these the legal writings of BahYu'lllh, 'Ahdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi are regarded as fundamental and unchangeable, whilst thosc of the House of Justice are explicitly identified as subsidiary and suhject to alteration or repeal by the House in response to changing circumstances. Blbi law has been abrogated except where specifically reitcrated by Bahl'u'llih. A short codification of Bahl'i laws relating t o matters o f ~ersonalstatus was prepared in Egypt in the 1930s (BW6: 363-79; 8: 493-9). A codification of the laws of the Aqdas was published in 1973, and an official English translation of the Aqdas in 1992. ADMINISTRATION

Since the 1890s the practical organizational needs of a growing and increasingly complex nerwork of Bahi'is has led t o the elaboration of the system of Bahi'i ADMINISTRATION. Some Bahl'i national ASSEMBLIES - notably the Amer-

ican - have produced extensive literature ~raceduresrhat detailing- organizational regulate many aspects of communal practice and the relntion of the individual Bahl'i and the various administrative hodies. The assemblies are at prcsent the primary bodies concerned wirh the application of those aspects of Bahi'i law relating t o communal memhcrship. ASPECTS OF B A H LAW ~ ~ G R A ~ l l A l . l S MANil DlVERSVY Or API'L.ICA. .rIoN 01: n n ~ k LAW i Bahl'u'lllh himself stared that ohservance of his law should be suhien t o 'tact and wisdom' so as not to cause 'dismrhance and dissension'. Humankind should he guided to 'the ocean of m e understanding' in 'a spirit of love and tolemnce' (KA 6). Seemingly as a result of this principle cenqin RahH'i laws (e.g. the limi~.ationon the period of engagement and the payment of dowry) arc still only applicahle t o Middle Eastern Bahl'is IMUH] 277-9 no. 147), although other Baha'is from the 'newer' Bahl'i communities may also practise them if they wish. Similarly, payment of HUC>~IQU.LLAH was not msdc universallv . - applicable until 1992. Even quite fundamental social laws - such as the prohibition on drinking ALCOHOL - have only bcen applied extremely gradually in those countries in which they go against established social parterns and the majority of the Bahi'is havc been very new t o the Faith. Shoghi Effendi also made it clcar that cerrain laws (e.g. criminal laws) were only applicahle in a future (Bahl'i) society, and that others could nor be practised if they came into conflict with the present civil law in cerrain countries (e.g. the BahB'i prohibition on emhalming the dead: see BURIAL.)

INDIVIDMI. CONSCIENCE

Bahl'u'lllh directed his followers t o obey his laws for 'the love of My

beauty', and warned that those who disobeyed had erred grievously in Cod's sight (KA 20 k2, 4). It is attraction to Bahi'u'lllh, combined wirh the F E A n OF Goo, rhat is intended to hc the primary motivation for obedience. With the exception of behavionr that is criminal or liable to bring the Bnhl'i community into disrepute (punishable hy the loss of Bahl'i AnMrulsrnnTlvr nlct~Ts),compliance is a matter of individual CONSCIENCE. There is no equivalent of the Islamic practice of social regulation of prayer, fasting and other individual obligations.

codifications of law should replace the often arbitrary pronouncements of individual lslamic jurisconsults (SDC 14, 18,37-8). Shoghi Effendi referred to the need for a future single code of inremarional law wirh hinding .authority, and to the development of a world legislsturc and world court (WOR 41, 203). (See also HUMAN RIGHT% JUSTICE.)

lawh (Ar, board, tablet, slaw, pl.: alrudh) Term used to refer m the writings of Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and incorporated as part of the title of many smallcr works (e.g. lau,h-i-AQDAS). The term is traditionally used t o refer to various writings, including the tahlrts of the law hroughr down hy Moses from Mount Sinai and the 'Preserved Tablets' on which, according to Islamic tradition, the doings of humankind have bcen recorded for all eternity.

GENERAL PRlNClPLB

Bahl'i law is often prcsentcd in rhc form of general principles which each individual must apply as they hcsr see fit in rheir own lives. The successive heads of the religion havc been reluctant to prcscrihe derailed codes of hehaviour. This is in marked contrast t o the detailed provisions found in Islamic law. GENDER EQUALITY

I

The Universal House of Justice has csrshlished the principle that any BahH'i law originally defined in relation to onc sex should be applied t o the other, mutatis mrrtnndir, unlcss this is inapproprinte (MUH] 272-3 no. 145: KA 7). CLERICAL CLASS

Thcre is no equivalent to the Islamic .ULAMA able to elucidate the law authoritativcly (KA 5). SECULAR LAW

All shoi~ldbe equal before the law and law itself should be just. 'Abdu'l-Bahl called for the protection of hoth the rights of the individual and 'all mankind'. In the 19th-century Iranian conrcxr capital punishment cases tried by local authorities should be contingent upon confirmation by the central govcmment; litigants should have the right of appeal to higher courrs; and uniform

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Leach, Bernard (1887-1979) Internationally rcspccted potter and artist who was a Bahi'i. Hc was honoured by bath the British and Japanese governments for his work. His pottery at St lvcs in Cornwall attracted studenn from many parts of the world. He became a BahH'i in around 1940. BWl8: M9JI:Lwch BqndEes!, Dmvnngr League of Nations See UNITED NATIONS.

'learned' Many prominent early Baha'is bclongcd to the lslamic learned class, the klorni, and Bah6'u'llih specifically blessed them, 'the learned among the people of Bahi'. They were his 'trustees', 'the manifestations' of his commandments, the embodiments of steadfastness. 'the daysprings of Divine Utterance', 'rhe billows of the Most Mighry Ocean', 'the stars of the firmament of Glory',

and 'the standards of triumph [of his cause]' ( K A 82 k173; TB 221). More generally, he praised those servants who dedicated themselves 'to the education of the world' and 'the edification of its peoples'. These brought 'the life-giving water of knowledge' to the peoples of the world, directing them to 'the straight path' and acquainting them wirh what was conducive 'to human uplifrmenr and exaltadon' (TB 35). That there would continue to be Bahl'i 'learned' was indicated 1,y Bahi'u'lllh's appointOF ment of certain followers as HANUS THE CAUSE, a position later given institutional status as part of the Babl'i 'Administrative Order', and thc esrahlishmcnt of such other 'institutions of ~Y the learned' as the A U X I L I ARonnns and CONTINENTAL BOARDS o r COUNSKLmns. Thcse individuals are accorded high rank, hut unlike their Shi'i counterp a m are denied executive power (given instead ro the clecred A S S E M R I . I E ~ )or the right to make authoritative inrcrprctarions hinding on rheir fellow believers (MUH] 214-17 no. 111). Nor - apart from the Hands - are rheir appointments for life. Other eminent Baha'i tcachcrs may also he considered 'Icnrncd', hut havc no administrative rank. (See also ADMINISTRATION; 'ULAMA).

Letters of the Living (H~#rifi"l-hon~) The first eighteen disciples of the Bih. The lia given by rhc Bah5.i chronicler NAH~L.I.A.ZAM follows. (Those also listed ar Letters by Qatil al-Karhall'i (ARR 176) are marked ". Qatil also lists Mulll Muhammad Maylma'i.) (1) 'Mulll HUSAYN Busn~it'i,killed a t

Tabarsi

(2) 'Muhammad-Hasan BushrB'i, brother of Mulli Husayn, killed at Tabarsi (3) *Muhammad-B6qir BushritT, nephew of Mulli Husayn, killed at Taharsi

226

liberty

227

love

!

(4) 'Mull6 ' A L BAST ~ AM^ (5)Mulli Khudi-Bakhsh Qdchlni, later known as Mulli 'Ali (6) "Mulli Hasan Bajistini (7) 'Sayyid Husayn Yazdi, the Blb's secretary, killcd in Tehran (1852) (8) "Mirrl Muhammad Rawdih-KhBn Yazdi (9) (Shaykh?) Sa'id Hindi (10) 'Mu116 M a b d d Khu'i, killed at Tabarsi (11) "Mull6 ('Abdu'l-)Jalil U r h i (Urdkbidi), killed a t Tabarsi 1121 . . *Mu116 Ahmad-i-lbdll Marlzhi'i. . killcd at ~ a b a r s i 1131 . . 'Mull& Blair Tabrizi. the onlv one of rhc Letters to become a Bahl'i. He died in about 1881 in Istanbul, having outlived all his fellows (RE2 145-7) (14) Mu116 Yksuf Ardibili, killed at Tabarsi (15) MirG HBdi Qazvini, hrother of Mirri Muhammad-'Ali Qazvihi (16) 'Mirrl Muhammad-'Ali Qazvini, brother-in-law of Tihirih, killed a t Tabard killed in Tehran (1852) (17) TAHIRIII, (18) 'QUDDUS,killcd in Birfurdsh (1849) Of Nabil's list, six were from Khurasan (nos. 1-6); five from Azerbaijin (nos. 10-14), three from Qazvin (nos. 15-17), rwo from Yazd (nos. 7-R), and one each from Mazandaran (no. 18) and India (no. 9). .Most were of relatively humble social origins, and had been followers of the Shaykhi leader, Sayyid KAZIM.Nine were killed during or immediatcly following the Shaykh TAnn~siconflict. As a group, the Letters of the Living were given a cosmic role by the B6b, who identified them with the 'forerunners' (sribiqdn), the first members of the human race to respond t o God's preeternal covenant and, in Shi'i tradition, Muhammad, the lmlms and Fltima (see RETIIRN). They were also t o have a n organizational function as the first

'unity' (wrihid) in a proposed hierarchy of nineteen-member groups of believers (see NUMBERS). The three most prominent Letters (Mulli Husayn, phirih and Quddds) came to exercise an independent charisma and authority, expressed in the attribution of high spiritual stations m them. ARR 17441, 189.93; GPB 7 4 ; Modain. 'Hiaochy' 1044, 113-22; S B B R 2 6 5 . dl.

liberty

Bahi'u'llih condemned political and religious tyranny, advocated participatory democracy, and stteued the importancc of individual religious freedom. At the same time hc regarded unchecked liberty as destructive of SOCIAL ORDER. The principle of MODERATION had to apply. Liherq is beneficial in some circumstances but not in others. When carried to excess it exerts a pernicious influence on human beings, leading in the end t o sedition, 'whosc flames none can quench'. For human beings, 'true libeny9 consists in submission t o God and his commandments. This protects the individual from borh his own ignorance and the had influences of others. People are like a flock of sheep which need a shepherd far their protection (KA 63-4 k122-5; TB 169). Similarly, 'Abdo'l-Bahi referred to the 'modcrate freedom' rhar guarantees human welfare and preserver 'universal relationships' (SWAB 3051, and the Universal House of Justice has stressed the need for limits t o freedom in order far there t o be a balance berween the rights of the individual and those of the community (Individual Rights). (See also HUMAN RIGHTS.)

literacy For BahB'u'lllh it was imperative rhar every child - boy or girl - learns how to read and write. The responsibility for this rests both with the father and the HOUSE OF JUSTICE (KA 3 7 k48; TB 1281.

It is the dury of children t o exert themselves to acquire these skills, but it is not necessary for all t o attain the same level of ability: basic skills are enough for some (CCI: 368 no. 771). The importance of EDUCATION in general was also stressed. The BahB'is' response to these reachi n g ~has reflected the religion's pattern of EXPANSION. From the late 19th century onwards members of the Iranian Bahl'i communiry became committed to cducational development, and the community as a whole became distinguished for its higher level of education. The contrast was particularly marked in the case of WOMEN, most Iranian Bahl'i women becoming literate by the 1970s a t the latest, whilst until very recently most Iranian Muslim women remained illiterate. Western Bahi'is, by contrast, were generally uninterested in literacy: most were already literate and educated and lived in societies in which education was readily available. With the influx of large numhers of new BahB'is in the rural Third World (from the 1950d60s). many of whom were illiterate, the importance of Bahi'u'llih's injunction again became evident. Particular attention has been directed t o Bahi'i litcracy since 1989, when the Universal Housc of Justice called for systematic action to eliminate illiteracy from the Bahl'i community world-wide, identifying literacy as a 'fundamental right and privilege of every human being', and emphasizing its role in giving thc individual access to the 'dynamic influence' of the 'sacred Word' (see WORDOF Goo). This encouraged a variety of local literacy projects (186 by 1992). In addition, the Officc of Social and Economic Development at the Bahl'i World Centre has embarked on an international literacy campaign, beginning wirh pilot projects in Cambodia, the Central African Republic and Guyana, and already spreading t o other countries (BWNS 1992-3: 313; 1994-5: 128).

literature

BahP'i is an intensely literate religion, which emphasizes the power of the Wono OF GOD and encourages all its adherenn to become literate so that they can read its writings for themselves (see LITERACY). A large literature has developed, particularly in Persian, Arabic and English. The most important category of Bahl'i literature comprises the religion's CANONICAL TEXTS (the writings of the Bib, Baha'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahl, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal Housc of Justice, together wirh the authenticated talks of 'Abdo'l-Bahl). There is a large 'secondary literature', comprising the work of individual Bahl'is and institutions (Collins (Bibliography 41-158) lists 2,819 items in English on the Bibi or Bahi'i religions up to 1985, including multiple editions, but excluding marerials in Braillc ( I 4 2 items) and rmlonIcALs). 8roun. Rmdar's Guide pwider o of English-longuq rm~eriolsomund 1986. (See also Blsi AND Bnl1l.i STUDIES; INTERPILETATION; WEIR? PUBLISHING; TRANSLATION.) 'living the life'

Bahb'is are exhorted to live lives of virtuous conduct and devoted service to the Bahl'i Cause. This objective is often referred to as 'living the life'. cc2 1-27. (See also EXCELLENCE; S P ~ R I T U A LQUILITIE(; .TCACIIING.)

local spiritual assemblies See ASSEMBLIES. love

Bah6'11'116h taught that God created human beings out of his love for them, and so they in turn should love him. His love is their paradise and their safe stronghold (HWa nos. 3-91, For 'Abdu'l-Bahi love was 'the ground of all things' (SWAB 66). It is a 'living power' which brings life, illumination, hope and gladness t o those who are

lifeless, cold, hopeless and sorrowful. It is the greatest power in the world of existence. All genuine love is divine ( P T 192-4). No matter where it is found, love is light and hate is darkness (SWAB 3). Love proceeds from God and from human beings. God's love is part of his own essence, and a reflection of himself in the mirror of his creation. His love for his creatures gives them material existence, divine grace and eternal life ( P T 193). It is 'the Holy Spirit's cternal breath' which vivifies the human soul; the cause of divine revelation; 'rhe vital bond' inherent in the rcality of all created things; the true source of cternal happiness; 'the living link' that unites God and the individual human being; 'heaven's kindly light' that 'guideth in darkness' and assures the progress of every 'illumined soul'. It is the attractive power that binds the material elements together; directs the movements of heavenly bodies; and is the revealer of scientific knowledge. It is the basis for true civilization, and those who turn towards it will be exalted whilst those who rum away from it will fall inro despair and he destroyed (PUP 255,268-9; SWAB 27-8). Human love is directed towards both God and orher

human beings. Love of God artracrs the individual towards God. It purifies the human heart, preparing it for the revelation of divine grace, and is the source of philanthropy ( P T 193; SWAB 202-3). Through ir human beings are transformed, and become self-sacrificing (PUP 256-7). Such activities as MUSIC and the quest for KNOWLEDGE become heavenly only when joined with thc love of God (SWAB 181). True love for other human beings (as opposed to transient amaction) occurs when each see 'the Beaury of God' reflected in the other's soul (PT 193-4). A family, a city, a nation, humanity itself, will all progress when their members are hound together in unity and agreement. Correspondingly. rhey will be destroyed and dispersed if thcir members are divided by mutual hatred (PUP 1445). Bahl'is should strive t o become the manifestations of divine love. There should be lave and 'spirihlal communion' among the Bahi'is (becoming 'as one being and one soul'), but they should also love all human beings of all religions, races and communities, including their enemies (SWAB 21, 28, 69,203,246). lG403-5. (See alro H U M A N RACE.)

MacNuft, Haward (1858-1926) Prominent carly Americsn Bahi'i. He converted in 1898, and was appointed as B a l l reacher by lbrahim KHEIRALLA for New York. He later rravcllcd widely as a Bahj'i lecturer, and compiled the English translations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's talks in North America, T17c Promulgalion of Univnrol Peace (1922-5). Shoghi Effcndi honoured him as one of the OP 'ARUU.L-BAHA. BFAl; BHZ; DISCIPLES WBW35-42. magic The manipulation of supernatural forces to bring ahout dcsired practical conscquenccs (e.g. curing dlscase, obtaining a good harvest). In general the Bahd'i Faith promotes a rationalistic, 'scientific' understanding of phystcal and social processes (see SCIENCE). and is thus antipathetic t o w a r d s the magical world-view characteristic of much folk religion. Certain magical and occult practices and beliefs are specifically condemned. The conccpt of talismanic proreirtun appears to he acccprcd, boa.cbrr Isec ~ < l . ~ r u \ ' . O .\lngnsal . rlrmrnn are sometimes found in Bahi'i 'folk religion', as in the practice of some Persian Bahi'is of keeping porrions of sugar loaf ( n a b i t ) which have been deliberately placed in the Bahl'i Shrines in Haifa in the belief that they will acquire healing properties - although

Shoghi Effendi stressed that thc remains of the Prophets have no 'physical significance', bur only a spiritual one (LG 507). It was a common belief among 19th-century Iranian Muslims that BahB'is posscssed some magical suhstance which rhey added tu tcs to make people convert to their religion. sssn 38. 84. (See alro MIRACI.FS.)

Mahdi (Ar., 'the rightly guided onc') Islamic messianic figure, expected to deliver the world from oppression, establish the rule of justice and restore the purity of Islam. He would fight against the AN.TICHRIST, conquer rhc world, and then reign over a messianic kingdom until the RESURRECTION and the final day of divine judgcmcnr. He would come at a time of iniusticc and decadence, and it was the duty of all true Muslims t o hasten t o his support. Expcctarion of the iMahdi is found in both Sunni and Shi'i Islam, hut whereas in Sunnism it has bccn mainly confined rclision. to rhc level of pnpolar . . .. . in SIII.I%\I 11 has l~rcomepan of the officjal docrrtne, rhc ll~d'len lnjdm - cornom>nlv known as the Q ~ I M- being equatcd with the Mahdi. There arc various expected 'signs' of his advent and appearance. Numerous individuals have claimed the status of Mahdi over the centuries, and the doctrine possesses considerable religio-political potency.

l

Manifestations of Gad

Maid of Hnnen -The Bib claimed t o be the Mahdi, and he and his chief disciples consciously sought t o fulfil the signs of the Mahdi's coming (the Bib's proclamation a t Mecca; the projected gathering of believers a t Karbali; the flying of the etc.). scam. L I I W O ~ , . H ; ~ BLACK STANDARD; 1: 39BdM; Momso. Shi'i Irbm 36. 16670: S a c b dina; S&BR 42-3: Smilh. 'Millanotionism' 238-9.

garbed in white, sanding in the air before him, consoling him in her embrace, or alluding to his own death. Shoghi Effendi refers t o the Maiden as an analogous representation of the divine as the burning bush encountered by Moses, the dove that descended on Jesus, o r the Angel Gabriel who appeared to Muhammad. GPO 101: wol. bridgs. kocred 15845.

Maid of Heaven

I

In one of his visions in the SIYAH.CH~L MakO (Mi-Kbh) Small town in north-weaern Iran (Azerprison in Tehran (1852) Rahi'u'llih saw haijin) close m the Russian and Turkish a maiden (hdri) - the 'cmhodiment' of bordcn. Rising above the town is an the remembrance of Go& name - who overhanging rock face at the base of addressed the entire creation t o which there is a fonress in which rhc B5b announce his mission, and whose sweet was imprisoned for nine months Uuly voice imparted such tidings as rejoiced 1847 - 9 April 1848). The Bib's imprihis very being. This figure recurs in a number of Bahi'u'11ihb visionary writsonment was at first severe, but the ings ('The Tablet of the Maiden' ( k w h - attitude of the govern04 'Ali Khin, later changed (reportedly as a result of a i-Htirr), 'The Tablet of the Deathless virion), and a flow of Bihi visitors was Youth' (Lawh-i-Ghuldmu'l-khuld),The Tablet of tlte Holy Mariner ( I ~ w h - i - permirred. 7he local population - Sunni Kurds - were initially hostile, but came to Mallrihu'l-quds) and 'The Tablet of the regard the Bib as a holy man whose Vision' (Iau~h-i-Ru'yci), the first three blcssing rhey sought. The Bib referred to all written in Baghdad), luminous,

the place as the 'Open Mounrain' uaboli;Bbit). The town was Hiji ~Mirzl A~iiriSbirthplace, and was under his control, and it was no doubt for this reason that it war initially chosen as the Bib's place of confincment. Russian security concerns and the governor's leniency prompted the Bib's subsequent The M i k i ~~ e r i o dis transfer t o CHIHR~Q. significant both asmarking the end of any hopes that the Bib miaht . aain - the s u.o.~ o r r of the Qijar regime and in in doctrinal developmenrs: the Bah'r composition of the BAYAN and the DaWiI-i-rab'ih, and his claim to be the Q A I Mb. I p ~ i e 4 1 2 8 3 3 ; MBBR 72; McS 16, 82-8; Nobil242-50.

Manifestations of God IPers sinpolar: trtn?l~flr-i-ilihr)

a transformation in the lives of their followers, bringing unity to diverse peoples, and giving them peace, courage and certitude (Kl 72-3, 100). They have a double 'station': of 'essential unity' and 'dirtinnion'. Thus, whilst they share a common role as bringers of divine revelations and proclaim the same faith (see nr~lcloN),each also has his own mission, message and human individuality. Again, as thechannels through which human beings approach the divine, they may claim to bc the veryvoice of God, o r they may refcr to themselves as mere prophets and emphasize the unapproachability of the divine essence (KI 97-8, 113-16). Ft~rureManifestations will arise undcr the 'shadow' of Rahi'u'llih (WOE 11 I),though none for at least a thousand years (KA 32 k371. cds. Caocsot. (See also

For BahB'is Goo in essence is unknowable, therefore he sends his messengers the Manifestations of God - to he his exponents on earth. They are theophanics: mirrors who reflect God's glory and reveal his anribures. They are not incarnations of God: rhey d o not embody the divine essence (WOE 112-13). Thcy transmit divine knowledge and infinit" grace to humankind (KI 63-8). For ' human heings they represent the divine presence. They are the means of approach t o God (KI 89-92). They are PROPHETS 'endowed with constancy', who reveal divinc LAW; possess the 'Mast Great INFALLIBILITY' ('ismah-i-kabri); and are protected from sin. They come as a succession of reachers (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION; PROPHECY). There is no definitive list of recognized Manifestations bur rhey include ADAM,ABRAHAM, Mosas, Zoroaster (see Z O R ~ A S T ~ I A N I S M ) , Krishna (see INDIAN RELIGIONS), the BudJESUS,IMUHAMMAD, dha (see BUDDHISM), the Biis and BAH~U~I.I.AII. They exercises spiritual sovereignty over all in heaven and earth ( K I 69). Each one brings a judgement which separates the faithful (who accept them) from the unbelieven A4iznzichihr Khir,. lhe pon,erf,,i ,golrmor (who reiecr them) lK172). They engender of ir(dbda who offered rhe Bdh pruterrron

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Tire /ortress

of

Mibri, ,reor the Zrrkrrh orrd Arnretiiorr borders,

rvhere the Bib war impnroned. 1847-8

marriage

Manbchihr Khbn Manbchihr Khbn Mu'tamadu'ddowlih (Ar., 'Trusted of the State'), id. 1847) Governor of lsfihin from 1838 until his death. A Georgian eunuch converted t o Islam, he was regarded as one of the most capable administrators in mid19th-ccnrury Iran. I-le gained a reputation as a severe but even-handed ruler of the province, and protected the Jewish and Christian minorities. The B6b gaincd the Mu'fnnrad's protection following his escape from Shirir, and remained for four months in Isfihin. At the governor's request the Bib composed a treatise on the 'special prophethood' of Muhammad. According to the Bibi-Bahf'i account the governor becamc a Bibi, and promised the Bib his support in gaining access to MUHAMMAD SHAH.Such hopes were cot short by the Mu'tnmad's death (21 February 1847). ARR 2sbs. 3BlNn: h b z i . BL 108-16;MEap 167.9; NOUI 199-215. Man-yu~hiruhu'llah See HEWHOM GOOSIHALL HAKE

MANITFIT.

Maqsld, Lawh-i(PA, Tnhlet of Maqrtid) Late Syrian-period tahlet of Bahi'u'llih composed for a M i r d MaqsOd. The tablet dcals with a range of themes, including the inherent greatness of H U M A N NATURE; JUSTICE; the need for a n assemblage of rulers to gather to rstablish the Lesser PEACE;SERVICEto the and human race; MODERATION; WISDOM; the state of the world. It is written in the form of a letter from Bahi'u'llih's amanuensis, M i r ~ A i ~ iJAN. i TB 159-78.

Marie (1875-1938) Queen of Romania. Shc was the grandof Britain daughter of Queen VICTORIA II of Russia. She and of Tsar ALEXANDER married the Romanian crown prince Ferdinand in 1893, and became queen

Shoghi Effendi described marriage as the bedrock of the whole structure of human society. It is a divine institution.

ensure that a proper ceremony is held and parental consent obtained. THE BRIDAL G F I I M A H R l

REQUIREMENTS OP I I A H LAW ~ ~

The stipulations concerning betrothal, the bridal gift, virginity and travel are at present only applicable for Middle Easte m Bahi'is. CONSENT

in 1914, and queen dowager after her husband's death in 1927. She learnt of the BahB'i Faith in 1926 from Martha ROOT, and paid public tribute to the 'wondrous message' of Bah6'u'IIBh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, stating that the Bahi'i teaching represented 'the real spirit of Christ', and brought 'peace to the soul and hope to the heart'. Shoghi Effendi lauded her support. Her daughter Ileana, later an Orthodox nun (the Reverend Mother Alexandra), has denied that her mother ever becamc a BahB'i (Miller 304 "41). Elhv, GPB 389PS: Mam 59-52; lobbani. Pticelcu Paad 107-17; Zintyond Bomm 10%15.

marriage BahB'u'llBh bade his followerr t o marry, both so as t o bring forth children and as an 'assistance' to themselves. Marriage is not obligatory, however. True marriage is 'a fortress for well-being and salvation'; a spiritual as well as a physical relationship which will continuc through 'all the worlds of God'.

Marriage is dependent first on the consent of the couple, and then of their parents, this latter permission being required t o strengthen ties between family members and to prevent any enmity. Parental permission is required regardless of the age of the parties, and whether or not they have been married before. In cases of adoption it is the permission of the n a ~ r a parents l that is required unless these cannot he located. It is important thar the couple thoroughly appraise themselves of each other's characters before martying: they must be conscious of their commitment t o a lifelong relationship rather than being simply attracted by passion. Both partners must have reached 'the age of maturity', i.e. fifteen, and neither can evcn become engaged hefore this age.

The marriage is conditional upon the payment of a relatively small amount of money by the husband to the wife. (Bahl'i sources refer to this payment as a 'dowry', giving the term a new mcaning: the payment is not brought to the marriage by the bride from her family. In thar the payment is not given to the bride's parents, it is not a 'brideprice' either) This payment is fixed a t the equivalent of a minimum of 19 MITHQALS (69 grams) of precious metal -gold if the husband is a city-dweller and silver if he is a villager -and a maximum of 95 ntithqdls (346 grams), with the lower rate being preferable. If it is accepted, a husband can instead give his bride a promissory note for the money a t the time of the wedding. VIRGINITY

This must not exceed ninety-five days,

If a man had supposed that his bride was a vizin. - hut then at the time of c o n m a t ing the mattiage discovers that she is not, the bride-~avmentand weddin~e m n s e s may k demanded. If thc marriage itself had been made conditional o n the woman's virginity, then it is thereby invalidated. To conceal the matrer is highly meritorious in the right of God, however.

THE MARRIAGE CEREMONY

TRAVEL

The ceremony itself consists of both parmers saying a specific verse ('We will all, verily, abide by the Will of God') in the presence of rwo witnesses. They may add to this as they wish - for example by the inclusion of ptayen and scriptural readings - but the ceremony should remain simple. Any other ceremony, such as a civrl marriage in places where the Bahi'i marriage has no legal standing, should take place on the same day as the BahP'L marriage. Modem Bahi'i marriages take place under thc jurisdiction of a spiritual nssauaru, which must

If a man embarks on a journey, he must fix a date with his wife for his return. If circumstances prevent his return by the promised date, he must inform her. If she receives no word from him for a period of nine months beyond the appointed dare, or she receives reliable report of his death from two witnesses, she can remarry. If his fate is unknown, hawever, she is encouraged t o be patient.

BETROTHAL

SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS

Such relationships outside marriage are not permitted (see SEX). This includes

1 l

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I

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'trial' and 'companionate' marriages. Modem Bahiy practice permits only strict monogamy (cf ~ O L Y G A M Y ~but , if polygamous mamiages have been contracted prior to an individual becoming a Bahi'i, then these are accepted. PROHIBITED RELATIONSHIPS Bahl'u'llih forbade men from marrying their fathcr's wives. The Universal House of Justice extends this prohibition, mutotis mut~ondis, t o include marriage between a woman and her stepfatheq i.e. a man and his stepdaughrer. More generally, 'Abdu'l-Bahi stated rhat the more distant the relationship between the marriage partners the better: this would promote both physical well-being and wider fellowship between peoples. He also encouraaed interracial marriages. This conttasn markedly with the common tendency in many Middle Eastern societies to marry close relatives, particularly cousins. The whole question of permitted relationships is leh to the futum decision of the House of Justice. INTfRRLLlGlOUS MARRIAGES

Bahi'is are free to marry those of other religions, bur if they participate in the marringc ceremony of another religion, this should nor involve them in any dissimulation of their own fairh. DOMESTIC: V1OI.ENCE Rahs'i marriage should be based on a relationship of mutual respect and equality. All fonns of spousal ahuse are thrrefore condemned. For one partner t o use force to compel the other to obey them would contradict the principle of consultation on which the marriage should be based. cc2: 458-9. (See atso FAMII.Y LIFE.) Km 7. 41 k63. 4 2 3 k 6 7 . 58 k107. 69-70 kI39. 10Sdq3d. 11%11 q13. 115q267. lldq30. 119 +9. 120~43.121 qd67. 122 q54131q8d. 132 qS7-8. 131-4 q 2 . 149-52.205-10 n8%99.2224 "133; LG36E90.

martyrdom A martyr is one who suffers death in the [heir religion. ney become a swimers, for their faith. ~~~d~~ is a motif in shyism, parti. ,j0, cularlq linked to the death of the lmim HUSAYN(see IMAMS) at KARBALA, and glorifying sacrificial anion in the cause of truth. This paradigm was readily appropriated by the Bibis as the tensions hctwcen them and the secular and religious authorities increased, the readiness of the Bibis t o face marryrdom giving them lroth courage and religious legitimacy. The struggle at TAsn~siin particular assumed the guise of a reenactment of Karbali (SBBR 27.44-5). This motif continued after most of the remaining Blbis had hccomc Bahs'is. and the readiness of some Bahl'is t o face martyrdom continues to provide powerful validation of their commitment in lran and clsewherc. Whilst BahB'u'll6h praised those who had given their lives tor God's cause, and eulogized marryrdom as heing greater in God's sight rhan 'the creation of the universe' (I-1LVa nos. 45-7, hc counselled his followers to he cautious in propagating his faith, and to observe 'mrsno~'(kikmot) in identifying thrrnsclves as Baha'is. They should definircl~not seek marryrdom (some Bahl'is desired to become martyrs, seeing rhat station as a means of expressing their self-sacrifice and utter dedication, even writing t o Rahi'u'llah asking him to grant them this lhonour). Instead, they should serve and in particular reach the Bahi'i cause. Those who led lives of self-sacrificial dedication might indeed gain the status of martyr, though rhcy died natural deaths (e.g. l a ~ . ~ . A s ~ aIEB o ) 172: MacEoin. 'From Bihism' 225-7). number of Bibi martyrs is uncertain. Bahi'i sources commonly refer t o a rounded figure of twenty thousand, but a recent estimate places the number at between two and three

thousand (MacEoin, 'Bahl'i persecutions'; 'From Blbism' 2367; 'A note on the numben'). The mue figure may lie somewhere between these extremes. The total number of Bahfis killed in lran before the Islamic Revoludon of 1979 is again unknown: MscEoin estimates three hundred or so - but, as with the Ribi numbers, we should add probable deaths by starvation of dependants of those killed. Since 1979 over two hundred Bahl'is have becn murdered o r executed for their beliefs (see IRAN). Outside Iran, whilst there have been many instances of persecution and imprisonment (see OPPOSITION), there have been very few cases of Bahi'is having been martyred, one of the most notable heing Duarte VIEIRA(1966), in what was then Portuguese Guinea. Several dedicated individuals who were not killed for their beliefs were given the status of martyrs by Shoghi Effendi (George BENKE;May ~MnxlvaLl.;Keith RANSOM.KLHLER).

,,,,

Moshhad (Ar., lit. 'the place of martyrdom') (1868 pop. . . esr. 70,000) Capital of the north-eastern Iranian province of Khurdsln, and the shrine city of the eighth IMAM,Imdm Ridl. It became Mulld HUSAYN BUSHKWSS centre of operations, and it was from here that he and his companions began their STANDARD. march with the BLACK

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recontrng thew farth.

Marhriqu'l-Adhkbr (Ar., 'Dawning-place of the remembrances lor mention] of God') Bahi'i temple or 'House of Worship' and its projected surrounding complex of buildings. The term is also used t o refer to designated prayer centres, and t o dawn oraveri, Bah(.u.]l(ll defined the Masbriqu'l-Adhkdr as any building that had bcen erected for the praise of God. Such houses of worship should be built evervwhere: rhev should be 'as perfect as poss~ble', and not be

1

adorned with images. It was a blessing t o visit such houses a t dawn t o listen to the verses of God 'in silence' (KA 29 k31, 61 kllS). 'Ahdu'l-Bahi specified that the central house of worship should bc linked t o a number of subsidiary building, including a hospital, drug dispensary, travellers' hospice, school and university, these philanthropic institutions being open t o those of all religions. The house of worship itself should be a focus for communal unity and prayer, and would have a wider impact on the place where it was built. Shoghi Effendi stressed the complemcntariry berwcen thc Morhriqu'l-Adhkrir and the H ~ z i n ~ ~ u ~ ~ -and Q uthe u sclose , interaction berween prayer, social scrvice, education and Bahj'i administration emhodicd in the ideal of thc temple complex. BA 1 8 4 4 ; GPB 33940; (G 605.11: SWAB 9A-IW.

Various meeting places were designated as Mashriqu'l-Adhkdtr by Bahj'is in Iran and Asiatic Russia at an early date ('Abdu'l-Bahi stated that ever; village and hamlet should have a prayer centtc, even if it had to he underground to avoid persecution), hut it was only in 1902-7 that a proper house of worship war constructed (in Russian Turkistan, see below). A second was begun in the United States in the 1920s, a further three were built as part of the TENYEAR Cnusnnr in different continents, and another three under the direction of the Universal House of Justice. Those in the 'Third World' in panicular, commonly evoke elements of indigenous design. All n r )have , a are nine-sided (see ~ u ~ n ~ and central auditorium. Some are surrounded by gardens and ornamental pools. To date the temples have been built on a conrincntal basis, being designated as 'mother temples' for their rcsncctive regions. Numerous temple sites have been acquired throughout the world for future houses of worship. As yet, few subsidiary buildings h a k been constructed. ~odies:sse.i 161-2:zohowi

134-40. The individual houses of worshio arc as fallows:

1

ASHKHABAD, TURKMENISTAN: The firsc and most complctc Bahi'i tcmple complex built to date: the main structure of the House of Worship was built berwcen 1902 and 1907, and external decoration complctcd in 1919. Schools and other satellite institutions were huild adjacent The project was to it (rep ASIIKHARAU). carried out under rhe supervision of Hiji Mirzi M u ~ ~ A M M A ~ - thc TAQ Afnhn, ~, who also providcd ,much of the funding. The building design was by Usrid 'AliAkhar Bnnni. The temple huilding was confiscated by the Soviet authorities in 1928, and leased hack to the Behs'is until 1938 when it was fully cxpropriated and turned into an sn gallery. The building suffered earthquake damage in 1948, and was den~olishcd in 1963. sw14: 479-81; GPB 30C-1; ~ a e .'Rise'; Momsn.

'B0hb'i communih/'.

WILMETTE, II.L.INoIS,USA: Inspired by news of the Ashkhabad temple, the Chicago Bahi'is decided t o huild a tcmple of their own (1903), eventually choosing a sire in the north shore suhurh of Wilmettc (1908). A dclegate assemTEMVI.F UNITY,represcnbly, the BARAT tativc of all the American RahB'is, was established in 1909 to collect funds and superintend the project, and 'Ahdu'lBahi dedicated the site on 1 May 1912, but it was not until 1920 rhat the design (hy Louis Bounc~ols)was chosen and preparatory work begun. Financial prohlcms delayed completion of the superstruct~~re until 1931; external ornamcntation to 1943; and the interior t o 1951 (the total construction casts were over $2.6 million). The temple was finally dedicated for worship on 1 May 1953, and has amacted considerable public attention for its unusual style and the innovative techniques employed in its construction. By 1982 it had rcceived nearly 5 million visitors, and it was

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'I%<.Hotrs~uf \Y1<,rshii~,rr \Tilr,rellc. USA

rnal&alirrn

designated as a national historic place by the American government in 1978. It has a searing capacity of 1,191. The dome ribs rise 164 feet above the floor of the auditorium. The temple's first dependency, a home for the aged, was inaugurated in 1959. BWl3: 742-8; 17375; GPB 34853; Armslmnglngimm. Mu$ic, Dam!;onr:

dedicated on 24 December 1986. The construction costs came to appro*mately $lorn. It has a normal seating capacity of 1,200. The building's unusual design - it appears as a giant opening lotus flower - has anracted considerable public interest. 6W16: 4867; 17: 368-70; 18: 103-4.571-84.

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Whihors.

UGANDA: Designed by C.M. REMEY, the Foundation stone was laid on 26 January 1958, and the temple was dedicated on 14 January 1961. It has a seating capacity of over 400. 8 ~ 1 3 : 704-19. KAMPALA,

materialism

For Bahl'is human beings have both a material and a spiritual existence, horh of which need to he recognized and catered for. As long as material progress does not impede spirintal development, AUSTRAI.I*: Designed by C.M. it is to be encouraged. Indeed, the SYDNEY, Remey: construction work began in 'struggle for existence' is recapized as 1957, and the temple was dedicated on 'the fountain-head of all calamities' 15 Septcmhcr 1961. It has a seating (SWAB 3021; the ideal society that capacity of 500. swls: 72w2. Rahi'is regard as the goal of human progress - the furore W o n ~ o O n n ~-is n F ~ A N K F UGERMANY: ~T, Designed by one in which worldly poverty and Teuro Rccholl, consuuction began in injustice will have been eradicated; 1960 (after a long string of legal delays SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (in the seemingly caused by church opposition spirit of SERVICE) is regarded as an to the project). It was dedicated on 4 intrinsic part of Bahi'i activity; and July 1964. It has a scaring capacity of whilst the true believer should seek 450400. A home for the aged has been DETACHMENT f10m the world, AsCETlClsM built as the first dependency of the is not the means by which this is to be 8 ~ 1 3 733-41: : 14: 4834; IS: 104. temple. achieved. This said, the fundamental PANAMA CITY, PANAMA: Designed by nature and purpose of human life is Peter Tillonon, the foundation stone spiritual; individual spiritual dcvclopwas laid on 8 October 1967, and ment though PRAYER, service to others, consrmction work began in 1969. It and the acquisition of s~lnlruarQUALITIES was dedicated on 29 April 1972. It has a should he a cenrral goal of human life; seating capacity of 550. sw14: 4934; IS: and the material clemenrs of C I V I L I Z A T I ~ N 632-49. must be balanced by the spiritual for true human progress to occur. The APIA, SAMOA:Designed by Husayn problem of the present age is the lack Amanat, the foundation stone was laid of this balance. The material civilization on 27 January 1979 by Malietoa TANUof the WESThas captivated the peoples MAFII.I 11. It was dedicated on 1 Seprembcr 1984. The total construcrion costs of the world, such that 'rhey roved distraught in the wilderness of material came to S6.5m. It has a seating capacity causes', oblivious of Cod, the ultimate of 500-700. EW16: 488-9; 17:3714; 18: 104. Cause (TB 144). People have now 585-8. become 'immersed in the world of NEW DELHI,INDIA:Designed by Farinature' (SWAB 206). Materialistic civiboun Sahha, the foundation stone was lization absorbs so much of people's laid on 1 7 October 1977. It was energies and interesrs that rhey neglect

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maturity, age of

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their own spiritual development. The spirit of the present age is irreligious, undermining the foundations of moral and spiritual life. A universal crisis, which is spiritual in nature, is the result (CC2: 237-8 no. 1762). Modern-day materialism is 'rampant and brutal' (AD] 39). It is 'all-pervasive', 'pernicious' and 'cancerous'; 'a devouring flame'. Its consequences are moral decline, rising crime, public corruption, the breakdown of marriage, and hedonistic craving (CF 124-5). The revival of true naLrclon is essential to rectify this situation. Each individual has the choice of caring for spiritual things or for material things. whichever they choose they will be drawn nearer to, and further away from its opposite (c&:235 no. 1754). (See also ECONOMIC TEACHINGS; HUMAN NATURE; SECULARISM.)

Bahi'is were obliged to follow the laws of PRAER and wsnnc, and at which they could marry if they so chose. Engagement or MARRIAGE before this age is not permissible. Use of the BURIAL ring and the special prayer for the dead are also intended only for those who have attained the age of maturity. If inheritors are still children, a trustee has to be appointed to manage the estate until they come of age (KA-28 k27, 113 q20. 120 q43. 127 q70, 134 q92, 170 "13). ~ h o g h Effendi i stated ~ h a t - ~ dto or the age of maturity children are under the direction of thcir parents (and thus need their parents' permission to attend Bahi'i meetings or become Bahi'is). He also fixed twcnry-one as the age of 'administrative' maturity a t which Bahi'is can vote for and be elected to ASSEMBLIES. This is a temporary measure and may change in the future (BA 37; KA 189 n49; LG 153-6).

PHILOSOPHICAL MATERIALISM

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This is rejected. Bahi'u'llih regarded those who clung only to nature 'as it is in itself' as lacking in wisdom (TB 144). For 'Abdu'l-Bahi those philosophen who believed thar KNOWLEDGE had to be based on sense perception alone ignored the distinctive nature of human rationality and the capacity of human beings to transcend nature, thereby degrading the human reality to that of an animal (PUP 177, 355-61; SAQ 185-90). Theu belief thar non-material realities such as the SOUL did nor exist was not provable, and their denial of such realities simply indicated a 'blindness' on their pan which would be dispelled if they but opened their spirimal eyes (PT 91-3). The dominance of this materialistic outlook reflected the obscurantism and disunity of present day religion (see RELIGION

Maxwell, May E l l i s [nee Bollcs) (1870-1940)

A N 0 SCIENCE).

maturity, age of BahB'u'llih established fifteen as the age of social and religious maturity at which

.

Prominent early American Bahl'i. She joined the first group of Western pilgrims to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahi, herself reaching Akka in February 1899. She then returned to Paris where she had been living, and established d ~ enucleus of a Bahi'i community. Those introduced to the Faith by her included C.M. REMEY, Thomas BREAKWELL, Hippolyre DREYFUS and Laura Barney (DnErfus). She married William Surherland m x . WELL in 1902 and moved with him to Montreal. The couple had one child, KHANUM). 'Abdu'lMary (RUHIYYIH Bahi stayed with the family during his visit to Canada (1912), their home later being accorded the status of a national Bahi'i shrine. Despite rmor health,. May. . . became extensively involved in Bahi'i teaching and administrative activities in both the United Stares and Canada, and later in Europe. In 1940 she visited South America t o support Bahi'i

meditation

243

\Y;INi',,n SulbcrliirrA r C l i i . ~ r w l i .H.8bti'i

clrchirect nsd ICznd of rhc C ~ r r r e

activities in Argentina, bur died shortly after reaching Buenos Aires. Shoghi Effendi accorded her the status of a M,\RTYR. BW8 63142.

Maxwell, William Sutherland (1874-1952) Canadian HANDOP THE CAUSE.He was (m. 1902) the husbandof May MAXWELI. and father of R ~ H I Y Y KHANUM. IH He became a Bahs'i after meeting 'Abdu'lBahi in 1909. Following May's death in 1940 he moved to Haifa. A well-known architect, he designed the supentntmre for the SHRINEOF THE BAB. HC was named a Hand in December 1951, shortly before his death. Shoghi Effendi also named one of the doors of the Shrine in his honour. ewrr 65742; nmpr 27686.

Muhammad Ridi-yi-Tabih Yazdi, a practitioner of traditional Islamic medicine. The tablet contains advice on healthy caring, and the need for medical treatment, MODERATION and emotional praises contentment (see EMOTIONS); medicine as the noblest of the sciences; provides a short healing prayer; and states that if the Bahi'is had followed his instructions to reach the Cause, then the majority of the world's people would have converted. ~.manoparir and ~ o m ~ s n . 'Toblel

d Medicine'; ElrlemonfA 98, 99. 1023/8

102. 103,

olso

107; PM

no.

170; 183: 35860. (See

HEALTH AND HEALING.)

meditation

F o r Bahi'is meditation consists primarily of individual contemplation when of the Wono O F GOD, . particularlv . in a state of PRAYER. Its purpose is to Medicine, Tablet of deepen the individual's understanding of (PA: LoruhiTibb) the Bahi'i revelation and make them Tablet of BahB'u'lllh dating from the more open to the potentially transformAkka period addressed t o ~ M i r z i ing power that Bahi'is believe their

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metaphysics -scriptures t o have on the human SOUL. It is a form of communion with self, in which the individual abstracts their consciousness from external stimuli and focuses on the divine. Ln this state, the individual becomes receptive t o decper insights into the nature of things and their Spirit is strengthened. There is no formal system of meditation, each individual being free m meditate as they see fit. cc2 226 I 724, 2 3 b no. ~ 1752.24~ n a . 1771. 1774. 1782.

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membership Although some lists of early Bibis were made, there seem t o have been no similar listings of early Bahi'is, and the hasor o i acccprance into rhc network o i Baha'i groups is ohscure lbrahim KHEIRALLA instituted lists of those new American Bahi'is who received the 'GREATEST NAME'. but this practice was not continued after 1900, as more 'inclusivist' conceptions of Baha'i membership predominated (SBBR 109-10). It was nor until 1925 that the practice of preparing membership rolls of 'recognized believers' was started in North America - at Shoehi - Effendi's instrucdons - and subsequently became general throughout - the Bahi'i world. This raised the 'delicare and complex question' of what exactly the qualifications of a ' m e believer' were. Shoghi Effendi listed four 'fundamental' factors which were t o be considered: (1) 'full recognition of the station of the Forerunner [the Bib], the Author [Bahl'u'lllh], and the True Exemplar ['Abdu'l-Bahi] of the Bahi'i Cause, as set forth in 'Abdu'l-Bahb's Testament'; (2) 'unreserved acceptance of, and submission m, whatsoever has been revealed by their Pen; (3) 'loyal and steadfast adherence to every clause of our Beloved's ['Abdu'l-Bahl's] sacred Will; and (4) 'close association wirh the spirit as well as the form of the present day Bahl'i administration throt~ghour the world' (BA 90). The assembly was

warned to avoid being overly rigid in the implementation of this practice and not t o try to funher analyre or elucidate these factors. (See also CONVERSION; DOGMA.)

All local and national AssoMnLles are now expected t o keep membership records of rheir communities. These records include lists of declarations of faith by new Baha'is, as well as of births and of those who formally withdraw from the community (see APOSTASY). Changes in status (the anainment of the age of spiritual M A T U R I ~ Y a t fifteen (see YOUTH); the gaining of the right to panicipate in assembly ELECTIONS a t the age of twenty-one; MnnnwcE; the loss or r e a a i n i n ~ of ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS; dcarhj nrc also recorded. Thrre is cons~Jrr,drlrv a r i a t ~ nin rhr efticlency wlrh which nssemhlies in different parts of rhc world are able to compile this data. As in any inclusive religious community, there are considerable variations in commitment amongst Bahi'is. There are no gradations of membership status on this basis, however. (See also COMMUNITY.)

membership in other religious organizations See BAHA'~ FAITHAND OTHER RELIGIONS. Memorials of the Faithful (PA: Tadhkiratu'l-vafa. . ,lit. 'Memorials of Faithfulness') Book by 'Abdu'l- BahP, consisting of his remembrances of over sevenry of the early Bahl'is (and one Bibi, T ~ n l n l x ) . The original 'memorials' were delivered as a series of talks t o the Bahi'is in Haifa during the early years of World War 1. The Persian transcripts were later corrected by 'Abdu'l-Bahb, and then compiled into a single volume (1915), subsequently published hy the Haifa Bahi'i Assembly in 1924. An English translation was published in 1971. The accounts focus on the

SPIRrruAL QUALlTrEs of the individuals rather than their formal biographies. hnoni. 'WriHngs'.

metaphysics The study of being and knowing. THE LIMITS OF HUMAN UNDERSTANDING

Bahi'u'llih taught that 'no mind nor hean' could ever understand the nature of even the most insignificant of God's creatures, let alone the mystery of Goo himself. All the conceptions of 'the dcvoutesr of mystics' and the most exalted of rages were the product of 'man's finite mind' and were conditioned by its limitations. They were only a reflection of what had been created within themselves (GWB 62 no. 26, 316 no. 148). Again, whilst God had endowed the human essence wirh the 'rational faculty' (the MIND), hlllnan beings were unable ever to comprehend this inner reality. Indeed, t o acknowledge their own inabiliry was the 'acme of human understanding' (GWB 163-5 no. 83). Human beings should seek KNOWLEDGE, bur they could never nanscend the inherent limitations of their own undersranding. (See also scleNca; REASON.)

of this matter dependerh upon the observer himself' (GWB 162 no. 82), whilst 'Abdu'l-Rahl described theological differences about God as being a product of the imagination: each sect and people created a god in their own thought and worshipped that. God in essence was utterly beyond such conceptions, however (Bahd'i World Faith 381-2; SWAB 53; see also Momen, 'Relativism'). Much religious disputation can thus he seen as essentially useless, o r indeed, when linked to fanaticism and supemirion, is t o be condemned (see nELlGlON AND SCIENCE). GOD AND THE WORLD

For Bahl'ir there is a threefold division of realiry. (1) God: the essentially preexistent cause of existence. The creation is contingent upon him. (2) Thc lagos: this is the realm of God's command and grace; the 'Primal Will', the 'Holy Spirit' and the 'Word of God'. It pcrvadcs all created things, and is the ultimate cause of creation (TB 140-1). Every thing that can be perceived is an emanation from it, and through its potency it unlocks the human hean (TB 173). The MANIFESTATIONS OF GOO arc appearances of the logos in the physical world. (3)Creation: the physical universe has always existed. Although subject to change, in temporal terms it has neither beginning nor end. It RELATIVISM comprises individual creatcd entities (plaShoghi Effendi stated that a 'fundamenners, people) which originate in time. tal principle' of Bahb'u'llih's teachings Every created thina in the whole universe was that religious t r x h was 'rlor a h ~ o - IS a 'sign' of Godt .ovcretwv, reflcca his lurr but relattve': thus the (scem~ngly imaw, 2nd is dcppndcnr oyw,r, htm iC\VR divergent) teachings of the various , 160-no. 82, 1 6 j no. 84). ~ d eCmmp. world religions could be seen as 'facers Bahi'u'llih also referred to the many of onc truth' (Faith 2). Given the BahB'i 'worlds of God' (TB 187-8). and often view of the ultimately limited nature of used a Neoplaronic cosmological framehuman understanding, divergent views work which was traditional in certain regarding the nature of metaphysical schools of Islamic metaphysical thought. reality may perhaps be reconciled: thus This distinguishes five realms of exisBahB'u'llih regarded different undertence: (1) hdhrit: the realm of the standings of the nature of CREATION as unknowable, unmanifested essencc of occurring because of divergences in God, which even God's Prophets cannot thought (TB 140) - 'the comprehension know; (2) libif: the realm in which the

Mihdi, Min6 --

,

!

divine names and artribures become defined within the divine consciousness as the archetypal forms of all created things. This is the 'All-Glorious Horizon' of the primal will, the active means by which God has created the heavens and the earth; (3) jabartit: the realm of the revealed God acting within creation, the 'all-highest Paradise' of divine decrees in which reside the imagery forms of the archangels; (4) malakit: the angelic realm, the 'world of similihldes' ('dlam-i-mithdl); (5) nrirrit: the physical world, subdivided into animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms. God is manifened a t all of these levels except the first (God's unknowable essence), and the Manifestations of God exist on four of these levels. Human beings exist at the interface between the angelic and physical realms, and are able t o choose in which to live. h e n . 'Rablmsm' 189-4. TYPES OF SPIRIT

'Abdu'l-Bahf discussed human distinctiveness in terms of a quasi-Aristotelian differentiation between four 'kingdoms' of physical creation (mineral; vegetable; animal; human) and five divisions of spirit (vegativc; animal; human; heavenly; the Holy Spirit). Both of these schemata are hierarchical, each level of physical existence being held to encompass the qualities of those below it, whilst also being distinguished by its own particular characteristics which are beyond the attainment of the lower kingdoms. Thus, minerals are held together by atomic attraction; vegetables also have the power of growth; animals also have sense-perception and the power of movement; humans also have the powen of ideation, conscious reflection and discovery, as manifested in science and invention (PUP 69-70, 114, 172-3, 189, 268; SAQ 143-4, 185-90, 208). Human beings are also distinguished from plants and animals in their spiritual qualities: they possess a "on-material entiry (the SOUL)which

continues t o exist after physical death; they are able to recognize and love God, and t o be transformed into heavenly beings by the spirit of faith; and they may choose to acquire saintly or satanic qualities. (See also EVOLUTION; FREE WILL; HUMAN NATURE.)

Mihdi, Mirza (1848-70) Younger son of Bahb'u'llih by his first wife, N~vvAs; known as the 'Purest Branch' (ghurn-i-nthar) (see AGHSAN). Born in Tehran, he remained in the city for several years following the family's departure for Iraq (1853). He accompanied Bahl'u'lllh to Edirne and Akka, sewing as one of his father's secretaries. One evening, preoccupied in prayer, he fell through a skylight on the roof of the barracks-prison in Akka, and died the next day (23 June 1870). Bahb'u'llih gave his death the status of a sacrifice that the BahP'is might bc 'quickened', 'and all rhat dwell on earth be united', and linked it to the subsequent ending of

Mirid Mihdi, younger son o/ Bohd'u'llih by N a v d b

the exiles' close imprisonment. The boy was buried outside the ciry wall in the Nabi Silih cemetery. His remains, together with those of his mother, were disinterred by Shoghi Effendi and reburied as one of a group of shrines of family members on thc slopes of Mount Carmet in December 1939. eKG 310-14;

they rejected the implicit anarchism of pacifism - the individual was important, but social life was based on the subordination of the individual will t o that of society; and they did not believe that the refusal t o bear arms would of itself establish PEACE - rather a 'spiritual revitalization' of the human hean was EWE: 2dS-58; GPB 188; R e b n i . Mcdede Psod necessary; (2) t o instruct the Bahl'is to 25943. apply for non-combatant status (amhulance work, air-raid wardens, administration), so that they were not dircctly Mihdi Dahaji, Sayyid involved in the shedding of hlood, whilst Eminent follower of Bahl'u'llih, who a t the same time they expressed thcir was honoured by him with the title willingness to obey the authorities unrelmiu'lldhu'l-Mihdi ('The Name of God, servedly if called upon to do so. As loyal Mihdi'). He acted as the caretaker of the citircns, it was their duty to serve their House of Bahb'u'llih in Baghdad after country. It was immaterial whether that the lancr's departure for Istanbul. He scrvice placed them in posirions of was cnarmously respected as a Bahf'i danger. The Universal House of Justice teacher in Iran, but subsequently became has stated that there is no objection t o a follower of M U H A M M A O ~(GPB 'AL~ Bahl'is enlisting voluntarily in their 319; see COVENANT-RREAKFRS). He country's armed forces and pursuing received a number of letters from military careers SO long as this d w s not Bahl'u'lllh, including the Stiriy-i-'lhid involve combatant scrvice. This is parti(Chapter of the Servants), wrinen in cularly the case if national scrvice Edirne (RBZ: 272-S), and the lawh-iincludes training in skills valuable t o Si~id-i-Mihdiy-i-Dahaii, composed in national o r professional development Akka (TU 195-201; RB4: 236-8). This such as agriculmre. m 4069. The Amerlatter work refers t o Bahb'i TEACHING ican national assembly issucd a stateactivity, and to the need for the BahL'is ment on this issue with Shoghi Effendi's to he godly in their deeds and t o avoid approval in 1936 (ULV6: 202-4). creating strife.

military service, pacifism The question of BahP'is entering military service was raised by the American and British Rahs'is during the 1930s. They wished t o resolve two potentially conflicting Bahf'i principles: the instruction nor to kill (Bahl'u'llfh taught rhat it was better to be killed than t o kill), and the call t o be obedicnt t o their governments. Shoghi Effendi's response was: (1) to deny that Bahb'is could be 'conscientious objectors' (i.e. people who refused to serve in the armed forces on grounds of conscience): Bahl'is were not 'absolure vacifists' 1i.e. the use of force was acceptable under certain circumstances);

millenarianism The belief in a divinely destined future paradise on earth; commonly linked t o the acceptance of a particular leadcr as a messiah; a major motif in BLbi-Bahh'i history. Bfbism emerged in the context of Shi'i messianic expectation, and the BBb hlmself proclaimed that he was the Shi'i messianic figure, the QAYM,who had come to usher in the events of the resurrection. lnirially at least, many of his followers apparently expected him literally to fulfil the Shi'i rrrovhecies leading to the cnablishment bf theocratic kingdom. Followinp.the crushine of Bibism 11849-52) fuGher messianic

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expectations gave hope t o the remaining Bahi'u'lllh as the promised messianic Bibis, and framed Bahl'u'lllh's claim t o figure of all religions, both of the major be HEWHOM GODSHALL M A K E MANIFEST. world religions and local 'tribal' traditions. SBBR 4 2 4 . 7 M . 78. 107-8. 140-5; Smih. Bahl'u'llih also laid claim t o be the 'American B o M communihj. 15-1: Smih, 'Millenorpromised one of other religions, and ionims. (See also CALAMITY.) prophesied the establishment of the millennial furure Most Great PEACE.There were apocalyptic elements in his vision. M i l l s , M o u n t f o r t (d. 1949) Through God's assistance the people Prominent American Bahi'i. He conwould perhaps awaken, but the present verted in 1906 and made several pilsituation of the world was 'lamentably grimages to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahb. In 1922 defective', with iniustice, discord and he was one of the Bahl'is consulted by corruption prevalent. The 'signs of Shoghi about the future develimoendinp. - convulsions and chaos' were opment Effendi of thc Faith. He was extensively evident, and the 'winds of despair' were involved in the development of Bahl'i blowing in every direction (TB 171). ADMINISTRATION in North America, and The EXPANSION of BahP'i t o the West TEMPLE UNITY served on both the BAHAI (from 1894) brought the religion into Board and the later national Executive more immediate contact with the Chrirspiritual ASSEMBLY. A lawyer, it was he tian tradition, early American Bahl'is who prepared the assembly's Declaralinking their faith t o Christian adventist tion of Trust and By-Laws (1927), which expectation, and the pioneer (and hcterodox) Bahi'i teacher I.G. KHEIRALLA became the model for similar documents in other countries. He prepared the legal teaching his converts to see 'Abdu'lappeals concerning the House of Bahi in Chrisr-like terms and t o expect Bahi'u'lllh in BAGHDAD. and also reerethe Great Peace to be established in sented the Bahb'is at various interna1917. In the aftermath of World War I a tional gatherings. swll: 5w-l l . number of Bahi'is continued t o believe that the Most Great Peace would soon bc established. Shoghi Effendi, by contrast, developed a metahistorical schema of thc future which combined a millennial vision of the destined but seemingly far-distant future Peace (see WORLD ORDER),with apocalyptic warnings of the immediate sufferings (governmental collapse, anarchy, political oppression, racial strife, the burning of cities, etc.) which would be experienced by an as yet unregenerate humanity resisting the impulse towards world unity. Greater BahP'i TEACHING activity would hasten the advent of peace, and the pressure of events would cause the world's governments t o establish the Lcsser Peace of their own accord. Strongly apocalyptic themes came t o be an important element in the thinking of the dissident Bahi'i and his followers. Various C.M. REMEY Bahl'i writers have sought to present

mind The entiry in an individual responsible for thought, feelings, and speech; intelligence. (See also SOUL.) minorities The conxiousness of division between Bahi'is on the basis of their racial, religious, national or class background is ultimately alien to the spirit of the Faith. At the same time, however, Bahi'is should seek to safeguard and nurture minority grouos within their communities where these exist. In such circumstances.. oositive discrimination in . favour of the minority might be practised t o encourage its participation in community life. Thus, in those cases in which a n equal number of ballots had been cast for nvo or more individuals in

an election, or in which there were several equally qualified candidates for an appointed office, the minority group member should be given priority (AD] 29-30). (See also INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; PREJUDICE; RACE.)

miracles 'Abdu'l-Bahi taught that all ~ N I F E S T A TloNs OF GOD were possessed of supernatural power, but that importance should not be attached to their performance of apparent miracles. Such miracles did not provide a rational proof of their missions (SAQ 10C-1; cf. RBI: 106-7). Miracles were attributed t o Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahb (and even more to the Bib and some of his leading dtu~ples,,uch as Qcul>i.s (T/ 4211, and Bahi'u'llih h~rnselfdeclared that he had 'such power' that the deadliest of poisons could be transmuted into a oanacea and 'a speck of floating dust' caused to aenerate suns of infinite solendour (AD1 80-1). But neither [he B i b n o r Bahi'u'lllh generally put much emphasis on the miraculous, other than the greatest of miracles: the revelation of divine verses. The one exception t o this was when the performance of miracles was offered as a proof of mission, as in the celebrated instance when Bahi'u'llbh offered to perform a miracle for the 'ulamd of Iraq on condition that rhey would afterwards accept his mission an offer that was not taken up (SAQ 2930). Bahb'u'lllh stated that his followen should not 'debase' his station by reference t o what rhey regarded as miracles on his part (ESW33). Sean 38. 84-5.

M i s h k i n - Q a l a m (1812-1912) Mirzl (Muhammad-) Husayn, eminent Iranian calligrapher and Bahl'i. He was renowned for his art and was given the title Mishqin-Qalam ('Musk-scented' or 'jet-black pen') by Nisiru'd-din Shlh. He developed the technique of drawing

Mish

imminoir lmriinn Snhd'i

calligrapher

with his fingernail ('Nail script', Khani-ndkhuni). H e was a Sufi of the Ni'matu'llihi order (see SUFISM)and seems to have became a BahP'i in the 1860s. His Bahi'i CALLIGRAPHY, including his representation of the GREATEST N A M E , i s well k n o w n . H e m e t Bahi'u'lllh in Edirne and was one of the Bahi'is sent to accompany Subh-iAZAL to Cyprus. He was able to rejoin the companions of Bahl'u'lllh in Akka in 1886. Shoghi Effendi named him as one of the APOSTLES OF B A H ~ U X L A H . €8 270-2.

mission Bahi'i advocates the peaceful, non-disputatious propagation of religion, raising such advity to a primary religious dury for the individual ( X ~ T E A C H I N G ;CONVERSION), and organizing systematic PLANS with the obiecrive of enlarging the Bahi'i community world-wide. The Islamic practice of HOLY WAR is explicitly prohibited. PIONEERS.) (See also EXPANSION;

m;rhqbI -

250

-

Commenting on the Islamic duty of case with LIBERTY and crwnzAno?.r (TB defending God's religion in his SECRET 169). O F DIVINE C~VJL~ZAT,ON. 'Abdu'l-Bahl held that this involved both the pious ; , ; , , observance of religious law and positive measures to vairh Bahi'u'll4h praised the pious deeds of a n d Priests, bur amongst non-believers. In this rcgard the hintory christianity provided instructed that they should now abandon seclusion and live in the 'open vivid examdes of successful mission. world', working for themselves and to ary endeavour: first in the selflesmess, others, and marrying and having SPIRITUAL QUALITIES and dcvation (even children (ESW 49; TB 24). (See also in the face f, M ~ n T u n o o M ) that cl,ar.

motif in the writings of the Bib and Bahl'u'lllh, both claiming to be 'the voice' of God which spokc to Moses from the burning bush. Both Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi provide allegorical interpretations of various elements of the Moses story. Thus, according to one Pli.cnlus NOTE, 'Abdu'l-Bahi cast doubt on the historicity of Moses' and the Israelites' miraculous crossing and Pharaoh's reported drowning in the Red Sea, interpreting these accounts as their respective success and failure to cross the 'sea' of corruption and iniquity. H W I ~ 145-7: h m M c n . 'Sim*. rnyskries'; SAQ lb15.

.,, .,.-..-- ..- .- ...

acterized both the disci~lcsand later Christian teachers, who had thus attracted moltitudes of followers world-wide; second in the spread of Protestantism, despite the opposition of entrenched Catholic power, on account of the combination of the correctness of Marrin 1,urher's views with the adoption of effective means for their propagation, By contrasr, conversion by force - as advocated by some Muslims - was ineffective: those thus converted might outwardly be believers, bur inwardly they were apostates who would leave the religion when the threat of compulsion was removed. Again, fanaticism and 'unreasoning religious zeal' would only serve to repel and alienate those so addressed (SDC 41-56).

mifhq61

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ASC"lCISM.)

Moodv. ,. Susan 11851-19341 Early American Bahi'i who became one of the pioneers in the development of health care and education for women in Iran. She became a Baha'i in Chicago around 1903, and in 1909 moved to lran to help a group of Bahi'i doctors who were then setting up a hospital in Tehran. Apart from treating her own patients, she trained a group of Iranian women in basic nursing and midwifery, and in 1910 helped to establish the Tarhiyat School for girls (see SCFIOOLS). She also promoted classes in BahB'i religious instruction for girls (from 1914). In 1910 she was joined by two more American BahP'i women: Elizabeth Stewart Id. 19261. ,, a trained nurse. and Dr Sarah 'Clock (d. 1922). In 1911 fourth woman, Lillian Kappes (d. 19201, arrived to head the girls school. Political disturbances prompted Moody and Stewart to leave lran in 1924, but Moody returned in 1928 and remained in lran until her death. ~ r m n r ~ n ~ l n ~ m m , 'Amamcon Boh6'I m a n ' ; BW6: 483-6.

mub6hala (A=, 'mutual cursing') Islamic religious challenge in which two contenders call upon God to decide between them, with the expectation that some dramatic event will reveal who is speaking the rmth and who is in error. Challenges to mubdhala wcrc issued by leading Bibis to their clerical opponents on several cccasions, but not taken up. Subh-i-AZAL'Sfailure to meet Bahh'u'llih in a mubdhala challenge he himself had made in EDlnNE was an important factor in his loss of leadership (ARR 245-7, 308, 313; Momen, Shi'i Islam 13-14; RB2: 291-8). Also of note was Bahl'u'llih's challenge to the Shi'i 'ulomd in Iraq to agree on a miracle which he would perform on condition that they would then accept the rmth of his claims. The challenge was declined a n the . grounds that Bahl'u'llih was a sorcerer who would deceive onlookers (GPB 1 4 3 4 ; PDC 87-88).

a

Unit of weight used by Bahb'u'lllh. The traditional Middle Eastern equivalence is 1 mithqdl= 24 nakhads (chick-peas), bur in the Bayin the Bib changes this to 19 nnkhudr, and this was subsequently by Bahgu'llih in the Kitib-i. AQors. This is equivalent to 3.6417 1 1 ~ 1 5 Moses (=.]300 B,--) grams or 0.11708 troy ounces. q23.2mI n78.2~3. Biblical and Quranic prophet recognized a s a M A N I F E S ~ ~ OinNthe OBahl'i P ~ ~ moderation teachings and as rhe originator of J ~ D A Bahi'u'lllh counselled moderation in all EM as a religion. He is known in Islamic things: if something is carried to excess and ~ i b i - ~ a h i ' texts i as 'He who it ceases to exert a beneficial influence conversed with God'. Moses' encounter and becomes a source of evil. This is the with God on Mount Sinai is a recurring

Muhirjir, Rahmatu'llah (1923-791 Iranian HANDOF TIIE CAUSE.Born into an active Bahi'i family, he was involved in Bahl'i committee work as a youth, and delaved his medical studies far two years in' order to serve as a Bahl'i pioneer in Ridi'iyyih. He and his wife, Irin, daughter of 'Ali-Akbar FUROTAN, ~

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pioneered to the Mentawai Islands, a poor, backward and disease-ridden area of Indonesia, in 1954, being named as OF BAH&U.LLAH. Learning MenKNIGHTS tawaian, living with the local people, and bringing them medical care, they began to teach the Bahi'i Faith. The results were rapid and impressive: by 1956 over one thousand Mentawaians had converted, and by 1958 there were some four thousand local Bahl'is and thirry-three local assemblies. In 1957 Rahmaru'llih was elected onto the regional spiritual assembly, and in October named as one of the final group of Hands by Shoghi Effendi. In 1958 the Muhijirs left Indonesia, subsequently travelling enensively throughout the Bahl'i world. Rahmatu'lllh played a key role in inspiring several Bahi'i communities to begin campaigns of 'mass teaching' to establish Bahi'i coml of the Third munities in the ~ r a areas World. He also encouraged the establishment of Bahi'i educational and health projects. He died in Ecuador, during an intensive tour of South : ~ ~ h b j or i ~M . V ~ G America. 6 ~ 1 s651-9; Harp. 45561.

I ! I

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Muhammad (c.570-632) Prophet-founder of ISLAM('the Apostle of God'). Recognized by Bahi'is as a MANIFESTATION OF Gon and as the recipient of God's revelation in the QunAN. His coming is regarded as having been predicted in the Old and New Testaments, and to have been the object of 'all preceding Dispensations'. H~gsle14851; SAQ 18-24.

Muhammad, Hbji Mirzir Sayyid A maternal uncle of rhe Bib (see Bbs, He became a BBbi after reading ~ahi'u'116h's ~ i t d b - ~ - ~ Q A N , which had been composed in answer to his questions. FAMILY OF).

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Mubmmad-'Ali, M i d Muhammad-'Ali, Mirza (1853-1937) Second surviving son of Bahi'u'llih, born in Baghdad during the fint year of his father's exile. His mother was Mahdi-'Ulyl (see Nuni FAMILY). In his early teens in Edirne he advanced claims to divine revelation, for which he was chastised by his father. He rose t o prominence as a transcriber of Bahi'u'. Illh's writings. His father named him ghup-i-akbar (the 'Greatest Branch') and in thc Kitib-i-'Ahd (Bwk of the COVENANT) appointed him ro be second in succession after 'Abdu'l-Bahh. Modvated it would seem by an enormous jealousy for 'Abdu'l-Bahi (nine years his senior) he conspired to undermine his elder brother's leadership. Despite the BuniJ~lnolin Iran and support of JAMAL the United States Ibrahim K ~ E I R A LinL A he was unable to gain extensive support amongst thc Bahb'is. He was able t o alienate the majority of Bahl'u'llih's family from 'Abdu'l-Bahi, however. In this he was principally supported hy his brother-in-law, M i r r i Majdi'd-din (d. 1955). He sought unsuccessfully m gain the leadership of the Bahh'i community aher 'AMu'l-Bahi's death. Shoghi Effendi described him as 'the archbrcakcr of Bahh'u'llhh's Covenant'. GP8 2469; Shoghi Efiendi, Mssloga n h h 1 I; TCB 12534. 148. (See also COVEXANT-RREAKERS.)

Muhammad-'Ali Bbrfurbshi, Mu116 See Quooirs.

Muhammad-'Ali Qa'ini, Shaykh (186011-1924)

252 Muhammad-'Ali Zanjbni, Mulla

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253

See HUJJAT.

movement of the Bib's remains t o Akka. Shoghi Effendi named him as one of the OF BAH~U.LLAH. F8 270. APOSTLES

Muhammad-'Ali ZunGzi 'Anis'

Muhammad-Quli, Mirzb

(Ar, 'Close Companion'), (d. 1850) The Bib's disciple who shared manyrdom with him, their remains being impacted together by the force of the ; ~1297303. bullets. A R R ~ O I~obil507-lo:

Muhammad-Bbqir lgfahani, Shaykh See 'WOLF'.

Muhammad Irfirhirni, Sayyid (d. 1872) Supporter of Subh-~-AzAL,regarded by Bahl'is as the ANTICHRIST of the BahP'i revelation for having encouraged Azal to turn against Bahi'u'llih and plot against him. He is presented as having been an endless mischief-maker motivated by envy. Azal gave him the BhbS second wife in marriage, an act regarded by others as shameful (see Bil. FAMILY OF). The Otromans sent him into exile with the Bahh'is in Akka, presumably to act as a spy. H e created numerous difficulties for the exiles, and was one of those murdered by a group of BahP'is in the city (January 1872), an action severely condemned by Bahl'u'llhh. KG 128, 158. IB4.227.248.252.317.3224.418; GPB 112-13. 125. IM-9, 189-90.

Muhammad Mustafa alBaghdadi, Mirza (18371E-1910)

Eminent Arab Bahu. His father was He Shaykh M U H A M M AASH-SHIRL. D Eminent Iranian Bahi'i. The nephew became a devoted follower of and close companion of NAO~L-I-AKRAR. Bahi'u'lllh whilst still a boy, and later he became one of the focal pains of the one of the leading Iraqi Bahi'is. In the B a h a community in ASHKHAMD. He late 1870s he moved t o Beirut where he also visited India. Shoghi Effendi named served as Bahi'u'llBhh representative, SF responsible for the movement of Bahi'i him a s o n e o f t h e A P O S T L E O BAH~U.I.LAH. €82734. pilgrims. He was also involved in the

Mubmmad ash-Shibl, Shaykh

(d. 1910) Bahf'u'llih's faithful half-brother and companion in exile. He was the only son of his father's third concubine, and greatly devoted t o Bahh'u'll6th. After being frced from captivity in Akka he and his family eventually settled near the Sea of Galilee. 'Abdu'l-Bahl referred to him as his 'illustrious uncle' and 'affectionate comforter', and gave his descendants the right t o use the family name 'Bahh'i'. Land belonging to his family was exchanged for extra land at Rrl~jl (1952). Rvhs 207-9.

(Muhammad-]Rid& Muhammad-Abadi, Mulla (c.1814-97) Eminent Iranian BahH from the province of Yazd. Of clerical background, he was eloquent and outspoken in his defence of the B a h S Faith, leading to a number of imprisonments and bearings which he endured with great forbearance (including clcaning his rceth whilst being bastinadoed!). He was one of the BahP'is arrested in the aftermath of the assassination of NA$lnu.o.oi~SHAH,and He appears died subsequentl~ . in prison. . .. t o have been posthumously named a HANO OFTHE CAUS' by 'Abdu'l-Bahl (as 'Shaykh Ridl Yazdi'). ~ s 9 aI 1I ; b r p r 217;M5; RBI: 84-91; RB4: 286".

Muhammad Shah (1807-48) Shah of Iran, 1834-48. Grandson of Fath 'Ali Shlh. The Blbi movement originated during his reign, and the Bib appealed t o him t o promote his cause, promising him weat victories if he did so. T h e shah . appears tn have been sympathetic towards the Bhb for a while. perhaos in part because of the attitude bf tiAN6.

CHlHR KHAN. He was discouraged by his chief minister and spiritual advise& Hlji M i d AQAS~, however, and acquiesced in the decisions to imprison the Bib in Azerbaijin and try him in T~sniz.The Bib subsequently consigned him to hell. Shoghi Effendi regarded him as bigoted and vacillating (GPB 4, 82). Bahl'u'lllh condemned him both for his order of banishment against the Bib and his murder of M i d Abu'l-Qhsim Fathhin Q6'im Maqim ((1835). his firs chief minister, and friend and patron of Bahi'u'llih's far he^ M i d 'ARBAS(TB 65). ARR. (Seealso IRAN;QUAns.)

Muhammad ash-Shibl, Shaykh (d. 1850) Eminent Arab Blbi, born into a wellknown clerical family in Najaf. Sayyid UZIM RASHTL'Spersonal representative in Baghdad, he became one of the first Shaykhi leaden to accept the claims of

Muhommad-Taqi, Hbji Mi&, Vakilu'd-ddih -the Bih and one of the chief supporters accompanying her t o Iran. of TAHIUIH, He was the father of M I ~ I I A M MMUS. AD TAFA AI..BA<;HDADI.

254

ARR 2967. heretics (see Blsi RADICALISM). 317-23; Manm. Shil lrbm 136, 138; Nabil 273-83; TJ 27441; TN 197-8.

Muhammad-Taqi Ilfahbni, Muhammad-Toqi, Haji Mirza, Shaykh, Aqa Najafi Vakilu'd-dawlih Il5if~ll-19091 (the 'Son of the Wolf') Prominent Iranian Bahj'i. He was born See 'Wo~r'. in Shirha. His father was the Bib's matcrnal uncle, Niji Sayyid MuhamMuhammad Zarandi, Mulla mad. I-lc became a leading merchant in Ynrd and the Russian consular agent for See NAII~L~ILA.ZAM. the town, thus coming t o he known as Vnbiltt'd-dawlih ('Representative of the Miihlschlegel, Adelbert Government'). In 1909, a t 'Abdu'i(1897-1980) Bahi's request, he went to A S I I K I I A ~ A V H E of Frorestant German H A N D ~ F TCnrrs~ to supervirc the construcdon of the background. He was introduced to the Mnrhriqu'l-Adhkdr. He also provided Bahi'i Faith hy his mother and Ikcame a the major pan of thc ncccssary funding. Bahi'i in 1920. He was active in promotShoghi Effcndi named him as one of rhc ing thc Faith in Germany, including h o S r ~ E 5OF K A H , ~ ' u ' L L ~ HEB. 2668. rranslating Bahj'i literature, and serving as a member of the national assembly Muhammad-Taqi Baraghani, (1924-37.194659). He was appointed a Haji Mulla (d. 1847) Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effcndi in Prornincnr cleric in Qazvin. He was Fehmary 1952. He later travelled exrenpostliurnously called the 'Third Martyr' sively, visiting Bahi'is in various pam of in Shi'i literature. He was the uncle of the world. A medical donor, he was given T A ~ I I ~ His I I I . accusation thar Shaykh thc rcrponsihility of preparing the body of ~ ~ M n nviews ' s were un-Islamic (1822) Shoghi Effendi for burial (19.57). His first began the process by which SHAYKHISMwife, Herma Weidle (m.1926). died in came to be regarded as a heterodox Shi'i 1964. In 1977 he and his second wife, sect. He was one of the clerics who Ursula Kohlcr, became BahiT PIONEERS to pressured Fath-'Ali Shih into the disasGreece. He died in Athens. B w r t 611-13: trous second Rurso-Iranian war ( 1 8 2 6 norper 372-83. 8). Vehement in his opposition to both Shaykhism and Bihism, bc encouraged the persecution of bath groups. prompring his murder by a Shsykhi with Bibi High-ranking Shi'i cleric; one who has sympathics in September or October hecn recognized as being capable of 1847. This event marked a turning point exercising ijtihdd (making independent judgments in religious law on the basis in the history of Bibism. Although the murderer claimed to have been acting of reason and the principles of jurisprualone, the Bibi group in Qarvin as a dence). This recognition is gained from whole was accused of complicity, and an established muitahid who issues the many were arrested, of whom one was new muitahid with a tcnimonial certificare (ij6w). There were relatively few executed (Shaykh Silih, regarded as the first Bibi manyr in Iran) and others mujtabids until the second half of the 19th century. ~onsn.shi~l&m 1868.2025. done to death. Nationally, the Bibis were henceforth seen ar dangerous (See nlso .uLAM.~.)

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Munirih Khanurn (1847-1938) Wife of 'Ahdu'l-Bahi. Originally named Finmih, the name Munirih ('Illumined') was given t o her by Rahi'u'llih. Her father was Mirzi Muhammad-'Ali Nahri, a member of a prominent I ~ f l hini merchant family and uncle of the KIKGAND BELOVED OFMARTIUS. According t o the Bahl'i account, her parents had been childless until given a portion of rhe Bib's food t o ear. Widowed shortly after her marriage to one of her cousins, she was chosen to marry 'Abdu'l-Bahl by Bahi'u'llih, who arranged for her t o be brought t o Akka. The marriage took place on 8 March 1873. Four children (daughters) survived childhood. She was buried in the Monument Garden close t o the Shrine of the Bib (see HAIFA). eKG 342-8; Munlrih Kh6num; R82: 202-9.

Mirsa, Mirza (d. 1887) Also known a s ~ ~ i ~ - i - ~ a l i m , Bahl'u'llih's younger full hrorher, aide and companion-in-exile. According t o Bahi'u'llih he was one of only two people who 'were adequately informed' regarding the origins of the Fairh. He acted as head of household during BahB'u'llih's withdrawal to Kurdistan (1854-6). He was named as one of the ~ O S T I . L SOF BAH&U.LLAH. BKG: GPB 108.

music In the Islamic world melodious chanting of the Quran is highlv rcgarded. but it is differeniiated from music. ~ u s i citself commonly occupies an ambiguous role, many devout Muslims regarding it as satanic in nature, and condemning listening to it. By contrast, whilst BahB'u'lllh praised rhe chanting of sacred verses, he alw, made it lawful for his followers t o listen t o music. He warned them, however, t o ensure that listening t o it did not cause them 'to overstep the bounds of propriety and dignity'. Expressing a view

similar ro thar of many Sufis, he stated that music should be a ladder for their souls, lifting them up to heavenly realms, and not 'wings t o self and passion'. Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahi described singing and music as 'spiritual fwd' and as a means of uplifting the despondent. Music is a 'praiseworthy science' and should be used as an aspen of prayer t o inflame the

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mysticism hearts 'with the fire of the love of God'. Canta, has become particularly well Both i n promise and i n danger lies in i n known amongn Bahl'is, and has toured emorional impact: it can increase rhe widely in Europe, Asia and Africa, as existing emotional state, both for good well as in the Americas. In Africa, narional or regional Bahl'i music feaiand for ill ( K A 38 kS1, 201 n79; CC2: 73-82; LG 410-13; Caron, 'Bahs'i vals have been held in a number of influences'). There is no distinctive countries. Some impression of the range Bahi'i style of music, but music features of music inspired by the Faith can be prominently in the life of some Rahi'i gained from the recording of the music at communities, and, as with rhe ARTS in rhe 1992 Bahi'i World Congress in New gcncral, there have been a number of York. Of contemporary musicians who are BahB'is, the besr known was the jazz musicians who as Bahl'is have found Others of inspiration in their faith. The range of trumpeter Dizzy GILLESPIB. music produced by Bahi'is is exremely note include rhe American pop duo of diverse, reflecting different cultural and the 1970s Jimmy Seals and Dash Crofts; musical tradirions. Amongst the Iranian the counrry music performer Dan Seals; the Norwegian contemporary classical RahB'is there have been a number of composer Lasse Thoresen; the Tajik well-known musicians and singers, in composer Tolibkhan Shakhidi; and the addition to the general use of rraditional chanting styles for Bahi'i payers and Iranian singers Ahdieh and Aqili. s w ~ s 1WA-5: 250-1.262-9. sacred verse. In the West a distincrive BahB'i hymncdy developed in the United Stares at the beginning of rhe century, bur mysticism was abandoned by the 1940s (hstrong-lnpram, Margr. I)rz,o!r~rnr). Thcrr is no d~stnnn~vc school of Rnhi'i h l u s ~aCam -~ hccame an Imporrant pan myrrlclrm, hut Shoahr Efrcndt affirmed of Western Baha'i life with the large-scale that the 'core of religious faith' was 'that influxes of youth and African-American mystic feeling which unites man with God'. This was a state of 'spiritual converts from the late 1960s (see exmrr. communion' - a 'sense of spirituality' SION). Indigenous musical traditions have and could be brought about and mainbccn important in the dwclopmenr of a tained through MfiDrtATION and PnAYeR. number of 'Third World' Bahi'i commuThis should have practical effect, comnities, including the 'Bahl'i Bbajons' of India (Garlingron, 'Bahi'i bhajom'), and ing nearer to God giving the believer composers and singing groups in several greater strength to develop his or her good SPIRITUAL QUALITIES and overcome p a m of Africa and Andean America. Recently a numher of Bahi'i choirs and moral weaknesses. The purpose of religion is to change actions and characrer music groups have been formed in and not just rhoughrs (CCZ: 238 no. various p m of the world, commonly 1762; L C 505-7 nos. 1701, 1704, for the purpose of promoting the Faith. One South American group, El Wenro 1709). (See also srrnlruaL mrn; SUFISM.)

Nabil-i-Akbar (1829-92) Mulli Muhammad Qj'ini, prominent Iranian Bahi'i. He was barn into a clerical family and, in addition to the customary Islamic sciences, he studied with the philosopher Miji MulM Hidi Sabziviri (179718-1878). He became one of the foremost srudents of the eminent Shaykh M u r r a d i A n s i r i (180112-64/5), and received an ijiizih from him, giving QB'ini the rank of MUITAHID (see .ULAMA). Hc became a BQbi in the early 1850s and later a Bahi'i. He was imprisoned a number of rimes in Iran for his Rahi'i activities and eventually moved to Ashkhabad. He died in Bukhara. He met Bahl'u'llih on several occasions and was the recipient of the Lamb-i- HIKMAT.'Abdu'lBahl named him posthumously as a HANDOF THE CAUSE and Shoghi Effendi designated him as one of rhe APOSTLES OF BAW~~.U.LLAH. EB 112-15; MF 1-5. N a b i l - i - A ' j a m (1831-92) Mulli Muhammad Zarandi, prominent Iranian Bahl'i. Of humble origins - he was a shepherd - Nabil hecame a Bihi in about 1847, later becoming one of those who transcribed and distributed the Bib's writings. In the early 1850s he pat forward claims t o leadership of the Bibis on the basis of his receipt of divine inspiration, but withdrew this claim ah& meeting Bahb'u'llih in Baghdad

and giving him his allegiance. After BaM'u'lllh moved t o Edirne he dispatched Nabil to visit the Iranian Bibis t o announce his open claim to be He WHOM Con SHALL M A K E MANIFEST, and also on one occasion t o he the first t o perform the newly revealed PlLCnlMACe rituals to the House of the Bib in Shir6r and the House of Bahb'u'llih in Baghdad. He eventually joined the companions of Bahl'u'llih in Akka. He was so overcome with grief after BahP'u'llih's passing rhar he drowned himself in the

& Nahii-i-Aram, Ironion poet and chroniilm

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sea. He was renowned as a poet, but is best known t o English readers as the author of the historical narrative of the BLbi period which Shoghi Effendi nanslared as DAWN-BREAKERS. Shoghi Effendi OF named him as one of the APOSTLES BAHI.U,LLAH. EB268-70.

Nabil's Narrative See DAWN-BREAKERS. Names, Book of (Ar.: Kitibu'la d ' ) Late work of the BQb, composed during the period of his imprisonment in CIIIHR~Q. Much of it consisn of 'lengthy variations of invocations of the names of God'. Some selected passages have been translated into English (Bib, Selections 129-49). McS9I-2.

Napoleon 111 (1800-73)

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French emperor, 1852-70. His rule ended following the devastating French defeat in the Franeo-Prussian War of 1870-1. Bahi'u'llih wrote to him mice. The first letter was written towards the end of the stay in Edime (c.1868). In it Bahl'u'lllh complained of his own sufferings, and praised Napoleonb claims t o be the avenger of the oppressed and a succourer of the helpless. The emperor did not reply, but is reported to have flung down the letter, saying: 'If this man [Bahl'u'llih] is God, I am m o gods.' His minister, however, wrote a sympathetic reply to Bahi'u'lllh, offering assistance. Bahl'u'llQh then sent a second letrer t o the emperor (1869). in which he proclaimed his divine mission and called upon him t o arise to serve God and help his cause. Napoleon's sinceriw had been found wanting, -. however, and he had cast Bahi'u'llih's letter l'the Book of God') behind his back. For this his kingdom would be thrown into confusion and his empire pass from his hands. He could make amends for his

actions; only thus would France be spared the commotions thar would otherwise seize it. Abasement was hastening after him, and his pomp would not endure. Earthly treasure and dominion would perish, so why should they be made a cause of exultation. The letter was included in the S6ratu'-1-Haykal (see BAH~U.LLAH. WRITINGS OF), and widely distributed amonpst the Bahl'is of Iran, Napoleon's subse~uentunexpected and humiliatinp.downfall being.seen as an instance of DIVINEJUDGEMENT. The Iener also contains an address t o Christian monks (see MONASTlClSM); counsels to the Bahi'is regarding TEACHING; and statements regarding Bahi'i HOLY DAYS and FASTING. ESW45-56: GPB 173.207.22M; PDC2&30.50-J;SAO323;R83: 110-15.

Shoghi Effendi commented thar whilst calling for a wider conception of world citizenship, the Bahi'i Faith is not opposed t o an intelligent patriotism in which the individual feels a sense of loyalty and duty towards the nation. I t is extremist nationalism which deifies the state and exalts the nation above humaniry as a whole that is m be condemned (it is one of the three 'false gods' of SECULARISM). In a world of interdependent Darts. . . .particularistic concerns have to be subordinate to the interests of humaniry as a whole (PDC 117-18, 126-7).

national spiritual assemblies See ASEMBLIES. Navvab (182LL86)

NLsiru'd-din Sh6h (1831-96) Shah of Iran, 1848-96. He was the son SIXAH, and crown prince of MUHAMMAD during his father's lifetime. He war appointed governor of Azerbaijin in January 1848 and presided ovcr the Bib's trial in Tabriz. He acceded t o the throne following his father's death (September 1848), arriving in Tehran on 19 October. He was assassinated on 1 May 1896 on the eve of the jubilee celebrations to mark fib (lunar) years of his reign. The assassin was at lint suspected of being a 'Bibi', but was then discovered to be a follower of JAMALU.D.D~N l ~ ~ - A ~ Dwing t ~ ~ ~hisi reign ' . the Bib was executed - for Shoghi Effendi, 'the mosr heinous crime in history' (PDC 69); an anempt was made on the shah's life by men linked t o AziM's radical BQbi faction ( I S August 1852); thousands of Bibis were killed: Bahi'u'llih imprisoned and exiled; and extensive persecution of Bahi'is bepan. Bahl'u'llih wrote (Tablet of to him in the ~~?&-~-SULTAN the King), asking thar he treat the BahQ'is with justice. Persecution conrinued, however, and Bahi'u'lllh's message-bearer was himself tomured and

1 killed. Bahl'u'llQh subsequently denounced the shah as the 'Prince of Oppressors', who would soon be made 'an object-lesson for the world'. Shoghi Effendi characterized him as a vain and savage despot, whose reign had heen one of 'chaos, bankruptcy and oppression' ( G P R 225; PDC 40-3, 66-70). h a n o t .

1

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nationalism Bahi'u'llihl vision of the fumre 'Most Great PEACE'is one of wonLo UNITY in which love for the whole world is exalted ovcr thar for country. 'Ahdu'lBahi stated that all national boundaries are artificial human creations, and condemned those nationalistic PREJUDICES that lead t o bloodshed between peoples. In reality, the whole earth is one native land, and anyone should be able to live wherever they choose (SWAB 300).

Tirlc of ~ s i y i hKhSnum, fint wife of Bahl'u'llih (m. 1835), named the 'Most Exalted Leaf' by him, and dcclared t o he his 'perpetual conson in all the worlds of ~ h d She : was the daughter of Mimi IsmL'il-i-Va~ir. She gave birth t o seven children, three of whom sorvwed childBAHIYIIH KHANIJM hood: 'ABDU.L~BAHA, and Mirzi Mll~ni.She remained in Akka with 'Abdu'l-BahQ after Bahi'u'llih moved to Rnuji. Initially buried in Akka, her remains were later r~interrcdclose to the Shrine of the BSh by Shoghi Effendi (see HAIFAI. G P 108. ~ srs: rcs I 1s-?I.

Now-Rbz (Pers., 'New Day') The Bibi, Bahi'i, Iranian and Zoroastrian New Year. It occurs on the first day of the spring equinox in the northern hemisphere, which is normally 2 1 March, but may somerimen occur on the twentieth o r twenty-second. At present Bahl'is in the Middle East celebrate it on the equinox, bur those elsewhere always celebrate it on the rwenty-first. It is the first day of the Bahl'i year from which mosr other dates in the BahL'i c*ranoAn are set, and also

NGri-family marks the end of the FASTING period. As the first day of the month of Bahi it is specially consecrated, being the day on which 'the breath of life is wafted over all created things' (KA 60). It is one of the HOLY DAYS on which work is t o be suspended. It is marked by prayers and joyous celebration. Many Bahi'ir exchange greeting cards a t this rime, whilst those of Iranian background often follow some of the traditional Iranian customs associated with the festival (e.g. growing a dish of sprouting grecn lentils or beans). These are not official Bahl'i customs, however. na 25 kI6, 63 k I I I , 118 q35, 177-8 026, 225 "139: fqhoni lW3; Wolbridge. Sd213-16.

Nayriz (1872 pop. est. 3,500) Small town in southern Iran. It was the sire of armed conflict between Bibis under Sayyid Yahyi Dad& (VAH~D) and provincial troops. Vahid arrived in Nayriz on 27 May 1850. Himself a local notable and religious leader in the Chinir Shkhtih quarter, he soon convened a large number of the townspeople, perhaps 1,500 in all. Vahid's presence exacerbated existing tensions. An armed struggle developed, in which Vahid and some of his followers withdrew to a nearby fort, where they successfully resisted artacks by forces o! the town governor, Hiji Zaynu'l'Abidin Khin, and by subsequent reinforccmcntr. Res~ondinpto a truce offer. Vahid later suriendered t o the govern: ment forces (17 June), and instructed his followers t o abandon their positions. Vahid and many of his com~anionswere then killed, and the 'Bibi q;arter3 of the town plundered. In revenge, some of the Bibis later killed the governor (26 March 1853). his replacement in turn arresting suspected Bibis and seizing their property. This sparked off a second conflict, with a large group of Bibis retiring to a nearby mountain where they were able t o resist troops sent

against them until November 1853. A massacre of suspected Bibis followed, and several hundred of the women were enslaved. An active Bahi'i community subsequently developed, itself subject t o persecutions. MUM109-12.16751, 465. 470; Moman. ' W m l bosi6 167-9;McS 163; Nabil475-99. 642J;Tll1741.370-1.41M:M1834.25661.

(See also B A BRADICALISM.) ~

newspapers and iournalism Bahi'u'llih noted the potency of 'swiftly-appearing newspapers'. They are a 'mirror of the world' and possessed of 'hearing, sight and speech'. Journalists should be 'purged from the prompti n g ~of evil passions' and be just in what they write, first enquiring into situations as much as possible and ascettaining the facts. Truthfulness and fair speech illumine KNOWLEDGE (TB 3 9 4 0 ) .

Nicolas, A.L.M. (18641939) French consular official in Iran and orienralist. Born in Iran and a fluent Persian speaker, he made a number of major contributions to the study of the Bibi religion (see Bisi AND B A H ~STU! DIES).M8813640. nineteen day feast See FEAST. NINETEEN DAY,

Noah Biblical patriarch and Quranic prophet recognized by Bahi'is (KI 5 4 ) . Shoghi Effendi regarded rhe story of Noah's Ark and the Flood as symbolic (LC 508 no. 1716). Bahl'u'llih stated that God would soon sail hie own Ark on Mount CARMEL, a prophecy seen as foretelling the establishment of the institutions of the B a ~ kWORLD i CENTRE. nuclear power In what modern Bahi'is commonly take to be a prophecy of the discovery of

nuclear power, Bahl'u'llih referred t o 'astonishing things' which were 'capable of changing the whole armosphere' and the contamination of which would be lethal (TB 69). Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahi referred to a stupendous force, as yet undiscovered (1911), which had the capacity to destroy the whole planer if utilized by a materialistic rathcr than spiritual civilization (Blomfield 1 8 3 4 ) . 1ond C o o p 50-51: Molhaw$867.

world RELIGIONS. AS the highesr single number, 9 is regarded as symbolizing perfection, uniry and comprehensiveness. The imponance of the number 1 2 in Judaism, Christianity and Shi'i Islam is noted (twelve tribes, twelve disciples, The idea that there are twelve IMAMS). lucky or unlucky numbers is explicitly Sclec"ec"3 225-9: LG 414.16: rejected. 8,-c. hbcEoin. 'Hiemrcw IW-21.

NGri family numbers

The family of Bahi'u'llih's father, M i r d The Bib emphasized the importance of 'ABBASNuni (Mirzi Buzurg; d. 1839), the 'sciences' of numbers and lerters, and by extension of Bahi'u'llih and utilizing the traditional A E I A D system of 'Abdu'l-Bahi. A family tree is given in R W5 facing p. 205. letter-number equivalence t o express religious concepts. Thus the importance attached to the ubiquitous number 19, THE FAMILY OF .ABBAS N U R ~ 'Abbis had four wives and three conwhich represented both '[divine] unity' (wahid) and 'absolute being' (urujrid), as cubines, by whom he had a total of well as comprising the number of letters fifteen children, twelve of whom surin the Islamic formula, Birmi'll~h arvivrd him. Bahl'u'llih was the third mhmdn ar-rohim ('In the name of Cod, child by the second wife, Khadijih; Subh-~-A~AL was the only child by the the Merciful, the Compassionate') used before the commencement of any action. first concubine. Some of the siblings Various aspects of the Ribi religion were became Bahi'is, some Azalis, others accordingly structured in units of 19, remained Muslims. Bahi'u'llih's own siblings also included three children by including the circle of the Bib's first his mother's first marria~e. eighteen disciples, the LETTERS OF THE - His comnaLIVING(Hurrifu'l-Hayy, with h a w =la), nions-in-exile included his younger full who together with 'the One pervading brother, Mimi Mas*. and a half-brother. the numbers' (i.e. the Bib), constituted Mirzi ~ u h a m m a d 1 ~ u l iThe . famil; the first 'unity' (wdhid) of his religion; was well connected by marriage t o other and the nineteen months of nineteen high-ranking members o f Iranian society, including M i n i Aqi Khin Nbri, days of his new CALENDAR, and its cycles of nineteen years. Multiples of 19 were the second of Nasiru'd-din Shih's chief ~833941. ministers. 8~~9.18: also given significance, particularly 361 (19 x 19, =kullu-shay', 'all things'), and THE FAMILY OF B A H ~ U ~ L L A H 95 (5x 19). This emphasis on 19 has been continued into the Bahi'i religion Bahl'u'llih married three wives, and (e.g. in the structure of HUQ~QU.LLIH had eight children who survived childpayments), but to a more limited extent. hood. The firsr marriage, t o Asiyih The number 9, equivalent t o the word Khinum (NAvvAn) (1820-86). was in 1835, when Bahi'u'llih was almost Rahd, is also given significance, as in the number of members on each spiritual eighteen (solar years). Seven children assembly; thenumber of sides of a Bahi'i were horn of the marriage, but only House of Worship (see MASHRIQU.L. three survived to adulthood: 'Abbis ADHK~R and ) ; the number of recognized ('ABDIJ~L.BAHA; 1844-1921), F i ~ i m i h

NGri family

I

(BAHIYYIH KNUM; 1846-1932), and M I H D(1848-70). ~ T h e second marriage, in 1849, was t o Fitimih Khinum, 'Mahd-i-'Ulyti' (1828-1904), one of Bahi'u'llih's cousins. There were six children, of whom four survived: a daughter, Samadiyyih (b. 1856/7), and (185314three sons, MUHAMMAD-'ALI 1937), Diyi'u'llih (1864-98) and Badi'u'UQh (1867-1950). The thud marriage was to Gawhar Khinum, the sister of Mirzi Mihdi Kashini. The marriage occurred in Baghdad, but the actual date is unknown. Unlike the other wives, Gawhar remained in Baghdad after Bahi'u'llih's departure, only rejoining him after his exile to Akka. She had only one child, a daughter, Fu~gbiyyih.Six of the children married - t o relatives of prominent Bahi'is, including in two cases to the offspring of Bahi'u'llih's brother, Mirz&Musi. There were fifteen grandchildren. Bahiyyih chose m remain unmarried, whilst Mihdi died in his youth. ADan from 'Abdu'l-Baha's own immediate family, the other family mcmhcrs followed Muhammad-'Ali in his rejecrion of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's leadership after Bahi'u'llih's death, and were TCBI 17-18. declared COVENANT-.REAKERS. THE FAMILY OF 'ARDU'L-RAHA

'Abdu'l-Bahi had one wife, MuNinlH KHANUM, whom he married on 8 March

262 1873. Nine children were born to the couple, but five died in childhood (two boys and t h e e girls). Four daughters survived. Their husbands and children were as follows: The eldest, Diyi'iyyih (d. 1951), m. Mirzi Hldi Shirizi AhPn (d. 1955) in 131311895. Five children (later surnamed Rabbini): SHOGHIEFFENDI (eldest sonl: .. Rbhandz: . - . Mihran~hiz: - . Husayn; and Riyid. Tkbi 11880-1959). m. Mirzi Muhsin kin (1863-1927). Four chidren (surnamed Afnin): RuHi (1899-1971); Thurayyi; Suhayl; and Fu'id (d. 1943). Rbhi, m. M i r d Jalil I~fihini,son of M i n i Muhammad Hasan, the KINGOF M ~ ~ r m Four s . children (surnamed Shahid (martyr)): Maryam; Munib; Zahri; and Hasan. Munavvar (d. 1971), m. Mirmi Ahmad, son of Mirzi 'Abdu'rRahim Yazdi. No children. Six of the children married relatives following the norms of many upper-class Middle Eastern families. Four of these marriages were with descendants of Bahi'u'llih's daughter Fureghiyyih who were declared COVENANT-BREAKERS, a major factor leading Shoghi Effendi to ultimately expel the majority of his immediate relatives from the Faith.

Ode of the Dove (Ar.: al-Qasida al-Wa'arqd'i~ah) Arabic poem of Bahi'u'llih composed whilst he was in Sulayminiyyih in l n q i Kurdistan (1854-6). It was composed in the same stylc as Ibnu'l-Firid's 'Ode Rhyming in T', the Td'ipoh, a 13thcennlry Sufi classic. The poem rakes the form of a dialogue between Bahi'u'llih and the MAIDO F HEAVEN. in which BahP'u'llih refers to his mystical experiwhere, having ence in the S~YAH.CHAL, died to his own self, he had ascended to meet God and been entrusted with a d~ N ~ hO ~ S divine mission. 61..l ~ m ~ u ~. n~ me

Victories' (Abu'l-Fuirih) for his services to the Faith, and in Ocroher 1957 appointed him as a Hand of the Cause: at thirty-one he was the youngest of those appointed. Extensive world-wide travels followed. He served as a rallying point for the Ugandan Bahi'is during the troubled 1977-9 period. He, his wife and three of his children were murdered on 16 September 1979 by unknown assailants. swls: 61-5; norpr~bz-72.

~

bond1 SUPS';RBI: 6 2 4 .

Olinga, Enoch (1926-79) The only black African HANDO F THE CAUSE. Olinga was a Christian Ugandan of the Teso tribe. He became a Bahi'i in 1952 in Kampala, and shortly afterwards returned to his home district to reach the Faith. In 1953 he was the first Bahi'i PIONEER 10 British Cameroon, and was for named as KNIGHTOF BAHA.U.LLAI.I that territory. In 1956 he was elened as chairman of the newly formed Regional Spiritual Assembly for North-West Africa, and in 1957 became the first of the new African BahB'is to make the CENTRE. pilgrimage to the BAHki WORLD Shoghi Effendi named him as 'Father of

Enoch Olnrgo, pr<,!?rnbrenfU~arrd
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One T h o u ~ Verses, d Toblei of

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One Thousand Verses, Tablet of (Pers.: hwh-i-Hi& Baytr) Tablet of 'Abdu'l-Bahi written in 13151 1897-8, and addressed to Jalil-i-Khfi'i. In it, 'Abdu'l-Bahi emphasized the importance of the COVENANT as the means of preserving Bahl'i unity, and described the events during and following the passing of BahB'u'lllh relating to the emergence of opposition to his own leadership. The tablet includes a condemnation of 'Umar, the second caliph of Islam, whose opposition ro the Imlm 'Ali 'Abdu'l-Bahl regarded as being the originating cause of borh the decline and division of Islam, the sufferings of the IMAMS and the marryrdom of the Bib. MUHAMMAD-'hi's actions were compared to those of 'Urnar. rca I ~ B - 91574, . 2156.229.

Faith were ignorant and heedler* (CCZ: 137-8; TB 33, 40-11). 'Abdu'l-Bahi linked' opposition to the Faith t o its greatness, and predicted that with funher progress of the religion in the future opposition to it would increase, whilst Shoghi Effendi maintained that both persecution and criticism by enernal opponenrs and the internal attacks se~ed mounted by COVENANT-BREAKERS to strengthen the Bahl'is' resolve, and separate off the fainthearted (CCZ: 13850). (Seealso MARTYRDOM;PERSECUTION.)

organization See ADMlNlSTRATlON,

Ottomans Dynastic rulers of what became rhe most powerful Islamic empire of the modern period. Established in the early 14th opposition centur, the empire came t o include much of the Middle East, and most of Baha'u'lllh regarded opposition t o God's messengers as a recurrent feature the Balkans and North Africa. The of religion, well evidenced by the Ottoman rulers were borh secular and religious rulers (sultans and caliphs). responses to previous MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD and again in his day. He said became the Their capital, ISTANBUL, that RELlclous LEADERS bore a particular greatest city of the Muslim world. responsibility in this regard, as they Although still powerful, the empire was often saw a new prophet as a challenge in decay by the 19th century. The impact t o their established power, or could not of the West was by this time considerreconcile his teachings with their own able, and various attempts at 'reform' limited ideas. Opposition t o the Bahi'i and state-strengthening were made, often using Western models. Internacause was thus t o be expected. The Bahi'is should not be deterred by it, tional weakness led t o massive losses of even when it led to persecution, masterritory, however, whilst economic prosacre and banishment. They should put blems, internal political disputes and the rise of nationalist sentiment led to their trust in God, assured of eventual increasing strains. Following the Young victory. God's purpose could not be Turk Revolution of 1908 a form of thwarted. His signs had encompassed the world. The 'ascendancy of the constitutional government was adopted. oppressor' would be temporary and Defeat in World War I led t o the loss of the Arab provinces and further war in unavailing. God would give those who Turkey itself. The Ottoman empire remained steadfast such power that they finally came to an end in 1922 with the would be able to withstand all the forces abolition of the sultanate (1 November). of the earth. They should teach the Faith with wisdom and tolerance, and if they The cArlrHmE was formally abolished could, defend it from its opponents in on 3 March 1924. show and show pwidss o wwdhepW. rheir wrrtings. Those who opposed his

The sultans during this period were as follows:

The situation for the Bahl'is in Akka varied considerably over the next Cfry years, partly depending on the attitude ruler reigned of the local Ottoman authorities. Abdulmecit I 1839-61 'Abdu'l-Bahi in particular befriended Abdulaziz 1861-76 certain members of the Onoman elite, Murat V 1876 including liberal reformers such a s Abdulhamir II 18761909 .Midhat P a ~ a .Various problems were .Mehmcr V Resat 1909-18 (first encountered during the later part of the constitutional ruler) reign of A ~ D U L H A M 11,I Tmostly as a Mehmer VI consequence of allegations made by Vahideddin 1918-22 M U H A M M A D - ' hand i his associates, 1 9 2 2 4 (caliph only) Abdulmecit I1 and the resultant official commissions of inquiry. This period came to a RELATIONSHIP T O THE B A H FAITH ~ ~ sudden end following the Young Turk After his exile t o Baghdad Bahi'u'llih Revolution and the freeing of political remained in the Ottoman domains for prisoners, including 'Abdu'l-Bahl. The thc rest of his life, eventually becoming World War I period was one of great a Turkish subjecr. His relations with the danger, with the Young Turk leader Ottoman authorities after his return Cemal P a p (Jamil Pishh) threatening from Kurdistan (1856) were increasto have 'Abdu'l-Bahi killed. This daningly cordial, Sultan Abdulrnecit I ger ceased with the British conquest of apparently being s o impressed by Palestine, and the ending of Ottoman reports he had received about Bah6'u'rule there in September 1918. Shoghi llsh, that he refused Iranian requests to Effendi regarded the Ortoman rulers as expel him. The situation changed durthe 'arch-enemy' of the Bahi'i cause, " ing the rcign of his successor, ABDULA- who had inflicted enormous sufferings 212, with Bahi'u'lllh being first called on both Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi: t o Istanbul (1863). and then exiled the survival of the Bahl'i religion in the successively t o EDIRNEand AKKA.In face of their persecution was remarkvarious of his writings Bahi'u'lllh able. The calamities ultimately suffered reproved Ahdulaziz and his ministers, by the empire were seen as evidence of ALIPASAand FUAT~ S A for , this action. DIVINEIUOCEMENT. PDC63-6: WOB 173-8.

l I

periodicals

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paradise

that provided the best means for human welfare. This remedy could only he achieved through the cower of 'an allpowerful and tnsplred Physician' (t.e. Porsons, Agnes (1861-1934) Bahi'u'llih). However, as the world's prominent early ~~~~i~~~ ~ ~ h f Ai , rulers had refused this Most Great Peace (by "01 accepting Bahl'u'lllh), they member of Washington high society; she became a ~ ~ in h1910 ~aftcr~ should i instcad strive to establish rhc meeting * ~ b d ~ ' l . p , ~ i n h~~ k k she ~ . did 'Lesser Peace', a political pcace bcnveen much to support the work of the nations (Proclamation 12-13, 67-8). Pcrsian-American Educational Society Conflicts benveen the nations were the cause of calamity. It was imperative to (1910) and, a t 'Abdu'l-Bahl's sugFsL end them. This would also relieve the rion, played the leading role in the people of the world from 'the burdcn of succession of race amity conventions exorbitant expenditures' (TB 89). An which were held in various American 'all-embracing' assemhly anended by the cities from 1921 onwards. 'Abdu'l-Bahi world's rulen must be held t o establish stayed in her home during his first visit the foundations of rhis peace, and the to Washington, DC. She was a member grcat powcrs must bccome reconciled of both the BAHAITEMPI.EUZIITY and new amongst themselves. Thercafrer, peace national spiritual assembly for some be uphcld by collective security: years. sw5: 410-14; P.-s; ~ ~ 8 ~ 7 6 ~ 6 would . all other nations acting together in unison against any aggressor nation. peace This would ohviate the need for ARMAIn his leners to the rulers and elsewhere MENTS, apatt from the limited quantities required to maintain internal ordcr in BahB'u'llih appealcd for world pcace, referring both to a 'Great Peace' (ps11~-i- each country (ESW 3&1; TB 165). The akbar, translated by Shoghi Effendi as ministers of the EIOUSE OF JUSTICE must the 'Lesscr Peace') and a 'Most Great also promote rhis peace (TB89). Those Peace' (gulh-i-a'znm). Peace was the chief who upheld peace would be greatly means for the protection of humanity blessed (Tn 23). Ultimately, however, the 'ovenvhelming corruptions' of the (ESW 30). The Most Great Peace apparently represented the union of all the world would only be purged through world's peoples in one common faith. uniting the peoples of the world in one This was the 'sovereign remedy' for the universal faith and the punuit of one healing of the world, for it was RELIGION common aim (TB 69). See FSCHAT01.0CY;

HEAVEN

'Abdu'l-Bahb stared that true civilization would only be established in the world once a number of the world's RULERS had come together 'with firm resolve and clear vision' to establish universal peace. They would have t o establish a binding treaty which would delimit all international frontiers, define international relations and restrict the size of each nation's military forces. Breach of this sacred agreement would lead t o international intervention against any aggressor nation. Under such circumstances each government would only need a small force in order to maintain internal ordcr, and there would no longer be any need for large stockpiles of armaments or a n inrernational arms race. Human energies and resources could instead be devoted to fostering the development and wellbeing of the world3s peoples (SDC 647). He emphasized that the work towards peace needed to he combined with the achievement of a wider recansrmction of society. Thus, the expansion of democratic forms of government, and in patticular the education, enfranchisement and growing political power of WOMEN were of major importance in bringing about international peace (PUP 108, 134-5, 167, 375). He also predicted that the excessive costs of military expenditure would ultimately force nations to seek peace; stressed that disarmament should be multilarcral (CC2: 171, 172); and called on the United Stares and Canada t o take the lead in establishing peace (PUP 36-7, 834,318). Shoghi Effendi reiterated these teachings, distinguishing between the Lesser Peace, t o be established by the governmeno of the world, and the Most Great Peace, to be established by the expansion of the Faith, and characterized by the development of what he termed the 'Bahi'i World Commonwealth' (see WORLDORDER).In 1985 the Universal House of Justice issued its

'peace statement', The PROMISE OF WORLDPEACE,a forceful expression of t h e B a h l ' i 'peace programme', addressed t o the peoples of the world and widely distributed to world leaders. CCZ: ISI-2W; SBBR 74-7. 14&3: be. Clde 01 P-*. (See also MILLENARIANISM; UNITED NATIONS; WAR.)

periodicals A wide range of Bahb'i periodical literature exists. The earliest American periodical was The Bahai Bulletin (New York, 1909-10). This was followed by the Chicago-based Star of the West (1910-351, which became the premier international journal of Bahi'i news and affairs, until superseded in this role by the American BahZi Nezur (1924-90). With the develapmcnr of Bahl'i AoMINlnnAnoN most national spiritual ASSFMBLIES began to issue their own regular newslenen, generally intended for a specifically Bahl'i readership. Other publications were produced to present BahP'i views and news to a wider audience, notably the American World Unity (1927-35) and World Order (1935-49; new series from 1966); the new series of the Australian Hcrold of the South (from 1984); and the Bnuki I ~ N A T ~ O N COMMUNITY'~ AL One Country (from 1989). The New York-based Reality (1919-29) represented an early and increasingly hererodox endeavour of this type. The main sources of international Baha'i news are now the Bahd'i Inter,totionol N e w Service (Haifa, from 1967). the Bahd'i Newsreel video series (from 1990) and the new series of annual Bnni.1 WORLD volumes (from 1992). Various local Bahl'i newsletters were produced in Iran a t an early date, despite the oppressed conditions under which Bahi'is often lived. A national newsletter, Abhbdr-i-Amri, was also latter produced (from 1922). Following the Islamic revolution (1979) these activities

'pilgrims' notes' have ceased. but several Persian-language publications have been starred in the West. includinrr Pavdm-i-Bahi'i (Paris, from 197;) a n d 'Andalib (Canada, from 1981). ~rouo.R&S ~ujda 36-40, 1468; Cdlins. BiMiwraphy nii, 16444; smilh. 'R~any.

persecution Persecution of the Bibi movement began within a year of in inception with the trial of Mulli 'AL!BASTAMI in Baghdad (January 1845) and, by the summer, Bibis had been judicially tomured in S h i i z and the Bib himself arrested and punished. Other attacks on Bibis followed, mostly stcmming from the opposition of the Islamic learned (.IILAMA), acting as dcfcndcrs of an Islamic orthodoxy from which the Bibis clearly diverged. Thc situation changed with the development of BIei R A D ~ C A L ~ S and M the armed struggles involving the Blbis, who were thenceforth stigmatized as dangerous revolutionaries whose existence threatened the state, and treated accordingly. Despite Bahl'u'llih's transformation of the B i b s and his forbidding violent action, persecurion of the Bahi'is of IRAN has continued until the present day. Avariery of motivations has been involved, but religious animosity towards rhe BahP'is remains the most constant. Of note has been the emergencc of a 'culture of hatred', whereby the Bahl'is arc demonized and dehumanized by their opponents. (See also MARTYRDOM; OPPOSITION.)

There have been various instances of persecurion of Bahb'is outside Iran. These include: THESOVIET UNION:Following the consolidation of communist power, official persecurion of all forms of religion commenced. This included the BahP'i communities of Soviet Asia (notably ASHKHABAD), which were effectively destroyed in the lare 1930s.

N ~ z iGERMANY: All Bahl'i activities were banned by order of the Gestapo in 1937, largely because of the Faith's 'international and pacifist teachings'. EGYPTBahi'i activities were banned in 1960, largely because of the location of in what had the B m k i Wonr.n CE-E become Israel (and the consequent ruspicion of Zionist links). The ban was extremely influential in the Arab world, and briefly elsewhere. Other instances reflect similar anitudes, as in most of the communist bloc, and with nationalist and totalitarian opposition t o indepcndent rcliciaus movements. Nowhere has thc samr 'culturc of hatred' developed against the Bshi'is as in Iran. seen 1734. 185.

philosophy There are few specific references to philosophy in Bahi'i writings, although both Bahi'o'llih, and more particularly 'Abdu'l-Bahi, addressed philosophical themes, such as the nature of KNOWLr o a r and existcncc (see nuMnN NATURE; METAPHYSICS), and proofs for the cxisrcnce of Goo. Their discussions of social life (see ETHICS;POLITICS) are presented as statements of religious truth and nor philosophical propositions, however. Bath praised certain approaches to philosophy over others. Thus 'Abdu'lBahi praised 'deistic philosophers' (including Socratcs, Plaro and Aristorle in this category) as well as those 'moderate' materialistic philosophers whose work had been of service to humanity (Vader 70-I), but condemned philosophical MATERIALISM in general. Similarly, Bahi'u'llih stared that w1s. DOM began in the acknowledgement of divine revelation. True philosophy recognized God's majesty, and philosophers should he careful lest their concern with wisdom deharred them from its source. He also regarded most of contemporary Islamic philosophy as derivative from the past, in particular from the

except for the summer months, with visits by successive groups of around one hundred Bahi'is superintended by Bahi'i World Centre staff. Shorter (normally three-day) pilgrimages arc also permitted. During the time of 'Abdu'lBahi and Shoghi Effendi, the much smaller size of the pilgrimage groups and the extended stays of many of the pilgrims gave rhese visits a religious intensity which their modcrn successors perhaps lack. Pilgrimage is Still considered to be of enormous importance, however, borh as n means of s~irirually regenerating the individual pilgrim and pilgrimage providina the Bahfi World Centre with The Bibdeclared hisown house in S ~ f ~ h zan additional channel of contact with to be a place of pilgrimage, and BshVBahl'is from around the world. Shoghi u'llih appointed borh the Shirk House Effendi described the flow of pilgrims as to and his own former house in BAGHDAD the 'life-blood' of the World Centre be places of pilgrimage, prescribing spe(AD] 4). rn 30 k32. IW q10. 115 q25. 116 cific rites of visitation in two Szirihs of q29. 191-2 054-5. 197 "68;RBI: 21 1-12; 2: 240; Hajj. All male Bahi'is who were able t o Wolbridge. h c d 1 lC-18. should seek to visit one of rhese two sacred sites. Women were exempted from 'pilgrims' notes' this obligation (but arc allowed m visit ancient Greeks. The essence of what the Greeks had said was in Nm derived from the prophets of Israel (TB 144-51). In this, Bahi'u'llih reflected the views of medieval Muslim writers, whose writings he quoted verbatim (Cole, 'Problems of chronology'). There is as yet little explicitly philosophical work incorporating a Bahi'i perspective, although a number of writers do address philosophical themes in their discussions of Bahl'i topics (e.g. Conow; J. and W. Hatcher; Savi).

these sites if they wish). 'Abdu'l-Bahi declared BahP'u'llih's Shrine a t BAIIJ~ to be a third centre of pilgrimage, and declared visiting it a religious obligation for those who were able. There are no required rituals for such visits. Pilgrimage to the Baghdad House became impossible following its seizure by local Shi'is in the 1920s, and the Shiriz House was destroyed in the aftermath of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, so that the SHRINES A N D HOLY PLACES at the BAHMWORLD CENTRE are now the only places of Bahi'i pilgrimage. At presenr Baha'is are able to apply t o join organizcd nine-day pilgrimage g r o u p , during the course of which rhcy visit the Shrines of Bahi'u'llih and the Bib, and arc taken to visit other Bahl'i holy sites. They also commonly anend meetings addressed by members of the Universal House of Justice and International Teaching Centre. The 'pilgrimage season' extends through most of the year

Unauthenticated notes taken by Bahi'is of their pilgrimage experiences in the presence of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi, and in particular of the utterances of the two leaders which they heard. They are effectively the Bahi'i equivalent of lslamic HADfTHS. Both 'Abdu'l-Bahl and Shoghi Effendi were insistent that such notes could have no canonical authority - only authenticated texrs were authoritative. Nevertheless, numerous accounts of pilgrimage visits to 'Abdu'l-Ball have k e n published, and thew undoubtedly exert some influence on popular understandings of the Baha'i teachings. Shoghi Effendi insisted that norm made of his own remarks were only for the personal use of the pilgrim who had heard them. They might bc circulated if they were a source of inspiration, but they should not be printed. They were not official pronouncements, and as recorded were sometimes inaccurate and misleading. 1 ~ r 3 s a o .

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pioneers, pioneering

could perform, particularly when this was to areas where there were as yet no Bahl'is who have left rheir own homes Baha'is. Such pioneers should persevere and established their residence in and not abandon their posts until the another locality or counmy to propagate Faith was well established in that the Baha'i Faith are considered 'pioterritory (the example of Marion JACK, neers' (the term is Shoghi Effendi's). who stayed in her pioneer post in the I n his TABLETS or; TllE DIVINE PLAN face of tremendous hardship, was 'Abdu'l-Bahl called on North American lauded). He encouraged them not to Bahl'is to propagate the Bahl'i teachcongregate in a particular locality burro ings throughout the world. A few try to disperse so that they would have responded, bur it was only during the more contact with the local population. first American Seven Year PLAN(1937Ideally rhey should be sclf-supporting 44) that there was a systematic endeaearning rhcir own living in rheir new vour m establish the Baha'i Faith outside abode. If rhey were unable to support thcmselves, however, they could be North America through the dispatch of assisted from the Baha'i PIINDS, but this pioneers to Latin America. The dispatch should not he regarded as a permanent of pioneers became an important pan of several of the national plans that folarrangement: pioneering was not a job. lowed over thc next fcw yesn, and was Those who were unable to pioneer greatly emphasized during the internamight follow Bahl'u'llih's injunction to tional Ten Year Crusade (1953-63), the deputize (i.e. subsidize) someone else to pioneers of that plan being given rhc do so a n rheir behalf. Pioneers should honorific title ' K N I G I ~01 ~' -Bs A H ~ U ' L L ~ Hkeep ' . in close contact with the relevant Pioncering has remained an important Bahl'i adminisnative body. A a 5% ;' LG part of subsequent plans under the 51N1; MUHJ 9C-2 no. 36, 175-7 no. 86, 420 no. Universal House of Justice (since 228,4814 no. 279. A number el pioneer ~torieron ginm in V.d.nd. 1963). The House appointed Contincntal Pioneer Committees in 1965 to help with the placement of the increasing Pius I X (1792-1878) number af pioneers (402 in that year Pope, 1846-78, the longest pontificate world-wide) (MUHI 47-50 no. 22). BahYu'lllh praised those who had in history. He proclaimed the dacttines left thcir homes to tcach his Cause. They of the Immaculate Conception of the would be strengthened by the power of Virgin Mary (1854) and papal infallthe 'Faithful Spirit', and accompanied by ibility (1870), and was a staunch advo'la] company of our chosen angels'. Such cate of the rights of the papacy and an opponent of liberalism. Bahl'u'lllh action was 'the prince of all goodly deeds' (GWB 333 no. 157; MUH] 177). wrote to him shortly after his own exile 'Abdu'l-Bahi praised the blessings of to Akka (which began in 18681, announ'homelessness and adversiry in the pathcing that 'the Lord of Lords' had come way of God'; called on those who down from hcavcn with grace and justice at his side. Christ's promises propagated the Faith to be fearless, and had been fnlfilled. The pope should not to have no thought for themselves; and assured rhem of divine assistance. They let any name debar him from God, nor should learn the languages of the places dispute as the Pharisees had disputed they went to, and be filled with the love with Jesus. He should leave his palaces of God (LC 570; TDP). Shoghi Effendi to such as desired them, abandon his stated that pioneering was the most kingdom to the kings, and arise to important Bahl'i activiry that anyone promote God's cause, summoning the pioneers, pioneering

plans

kings to justice and selling all his embellished ornaments so as to expend rhem in the path of God. The Italian occupation of the papal states in September 1870, in the immediate afrermath of the defeat of NAPOLEON 111, finally endcd the temporal sovereignty of the papacy, and is regarded by Bahl'is as further evidence of DlVrNE JUDGEMEW. POC 30-2.536, GP8 227.

form at least one local spiritual assembly (see ASSEMBLIES) in evety American state and Canadian province; s e d e resident Bahl'is in each Latin American and Caribbean republic; and complete the exterior ornamentation of the Wilmette temple. The success of the plan indicated the value of this approach, and a series of plans was eventually implemented by the other national assemblies extant or newly formed.

plans

INDIA AND BURMA: Six Year (1938441, Organized campaigns to fulfil specific Four-and-a-Half Year (January 1946June 1950) and Ninneen Month (Sepgoals, particularly missionary EXPAN. tember 1951-April 1953) Plans SION. They are a significant element in modern Bahl'i activity. enrrlsv! B u r : Six (1944-50) and Two The 'charter' for much of this activiry (1951-3) Year Plans is 'Abdu'l-BahP's TABLETSOFTHEDJVINE PLAN(1916-17). addressed to the Amer- UNITED STATES AND CANADA: A second Seven Year Plan (1946-53) ican and Canadian Baha'is, in which he called for a systematic endeavour to IRAN: Forty-five Month Plan (October teach the Faith throughout the world, 194dJuly 1950) naming specific territories to which he AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZBALAND: Six Year wanted Bahl'is to go, and stressing the Plan (1947-53) need for them to learn the languages of the people they taught and produce IRAQ: Three Year Plan (1947-50) relevant literature for distribution. SevEGYPT AND THE SUDAN: Five Year Plan eral individuals responded to this (1948-53) appeal, but the results were at first extremely limited. Lnstead, under Shoghi GERMANY AND AUSTRIA: Five Year Plan Effendi's direction, the Bahl'is during (1948-53) the 1920s focused their attention on CANADA: Five Year Plan (1948-53) domestic TEACHING campaigns, and building up thcir system of AOMINISTRA. CENTRALAMERICA: One Year Plan (1952TION. 3)

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NATIONAL PLANS

These plans introduced the concept of Shoghi Effendi began to implement the working to achieve domestic goals to all obiecrives of 'Abdu'l-BahB'E Plan with the national Baha'i communities, and the first North American Seven Year began the process of establishment of Plan (1937-44). The Americans had Baha'i groups and local assemblies in already experimented with rwo 'Plans several countries and territories in Eurof Unified Action' (1926-8; 1931-c.3) in ope, South East Asia and Africa. The rhcir campaign to collecr enough money two-year 'Africa campaign' (1951-3) to continue building the Bahl'i House of was of special note, in that it involved n ~ ~ collaboration ln) Worship (see M ~ s ~ a l ~ o ~ l . . A at bztween several national Wilmerre. The Seven Year Plan was assemblies, and was thus the forerunner much more extensive in its objectives, of the international plans to come. Also Shoghi Effendi calling on the Bahl'is to of particular significance was a f o ~ r - ~ e a r

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plan specifically for Iranian Bahi'i women, aimed a t helping them to furrher their education and attain equality with men in Bahi'i administrative work (RW12: 65). INTERNATIONAL PLANS

ing Bahi'i literamre t o prominent people a n d the general public); the organization of international CONFERENCES (to increase the sense of global community amongst the Baha'is); the construnion of Bahi'i Houses of Worship; the dcvelopmenr of qualitative aspects of Bahi'i community life (enhancing the role of WOMEN, fostering Bahb'i FAMILY LIFE,' D U C ~ ~ I O Nand LITEnncv; and increasing the administrative efficiency of assemblies and commirtees); and BAHI.~W0nl.n CENTRE goals (institutional developments, new translations of scriptures). Details of the plan goals and achievements are given in the B a n ~ WORLD i volumes. s e s ~15742.

The culmination of these national endeavours was the Ten Year Crusade (1953-63), an elaborate and ambitious project which aimed to settle Bahs'is in every significant territory and island group throughout the world; enormously increase the total numher of national and lwal assemblies, Bahb'i centres and range of languages in which there was Bahi'i literature; and secure such 'international' ~ o a l as s completion of the codification of the ~ i t i b - i : ~ ~ d n s poetry and the estahlishmcnt of a Bahi'i court in Israel as P preliminary to the crner- The B i b i leader T A H I ~ I Hremains gence of the Universal Housc of Justice. renowned as a poet, borh in Iran and All rwelve national spiritual assemblies the Indian subcontinent. Among early Bahirs who were also well known as formed by 1953 participated. The poets, wemay list Mini'Ali-Mul,amr?ad results surpassed expectations, with the V A R Q ~ANDILIB. , NABIL-I-A.ZAM, Aq6 beginning o f massive growth in a Sidq-'Ali, A q i Muhammad-lbrihim, number of communities (see EXPAN. SION).Since its estahlishmcnt the UniUstid 'Ali-Akbar, and iMirzi Aqi, 'Jinib-i-Munih'. Of Western Bahi'is, versal House of Justice has continued lzabella GRINEVSKAYA was noted in her the pattern set by the Ten Year Crusade, with a total of six international plans t o day, whilst more recently the American dare: the Nine (3964-73). Five (197+ Robert HAYDENachieved considerahle 9), Seven (1979-86), Six (1986-92), international repute (BWNS 1994-5: 246). There have also k e n many amaThrce (1993-61, and current Four teur poets, inspired by Bahi'i themes, (1996-2000) Year Plans. There has also some of whore work has appeared in been a subsidiary two-year plan (19902), set t o co-ordinate Bahi'i activity in Bohd4 World and other publications. Eastern Europe and the former Soviet The hesr known of these was Roger Union under the new conditions of White (1929-931, several volumes of whose work were published (Bnhd'i religious freedom that followed the Studies Review 7 (1997): 147-52). collapse of the communist regimes there. The plans have included a wide It is a common popular Bahi'i belief range of 'expansion goals' (increasing that poets such as Shelley (1792-1822) and Wordsworth (1770-1850) were the number of assemblies, locslities in influenced by the spiritual force rhat which Bahi'is reside, languages, pubcame to be embndicd in the Bahb'i Faith, lishing trusts, properties, erc.; dispatchand that much 19th-century poetry ing P I O N E E R S and travel teachers); PROCLAMATION and the attempt t o reflects this emergent 'spirit of the age' (e.g. Townshcnd, Christ nnd Bohri'u'llih secure greater r u s u c necocNrTloN 56-63). (increasing use of mass media, present-

politics

SOCIAL ORDER required effective and just governance, but also the moral discipline provided by religion. The role of religion was t o promote morality and LEADERS should not to govern. RPI.IGIOUS clarify holy law as it related to legislation, but they should not intervene directly in politics. The consequences of such intervention in the past had been disastrous. The authority and legitimacy of secular government should be accepted. The work should be seen in the conten of the growing political turmoil in Iran during the 1890s.

Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi commented a n the ideal nature of GOVERNMENT, and instructed the Bahi'is m k loyal to established governments (see COVERNMENT. BdHki AITITUDE TOWARDS). Shoghi Effendi insisted that Bahs'is avoid all involvement in political affairs, including membership in political parries and the making of public comments on current political disputes and personalities. Such involvement is divisive. Thc Faith is 'non-political', 'supra-national', 'rigidly non-partisan', and 'entirely dissociated' from nationalist and sectional interests. Bahi'is should lave the world's peoples as a whole, and whilst seeking to promote the best interests of rheir own government and nation should be conscious that in a world of interdependent peoples and nations, 'the advantage of the part' was best reached by 'the advantage of the whole'. They can vote according to the dictates of their own consciences, as long as this dues not involvc becoming identified with a particular party. The Universal Houw of Justice has commented that Bahi'is can become members of neighbourhood councils and the like as long as they neither campaign for office nor become involved in partisanship (see Bahi'i ELECTION^). If a country is a one-parry state and pany membership is compulsory by law, Bahi'is can join, but not accept any parry offices. They can hold administrative office in government service if this does not entail political involvement. MUHJ 12s-e no. 5s. 1 6 2 4 no.

polygamy Under Islamic law a man may marry up to four wives, and in addition may take othcr women into his household as concubines. In the K i t d b - ~ - A Q D A S Bah6'u'lIah restricts the mtal possihlc number of wives to two, bur adds rhat having only one wife would he the cause of tranquility for both partners. 'Abdu'lBahi states rhat, as having a second wife is conditional upon treating borh wives with justice and equality (cf. Quran 4:3), multiple marriages arc not possible in practice. Bahi'i law thus prescribes monogamy. Concubinage and the Shi'i practice of remporary marriage (mut'o) are forbidden. Female servants are permitted m a household without the husband having t o marry them o r having any rights of sexual access. If a new Bahi'i already has more than one marriage partner, then they are not required t o divorce them. KA rl k63, 116

77.3 3 0 5 no. 173; 1G 44151; W00 64-7. IPB-9.

q30.205-7n89-90.

Politics, Treatise o n (Per: Risiliy-i-SiyrisiW;h) Essay o n G O V E R N M E N T written by 'Abdu'l-Bahi in 1892.13 and published in Bombay the following year. There is as yet no published English translation. For 'Abdu'l-Bahi government and religion had separate and reciprocal roles.

Given the BahB'i commitment t o gender equality (see WOMEN),some Western writers have expressed surprise at examples of early Bahb'i polygyny (e.g. W i l s o n , B n h a i s m ) . T h u s B A I ~ ~ U . L Lhimself AH had three wives, the BARrook a second wife when he was in Isfihin, and many of the early Iranian Bahi'is were also polygamous. Such multiple marriages were in full accord

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with Islamic law and reflected the social mores of the rime, polygyny being common amongst upper-class men in 19thcenmry Iran (Bahi'u'llih's father, Mirzi 'Abbis, had four wivcs and three concubines (see Nuni FAMILY)). The Aqdas limitation on the number of wivcs (c.1873) and the Bahi'i teachinas - on gender equality both port-date Bahi'u'llih's marriages, - . which were contracted whilst he was in Iran and Irao. Modem Bahi'is understand the present Bahi'i insistence on monogamy as being - evalutionarv in name. 'Alrdu'lBahi leading the Bahl'is away from what had hitherto been a deeply rooted cultural practice. 'Abdu'l-Bahi himself had only one wife, despite the urgings of a nnmber of Bahi'is for him to take a second (and hence presumably lgitimirc the practice). (See also M A ~ X I A G E . )

prayer OBLIGATORY PRAYER ( s ~ T )

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In the Kitdb-~-AQDAS, Bahi'u'llih prescribes daily rirual prayer as a primary religious obligation for Bahi'is from the age of fifteen (the 'age of maturity') upwards. Those who are weak from illness or age (over seventy) are exempt. So too are menstruating women, who may instead repeat a specific verse ('Glorified k God, the Lord of Splendour and Beauty') ninety-five times during each nventy-four hour period. The believer may choose each day t o say one of three obligamry prayers, nvo of which are t o be said a t specific times of the day (a short prayer benveen noon and sunset; a 'medium' prayer three rimes: between dawn and noon, noon and sunset, and sunset and rwo hours after sunset). The third (long) prayer may be said at any time, ideally when in 'a stare of humbleness and longing adoration'. Prayer is t o be preceded by ritual nsrurrolrr, and made in the direction of the tomb of Bahi'u'lIlh at BAHJ~, which is the Bahi'i Q ~ B L A Two H.

of the prayers involve ritual movement and prostration (rak'a).Prostration may be made a n any clean surface. In conditions of insecurity, such as travel, prayer may be omitted, and each missed prayer later compensated for by the repetition of certain verses. The rime of waver . . may be established by clocks, particularly in high latitudes. Some elcmenrs of Bahi'i ritual waver . . resemble Islamic raldt, hut the form is distiacrivelv different. So too is the lack of a congregational context: Bahi'i prayer is t o hc said individuallv. with . Together FASTING obligatory prayer is regarded as a means for the believer t o draw closer t o God, and as a pillar of divine LAW. It is conducive to humility. K A Z I kb.22-4 ks-lo. 12-14.26L18.92-101. 113-14qZl. 12ddq5847. 130-1 q81-3. 134~93.145-8. 16-5-74 "3-"22. 176 "25: LG 464-8; PM "0%.1813. Shoghi Effendi encouraged Bahi'is to avoid rigidity and ritual in their prayers. Such rituals as there are are few, and should be regarded as symbolic: thus the worshipper turning towards the qiblah is a physical symbol of turning ro Bahi'u'llih, and the ritual gestures incorporated in two of the obligatory prayers are symbolic of an inner attitude on the part of the worshipper. Those who are uncomfortable making there genuflections should instead use the short prayer in which there are no gestures. cc2 237 n a 1759.2423no. 1780. PRAYER IN GENERAL

Ln addition t o daily obligatory prayer Bahi'is are encouraged t o pray frcquenrly, both as an individual act of turning t o God and in their meetings. There are no set forms for such prayers. The purpose of these prayers is to bring people closer t o God and Bahi'u'llih, to help them to purify their own conduct, and allow them to request divine assirtance. They express the individual's love for God and at the same time affect their inner spiritual stare. MEDITATION and acrion are linked t o prayer. The more

detached the worshipper becomes, the purer and more acceptable arc their prayers. Prayer docs nor have to be necessarily prolonged, hut the spirit in which it is offered is imporranr. Individual prayer should be offered in private and when one is free from distractions, such as late at night. Collective prayer in which individuals usually take it in rum to read, chant, or sing prayers - is encouraged: f o r example, coming together a t dawn for collective prayers, whether as a family o r local community Administra(see MASHRIQ~.L-ADHKAR). tive meetings of A S S E M ~ L I E Sand committees commonly include prayer, whilst the regular nineteen day FEAST begins with an integral devotional period. cc2. 22543; IG 45563; Helloby nnd Helloby: Wolbridgs.

such is the only Bahl'i congregational prayer. KA 22 Le. 23 LIZ. 101-2, 127 q70. 131 q85. 147-8. 169JOnl0-11. 1723nl9;PMono.67, OTHER SPECIAL PRAYERS

Socd45-54.

Bahi'is commonly attach importance t o three prayers which are regarded as having particular power for those in difficulty or sickness. These are a short prayer of the Bib's, 'The remover of difficulties', a n d t w o prayers by Bahi'u'llih, 'The Tablet of A h m d ' and 'The Long Healing Pryer'. The Islamic 'prayer of the signs', which was said a t times of awesome and frightening events (earthquakes, eclipses, crc.) was annulled by Bahi'u'llih, who substituted in its place a specific verse, the saying of which is optional (KA 23 k l l , 122 qS2, 148, 172 "18).

THE CORPUS O F PRAYERS

INVOCATION

There are many prayers in Persian and Arabic, by Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'lBahi, and these are widely used. A large number of these have been translated into English. These include prayers to be said on awakening and going t o slecp, and during the Bahl'i fast; for travelling, healing, spiritual growth and detachment, protection, forgiveness, assistance and unity; and on behalf of children, parents and spouses. Some of the Bib's prayers have also been translated into English, bur as yet few of Shoghi Effendi's. The original words of all rhese prayers should be used without alteration. Children should he taught t o memorize them. Bahi'is may also use prayers of their own, hut these are regarded as less powerful.

Bahi'is are bidden to recite 'Alidh-h-uAbhd' (God is Most Glorious; see GREATEST NAME), ninety-five rimes each day. KA 26 kls. 129 077. I 80 "33.

PRAYER FOR T H E DEAD

Bahi'u'llih ordained a specific prayer for the dead, based on a similar prayer of the Bib's. This is t o be said preceding the interment of any Baha'i who has reached 'the age of maturity' (fifteen). It is read aloud by one person while the others present stand in silence, and as

predestination See FATE. prejudice Bahl'is are called upon t o free themselves of all prejudices in their dealings with those of a different RACE, class o r religion. The challenge involved in overcoming such prejudices is great, and higher levels of progress are invariably possible (AD] 18-19). For 'Abdu'l-Bahi the abolition of prejudice was essenrial for human well-being. Social prejudices - religious. racial, polirical, economic, parriotic - lead to war and strife. They are a harrier to human progress (PUP 181, 316; SWAB 299-301). God is nor concerned with such ephemeral differences between people, hut with the moral worth and spirituality of the individual ( P T 153-54). Humanity is one race, the world one abode, national

Plomid Day is C ome ~ - .-

276 barriers arbitrary human creations, and true nELlCloN based on love and agreement benveen people (PUP 232, 299300; P T 134, 151-5).

priesthood The Bahl'i Faith has no priesthood. I n mMINlsTRATIoN is based on a combination of elected councils (ASSEMBLIES) and individuals who are appointed to provide spiritual guidance and encouragement (Counsellors, Roard members) but who are specifically denied any sacramental role o r executive power. Bahi'u'llih praised the pious deeds of Christian pries- and monks, but stared that they should now live in the 'open world'; marry and have children if they wished; and be busy with that which would 'profit themselves and others'. The practice of C ~ N F E S S I ~ ONF SINS to another human being (as t o a priest to gain absolution) is forbidden. Kn 30 k34. 193-d " ~ 8 :rn 24. (See olro nELlclous LEADERS.) principles, Baha'i See ' B A H ~PRINCIPLES'. I proclamation The endeavour to acquaint all people with the fact and general aims of the Bahj'i Faith. The Universal House of Justice launched a global proclamation campaign in Octoher 1967, following t h e centenary c e l e b r a t i o n s of Baha'u'llih's proclamatory letters to conremooraw . . RULERS announcing his claims. This campaign involved formal ~I'esentaIionsof Bahl'u'llih's writin~sto world leaders and other prominent people; large-scale publicity; and a call t o BahB'is to launch TEACHING programmes designed t o reach 'every stratum of human society'. Bah6'is were counselled t o be diligent, wise, dignified and reverent in their proclamation activities. Proclamation has since become a

regular part of Bahl'i activities in those counmes in which there is religious freedom, with systematic publicity camoaiens, and widesoread use of mass media. The extensive persecutions suffered by the Baha'is in IRANsince 1979, and a second global proclamation campaign started by the House of Justice in 1985 in connection with its statement The PnoMlsE OF WORLD PEACE, have done much to gain the Bahl'is sympathetic media attention, such that the Fairh has now effectively emerged from its former obscurity. MUHJ 65 "no. 24.22.106 no. 42.21. 110-11 no. 45. 263 no. 141.9. 487 no 280.13, b52-4 no. 420.25.

progressive revelation Bah6'i doctrine relating the various recognized world religions as 'different stages in the eternal history and constant evolution of one religion', itself divine and indivisible, and of which the Bahi'i revelation formed a n integral parr. Bahl'u'lllh's revelation occupied a unique role as it represented the culmination of those of the past (WOB 114-19, 166-7). No religion- including the Bah6'i Fairh itself - could claim to be the final revelation of God t o humanity (PDC 112). Revelation was both recurrent and progressive. Each MAN~FESTATION OF GOD brought divine reachings appropriate t o the spiritual capacity of the people of his day. As such, 'religious truth' is relative t o its recipients and not absolute. The prophets proclaimed 'eternal verities' (moral and spiritual truths renewed by each Manifestation), bur their message also changed t o reflect the particular 'spiritual evolution of human society' at rheir rime of a p p e a r a n c e ( t h u s Bahl'u'lllh's message included both eternal moral truths and the call for world unity based on the proclamation of the oneness of humankind; and laws of marriage and criminal punishment varied from one religion to another)

(Faith 2-3; PDC 112). The cycle of successive divine messengers is like the annual coming of the spring thar brings new life to a cold, dead world which has come to neglect the teachings of the previous revelator (PUP 106, 115, 1267, 151, 154, 273-4, 339, 361-70; SWAB 51-2). Over time, tach religious system has declined as religionists blindly follow tradition rather than the pure teachings of the founder and base their belief on imitation rather than exercising ISDEPENDENT I N V E S ~ I G A T I O N OF T R W ~ I I (PUP 221-2, 4 4 3 ) In the future God will continue t o 'send down' his messengers to humanity until 'the end that hath no end', and they will 'unfold' a n 'ever-increasing' measure of Divine guidance (WOE 116, 118). Bahi'u'lllh was insistent, however, thar no further Manifestation would come for at least one thousand years after him (KA 32 k37). (See also vnornacu; RELIGlous DIVERSITY; SOCIAL EVOLUT.ION.) Promise of World Peace ('The Peace Srarcmenr') Statement by the Universal House of Justice dared October 1985 addressed to 'the peoples of the world'. It was issued as parr of the Bahl'i activities for the United Nations international Year of World Peace (1986). Formal presenrations of the statement were made to world leaden, and hundreds of thousands of copies were distributed worldwide. The House also issued a compilation of Bahl'i writings on PEACE to enable the Bahi'is to make a more intensive study of the issues involved. The statement insisted on the importance of nELiGloN and moral principle in the achievement of peace; appealed t o world leaders to convoke the internat i o n a l a s s e m b l y c a l l e d f o r by Rahl'u'llih; related the establishment of peace t o wide-ranging societal changes, including the spread of universal aoucATloN, the emancipation of

WOMEN, and the struggle against racism, poverty, and national and religious maJUOICE; warned of the dangers of materialism, despair and the belief that human beings were intrinsically aggressive; expressed optimism for the long-term future; and noted present 'tentative steps' towards global peace. MW 652-4 m. 420. 669 no. 429, 679.80 no. 436, 681-96 no. 438,700-1 nos. 4424,725 no. 456.3.

Promised Day is Come Book-length letter by Shoghi Effcndi addressed to the Bahi'is of the West, dnted 28 March 1941. Composed during the initial period of \Vorld War 11, the work has an apocalyptic tone. A 'tempest' was sweeping the earth, gaining in power and momentum, sundering the nations, uprooting their instirudons, and harrowing rhc souls of their inhabitants. This 'judgment of God' was both a retributory calamity, punishing the oerversity of the human race, and a 'cleansing process', welding the peoples and nations into a single, - world-embracing community, and preparing humanity for the future 'Most Great PEACE'. Bahl'u'lllh's proclamation of his mission had for the most part gone unheeded, and the central figures and institutions of the Faith had been oersecured. The world's nuLEns and R E L I C I ~ U S Lannhns bore oarticular resoonsihilitv for the world's woes, for it was they t o whom Bahi'u'llihb proclamation had been primarily directed, and a t that time their powers had been enormous. They had had the ahiliry t o lead their peoples into recognition of Godh call, bur had disdained to d o so. Bahl'u'lllh had therefore prophesied that power would be seized from them, a process described by Shoghi Effcndi in this book. People in general also bore responsibiliry, not only for any failure to respond to God's call, but also for m i n g away from RELI. c i o ~and , thus falling prey t o the forces of immorality and SECULARISM.

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in the present day with the Muslims' rejection of the Bib and Bahi'u'llih. 'Lesser P R ~ P H E T S 'also accurately. . predict the future. (See also APOLOGETICS; ~ Q A N . ) prophecy Bahl'u'lllh foretold the coming of According to Bahl'i belief the WNIFES. future Manifestations after him, but was TATloNs OF GODcon~titutea succession insistent that the next messenger would of interrelated figures who speak with not appear until the elapse of a t least the same divine voice. Fach foretells the one thousand years ( K A 32 k37, 195-6 coming of his successor, and may also n62). He also made a number of prophesy other future events, notably prophetic statements about the world the promise of a future messianic age whose fulfilment Bahi'is regard as eviwhich Bahl'is equate with the future dence for the validity of his claims. WORLDORDERof Bahi'u'llih. Thus These include the downfall qf various careful study of the scripture of the ALI PA$& world leaders (ABDULAZIL; various world religions will reveal a NAI.OI.E~N m;N ~ n l ~ o ~ nSHIM); - o i ~ the pattern of promise. In the event, the loss of O ~ ~ O M territory; A N political followers of the religions commonly revolution and popular rule in Iran; the reject the promised one when he comes twice-repeated sufferings of Germany (as the Jews reiected Jesus and the (see w 1 ~ n ~ r .I); M and what is interpreted Christians rejected Muhammad), in part a s a reference t o N U C L E A R POWER. because they read their scriptures lit'Abdu'l-Bahi also predicted the outerally and d o not understand the spiribreak of \Vorld War I (originating in a tual metaphors that ate often used in Balkan conflict), and of a further global prophecy, in part because they blindly conflict in the future; the rise of COMfollow ancestral beliefs without thinking MUNISM; and racial conflict in the United for themselves. This had again happened States. ah-. See APOLOGETICS.

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prophets Bahi'is distinguish between w o categories of divinc messengers: the MINI. ~ESTATIONSOFC~D, who are independent divine intermediaries, and the 'lesser prophets', who are the followen of the Manifestations, and reflect their light. The Manifesrations are the hearers of divim revelation and the founders of the world's great religions. 'They are prophets 'endowed with constancy'. The conrraa is most clearly seen in relationship to Judaism, with ABRAHAMand MOSESboth beinp. as Manifes.. regarded . rations, whllsr Solomon, David, Isaiah, lercmiah. Ezekiel and the rest are seen as iesser prbphets (SAQ 164-5). There is no definitive listing of lesser prophets in the Bahh'i writings, nor is the concept discussed in detail. but it is clear that the possihilities of divine guidance and inspirarion are not restricted to the recognized Manifestations of God, and would include the Shi'i IMAMS, amongst others. Some BahB'is thus regard figures such as rhe Native American prophets Viracocha (Inca), Queaalcoirl (Toltec) and Deganawida (Iroquois) as divine messengers. These views are necessarily speculative in terms of Bahi'i prophetology (which is canonically limited to the prophets mentioned in the Bible, Quran and Bibi-Bahi'i writings ( L C 503 no. 1696)), but express the Bahi'i bclicf in the universality of divine guidance t o humanity, as well as representing an important 'bridge' in Bahl'i missionary endeavour amongst indigen. & m e , . ' . shwra; ous peoples. B W ~ 'N SBBR 14kS; Willw ond Blown. (See also INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS; for the distinction between 'prophet' (nnbr) and 'messenger' (rosril)see ISLAM.)

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proposed a global development Strategy based on the ~rinciolesof the oneness of the human race, mcial jasncE, H U M A N RIGHTS, the acceptance of cultural diversity, CONSULTATION, the empOWCrment of ordinary people through the expansion of scientific and technological knowledge and their involvement in thc system of decision making, the developmenr of a new work ethic, and a commitment to WOMEN'S equality with men. It called for the abandonment of purely materialistic conceptions of development; asserted the necessity for moral and spiritual change for effective development t o occur; and stressed the complementarity of the insights of SCIENCE and REL.IGION.

psychic powers

Beliefs in 'psychic powers' were quite common amongst some early Western BahA'is. 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi regarded spiritualism and other psychic experiences negatively, however, although they treated psychically oriented Bahi'is with love and consideration: the visions of a medium in a trance have no more material reality than a dream. Communications from the dead are shccr imagination. Automatic writing comes from the writer's own unconscious and nor from disembodied spirits. Table writing and other 'psychic dabbling' should be avoided. Artistic crcativity is the consequence of innate ability, practice and study, and not of psychic influences. Inner voices might be psychic in naNre, but they might also be the product of the sulxonscious mind. They should not be accorded imponance. The existence of genuine 'psychic powers' is possible, but they ate not t o he used in this present life. Even if an individual sincerely Prosperity of Humankind wishes t o use such powers to help Statement issued by the BAHMINTERNA- others, they should leave them dormant. TIONAL COMMUNITY'S Office of Public Children who are inclined to be psychic Information a t the direction of the should be discouraged h o m developing Universal House of Justice in 1995. It these powers. Psychic powers ate not

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public rscognilion understood, and there is no way t o distinguish the true from the false. Neither are such powers consistent or reliable. For individuals to grope around 'in the darkness of rheir imagination' in these matters is in fact dangerous, weakening rheir spiritual capacities and ultimately leading to the destruction of rheir character. If God wann to vouchsafe a spiritual experience t o someone, then it will be given, it d m not have to be sought. There are also certain psychic powers which are generally a sign of deep psychological disturbance. More generally, individuals imbued with spiritualist ideas find it difficult to accept the Faith unreservedly. If they become Baha'is they conceive Baha'i ideas in spiritualist terms and their pretence t o psychic powen causes problems within the Bahl'i community. This had happened in many places, and it is better for Baha'is to concentrate their teaching endeavours elsewhere. LG 513-19. (See also DREAMS AND VISIONS.)

280

establishment of Bahi'i groups in the West and elsewhere. Shoghi Effendi was determined that the public image of the Faith should change as part of the development of the Faith (see Banhi FAITH). He therefore encouraged Bahs'Ls to seek legal and gnvernmcntal recognition of their religion, both to increase i n public visibility and emphasize its status as an independent world religion, and to enable Bahl'i institutions t o hold title to property. 'Ncgative' recognition could also be of value, most famously as illustrated by of a provincial the 1925 .iudgment . Egyptian courr which led to the declaration that the Bahi'is were not Muslims (GPB 364-69). With the onset of systematic PLANS the achievement of public recognition (as by gaining official approval of school or work absences on Bahl'i HOLY DAYS) became an integral goal. An Office of Public Information was established in Haifa in 1985 to better promote public knowledge of the Faith. In terms of coverage in the news public recognition media, the emergence of the Baha'i Faith The Bahl'i Faith is seen by its followers from obscurity in many parts of the as a n independent world religion, world occurred as a result of the Iranian comparable in essence t o Buddhism, persecutions which began in 1979. As in Christianity, Islam and rhc rest. This previous instances of persecution, the Bahl'is embarked on a campaign to self-understanding is implicit in Bahi'u'llih's claim to he a MANIF~STA-publicize rhc sufferings of their Iranian TION OP GOD, notwithstanding the reaco-relipionists and t o gamer suppon lity of his situation as a n imprisoned from governments and other bodies. To exile with a comparatively small numa much greater exfent than previously, ber of followers, the great majority of widespread coverage in newspapers, whom were Iranians of Shi'i Muslim magazines, radio and television resulted. background, and the deliberate caution This continued for several years, and a by which moat Baha'is at that time definite change in public visibility avoided being publicly identified as occurred. Having become recognized by the media as a topic of interest thc Baha'is t o avoid persecution (see WISDOM). It was scarcely surprising in this Bahl'is were subsequently able t o gain context that most outside observers coverage for rheir activities far more (E.G. BnowNE was an obvious excepeasily than in the past, particularly as tion) perceived the early Bahl'is as these were now far more diverse than in members of a Muslim sect. This pcrcepthe past. lor on mmvnt of recsn~caamgs s e tion remained common even after the n m s 19945:15166. EXPANSION of the Faith had lcd to the

publishing Bahi'is give great importance to the wrirten word, emphasizing in particular the transforming impact of reading SCRIFTURE. Within the Bahl'i community LITERACY is strongly encouraged, and the use of written material plays an importan1 part in Baha'i TEACHING activity. publi;hing has therefore come t o ha;e considerable imuortance. Amonast 19th-century ~ i d d l cEastern Bahi'is multiple copies of manuscripts were made by hand. This was enormously time-consumina. ... and some form of publishing was evidently preferable. However. dven the oooositian to the .. Faith in ; a n and Bahi'u'llih's status as an Ottoman ~risoner.the earliest oublished materials were made in the safety of British India. The first oublished works (by lithography) appear to have ~ been Bahi'u'llih's K i t i b - i - l ~ dand 'Abdu'l-BahP's Sscnrr O F D I V ~ N CIVILIE ZATION (the latter a t least in 1882). Other works followed, both in Bombay and Cairo. The growth of the American Bahh'i community from the 1890s created a new and politically free marker for Baha'i literature. In 1900 the Chicago 'Behais Supply and Publishing Board' was established, and in 1902 it was legally incorporated as the 'Bahai Publishing Society', the precursor of the present American Bahi'i Publishing Trust. Other materials were published independently both in the United States and Europe, and a considerable body of English-language literamre was soon available (over one hundred items by 1917 (SBBR 103-4); Collins' Bibliography lists some 3,700 items up to 1985, including multiple editions, but excluding periodicals and braille literature). From the 1920s onwards translations of Bahl'i literature were puhlished in an increasing range of Europcan and Asian languages, and more recently also in African and Oceanian languages. To provide s t r u m r e to these burgeoning

publication acriviries Bahl'i publishing trusts have been established in various counlries. The &st of these was in Britain (est. 19371, and by 1994 there were a total of thirty: welve in Europe (Belgium, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom); three in the Americas (Argentina, Brazil, United States); four in Africa (C6te d'lvoire, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda); one in the Middle East (Lebanon); hvo in South Asia (India, Pakinan); six in East and South East Asia (. H o w - Kona.-. .lapan. . . Korea. Taiwan, Malaysia, Philippines); and two in Australasia (Australia, Fiii) lBWNS 1994-5: 325-6).The ~ a h a ' iworld Centre has had its own oublishinp. arm since 1963. Many national spiritual AssnMnLles also ~ublishBahl'i literature. as do a number of small independent Baha'i publishers (in English, notably George Ronald and Oneworld in Oxford (first est. 1947 and 1985 respectively) and Kalimlt Press (est. 1979) in Los Angeles). Ironically, Persian Bahi'i literature has become much more readily available since the Islamic Revolution of 1979: the Pahlavi regime (1925-79) had tacitly allowed the Bahl'is to lithograph small qoanrities of literature for their own use, but this concession ended with the Revolution, and Persian Bahl'i literature came to be produced in increasing quantities in countries such as Germany and Canada. The BBahs World Centre reeks to obtain copies of all published matcrials relating to the Bahi'i Faith. Collins. ~ibl~qwphy xix-wii. (See also Ll'raRAr'onE; REVIEW; TRANSLATION.

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Purest Branch Minzl

See

purity The concept of ritual purity is an important one in Islam, pamcularly in Shi'ism, but it was de-emphasized by the

I

Bib, who instead streued the impartance of CLEANLINESS and inner spiritual purity. Bahi'u'llih went further, abolishing all forms of ritual impuriry, . . both of people and things (menstruating women are exempt from ritual PRAYER and FASTING, but this is voluntary, and the condition of menstruation is not regarded as ritually impure, as in Islam). Ritual ABLUTIONS are required before prayer, however. K4 a6 k74. 47 k75. 173 020. 212 "103.~ I Mwolbridga. ; kmd59d7.

Bahi'u'llih also stressed the impottance of purity of heart, and identified payment of both HUQUQU.LLAH and ZAKAT as a means of ~ u r i f y i n ~one's . possessions (KA 55 k97,'72 k146). In 19th-century IRAN the BaM'is' acceptance of members of non-Muslim minorirygroups(JewrandZaroasrrians) contrasted sharply with the Shi'i treatment of these people as being ritually impure, and was a factor in attracting them t o the Bahi'i Faith.

QL'im (Ar., 'the one who will arise' (from the family of Muhammad))

Bahl'is appears to have varied between indifference and a certain measure of I sympathy; individuals known t o he ~ one of the Shi'i term for the M A H Dand titles of the Hidden lmim (see S H ~ I S M ) . BahB'is were appointed to public office (e.g. An-KULI KHAN). Persecution of According t o Bibi and BahP'i bclicf the BahP'is continued, however, due both t o Bib was the Qd'imIMahdi. the lack of central control over provincial authorities and the struggles for power in Qaj6rs what was a complex and unstable The ruling kanian dynasty from the 1790s political situation. Shoghi Effendi reioiced in the downfall of 'this blooduntil 1925, comprisina . .. seven monarchs: stiined dynasty' responsible for so much (1) Muhammad Shih, r. 1795-7 of the persecution of the Bibis and (2) Fath-'Ali S h i h , r. 1797-1834; Bahi,is (WOB 173). ney had usurped nephew of Aghi Muhammad Shih. the throne and brought disaster to Inn (3) Muhammad Shih, I. 1834-48;grand(PDC 67-71). (See also IRAN.) son of Fath-'Ali Shih. (4) ~ i ~ i r u ' d - d iShih, n r. 1848-96; son of Muhammad Shih. Q a r i d a al-Warq67yyih ( 5 ) Mwaffari'ddin Shih, r. 1896-1907; See ODEO F THE DOVE. son of Nisim'd-din Shih. (6) Muhammad-'Ali Shih, I. 1907-9 a a r r & b e h i , ~ & j~i ~ b ~ h d (d. 1925); son of Muraffari'd-din (d, 1947) Shih. Prominent Iraqi BahB'i. He converted in (7) Ahmad Shlh, I. 1909-25 (d. 1930); 1911 after reading accounts of 'Ahdu'lson of Muhammad-'Ali Shih. Bahl's journeys in the West. He made The Shaykhi movement (see SHAYKHISM)major financial contributions to various developed during the reign of Fath-'Ali Bahi'i construction projects. After Shih and the Bibi movement during that World War I he starred restoration work SHAH.The of his successoc MUHAMMAD on the House of BahB'u'llih in BAGHextirpation of Bibism and the early DAD. He subsequently supported the development of the Bahl'i Fairh occurred legal work required to rry to regain ol~ during the reign of N 6 ~ r ~ u . o . SHAH, possession of the House from the Shi'ir who remained hostile towards the new who had seized it, and played a leading religion throughout his reign. The attirole in the establishment of the Baghdad tudc of the last three Qijirs towards the and national Iraqi H ~ z i n ~ r u ~ ~ ~ Q u o s .

bi hi

285 He also financed the extension work to the inner SHRINEO F THE BAB,and was honoured by Shoghi Effendi by having one of rhe doors of the Shrine named after him. awl r: 502-3. QayyGmu'i-asm6' Also known as the Ahsonu'l-qi?q ('The best of stories'). It is the earliest wnrk of thc Bib's ministry, composed over a period of forty days, heginning on the night of his declararion of mission t o 'Mulli Husayn (22 May 1844) (Nahil 63, bur cf. TI 39), and subsequently extensively copied and widely distrihutcd by his disciples, such rhat it came to be regarded as the 'Quran' of the Bibis. Written in Arahic, the book is quite lengthy (111 chapters; over 9,300 verses). Although it takes the form of a commentary on the Quranic stira of Joseph (Szira 12), each chapter except the first dealing with a verse in rhat rrira, it is not a commentary in any conventional sense, but rather a reworking of Quranic material to prcsenr the Bib's own doctrinal concerns. Central is the Bib's own claim to authority. Though his own exact status is enigmatic - he refers to himself as the exalted or greatest 'Remembrance [of God]' (dhikr) and as the 'Gate' (bdb) of God or of the Hidden IMAM(see Q ~ I M-) the book also includes passages in which the 'speaker' is thc lmim, or that claim divine revelation: these were 'new verses from God'; they were 'the essence of the Quran'; God had inspired rhe Bib as he had in thc past inspired Muhammad and other prophets. Moreover, the book's style and format mirrored those of the Quran, paraphrasing its wording; replic a t i n g irs 'rhyming, r h y t h m i c a l cadences' (McR 35); employing the same chapter-and-verse divisions and prefatory 'disconnected lctterr'; and making the same claims to inimirability. All human beings - including the 'rulers of the Earth' and the Islamic learned

(.ULAMA) - were summoned to believe in the Remembrance. Those who rejected him were consigned t o hell-fire. Bahi'u'llih described the Qayyriumu'l-arm8 as the 'greatest' and 'mightiest' of the Bib's works, and Baha'is believe irs 'fundamenral purpose' to have been to forecast what 'the INe Joseph' (Bahi'u'llih) would endure at the hands of his brother (Suhh-i-AZAI.)(GPB 23). A fcw selected passags have been nanslared into English (&Ah, Seleainns 4174), bur the honk ss a whole remains unnanslared. Ann 173. 201-5; sd&m 210-15; GPB 234; .1'Inblnblion', ' ( X l i b n Cmmmlari. 'Rmanbmnl-e'; McS 55-7; Manen, 7rml'.

Qazvin (1868 pop. est. 25,000) Northern Innian city. It was an important centre of Bibi activity, the birthand the rite of the place of TAIIIRIII murder of her uncle, MUHAMMAD-T~qi BARA<:I~AN~. qibiah (Ar.) The 'point of adoration' t o which believers rum in prayer. For Muslims this is the Ka'ha in Mecca. In the Arabic BAYAN the Rib changed it to HE WIIOM G O D ~ H A L L MMAKIPEST, A K E stating rhat it would move as he moved. Bahl'u'llih confirmed this change in the Kitib-iAQDAS,identifying his own 'Most Holy Presence' with 'the Centre round which circle the Concourse on High'. After his death the qibbh became his tomb at BAHli. Bahfis arc directed to face the qihlah when they perform their daily (roldt), bur all other obligatory prayers may be said facing any direction ('Whichever way ye turn, there is the face of God': Qurin 2:115). In practice. the prayer of visitation for Bahl'u'llih is also commonly said facing the qiblah. The bodicr of the dead should be bwied so that they 'face' the qiblah, i.e. have their feet pointing towards it. KA 21 k6. 68 k137.IIIq14. I26q67.131q85.l456.168-Pn78; CCI: 13 no. 42: LG 196 no. 646.

QuddGs (Ar.: 'the Most Holy') Titleof the BBbi leader Mull&Muhammad'Ali Bhfwhshi (c.l819/2C49), the last of the B i b t inner circle of disciplcs, the o r TICE LIVING.The son of a LETTERS poor rice farmer from the northern Iranian province of Mizandarin, he became a servant in the house of the local Shaykhi leader, Mulli Muhammad-Hamza Shari'at-madir, and subseauentlv trained as a cleric in Mashhad and tkn in Karbali under Sayyid KAZIM RASHTI. Meerine the Bib in Shiriz. he was chosen as the prophet's companion on the pilgrimage to Mecca (1844-5), and was one of those savagely punished for creating religious disorder on his return t o Shiriz. He then travelled to Kirmin, whcre he delivered a proclamatory message from the Bib to rhe Shaykhi leader KAniM KHAN, subsequently returning t o Birfudsh, where he bccame embroiled in the sectarian tensions that divided rhc town. Following the Bib's imprisonment in Azerbaijin and consequent inaccessibility, Quddus came to he regarded by many Rihis as Q A w , fulfilling the B i b role in his stead. Hc also identified himself with Jesus (in Islamic belief, one of those who would accompany the Mshdi). He attended the conference of BADASHT, initially apposing TAIIIRIH'S radicalism. He was subsequently placed under house arrest in the northern town of Siri, until released by the Bibis of TABARSI, whose struggle he thenceforth direcred. Following the Bibi surrender he war delivered into the hands of his chief clerical opponcnt in Birfurush, the Sa'idu'l-'ulamd, who personally superintended his torture and killing. According to the Bibi-Bahi'i account rhc dismembered parts of his hody miraculously refused to burn, and were later collected together and buried. He wrote cxrcnsively - including many rhousands of verses in commentary on just one letter in a Quranic verse - bur little of

this output has survived. The Bib referred t o h i as 'the last name of God' (tmu'llahu'l-dkhzrl, and Rah.5'~'llih tdcnt~fiedham a ~ t one h of rhe d ~ v ~ n c messengers mentioned in the Quran, calling him 'the Last Point' (nuqti-yiukhrd), the Bib having been the 'Primal Point' (of divine revelation). nna 177-88. 241. 287-8. 325-8; Oft3 49; MacEoln. 'Hiemmhy' 1 0 6 1 1 ; McS 10M; Nabil 69-72. 142-7, 17943. 261-7.288300. 34948,37942,384-415: TI 3940, 43-4. 57-93. 97. 281-2. 336, 3556, 359-58, rN3069.

Quran (Ar.: Qur'in) The holy book of Islam, regarded as divine revelation delivered t o MUMAMM A D over rhe course of his twenty-twoyear mission through the intermediary of the angel Gabriel. It consists of 114 chapters (s~inrs),each representing a separate revelation. Bahl'is regard it as sacred scripture, Bahi'u'llih referring t o it as 'the Way of God' unto all who are in heaven or on earth (GWB 44), and as God's 'unfailing testimony' t o both the East and the West (KI 134). Shophi Effendi described it as the only work of scripture, apart from the Bibi and Bahi'i writings, that was 'an absolutely authenticated Repository of the Word of God' (AD] 41). It contained a fuller expression of God's purpose and p i dance than any preceding scripture, and its 'thorough study' was 'absolutely indispensable' for an adequate understanding and intelligent reading of Bahi'u'llih's writings (LG 497 no. 1670, 561 no. 1904). Bahi'is should study it over and again (LG 496 no. 1666). Several of thc Bib's most important works - notahly the Q A Y Y ~ I M W L . A S M-~ rake the farm of commentaries on particular Quranic sbros. tieggis 1 8 6 93. (See also ISLAM.) Qurratu'l-'Ayn See TAHIRIH.

mdio: mdio stations

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race BahB'u'llih proclaimed the unity and wholeness of the human race. 'Abdu'lBahi compared the various races of the world t o the different-coloured flowers found in a beautiful garden; racial divisions are a human creation and in reality are imaginary. God makes no distinction berween people on thc basis of race or colour: all are equally created in his image (AD] 31-2, 45). Bahi'is regard racist doctrines, which seek to subordinate one group to another on the basis of race, as evil, Shoghi Effendi describing racism as one of the three 'false gods' of SECULARISM (PDC 11718). The Universal House of Justice descrihes racism as a n 'outrageous violation of the dignity of human beings'. It blights human progress, corrupting its perpetrators whilst retarding the progress of its victims. It is a major barrier to world peace. It should nor be countenanced under any pretext, and should be countered by 'appropriate legal measures' and the promotion of human solidarity (MUHJ 688). THE UNITED STAT€$

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'Abdu'l-Bahi was keenly conscious of the racial tensions in the United States and sought to promote racial harmony amongst the Bahl'is, as well as to the wider public, during his North American tour (1912). In what were ememely

radical gestures for the time he encouraged interracial marriage, and placed the leading black Bahi'i in the seat of honour at a formal luncheon held in Washington, DC (see ALI-KULIKI~AS; Louis C. GREGORY). He warned that, if not checked, American racism would lead to bloodshed. The races should therefore seek the points of partnership and agreement that existed berween them. If they worked together t o achieve mutual advancement, this would attract divine blcrsingr and foster love and unity. Shoghi Effendi repeatedly reminded the American Bahi'is of their need t o respond to this summons of 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Racial prejudice was a corrosive force (a 'cancerous growth', CF 154) which had damaged the whole structure of American society, and overcoming it was 'the most vital and challenging issue' facing the American Bahi'is. Their future progress as a conimuniry depended to a significant degree on thc extcnt to which they overcame the historic divisions between the races. They should show genuine love for all, wisdom and uncompromising courage t o combat injustice. Enormous effort was required on both sides. All sense of racial superiority and division should be cast away, and subconscious prejudices e x a m i n e d a n d corrected. Whites should convince the blacks of the sincerity of their friendship, be patient with those who over

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such a long period of time had received 'such grievous a n d slow-healing. . wounds', and avoid being patronizing. Blacks should respond warmly, forget the past, and overcome their suspicions (ADJ 28-34). There needed t o be a revolutionary change in the attirude of the average white American towards his black fellow citizens (CF 126). The American Bahi'i community was multiracial almost from its inception, and a number of black Bahi'is soon attained prominence within the community - notably Lauis Gregory. Racerelated Bahi'i activities have included the race amity conventions of the 1920s, and an annual Race Amity (later Race Unity) Day (started in 1957). Over the years a variety of local parades, picnics, concerts, arts festivals, dance-dramas, exhibitions and seminars have been hcld. A children's conference ('Calling All Colors') promoting the abandonment of prejudice was originated by a nine-year-old Bahl'i in South Carolina in 1992 and has since been widely emulated. Since the largc-scale influx of new Bahl'is from the rural south (from c.1970) blacks have constituted the demographic majority of the American Bahi'i community. ssan 150-1. 187;~or"sm: almbin. TO ~a on%T ~ O ~ O S'A. lano many po#h';

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lhomr. RmJdUnq.

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ELSEWHERE

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Bahl'is have also become involved in the public debate about racism in various other countries, including Bermuda, South Africa and Switzerland, issuing statements such as the South African Bahi'is' Overcoming Racial Prejudice (1994) which was widely disnibured to government officials, newspaper editors and the general public. Bahl'is have supported ratification of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (BWNS 19945: 98-104).

ETHNIC AND NATIONAL DlVtSlONS

The Bahi'i teachings also apply t o situations where other forms of division disrupt social relations. Thus, in reference to rhe former Yugoslavia, the Universal House of Justice has appealed t o Bahi'is to demonstrate the ability of the Faith t o overcome ethnic divisions and create a peaceful and harmonious society. Again, in India, the Bahi'is issued a booklet on Commsnal Hnrmony, referring to the need to overcome the complex of religious, linguistic and caste-based tensions found in that coimtry, and describing this as 'India's greatest challenge'. The statement was later praised and extensively quoted by the Indian Supreme Court (BWNS 1994-5: 36, 130-1). (See also lsuicrsour veoPIES.)

radio: radio stations Recent years have seen increasing use of radio by Baha'is, particularly in the Americas. Interest in using radio as a means of proclaiming the existence and teachings of the Bahb'i Faith dates back a t least t o the 1920s. The American Bahi'is considered establishing their own radio station during the 1940s. but were discouraged on the grounds of cost. potential Radio assumed much greater . impomnce with the large-scale influxes of new rural and often illiterate Rahl'is in the 'Third World' from the 1960s onwards (see EXPANSION). Radio was the ideal medium t o reach this constituency. Particular success was gained in Ecuador, where BahCi broadcasts in the main indigenous language gained an increasing audience of Bahl'is and others (from 1973). A BahB'i-owned radio station was finally opened there in 1977 - the first in the world. Programmes included local news, music, saciosconomic and community development topics, and 'culruxal education' emphasizing the indigenous language and culture. Bahi'i materials were presented

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Ra'is, Tablets of both t o deepen the BahbTs and introduce the RahP'i message to others. Community service and local parricipation were stressed. The Fxuadorian model inspired similar srations in Peru (1981), Bolivia 119841.Panama 11985) and Chile (1986). Other stations have also been enablished in the United States (in South Carolina. an area with a large rural population of Bahi'is), and briefly in Lihcria, prior to the civil war. noin: CC?. 2813.

288 Akka (1868); Bahl'u'llih recounted the sufferings of his companions since their arrival in the prison ciry and censured Ali P a y for having inflicted such cruelties on innocent pcople. Hc was one of those who in every age had opposed the messengers of God, seeing thcm as disrupters of the ertablishcd order. Gad's 'wrathft~l anger' would seize him, and the Ottoman domains would be disrupted. GP8 208: R83: 33-8.

Randall, William Henry ( H a r r y ) (1863-1929) Two tablets of BahB'u'll~h named after Prominent American Rahi'i. Like his m'is (the chief), i.e. ALI PASA ('Ali father he was a leading Boston businessPiishi), thc Ottoman grand vizicr, who man. He met 'Ahdu'l-Bahl during his is addressed in both tahlets. Both are American tour (1912). He became a somctimes referred to as the Lorub-iBahQ'i in 1913, a t the same time Ro'is. becoming involved with the administration of GREENAcnr. He scrvcd on the THE S~~RATLPL-RA+S Executive Board of the RAHAITEMPLE This tablet, in Amhic, was revealed en UNITYfrom 1914 until 1924, often as itr route to Gallipoli from Edirne for Hlji president or treasurer. Shoghi Effendi Muhammad-lsmi'il K!shiini DH~aill; designated him as one of the DISCIPLES Bahb'u'llih summoned Ali P a p t o hearOF 'ABDU.L-BAH~, describing him as a n ken to the voice of God, and reproved 'cloqucnt upholder of the Baha'i Cause him for having joined with the Iranian in America' (RW4: 119). wincklec~nd ail. ambassador, Mirzl HUSAYN KHAN, in opposition. As in the past, opposition t o Ranrom-Kehler, Keith God's cause would he unavailing, and (1876-1933) would merit divine vengeance. Uphesvals in the Ottoman domains were Prominent American Baha'i. She became predicted, including the loss of EDIRNE. a Bahi'i in 1921, and after the death of Thc tablet also recounted the sufferings her second husband in 1923 became increasingly active as a Bahi'i speaker of the Bahl'is in Edirne and the greatness of Bahi'u'llah's cause, and disand teacher. In 1929 she travelled to the cussed the nature of the human SOUL. Caribbean, and in 1930 began an Elsewhere RahUu'llbh stated that the enenrive world tour to promote the world had not been at pcacc since the Faith. Shoghi Effendi invited her to revelation of this tablet: the ' m e PhysiHaifa in 1932, and gave her a special cian' (i.e. BahP'u'llih) had been premission to go to lran on behalf of the American national spiritual ASSEMB1.Y to vented from administering the remedy the world needed, and thus i n tribulapetition the shah to ease or lift the tions increased from day to day. 8.restrictions on the Rahb'is. She stayed in SeWonf 2669; GP8 172. 174;RBz 411-18. lran for over a year, but her efforts were unavailing. Exhausted and in poor THE UWM-r-n/l.i~ health she eventually succumbed t o This rnblet, in Persian, was composed smallpox. and war buried in irflhin shortly after Bahi'u'llih's arrival in near t o the graves of the KINGAND

as a n intermediate level of administration between national and local s~iritual AssrhtnLlrs. The councils provide a means of decentralized dccision-making in those national communities in which this is desirable (e.g. because of size). Whilst possessing considerable auronomy the councils remain subordinate to their national spiritual assemblies. The councils can either hc elected (hy the members of all local assemblies in their region) or appointed by the national assembly on the basis of a confidential list of nominccs proposed by regional BOARD members. electors and AUXILIARY Individual national assemblies can only form such councils following consultations and with the permission of the Universal House of Justice. This development was presaged by a number of national assemhlics experimenting with similar bodies, notably the Indian 'Stare Baha'i Councils' (from 1986). mean Bohoi28/5 (24June 1997):I. 12-13.

Ra'is, Tablets of

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BELOVED OF MARTYRS. Shoghi Effendi OF named her posthumously as a HAND THE CAUSE, and as the first American to have the spiritual station of a MARTYR.

Rashti, Sayyid K a ~ i m See KAZIM RAsHT~.

reasan The faculty of rational argument, deduction and judgement, the use of the INTELLECT. 'Ahdu'l-Bahi taught that God had endowed human beings with reason so that they could perceive what was rrue. To oppose reason in the name of R E L I G ~ O N is superstition (PUP 63, 287). As with all other bases of human KNOWLEUGE, reason is fallible.

regional Baha'i councils Institution formally established by the Universal House of Justice in ,May 1997

reincarnation Bahi'i teachings reject the concept of reincarnation. Instead, the SOUL is believed to come into existence at the moment of conception and to continue in some form of nan-material existence after DEATH. It does not return t o earth. Accounts by individuals of their 'former lives' are nor real memories, but merely indicate the capacity of the human mind t o believe firmly in whatever it imagines. SAQ 282-9; L G 537 no. 1820, 538 nor. 18267; SWAB 183-5. (See also 'RETURN'.)

religion PURPOSE

For Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, religion was 'the light of the world', and obedience t o divine law the source of human progress, happiness and CIVILI. ZATION (SDC 71). The MANIFESTATIONS O F Goo were sent t o promote the knowledge of God and 'unity and

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religious l w d s r s

reliaion a n d science fellowship' amongst human beings, and to bring forth 'Mystic Gems' from the people (ESW 12, 13). True religion consists of divine teachings, which constitute 'the very life of humankind', leading to refinement of character, higher thoughts and human honour. It is not a mere set of beliefs and customs. It is a channel of love and mercy from God to all the world's peoples (SWAB 36, 52-3, 283). Its purpose is to bring fellowship, love and unity, eternal life, and moral excellence to people; to make them ioyful, educate them, and free rhem from prejudice; and to establish universal raAce (PUP 97-8; SWAB 28, 51-3). SOCIAL STARILITY

Religion is rhe chief means for the establishment of social order (it inculcates morality and the FEAR OF GOD). The more it declines, the greater is the waywardness of rhe unpodly, . leading ultimately to chaos and confusion. ~ h ; world's rulers and the nollsersl OFJUSTICE should therefore uphold religion (TB 63-1, 125, 129-30). The world's religious leaders should consult together with its rulers an the needs of a 'diseased and sorely-afflicted world' and work to rehabilitate it (TB 168). Criminal justice might prevent manifest crime, but religion inculcates a moral force which also prcvcnts covert wrongdoing (SWAR 302-3). War and hatred can only be overcome through the power of the holy spirit (SWAB 53). Secularists, such as Voltaire, erred in denouncing religion, when what was to be condemned were those religious hypocrites who had brought disgrace to religion (SDC 715). (See aLo SECULARISM.) H U M A N UNlTY

The purpose of religion is to establish unity amongst the peoples of the world, it should nor be made a cause of dissension (TB 129, 168). God's messengers came to promote unity amongst

human beings. Animosity on the basis of religious differences is against the divine purpose. Such hatreds veil people from God; they are a fire that devours the world. It is the duty of the Bahi'is to strive to still these dissensions (ESW 1214). If religion becomes a source of srrife and hatred it is of no value whatsoever, and it would be better not to have it. It is intended as the remedy for human problems, and not their cause (PUP 117, 170, 181, 394; SWfAB 249, 299). God's religion is one. The divine religions are all based on the same reality, and as such are like branches of a single tree. The antagonisms between the followers of different religions and the secrarian divisions udrhin rhem are the result of human limitations (PUP 198). Bigotry and ignoranr fanaticism conrradict the true purpose of religion. (See SO RELlGlON A N D SCIENCE; TOLERANCE.) religion a n d science 'Ahdu'l-Bahi condemned rhe antagonism towards SCIENCE held by some religious people. KNOWLEDGE is the gift of God to humanity, and divine religion promotes truth. How then can religion oppose science? To do so is ignorance and a denial of human intelligence. It is ignorance, not science, that threatens the foundations of religion (SAQ 137): dogmatism and irrationality are the cause of irreligion and the growth of SF.CIILARISM (PUP 374). Religion should be in conformity with science and REASON. Thus its foundation will be solid, and it will be ablc to influence the human heart. It needs to be based on investigation and not mere imitation (SWAR 299, 303). Religion that is not in accordance with science is superstition and a human invention. It should be discarded. The maintenance of irrational beliefs engenders vacillation and is ultimately untenable. Both science and true religion are based on reason and should 'bear its test'. Together they

fortify each other: science protects religion .from becoming superstition; religion protects science from becoming a barren materialism, PT 133. 14550: PUP 63. 107, 128, 170. 1754. 181.231.287.29C9.316. 3734.394.434.dSS. religious diversity

from spurious and 'priesr-prompted superstitions' by restoring the 'pristine purity of their teachings'. On this basis both their teachings and their followers will be ultimately reconciled (Faith 2; PDC 111-12; WOB 114). Bahi'i apologists have attempted various reconciliations with regard to several religious traditions (e.g. cf. Fozdar's and Momen's work on Buddhism). (See also I N - r ~ n -

The Bahl'i Faith upholds the divine origin and 'God-given authority' of the FAITH DIALOGUE.) prophetic religions of the past, recognizing the 'fundamental uncty' of all the religious leaders MANIFESTATIONS O F GOD(Faith 2; PDC 111; WOB 114). Thus Bahi'u'llih For Bah6'u'llih there were two types of stated that the various divine religions religious leader. Those divines (of any are 'rays of one Light', and proceed from religion) who were rruly knowledgeable, the same source. That they differ from upright, just and godly were like eyes to each orher is due to the 'varying the people, a head and spirit to rhc body requirements of the ages in which they of the world. They were blessed sources were promulgated' (ESW 13) (see PRO. of guidance and divine bounty, whose GnEsslvE REVEI.ATION). Nine divinely merit and position should be recognized. revealed religions - SABEANISM, HinduIf they had nor allowed their own RELIGIONS), BUDDHISM, learning to separate them from God's ism (see INDIAN Z O R ~ A S T R I A NJUDAISM, I S M , CHRISTIAN- messenger, their station was such that ITY, LAM, Bibism and the B ~ + k FAITH f the radiance of their light was shed over - each with its own prophet, are all in earth and heaven, and 'the inmates recognized, of which the BahB'i Faith is of Paradise' sought the blessing of their the latest and fullest (LG 414-15 nos. breath. Such 'righteous men of learning' 1373-5). As God is believed to have were 'exponents of celestial power' and guided all the world's peoples, rhe 'oceans of heavenly wisdom', and it was existence of other religions and revela'essential to treat rhem with deference' tors is assumed, but there is n o definitive (ESW1617;PDCII5; TB97,171).By list of these (see PROPHETS). contrast (referring specifically to the Belief in the unity of the fundamental Islamic learned (.ULAMA)), he rebuked principles of these religions raises the those who outwardly attired themselves problem of explaining their evident 'with the raiment of knowledge', but diversity. At present this is accomplished inwardly were 'deprived therefrom'. by essentially suhsuming them all under These were like wolves who gave thema single Baha'i standard: each is held to selves the guise of shepherds, or 'clear have proclaimed the same single religion hut biner water' (ESW 15-16). Such of God; their aims and basic principles leaders of religion had in every age are one; rheir sacred books are correlahindered their followers from recagnhtive in nature; and most have lefr ing the n e n MANlFESTATloN o r Coo, prophetic wimess of the future coming whether because of a love of leadership of Bahi'u'llih. Now, Bahi'u'llih has or through their own ignorance (KI 10restated their eternal verities, and also 11, 105-7). They became sources of reconciled and co-ordinated the fortyranny and the cause of persecuuon of merly separate faiths, distinguishing God's messengers. They weighed 'the rheir essential and authentic elements book of God' by their own standards.

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They were summoned to fear God and set aside the veils that kept them from recognizing Bahi'u'llih (KA 56-7 k99102; PDC 81-7). Bahi'u'llih's proclamation of his claims to the secular nuLEns was parallelled by addresses to the world's religious leaders, specific lerrers being dispatched to Pope Plus IX and to various Shl'i clerics. The leaders and followers of all religions were summoned, however (PDC 78-80). religious tolerance

See TOLERANCE Remey, Charles Mason (18741974)

292 International Council (itself the precursor of the Universal House of Justice over which the Guardian would preside). He issued a proclamation to this effect in April 1960, bur only succeeded in gaining the support of a small number of Bahl'is world-wide. He and his followers were subsequently declared Covenant-breakers by the Hands, who reasoned that his claim was unsupported by any formal appoinrment by Shoghi Effendi, and that according to 'Abdu'lBahl's WILLAND TESTAMENT the line of Guardians was confined to the male descendants of Bahi'u'lllh (ACEISAN). Harpsr287306:SBBR13G-I;TC8385-91,429-32; UHJ. ~ h i l t rof~ )he cus!odions.

(See also

REMEYITE GROWS.

American HANDOF THE CAUSEand, Remeyite groups and finally, COVENANT-BREAKER. Remey was organizations the son of Admiral George Collier Mason REMEY gained the support of a Remey. He became a Bahi5 in Paris in small but widespread group of Bahi'is 1899 and became one of the most for his claim to be the second Guardian travelled of the early Western Bahns, of the Faith (1960). Mosr of his longvisiting Iran and Central Asia with term followers were Americans. The another Bahi'i in 1908 and, in 1909history of these 'Bahl'is under the 10, completing the first round-the-world Hereditary Guardianship' or 'Orthodox tour of Bahi'i communities. He also Bahl'is' is highly complex, with Remey became prominent in the American Rah6'i comrnuniry as an author, puhlic making confused and contradictory appointments as he grew older, and the speaker and administrator (BFAZ: 151subsequent emergence of a numbcr of 2, 289-95, 3 3 3 4 , 348-512). He was contending claimants to leadership: (1) appointed m the first INTERNATIONAL Donald Harvey (d. 1991), appointed by 5mI.i COUNCII.by Shoghi Effendi in Remey as his successor as 'third Guar1950, and named as a Hand in the dian' in 1967; (2) Joel Marangella, following year. He designed the Houses of Worship in Kampala and Sydney (see presidenr of the short-lived 'Second International Council' appointed by M ~ s ~ n r ~ u ~ ~ - A o ras r ~ well A n ) ,as the Remey (19646), who in 1969 claimed future temple on Mount CARMEL. Afrer the death of Shaghi Effendi (1957) to have been secretly appointed as Guardian some years previously; (3) Remey joined his fellow Hands in the Reginald (Rex) King Id. 1977), elected first conclave and their declaration that secretary of a Remeyitc American there was no designated successor as national spiritual ASSEMBLY in New Guardian. He was chosen as one of the Mexico (1963-4). who claimed to be Custodial Hands. He later came to 'Regent' for rhc Cause in the absence of believe rhat the GUARDlANSl.IlP had to be a living Guardian; and (4)Leland Jensen continued, however, and that he himself (d. 1996), who made a variery of was the second Guardian by dint of religious claims (including being the having been appointed president of the

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'rehlm'

return of Jesus), and established himself

the dead after his crucifixion. 'Abdu?. Bahh taught thar the resurrection account symbolized the rebinh of faith in the hearts of Christ's disciples after the shock of Christ's marryrdom. His followers became animated by the Holy Spirit and they arose to promulgate his cause. It wan a spiritual rather than material reality that was described, just as Christ was said to have come 'down from heaven' (though he had been horn from a mother), and whilst still alive was 'in heaven' (John 3:13, 6:38). The return to life of a dead body was scientifically impossihle. sao 103-5.

as the head of an apocalyptic cult based

in Missoula, Montana. Remey himself had been firmly convinced that there would be a great global catastrophe before the end of the century, and Jenrcn gained widespread publicity for his claim thar the world would end in 1980. Collin., Bibijography 295; SBBR 131; UW. 'Malon Remd; Bnlch el -1.

repentance Attachment to the world leads the individual SOUL into disobedience to God and his laws (see S I N ) . To overcome sin, genuine repentance of wrongdoing is required. Baha'is are bidden to rum towards God, praying rhat through his ].ova and grace they may seek to dcvelop srlnrruAL QUALIT~ES within themselves; rerurn to obedience m him; and thus draw nearer to the HEAVEN of divine perfection. Many Bahi'i prayers remind the reader of his own imperfection, and give voice to the desire for God's forgiveness and mercy. Thc individual is bidden to 'bring thyself to account cach day' ere death intervenes and it becomes necessary 'to give account of thy deeds' before God (HWa no. 31). They should beg for God's forgivcncss. The CONFES. sloN OFSINS to others as a religious rite is regarded as demeaning and is forbidden. resurrection In Christianity and Islam it is believed that there will be a final Day of Judgement at which the dead will rise and receive divine judgement, the righteous being assigned to HEAVEN and the sinners to Hell. For Baha'is the proclamation of his cause by each hhNlFEsmTION OF GODrepresents a 'resurrection', which separates those who accepted his call from those who rejected it: metaphorically the 'living' and the 'dead'. ~ b Y e l b n s 78.9. 1 0 0 ; Kl73-8.92-7. 109. Christians traditionally believe that Jesus was physically resurrened from

'return' (Ar.: raf'a)

.

Shi'i doctrine, according to which the appearance of the MAHD~ (the Hidden lmim) would be accompanied by the return of IMAMS and their followers. In Bibi-Bahi'i belief it has became a more general concept, whereby more or less the same dramatis personae reappear in cach religious dispensation to re-enact OF the same roles: thc MAN!FEsTATI~N Goo; his forerunners who announce his coming; and his chief disciples and opponents. Thus for the Bib - as Mahdi -the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Ficima, the Imams and thcir 'Gates' (abzukb), together with rhose who believed in them, had all now returned, s and were identified with the L r r r ~ n OF TME LIVING(Mull6 HUSAYN as Muhammad; MuIM 'AL~BAST AM^ as the lmim 'Ali; etc.). Each was the return of the reality of the former personage. Similarly, for his followers the Bibi struggle at TABARS~ was a re-enactment of KAR. BALA. Again, Bahi'u'llih claimed that he was the Bib 'arrayed in his new amre' (TB 182), and noted that each Manifesration could claim that he was the 'return' of all former prophets, and that those who were first to accept his call were the rerum of those who had been similarly distinguished in previous dispensations (as with the Bibis who

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it may involve visionary experiences (as in BahFu'llih's visions of the MAIDOF HEAVEN)it is not confined t o such experiences. Accouna of the Bib and Bahi'u'llih indicate that periods of revelation ofren had a powerful effect on onlookers, with the speed of composition, the melody and vibrancy of the Prophet's voice, and the sound of the reed pen on the paper all exercising a hypnotic attraction. For Baha'is BahP'u'lldh seemed vansformed at such rimes: surrounded by an aura of great vibrancy and power. The verses themb selves n r would be uttered without apparent forethought and with great rapidity, 322-5; MmEoin. 'H'amrchy' 101-9: Maman. Shi'i l s k m 166; SBBR 43; T1334-9, 38h. Referen- by bhb'v'b such thar Bahi'u'llah's amanuensis, l6h include ESW 121-2; KIPS-103; TB 183-7. Mind AQAJAN,had to develop a special form of speed-writing ('revelation writing') in order to take them down. In the revelation space of one hour, a thousand verses Bahl'is regard the MANIFESTATIONS OF might be revealed in this way. During GOD as intermediaries between God the early period of his mission (presumand humanity. As such, their teachings ahly up t o rhe time he was poisoned in Edime) BahB'u'lldh might continue in represent a unique revelation of the this fashion for lengthy periods, day and divine will, and may be referred ro as the 'Wonn o r Con'. Not everything thar ) , later he night (see ~ i t d b - i - ~ Q A Nbut an individual Manifestation says is to be was only able t o continue for an hour or regarded as revelation, and momenn of so. During this period his body would be in a very energetic state, and this would revelation appear t o be marked off from everyday life, as in Mosar' encounter continue for some time afterwards such Bush and his receipt of with the that he would be unable t o eat (RBI: Ten Commandmena, or MUHAMMAD'S23-5, 28-9, 35-7; 4: 219). Sometimes encounters with the angel Gabriel. In the he also chanted in what was regarded as case of Muhammad. 'revelation' cona special heavenly language (BKG 11314). Bahi'u'llih denied having received sisted in the utterance of verses which together make up the successive SLIRAS of any formal learning, and stared that In .like manner the Bib and the Q U ~ A N whenever he wanted t o quote others, Bahi'u'llbh revealed verses, a n d then a tablet would appear hefore his regarded this a n as a primary proof of face giving all thar had been revealed in their divine mission. Only God could past holy books (TB 149). produce such verses (SBBR 32, 3 9 4 0 , 62-3; TB 74). Their greater output reverence each producing hundreds of thousands Bahi'is are encouraged t o be reverent of verses, as compared with 6,236 in the towards the sacred as expressed in the Quran - indicated the potency of rhe holy places, holy personages and wrip present era. rure of all religions. The actual manner The actual process of revelation of showing reverence is recognized as remains obscure. It is regarded as varying between cultures: reverence is an disrinct from human inspiration. Whilst

7

embodied the same qualities of determination, constancy and renunciation of the world as the early Muslims) ( K I 99, 102). Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Baha explained the Christian identification of Jolm the Baptist with the Jewish prophet Elijah (Elias) as an expression of the return of the same qualities and perfections (SAQ 1 3 2 4 ) . 'Return' referred t o inner perfections and nor t o the nelNcAnNmIoN of individual souls, a lrelief he regarded as absurd (SWAB 183). This strong rejection of metempsychosis contrasts with the views of some of the more extreme Bdbis (T] 338). me. ~ s f ~ ~ ~

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'Revelation wririn,y' in the hand of M i w Aq6]6n, Bohd'u'llihb amanuenriI

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Robarts, John Aldham

297

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expression of attitude, not of specific behaviours. There are thus few specific other rules of behaviow in this reaard. . than the "on-portrayal of any of the MANIFESTATIONSOFGOD in films or other artistic works, and restrictions on the use of the GREATEST NAME. ITC leno lo cwndlar. I oclobr 1976.

forms of media presentation (books, poems, radio scripts, films), and directing that national assemblies appoint reviewing committees for this purpose (MUHI 185-9 no. 94). Their concern is to guard against 'misrepresentation' of the Faith by Bahi'is when it is still relatively unknown (LG 102 no. 353).

review

reward and punishment For Baha'u'lllh justice and social order were upheld by the hope for reward and the fear of punishment (TB 27,66,129). One of the purposes of EDUCATION was rhat children would learn 'the Promise and the Threat', so that they would avoid wrongdoing (TB 68. (See olso FEAR OF G ~ D . )

'Abdu'l-Bahi initiated a policy of prepublication approval of Bahl'i TRANSLATIONS by ASSEMBLIES, and this war formalized by Shoghi Effendi, who directed that, whilst the Faith was still 'in its infancy', all Bahi'i publications including magazine articles - should be supervised by the relevant local o r national assembly, t o provide for 'a dignified and accurate' presentation of RidvLn (PA, 'Paradise') the Faith (BA 23, 38; LG 101 no. 349). The name given by Bahl'u'lllh to two Literature review was temporary and would hc nhol~\hrdin the futtlrc ~ W O R gardmc: the Satihivylh Garden in B A ~ I I . 91. 'lhc Universal House of lusr~cehas "A,,, in whi.h R a h j ' u ' l l i h first announced his prophetic claims t o rome continued this policy, extending it to all

of his close companions in 1863, and a garden on the Na'mayn river near ~ K A which Bahl'u'lllh often visited during the closing years of his exile. The Na'mayn Garden is a recognized Bahl'i holy place, but the Naiibiyyih Garden has never been in Bahl'i ownership. The garden has long since been built over, and is now the site of a large modem teaching hospital. Although the details of Bah&'u'llbh's declaration in the Naiibiyyih Garden are obscure, the period of his stay in the garden is regarded by Bahi'is as being of immense significance. Bahb'u'll6h himself refers to the first day of RidvPn as being the day on which the splcndours of the divine names and attributes were shed upon the whole of creation, and all things were purified. The whole period of Bahi'u'llih's sojourn in the garden (21 April-2 May) is now commcmorated as a sacred festival (the Ridvan festival), but three particular days are marked off as HOLY RAYS on which Bahb'is should suspend work: the first, ninth, and twelfth days (21, 2 9 April, 2 May). These commemorate respectively the arrival of BahB'u'llih a t the Garden, the arrival of his family, and his final departure. The celebration of the first day of Ridvln should be in the late afternoon, marking the time of Baha'u'lllh's arrival. Apart from celebratory meetings, the Ridvin period is also the time of most Bahl'i elections, a practice begun during the ministry of 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Local spiritual ASSEMBLIES arc normally elected on the first day of Ridvin. Elections for national assemblies and the Universal House of Justice are also normally held during the Ridvin period. Both Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice have frequently sent special Ridvln messages t o the Bahi'is a t this time. Gm 151-5. KA47 k75. 59 t110. 60 L I I Z . 10s q l . 212-13 0107; R B I : 25943. 273-82: Faghoni 2543; walbridge.Smred232-41.

,

ritual Religious rituals comprise any procedures o r ceremonies that form a n established part of religious practice. They include both those rites that have been formally prescribed and those rhat have developed informally as p a n of popular religion. Bahi'i practice includes a number of formal rites (obligatory PRAYER preceded by ritual AsrurroNs; the daily recital of the GREATssr NAME; rites of nLGniMACE to the houses of the Bib and Bahs'u'llih; and ceremonies for MARRIAGE and funerals (see BURIAL) (McR 37-69)), but Shoghi Effendi was insistent both rhat prescribed practices should remain simple and that the Bahb'is should not introduce rituals of their own into Bahi'i practice (LG 138). He also encouraged flexibility in 'secondary matters', such that Bahl'i weddings and nineteen day FEASTS, for example, retain a universal basic pattern, whilst varying greatly, reflecting individual and cultural preferences. Even a t a popular level ritualism is extremely limited in its extent, and commonly consists of practices carried over from the environing cultural tradition, as with some Iranian Baha'is who observe the Islamic practice of having a commemoration forty days after a death, or chose Western Bahs'is who incorporate elements of the traditional ChristianAVestem sccular wedding ceremony. Bahl'is are allowed to participate in the religious ceremonies of other religions (e.g. the baptism of one's child in a mixed BahiY-non-Bahb'i marriage) as long as this does not entail making any vow or commitment that is contrary to Bahi'i principles ( L C 138-40). Robarts* John (1901-91) Canadian HAND O F T H E CAUSE. HC and his wife, Audrey, became Bahl'is in 1938, having first learned a b u t the

Root, Madm

Faith from John's aunt, Grace Ober. Their enormous dedication providcd significant support for the growth of the then still minuscule Canadian Bahn'i community: teaching the Fairh, helping t o establish spiritual assemblies, and serving on committees. In 1948 a separate Canadian national spiritual assembly was formed, with John as its chairman. In 1953 the Robartses and their two youngest children pioneered to Mafeking, then capital of Bechuanaland (modern Botswana), subsequently moving to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). In 1956 John was elected onto the newly formed regional assembly for South and West Africa, and in October 1957 was appointed as one of the final group of Hands. In 1966 the Robartses returned t o Canada. They continued to travel extensively, visiting Bahl'is in various p a m of the world, despite their advancing age and John's increasing frailty. norpr473-95.

Rosen, Baron Victor 11 849-1908) Russian orientalist. He was Professor of Oriental Languages at the University of St Petemburg from 1885; founder and president of the Oriental Section of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Sociery and editor of its journal from 1886. He published descriptions, terns and translations of a numher of Blbi and Bahl'i texts. MBBR4-2.

Manha Root, eminent early intemarional Bal,d'i teacher

Root, Martha (1872-1939) Prominent American Bahb'i itinerant reacher and writer. A journalist and former school teacher, she became a Bahl'i in Pittsburgh in 1909. In 1915 shc made a lengthy visit t o various BahB'i communities in Asia and elscwhere, supporring herself by publishing articles in the United States. In 1919, in response to 'Abdu'l-Bahi's appeal in the TAELETS O F THE DIVINE PLAN,she began what was to become her life'r work with an emended visit t o promote the Faith in several countries of Latin America. Travelling from city t o city she gave talks - often to Theosophist and Esperanto groups - wrote articles for newspapers and magazines, put Bahh'i books in libraries, and contacted government officials, educators and others. Other lengthy tours followed: between 1923 and 1930 she visited the Far East, Australasia, Europe, the Middle Fast and India. Then after a year in the

Unitcd States and Canada she went again to Europe (19324) and then to East Asia, Ceylon, India and Australasia (1937-9). She died in Honolulu on the return leg of her journey. Disregarding her own health and living much of the rime in poverty, she pushed herself to seize every opportunity to promote the Faith, making myriads of new contacts, including her meetings with Queen MARIE of Romania. Shc was the first person to make a radio broadcast about the Bahl'i Fairh (in Penh, Australia in 1924). In Europe she helped set up the ~NTF.RNAT~oNAL BAHMBUREAU,and enormously expanded Bahl'i links with the ESPERANTO movement. Shoghi Effendi OF T H E posthumously named her HAND CAUSEand described her as a Bahl'i immorral. ewe: m;WS; H112-22;

ministry. He married his cousin ilshri, daughter of 'Abdu'l-Bahl's daughter RGhl (see Nuni FAMILY). His consent to the marriage of his sister Thurayyl to a COVENANT.BREAKER relative led to the entire family being expelled from the Faith by Shoghi Effendi in 1941. sahrob. AMul Baho) Grandron; TCB 35944.

RGhiyyih Khanum, Amatu'lB a h a (R(thiyyih Rabblni, born Mary maxwell, 1910) American-Canadian wife of SHOCHI Rosenberg, Ethel Jenner EFFENDI and HANDOF THE CAUSE.Her 11858-1930) parents were William Sutherland and Prominent British Bahl'i. She was introMay MAXWELL. Involved in Bahb'i duced t o the Faith in 1899 hy Mary youth activities in North America, she ~ H ~ R N B ~ ~ G Hand - C worked R ~ P Pto~ moved to Europe in 1935 ro support promote it in both London and Paris. Bahl'i activities there. She married She published nvo small booklets on Shoghi Effendi on 24 March 1937, Bahl'i and presented a paper on the seemingly without much in the way of Fa~rhat the third lnternarional Congress courtship. She served also for many far the History of Religions (1908). She years as his personal secretary. Shoghi assisted Laura Clifford Barney (see Effendi appointed her as a member of DnEu~us)in the compilation of Some BAHA.~COUNCIL in the INTERNATIONAL Answered Questions and Lady BLOM. 1951 t o act as liaison between him and HELD in the production of Paris Talks. the Council. She was appointed as a She also began to learn Persian with the Hand of the Cause on 26 March 1952 aim of translating Bahl'i writings into English, and later assisted Shoghi Effendi in his translation of Bahb'u'llih's Hidden Words. She was amongst the group a f prominent Western Bahl'is with whom SHOCHIEFFENDI consulted in 1922 regarding the future o f the Faith, and was subsequently a member of the newly established British national spiritual ASSEMBLY. In 1926-7 - now almost seventy - she briefly served as Shoghi Effendi's English-language secretary in Haifa. Shoghi Effendi described her as 'England's pioneer worker', and she is listed among the D~scrrrasOF 'ABDU'L-BAHA. BW4: 262-3; WEBW 5544; Wsinbrg.

Zinky .nd Bomm.

Shoghi Effendi's cousin and personal secretary during the early years of his

Ruhiyyib Khdarnr, roi/c ojSboxh~Effenda and later Hand of the Catar

Rumi, Siyyid Must& --

rulers, proclamation to

chapter of the Q n v u O ~ u , ~ - A s ~ i . . Bahi'u'llih had addressed the rulers and religious leaders of his day becaux in rhc 19th ccntury the ordinary peoplc, for the most part, did not have the freedom t o investigate the divine message, such war the prevalence of absolutist monarchy and ecclesiastical power. By the same token these leaders hore great responsibility, and their generally negative response had engendered catarulers, proclamation to strophic consequences, both for the Beginning during thc pcriod of his exile specific monarchies addressed and for in European Turkey, Bahl'u'lllh their institurions in genersl. Thus, Baha'u'llih had prophesied that God addressed a number of world rulers, would seize power from the 'kings and proclaiming his status as divine mcsscnecclesiastics'. This process began on the ger and calling upon them to assist him. night of the Bib's declaration and This proclamation - amounting to some two thousand verses ( P D C 28) - received visible expression in Bahl3u'includcd bath letters sent to specific Ilhh's prophecies in his lctters t o the rulers, widely circulated in the Sdratu'lleaders (the Ortoman sultan AaouiAzrz, Hoykol, even before the downfall of NAslnu~niNSHAHof Iran, NAPOLEON III of France, V I ~ O R I of A Britain, ALEX- Napoleon 111 and Pope Pius. It subsequently gained momentum wirh the ANUER 11 of Russia and Pope Plus IX) collapse of the Russian, Austrian and and general addresses to the rulers, notably in the Stira of the KIUCS.Other German monarchies during World War I (1914-181, and the ending of O'Il'oMAN world leaders were referred t o in the and QAJARrule shortly thereafter. It KWh-CAQDAS(WILHELM I of Germany, continued to the present day, represenrFRANZ-JOSEPH of Austria-Hungary, the ing an unprecedented cataclysm in the rulers of the Aurnlcns, world parliaf o m n e s of royalty. A similar process mentarians) and elsewhere. Two of Ahdulariz's ministers (ALIPASAand FUAT could be noted involving the world's PAS*) addressed in R E L I G I ~ U SLEADERS. (See also KINGS. KING. . . were also s~ecificall~ SHIP; SECULARIZAT~ON.) particular tablets. Baha'u'lllh's proclaThe Universal House of Justice mation followed the partern ser by the marked the centenary of Baha'u'lllh's Prophet Muhammad, who is supposed to have dispatched a similar series of composition of the Sira of the Kings in Septcmber 1967, initiating a p e r i d of messages ro the rulers of his day. In PROCLAMATION (until 19731, in which a several cases rhe proclamation included specially prepared compilation o f specific warnings t o those rulers whom Rahl'u'lllh's addresses to the rulers Bahs'u'llhli j u d ~ e dro have opposed him (The Prodomotion of BohZu'llih) was or been insincere (see PROPIIECY), the presented to contemporary heads of subsequent downfall of those rulers stare (142 in all), and the generality of being regarded as evidence of orvrNe JUDGEMENT. the BahB'is called upon to work ro Shoghi Effendi focused on BahB'u'acquaint 'every stratum o f human socieq' with Bahi'u'llih's 'healing mesIllh's proclamation in Tur PnoM1sF.n sage'. The original rejecrion of that DAYIS COME(19411, regarding it as a message had led t o appalling resulrs, continuation of the Bib's address t o the world's rulers included in rhe first but there were now new rulers and

following the death of her father. She acted as the rallying point for her fellow Hands after Shoghi Effendi's death and was one of the custodial Hands. Her travels have taken her ro almost all parts of the Bahl'i world, including l Thc honorific many remorc ~ r a areas. Amatrr'l-Boha means maidservant or handmaiden of Bahl. Harp, 168-82.

peoples who might respond, and thus avoid o r mitigate 'the severity o f impending catasuophe' (Prodamation xiii). The House made a second proclamation to world leaders with the presentation of i n statement The PROMISE OF WORLDh r c t (October 1985). MUW 63-5no.24.14-22. 1044no.42.15-21. 11&11 m. 45,238 no. 128.8: 8Wld: 204-20. Rumi, Siyyid Mustafa (d. 1942, 1944 or 1945)

Prominent early Bahi'i in lndia and Burma. His family was from Baghdad but had settled in Madras, and ir was there rhar he came into contact with JAMALEFFENDI(1876) and became a BahP'i. He accompanied Jamil during his travels through India and South East Asia (from 1878). eventually settling in Rangoon, where he married into an

Indo-Burman trading family. Learned and active, he was able t o build on the work started by Jamhl and consolidate several Bahl? communities in Burma, including an entire village (Daidanaw). In 1899 he was one of those who took the marble casket made by the Bahi'is of Mandalay for the Bib's remains t o 'Abdu'l-Bahh. He worked exrensively to funher the Bahi'i Faith in Burma and India, including writing and translating Bahl'i literature in Burmese and supervising the publication of various materials in Urdu. He was murdered during the chaotic conditions that prevailed in Burma during World War 11. ' He was then almost ninety-nine years old. Shoghi Effendi posthumously honoured him as a HANDOF THE CAUSE. swro 517-20: naps. 123-8: shqlhi ~ ~ s n d~i , a r '91'91.. . lo ih. lndbn Submn!;mn1430J.

I

Sbdiq K h u r b s b n i , Mu116 (d. 1889)

Sabeanism

I I

1 II

I I I

Ancient Middle Eastern religious tradition or traditions said t o have flourished in Chaldea. It is accepted by Bahi'is as one of nine known revealed religions, although knowledge of its founder and teachings are utterly obscure. ccr: 20nm. 567.

sacrifice The ancient belief that the death of a holy figure has redemptive power was upheld by Bahi'u'llih, who referred to Ahraham's intended sacrifice of his son as a dcmonstatian of DETACHMENT and steadfasmcss in God's faith; and t o Jesus Christ's crucifixion and the death of the Imim HUSAYX at KARBALA as ransoms 'for the sins and iniquities of all the peoples of the earth'. In the case of Jesus, his sacrifice of himself infused a 'fresh capacity' and 'quickening power' into all created thinm. - . the evidences of which were still manifest in learning, the arts and wlitics (GWB 75,851. Similarly, the death of Bahi'u'lllh's;on, MirG ~ 1 & 1 i , was regarded as a 'ransom' for the regeneration of the world and the unification of its peoples (GPB 188, 348). More generally, self-sacrifice as renunciation of desire; detachment from worldly things; the expenditure of time, energy and resources in service t o

humanity and to advance the Bahfi Faith (giving t o the Bahi'i FUNDS; TEACHING) are all extolled, and seen as exerting a spiritual influence on the world. So too, to an even greater degree, is acceptance of MARTYRDOM in God's path, though Bahi'u'lllh also taught his followers not to seek confrontation and martyrdom.

Sa'd, ' A b d u ' l - J a l i l B e y (d. 1942) Prominent Egyptian Bahi'i. He became a Bahi'i after coming into contact with Mirri ABU.L-FADL. AS a civil court judge in the 1920s he was instrumental in widening the legal basis far freedom of religion in Ewpt, . . and latcr defendcd the Bahi'i Faith in newspaper articles from attacks on it (1934). Transferred t o a remote area of the country as a result of this publicity, he devoted himself t o and translating the DAWN.BREAKERS other materials into Arabic, sccurinapermission to publish and distribute these in the face of considerable oevosi.. tion. He was also able to gain permission for the Bahi'is to build the national H~zfnnro.r.Quos in Cairo (1941). He was president of the national spiritual ASSEMBLY of Egypt and Sudan for many years. Shoghi Effendi posrhumourly honoured him as a HANDOF THE CAUSE. B W 597-9: Hmrpr 57-9.

Bahi'u'lllh's various places of exile and throughout Iran. Bahi'u'llih wrote many tablets in his honour. RBI: TW-13.

Eminent Bibi and early Bahi'i. Born in Mashhad, the son of a cleric, He furthered his own clerical studies in salvation KARBALA under the Shaykhi leader For Bahi'is salvation is dependent on Sayyid KZIM Rashti, eventually gaining two things: faith in the current MANIthe rank of muitahid, and becoming FESTATION OF GOD (at the present time known by the honorific title Muqaddns Bahh'u'llih) and good deeds (i.e. seeking ('the holy one'). Accepting the Rib, he to acquire SPIRITUAL QUALITIES see moved to Shiriz where he became a WILL). They also hope for God's mercy leader of the congregational prayers, ( L C 209 no. 705). Spiritual progress is and in that capaciry added the Bib's potentially limitless, however, and 'heaname t o the call t o prayer (June 1845). ven' consisu of nearness t o God. This This occasioned uproar, and Sidiq, implies levels or continua of salvation. together with QUDDOS and another Bibi, The faithful are warned never to dcspise wcre arrested, scourged, mutilated, and the seemingly sinful, for no one knows expelled from the city. Sidiq subrewhat their own end might be: the sinner quently travelled to Yazd and Kirmin, at the hour of death may atrain the where he publicly proclaimed the Bib's essence of faith, whilst the devout advent. He joined Mull5 HUSAYN believer can abandon it ( K I 124). (See Busnniri, and participated in the strugalso DEATH; HEAVEN; SOUL.) gle at TAa~nsi,of which he was one of the few survivors. He met Bahib'llih in Samandar, S h a y k h Baghdad in around 1861, later hecom(Muhammad-)KO+ ing one of the foremost promoten of the (1844-1918) Faith in Iran, and suffering further persecution and imprisonment. Bahi'u3Eminent Iranian Bahfi. He was born llih gave him the title Ismu'lUhu'linto a prominent merchant family in Asdaq ('the name of God, the most Qazvin. His father, known as Shaykh truthful'). 'Abdu'l-Bahi posthumously Muhammad, was a devoted Shaykhi named him a HANDOF THE CAIISE.His who became an active Bibi and was son, IBN~I~ASDAQ, was one of the Hands persecuted for his beliefs. Shaykh Kiqim appointed by Bahi'u'lllh. EB 7-23; novr became a staunch follower o f 32-41; MBBR 69-70; MF 5-8. Bahi'u'llih and opposed the influence who were active in of a group of AZALIS Qazvin for a rime. He received many Sblih letters from Bahi'u'llih, who gave him Q u r a n i c p r o p h e t referred t o by the title Samandar ('Phoenix'). He visBahl'u'llih ( K I 7). ited Akka a number of times and his daughter Thurayya married Bahi'u'11ihh son Diyi'u'llih. Shoghi Effendi S a l m b n , Shaykh (Shaykh OF named him as one of the APOSTLES Khanjar) BAH~\.U.LLAH. EB 191-215. A devoted Bahi'i who served a s Bahl'u'llih's and latcr 'Abdu'l-Bahl's S a m a n d a r i , ~ a r b z u ' 1 1 6 h (1875messenger to the Iranian Bahi'is, deli19681 vering and receiving lerten for a period of some forty years, and travelling He was Iranian HANDOF THE CAUSE. thousands of miles on foot between born into a Bahl'i family in Qazvin; his

I

father was Shaykh K i ~ i mSAMANDAR.Bahi'i scholars, and for 'a more He spent much of his long life travelling profound and co-nrdinatcd Bahl'i t o promote the Faith and fulfilled scholarship'. The Baha'is need both to various missions on behalf of 'Abdu'l, know the Rahl'i teachings . in d e ~ r hand Bahi and Shoghi Effendi in Iran and to be well educated in general, having a elsewhere. Shoghi Effendi appointed sound knowledge of history, .. reliaious him a Hand of the Cause in December history, economics, sociology, science 1951. In old age he was among the last and thc like. Thus they should bc ahlc to recall mccrings with Bahi'u'llih (in to correlare the thinking of modern 1891-2), thus giving Bahi'is in many thinkers and pragressivc movements parts of the world a sense of living wirh the Bahi'i teachings. Again, the history. He long remained acrive and House of lustice has referred t o the potential importance of Bahi'i scholarwas a pawerful speaker. He war also a s h i in ~ the CONSOLIDATION of the Bahi'i skilled calligrapher. He died in Haifa. BW1S:AIO-16: Horper 307-16. corn~nunityas it becomes better kuown in the wider world; m the need for intelligent analysis of current issues of social concern from a Bahi'i perspecBaha'is do nor believe in any malevolent tive; and the vital role of scholars in superhuman entity such as a devil or defending the Faith from its detractors. saran. Human beings have FREE WILL CCI: 2 2 7 3 1 nol. 501. 5W. 510-11. 515; Bah.7 either t o turn towards God and develop Scholanhip3-8. 11. 15.42.44:MUHl387no. 217.1. SPIRITUAL QUALITIES, Or t o becomc 720 no A53 13. immersed in their own selfish desires and commit wrongdoing. If they choose GENERAL PRINCIPLES the latter then their actions are someFor the House of Justice: (1) There is no times described as 'satanic', but this a conflict beween 'true' SCIENCE and 'true' metaphorical usage. Both the BBh and religion: both are sources of knowledge Bahi'u'lllh on occasion referred to about reality. Bahl'i scholars should certain opponents as 'satanic'. (See also comhinc 'profound faith' with 'frccdom EVIL.) of thought'. They should both be loyal ro Bahi'u'llih and his teachings, and scholarship study their religion searchingly and intelligently, fallowing the principle of Advanced study of a subject; the qualities and anainmena of a scholar. 'an unfettered search after truth'. (2) All human understanding is limited (see THE NEED KNOWLEDGE). including - Bahi'is' underFor Shoghi Effendi and the Universal standing of their own scriprures and the House of lustice the development of scientific theories of a "articular ~ e r i o d in human history. Thus there is no one Baha'i scholarship was of great importance. Shophi Effendi noted in the 1940s 'correct' view of the history and teachthat the thinking world had already ings of the Faith. (3)Baha'is should not 'caught up' with the universal ' B A H ~ ~ accept uncritically the materialirtic thcPRINCIPLES' enunciated by BahL'u'llPh, ories of much modern thinking just and that there no longer seemed new. because these are fashionable. (4) The harmony of the Bahl'i community is Yet he reiterated that the Faith had the answer t o the world's problems. What important. Bahi'is should avoid the was needed was individuals able to antagonisms that have divided other present the Bahl'i teachings t o intellireligious groups into rhose who blindly gent people. There was a need for more hold to the letter of their scriprures and

those who question everything (i.e. the 'fundamentalist'/'liberaI/ divide). Both exnemes are desrmctive. Bahi'i scholars should therefore phrase their findings wirh tact, moderation. humility and wisdom, whilst the general community - in particular rhose who hold positions of responsibility in the Bahi'i administration - should be tolerant of the views of others, accept a diversity of opinions, and avoid the censoriousness that could stifle the development of scholarship. (5) REVIEW remains an i m ~ o r t a n tmeans of protecting the Faith at what is still an early stage in its development, when it is both severely persecuted in IRANand not widely understood. ~whoischdarship 9-28; U ~ R D %holor~hip. . (See also B A BAND ~ B~nki STUDIES.) schools The Bahi'i teachings place a high value on EDUCATION, and this has led t o the establishment of Bahl'i schools in various pans of thc world. EARLY SCHOOLS

The earliest Bahl'i schools were started in the 1890s in ASHKHABAD and Iran. ASHKHABAD

A b o ~ s ' x h o o lwas founded in 1894 and a girls'school in 1907. Later, kindergartens were also established. These were all closed in 1929, as part of the Soviet authorities' campaign against organized dipion. IRAN

Schools were started by Bahi'is in several towns and villages towards the end of the 19th century. The most well known of these were the Tarbiyat schools inTehran: a boys'school opened in 1898, and a girls'school in 1910. The schwls gained a reputation for excellence, and began to attract students from many high-ranking non-Bahl'i families, including for a time the children of Reza

ShBh. (As with other Bahl'i schools, children of any religion were allowed entrv.) Thev also received s u o ~ o r from t ~ m i n c a n~ a h i ' i s(Susan MOODY,Lillian KAPPES.Genevieve Cov. .. Adelaide SHARPF.),particularly at the girls' school. The provision of schooling for girls was of panicular significance, flying in the face of contemporary social convention, and making an important contribution t o the emergence of the first generation of educated professional women in Iran. The schools faced considerable opposition from conservative Muslims, and eventually from the government. They were closed, together with all other Bahi'i schools in the country, by order of the ministry of education in 1934. No Baha'i schools have bccn allnwcd to operate in Iran since that date. nrmmwong-

..

Ingmm, 'Amerirn" Baha'i Women': Banan!. *,,iz., e n

95-7;

BW6: 25-31;

MBBR475-9.

OTHER

A Bahi'i village school was started in Daidanaw in Burma by Siyyid Mustafa RUM]at an early date; the Bahi'is of Kenosha, Wisconsin operated an indostrial school for girls during the early years of the century; and there seems to have been some Bahl'i involvement in Henderson Business Collegc in Memohis.. Tennessee. which oravided whooling for black studenrs.

. t

area crunn, c

NEW ERA HIGH SCHOOL

The fint of the current generation of Bahh'i schools. Located in Panchgani, Maharashtra state, India, it originated in 1945 as an educational hostel, mostly for Iranian Bahi'is. It expanded and transferred t o in present sitc in 1953, becoming a fully fledged school open to all. With further expansion it has built up a reputation for cducarional exceilence. It amacts both Indian students (regardless of caste or religion) and a considerable number of students

1

I

Sears, William ~~

[Baha'is and othenl from variour pans of the world (llW16: 3 2 M ) . THIRD WORLD

With the EXPANSION of the Bahi'i Faith from the late 1950s onwards BahP'i schools were founded in a number of countries, including initially Uganda, Bolivia, and various of the islands of the South Pacific. The subsequent fortunes of these schools have varied widely. Some have flourished, gaining government recognition and expanding t o include schooling for a wide age range. Others have remained small in scale and limited in scope. Some have bccn forced to close. The overall panern is one of considerable expansion, wirh schools in an increasing number of countries: in 1946, there were perhaps four Bahi'i schools world-widc; by 1979 this had increased to ten, and by 1992 to one hundred and sevenry-cight, including sixry-rwo kindergartens. Nearly all of these were in the Third World (BW18: 207-38; NS 1992-3: 313). OTHER

Recent developmenn of note have been the establishment of Maxwell International Bahi'i School in Canada (1988); the holding of a n international networking conference for Bahi'i schools a t Maxwell in 1992; and an agreement between the local authorities and the Bahi'is of the Marshall Islands, whereby a number of elementary schwls were handed over to the Bahi'is to administer (1993) (BWNS 1993-4: 101). .TUTORIALSCHOOLS'

In addition to formal academic schools, the Bahi'is in many poorer countries have established an increasing number of 'tutorial schools' (488 by 1992). These are non-formal village schools designed t o provide basic educational skills (such as LITERACY) t o children and adults using local resources (BWl8: 208-9, 213).

Schopflocher, Siegfried ('Fred') (1877-19531 Canadian HANDO F THE CAUSEof German Jewish background. He became a BahP'i in 1921. A successful businessman, he made a number of major financial contributions t o Bahi'i projects, including the Wilmette temple (MASHRIQU.L-ADHKAR) and the GREEN Acne Bahb'i school. He travelled extensively and served on both the joint American-Canadian and separate Canadian national spiritual assemblies. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effendi in February 1952. His wife, Florence Eveline ('Lorol') (18961970), was one of rhe most widely travelled of the early Western Bahi'is, visiting Bahj'is in many parts of the world, and trying to help alleviate the persecutions of the Iranian Bahi'is. BW12: b M d ; 14 488-9; Horpr 38kW.

Schwarz, (Consul) Albert (1871-1931) and Alice (1875-1965) Prominent early German Bahi'i couple who first learned of the Faith in 1911. Of high social position (Albert was a banker and Norwegian consul in Stungart), rheir conversion was a significant development. In 1919 a Bahi'i office was established in rheir home and Albert was able t o represent the newly farmed German Bahi'i Association a t a League of Nations conference. In March 1922 rhey were among the small group of Western BahUis called t o Haifa by SHOGHI EFFENDIt o discuss the development of the Faith. Alice founded the German Bahi'i magazine Sonne der Wahrheit (Sun of Truth). Albert was honoured by Shaghi Effendi as one of OF 'ABDU.L-BAHA. BW4: 264the DI~CIPLES & 14: 371-8. science The Bahb'i teachings stress the importance of REASON and the INTELLECT, and

praise the quest for KNOWLEDGE. Scientific study and investigation is encouraged, especially when it leads m human advancement (e.g. ending disease; raising the standard of health; improving the functioning of the brain; prolonging the life-span; increasing productivity; exploiting 'the unused and unsuspected resources of the planet'; and stimulating the intellectual, moral and spiritual life 'of the entire human race' (WOB 204)). Bahb'u'llbh disparaged those areas of learning that 'begin with words and end with words' - the Islamic scholasticism studied by the Iranian ,ULAMA - as fruitless and unworthy of study (ESW 19; KI 119-21; TB 52, 169). 'Abdu'lBahi regarded the conformity of religion with science and reason as a basic BahB'i principle (see RELIGION AND SCIENCE), and the diligent acquisition of scientific knowledgc as a form of worship (SWAB 144-5. 299). He stressed. however. that scientific knowledge only represents 'drovlets of reality'. and that the vursuit of knowledge sho;ld also draw from divine inspiration (SWAB 110); all branches of learning are worthy of praise if they are combined with the love of God, bur if rhey are not, they are barren (CCI: 469 no. 1040). Similarly, he condemned purely materialistic CIVILIZATION, which, despite its technological brilliance, engenders such moral monstrosities as war.

Muhammad, etc.) are also regarded as having been divine revelations, hut doubt is expressed as t o the detailed authenticity of the present-day scriptures of BUDDHISM, Hinduism (see INDIAN RELIGIONS) and ZOROASTRIANISM. is recognized as By contrast, the QURAN fully authoritative, and the JudaeoChristian BIBLEas substantially authcntic. Although frequently cited in Dahj'i scripture, the Islamic traditions HAD^!^) are not regarded as scriptural. Many Bahi'is read the scriptures of the past for religious enlightenment, but even in the case of the Bible and Quran, these are not regarded as binding on Bahi'is in matters of religious belief and practice: each Manifestation brings the laws and teachings appropriate for his rime, and explains divine truth in terms approriar re for the understanding of his hearers (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION). All three of the BahB'i 'Central Figures' (the Bib, Bahb'u'llAh, and ' ~ h d u ' l - ~ a h i ) wrote commentaries on Quranic verses. Bahl'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi also commented on biblical verses. (See also CANONICALTEXTS.)

Sears, William (1911-92)

American HANDOF THE CAUSEof Irish Catholic background. He first learnt of the Bahi'i Faith in 1936 from his future wife, Marguerite Reimer, and converted in 1940. In 1953 the Sears moved to South Africa as Baha'i PIONEERS. Wilscripture liam was appointed t o the AUXILIARY BOAROfor Africa in 1954 and war Bahi'is regard the writings of the Bib elected as chairman of the new national and Bahi'u'llih as divine REvELAnoN. These, together with the writings and spiritual ASSEMBLY for South and West authenticated transcripts of talks of Africa in 1956. He was appointed a 'Abdu'l-Bahi, are recognized as sacred Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effendi in scripture. This includes both their own October 1957. The Sears returned to the United States in 1959, and subsequently writings and those written a t their travelled extensively, visiting Bahi'is in dictation by secretaries. Transcripts of various parts of the world. Sears was a 'Abdu'l-Bahi's talks in the original radio and television writer, performer, language are also included. The original commentator and humorist. He was teachings of previous MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD (the Buddha, Mores, Jesus, involved wirh the production of a

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Seemi of Divine Cwlix&n

numher of Bahl'i radio programmes, and in 1973 worked with Robert Quigley to prepare the first Bahi'i television series (in Hawaii). His books include a number of popular Bahl'i histories, a Bahl'i account of the fulfilment of biblical prophecy (Thief in the Night), and the autobiographical God Loves Laughter. narper d~t-506.

Secret of Divine Civilization (Ar.: Asrdr ul-quyhiyya li ushdh ulmaduniyya) Treatise by 'Abdu'l-Bahi on Iranian 'modernization'. It is commonly referred t o in Persian as Risdli-yi-madaniyyih ( T h e Treatise on Civilization'). Written in 1875, the work was lithographed in Bombay in 1882 and received wide circulation in Iran. It was published anonymously and not identified as a specifically Bahl'i work - presumably to avoid prejudicing readers against its contents. The first English translation was published in 1910 in London as The Mysterious Forces of Cic,iliration. Thc main thrust of 'Ahdu'l-Bahi's argument is the urgent need for IRANto

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adopt reform measures on Western models. Ancient lran had been a powerful empire, honoured for its culture and civilization. By contrast, the country was now in a wretched and degenerate state, pitied by others for in backwardness. lniustice and misgovernmcnt had led to its decline. The Iranians should arise out of their torpor and resolve to transform their country and its institutions: promoting EDUCATION (regarded as being of panicular importance), industry, commerce, technology, arn and sciences; establishing just laws and protecting the rights of individuals equally before the law; ending corruption and the absolute powers of local governors, particularly their power t o administer the death penalty; strengthening relations with other counmes, including.the great powers and friendly governments; increasinc - trade linkages . and developing . . national resources and infrastructure; and strengthening the army, such that its soldiers were well housed and fed, its officers well trained and its armaments up to date. Othcr nations had once been as lran was now, but through adopting such measures they had progressed. Some Iranians objected that such reforms involved copying the practices of non-Muslims and were hence unIslamic. This was not valid. There were many Islamic precedents for the adoption of foreign practices, and many elements of European civilization were in any case derived from Islamic ronn during the medieval period. Again, reforms such as the introduction of assemblies of consu~tation could be given Quranic justification. Those who opposed reform would bc answcrahle to God. The rapid progress of Japan and the continuing backwardness and weakness of China indicated the contrast beovecn those nations that modernized and those that did not. In the context of 19th-century reformism in the Middle East the hook is unusual in advocating whilst a t the borrowing from the WEST

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same time emphasizing the fundamental role of R E L I ~ I O N . Both religious bigotry and Western xcularism were rejected. 'Abdu'l-Bahl also stressed the importance of splnnvAL QUALITIES; outlined the characteristics required of RsLlclous LEADERS and commented on CIVILIZA. TION, GOVERNMENT, LAW, MISSION, PEACE and wealth. A proper assessment of how the work was received amongst contemporary Iranian reformers has yet to hc made. The book was written a t a time when genuine reform of Iran seemed possible Mirz5 HUSAYN KHANwas still politically influential and N ~ $ l n r ~ - o SHAH i N had just made his first visit to Europe (1873). The reform process cffectivcly pcteied out in the late 1870s. however, and 'Abdu'l-Bahi evidently decided not to pursue his original intention of writing other books on related themes - specifically education (SDC 69, 106). Apart from its specifically Iranian context the treatise can be secn as a general Bahl'i prescription for developmental reform in any society.

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self-defence

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secret societies Bahl'is are not allowed t o he members of secret societies such as Masonic lodges, even if the principles of such organizations are in general accord with Baha'i teachings. This ban is effectively an extension of the ban on BahB'i political involvement (see rourlcs), these organizations being subject to . possible politicization. LG54 m ~192.4215. secularism Bahi'u'llih had warned that 'the vitality of men's belief in God' war 'dying our in every land', and 'the corrosion of ungodliness .. . [was] eating into the vitals of human society'. Nothing short of his own spiritual 'medicine' could revive it. Shoghi Effendi noted that the world's religions were now being assailed by the forces of secularism

(. r. ~ e c i f i c a l l vcommunism. militant nationalism and 'the prevailing spirit of modernism with its emphasis on a purely materialistic philosophy'). The religious institutions of CHRISTIANITY and ISLAMhad already been profoundly affectcd by this process. Given the importance of RELIGION as a bulwark of SOCIAL ORDER, there was now an appreciable decline in morality, with a rising incidence of crime, family breakdown and hedonistic selfishness. The arts and literature had become decadent (PDC 119; WOB 180-8). God had been 'dethroned from the hearts of men', and in his place the 'false gods' of nationalism, racism and communism were worshipped by nations a n d peoples throughout the world. These 'crooked doctrines' were but the creations of idle fancies which engendered war and conflict, and would sooner or later incur divine chastisement for those who believed in them (PDC 117-18). For 'Abdu'l-Bah5, secularism flourished because people denied religion, and materialism advanced. This denial was itself the consequence of relixious - division and animosity, blind adhercncc to forms and imitations of ancestral beliefs, and superstitious practices (PUP 161, 179, 374).

self-defence 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice all indicated that in cases of civil disotdcr, or when there was no legal force at hand to appeal to, Bahl'is were justified in defending their own lives, for example against attack by tobhers and highwaymen. They should ensure that such defence did not deteriorate into retaliation, however. 'Abdu'l-Bahi condemned retaliation, regarding it as being a s reprehensible as the act t o which it was a response: individually, Bahi'is should follow Jesus' instruction to 'turn the other cheek' and forgive the aggesror.

Sharpe, Adelaide At the same time, defence of the communiry and of others was also essential, even if this involved violence against the aggressor. However, in cases in which there was an organized religious attack on the Baha'is, self-defence should never turn into any kind of warfare. (See also HOLY w ~ R .MUW ) 148 no. b9; S.40269-71. WEAPONS

Echoing Bibi law, Bahi'u'llih forbade the Bahi'is t o carry weapons 'unless essential', presumably in situations such as threats of banditry. Weapons may also be legitimately used by people who hunt for the basic nccessiries of life and in sports such as archery or marksmanship. The House of Justice has discouraged American Bahi'is from owning guns in the connxt of present rising urban crime rates in North America. KA 76 tl59.240-1 0173;MUHJ 148 no. 69.

self-knowledge F ~ c persmshould h know their own self, and recognize rhat which led to loftiness or ahasement, to wealth or povemi. Inncr vision acts as a guide for true knowledge - and wisdom. Its power is increased as individuals discover rhe rrurposc for which God has called them i n t i being (TB 35). They should turn t o 'the treasuries latent within their own beings' (TB 72). True loss is utter ignorance of one's own self (TB 156). (See olro HUMAN LIFE, PllRPOSE 01.) service to humanity A Bahi'i. ideal. Bahl'u'llih taught that the individual should turn away from his or her own interests and 'cleave unto that which will profit mankind' (TB64). All should seek to promote sccuriry and peace among rhe peoples of the world (TB 171). Seven Candles of Unity See wonLo UNITY.

Seven Martyrs of Tehran Seven Bibis executed for their beliefs in 1850 (19120 February). A Bibi plot against the life of the chief minister, AMin Kneiw., was alleged (but not widely believed), and a group of suspccred Bibis arrested. Most chose to avoid identifying rhemselves as Bibis and were released, but seven remained resolute and were beheaded. As European envoys noted, the execution was in public, and replaced the earlier practice of private executions in the presence of the shah. The seven killed were all men of high social status, and their execution attracted considerable attention. They were: (1) Hiji iMirzH Sayyid 'Ali, the Bib's maternal uncle and guardian, a leading merchant of Shirir; (2) Mirzi Qurbin-'Ali of Birfurhsh, a prominent spiritual guide (mrrrshid) in rhc Ni'matu'llihi Sufi order; two clerics, (3) Hiii Mulli Ismi'il Qumi and (4) Aqi Sayyid Husavn Turshizi. a ~ u ~ r ~ r rnvo r o :more merchants, (5) ~ l j Muhammad-~aqi i Kirmani and (61 . . Sawid .. MurtadH Zanjini; and a government official, (7) Muhammad-Husayn ~Marigh'i. The Bib referred to them as the 'scven goats' of Islamic tradition who would walk before the promised Qli.1~on the Day of Judgement. 8oh.i. s6b 1825. Z m ; GPBA78; MBBR lKI-5; Nobil AAl-58. 4624: TI 24968. 169.70; TNZII-17.(See also MARTYHDOM.) Other groups of seven martyrs are lauded in Bahi'i history, notably the 'Seven Martyrs of Yazd' (1891) and the 'Seven Marrjrs of Hurmuzak' (1955). bbib; MBBR3015.

Nicolas, and a few selected passages have been translated into English (Bib, Selections 117-26). ARR 384; Brmna, ssk lions 218-19;m26.

Seven Proofs (PA: Dald'il-i-sab'ih)

Seven Valleys (Pers.: Hafi Vddd Well-known treatise by Bahi'u'llih, described by Shoghi Effendi as his greatesr mystical work (GPB 140). It was composed in Baghdad some time after Bah5'u'llBh's return from Kurdisran (1856) in reply t o a letter by Shaykh Muhiyu'd-din, a QQdiri Sufi and sometime religious judge ( q d n in the town of Khiniqin. Ir describes the scvcn srages ('valleys') of the journey of the seeker's soul towards God, using the framework established by the grear 12thll3th-centuq mystical poet Shaykh Faridu'd-din ' A ~ i rin his Conference of the Birds (Mnntiqu'ptoyr). The valleys are those of: (1) search (talob), characterized by patient quest for the divine beloved; (2) love ('ishq), with in passion of pain and ecstasy; (3) knowledge (ma'rifat), with its certitude and understanding of inner truth; ( 4 ) unity (tawbid), in which the seeker transcends the world of limitation, and is able to see the reality of things as they really are; (5) contentment (irtigbmi'), in which the mystic sees the beauty of God in everything, and has burnt away all other veils; (6) wonderment (hayrat), with its bewilderment wirh the myriad of divine truths that can now be understood; and (7) 'true poverty' (faqr-i-haqiqfi and 'absalure nothingness' (fand-yi-allr?, characterized by a dying from self and a living in God. sv 1-0; RBI: 96101:wolbridga, and 15w. (See olso c o o . )

Apologetic work of rhe Bfh composed in MAKV(1847-8). after the BAYAN. There are nvo books of rhe same name: a lpnger Persian and shorter Arabic version. Copies were distribured ro a number of Iranian princes and state officials. There is a French translation of the entire t e n of the Fenian work by

sex The value of the sex impulse is recognized, and regarded as the natural right of every individual: sex is not regarded as evil as it is in some cultures, and should not be suppressed. Ir must be regulated, however, and can only be

legitimately expressed in MnnnlAcE. All forms of pre- and extra-mariral sexual relationships are thus forbidden (see ADULTERY AND FORNICATION; HOMOSEXU-

AI.ITY). Outside of marriage the relationships of Bahl'is should be characterized by spiritual comradeship. Prcsent sociery is seen as permissive and as overemphasizing sex; Bahl'is should follow a different path, and act and think in such a way that they d o not arouse appetites that cannot be legitimately expressed (i.e. exercise self-control outside marriage). Early marriage is commended. lo 358-68. (See also R I R T H CONTROL; CHASTITY.) Bahl'i ASSEMBl.IES should be loving and compassionate in their response to those Bahl'is who hreach these moral regulations: people's behaviour often falls short of the ideal. An assembly should give counsel and encouragement. However, if immoral behaviour is flagrant and a cause of public scandal, and the individuals involved give no sign rhat they ate willing t o change, then the assembly should consider depriving rhem of their BahB'i ADMINISTRATIVE

RIGHTS.

Shahmirzadi, Mu116 'AliAkbar See ~ I I O N D ,HAli. Sharpe, Adelaide (18961976) American Bahh'l who became a prominent member of the Iranian Bahi'i communiry She accepted the posr of principal of the Tarbiyar school for girls (see SCHOOLS), and accompanied Dr Susan MOODYon her return to Iran in 1929. After the school's closure in 1934 she remained in Iran at Shoghi Effendi's request, . . and connibuted to the development of child education within the Bahi'i community, as well as translating Bahi'i wrirings. She played a prominent role in Iranian Bahi'i adminisnation, and in 1954, when Shoghi Effendi first

permitted women t o be elected on to Bahi'i assemblies in Iran, she became the first woman t o be elected onto the Iranian national spiritual ASSEMBLY, serving as its foreign correspondent for fourteen ycan. swrz 41a20.

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nenn t o accuse them of attributing God's attributes to another (the heresy of tafbid). It also led the Shaykhis to extreme veneration of the Imims. Another crucial domine was of the existence of an interworld of archema1 .. images ('dlamu'l- mithdl), the HGrqalyd, which contains counterrram of all that Shaykhism exists in the physical world. This is the School of Shi'i thought which centres on world in which the Shi'i eschamlogkal the teachings of Shaykh AHMADAL. figure of the hidden Twelfth l m i m Anski and his successors. Shaykh resides; in which the believer can &mad arrractcd a large and influential encounter the Imams; in which Muhamfollowina, - but his ideas were controver- mad made his miraculous night ascent to sial and his immediate successor, Sayyid heaven; and in which the resurrection of KAZIM RASHI'~, faced considernble orroothe individual occurs. Again, the early .. sition from some groups within the Shaykhis belicved that there would clerical cstahlishment (see .ULAMI). always be a 'Perfect Shi'i' alive in the Aftrr his death there was a period of world who would a n as an intermediary division in which various prominent between the Imim and the faithful (rhis disciples sought leadership. A significant was the docuinc of the 'Founh Support' number of Shaykhis accepted the Blb, which, rogether with belief in divine forming the core of the new Bihi moveunity, prophethood and imamate, conment. Eventually most of the "on-Bibi stihlted the fundamental clcments of Shaykhis turned t o Hlji Mul?ammad religion). By implication Shaykh Ahmad GRIM KHANKIRM~N!and his successorand Sayyid Kizim occupied this role, descendants, and the movement lost Shaykh Ahmad himself stressing that his much of its earlier heterodoxy, in p a n own authority derived from intuitive it would seem to distance itself from knowledge which he derived directly Blbism. Bibi-Bahf'i accounts accord kom inspiration from the Imims. Bibi and Bahj'i accounts also identify a Shaykh Ahmad and Sayyid Kizim the status of precursors and heralds of their major emphasis on messianic expectareligion, and there are some doctrinal tion. AR1 48-69; Boyd 37-86; Bdyuzi. B6b I d ; continuities with early Shaykhism. W i n . 4.d: 205301 b l d n g btsr Shoykhi v i a ) : Karim Khin and other later Shaykhi MaEoin, 'Eo* Sharkhi rsadonr': 'Fmm Sha/Wirn'; leaders were prominent opponents of Moman. Shi'i lrbm 22531: 'Works of S h q k h A h 4 Bibism. Nabil 1-46 (me stondo, LM7 -n(; Nimlar. Ewi Early Shaykhi docrtine is complex ( mddm ~ d l Robti ; 'hwlwmenl'; 5881 8-13; and under-researched. Some aspects Scholl. seem deliberately obscure (presumably t o conceal heterodox elements), and Shi'ism others are subject to varying interpretaISLAM is divided into nvo main branches tions. A key element is the bclicf in rhc unknowabiliry and transcendence of the Sunnis, who comprise the majority God. Human beings therefore must of the world's Muslims, and the Shi'is, approach the divine through the prowho predominate in Iran and Azerbaijin, phets and IMAMS.These personages were and comprise important minorities in a regarded as etcrnal spiritual realities and number of other countries. Distinnive features of Shi'ism include: (1) Imlms: manifestations of God's primal will. the Shi'is recognize 'Ali ibn AM-Tilib, This viewpoint led the Shaykhis' oppo-

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Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, as the Prorrhet's rightful successor and as the fir; in a sehcs of ~M*MS. Different Shi'i grourrr - . recoanice - different series of Imims. The largest group is that of the 'Twelvers' (lthni-'asharil. who follow a succession of twelve lmfms - this is the branch that predominates in Iran, and from which the Blbi-Bahh'i tradition emerged. The Ismi'ilis are another important division of Shi'ism. (2) Law: the Twelven recognize the teachings of the lmfms as an important supplementar/ authority to the Quran and the Traditions ascribed t o Mul!ammad. There are a number of differences in religious practice. Most of these are relatively minor, but khnms - the 'onefifth' tax - and the institution of temporary marriage (mut'a) are peculiar t o Shi'ism. (3) Shi'ism's minority status and ia periodic persecution has led to an emphasis on MAKTYRDOM as a religious motif (particularly as represented by the at Khnahli death of the Imam HUSAYN (680 CE), which is commemorated with much emotional fervour during the month of Muharram). iss simulation of reliaious belief (taoiwa) . . .. is regarded as a leg;imate means of avoiding persecution. (4) Twelver Shi'ism is also characterized by a strong messianic modf centring on the mysterious disappearance ('Occultation') of the Twelfth Imlm (260 ~ ~ 1 8 CE), 7 4 and his expected return at the RESURRECTION as the QA.IM/ MAHD!.Following his disappearance, a series of four men claimed t o act as his intermediaries as Bibs ('Gates') until 4 1 (5) Twelver Shi'ism is 329 ~ ~ 1 9 CE. also distinctive in the degree of authoriry and autonomy from government control gained by i n 'learned' (.ULAMA), and the emergence of a definite clerical estahlishmenr. Clerical arguments about the role of the 'ulnmd during the 17th and 18th centuries led to an imponant division between the Usfilis, who assetred the centrality of the MUJTAHIDS, senior clerics who had gained a licence t o exercise

independent judgement (ijtihdd) on matters of reliaious law, and the Akhbfris. who oppoied them: The Uqfilia even: tuallv dominated. and a clerical hieratchy emerged during the 19th century. (6) Sc~culariverhouaht in Shi'ism has been influenced by the acceptance of early Islamic Mu'tazilite rationalism and the development of the lshrdqi theosophical 'Illuminationisr' tradition, of which SHAYKHISM forms a part. h e n . Shil id~rn, provide, !he bast gansial inlroducfion. See olu, Molmhdeh; TOW&'!.

T H E B A H FAITH ~ ~ AND S H ~ ' I S M

The Blbi and Bahi'i religions were rwted in Iranian Shi'ism. The Bahl'i Faith ultimately developed into a world religion (see EXPANSION), however, and whilst rhc Bah('i teachings incorporare many elements of the Shi'i view of Islamic history (notably the legitimacy of 'Mi and the imamate) and some aspecn of Shi'i practice and belief, Bahi'i is quite distinct from its religion of orizin, and i n incorporation of 5 6 elemen& is oken quite subde and comdex. ~ l t h o u ~most h of the-Bfbi leaden and many of the rrrominenr early Bahi'is wcrc clerics, the Shi'i 'ulamd were the main force opposing the expansion of the rwo religions, and were often instrumental in fosrerina PERSECUTION. Correspondingly, Bahl'is have condemned the Shi'i 'rclamd and blamed them for what they see as the decline of Shi'ism's former 'pristine brilliancy'. Shoghi Effendi welcomed moves by Reza Shlh (See also IRAN)to reduce the power of the 'ulamd, seeing rhis as a diren consequence of their opposition to the Bibis and Baha'is. GPB 228-9; PDC87-98; WOB 1724, 179. (see also RELlGlOUS LEADERS.)

Shirbz (1868 pop. err. 25,000) Capital of the southern Iranian province of Firs. Birthplace of the Bib and the site of his initial declaration of mission.

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Shiraz: the House of the Bab

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Rdh, Shirdz, Iran, 1979

became recognized as the sole mariacatkzqlid ('centre of imitation', see VLAMA) The Bib's house, where he fusr declared for the entire Shi'i world in about 1872. his mission in 1844. He later identified it Othenvise apalitical, he intervened decias the new 'House of God' in succasian sively in 1891 to oppose the granting of to the Ka'ba at Mecca, and made it a place of PILGRIMAGE for his followers. the tobacco monopoly by the Iranian Bahi'u'llih named it as one of hvo ~acred government. Hc war a paternal cousin of the Bib, and is said to have been a houses and as a place of pilgrimage. It secret believer in both the Bib and later came into the possession of the Bahi'u'llih, and t o have sought to Bahi'is and was restored at 'Ahdu'lmitigate the persecutions of the Baha'is Bahi's instructions in 1903, becoming a 4 :2514; in Iran. bburi. wb 33; 8 ~ ~ 4 0 3 -~8 major cenm of pilgrimage for Bahi'is in Moman. ylil Id.,," 140. 321. Iran (GPR 300). It also became a focus for anti-Baha'i zealots, being damaged in an arson atrack in 1942, almost destroyed Shoghi Effendi Rabboni by an anti-BahB'i mob in 1955, and (1897-1957) finally thoroughly demolished by Islamic First and only Guardian of the Baha'i revolutionaries in September 1979. A Faith (see GUARDIANSHIP). He was the road and public square were later built leader in succession t o 'Abdu'l-Bahi over the rite. m66 k w . 117q32.230-1 "154. from 1922 until his own death. He war succeeded by the HANDSOF THE CAUSE Shirbzi, Mirza-yi (1815-95) of the Faith until acting as 'CUSTOD~ANS' Hiii M i d Say+d Muhammad-Hasan, the election of the Universal House of eminent Shi'i cleric, resident in h q . He Justice (1963).

Shoghi Effendi was the eldest son of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's daughter Diyi'iyyih Khinum (d. 1951) and Mirzi Hidi Shirizi Afnin (d. 1955). He was horn in Akka on 1March 1897, the eldest of 'Abdu'lBahb'r grandsons, and named in the latter's will as his successor when he was still a child. Educated a t first a t home with the other children of the household, he was later sent to Catholic schools in Haifa and Beirut and then to the Syrian Protestant College (the predecessor of the American University) in Beirut, spending his summer holidays as one of his grandfather's assistants. He gained an arts degree from the college in 1918, and became 'Abdu'l-Bahi's chief secretary. Then, in 1920, he went t o Oxford University (Balliol College), where he studied political science and economics, and also sought to perfect his English so as to be better able to translate Bahi'i literature into that language. He was still in the midst of his studies when summoned t o return t o Haifa at the news of his grandfather's dcath.

Shoghi Effendi Rabkni little direct challenge t o his leadership, and other than from MUHAMMAD-'hi his partisans and later from Ruth WHITE and a small group of others who questioned the authenticity of 'Abdu'lBaha's will, a claim regarded as ludicrous by Eastern Bahi'is familiar with 'Abdu'l-Bahi's writings. Porenrially more serious challenges came from two prominent vereran Iranian Bahi'is AVARIHin Iran and Ahmad S ~ H R AinB the United States - who, apparently seeking posirions of leadership, made light of Shoghr Effendi's leadership, implying a lack of maturity on his pan. All such challenges had been overcome by the 1930s. SHOGHI EFFENDI'S LEADERSHIP

Although initially traumatized by his appointment and workload (several rimes during the 1920s he felt himself unable t o cope with the burdens of officc and took sudden and lengthy breaks to recuperate), Shoghi Effendi had from the outset a clear vision of the future

APPOINTMENT A N D SUCCESSION

Shonly after Shoghi Effendi's return t o Haifa (29 December 1921) the terms of 'Abdu'l-Bahh", WILL A N D TESTAMENT were announced. These were explicit. Slloghi Effendi was t o be 'Guardian of the Cause of Gad' (Valiamm'llih, a title immediately reminiscent of the Shi'i h i ~ s )He . was the Centre of the Cause and the 'sign of God' on earth. All should show 'their obedience, submissiveness and subordination' to him. He was also to be the head of the as yet HOUSEol; JUSTICE, unelected UN~VERSAL and with them was undcr the unerring guidance and protection of Baha'u'lllh and the BBb. The great majority of Bahi'is rallied round Shoghi Effendi as a new focal centre. Given the force of his 'Ahdrr'i flnbd and S l ~ i > ~Effcrrdi l?i in Hoifo appointment by 'Abdu'l-BahB there was

1

Shoghi Effendi RaWni

Shoghi Effendi, WriIings of ~~

Bahirs 'your true brother', and referred progress of the Caurc, and successfully to the institution of the guardianship communicated this t o the Bahiys of the rather than t o his own personal role. world through thousands of lctrers and Whilst 'Ahdu'l-Bahi had acted as a local his meetings with pilgrims. During the notable, even attending the mosque, 1920s a major focus of his work was the Shoghi Effendi distanced himself from sysrematization and extension of the the local Palestinian notability and conBahi'i ADMINISTRATION througho~tthe centrated his energies on the world-wide existing Bahi'i communities. During the direction of the Faith. Unlike 'Abdu'l1930s he presented the Bahi'is with his Rahi he never iourneyed to visit the ideas of the future W o n l . ~ORDER,and BahP'is overseas, his primary contacts completed a number of major nanswith the Bahh'is being through his lation projects (see S H ~ C HEFFENDI. I extensive correspondence. He met all WRITINGS or). From 1937 onwards a visiting BahP'is during their pilgrimages major focus was the development of the system of systematic planning (see to Haifa, teaching and inspiring them, and in many instances using them as PLANS), with the aim of eventually emissaries to reinforce his instructions to esrablishing BahP'i communities in every counrry of the world. In the late 1940s the Bahi'is in the various national commoniries. and 1950s he began a series of major developmcnrs s t the B A H ~W I onm PeRSDNAL LIFE CENTRE(constr~ctionof the SuperStNCThis was generally uneventful, and was rure of the SllnlN~OF TIIE BABand the largely subordinated t o his work as ~ N T E R N A T ~ O N A LARCHIVES Buildina; Guardian. The problem of securing extension and beautification of the sufficient secretarial support to help aardens at BAHJI).D u r i n ~the 1950s he again turned t o matters of adminisrration: establishing the INTERNATIONAL B A H ~COUNCIL I (1950) as a precursor of the Universal House of Justice, and Allxlu~nvBonnos (1954); and appoinring Hands of the Cause (1951-7). Throughout his minirrry he was concerned to define maners of Bahi'i belief and practice (such that much of the modern understanding of what is involved in being a Bahi'i comes from Shoghi Effendi), and periodically had t o deal wirh persecution of the Bahi'is in Iran and elsewhere. LEADERSHIP STYLE

Shoghi Effendi was a young man of twenty-four when he became Guardian. Western educated and, apart from a black fez which he normally wore, Western in dress, his style of leadership was very different from the venerable, patriarchal figure of 'Abdu'l-Bahi (leading t o criticism from some members of his family). He signed his letters t o the

7%c resting plnce uf Shuxhr Effetrdi it, London, Enalnnd

with the ever-growing mass of correspondence was only really resolved in the 1950s. by which rime Shoghi Effendi LEmRS had long since adiusted to a pattern of The vast majority of his writings are unremitting hard work when in Haifa, letters (over 17,500 letters by him or interspersing this with summer breaks during which he might visit Europc - wrirren on his behalf by a secretary have been collecred so far). These range from normally in the early years the Swiss routine correspondence dealing wirh the Alps - or (on two occasions) traverse activities of Bahi'is in various pans of Africa from south t o north (1929, the world t o lengthy monographs 1940). In 1937 he married Mary Maxaddressing specific themes. To date, well (b. 1910), the only daughter of nvo fourteen volumes of the English-lanNonh American BahP'is. The couple guage letters have been published: colhad no children, but ROHIYYIIIKH~NUM, lections of more or less routine letters to as she was called, became his helpmate the American, Canadian, Alaskan, and constant companion until his pasBritish, German, Indian, Australian and sing. During the 1940s a conflict dcvclNew Zealand Bahi'is, together with oped between Shoghi Effendi and many members of his extended family (his monograph letters on the WORLI) ORDEROF BAH~U.LLAH; teaching the brother, sisters, cousins and aunts), BahP'i Faith (ADVENT~FDIVINE]USTICE, partly because of their contacts, includ1938); and Bahi'u'llih's proclamation ing marriage, with Covenant-breaking to the rulers (PROMISED DAYIS COME, members of Baht'u'llih's extended 1941). Published copies of other letters family. All were eventually excommunicated by him (see COVENANT-BREAKERS;are found in various compilations. The letten cover a variety of themes: encourNOnl FAMILY). He died unexpecredly agement to the BahP'is to teach and 'live during a visit to London on 4 Novcmkr the life' of true Bahl'is; reports of BahP'i 1957 following a bout of influenza and activities in various parts of the world, was buried there. 80.h: ~ i o s h e v ;Robboni. commonly pointing to the wider signifiR;c.ks Psorl: 588) 115-28. 136-7; BFSH 101-12. cance of particular events; summons to Bahi'is to achieve specific goals such as Shoghi Effendi, Writings of the settlement of pioneers, the esrablishment of assemblies, rhe translation of Shoghi Effendi wrote extensively in both Bahl'i literature, and the acquisition of English and Persian. As he himself Bahi'i centres and other properties; emphasized, 'Abdu'l-Bahi had conferred analysis of particular developments upon the guardianship the function of within Bahi'i history; sratemenn regardinrerpreter of the word of God (WOR ing Bahi'i beliefs, morality, social prin148, 150-1). As such, the Guardians ciples, law and administration; and were empowered 'to reveal the purport obituaries of outstanding Bahl'is. Some and disclose the implications of the utterof the letters to the Iranian Bahi'is have ances of Bahi'u'llBh and of 'Abdu'l-Baalso been ~ublishedin the original. but h i ' (WOB 151). These interpretations these are generally difficult to obrain, werc authoritative and binding. In this and few have been translated. manner, his writings have been a primary elemcnt in thc shaping of modem BOOKS Bahi'i belief (SBRR 136-7). George Shoghi Effendi wrote one book in TOWNSHEXD served as Shoghi Effendi's English, an interpretive history of the literary adviser, reading and commentfirst cenrury of Bibi-Baht'i history, G o o ing on a number of his manuscripts.

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Shrine of the Ebb

Shrine of ihe 66b -

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PASSESflu (1944). He also wrote a shorter, Persian-language, version, the L a w h - i - Q n m , and was extensively involved in editing work for the R~rr,i.r WORLDvolumes.

foundation stone was then laid and, afrer some months, construction work began. A marhle sarcophagus war also received from the Bahi'is of Burma to serve as the eventual resting place of the remains. The project proceeded slowly TRANSLATIONS in the face of a succession of difficulties O f Shoghi Effendi's translations, a few regarding the acquisition of land and smaller pieces appeared in print in the building permission. The building was 1920s. together with a collaborative completed hy 1907, hut it was not until rendering of Bahi'u'llih's H l o o r v March 1909, on the evening following Wonas (1929). Later he published a the first N ~ w . R u zafter the ending of his further four volumes o f Rahl'u'llih's own confinement in Akka, that 'Abdu'lwritings (The K i t d b - ~ - I Q , ~(1931); N Bahi finally placed the remains of the Glennings from t h e W r i t i n g s of Bib and his executed companion inside Bahd'u'llah (1935); Prayers and Meditathe sarcophagus which had been placed tions by Bahl'u'llih (1938); and EPISTLE in a vault beneath what is now the TO THE SON O P T H E WOLF(1941)), and a central room of the Shrine. Whcn translation of N ~ a i ~ - l - A . z n(Zarandil's ,v 'Abdu'l-Bahi died in 1921 he was history of the Bibis, which appeared in buried beneath another mom of the Shrine, giving the building an increased English under the title DAWN-BREAKERS (1932). Many other translated passages religious significance. from Bahi'i scripture appeared in his The Shrine constructed by 'Abdu'lleners. Bahi consisted of a six-room masonry structure on what was then a relatively OTHER WORKS isolated sire on the northern slope of Shoghi Effendi prepared several compiMount Camel some distance ahove the lations of Bahl'i sratistics and other German TEMPLE SOCIKTY colony. The materials, as well as a number of Bab's remains were deposited beneath historical maps. the central of the three southern rooms next t o the mountainside and those of 'Abdu'l-Bahl beneath the central of the Shrine of the Bab three northern rwms facing the sea. In The Bahi'is' second-holiest shrine. 1928-29130 Shoghi Effendi had extenLocated in Haifa and one of the focal sive excavations made into the side of points of the B A HWORLD ~ ~ CENTRE, it is the mountain and an additional three also a major Haifa landmark. AB 12t-30; rooms constructed to the south to form Giachay 41-1 18; GPB 274-7; Rabboni. Rireku Psorl a square with the room of the Rib's 23447. remains at the centre. 'Abdu'l-Bahl had intended that a more elaborate outer THE SHRINE Shrine would eventually he constructed. The site for the Shrine was indicated by In 1942 Shoghi Effendi asked William Bahi'u'llih to 'Abdu'l-Bahl in 1891 Sutherland MAXWFI.L (his father-in-law during a visit t o Mount Carmel. In and then resident in Haifa) t o begin 1898 'Abdu'l-Bahi gave instructions work on the design of the superstrucfor the Bib's remains t o be transported ture, and the final form of this was from cheir place of concealment in approved in 1944. Actual construction Tehran, the remains arriving secretly in was delayed until after the end of World Akka on 31 January 1899 (fifty lunar War I1 and preparations tinall" hegan in years afrer the Bib's execution). The 1947 amtdrr the turbulent pertod mark-

b:xrerior of the Shritte of t/,c 866

Names dven by'Abdu.1-Bahi in bold Nama &en by Shoghi Effendi,to porn he added oper ilbdu'l-BahdP dwth in d o k

fn Dm,

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Shrine of BaM'u'llbh ing the birth of the state of Israel. The work proceeded in sages, with first the construction of a colonnaded arcade surrounding rhe original Shrine building, topped by a balustrade (completed in May 1950); then a windowed central actaaon. - . towed .. by a second balustrade with minarcr-like pinnacles a t each corner: a n ll-metre-hiah drum-like clerestory with eighteen lancet windows; and finally a dome covered in gilded tiles and topped with a lantern and finial. The work was completed in September 1953 at a total cost of threc-quarters of a million dollars. Much of the work was completed in Italy, including that on the granite and marble used in the canstruction. The Shrine is illuminated a t night.

shrines and holy places this pathway t o visit the Shrine. In 1987, the Universal House of Justice initiated a massive project involving the reconstruction of these terraces, the consrtuction of a further nine terraces above the Shrine, and extensions t o the gardens. This project is now well advanced. Its archirccr is Farihorz Sahha, the designer of the Indian Bahi'i temple. Shoghi Effendi described the Shrine as a 'focal center of Divine illuminarion and power', and the Bib's sacred remains as the spiritual centre of a series of concentric circles which ultimately embraced the entire planet. The Shrine also constituted a n institution that would play a major role in the future unfoldment of the Rahi'i world administrative centre (GPB 277; CF 95-6).

result of visiting such sites, then their acrions are meritorious. Except for the pilgrimages to the Shiriz and Baghdad houses there are no designated rituals for those visiting Bahl'i holy places, apart from a general injunction t o observe reverence, both physically and in one's own heart. In practice this involves being quiet in manner and dignified in dress, and in the care of the Bahl'i Shrines the removal of one's

shoes. When large groups of Bahi'is visit the Shrines there is often a prearranged programme of vRAunns and other wrirings which are recited or chanted by individuals within the group. On some special cari ions large groups of Bahl'is circumambulate Bah6'u'llih's Shrine at Rahji or that of the Bib in Haifa. Individuals who visit holy placer on their own will commonly pray (in whatever manner they wish: standing,

THE DOORS

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'Abdu'l-Bahi had named the five doors o f rhe original Shrine afrer two eminenr Iranian Bahi'is (Hiji A M ~ and N Mirzi ARVI..FA~L) and rhree of the Rahi'i masons who had contributed t o the Shrine's constru~rion(Usrid Aqh 'AliAshraf, Ustid Aqi BQIi, and Ustid 'Ahdu'l-Karim). Shoghi Effendi named the doors of the three extra rooms he had huilt after Hiii Mahmbd Qn$$hac ~ (who i provided the funding for the construction of the rooms), W.S. Maxwell (rhe architect of the supersrructurel, and UEO GIACHERY (who acted as liaison with the various Italian companies involved). The door t o the octagon war named after Lcroy Ions, who oversaw much of the final work (Giachery 214-16). T H E GARDENS A N D TERRACES

The Shrine is now surrounded by extensive ornamental gardens. Most of these were constructed by Shoghi Effendi, beginning in the 1920s, but particularly in the 1950s. Shoghi Effendi also consmcred a series of nine terraces leading up from the foor of the mountain ro the Shrine, prophesying that in the future Bahl'i kings and rulers would ascend

Shrine of Bahb'u'lluh See BnHli.

shrines and holy places Various sites associatcd with the Bib, Bahh'o'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahl are considered holy by Bahi'is, in particular the Shrines of the BAn and B A H ~ ~ . L I a. A t N i CENTRE, the House of the R a ~ kWORLD the Rib in S~inAz,and the House of Bahs'u'llih in R A C I ~ ATDh.n c last two were accordcd special s t a t u s by Bahi'u'llih and were designared by him as places of PILGRIMAGE. 'Abdn'lBahi added the 'Most Holy Shrine' of Bahi'u'llih as a place of pilgrimage. The graves of some other prominent Bihis and Bahi'is - including those of some Mnnrvns - have also acquired the status of holy places. The importance of holy places lies in their association with particular holy personages and in the faith of those who visit them. Apart from the three designated places of pilgrimage there is no obligation on Bahl'is t o visir any holy sire. They may if they wish, however, and if a person draws closer t o God as a

Ennonce

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Shrine of Bahd'tr'lldh

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Bohj;

social evolution kneeling, sirting), and many will prostrate themselves, particularly a t the 'holy thresholds' of the Shrines. Wherever possible the Bahi'is have worked t o restore and beautify those holy places under their ownership. Internal decorations convey a sense of dignity and beauty. Extcrnally there are often flower gardens. At the Bahi'i World Centre there has been extensive landscaping around the Shrines. In the 1940s, at Shoghi Effendi's instruction, the Iranian Bahi'is established a committee responsihle to locate and whcrever prchase holy places and historical sites linked to the Faith.

OTHER

In Iraq there is the House of Bah6'u'lllh in Baghdad and the RIDVAN (Naiibiyyih) Garden. In Turkey one of the houses Bahl'u'llPb occupied in EolnNE (the house of Rid6 Big) and a nearby orchard rented by Rahi'u'llih are now in BahP'i ownership. Other houses he occupied there and in Istanbul are no longer home standing. In Canada the MAXWELL in which 'Abdu'l-Bahi stayed when he visited Montreal has the status of a national Bahi'i shrine. In Britain there is HI in London, the grave of S W ~ CEFFENDI and in Burma the grave of Siyyid Mustafa RUMI.

IRAN

sin The holiest sire in Iran for Bahi'is is that Disobedience to God and his laws. It of the House of the Bib in Shiriz. The from the SOUL'S attachment t o the second holiest site is that of the S ~ Y ~ I Iresults material world, and reflects the 'animal' C t r 6 ~prison in Tehran. Other sites clcmcnrs and demands of HUMAN NATURE. include the fortress prisons of the B6b Sin hinders thc soul from artaining its V C t ~ ~ ~ n the i p , house of in M ~ K and destined Though ahsolute perBahi'u'llih in Tehran (the bnyt-ifection is never to be obtained, seeking to mt,bdmk, Blessed housc'), Bahl'u'llih's pcrfecr the soul by acquiring SPlnlTuAL ancestral home in the village of TikGr, QUALITIES leads thc individual towards the Shaykh T~nAnsishrine, and thegrave God (see HEAVEN). but a sinful life of Quno"s. Almost all Bahi'i holy sites separates him or her from God. As a in Iran were seized by the authorities in person draws nearer to God, their underthe aftermath of the Islamic Revolution standing of what God expects of them of 1979. incrcascs, such that 'the good deeds of THE B A H ~ WORLD .~ CENTRE the righteous are the sins of the Near Ones [to Godl' (SAQ 126). God's mercy There are numerous holy sites in the and LOVE for his creatures are so great Haifa-Akka area, most importantly the that all sins can he forgiven, but genuine Shrines of the BBb and Bahl'u'llah. In REPENTANCE is necessary. The FEAR o r AKKAthe main sites are the cell in the G o o and the development of CON. Citadel in which Bahi'u'llih was conSCIENCE help the individual t o avoid fined, the combined houses of 'Abb6d wrongdoing. Specific sins include anger, a n d ' ~ d iK h a m m i r , i n w h i c h jealousy, disputatiousness, lust, ride, Bahi'u'llih lived from 1871 until lying, hypocrisy, fraud, worldliness, self1873, and the house of 'Abdu'll6h love, covetousness, avarice, ignorance, Pish6, in which 'Abdo'l-Bahi lived from prejudice, hatred, pride and tyranny 1896 until 1910. In thesurrounding area (SAQ 92, 119). The Christian docmine the most important site is BAHJ~.In ~ I A I Papart A , from the combined SHRINE of original sin is rejected: babies are born sinless, it is a person's subsequent behaOF THE BAe and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, the most viour and worldly attachments that imponant site is the House of 'Abdu'lseparate them from Cod (SAQ 119-26). Bahi.

OF G O D a r e T h e MANIFESTATIONS regarded as free from sin. (See also EVIL.)

S i n g h , Pritam (1881-1959) Prominent early Indian Bahi'i. The first Bahi'i of Sikh background, hc came from a prominent family - his father was a High Court judge in 1.ahore. He became a Bahi'i shortly after completing his fist degree (19041, and subsequently became a university professor of economics, as well as one of the leading Bahi'i speakers and writers in India. His proclamation of the Baha'i Faith to Sikh princes, ministers and priests engendered considerable opposition. In 1927 he resigned from his profession in order t o devote himself full time t o Bahi'i activity, travelling and leawing extcnsively. He was also a member of the national spiritual assembly for many years. BW13: 8746; Khionm 109-30.

Siybsiyyih, Risbliy-i See POLIT1CS. TREATISE ON. s l a v e trade, slavery In his tablet to Queen Vcronu, Bahi'u'116h praised the British abolition of the slave trade, and in the Kitih-I-AQDAS prohibited the buying and selling of slaves, stating also that evcry individual was a bondslave of God, and thar none should exalt himself over another. Shoghi Effendi appears to have interpreted this as a prohibition of slavery itself (in the 19th century the two issues were distinct, the British declaring the slave trade illegal in 1807, and subsequently leading a campaign against the imernational slave trade from 1811 onwards, hut only abolishing slavery in their own colonies at later dates). ~mdornotim33-d;KA 45 k72; G B 214; Huddbslon. h n h 84-92.

smoking Tobacco smoking is discouraged but nor The underground dungeon in Tehran in forbidden, 'Abdu'l-Bahi noting that it is which Bahl'u'llbh and o t h a Blbii were a habit that is unclean, progressively imprisoned following the assassination injurious t o health and expensive. atrempt on the life of NASIRU.D-D~N SHAH Bahi'is are advised to be coucreons and in 1852. It was a disused cistern which considerate t o all, whether they be was reached along a narrow corridor and smokers or non-smokers. Thus, whilst down three steep flights of steps, and into IISSLM~I.IES might decide t o prohibit which as many as one hundred and fifty smoking a t Rah6'i devotional and prisonen might be held, in conditions of administrative meetings for the sake of appalling discomfort. The Bibis were non-smokers, they should also make chained together and many were taken provision for any smokers. Smoking away for execution, but they retained other onucs (such as marijuana) is their spirit, chanting verses of scripture completely forbidden. IG~SM. with such fervour that apparently they The BBb forbade the use of tobacco could be heard in the royal palace nearby. altogether, and one of the distinguishing Bahi'u'llih was weighed down with the characteristics of the early Bibia was infamous chains 'Qara-Guhar' (51 kg in their abstention from smoking. weight) and 'Solkil'. It was here that he experienced the initiatory visions thar social evolution marked the beginning of his mission For Shoghi Effendi Bahl'u'llih's mission (ESW 21-2). The Pit was later closed. was to achicvc thc 'organic and spiritual Shoghi Effendi described it as the second unity of the whole body of nations'. This halicst Baha'i site in Iran (MBW 80). It will mark humanity's 'coming of age', a was in BahP'i ownership from 1954 until mystic process of maturation analogous the Islamic Revolution of 1979. S i y 6 h - C h 6 1 (Pers., lit. 'Black Pit')

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to that of the individual, and the furthermost limits of possible societal Indiorganization (see WORLOORDER). vidual progress within such a society will continue indefinitely (WOE 1 6 3 6 ) . The present age of transition (see TIME) reprcscnts the adolescent stage in humanity's 'slow and painful evolution' characterized by impetuosity, self-assurance and rebelliousness. Previous stages in this process have seen the progresive unification of the family, tribe, city-stare and nation. The mocnEssrvr REVELATION of divine truth corresponds to the possibilities of human receptiveness at each stage of social evolution. Thus Bahi'u'llih's emphasis on the unity of the human race was only possible in an age in which there was knowledge of the whole world and unification was an actual possibility. P o C 1 2 2 4 ; WOB43.202.

social order BahA'u'llih emphasized the imporrance of social order. The maintenance of social order is based on JUSTICE, and rhis in Nrn is based on the hope for newAnn and the fear of punishment (TB 66). RELIGION, the FEAR OF Goo and ToLEn. ANCE for other peoples are other important means of securing social order. Those who are poor, downtrodden or captive should be protected (TB 70); the individual's social station rerpened; and crahm.cn praised nnd not disdained as in the past(^^ 38). Actions that lead to disorder (conflict, contention, theft, entering the house of another without permission, bloodshed) are condemned (ESW23-25). socio-economic development For Bahi'is the development of both spiritual and material ClvlLIzATlON is important. Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'lBahi referred to an idyllic future (the Mast Great PEACE), whilst at the same rimc advocating more immediate measures of societal change. Thus their

324 emphasis on the importance of political and lezal reform (HUMAN RIGHTS); care for the poor; limitations on ARMAMENTS (arms spending itself being regarded as a major facrar in keeping ordinary people poor); WORK; AGRICULTURE; EOUCATlON and unnAcy; and later on the emancipation of WOMEN. Many of these themes are brought together in 'Abdu'l-Bahl's treatise Tbe Sccnar OF DIVINECIVILIZATION,which urges the adoption of a wide-ranging policy of social and economic development and state strengthening in Iran. Some of these ideals notably those to do with education, work and the role of women - had a cumulative effect within the Iranian Bahi'i community, leading to a progressive process of internal socio-economic development which firmly linked the Bahl'is with 'modernization'. Development issues assumed increasing importance with the large-scale EXPANSIOY of the Bahl'i Faith into the poor countries of the 'Third World', particularly from the 1960s onwards. SCHOOLS were esrahlished, and in the 1970s a number of rural development programmes were starred, including the first in a series of community-oriented nAoxo stations. This trend was given focus and impetus by rhe Universal House of Justice in October 1983, when they called for the more systematic application of Bahi'i principles 'to upraising the quality of human life' and announced the establishment of an Office of Social and Fronomic Development in Haifa to 'promote and coordinate' Bahi'i development activities world-wide (MUH] 6 0 1 4 no. 379; see also 576 no. 358.6, 613 no. 385.6, 723 no. 453.18,725 no. 456.2). The numbcr of projects rocketed as a result: from 127 in 1979 to 1,344 in 1986 (BWNS 1992-3: 238). The largest number of these were educational (488 'tutorial schools' and 178 academic schools). There were also 186 projects concerned with literacy, 56 with health, 52 with ~

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conservation and the environment, 52 with women and youth and 21 with agriculture. The largest numbcr were in Asia (5321, followcd by the Americas (379) and Africa (286) (BWNS1 9 9 4 5 : 319-20). Most were small in wale. A variety of agencies and institutes have k e n esrablishcd in a number of counnies to promote development. Some of these are agencies of the particular Bahl'i national spiritual ASSrMBl.Y, and others are separate non-governmental organizations. A considerable body of experience is hcing built up. Some of the projects have evidently been highly successful, and several have gained government backing and the support of international donor agencies such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the Norwegian Agency for International Development Co-operation (NORAD). There have heen a number of national and international conferences for Bahl'is interested in development issues, where they can share ideas and develop perspectives.

who settled in the United States afrer World War 1. In 1929, with the help of Julie (Lewis Smyvesant) Chanler (188219611, he established the New History Society in New York City to propagate the Bahl'i teachings. When he refused to place this venture under the control of the local Bahl'i rssaMal.r, a confronration with the national spiritual assembly ensued, and Sohrab and Chanler were excommunicated (1930). A youth organization, the Caravan of East and West, was also starred (1930). which dcveloped into a world-wide pen-pal club. Whilst accepting the legitimacy of Shoghi Effendi's appointment as Guardian, Sohrab was highly critical of his leadership, and in particular of the Bahi'i ADMINlSTRATION he had built up. c h m t : SBBR 1265; ahr rob. ~ r d a n s i k s ~ ; ~ 8 3 4 3 - 7(See .

Some Answered Questions

A compilation of talks delivered by 'Abdu'l-Bahi in Akka between 1904 and 1906 in response to questions posed BWNS 1992-3229-45; 1994-5.1268. (See llb0 NF.Y, by Laura Clifford D ~ E Y F ~ ~ - B A Ran B A H ~ I - U N I FPROJECT; EM B A HVOCA~ ~ American Bah5.i. A secretary recorded TIONAI. ~NST~TUTE FOR RURAL WOMEN. the talks in Persian, and these transcripts Elements of a developing Bahl'i were later checked by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. An perspective on development include the English translation was published in i~nporranceof grassroors initiatives and London in 1908 (this has been revised knowledge, reinforced by local CONSUL. in subsequent cditionn). The topics disTATION and empowerment; the essential cussed include Christian subjects, and a need for wider social and moral issues to range of metaphysical and social issues. form part of development process (notably female emancipation and the fastera stress on ing of TRUSIWORTHINESS); The essential inner reality of each self-reliance, the developmenr of 'human resources', and an ethos of community human being. service (Bahl'i projecrs are non-secrarFor Bahi'is every human being posian in their focus, and not confined to sesses both a physical body and a nonthe Bahl'is); and a valuing of local material, rational soul (or human spirir). minority cultures. Mornen. Boho'r Fmocur on The nature of this essence is mysterious k k p m c n t : nd. and beyond human undemanding (GWB 158 no. 82, 16+5 no. 83). The soul is both a spiritual and an intellecSohrab, Ahmad (c.1893-1958) ma1 reality. It is the h t among created One-time secretary and English-lanthings to recognize and love God. It is guage interpreter of 'Abdu'l- Bahl, one of the 'signs of Cod'; the 'harbinger'

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spiritual assemblies which proclaims the reality of all of God's worlds (GWB 158-60 no. 82). It is a divine bounty; an emanation from God; an intermediary beween the heavenly and lower worlds; the medium for spirirual life (Savi 146). If faithful, it rcflccts the divine light and eventually returns to God. If faithless, it becomes a victim of 'self and passion', and will 'sink in their depths' (GIVU 1 5 8 4 0 no. 82) (see FREE WILL; HUMAN NATURE). The powen of the 'rational faculty', the 'mind' (imagination; conceptualization; reflection; comprehension; memory) are also an expression of the soul (GWB 163-4 no. 83; SAQ 208-11). The progress of the soul involves pursuit of the SFIRITUAI. PATH and the acquisition of srrnjroAr QUALITIES. The purpose of the pnorHErs is to educare human beings SO that at the rime of death they will be so detached from the world that they will ascend 'to the rhronc of the Most High' (GWB 156 no. 81). SOUL AND BODY

The body is suhjecr to physical limitations (it occupies a particular space; it is subject to disease) and it decomposes at death, hut the soul is unlimited and immortal (SAQ 229, 242). The soul is independent of physical and mental infirmities. These might prevent the soul from revealing its inherent power - like clouds preventing the receipt of the sun's rays - but they do nor of themselves affect it (GWU 153-4 no. 80). The soul comes into existence and its light becomes reflected in the 'mirror' of the body at the rime of conception (SAQ 151, 239-40). At that moment all souls are pure and equal to each other. It is subsequent life events and decisions that lead to different levels of spiritual development, some souls reaching a higher and others a lower station. After death the body decomposes, but the soul enten a new existence, freed from the constraints of its former attachment to the body (SWAB 1 7 k 1 ) .

THE AFTERLIFE

The soul is immortal. After the death of the body it continuer to progress until it attains God's presence and manifests divine anributes. That progress is without limit (LC 204-9). Those souls that are sanctified from the world, living in accordance with the divine will, are blessed, and will converse with the prophets of God, and the dwellers of the highest heaven will circle around them. Those that have walked humbly with God will be 'invested with the honour and glary of all goodly names and stations' (GWB 155-6 no. 81, 159 no. 82). After death each soul will recognize the wotth of its own deeds and understand thc consequences of its actions. Those who have turned to God will experience inexpressible joy and gladness. Those who have lived in error will be filled with fear and consternation. Those who have rejected God will become aware of the good things that had escaped them and bemoan their plight, humbling themselves before him. Souls will recognize thc accomplishments of other souls rhat have anained the samc level as themselves, but they will not understand those rhat are higher in rank (GWB 169-70 no. 86). If a murderer has already been punished for his crime in this life he will not be punished anew in the next (SWAB 179). (See also DEATH.)

s p i r i t u a l assemblies SECASSEMBLIES. s p i r i t u a l path In writings such 35 the SEVENVALI.TYS and Foun VALLEYS Bahi'u'lllh outlined the various stages.0: the mystical path, and in his Kitdb-i-IQ~Nhe referred to the path of the 'tme seeker' after God. To follow this path the seeker needs first to 'cleanse and purify' his or her heart from the 'obscuring dust' of 'acquired

knowledge', and from those emotions that would divert him from the truth. Then, trusting in God, and with utter detachment, he should seek t o acquire moral and SPIRITUAL QUALITIES (humility; patience; refraining from idle speech and BACKBITING; contentment with little; companionship with those who have renwnced the world and avoidance of fellowship with the ungodly; daily communing with God at dawn: perseverance in the quest; succouring the dispossessed, the destitute and animals; preparedness to offer up his life for God; faithfulness in promises; nhservance of the COI.DF.N RULE; forgiveness and prayer for the sinful; mindfulness of his own nothingness before God and the unknown nature of his own spiritual fare). Next, with 'earnest striving', 'passionate devotion', 'rapture' and the like, divine love will he wafted over his soul, and 'the lights of knowledge and certitude envelop his being', such rhat he can see the evidences of divine revclarion wherever he goes, and distinguish truth from falsehood as easily as the sun from shadow (KI 1 2 2 6 ) . The link between spirituality and moral behaviour is constantly stressed. The Bahi'i writings also emphasize the importance of Pnavra, MEDITIITION, CLEANLINESS and steadfastness in the COVENANT in the attainment of spirituality (LC 540-3). The Universal House of Justice has given a lin of six 'essential requisites' for spiritual growth: daily obligatory - . prayer . . with purehearted devotion; reverential and thoughtful reading of scripture at least every morning and evening; prayerful meditation on the BahB'i teachinss; -~daily. effort to model one's behaviour on the Bahi'i ideals; TaAclllNG the Faith to others; and 'selfless service' both to the Faith and in one's WORK (LC 540). The

spiritual qualities

The Bahi'i writings abound with references to various spiritual and moral qualities which the individual shot~ld seek to acquire. Although primarily addressed to Bahi'is, such injunctions are also specifically identified as necessary for those who occupy positions of political or religious leadership in any society. The attributes of good character include the 1:rAR O F GOD; reverence; piety; obedience to religious law; love for God expressed in love for humanity; prayerfulness; compassion; consideration for others; courtesy; philanthropy; service to others; industriousness; sclflessness; forbearance and calm; meekness; amiability; a lack of malice; loyalty; courage; magnanimity; generosity; energy and real; a sense of honour and regard for the rights of others; highmindedncss; DETACHMENT from material things; submissiveness to the will of God; humility; control of the passions; temperance; purity; CH~n'lrv;JUSTICE (including equity and fair-mindedness); TnurHFoI.NEss, honesty. (including . candour and financial probity); TRUSTWORTHINESS (including .reliability); fairhh~lncss;integrity; sinceriry; w ~ r o o and ~; moderation. Purtty of motivarion is crucial (CC2: 1). Such virtues are conducive to human dignity and honour, and the attainment of 'man's true station' (CCZ: 330, 333). Only those who are adorned with these virtues can be reckoned among 'the m e servsnts of God'. Each individual should 'strive diligently' to acquire them (CCZ: 332). Moral and religious qualities are also to be balanced by reason and knowledge (SDC 60). Bahi'is should be diainguished by their moral qualities (SWAB 71). They should promote freedom (CCZ: 341). The 'sword' of upright concept of g l r ~ o l l t y1, d i w v d in W. Halcher, conduct is 'sharper than blades of stecl'. C-, hklmn.D ~ ~ in~S p i~r i ~~l u ~~(See I i ~ M s It is the means by which 'the citadels of also DEVOTIONALISM; HIDDEN WORDS men's hearts' will he subdued ICC2: HUMAN NAWRB; SUFISM.) 331; see T E A C H I N G ) . If the Bahi'is

'summer whwls' succeed in exemplifying divine vimtes then they will become both completely united amongst themselves and a magnet far others, who will want to discover the source of their radiance and joy. Each individual is responsible for their own life, and should seek to perfect their own character (and avoid BACKBITING about others) (CC2: 3). (See also SPIRITUAL PATH.)

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sterilization Permanent sterilization is forbidden as a form of BIRTH CoNTnoL, but is permiaed for medical reasons. Subh-i-Azal See A ~ A LSUBH-I.. ,

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suffering 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi regarded suffering as having various causer: (1) Some is a consequencc of the individual's own actions, e.g. they ruin rheir digestion through ovcrerring; they become poor because they gamble. Obedience to God's laws would end many of these sources of suffering. (2) God tests those who want to draw nearer to him. Suffering is a means of perfecting the individual, those who suffer most attaining the greatest perfection. It causer people to turn to God, when in happiness they might forget him. It proves the sincerity of those who claim to have dedicared their lives to God. (3) The material world is, by its very nature, transient and unsarisfactory. Suffering alerts people to this reality. They should learn thar the only m e happiness is to be found in the world of the spirit. (4) Some suffering is a result of fear of the unknown, parti~ whereas if people cularly of D E A know the nature of the afterlife, they would not fear what is a superior form of existence (LG 601-4; PT 41-3, 11013,191; PUP 46-8; Savi 130-2; SWAB

81, 200, 239). ( 5 ) For those who have muly tumed to God, separation from him is the greatest suffering. For the development of the soul, ignorance and bad deeds (lying, cruelty, treachery, erc.) are a torment (SAQ - 224, 265). In response to suffering people should develop the spiritual qualities of fortitude and-parien;e (RBI:. 269-71). as with those prophets and saints who found contentment in the midst of ordeal. The fortitude displayed by rhc suffcrer might also have a profound effect on others. This does not imply fatalism, however. Through a combination of PRAYER and determined and continued efforr, even seemingly insuperable hindrances can be overcome (CC1: 477-8 no. 1060, 479 no. 1067; LG 280 nos. 943-4). Again, Baha'is should work to overcome such causes of human distress as p o v e q and disease. If someone is ill, they should seek help from competent physicians (see HEAI.TH AND HEALING).

Sufism Islamic myaicism, expressed in a diverse range of beliefs, practices and organizations. Bahi'u'llih evidently sympathized with some aspecn of Sufism, but was critical of others. In Kurdistan he lived the life of a solitary dervish, later moving to the Khilidiyya Sufi centre in Sulaymlniyya at the invitation of Shaykh Ismi'il, its local shaykh. He also gained the respect of the leaders of the regional Naqshabandi and Qidiri orders. During his stay, at the request of his hosts, he commented on Ibnu'l'Arabi's 'Meccan Revelntiom' (Al-futBb6t a/-mokkiyya), and composed his ODE OF THE DOVEin the ecstatic style of Ibnu'l-Firid. Returning to Baghdad he remained in contact with Kurdish Sufis, receiving them as visitors, and writing the SEVEN VALLEYS and the FOUR VALLEYS in response to Sufi correspondents (GPB 1 2 1 4 , 128-9). Several of

his followers were Sufis, notably Sidq'Ali, in whore honour he dedicared an annual night for the remembrance of God (dhikr) (MF 36-8). In sharp distinction to the beliefs of many Sufis, Bahl'u'llih absolutely rejected any form of pantheism: Goo in essence is beyond any human anribure or physical location. No human being has ever known him (SV22-3; TB 60). He also criticized those expressions of Sufism thar involve seclusion from the everyday . . world and extreme ASCETICISM; 01 which encourage idleness and drug-taking, .rheir followers believing themselves to be ahove the LAV. The true constrains of religious Sufi was one who ~ 3 both s cevcrcd from all rlqc hut Cod and constant in worsh~o and obedience to holy law (MF 36-8; TB 60).

suicide Suicide is forbidden, and is regarded as endangering the soul. Life is a gift of Cod. The individual is not responsible for acts committed when he or she is mentally deranged, howeve6 and under such circumstances would not suffer from spiritual consequences. LG 357 "0%. 1 199-2CQ.

Sulaymbn Khbn Tunukbbuni See JAMAL E~FENOI.

Sultbn, Lawh-i(PA, 'Tablet of the King*) Bahl'u'llih's tablet to NASIRU.O-DIN SHAH. Written in a mixrure of Arabic and Persian, it is the lengthiest of the leners to the RULERS. Composed in Edirne, it was not sent to the shah until after Bahl'u'llih had arrived in Akka, the young messenger, Broi., who delivered the tablet, being put to death for his pains. The tablet includes an appeal to the shah to grant religious toleration to the Bahi'is as they were loyal and obedient subjects. Bahi'u'llih himself had consistently opposed violence, and had summoned the Bibis to lay down the sword and eschew sedition. The clerics were those who were primarily to blamc for the persecution of the Bibis and, if the shah wished, Bahi'u'llih would return to Iran to confront the WLAMA and establish the truth of his cause (presumably in MUBAHALA). If the shah would respond to Bahl'u'llih's call he would amain a great spiritual station. He was reminded that kingship was itself transitory: the skeletal remains of a king and a pauper in their graves were the same, and numerous rulers and countless great men had come and gone without leaving a trace of their existence. Various autobiographical derails of Bahl'u'llib's life were also given. Browns. Seboims 2 6 0 6 ; RB2: 337-40. 34651. 355-7.

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sultanate An institution of Islamic kingship, most of OTTOMAN particularly thc dynasry ~. rulers, who combined secular power with the religious leadership of the Sunni Muslim world by their ilaims to the CAI.IPHATE. The sultanate was abolished by the new Turkish republic on 1 November 1922, and the caliphate in 1924. These twin institutions were regarded by Shoghi Effendi as the 'arch-enemy' of the Bahi'i cause, and their collapse cited as an instance of DIVINE JUDGEMENT.

'summer schools' Courses of learning intended to foster Bahi'i DEEPENING and spiritual and social life. Commonly, summer schools are held for a week or more during the holiday season, and provide Bahl'is with an opportunity to meet and study rheir religion. Winrer and other seasonal schools are also held, as are shorterduration weekend schools, all with a similar purpose. Given that in many countries the local BahB'i groups are small and scattered, there schools offer

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sbm (Ar.)/sbn'h (Pers.) an experience of Bahl'i communiry life. As a Bahi'i activity they can be traced back to the GREENACREsummer conferences in New England in the early 1900s. These were copied in newly established Bahi'i conference cenrres, as in other pans of the United Stares (Geyserville, California, 1927; Lnuhelen, Michigan, 1931), Germany (1931) and Australia (1937181, or in temporarily hired premises, as in Britain (from 1936) and India (from 1938). Such schools have since proliferated and have become a common part of Bahi'i life warld-wide. Shoghi Effendi stressed the value of anendance; encouraged the study of such topics as Bshi'i scrimure and history, islam, comparative religion, interracial amity, ethics, Bahl'i admin-

330 isrrarion, the COVENANT and public speaking; emphasized the imponance of maintaining a high spiritual and intellectual standard, and of linking the schools t o the TEACHING campaigns; noted the value of having study classes and discussion groups as well as lectures; and expressed the hope that the schools would eventually evolve into BahB'i universities. ccr: 2642: GFB34&1; LG 55843. s i r r a (Ar.)/sbrih (Pcrs.) The name given co the various 'chapters' of the Q U ~ A N . Several of ~ahi'ullih's writings are also referred to as stiras, including the Slra of the KJNOSand the Stira of the BRANCH.

Tabarsi, S h a y k h

Bahi'is of the United States and Canada during World War I. The first eight Small shrine of Shaykh Ahmad ibn Abi letters were composed in 1916 (26 Talib Tabarsi about 1 4 miles southeast March-22 April), and five of these had of BBrfur(lsh. It became a Bibi strongbeen received and published before hold and was the site of rhc most famous communications beween Palestine and of the conflicts beween them and their America were severed because of the BusHnui had opponents. Mulli HUSAYN war. A funher six letters were composed led a growing hand of armed Ribis in 1917 (2 February-8 March). Lerrcrs wesward from Mashhsd carrying the messianic s y m b o l o f t h e B L A C K were addressed to the North American STANDARD. On entering Birfudsh (10 BahB'is as a whole as well as by region (Canada, the North-eastern, Southern, October 1848) they were attacked. Central and Western United Stares). The Responding, rhcy killed scvcral of their complcte set was ceremonially 'unveiled' adverrarics. Arracked again, they retired t o the Bahl'is at a smcial convention in to Tabarsi (12 October), which they New Yark in April i919. 'Ahdu'l-Bahi's fortified. Other Bibis later joined them, instructions were that Bahi'is should including Quonus, their total numbers systematically teach the Faith in those rising t o perhaps six hundred. Fighting in American states and Canadian provinces what they came to see as a re-enactment in which there were as yet few or no the Bibis held out against of KARBAI.~, Bahi'is: establish it throuzhout Latin large numbers of professional troops America; and propagate it throughout until, weakened by amition and starvathe rest of the world 'as far as the islands tion, they respnded to a false truce and most were massacred (10 'May 1849). of the Pacific'. Long lista of territories and islands where the Bahi'is should go were Nine of the L E ~ E ROFSTHE LIVING were given. The American continent was killed at Tabarsi or in its immediate where God's light would be revealed, aftermath. nnn 358-9; B~OWM. sd-ti141.2; and if the N a n h American Bahl'is MBBK 91-9; Moman. '5ociol b l s ' 1tC-7; Nobil 326 responded t o his call, waves of spiritual 429: SBBR 267: TJAA-llO.3603; TN 3 5 9 , 177-9. power would emanate, and the Bahi'is 189-90. (See also Blei R A O ~ C A U ~ M . ) become 'established upon the throne of a n everlasting dominion'. Panicular sigT a b l e t s of t h e D i v i n e Plan nificance was anached t o teaching the Series of fourteen lcrrers by 'Abdu'lEskimos and other indigenous AmeriBahi on the imponance of TEACHING the cans, and t o establishing the Faith in Bahi'i Faith. They were addressed to the Alaska, Greenland, Mexico, Panama

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and the Brazilian ciry of Bahia (Salva- She was also known as Umm Salamih, Zarrin-Tij ('Crown of Gold'), and Qurdor). The teachers should seek to of the Eve'). She was become 'Apostles of Baht'u'llih'. (This ratu'l-'Avn . ('Solace . born into a prominent clerical family in required three conditions: to be firm in the northern Iranian city of Qazvin. Her the COVENANT;fellowship and love father, Mu116 Muhammad Silih, was a amongst the Bahi'is; and that the respected and powerful mulwero, as teachers were dedicated and severed was his brother, Mullh MUHAMMAD~TAQ~ from the world, continually travelling, BARAGHANI. Unusually for a woman in sanctified, and like a shining torch in 19th<entury lran she was allowed to God's love.) Those who travelled to undertake higher Islamic srudies, and foreign countries should Learn the local eventually gained a considerable reputalanguages. Bahi'i literature needed to be tion for scholarship. When she was translated or composed in the world's fourteen she was married to her uncle's various languages. The war had made son, Muhammad, by whom she had the peoples of the world yearn for peace three sons and one daughter (her husand become receptive t o the Bahi'i band later became leader of the Friday message. Specific prayers were given prayers (imrirn jrrm'o) in Qazvin, and far the teachers t o use. nen2&5; m. was in turn succeeded by the cldcst son). 'Abdu'l-Bahi had written that 'this is Whilst Muhammad-Taqi, hcr elder rhc time' for teaching, bur at first only a unclc, was one of thc most vehcment few Bahi'is responded t o his appeal opponents of SHAYKHISM, scve~alof her (these included Martha ROOT, who relatives hecame Shaykhis, including a travelled n Latin America, John and marernal cousin, Mulli Javld Valiyini, Clara Hyde-DUNN,who settled in Ausand her younger paternal uncle, Mu116 who tralia, and Leonora A~MSTRONG, settled in Brazil). Only from 1937 'Ali. Plcimih followed suit, and entered into secret correspondence with Sayyid onwards did Shoghi Effendi direct the KAZIM~ S I I T who ~ , called her QurroBaha'is m undertake a series of systematu'l-'Ay". Her younger sister, Mardiyyih, tic reaching PLANS intended to fulfil the married t o Mu116 Muhammad-'Ali (like ohjecrives of 'Abdu'l-BahBis letters. He Tihirih a futurc L E ~ ~ E R O FLIVING), TAE a referred to the fulfilment of 'Abdu'lson of the Qazvin Shaykhi leader Mulli Baht's Divine Plan as passing through a ' ~ h d u ' l - ~ a h h i balso , became a Shaykhi. scrim of stages (see TIME). The religious differences within the family exacerbated tensions between Tabriz (1868 pop. n t . 110,000) Firimih and her husband and, late in Cadtal of the nonh-western Iranian 1843, she separated from him and of Azerbaijin ( ~ d h i r b i y j i n ) . proceeded to Karbali with her sister, A maior international tradinp. - centre, it arriving there shortly after Sayyid was the most populous city in Iran by Kizim's death. At some point shc also the 1860s. Unlike the rest of lran the sent a message of recognition to the as province is largely Azeri Turkish-speakyet unidentified Bib in Shiriz, being ing. There are also important Kurdish enrolled by him as a Letter of rhe Living, Sunni and Assyrian Christian minorities. and rapidly becoming one of his most It was the site of the Bib's trial (late July renowned followers. Residing in Rashti's 1848) and execution (819 July 1850). house, and with the support of his widow, she energetically Tbhirih (PA, the 'Pure') Bibism, attracting many of the Shaykhis in Karbali. This leadership on the p a n Title of the Bibi leader Fitimih Baraof a woman, together with her increasghini (1814-52). given her by the Bib.

ingly radical understanding of Blbism as a messianic new age - reflected in her disregard for Islamic convention - p n erated opposition from more conservative Bibis as well as other Shaykhir. The Bib supported her, however, and in response t o allegations of immorality (caused by her apparently appearing unveiled before her disciples on a t least one occasion) named her 'the Pure' (Tihihitih). Mounting opposition finally caused her to leave Karhali for Baghdad, where she resided for some time in the house of the chief mufti (the head of the Sunni hierarchy in Iraq), Shaykh Mahmfid AIBsi, who was favourably impressed by her intellect and devotion. Then, in March 1847, on instructions from the Ottoman government, she was deported. Travelling slowly through western lran with a large group of supporters, she openly proclaimed Bibism t o Shi'is, sectarian Ahl-i-Haqq and Jews. She returned t o Qazvin in July. Regarding her husband as an infidel, she refused to live with him, staying instead with her brother. Tihirih's arrival exacerbated existing tensions, already made worse by the growth of a Bibi group in the town. Denying involvement in her unc1e.s subsequent murder (AugustlSeprember 1847), she escaped to Tehran. She was later one of the principals at the (June-July conference of BADASHT 1848). where she advocated a radical break wirh Islam. After this she went into hiding. Discovered in January 18.50, she was arrested and transferred to Tehran. She remained in confinement until her execution (strangled or choked to death) in September 1852, in the aftermath of the attempt on the life of Nb$lRu~o-DIN SHAH. Tihirih's role in the development of Bihism was crucial, particularly in its 'radicalization'. She was a charismatic figure who attracted attention, in pan because she sought to transcend the restrictions placed on her as a woman in a traditionalistic society. Her own

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immediate followers regarded her as the 'RETURN' of the Prophet Muhammad's daughteq Fhtima. She wrote eurensively, including apologetic works and a large correspondence dealing with BBbi matten. Little of &is has survived apart from her poems, however. Her poetry, and poetry attributed t o her is still widely regarded internationally in the Persian cultural world. Accounts of her life came to inspire later generations of feminists. AKR 295331; Brame. Momiah 34352: GPB 72.7; McS 54 107-16. 177; MF 190-203; Nobil81-4.26&73.283-7.621-9; TI269-84.3556.421.43Ml; IN309-16.

Tajalliy6t (PA, Efilgencer) Tablet of Bahi'u'llih composed in about 1885-6 in honour of Usrid 'Ali-Akbar Banni, a master builder in Yazd, who was the recipient of nvenry-seven tablen from Bahh'u'llih, and later prepared the initial plans for the Bahi'i House of Worshir, a t ASHIHABAD.He was martyred in 1903. The first part of the tablet is in Arabic. and contrasts the blessedness o f those who have accepted Bahi'u'llih with the utter loss of those who have rejected him. Usrid 'Ali is praised. The remainder of the tablet is in Persian, and details four 'effulgences': (1) In this day knowledge of God can only be arrained through recognition of Bahi'u'llih 3s a M A N ~ ~ E S T AOfT GOD. ~ON Complete recognition entails that the believer should also follow his LAW. (2) Steadfastness in God's Cause requires complete FAITH. (3) The importance of KNOWLEDGE is emphasized. (4) Were someone t o judge Bahi'u'llih fairly then they would recognize him as Manifesration of God. 1645-54; ne4: 1 l e a .

talismans The idea that a physical object can provide the wearer wirh some form of s u p e r n a ~ r a protemon l from danger is a common element in folk religion around the world. The Bib insmcted his fol-

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Tanumafili 11, M a . l i .e t w lowers t o make and wear talismans, and there are numerous references t o these in his writings. Whilst the Bahl'i teachings greatly d e l m p h a s i ~the esoteric elements of the Bibi tradition (instead stressing rationality), there are some prayers that appear t o offer talismanic protection, as wirh Bahi'u'llih's 'Long Healing Prayer', in which God is beseeched 'to protect the hearer of this and whoso passeth blessed Tablet around the house wherein it is', and t o heal by it (the Tablet), 'every sick, diseased and poor one' (Writings of Bal~d'e'116b 708-9; cf. McR 138-40). Again, 'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote that thosc who sought 'immuniry from the sway of the forces of the contingent world' should hang a copy of the CREATEST NAME in their dwellings, wear Bahi'i rings, place 'Abdu'l-RahQ's picture in their homes, and always recite his prayers (LG 520). McR 14-24. 48-51, 98104. 138-53; MeS 99-101; MmcEoin. 'Ninelanth

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God strengthen his followen t o serve the Faith; and complained of the injustice and falsity of the present age, and of the largely erroneous reports that had appeared about him in newspapers. The tshlet ends with an address to the AZALI Bbbi leader, Mirzb HAni DAWLATABADI, censuring him for his hypocrisy (he had publicly recanted his faith) and asking him to investigate Bahi'u'llih's Cause without prejudice. m31-M: 084: 168-76. T a r b i y o t schools See scHooLs.

teaching

The endeavour to attract more people t o the Bahi'i Faith is strongly emphasized in the Bahi'i writings, and is commonly referred to as 'teaching'. All Bahi'is arc given the obligation to teach their religion, and thcre is now no specific group of reachers, although up until at least the early years of the 20th century o n b r y obi nlirman.'. certain prominent Iranian Bahl'is were designated as 'teachers' (msbalighinl. T a n u m a f i l i II, M a l i e t o a Some Bahi'is esrahlish themselves in Head of stare of Western Samoa and one countries or localities in which there of its traditional rulers. He became a are no Bahl'is in order to spread the Bahi'i in 1968, his declaration of faith Faith to those places (see PIONEERI). being made puhlic in 1973. The Samoan Many spend ohen considerable periods capital, Apia, is the site of the first of time as 'travel teachers', travelling Bahi'i House of Worship (MASHRIQU'L. from one place to another to teach t h e ~ r AOHK~R of) the Pacific Islands. ewls: faith. 1803. Bahl'u'llih commanded his followers to reach, emphasizing the imporT o r n z a f (PA, Ornaments1 tance of ethics and wisdom: it is goodly conduct and saintliness that will ensure Tablet of Bahl'u'llih composed around the triumph of the Faith (TB 88, 126, 1889. In it Bahi'u'llih revealed six 196). Teaching and the S P l R l N A L PATH 'ornaments', concerning: ( I ) S E L F were thus linked, as in the LAWH-IKNOWLEDGE; (2) TOLERANCE; (3) good character (~~1.11~s); (4) TRnsnvoRTHINEss; HIKMAT,in which he counsels thosc who want t o serve his cause to forsake (5) respect for craftsmen and acknowlall evil; strive t o manifest divine virtues ed~ementof present Western prowess; and make each day bener than the nne (6) KNOWLEDGE and NEWSPAPERS. He also before; and he unworldly, generous in referred to the OPPOSITION to his Cause prosperity, patient in loss, active, chaste, (even in the face of the 'ascendancy of the faithful, truthful, enlightened, just, wise, oppressor' God's purpose could not be forgiving and merciful. They should be thwarted); revealed a prayer asking that

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335 united in thought; love all of humanity; follow what would profit all people, regardless of age or social status; avoid causing dissension or doubt; respect the Bahl'i learned and the mlers; and banish ignorance from the earth (TB 138-9). Elsewhere Bahi'u'llih counselled Bahi'is to be as 'unrestrained as the wind' in their reaching endeavour, putring their whole trust in God, arraying themselves with 'the robe of virtue', and becoming enkindled with 'the fire of His love'. Thus would their words have an impact on those who heard them, and God render them victorious over those who opposed the Faith (AD] 42, 47). They should be ablaze with 'the fire of rhe love of God' (CCZ: 293), and speak wirh 'penetrating power' (itself based on purity of spirit) (TB 198-9). At the same time, however, they should exercise MODERATION, tact, and wisdom in what they say (TB 143) and show 'extreme kindliness' and friendliness to those whom they hope t o attract to the Faith. They should not exceed the individual's capiciry by saying too much, lest rhey engender opposition. If others reject the teachings rhey should not protest, bur leave them t o themselves and turn t o God (CC2: 293-4; TB 129). The reacher should also memorize passages from scripture, as these exert a potent influence on the hearer when auoted ITB 200). 'Abdu'l-Bahi also emohasired the importance of Bahi'is teaching their religion t o others (see particularly his TABLETS OF THE DIVINE PLAN,in which he also outlined a global mission of Bahi'i EXPANSION). Thus they would attract 'divine confirmations'. They should be detached, pure in heart, laving, humble, wire and courageous. They should never argue with anyone. Each Bahi'i should reach one new person each year (CC2: 298-3011, In The ADVENTOP DlvlNe JUSTICE Shoghi Effendi outlined the prerequisites and requirements of teaching in the

Tehmn Seven Year PLAN. Elsewhere he appealed t o Bahl'is to make teaching 'the dominating passion of our life' and emphasized the importance of pioneering (BA 69). Bahl'is should place their reliance on God and deepen their knowledge of the Faith and its holy writings. They should teach constructively. There is no one right method of teaching (though informal meetings in homes - Ivlneslnrr with discussions and hospitality, had proved particularly effective). Bahi'is should be sensitive to those rhey sought to teach. The Bahi'i Faith is for everyone. To teach educated people Bahi'is should themselver be well informed so that they could discuss contemporary issues intelligently. They should not disdain illiterates or regard them as unintelligent. PRAYER and perseverance are important (CCZ: 301-26). The entry of large numbers of new Bahb'is in various 'Third World' countries from the 1950s onwards dramarically changed the composition of the Bahi'i community world-wide, and also changed conceptions of reaching. The Universal House of lustice has accordingly emphasized the importance of 'teaching the masses' as a means of achieving continued large-scale expansion. Effective COXSOLIDATION is vital, particularly in areas where largc numbers of rural illiterates had become Bahl'is. New Bahl'is should be made t o feel part of the existing Bahl'i community. Bahs'is should not give the impression that conversion would lead to any material advantage to the people they were teaching (CC2: 61-71).The House has also stressed the importance of fostering cordial relations wirh prominent people (CC2: 258-80). (See olro MISSION; PROCLAMATION.)

Tehran ( T h r i n ) (1868 pop. esr. 85,000) Iranian capital since the Qhjbn period. It was the birthplace of Bahi'u'lllh and

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temple, Baha'i

cb<

....

'---';"

'Abdu'l-Bahl (also of BAHIYYIH KHINUM and Mirzl Mlnol). Bahl'u311Qh eulogized the city as 'the Dayspring of His [God'sl light' and the'source of joy of all mankind'. God's lovingkindness was directed towards it. Power within it would soon pass to the people, and its agitation change into calm. One day it would be ruled by a just king who would protect the Bahb'is (KA 5 3 4 k91-3). As capital, it became an early centre of Bfbi activity, Bahl'u'lllh himself being one of the earliest converts there (1844). The first persecution of the BBhis in the city was in 1850 (see SEVEN M A n r v n s o r T E ~ n n ~This ) . was followed by the bloody aftermath of the botched artempt on the life of NAs!no.n-nln SHAH (IRSS), in which large numbers of BQMs were executed, some in grisly public spectacles of torture and dismcmherment. Those killed included A z i ~seemingly the leader of the militant BBbi group responsihlr for the assassination attempt - as well as others, such as TAHIIIH,who had been uninvolved IMBBR 1 3 2 4 5 ) . It was at this time that Bahl'u'lllh was arrested and placed dungeon. in thc S~YAII-CHAL A Bahl'i community emerged in the 1860s. and appears t o have grown rapidly, its numbers augmented hath by conversions and the movement of Bahb'ir from other pans of IRAN,who were fleeing persecution o r seeking greater economic opponunity. Persecution in Tehran irsclf was relatively limited, in part because family connections between Bahf'is and govemmenr officials ensbled the local Rahb'is t o receive warnings of possible action directed against rhem; in part, no doubt, so that the government could avoid the embarrassment of criticism from the powerful foreign embassies located in the capiral. Major exceptions were the martyrdoms of Bnol(1869) and of 'AliM u h a m m a d VARQ6 a n d his son, Rhhu'lllh (1896), and the imprisonment of groups of Bahfis in 1882-3 and 1891

(MBBR292-5, 355-6). Tehran became

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the centre for the emerging system of national Bahi'i administration: all four appointed by of the HANDSOFTHECAUSE Bahf'u'lllh (1887-c.1889) were resident in Tehran, and the Tehran spiritual assembly (1899) served as the central administrative body for the whole couotry. It was also the locale nf the wellknown Tarbiyat Bahl'i SCHOOLS (1898, 1910). MS. %hron.. THE HOUSE O F B A H ~ U ' L L A H

Bahh'u'lllh was born in a large, early 19rhienrury house complex belonging to his father, M i n i 'ABRAS.The house was locared in the Pf-Minlr (minaret's foot) area of the old Shimrln Gate district, a neighbourhoad in which many QQjBrcourtiers and notables lived. After his father's fall from office (late 1830s) the house was sold, and the family lived in rented property. The house is regarded by Bahj'is as a sacred site, and was located, purchased and restored by rhem during the 1940s. It was confiscated by government authorities after the Islamic Revolution (1979).

temple, Baha'i See M ~ . $ H ~ ~ Q ~ . L - A D H K A R

Temple Society (German: Tempelgerellrchaft) Also called Templers, a German Christian adventist group which established communities in the Holy Land. The first and largest colony was founded in HAIFA in 1868-9 under the leadership of David Hardegg. Both Bahi'u'lllh and 'Abdu'lDah5 had friendly contacts with the Templers during their visits t o Haifa. The colony was dispersed by the British in the lare 1930s for security reasons, many families being resenlcd in Auaralia. The street along which their houses were built leads to the stainvay up t o the Shrine of the Bfb. a u k 189.93.

'renrplcr Colony, Hmfa

Ten Year Crusade (Plan) (1953-63) Thc first international TEACHING plan (see PLANS). It was launched by Shoghi Effendi, and brought t o completion by the HANDSOF THE CAUSE.It culminated in 1963 with the ficit elenion of the Universal House of Justice, and the holding of the London World Congress (see CONFERENCES), a t the time the largest gathering of Bahl'is ever held. texts See CANONICALTEXTI;

SCRIPTURE.

Thatcher, Chester Ira (d. 1907) Early American Bahl'i, from Chicago. Shoghi Effendi honoured him as one of the DlsclrL~sOF'ABDU.L-BAHA. theology The systematic study of the divine. There is at present linle in the way of

formal B a h l l theolwv. ", Certain basic theological concepn pervade the Bahf'i writings (notably the unknowability of Gon, the pivotal role of the MANIPESTATIONS OF CODin the hwnan approach to the divine; the SOUL),bur the general thrust of the Bahl'i scriptures and authoritative interpretations most widely available (in ~ n ~ l ' l saht least) is mward; the develo~mentof ~racticals~iritualiw. .. morality, social change and community functioning, and B a W writers have reflected this emphasis. Inexact translations of some of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's theological texts limit the present possibilities of explicating certain aspects of Bahl'i theology for those reliant on Western language sources. lhsolqlic.d canccrn~ am expbred in a few ncml publiw40n~.including Mcleon's d"dy ool ,pi.ilvaliV [Din.nrnns in spnmllfl;m r aonimlcn 01 ihe'Emol Chad br bd.:ond b s w r k 01 m. wnhikm b Mclea"', Ranrionin~,ha Sored, w d wi* svch Wcr a IVERFArM DIMOGUE. l1br.tim

hbgl. a d

uiancs,; rss alu, k

METAPHYSICS.)

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b""Lh, d .~rd.gonrano.. (See also

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Thompson, Juliet T h o m p s o n , J u l i e t (1873-1956)

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Early American Bahi'i and well-known portrait painter. She became a Bahi'i in Paris in 1901 after meeting May Bolles (MAXWELL). She later returned t o the United Stares. She was greatly devoted to 'Abdu'l-Bahi and was much involved in the work for his visit t o New York. During World War 1 she was a strong advocate of peace (attracting the anention of federal agents). Her memoirs of meetings with 'Abdu'l-Bahi (The Diary of Juliet Thompson) are well known. BW13: 862-4: WBW73-85.

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Thornburgh-Cropper, M a r y V i r g i n i a (d. 1938)

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Expatriate American who became the first Bahi'i in Britain in 1898 after hearing of the new religion from her friend Phoebe HEARST.She and her mother were among the first group of Western pilgrims to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahi in 189&9. She was active in the promotion of the Fairh in London and was a member of the various Bahl'i administrative bodies established there from 1913 onwards. Shoghi Effendi named her as one of the DISCIPLES OF 'ABDU.L. BAHA.BW8:649-51; WSBR 1730.

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writings t o the seasonal changes of the year, starring with the 'divine springtime' of each 'appearance' ( p h u r ) of a Manifestation. Collectively these dispensations comprise a 'Universal Cycle' of interrelated PROPHETS, each furthering the spiritual . prouess of humanity. The . present universal cycle centres on Bahl'u'lllh. It consists of w o sub-cycles: a n approximately six-thousand-yearlong cycle of prophecy (the 'Adamic cycle'), which began with the prophet ADAMand ended with the declaration of the Bib (1844), during which successive Manifestations announced the future establishment of a kingdom of God on earth; and a 'Bahh'i cycle', lasting some half-a-million years, during which this kingdom (the 'Most Great PEACE')will be established, and a succession of future Manifestations appear under Bahl'u'IIih's shadow - the first not until the lapse of at least one thousand years. LG 4745.5W: S4Q 16&1; WOB 102-3. AGES OF T H E FAITH

Shoghi Effendi referred t o three evolutionary stages through which the Faith would pass (CF 5-7; CPB xiii-xi", 411; WOB 98, 156-7): *APOSTOLIC' (1844-1921) This is associated with the ministries of the CENTRAL FIGURES of the Fairh (the Bib, Bahi'n'lllh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi). This had been a period of unparalleled with spiritual fecundity. 'impremared' . th~.creative cnrrgirs of rwo indcpcndmt .\lanifcsrattons of (;od and the esrrhltshment of a COVENANT unique in religious history.

THE 'HEROIC'. 'PRIMITIVE' OR AGE

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time Past, present and future are d w i b e d according to various hmmeworks, which structure the whole of religious history on this planer. DISPENSATIONS A N D CYCLES

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According t o the PROGRESSIVE REVELATION doctrine the impact of each ~ N ~ F E S T A T I O OF N GOD takes a cyclic form. Each brings a fresh revelation from Cod which only gradually matures in the form of a new religion and civilization before eventually declining in force, thus necessitating a further revelation. These cycles (often referred to as 'Dispensarions') are compared in the Bahi'i

THE PRESENT

IFORMATIYE'. .TRANSITIONAL'

1921) During this period the Bahiys built the 'Administrative Order' (see ADMINISTRATION), which would crystallize and shape the spiritual forces of the Heroic Age and which constituted the 'hallOR'IRON'AGE (FROM

mark and glory' of the age. This age was House of Justice, characterized by rapid linked t o ihe first via 'Abdu'l-Bahi's growth, the initiation of soclo-ECONOMIC WILL AND TESTAMENT and BAHIYYIH OEVELOI'MENT activities and the 'emerKIIANUM,'the lasr survivor' of that gence of the Faith from obscurity' (see BAHM FAITH).Adminisnative developearlier age. The Age of Transition overments included the establishment of the lapped with a n 'Age of Frustration', OF COUNSELLORS CONTINENTAL BOARDS which had begun with World War I a n d the I N T E R N A T I O NTEACHING AL (1914-18) and the historic changer precipitated by it (WOE 171). CENIRE.The construction and occupation of the Seat of the House of Justice THE FUWRE'GOLDEN'AGE was the crowning event of this epoch. This would be signalled by the establishment of a 'Bahi'i World CommonIn which, marking the increasing marurwealth' (see WORLDORDER), which iry of the Bahl'i administrativc instituwould represent the 'fruit' of their present efforts. It would witness the tions, the planning process is becoming localized a t the level of national ASSEMunification of all the world's peoples; the inauguration of the Most Great BLIES in consultation with the Boards of Counsellors. CF5-5; MUHI706 no. 447. 71&16 Peace; and the subsequent birrh and no. 451. efflorescence of a world civilization. EPOCHS

EPOCHS OF THE DIVINE PLAN

The first two ages were subdivided into epochs. Those of the Heroic Age merely followed the three successive ministries o f the Central Figures (CF 5 ) . Those of the Formative Age were as follows:

Shoghi Effendi also referred to epochs in the fulfilment of 'Abdu'l-Rahi's T A ~ L E T S o r THE DIVINEPLAN,beginning in 1937 with the initiation of the first systematic teaching plan. The Universal House of Justice has identified two such epochs to date: (1) 1937-63 From the start of the first American Seven Year Plan until the completion of the Ten Year Crusade; (2) After 1963 From the beginning of the Nine Year Plan. There are also stages within these epochs. MUWS m. 12.713 m. 451.7.

(1) 1921-4416 The initial establishment of the Bahl'i administration in all five continents. The first of the systematic national teaching PLANS was also launched during this period.

A series of national teaching plans using T o b e y , M a r k (189k1976) the administrative machinerv estabMaior modem American artist who was lished during the first epoch, followed a Bahi'i. His work anracted particular by the first international plan. Adminisartention in Europe where he lived much trative developments including the of his life. He became a Bahi'i in 1918. establishment of the INTERNATIONAL BWI? 4014; hhl, h n l Bbay: Wwld Odar 11/3 B n ~ iCOUXCIL, i the HANDSOFTHE CAUSE (spring 19n1. and the AUXILIARY BOARDS,and culminating in the formation of the UNIVERSAL tolerance HOUSE o r JUSTICE. l The Bahb'i Faith advocates ~ l t u r a and (3)1963-86 religious tolerance. Bahl'u'llih instructed A succession of three international plans his followen t o associate with all the under the direction of the Universal peoples of the world with 'joy and

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Tolrtoy, Leo

340 Christians) were often severely dismminated against and regarded as ritually unclean. The Bahl'is' tolerance is very likely to have been a factor in the conversion of members of these groups (SBBR 97). (See also HUMAN RICIITS; PREJUDICE.)

T o l s t o y , Leo (1828-1910) Russian novelist and thinker. He made a study of the Bibi and Bahi'i religions, and expressed his intention of writing about them. He was sympathetic to some aspects of the Baha'i teachings, but critical of others. chndirion; sfadsrdo. T o w n s h e n d , George (1876-1957) Mark Tobey, rrzodcrn An?ericnn artist and Bohd7

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radiance'. This promotes unity, social order and advancement. Tolerance and righteousness are the means of human edification (TB 36). Again, the Bahi'is should 'consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship' (TB 22, 35, 87). Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahl advocated 'infinite kindness and forbearance' when speaking with those of a different religion. Fanaticism and 'unreasonina-reli~ious . zeal' repel others. Shunning others because of their reliaious beliefs, reaardinp . .them as ritually unclean and treating them with discourtesy, are to be condemned (SDC 53-5). Even when he strongly disagreed with the religious beliefs of others he avoided directly criticizing them (SAQ 282), except when these beliefs engendered social attitudes of which he disapproved, such as racial hatred and religious intolerance. These teachings conmasted strongly with 19th-century Iranian Shi'i practice, in which religious minority groups (Zoroastrians, Jews,

Analo-Irish HANDOF THE CAUSEof Protestant background. H e was ordained as an Episcopalian minister in 1906 whilst living in the United States, and resumed a clerical life after he had returned to Lreland, later becoming a Canon at St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin in 1932 and Archdeacon of Clonferr in 1933. He became a Bahi'i in 1921 and subsequently worked to attract other clergy of the Church of Ireland to his new-found faith. These efforts were completely unavailing. He eventually renounced his orders in 1947. From 1926 onwards he acted as literary adviser to Shoghi Effendi, reading through and editing all of the Guardian's major publications. At Shoghi Effendi's request hc wrote the introductions to ns and Goo The D r r m u . B ~ E ~ r ~(1932) h s s ~ s B v(1944). His own writings were extensive, and included The O l d Churches ond the New World Faith (1949), a 'manifesto' to Christians explaining the reasons for leaving the church, and Chrirt and Bah6'n'116h (1957), presenting Bahi'i as the fulfilment of Christianity. Shoghi Effendi appointed him as a Hand of the Cause in December 1951. sw13:8 4 1 6 ; oha an.

Hippolyre DREYFUS into French were particularly important. With SIIOCHI EFFENDI'S accession as Guardian (1922) English asrumcd official status, Shoghi writing extensively in English as well as translating a number of Bahl'i works into that language. Shoghi Effendi's formal style, modclled in part on the English of the King James version of the Bible, has come to be regarded as exemplary for Bahi'i translators in its poetry and beauty. He also established the present system of Bahi'i mANsL1. TERATION. The UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE has also sponsored a number of important translation projects. Translation goals have come to be an Grorge 'fi,ronsh~nd,Anglo-lrrsb Hahi7 author and Hand of the G a r c imporrant element in BahB'i expansion PLANS since the 1930s. Whereas in 1928 Bahl'i literature was only available in translation eight or so languages, by May 1994 Bahi'is stress the importance of u-renAcu literature had k e n translated into 802 and of the individual believer reading the languages (BWNS 1994-5: 317). In Bahl'i writing for him or herself. The many cases the literature manslated may value of reading SCRIPTURE in the original consist of just a few prayers, but in an language is appreciated, but with the increasing number of languages a exception of Persian speakers who read substantial body of material is now their obligatory PaArans and various available ('Survey' 75). In the case of other writings of Bahl'u'llih in the smipture these translations are generally original Arabic there is no requirement made from Shoahi Effendi's Enplish. to do so, even for ritual purposes (i.e. language translations (this underlines there is no sacred LANGUAGB). Translation the importance of Shoghi Effendi's role of Bahl'i writings, pamcularly scripture, as inarprerer). Only in thccaseof ,Middle is therefore given great importance. Eastern lanmaaes - - or Urdu are they made The Bahi'i scriptures are mostly in directly from the original Persian or Persian or Arabic, and the EXPANSION of Arabic. All translations require pre-pubthe Baha'i Faith outside the Middle East lication navrfw. An increasing number of necessitated translation of there writings English aanslations are now being made into other languages. Some Bibi and from the original tens. These require the Bahl'i works had been translated into approval of the Universal House of European languages during the 19th and Justice before they can be officially early 20th centuries by orientalists (see published. Translation by committee is E.G. BROWN€, J.A. GOBINEAU, A.L.M. encouraged, and the use of informal NICOLAS. Alexander TUMANSKI). but for language is discouraged. The use of the most part translation of tens imporsimplifications and paraphrases for those of who are less educated is permirred, bur tant to Bahj'is benan - with the growth " Bahl'i communities in America and such work is not to be accorded the status E u r o ~ efrom the 1890s. The work of of scripture (BahZiStudies Bulletin 511-2 ALI-KULI KHAN, Laura (DREYFLIS.)BARNEYUanuacy 1991): 90-101; LC 106-9 nos. and Ahmad SOHRAB in English and 367-71; MUHJ 186 no. 94.3d).

Turner, Robert

343

transliteration In 1923 Shoghi Effendi initiated a policy of having a uniform system of transliteration of Persian and Arabic terms in English, and insisted that it be used in all Bahii'i publications (BA 43). The main elements of this system are given in all volumes of the old series of Bahd'i World from volume 2 onwards. A modified version of this system is used in the present book (see preface). The system itself is based on one adopted by the Tenth International Congress of Orientalirts a t Geneva in September 1894. h m a . ahxi xi splern of honrliamlion'. ~roveller'sNarrative (Pers.: Mnqdli-yi-shakhpi sayydh) Historical narrative of early BQM and BahB'i hisrory by 'Abdu'l-Bahi, composed around 1886. It was first puhlished anonymously in Persian in 1890 in Bombay. A facsimile edition, together with an English translation and detailed - and exrremcly valuable - notes, was prepared by E.G. Bnowm, and pubs lished in 1891. ~ c 169-70. True, Corinne Knight (1861-1961) Prominent early American Bahi'i and HAND OF THE CAUSE. She converted in 1899 in Chicago. She was initially the driving force behind the projca to build a Bahi'i cemple in the Chicago area, and UNITY.She served on the BAHAITEMPLE was one of those consulted by Shoghi Effendi about the furure development of the Faith in 1922, and was also active as a Bahf'i teacher in the United Stares, and in the establishment of new BaWi groups in Europe after World War Il. She was appointed a Hand in February 1952. BWiX 8469: Horpr391-407; RUlbin. C h T trustworthiness Particularly praised as a human vime. Bahl'u'llih described it as 'the sun of

the heaven' of his commandments, to which TRlrTHFULNESS was the moon. It was 'the greatest portal' leading t o human security and tranquillity, and 'the supreme instrument for the prosperity of the world'. 'The stability of every affair' depended upon it, and it was 'the most glorious crown' for the heads of his followers. It was better to be adorned with 'the raiment of trusrworthincss' than to visit Bahi'u'llih as a pilgrim. It protected the individual from harm, and was 'the chief means' of attracting both divine c o n h a t i o n s and prosperity. It was a vital part of economic activiry. (No one should deal faithlessly with the wealth of others. Nor to settle one's debts if one was in a position t o d o so was t o go against the 'good pleasure' of God.) Bahl'u'lllh referred several times to a vision he had at the Ridviin Garden in AKKAin which he saw trusrworrhiness personified (TB37-8,121-2, ESW 1367). 'Abdu'l-Bahi stated that Bahi'is should be distinguished by their trustworthiness. Piety and the performance of all g w d deeds were of no value without trustworthiness and honesty. Government officials in particular should strive to be completely trustworthy. cc2 32753. (See also srluruAL QUAL~TIES.)

truth, independent investigation of See I N D E P E N D E N T I N V E S T I G A T I O N

possible quality - 'the destroyer of all human perfections' and 'the foundation of all evils' (only in the case of a doctor who withholds knowledge of a patient's m e condition in the belief that it would help rhcm recover was it considered permissible) (SAQ 215-16). (See also sp!nrrnAL QUAL~TIES). Tudor-Pole, Major Wellesley (1884-1968) Prominent early British BahiT. He first heard of Bahi'i in 1908, and visited 'Ahdu'l-Bahit in Egypt in 1910. 'Abdu'lBahi staved at his guest housc in Clifton during his visits t o Bristol in 1911 and 1913. During World War I Tudor-Pole joined British military intelligence in Egypt, and was responsible for initiating British moves to secure 'Abdu'l-Bahi's safety during the invasion of Palestine. He was one of those called to meet Shoghi Effendi to discuss the furure of the Faith early in 1922, but subsequently distanced himself from Bahi'i activities, evidently retaining a view of BahPi as an inclusive spiritual movement which was incompatible with the more organized formthcn emerging. A mystic A d a clairvoyant, he remained prominent in the milieu of alternative religiosiry. He refers to his experiences with 'Abdu'lBahi in various of his books, panicularly Writing on the Grotmd. AB 4323, 4534, 47740: weinbe.

OF

TRUTH.

truthfulness Particularly praised as a human virrue. Bahii'u'llih linked it t o TRUSTWORTHI. NESS,and advised that it was better to be 'of the people of hell-fire' than t o be a hypocrite (CC2: 337). For 'Abdu'l-Bahi rruthfulness was 'the foundation of all human virtues' (AD] 26). It protects the individual from moral afflictions. The evils of falsehood are greater than all other sins (CC2: 338). Lying is the worst

176.207-8. 213-14.286.

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Raberr Ttlnier, the first black Amencon R n b i ' i

Tumanrki, Alexander (d. 1920) Russian soldier (eventually a majorgeneral) and orienralist. He first met Bahi'is in ASHKHABAD in 1890 and kater translated a number of important Bahi'i t e n s into Russian, including the Kikib-iAQDAS(1899) - the first translation of that work into a foreign language. Meen

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(1855'G1909) Butler of Phoebe HEARST.He was probably the first black American to become a Bahi'i (1898). and was among the first group of Western Bahi'i pilgrims to Akka. BFAr: 13940: WFBW 15.3.

unity feast of names, and had clung to outward things whilst forgcning inner realities. God would no longer accept their devotions or remembrance of him (PDC 92-3). Subsequentlv Shoghi - Effendi welcorned the anti-clerical and secularist policies of the new Turkish Republic (founded 1922) and the Pahlavi govemment in Iran (from 1925). seeing their restrictions on clerical power as a fulfilment of Bahl'i prophecies, and the just deserts of those who had persecuted God's cause (PDC 93-103).

'ulama

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The Islamic 'learned' who have come to constitute a distinctive religious grouping, particularly in S H ~ I S Min, which they have come to be seen as reprerentatives of the Hidden IMAM,and as such fulfil his iudicial functions, and receive and d i s b k e the religious taxes due to him. To bccome recognized as 'learned' (and wear distinctive>lerical robes and turban and lx addressed as 'Mulll') requires a lengthy course of study at a religious collcgc (madrasn), typically focusing on the study of Islamic jurisprudence (fqh). By the 19th century a Shi'i clerical hierarchy had developed, headed by those who gained the rank of M U I ~ A H I D(possessing the right to make independent legal judgments), and occupied such prestigious posts as leader of the Friday prayen (imim-jum'a) at one of the more imporrant mosques, whilst others occupied a variety of subordinate positions. In Iran the more important clerics held enormous power and frcquently considerable wealth. Some individuals also saw themselves as upholders of righteous power against ungodly stare authorities, and controlled private armies of religious studenn and street fighters to impose their will. Momen. $hi.( Idom 186205: SBBR 6-8.

RELATIONSHIP T O THE B A H ~ MOVEMENTS '~

BAD^ AND

The Iranian 'ulmnri were nor a homogeneous grouping. Anitudes towards the emerging Bibi and Bahi'i religions varied, with some clerics converting (and then naturally assuming positions of leadership) and same exercising a degree of tolerant reserve, whilst yet others led a vehement campaign of persecution against those whom they regarded as unbelievers (SBBR 17, 1920; see OPPOSITION). These were seen by the Blhis and Baha'is as their primary opponents, leading the ignorant masses t o massacre innocent believers. Bahl'u'lllb declared them to be his main enemies, and stared that were it not for their opposition Iran would have quickly converted to Blbism: their very pulpits lamented at the blasphemies they uttered; hecause of them the banner of Islam had been hauled down and in throne subverted; they had opposed every person who had truly sought to exalt Islam; ere long they would receive divine punishment, and rheir glory would become abasement (PDC 89-92). Apart from the trial of Mulli ' A L ~ BAST AM^ in Baghdad (1845), Sunni clerics were less immediately involved in BHbi-Bahi'i affairs. Nevertheless, Bahl'u'lllh quietly rehuked the Sunni 'ulomri of Istanbul for not having enquired about him: they were lovers

(ESW 30-1). The formation of the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I was therefore welcomed by Bahl'is as an important step towards this goal, despite its obvious weaknesses and shortcomings from a Bahl'i standpoint: it was seen as incapable of establishing peace because its powers over its constituent nations were slight and it was not representative of all nations (SWAB 3 0 6 7 ; WOE 191-3). The United Nations is seen as a further step forward towards the RahP'i goal, albeit still lacking sufficient power. The ~NTERNATIONAL B n ~ k iBUREAU main' A B D U ' L - B A H ~ .IDEAL ~ tained contacts with the League, and In his anonymously puhlirhed SECRETOF the case of the House of BahB'u'llih in DIVINECIVILIZATION (1875) 'Ahdu'lBAGHDAD became a maior issue at the League's Permanent Mandates CommisBahi held that the truly spiritually sion. BahP'i contacts with the United learned were 'lamps of guidance among Nations have been far mare extensive, the nations' and a sanctuary for the and are conducted rhrough the B A H ~ ~ distressed. Such individuals would be ~NTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY. recognized by their sPlnrmAL QUALmES, intellectual oower and enliehtened knowledge. They should seek to acquire unity the attributes of spiritual and material Central and recurring concept in the perfection; defend Islam; appose their Bahi'i teachings. Bahi'is refer to 'divine own passions; and obey the divine unity' (tawbid, the 'unity of Gon'); the commandments. Only then would they unity of religions (see nrLlcloN; RELIbe worthy of emulation (taqlid). Their GIOUS utv~nslru); the unity of the HUMAN learning should encompass not only the nrca; the eventual establishment of a fundamentals of religion and holy law united world (see wonLn u ~ n r )and ; the but also the scriptures of other religions, need to preserve unity amongst thempolitical science, history and the natural selves (see COMMUNITY; COVENANT). sciences. As to the artributcs of perfecBahl'is do not advocate uniformity, bur tion, these included 'learning and the rather a unity in diversity, 'Abdu'l-Bahl cultural anainments of the mind'; justice comparing the human race to a flower and selfless impartiality; and dedication garden made beautiful by its diversity. to community education. Clerical status Customs, castes, ideas, and dispositions of itself was no proof of knowledge and vary amongst people (SWAB 290-2). moral continence (SDC 34-40,59). (See They can be harmonized to avoid conalso 'LEARNED'.) flict (as in CONSULTATION), but they are a namral part of the panern of human life. (See also MINORITIES; RACE; TOLERANCE.) U n i t e d N a t i o n s , League o f Nations

-

Bahl'u'llih had called for the creation of an international assembly to establish PEACE bctween the nations and preserve it through a system of collective security

feast

Gathering of Bahfis and their friends resembling the 'nineteen day FEAST'. with prayers and fellowship, but with-

Uniiy, Sewn Candles of

out a consultative-administrative period. It may be organized as a means of introducing nan-Bah5'is to Bahl'i devotional practices, or to pray for some particular objective which others outside of the Bahi'i Faith might share. It has no administrative status or function.

sized the authority of the future 'Universal' or 'Supreme' House of Justice. It would be under Bahi'u'llih's protection, and inspired by the Holy Spirit. Whatever it decided would be 'of God'. It would be 'the source of all good and freed from all error' (see INFALLIBILITY). Obedience to it would be obligatory; opposition to it would constitute oppoUnity, Seven Candles of sition to God. He also stated that the See wonLo ualru. House was charged with deliberating on such issues as were not determined in Universal House of Justice Bahi'u'llih's writings, its legislation (Ac: boytu'l-'odl-i-o'ym) having the same authority as scripture. Supreme ruling body of the Bahi'i Faith, It could later abrogatc its own laws in established in 1963. response to changing circumstances. Its decisions could be by majority vote. Its TEXTUAL BASIS members should be elected by represenBahi'u'llih referred to the future estabtatives of the vatious 'national' Bahi'i lishment of a HOUSE OF JUSTICE which communities through their 'secondary would assume authority over his reli- Houses of Justice' (the present national gion, its members taking counsel regardspiritual ASSEMBLIES). For reasons that would later become apparent irs meming mamrs that had nor already k e n determined by Bahi'u'llih in his writbershir, was to be confined to men. Its ings, and enforcing 'that which is agree- head would be the Guardian of the Faith (see GUARDIANSHIP). (CCI: 322-8). Sheable to them'. The members ('Trustees') . were assured of divine inspiration (TB ghi Effendi stressed the common obiec68). They should follow his teachings rives of the guardianship and the then as for the 'training of peoples', the yet unelecred House of Justice (to ensure 'upbuilding of nations', and the safe- the continuity of divinely appointed guarding of human honour; have regard authority; safeguard rhc unity of the for the interests of the people; be 'a Faith; and maintain the integrity and shelter for the poor and needy'; promote flexibility of the Bahi'i teachings), and the Lesser PEACE; safeguard the position their complementarity of function of naLlctoN; choose a universal LAN- (WOB 148). CCI: 319-42. GIJAGE and script; and have charge over Bahi'i charitable endowments in succes- ESTABLISHMENT sion to the descendants of Bahl'u'llih Both 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi (AcnsAN) (KA 35 k42; TB 70, 89, 125, appear to have considered establishing 127, 128, 130). The House would be the Univenal House of Justice during able to take appropriate action in their lifetimes, but declined to do so. In response to the changing conditions of Shaghi Effendi's case one reason for this the day, and apparently eventually share delay seems to have been the perceived power with secular rulers (TB 27, 93, weakness of the existing Bahl'i admin128-9; see GOVERNMENT). In relationistration. Accordingly, he linked the ship to Bahi'i LAW it would determine establishment of well-functioning degrees of consanguinity for martiage; national assemblies to the future estabthe punishments for certain crimes; and lishment of the House. Finally, in 195011 aspects of economic policy (KA 121-2 (when there were nine national assemq49-50; TB 134). 'Abdu'l-Bahi emphablies, with another rwa about to be

formed), be established an INTERNA- members (representing 165 assemblies by 1993). The House has no officers, but B A H ~COUNCIL I as a precursor to the House of Justice (MBW 7-8). otherwise conducts its affairs much as the spiritual assemblies do. saaR 1 2 6 5 1 : Afrer Shoghi Effendi's unexpected death OFTHE CAUSE assumed UHI ConUiMim. (1957) the HANDS direction of the Faith, announcing that MEMBERSHIP elections for the House would be held in To date, a total of sixteen men have Haifa in April 1963. The electors would served as members of the House. The be the members of all fifty-six national membership has been highly stable, the assemblies then extant. Since then the Universal House of Justice has acted as only changes having occurred as a result the supreme Bahi'i administrative body. of death or retirement. Of the original nine members elected in 1963, three still In the absence of a living Guardian it has serve (1998) (see listing below). also assumed permanent headship of the By national origins, seven House Faith. Various aspects of its functioning members have been American (Chance, were outlined in its constitution Gibson, Kavelin, Wolcotr, Rube, Mitch(adopted on 26 November 1972): its membership was to consist of nine men, ell, Dunbar), five Iranian (Fathe-Azam, Hakim, Nakhjavini, Taherzadeh, elected every five years at an international convention of national assembly Arbab), all resident outside Iran at the

TIONAL

Members of the Universal House of Justice PREVIOUS POSITION

YEAR OP ELECTIONIYEARS O F SERVICE

US

Mr Hugh Chance Mr Hkshmand Fathe-Azam Mr Amos Gibson Dr Lutfu'llih Hakim Mr David Hofman MT H. Borrah Kavelin MI 'Ali Nakhjavbni Mr Ian Sempk Mr Charles Wolcotr

US IBC Brit IBC IBC IBC IBC

1963-93 1963 1963-82 (d.) 1963-7 (resigned, d. 1968) 1963-88 (resigned) 1963-88 (resigned, d. 1988) 1963 1963 1963-87 (d.)

Dr David Ruhe Mr Glenford Mitchell Dr Peter Khan Mr Hooper Dunbar Mr Adib Taherzadeh Dr Faaam Arbab Mr Douglas Martin

US US ITC KC EuC ITC OPI

1968-93 1982' 1987. 1988 1988 1993 1993

M

'by-election

Previous position Brit British national spiritual assembly EuC European Board of Counsellors 1BC International BahB'i Council IN Indian national spirimal assembly

ITC International Teaching Centre OPI Office of Public Information (BIC) US US national spiritual assembly

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349 time of their election; w o British (Hofman, Semple), and one each Australian (Khan) and Canadian (Martin). Although greatly respected, the members of the House do not have any special status or authority within thc Faith as individuals. Ir is as a collectiviry that the House exercises its lcndcrship. The members clearly cultivate n public ethos of individual self-effacement.

Un'mrsal House of Justice

PLANS AND EXPANSION

Since 1963 there has been a massive growth in the size of the Bahi'i community world-wide, particularly in the 'Third World'. This E X P A N S I O N has occurred within the framework of systematic planning established by Shoghi Effendi, and continued by the Universal House of Justice. Under its direction there have been five inrcrnational PLANS, all in general resembling Shoghi Effendi's THE RELATIONSHIP OETWEEN THE TEN YEAR CRUSADE. Accomplishmcnrs HOUSE AND THE GUARDIANSHIP include enormous increases in the numIn the DITPENSATION O F BAHA,U.LLAH bcr of assemblies, translations and Bahi'i 11934). Shoehi Effendi stressed the comcentres, as well as the completion of four plemcntarity of the guardianship and the new Houses of Worship (MASHRIQU.LUniversal House of Justice (of which the Aorixnn), bringing the global total to Guardian would be permanent head) seven, and the holding of international and the essential nature of the guardianCONFERENCES A N D CONGRESSES, designed ship for rhc integrity of the Faith (WOE ro increase the sense of global solidariry 148, 150). Shortly after its establishamongst the Bahi'is. ment, however, the House stated rhat there was no way in which further COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Guardians could be appointed (October The House has greatly emphasized 1963, MUH] 14 no. 5). This announcequalitative change within the Bah6'i ment raised questions ahour the manner community ( L I T E R A C Y ; EDUCATION; of the House's functioning in the enhancing the role of WOMEN and YOUTH; absence of a Guardian. In response, the fostering FAMILY LIFE; soclo-ECONOMIC House commented rhat i n own authorDEVELOPMENT, communal dawn prayer iry and infallibility were not dependent (see MASHRIQU.L-AOHKAR)). It has also on the presence of a Guardian. That made the Bahi'i law of HUQ~QU.LLAH there was no successor t o Shwhi - Effendi applicable throughout the BahB'i world as Guardian represented a 'grievous (i992). and Bahi'u'llih's book loss'. but the continued unity and of laws, the Kit6b-i- AQUAS. guidance of the Faith under the direction of the House of lustice. itself receivinp. - IRAN divine protection and guidance, was It was necessary t o respond t o the assured. The COVENANT was unbroken. situation created by the sustained and MUW 5 W m. 23. 83-PO m. 35. 15661 m. 75. co-ordinated persecution of the Baha'is bWm.412. that followed the Islamic Revolution in IRAN (1979): Iranian Bahi'i emigrann DEVELOPMENTS THE B A H F~A l~l H and refugees had to be resettled and SINCE 1963 integrated into their new host commuThe thirry-five year period of the Uninities, and replacement sources of fundversal House of Justice's leadership has ing found to replace the large donations seen a number of major developments in made by Bahs'is in Iran (hitherto the terms of the Bahl'i Faith's internal main source of international Bahl'i development and 'external relations'. funding). Unprecedented attention from BFSH11&28. the media was successhrlly garnered t o

gain publiciry and sympathy for rhc Bahils world-wide (see r u s u c RECOGNI-

associated wirh the central figures of the faith and to extend and beautify the gardens surrounding the Baha'i Shrines TION). ~ ~ CENTRE.More a t the B A H WORLD ADMINISTRATION dramatic has been its construction of a T h e main developments in Bahl'i large starely building to serve as its own ADMINISTRATION since 1963 have been seat in Haifa (1975-83), and the extenthe House's ling rhat there was no sive work on the buildings of the ARC (from 1992) and the terraces of the longer a way to appoint further Hands SHRINE OF THE BAB.The House has also of the Cause (November 1964); and i n creation of two new 'institutions of the p.rearlv the number of s u ~.o o r t - . expanded . learned' to continue the Hands' func- staff in Haifa, responding both to the tions into the future - the CONTINENTALinternational growth of the Bahl'i comBOARDS OF COUNSELLORS (1968) and an muniry and the increasing range of work I N T E R N A T I O NTAELA C H I N C GE N T R E that it itself directs or initiates. (1973). The members of the AUXILIA~Y PROCLAMATION AND SOCIETAL BOARDShave also been greatly increased INVOLVEMENT in number, and they have been empowered to appoint their own assistants to The House has launched nvo global help them wirh their work (1973). In campaigns of rRocLnMnT:oN, the first (1967) centring on the centenary of several countries, new sub-national REGIONAL BAHN COUNCILS have been Bahi'u'lllh's lerrers t o the RULERS, a established. compilation of which was presented t o many world leaders, and the second WORLD CENTRE (1985) on the House's own statement Like Shoghi Effendi the House of Justice The PROMISEOF WORLDPEACE.Bahi'i involvement with the UNITEDNATIONS has worked t o secure ownership of r i m

.

Universal House of JusLe, ConsliMion of and its agencies has also increased enormously during this period, particularly through the work of the BAHM INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY (permanent UN office, established in 1967). This has reflected the growing numerical strength of the Bahi'i community internationally; its increasing concern with development; and the persecution of Bahi'is in Iran, and resultant efforts t o safeguard their human rights. Bahi'i UN contacts have led to greater collaboration with other non-governmental organizations. There is evident Bahi'i interest in wider societal issues such as PEACE and the ENVIRONMENT. COVENANT

There have been no significant internal challenges t o the leadership of rhc House from dissident Bahi'is, albeit some of GROUPS remain active (see the REMEYITE COVEN~NT-BREAKERS).

I

Universal House of Justice, Constitution of Dcclatation of Trust and associated bylaws adouted bv the Universal House of Justice dn 26' November 1972. The document outlines the House's powers, duties and manner of election and functioning, as well as defining basic elements of Bahb'i ADMINISTRATION. M M 229 no. 123: UHJC. Universal House of Justice, Seat of See Anc. Universal House of Justice, writings of

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Although empowered t o legislate on matters not revealed in the Bahi'i scriptures, the Universal House of Justice has as yet been extremely limited in its exercise of this function. Instead it has preferred t o provide directive guidance to the Bahi'is in its role as head of

350

the Faith and t o collect and publish a large mass of extracts from the writings of the Bib, Bahi'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi. As with Shoghi Effendi, the House's guidance has taken the form of letten to Bahi'i communities, institutions and individuals, and sometimes to the entire Rahi'i world. Several volumes of these letters are now available, and many other letters are found in Bahl'i periodicals. The letters are regarded as divinely empowered. Compilations of Bahi'i writings a n a wide range of subjects have been produced. including various asuects of Bahl'i administration; teaching; prayer; music: education: and family life. Translations of writings by the B i b , Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi have also bccn commissioned, including Bahl'u'llih's book of laws, the Kitdh-iAQDAS(1992). In addition t o its messages addressed t o the Bahi'is, the House has also published its own coxSTITUTION (1972); prepared a volume of Bahi'u'llih's letters to the kings for presentation to contemporary heads of state (1967; see PROCLAMATION), and issued a call t o 'the peoples of the world' t o respond to the Bahi'i teachings for the establishment of universal peace OF WORLD PEACE,1985). (The PROMISE The extent of these endeavours has necessitated the establishment of research and archival departments in Haifa. Of the letters of Bahi'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi, over 60,000 items had already been collected by 1983. An extensive programme of preservation, classification and indexing is in progress. These collected writings give the House a massive data base on which to base its deliberations and an ever-increasing body of published scripture and authoritative interpretation for Bahfis in general.

universe See CREATION; METAPHYSICS.

VaM, Sbriy-i- (PA, Tablet of Vofi) Syrian-period tablet of Bahi'u'llbh addressed t o Shaykh MuhammadHusayn, surnamed Vafi (Fidelity) by Bahi'u'llih, and formerly one of the Bibis in the NAuniz upheaval. In this tablet Bahi'u'llih praises faithfulness; states that the worlds of God are countless in number; emphasizes the reality of paradise and of divine reward for goodly deeds; and comments on the doctrine of RBTURN, himself claiming identity with the Bib (the 'Primal Point') 'arrayed in His new attire', and stating that those Bibis who failed to recognize him had known the Bib only by name, and not through his own self or revelation. a 179-91: R B ~ :205.13.

Va hid (PA, 'Peerless') Religious title of the Bibi leader Sayyid Yahyl Daribi (d. 1850). He was a distinguished cleric, and the son of Sayyid Ja'far (known as Kashfi ('discloser') for his skill in the esoteric interpretation of the Quran). Vahid was reportedly delegated by MUHAMMAD SHAHto investigate the claims of the Bib whilst the latter was still in Shiriz, converting following the revelation of the Bib's commentary on the Quranic sdra of Kawthar (autumn 1845). His conversion was significant both because of his social prominence and the fact that he was one of the first

non5haykhis to accept the Bib. The Bib appointed him his representative to the Shah. He seems to have travelled extensively visiting the Bibis. Early in 1850 he proceeded to YAZD,where his open proclamation of Bibism provoked great controversy, and he became embroiled in a n existing local conflict. He rhen proceeded t o the small town of Nnunlz, where he already had a local following. A large number of the inhabitants convened, exacerbating tensions with the town governor. An armed struggle developed, which was ended with a truce, broken by the killing of Vahid (29 June 1850) and a number of his companions. Vahid was rhen aged about forty. ARR 278.350; GPBI 1-1 2.50: MBBR 10612; McS 71. 117; Nobil 171-7, 465-99; 58811 28; TI1 11-23.347-8.400.41 1; TN7-8.45n. 1834, 25361.

Vakil, Narayanrao Rangnath Shethji (18661943) Prominent Indian Bahi'i, and the first known Bahi'i of Hindu background. He became a Bahi'i whilst a student in Bombay in 1909, and in 1910 represented the Bahi'is at the All-India Religious Conference a t Allahabad. He helped organize the first BahPi Convention of lndia (1920), and subsequently served as the president of the lndia and Burma Bahi'i national spiritual ASSEMBLY almost continuously until his death. He

1

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352

V a q b , 'Ali-Muhammad -~~

was a well-known lawyer. e w 63741; Khionm 7-25; Shoghi E f k d i . Merraga

... la&

Indim

- S&-x!?n~,43&40.

Varqb, 'Ali-Muhammad (b. 1912) Iranian HANDOF THE CAUSE.Son of Valiyu'llih VARQA. He gained a doctorate at the Sorbonne in 1950 (wirh a thesis on hydrology in Iran), and later became a professor at the universities of Tabriz and Tehran. After his father's death in 1955 he was appointed in his stead as Hand lrt. and as Trustee of the H o y L i ~ u ~ 1 . ~ As Hand he performed various international missions for the Faith, and was in Europe a t the rime of the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. He subrequenrly moved t o Canada, later taking up residence in Haifa as anc of the Hands at rhc Bahl'i World Centre. He remains Trustee of I-luqtiq, and has oveneen the enonnous expansion in its adminiswation in recent yCstS. Horpsr 183-7.

Muhammad-'Ali Shih and was ablc to forward letters from 'Abdu'l-Bahi t o the king. In 1912 he travelled t o America and later to Europe, acting as 'Abdu'lBaheh treasurer and sometimes as his interpreter. He was a member of the Tehran spiritual ASSEMBLY, and later of the national spiritual assembly. Shoghi Effendi appointed him as Trustee of the H u e d ~ 1 l . l .in~ ~1938 ~ following the death of Ghulim-Ridi, and in Decembcr 1951 he was raised t o the rank of Hand of the Cause. He travelled to various countries at Shoghi Effendi's direction. After his death (in Germany) his eldcst son - another 'Ali-Muhammad VARQAwas appointed a Hand and trustee of the Huqtiq in his father's stead. ewrs: 831.4; Harper 32932.

Prominent Iranian Baha'i renowned as a poet. He and his young son, Rkhu'llih, were killed by one of the Q i i i r cauniers in the aftermath of the assassination of N ~ s l n u . o - o i n S 'Abdu'l-Bahi ~~~. named OF THE him posthumously as a HAND CAUSE,and Shoghi Effendi designated SF him as one of the APOSTLEO BAH~U.LLAH. EB 75-97: H o w 42-9: MBBR

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V i c t o r i a (1819-1901) British Queen, 1837-1901. Conrtitutional monarch. She was the recipient of a tablet from BahP'u'llih (the Lotoh-iMolihih, 'Tablet of the Queen'), wrinen during his early years in Akka (from 1868), in which BahB'u'llih summoned her to accept his claims and praised her for both Britain's prohibition of the SLAVE TRADE (1807) and itr system of parliamentary government (the Second Reform Act had been passed in 1867, greatly extending the franchise). The requirements of GOVERNMENT and PEACE were also referred to. Victoria is said t o have remarked: 'If this is of Cod, it will endure'. Esws9-M; Foc26.344. M: R & m

361-2.

tim 12-13.

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Varqa, V a l i y u ' l l b h (1884-1955)

V i e i r a , Eduardo D u o r t e (1921-66) Early Bah6'i of Parmguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau). He became a Bahl'i in Lisbon, and actively taught the Faith on his return t o his homeland, thereby incutring the opposition of the colonial Catholic authorities and lasing his pmstigious govcrnmenc position. A rising campaign of peneation led t o arrests

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V a r q a ('Dove'), M i r z a 'AliM u h a m m a d (d. 1896)

Iranian HANDO F THE CAUSEborn in Tabrir. His father was the martyr 'AliMuhammad VARQA,but Valiyu'llih was brought up under the influence of his staunchly Muslim maternal grandmother and it was not until he was in his teens that he was introduced t o the Bahi'i teachings and became a Bahi'i. He later worked in the palace of

3M. 67-8.

and brutal bearings by the police, culminating in his t o m r e and death in prison. He was firsr African Bahb'i to be martyred for his fairh. ewl4: 389% 16- 568.

Specific prayers t o be said during visits t o the shrines of holy men are part of Islamic practicc. The Bib wrote many tablets of visitation. O f particular note is his 'Large Prayer of Visitation' (Ziyiro 01jimi'a al-kabira), written before the sran of his mission for Muhammad, Fitima and the Shi'i IMAMS.This expresses great respect for these figures, and states the self-abnegation of the pilgrim to their shrines. There are later tablets of visitation in honour of the Bib's own martyred followers. erwna.

Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi also wrote many visitation tablets, including for particular Bahi'i martyrs. These commonly rake the form of culogies for the deceased. The Toblet of Visrtafion used by Bahi'is during visits to the Shrines of the B6b and Bahi'u'llih and commemorations for HOLY DAYS associated wirh them comprises passages taken from several tablets of Bah:l'u'llih, compiled by Nnni~-l-A.z~M at 'Abdu'l-BshP's request after RahB'u'. Ilih's passing. There is also a tablet of visitation by Bahi'u'llih for the Imim Husayn, which also allusively refers t o the Rib, and which used to be chanted in the Shrine of the BBb on the anniversary of his martyrdom. The tablet used by visitors to the Shrine of 'Abdu'l-Bahi is one of his prayers exprcssivc of s=-d humility and selflessness. w~~bidga.

Sdections 2024: McS L5-5. W. 210.

119-23.

visitation, t a b l e t s of

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Wilhelm, Roy C.

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war .~ -~

Bahl'u'llih proclaimed that he had come t o establish the 'Most Great PEACE';called for national rulers t o work for peace; and decried rhe desrructivenesr of war and the use of national resources on ARMAMENTS. 'Abdul-Bahi condemned war as the antithesis of true civilization. It brings death and destruction, turns human beings into ferocious animals, and leads t o the pointless destruction of life, citim and economic resources (CC2: 165). The conquests of arrogant men such as Alexander, Tamerlane and Napoleon served only to spread rerrnr Their desrructive ~ ~ - and - ~ aneuish. - u lexacirr contrast with the achievemenn oiwise and just rulers. Only the latter achieved true glory. Only when employed t o oppose insurrection and acgression. o r t o bring order and uniry -in situations of civil ;~rife, can war be iustified (SDC 67-71). During his Western tours (1911-13) 'Abdu'l-Bahb w m c d of the danger of war, comparing Europe t o an arsenal filled with explosives waiting for a spark to ignite it (CC2: 164; NSA of Canada 48-50). World War I (1914-18) was seen by Bahi'is as fulfilment of these prophecies, the collapse of Germany and i s monarchy being regarded as pamcularly significant in the light o f Bahi'u'llih's warning parenthetically I. 'Abdu'l-Bahi addressed to WILHELM ~

remained oessimisric at the end of the War, regarding the Paris peace treaties (1919) as a cruel deception which masked 'the fire of unquenched harreds'. International instability would continue, including continued tensions in the Balkans, agitation by the vanquished powers and the emergence of worldwide political movements. Communism would acquire increasing importance (WOB 30). A new war, 'fiercer than the last', would assuredly break out (SWAB 307). He also predicted that rhe increasing chaos in the world would become unbearable, causing people t o turn t o religion as a stronghold of secwitY (CC2: 165).

wealth See ECONOMIC TEACHINGS. West The Wesrem impact on the Middle East during the 19th century was enormous. Iran was lcsr affected than other areas until late in the century, so the Bibi movement developed in a socio-religious context little subject t o extraneous influence. BiM references to the West are correspondingly slight (SBBR 35, 53-56). By conuast, Bahl'u'lllh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi came t o an Ottoman empire that was strongly and increasingly under Westem influence, and in which various Onoman statesmen and

thinkers advanced Westem-influenced reform. Some of their writings address these reform issues (see GOVERNMENT; see SECRETOF DIVINECIVILIZATION; Cole, 'Iranian millenarianism'). They also referred directly t o the Wesr, indicating their knowledge of contemporary developments; their praise for many aspects of Wesrern material advance ('the sun of craftsmanship' was now shining above the horizon of the Occident, and 'the river of arts' flowing out of that region (TB 38-9)) and for Btitish-style constitutional govcrnmenr; their advocacy that beneficial aspects of Wesrern civilization should be emulated; and their condemnarion of Western MAT'KIALISM. Regarding the last, Bahl'u'llih complained that Were r n civilization had gone beyond the bounds of moderation and k c o m e a source of evil: it had 'agitated and alarmed the peoples of the world' (TB 69); and that when the people of rhe East had become captivated by 'the arts and wonders of the Wesr' they had 'roved distraught in the wildernes of material causes', oblivious of God (TB 144). More strongly, 'Abdu'l-Bahi described European culture as 'superficial' and 'unsupported by a cultivated morality'. The Europeans were drowning in a 'terrifying sea of passion and desire'. Their lack of morality was indicared by their warlike intentions and destructive conduct. This was only a 'nominal civilization', and quire incapable of bringing about PEACE and human well-being (SDC 60-4). In the Iranian context, Bahb'i acceptance of many aspects of Western culrure made them distinctive compared to the traditionalism of most Iranians (SBBR 78, 177, 196-7).

White, Ruth American Bahi'i who opposed the developing Bahi'i ADMlNlSTRATlON in Norrh America during rhe 1920s, insist-

ing that 'Abdu'l-Bahi had said that the Bahl'i religion was an inclusive movement that could not be organized. In 1927 she expanded her critique to deny the validity of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's WILLA N D TESTAMENT - which she dismissed as a forgery - and hence of Shoghi Effendi's guardianship. H e r efforts, which included the publication of several books, were largely unavailing apart from in Germany where a small group of believers under the leadership of Wilhelm Herrigal (d. 1932) formed a 'Bahai World Union' inspired hy her ideas. A small group of 'Free Bahais' reorganized after World War 11, forming the 'World Union for Universal Religion and Universal Peace'. A polemical attack on 'Political Shoghism' by Hermann Zimmez one of the Free Bahais, was translated and published in English in 1973 and widely distributed t o libraries throughout the world. White herself eventually become a follower of Mcher Baba. Shoghi Effendi's first nvo W o n ~ n ORDERletters are partly a response t o her attacks. ~mnmlrlache..som a s p m of me ertoblirhmenl'; TCB 347-9.

Wilhelm, Roy C. (1875-1951) Prominent early American BahB'i. He was a millionaire businessman in New York City, and head of the family coffee company. His morher, Laurie, became a Bahi'i in 1898, but Roy was not anracred to the Faith until he accompanied his mother on her pilgrimage t o Akka in 1907. This experience transformed his life. He was elected to serve on the Executive Board of rhe BnHnl TEMPLE UNITYin 1909 and, except for one year of illness, remained a member on it, and irs successor, the narional spiritual assembly, until 1946, ofren acting as irs treasurer. He also helped administer the Bahi'i community in New York, produced Bahb'i literature, and supported the teaching work of Martha ROOTand Louis GnEcoRY. He

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Wilhelm I -against them. They would have 'another turn', and though Berlin was now in 'conspicuous glory* her lamentations would be heard. The subsequent defeat of Getmanv in World War I. and the abdication and flight of the then Kaiser, Wilhelm 11 (r. 1888-19181. was re~ardcd by Bahl'is as a vivid fulfilment of this prophecy, and was regarded as a proof of the Bahb'i Faith by a number of Iranians. KA 51 kB6, 53 k9O. 217-18 n121; GPB 226; W58-9; WOB 171-2.

Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Baha 'Abdu'l-BahP's Will is a lengthy document, written in three pans over a seven-year period (1901-8) during the early period of his ministry. He wrote it in his own hand, and addressed it to acted as a channel of communication SHOCHIEFFENDI. Its contents were nor between 'Abdu'l-Bahi and the American known by the Bahi'is until after Bahl'is, and was one of thasc whom 'Abdu'l-BahSs death (28 November Shoghi Effendi consulted about the 1921), and it was apparently not even future development of the Faith in read t o Shoghi Effendi until 'a few days' 1922. He died on 24 November 1951, and was posthumously named a HAND after his arrival in Haifa (29 December) OF THE CAUSEby Shoghi Effendi. An (Rabbani, Priceless Pearl 42). The Will identified Shoghi as the 'primal' and annual unity feast is held a t the former 'chosen' b r a n c h ( s e e A G H S A N ) ; Wilhelm property at West Englewwd, appointed him as the fim in a projected Ncw Jersey, to commcmoratc a feast line of Guardians of the Cause (see held there by 'Abdu'l-Bahi during his visit to America. s w l e M2-A;H o v r 12941; GUARDIANSHIP) and head of the as yet unelected UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE; WBW 67-99. and directed all Bahi'is t o turn t o him and take the greatest care of him. Both Wilhelm 1 (1797-1888) he and the House were assured of divine German Kaiser, 1871-88. He was protection and guidance. All should addressed by Bahi'u'llih in his Kitab-iobey them. Those who disputed with A Q ~ A and S , warned not t o let pride debar them disputed with God, and would be subject to divine wrath. There would be him from recognizing BahP'u'Ilbh. He should remember the fate of NAPOLEON no excuse for any attack on the COVE111, whose power had surpassed his own NANTI such as had been mounted by MUHAMMAD-'hi and his partisans after but who had been overthrown. God the passing of BahB'u'lllh. The Will also brought down conquerors and rulers stated that Muhammad-'Ali (the 'Center 'ftom their palaces t o their graves'. The of Scdirion' and 'the focal Center of 'banks of t h e Rhine' were also addressed, Bahi'u'llih having enviHare') had 'passed our from under the shadow of the Cause' and been 'cut off sioned them 'covered with gore' when from the Holy Tree' by dint of his 'the swords of retribution' were drawn

COVENANT.BREAKING (some details of which are given), thus implicitly semng aside the original successorship established by Bahb'u'lllh in his Book of the COVENANT: Other provisions include instructions to the Bahi'is to reach the Cause (see TEACIIING), manifest SPIRITUAL QUALmES, lovingly associate with all peoples, be loyal t o their rulers, avoid contention, and shun Covenant-breakers; and descriptions of the duties and manner of election of the Universal House of Justice, and the obligations of the HANDS O F THE CAUSE. wk A B A W J . The Will was first read officially on 3 January 1922, and copies were subsequently sent to Bahb'Ls in the East. Shoghi Effendi himself prepared an English-language translation, but copies of the whole Will were not widely circulated in the West. The provisions were almost universally accepted by the Bahl'is with the exception of Ruth WHITE and a few Western followers, who later challenged the Wilts authenticity (a charge rebutted by those who read Persian and were familiar with 'Abdu'l-Rahl'i handwriting, including opponents of Shoghi Effendi). Shoghi addressed some of the issues raised by this challenge in the first two of his leners. WORLDo n m n OF BAHPU.LLAH Elsewhere he described the Will as being the 'Charter' for a new WORLDO n n ~ n (GPB 325-6; WOB 143-4). ~ ~ b bR** ~ ~ i leu PmdAl-52.

wills Bahi'is are instructed each t o write a will. The documcnt should be headed by the CREATESTNAME; attest t o the oneness of God 'in the Dayspring of His Revelation'; and may make mention 'of that which is praiseworthy' as a testimony for the deceased. The testator is entitled to dispose of their property as he o r she wishes, and is encouraged t o specify that their BURIAL should follow the requirements of BahP'i law. In cases of intest-

acy, a detailed schedule of INHERITANCE was laid out by Bahi'u'llih. KA 59 kl09. 224 " 1 3 6 7 ; LG 192-d.

wine As in Sufi literature the Bahi'i writings sometimes usc 'wine' as a religious metaphor: thus the believer should not turn away from 'the matchless wine of thc immortal Beloved', nor 'the celestial wine of unity' (HWp nos. 61, 62). Bahb'u'llih's laws were a 'choice Wine'. He offered the 'Mystic Wine of everlasting life' (KA 21 k5, 74 kl50, 82 k173). As a form o f ALCOHOL, the drinking of wine is prohibited in BahB'i law, however. wisdom In Arabic translations of Greck philosophical texts the tcrms for wisdom (sophia) and prudence (phronesis) were conflated under the term hikmat (wisdom). This double meaning is seen in Bahb'u'llih's writings, in which he both praises 'wisdom' (rophia) and advocates prudence by the BahP'is in the presentation of their religion. Thus, wisdom is described as a divine quality which educates, protects and strengthens the individual, revealing the loftiness of the human station. It illumines JUSTICE (TB 66-7). and is ,illumined by CONSULTATION and compassion (TB168). I n essence is the FEAROQ c o o (TB 155). Its 'pearls' are t o be found in the 'ocean' of Bahi'u'Uih's words (KA 85 k182). The wise and the m l y learned are like eyes t o the body of humanity, and one of its greatest gifts (7'8 171). (See also PHILOSOPHY.) PRUDENCE In terms of the prudential TBACHINC of the Faith, wisdom is expressed in words that are both 'impressive and peneuating', and uttered only for the sake o€ God and with due regard for the appropriateness of time and place. The

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Wisdom, robkt of words should be as milk for a babe so as to enlighten the people, and should be expressed with moderation, refinement and detachment. The wrong words might be as poison (TB 172-3). Whilst the Shi'i vractice of dissimulation of belief (taq&ib) in times of danger is condemned, BahB'is should not seek persecution, avoid unnecessary controversialism and be tactful in their swech. They should also be prudent in their observation of Bahi'i law, so as not to cause disturbance. The gradual development and application of the Bahl'i law prohibiting POLYGAMY, and of the public expression of the Bahb'i principle of gender equality in Middle Eastern societies (by women not veiling and being allowed to serve on Bahl'i ASSEMBLIES), are also regarded as expressions of wise prudence (CCZ: 361-2; KA 206 k89).

358

expressed his disapproval of the militant methods employed by the British suffragettes, and counselled Iranian BahA'i women to k patient in their endeavours to attain equality and the desire of some to abandon the use of the veil (CC2: 361-2, 400)). Male animdes of superiority are baseless and have to be abandoned. The achievement of gender equality is a wide-ranging process of societal change which in part reflects a basic shift in social values and the development of a new C I V I I . I ~ A T ~ O N (CCZ: 359-69; P T 169-72, 195-7; PUP 7 4 7 , 108, 133-7, 174-5, 233, 280-4, 374-5). There is no evidence for gender equality being a formal Bibi reaching, beyond the Bib's appointment of a woman (TAHIRIH) as one of his chief disciples, but this in itself was a highly significant act in both symbolic and practical terms.

, , , , , '--"'-" GENDER EQUALmY

The essential equaliry . . of men and women is a basic Bahl'i principle. Bahl'u'llih stated that in the present day God has removed the distinctions that formerly differentiated the 'stations' of men and women (upheld for example in Islamic religious law). They are equal in the sight of God. For baih it is 'the extent of their recognition and devotion to God's cause that determines their real status. Those women who are m l y believers are recognized as the 'men' of the past, and excel many men of the p r e s e n t (CCZ: 358-9, 378-9). Bahl'u'llih also made it an obligation for parents to educate their daughters as well as their sons (KA 38 k48). 'Abdu'lBahl was more emphatic, describing Maneck. 'Wwbrn'. gender equality as one of the distinctive teachings of the Faith, and repeatedly emphasizing it in his talks and writings. Wisdom, Tablet o f All human kings are made in the image See kwh-CHIKMAT. of God, and God does not differentiate between them on the basis of gender. Both sexes possess the same potential'Wolf' and 'the Son of the ities of intelligence, virtue and prowess. Wolf' Yet social inequality between the sexes Derogatory epithets given by Bahl'u'llih was general throughout the world, and t o two prominent Isfihini clerics, even in the United States, 'the cradle of Shaykh Muhammad-Biqir, 'the Wolf women's liberation', women remained (Dhr'b; d. 1883), and his son, Shaykh unenfranchised (until 1920). This is Muhammad-Taqi (Aqi Najafi), 'the Son wrong. Not only is it unjust, but women of the Wolf' (fbn-i-Dbi'b; 1846-1914). and men are like the two wings of a bird: Both men were responsible far extensive only if both wings are strong will the persecution of the Bibis and BahL'is in bird of humanity be able to fly, i.e. the the IqfAhln regioh including the killing success and prosperity of the human OF MARTYRS race as a whole depends on the advanceof the KINGAND BELOVED (1888). The son in (1879) and of ASHRAF ment of women. Women are held back particular attained a position of enorby lack of education and by the condimous power and wealth, and became a in which many of tions of ovvression .. leading opponent of the Q*jAn rulers. them live. This has to change. Both sexes BahPu'lllh addressed Muham,mad-Biqir should receive equal educational oooor.. in his Lawh-i-BunnA~,and Aqi Najafi tunity (including access to the same in the E r r s r ~ TO~THE SONOF THE WOLF. curriculum) and be given the same Ngar 16, 180. 209. 220. 231-2: GPB 2CC-I; MBBR political, social and economic rights. 268-08. 364. 37685,395. 398-400. 4269. 434. Women should strive to achieve equality 513. 5 1 4 ; b n . ShiYlrlm 140. 141. but avoid confrontation ('Abdu'l-Bahi

GENDER DIFFERENTIATION

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Whilst proclaiming the basic equality of the sexes the BahB'i Faith also upholds or accepts gender differentiation in certain areas of life. One aspect of this relates to the biological fact of potential motherhood for women. Thus 'Abdu'lBahA stated chat, if necessary, girls should be given educational priority because as potential mothers they would be their children's first educators. As such, a mother can lead her children to wisdom and morality, but if she is ignorant and illiterate then this would have an adverse effect (KA 200 n76; P T 170; PUP 1 3 3 4 , 175). Again, the Bahi'i view of FAMILY LIFE accords the mother the right to be suvvorted by the husband, whirst she has thCprima&(but not exclusive) duty to brina uv the child (CCI: 414). he differences in the Kitrib-i-AQDASprovisions regarding intestate INHERITANCE can be seen in a similar light. 'Abdu'l-Baht also saw women as being more likely to possess certain spiritual qualities, notably tender-heartedners, intuition and receptiv-

ity, and, as mothers, to be a major force in opposing war and establishing reaca: having raised sons to adulthood, they would oppose their slaughter. Similarly, it would be better if women were not given military training (PT 170, 196; PUP 75). Gender equality would engender wider social change, but it would also reflect a newly developing civilization, in which the more feminine qualities would be more balanced with masculine force which had until now k e n dominant (CCZ: 369). DIFFERENCES I N B

AH~L

ACTIVITY

Ritual differences based on gender are minor: women are exempted from FASTING when they are menstruating, pregnant or nursing. Menstruating women are also exempted from obligatory PnAyen. These exemptions reflect biolo gical differences. They are not compulsory and do not reflect any concept of ritual impurity. All levels of Bahi'i administration except for the all-male U N ~ V E RHOUSE ~ A L O F JUSTICE are equally open to men and women (PT 19Cr7). No reason is given for this exception, but 'Abdu'l-Bahi stated that the wisdom of it would eventually become clear (CCZ: 369-70). Referring in particular to the Western Bahb'is, 'Abdu'l-Bahl noted that women had evinced 'greater boldness' than their male coreligionists in working for the Faith (AD] 57; CC2: 398).

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THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN

There is as yet no overall study of Bahl'i women's history, and their role in the 19th-cenrurv lranian communitv, has not been researched. Certainly, by the earlv 1900s both American and Iranian ~ a h l ' iwomen were active in seeking their own advancement, and were encouraged in this by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. In North America women were quite rapidly able to gain a position of equality with men in Bahi'i administration, despite determined resistance on ~~

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Bahi'i activities (CCZ: 403-4), and has the part of some men. Thereafter women's issues do not appear to have sought to sensirile Bahi'is regarding the implications of the principle of gender t o have been of major concern until the rise of modern feminism. In Iran the equality for Bahi'i community life. One situation was very different, with consequence has been an increasing number of women appointed or elected women remaining largely illiterate and socially disadvantaged. Girls' education t o Bahi'i administrative positions: by 1993, for example, 28 per cent of classes were started by a number of Bahi'is, leading in 1910 t o the estab- national spiritual assembly membership world-wide was female (generally higher lishment of the Tarbiyat School for girls, which became a key institution in figures in richer countries and lower figures in much of Africa and Asia). The training the first generation of Iranian issuance of a compilation of Bahl'i professional women. Although progress writings on Women in January 1986 was slow, an increasing number of (CC2: 355-406), and the establishment Bahi'i women of all social classes of a BAHA'IINTERNAT~ONAL COMMUNITY gained a basic education, such that by the 1970s, when the majority of lranian Office for the Advancement of Women women were still illiterate, most Bahi'i (New York) in 1993, have further stimulated BahP'i communities in many women could read and write, and literacy amongst those under forty was parts of the world both to lay more stress on gender equality amongst the almost universal. Health education also Bahi'is and to work more with nonbecame general. Other developments Bahi'i women's organizations and share included the formation of a BahB'i Bahi'i teachings on the status of women committee for the advancement of with them. Several communities have women in Tehran (1909). lranian Bahl'i women became able to participate in now established their own offices for the advancement of women or their equivathe Bahi'i clcctoral proccss, but because lent. The European Board of ~ o u n s ~ l l o r s of caution regarding Muslim reactions they were not allowed t o become has also established a continent-wide members of BahP'i assemblies until Task Force on Women (1992). Activities 1954 (MBW 65). on this theme include the promotion of 0 u u i d e lranseveral Bahi'is became girls' education, adult female literacy, involved in work for the advancement of rural health care, income-generating skills, and consultation on gender rolcs women in the wider society, most F Ythe community (specifically involving prominently Laura D R E Y F U S ~ R A R Nin men, the change of whose attitudes is and Shirin FozDAn. seen as essential t o any meaningful Within the Bahi'i community the advancement of women has again change in women's status). Two projects become an important issue in recent that have received particular anention years, particularly following the largeare the BAHki VOCATIONALINSTITUTE FOR RURALWOMENin India lfounded in scale influx of poor Third World villa1983), and the BAHA'I-UNI~EM PROJECT gers into the Faith (many of them istatted in 19911. Numerous conferences illiterate women; See EXPANSION), and on the advancement of women and the debate engendered by the modern feminist movement. Since 1975 (Inter- related issues have also been held, and national Women's Year) the Universal Bahi'i involvement in non-governmenral organizations' conferences o n House of Justice has repeatedly called women has become increasingly exrenfor national Bahi'i communities t o sive (notably the NGO Forum at the implement programmes t o promote the United Nations' Fourth World Conferfull and equal participation of women in

ence on Women a t Beijing, 1995). e m s 1993-4: 83-9. 237-75; 19945. 104-12, 145-7; h r h o n g l n g m m . 'Amerran Bah6'i women'; Colon. Equal Cinbs; M o n r k . 'Women': UHlRD cmp;lnion on Worn, CC2 3 5 5 4 0 6 .

Word of God

Bahl'u'lllh's teachings, presented as eleven leaves of 'the Most Exalted Paradise': (1) the FEAR OF GOD as a means of preventing wrongdoing; (2) the importance of RELIGION as a means of securing order in the wodd; (3) praise for SERVICE TO HUMANITY and humility; a statement of the GOLDEN RULL; (4) praise for just KINGS (and condemnation of MU HAM MA^ SHAH);(5) Wlsoohl; (6) JUS. TICE; (7) the unity of the HUMAN RACE; (8) the need for moral EDUcAnoN, and for the choice of a universal LANGUAGE; HOUSEOF the duties of the UNIVERSAL JUSTICE;(9) MODERATION (and a variery of other subjects); (10) the unacceptability of ASCETICISM; and the praiseworthiness of charity; (11) Bahl'is must not allow themselves t o become the cause of strife. The remainder of the tablet deals with a variety of themes, including summoning Bahi'is to detachment, righteousness and unity; criticism of some aspects of SUFISM;questioning the claims of the lranian philosopher Hiji Mu116 Hidi Sabriviri (d. 1873) and his failure to respond t o BahB'u'llih's message; commenting on the barriers to acceptance of Bahi'u'llih's call in IRAN; and challenging Subh-i-AZALto produce a single verse if he wished t o prove that he passessed divinely inspired knowledge. TB 55-80; ~ 8 4 . 2 1 6 2 6 .

In Bahi'i belief the writings and teachOF GOOare ings of the MANIFESTATIONS divine REVELATION. They are often described as the 'Word of God' (KI 127; SAQ 173). As such, they are thought to have a spiritual power capable of changing the hearts of those who hear or read them. Accordingly, there are numerous CONVERSION accounts which attribute the attainment of belief t o hearing or reading the writings of the Bib or Bahl'u'llih. The impact on the pure hearted war such as to draw them to spiritual worlds which could not be expressed in words, and t o which worldly and heavenly sovereignty could never be compared (KA 6 1 k116). Believers should therefore recite the divine verses, so that the 'sweemess' of their melody might 'kindle' their own souls 'and attract the hearts of all men'. They might a t first be unaware of the impact of what they were saying, but sooner or later it would transform them (GI. 294 no. 136: TB 93-41. They should immerse themselves 'in the ocean' of Bahl'u'llih's words. and disWords of Wisdom cover 'all the pearls of wisdom' that lay (At.: As/-i-Kullu'l-Khayr) hidden in its depths (KA 85 k182). As a specific obligation they should recite 'the Late Syrian-period tablet of Bahi'u'llbh verses of God' every morning and in Arabic. It consists of twenty-two evening (KA 73 k149; see DEVOTIONAL- aphorisms concerned with various ISM) and, as a blessing, listen to divine aspects of the spiritual life (trust in verses read a t dawn in the M A S H R ~ Q U . ~God; . the essence of wisdom, love, and ADHKAR (KA 61 k l l 5 ) . detachment; the knowledge of Gad; etc). 18 155-7.

Words of Paradise

(Pers.: Kalimat-i-Firdawsiyyih) Tablet of Bahl'u'llih, composed in Persian around 1890 far Hiji Mirzi HAYDAR-'AL~. The bulk of the tablet consists of a listing of some of

work

Bahi'u'llih instructed his followers that they should each have an occupation, and occupy themselves with that which would benefit themselves and others.

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World, Tablet of Such work was ranked as worship. Other people's work and CRAFTSMANSHIP should be valued. Idleness and BEGGING were condemned. Every father should educate his sons and daughters in a crah or profession (CCI:1-3; KA 30 k33; TB 261. 'Abdu'l-Bahl and Shonhi - Effendi commented that everyone should have a ~rofessionI'Abdu'l-Bahl said thar his was mat-making), whether it be manual or literary. This applies to rich and poor and, as far as possible, to the handicapped and elderly. No one should live off others 'like a parasitic plant'. There is no social role for those who have no desire to work. Even rhose who can afford not to work - for example, through inherited wealth - should work, because work nut only has a utilitarian purpose, but also draws the individual closer to God. This is particularly the case when the work is performed in a spirit of service to others, and Bahl'is should try to work in occupations chat are of benefit to society. They should also strive to achieve EXCELLENCE in the work they do, whatever it is. Such action constitutes devotion to God. It is the duty of government to ensure chat every individual has the opportunity to gain the skills necessary to work and the means to exercise their talents. The acrion of work is good, but the individual should not be completely occupied with it: their heart should be attracted towards God, and they should be detached from worldly attachments. The obligation to work applies also to rhose who want to devote themselves to Bahl'i activity. Bahl'u'lllh had fnrbidden ASCETICISM, M O N A S T I C I S M and PRIESTHOOD in his religion, and there should be no specialized class of people who made Bahl'i service their only lifework. All should be self-supporting, and combine Bahi'i activities with following a profession, Regarding the role of mothers, the Universal House of Justice has stated that 'home-making' and looking aher a child itself constitutes

World Order an 'honourable and responsible' form of work, and that in such circumstances the woman is not obliged to seek work outside the home: her primary obligation is the care of her child, and financial support of the family that of her husband (see FAMILY LIIT). Family situations vary enormously, however, and the work-roles of the two parents are not fixed. CC!: 1-7; KA I 9 2 3 "56; 235n162: 1G 6236; LG (15lednl88 no. 2M: R I P 187.435; SWAB l A A - 6 no. 126-8. (See also ECONOMIC TEACHINGS.)

World, Tablet of (Per.: Lowh-i-Dtmnyri) Tablet of Bahl'u'lllh, composed in Persian in Haifa in 1891 for M i n i A q l Sayyid M u h a m m a d A F N ~ N (NJru'd-din). Major themes are: B A H ~ U ' L L ~ H 'MESSAGE S

This was for the whole human race, and only when all had been converted would they becomc truly free. BahP'u'llih had 'breathed a new life into every human frame', and the whole world had been regenerated. His teachings were intended to promote human advancement and the reconstruction of the world. They included the importance of establishing the Lesser PEACE,of choosing a common universal LANGUAGE, and of promoting UNITY and AGRICULTURE; the need for universal funding of BDUCATION; and the abrogation of rhose Islamic and Blbi laws that had been used by the faithless to justify their wrongdoing (killing those regardcd as unbelievers, burning books, shunning or exterminating rhose of other religions). IRAN

Bahi'u'llih decried its people, who once had been 'the symbols of mercy' and 'unrivalled in sciences and arts', bur had now 'sunk to the lowest level of degradation' and had arisen to destroy both

themselves and their friends (i.e. the Bahl'is) with their own hands. They delighted in cursing people, whilst their nobles gloried in savagery and tyranny (the prince-governor of Yazd, Mahm6d M i n i , jolrilu'd-dnwlih, was specifically condemned). Iran needed laws, which should be approved by the Shah, the 'ULAMA and other dignitaries, who should consult together. They would need fewer regulations if they followed Bahi'u'llih's exhortations.

World Order Conceptualization of a future BahB'i world society outlined by Shoghi Effendi, particularly in some of his letters of the 1930s (see WORLDORDER OF BAHI[.u.LLAH). FOI nllemnrm rkledmsme. see hrchs. E m . w m ; lyon.

THE GOAL

Bahl'u'lllh's promised Most Great PEACE rep~esenteda 'New World Order' that would replace the defective world order of the present. It would be THE CONDUCT OF THE B A H k f S established as the 'practicsl consequence' Bahl'is should promote the Bahi'i of the spiritualization of the world and Cause (see TEACHING); be righteous, the fusion of its variouspeoples. It would saintly and courteous in their conduct represent the 'coming of age' of the (see ETHICS); and flee from anything thar human race (see SOCIAL EVOLUTION); caused Strife or mischief (the world was entail the emergence of a world commuin turmoil, and Bahl'is should be nity, a consciousness of world citirenprudent in their conduct). The actions ship, and the development of a world in inrer- civilization and culture; and coincide of the Bahi'is in ASHKHABAD ceding on behalf of the convicted Shi'i with the beginnings of the 'Golden Age' murderers of a Baha'i were praised. of thc Faith (see nMr). The AdminisBahb'u'lllh also emphasized the trative Order (see ADMINISTRATION) that importance of the FEAR OF GOD, =om- the BahPis were establishing would be menred an the form of covrnNMaNT its basis (WOB 1 6 1 4 ) . It would be (praisinn constitutional monarchy). . . characterized by the emergence of a praised the &Nos OF THE CAUSE, and 'world commonwealth', a world federal reproved the political activist Sayyid system with 'unchallengeable authority' JAMALU'D~D~N AL-AFGHANI (1838/9--97). permanently uniting all nations, but in iB 81-97; R&d 337-48. which the relative autonomy of these nations would be preserved. There world commonwealth, Bahb'i would be a world legislature, executive, police force and adiudicatory tribunal. See WORLDORDER. Force would be the servant of justice. War would be abolished. National, racial and sectarian animosities would World Crusade cease. The personal freedom and initiaAnother term for the TENYEARCRUSADE rive of the individual in each component (see PLANS). nation would be 'completely safeguarded'. The press, whilst ceasing to be manipulated by vested interesn or world government promoting nationalist contention, would See WORLD ORDER. give 'full scope to the expression of the diversified views and convicdons of mankind'. The global economy would world language be unified and co-urdinated, with a See LANcrncE. world currency and system of weighs

worship

W O NOrder of Bah&rullbh and measures. Inordinate class dininctions would be obliterated by the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty (see ECONOMIC TEACHINGS). There would be a world civilhation, LANGUAGE, script and literature. RELIGION AND SCIENCE would be reconciled. Human energies would no longer be devoted to conflict, but instead to scientific research; the increase of productivity; the eradication of diseaw, the raising of physical health; the prolongation of human life; the development of the human brain; and the stimulation of the intellectual, moral and spiritual life of the human race as a whole. The millennia1 hopes of past religions would be realized (WOB 2 0 3 6 ) . THE PROCESS I

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The present 'Age of Transition' was wimcssing a 'universal fermentation' which was reshaping humanity. There was both an integrative process (in particular represented by the Bahi'i Faith, but including a growing consciausness of global solidariry and acceptance of the principle of collective security) which led towards wonm uNrn and a dertructive one which tore down, 'with increasing violence', those barriers in the way of humanity's 'destined goal'. A titanic spiritual struggle ensued, which saw the 'death-pangs' of the old order and the 'birth-pangs' of the new (WOE 166-71, 191-3). D~VINC JUDGEMENT on thow institutions thar apposed the Faith; the growth of SECULARISM and moral decline; and the breakdown of the existing social and political order were part of this process (WOB 171-90). World-wide suffering marked humanity's resistance to Bahb'u'lliht prophetic call (which alone could solve the world's ills) and, more immediately, the failure of governments to adjust to the political and economic realities of a world of already innrdependent parts. The 'lire' of ordeal would forge humanity into a single whole (WOE 35-6,45-6,21&12).

World Order of Bahir'u'llah The 'World Order' letters. Ir comprises a compilation of seven major leners by Shoghi Effendi addressed to the American and Western BahP'is (1929-36). (1) The World Order of Bahd'u'lldh (27 Fcbruary 1929). partly writren in response to Ruth WHITE'Sactivities. It emphasized that the system of Bahi'i nmmulsTxnnoN was rooted in the BahP'i writings, particularly in 'Abdu'l-Bahi's W ~ L ALN D TESTA. M E N Z The administration was a channel through which Bahb'u'llih's promised blessings were intended to flow. It was nor a substitute for the Faith, however, and rhc Bahi'is should ensure rhat it did nor rigidify and fetter the 'liberating forces' released by Bahi'u'llih. (2) The World Order of Bahd'u'lMh: Further Consideration (21 March 1930) referred to the rransforming impact of the Faith on human xriety; noted rhat parr of the uniqueness of the Bahi'i Faith lay in its divinely appointed 'Administrative Order', which ensured the religion's continuing unity and flexibiliry; and stated that attacks an the Faith (implicitly referring to those by White and Ahmad SQHRAB) served only to purge it internally and proclaim it to the wider world. Eventually there would he world-wide attacks from the enemies of the Faith, and BahiVs should be prepared for this. (3) The Goal 0fa New World Order (28 November 1931) reviewed the cconomic and other ills of the world since World War I, and attributed these to the failure of the world's leaders to respond to the imperative needs of the present age, specifically for the creation of a world federation expressive of the essential oneness of the human race. Further war and ordeal would implant the necessary xnse of responsibiliry.

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(4) The Golden Age of the &use of mess the need for international PEACE. It Bahd'u'lldh ( 2 1 March 1932) was abandoned in 1985 in favour of the extolled the achievemenn of the United Nations lnrernarional Day of Peace (on the third Tuesday in SepremFaith, the bravery of the early Bibis, and the contributions the American ber). W M m ,WmFM-242. Bah6'is had already made to the progress of the Cause; outlined the World Religion Day Bahi'i view of other RELIGIONS and Set INTERFAITH DIALOGUE. of the station of thc BAH;introduced the principle of Baha'i non-involvement in POLITIC^; and appealed for world unity greater support for the construction Bahi'u'llih saw the world as one of the Wilmette House of Worship. country, of which all human beings ( 5 ) America and the Most Great Peace were the citizens. Glory for the indivi(21 April 1933) again extolled the dual lay in love for the whalc human achievements of the American race and service to it. In the future Bahi'is, reviewed their history and 'Most Great PEACE'all people would summoned them to greater service. become as one kindred and family (see (6) The D I ~ ~ W ~orI O BAH~U,LI.,~H N HUMAN RACE). (8 February 1934). (7) The Unfoldment of World Civiliw'THE SEVEN CANDLES OP UNITY' tion (11 March 1936) placed the In a letter to Mrs J.E. Whyte of worsening cconamic and political Edinburgh in the early 1900s 'Abdu'lsituation of the rime in the context Bahi nored thar the present age was of Bahi'u'llih's summons to establish disrincrive in the development of glothe Mast Great Peace, outlining the bal communications and of political guiding principles of Bahi'u'llih's and economic interdependence WORLDORDERand referring to an between all parts of the world. Self'age of transition' in human history sufficiency was no longer possible. The heralding the emergence of a new age 20th cenrury was a 'century of light' in and a world civilization. woe. which major advances towards human unity would be made. Eventually, World Parliament of seven 'candles of unity' would illumiReligions nate the world's 'darkened horizon': One of the many conferences held in (1) political unity; (2) unity of thought conjunction with the Columbian Expoin world undertakings; (3) unity in sition in Chicago in 1893. It generated freedom; (4) religious uniry; ( 5 ) unity considerable interest in world reliaions . of nations (rpecifically. t o be estabin rhc United States, and was a stimulus lished within the 20th century); ACRE (6) unity of races; (7)unityof language to the development of the GREEN conference centre by Sarah FARMER. One (i.c. the choice of a universal LAN. session included the first ~ u b l i creference GUAGE). AB360-2; WOB 38-9. to the Bahi'i Faith in America (23 September). BFAI: 31-3; Gm256. worship World Peace Day See DEVOTIONALISM; FEAST; MASHRIQU.L. AD~KAR; PRAYER. A special event day begun by the American national spiritual assembly in 1959 to

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LIVINGis therefore remarkable, and probably contributed t o their rejection See AZAL. by the older .ULAMA whose authority they were challenging. By contrast, with Yahyb Darbbi, Sayyid the exception of 'Abdu'l-Bahl, who See Vhnio. effectively served as his father's viccgcrent during Bah&'u'llPh's lifetime, and - more ambiguously - of his halfYamamoto, Kanichi brother, MUHAMMAD.'AL~, early Bahl'i (1879-1961) leadership was much older. Young First Japanese BahP'i. He converted in BahP'is do not seem to have played a Hawaii in 1902, and subsequently major role in BahL'i activities, though : WSBI moved t o California. 8 ~ 1 3 P31-3; two - Bnol and Rtihu'llLh, the son of 17686. Miaa 'Ali-Muhammad VAUQA- were esteemed as heroic martyrs. Similarly, most of those who became orominent in Yazd 11868 ooo. est. 40.0001, the small early Western BahP'i commuSouthern Iranian provincial, commercial nities (from the 1890s) were relatively and agricultural centre. One of the mature in years, with the prominent towns visited by Vnl~io.His proclamaand exception of May Bolles (MAXWELL) tion of the BLh's message there led to her group in Paris. unrest (MBBR 1 0 6 8 ) . It later became a The emergence of a distinctive catemajor centre of BahL'i activity (including the conversion of Zoroastrians), as gory of 'Bahs'i youth' occurred during Shoghi Effendi's ministry (1922-57). well as the site of a considerable number Shoghi Effendi's own accession as Guarof martyrdoms, including the 'Seven dian a t the age of twenty-four appears to Martyrs of Yazd' (1891) and the infahave elicited disdain from a few of the mous 1903 massacre (MBBR 301-5, older Bahb'is, and in letters in the 1920s 357-8,385-98). and 1930s. he emphasized the vital role of the young in Bahl'i TEACHING activyouth icy: the future progress of the Faith depended on their energy and devotion. In 19th-century Iran age was respected, Young people were particularly likely to and youthful immaturity generally disrespond to the Bahi'i message because dained. The youthfulness of the BLb (twenty-four when he made his declaraof their greater openness t o new ideas. tian) and of many of thc LETTERSOFTHEYoung Bahi'is should prepare them-

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selves for the future by securing a good them t o be a 'driving force' in BahP'i EDUCATION, by intensively DEEPENING expansion. To canalize the encrgia and their knowledge of the Bahi'i Faith, enthusiasm of youth, the House introand by developing their sense of spiriduced the concept of a voluntary 'Youth tuality. They were also called upon to Year of Service' (1984), Bahi'i youth exemplify the highest standards of being encouraged to devote a year of Bahl'i conduct and morality (CC2: their lives t o some aspect of service. such 416-39; see ADVENTOFD~VINE JUSTICE). as travel teaching, working a t the BAHN WOULDCENTREo r partici~atina A specific administrative category of . - in 'Bahl'i youth' also emerged during these SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEWLOPMEW projects. years t o refer t o those in the fiftcen-toM U H I 9 2 5 no. 37,1424 m. 67.582 no.365.5845 twenty age group, Bahi'u'llih having no. 369. 614-17 no. 386. M1 no. 408, 6bB-9 m. established fifteen as the age of MATUR428.670 m. 431.7W no. 469. ITY for the observance of religious duties Recent developments have included (1) the American 'Bahi'i Youth Work(prayer, fasting, etc.), whilst Shoghi Effendi provisionally limited Bahl'i votshops' (Los Angeles, from 1974) which, ing rights and hssEmeLu membership t o using contemporary dance styles, music those aged twenry-one and over (KA and drama, have sought to convey basic 113 q20, 134 q93, 189 "49). Specific Bahl'i principles, such as peace, racial youth activities for those in their teens harmony, gender equality and the need and twenties began to be organized. The for spiritual awareness. These proved to Bahi'i youth organization in A S H K H A ~ A D be both immensely popular among was of particular importance, and in the Bahl'i youth, and a highly appealing 1920s was seen as a serious rival to the way of teaching about the Bahi'i Faith communist Komsomol (Kolarz 471). t o others. By 1994 some seventy workBaha'i youth groups and committees shops had been formed in various parts were established in various countries of the United States, and another thirty during the early 1930s, the American in other p a m of the world; (2) the European BahB'i Youth Council (est. national comminee being parricularly 1989), its members appointed directly active (BWS: 370-87; 6: 426-35). Shoghi Effendi emphasized the desirability by the Universal House of Justice, which of BahB'i youth participating in Bahi'i functions to co-ordinate Bahi'i youth administrative work (ADJ 58). activities in the continent and to foster The role of youth has been greatly links with other youth organizations; (3) emphasized by the Universal House of increasing involvement with other lustice, vouna ~ l ebeina.encouraaed arouos . -m . o. . and with the wider youth .w p.u to spiritualize their lives; study and teach lation, such as in the International Youth the Faith; prepare themselves for their Consultation on Sacial Development in . . future careers (careers that are of social Copenhagen (1995), and the Chandibenefic or enable youth to pioneer later garh Youth Development Institute in are of particular value); participate in India (est. 1991). which aims to provide Bahi'i community life; learn the skill of career counselling, encourage commuCONSULTAnON; strive after EXCELLENCE; nity service, and promote moral education amongst local youth. 8 w s 1 ~ ~ 4 - S : and work for world PEACE. The young have a relative freedom from family and 167-90. other responsibilities which enables

369 1850). their own numbers greatly reduced, the remaining Bibis surrendered a t the beginning of January 1851, and were massacred by the soldiery. The struggle is noted for the involvement of Bibi women in the defence and, in a t lcast one case, in the actual fighting. Much of the town remained in ruins until a t least the late 1860s. A strong Bahi'i commus. nity later emerged. ARR 35s; ~ ~ o w n.per-

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no1 reminixence.'; GPB 44-6: lrrori 28; MBBR 11427; Monm. 'Sociol basis' 169-70; McS 163-4;

Zamenhof, Lidia (1904-42) zakbt (Ar., 'tithes') Prominent Bahi'i and Esperantist of The Islamic alms-tax uscd t o help the Polish-Jewish background. She was the poor and for the promotion of the Faith daughter of Dr Ludwig Zamenhof, the (Quran 9:60). BahCu'llQh instructed She first learned creator of ESPERANTO. that Bah6'i practice should follow the of the Bahl'i Faith in 1925 from Manha Quranic ordinance, and advised that ROOT.She worked energetically to prosuch payment was a means for believers mote Bahi'i and Esperanto, and transt o purify their wealth. Until the details lated Bahi'i literature into both of such payments have hcen specified by Esperanto and Polish. She was amongst the Universal House of Justice, Rahi'is those murdered in the gas chambers of should instead make regular contributions to rhc Bahl'i FUNDS. M 72 1146, 140 Treblinka during World War 11. Bwro, q107.2345 0161. (See abo H ~ Q ~ Q ~ ' L L ~ (533-38; H . ) Hslbr. Zanjan (1868 pop. cst. 20,0001

I h.

1,idia Zammbnf, dorqhter of the

I

founder of Esperovro

Citv in north-westcrn Iran on the road between Tehran and Tabriz. A large BLbi communitv of a t least 3.000 emerged following the conversion of one of the town's religious leaders, Mull5 Muhammad-'Ali ZaniLni (Hub JAT). This was probably the largest concentration of Bibis in Iran. An altercatton between some BBbis and orthodox Shi'is led t o a rapidly escalating dispute between ~ u j j a and t the city governor, who finally ordered that the city be physically divided into Bibi and o r t h o d o x sectors. Hostilities thereafter erupted (13 May 1850), the Bibis maintaining a sustained resistance against large numbers of regular troops, several thousand of whom were killed. Finally, following the death of Hujjat (c. 2 9 December

Zillu's-sul!bn (Ar., 'Shadow of the king') Title of Sultin-Ma'sGd Mitzi (18501918), prince-governor of IsfihBn, 1874-1906, and in effective control of most of southern Iran until 1888. He tried unsuccessfully t o involve the Bahl'is in his political schemer. For his personal advantage he somctimcs also permitted, o r in some instances was directly involved in, persecutions and killings of Bahi'is. BKG409-10; MBSR.

Nobil 527-80: TJ 135-70, 371-3; TN 179-81; wa~brid~o. 'B6bi uprising.. (See also BIBI nanlcnrlshn.)

Zoroastrianism Ancient Persian religion recognized by Bahl'is as one of the nine known revealcd religions. Its founder, Zoroaster, is Zaynu'l-Muqorrabin accorded the status of a MANIFESTATION (1818-1903) O F GOD, hut its scripmres, the ZendMull6 Zaynu'L- bidin in, eminent IraAvesta, are not accepted as completely nian Bahb'i. He was born into a clerical authentic o r reliable (CCI: 18-22). family in one of the villages of NajafiNevertheless, Zoroastrian prophccics are b i d near I ~ f i h l nand himself became a regarded as foretelling the a d y n t of MUITAHID and a preacher a t one of the Islam, the Bib (=the Zoroastrian 'Ushidar mosques. He became a BPhi in 1851, Mih'), and Bahi'u'llPh (='Shih-Bahiam', and under his leadership a large local the world-saver) (GPB 58, 94, 95; WOE BBbi (later Bahfi) community devel101-2). Baha'u'llih is also believed to be oped. In 1864 he moved to Baghdad to descended from Zoroaster and Yazdigird, escape persecution, and in 1870 was the last Zoroastrian king of Iran, a claim amongst the Bahi'is who were exiled t o used in supporr of Bahi'i missionary Morul (see IRAQ),where he served as endeavour among Zoroasmans. their leader. He transcribed copies of By the 19th century the majority of Bahi'u'llih's letters t o the Iranian the world's Zoroastrians lived in BomBahL'is to ensure their wider disrribubay, India, where they were known as tion. He later moved t o Akka. As a Parsees. The rest lived as a despised and qualified Islamic jurist he asked disadvantaged minority in Iran, mostly Bahi'u'llih a series of questions t o around the southern towns of Yatd and explicate legal points in the Kitdb-i- Kirmin. A significant number of Yazdi AQUAS, Bahi'u'llih's replies together Zoroastrians became BahB'is from the with the original questions forming an 1880s onwards, coming t o play an appendix t o that book. Bahi'u'llih impotrant role in the local Zoroasman titled him Zaynu'l-Muqavobin ('the lay council. Conversions were also Ornament of the Near Ones') and gained amongst recent Iranian migrants Ismu'lldhu'l- Zoyn ('the Name of Gad, in Bombay, Bahi'is of Zoroastrian backZayn'). Shoghi Effendi named him as ground making a major contribution to one of the APOSTLES OF BAA~.U.LLAH. EB the subsequent development of the Bahi'i 2744. Faith in India. Khiinm; S ~ k SBBR92-7. r

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Further Reading

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or an excellent introduction to the Bahi'i Faith see Momen, The Bahd'iFaith: A Shori Introduction. See also Smith, BahfiReligion. The classic introduction from a Bahl'i perspective is Esslemont's Bahd'u'lldh and the New Era. More recent works in the same vein include those by Ferraby, and Hatcher and Martin. An overall account of Bibi and Bahd'i history is provided by Smith, The Babi and Baha'i Religions (SBBR). This work contains a guide to further reading for English-language sources up to 1985. See also my Bahd'iFaith: A Short History. Shoghi Effendi's God Passes By (1944) places Bibi-Babi'i history in theological context. The individual topic cntries in this volume give specific references. English-language scholarship on BHbi and Bahl'i Studies is now increasing quite rapidly. Recent works by Amanat (ARR) and MacEoin (McR; McS) are invaluable for an understanding of Bbbism. Nabil's Dawn-Breakers remains the standard Bahi'i account of the Bdbi period. As yet, no full-length English translations of any of the writings of the Bib have been published, but a selection of extracts is available. On Bahd'u'llih, we can now refer t o the works by H. M. Balyuzi (BKG) and Cole (Modernity a n d the Millennium). A substantial body of Bahi'u'lldh's writings have been translated into English. On 'Abdu'lBahi, there are a number of works dealing with his Western travels, but only one full-length biography, again by Balyuzi (AB). A number of 'Abdu'l-Bahb's major writings have been translated and many of his talks in the West are also available. For Shoghi Effendi, the main source is the biography by Ruhiyyih Rabbdni (Priceless Pearl). A substantial body of his English-language writings is now available. A compilation of the major messages of the Universal House of Justice up to 1986 was recent published. There is as yet a general lack of detailed accounts of the expansion of the Bahl'i Faith apart from early North American

Bahd'i history (Hollinger; Stockman; Van den Hoonaard). The successive volumes of the Bahd'i WWorld provide an account of major developments from the 1920s onwards. For the period of the custodianship of the Hands of the Cause of God (1957-63) see Universal House of Justice, Ministry. There is a large secondary literature (of variable quality) on various aspects of Bahi'i belief and practice.

374

A Concise Encyclopedio of the Bohri'i Foith

Bakhash, Shaul, Iran. Monarchy, Bureaucroq and Reform Under the Qafarr, 18581896. London, lthaca Press, for St Antony's College, Oxford, 1978 Balch, R.W., Farnsworth, G., and Wilkins, S., When the bombs drop: Reactions to disconfirmed prophecy in a millennia1 sen', Sociological Perspectives 26 (1983):

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117-
Balvuzi. H.M.. 'Abdu'l-Bahd: The Centre of the Covenant of Bahd'u'lldh. London. Ceo& ROAM, 1971 -The Bdh: The Herald of the kin^ of Davs. Oxford. Georee Ronald. 1973 -Bohd'u'lldh The King Glory. r)xiord,'~eorge ~ d n a l d7980 , - Edward Granville Browne and the BahriT Faith. Oxford, George Ronald, 1970 -Eminent Bahd'is in the Time of Bahd'u'lldh. Oxford, George Ronald, 1985 -Khadijih Bagum: The Wife of the Bdb. Oxford, George Ronald, 1981 Banani, A., The Modernization of Iron, 1921-1941. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1961 -'The writines of 'Abdu'l-Bahl'. World Order 611 119711: 67-74 Bayat, M., Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar Iran. Syracuse, Syracuse Uncversity Press, 1982 Bergsmo, M. (ed.), Study~ngthe Writings ofShoghi Effendi. Oxford, George Ronald, 1991 Bjorling, Joel, The Bahai Faith: A Hisfarim1 Bibliography. New York, Garland, 1985 Blomfield, Lady, The Chosen Highway. Wilmette, Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1967 (first publ. 1940) Blomfield, Lady and Shoghi Effendi, The Passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahd. London, Bahl'i Publishing Trust, n.d. (first publ. Haifa, 1922) Bramson-Lerche, L., 'The Bahl'i Faith in Nigeria', Dialogue and Alliance 614 (19923): 104-25 - 'Some aspects of the development of the Bahl'i Adminirtrativc Order in America, 1922-1936'. in M. Momen (ed.), Studies in Bdbiand Bahd'i History, Vol. I, pp. 2.55-300. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, 1982 -'Some aspects of the establishment of the Guardianship', in Studies in Honor of the Late Hasnn M. Balvuzi. KSBBR 5. ed. M. Momcn..DD. 253-93. Los Aneeles. - . Kalimlt Press, 1988 Bnun. E.. From Strenpth to Strenmh: The First Half Centurv of the Formotive Ape - of , the Bihd'i Em. w%nette, Bak'i Publishing ~r;st, 197i ' -A Reader's Guide: The Development of Bahd'i Literature in English. Oxford, George Ronald, 1986 Brown, R.A., Memories of 'Abdu'l-Bahd: Recollectiom of the Early Days of the Bahd'iFaith in Cnlifomh. Wilmette, Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1980 Browne, E.G., A Literary History of Persia, 4 vols. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1902-24 -Selections from the Writings of E.G. Browne on the Bdbiand Bahd'iReligions, ed. M. Momen. Oxford, George Ronald, 1987 -(ed.), Kitdh-i-Nuqtatu'l-Kdf. Leyden, Brill and London, Lurac, 1910 -(ed. and trans.), The Tdrikh-i-ladid, or New History of Mirzri 'AliMuhmnmod the Bib, by Mimi Husayn of Hamaddn. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1893 (ed. and trans.), A Traveller's Narrative, Written to Illustrate the Episode of the Bib, 2 vols. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1891

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Bibliography

-Irlans.1, .P~rsonalrrrniniscmccs of the Rlbi insurrection at Zanlln in 1850,. . . by Aqa 'Abdu'l-Ahad-i-Zan~ini'. . ..lournnl of ihe Row1 Asrartc Socrety, 29 1. 1 897): 761-827 -(comp.), Mat&ls for the Study of the Bdbi Religimr. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1918 Buck, C., Symbol and Secret: Qur'an Commentary in Bahi'u'lldh's ~itib-i-fqdn, KSBBR 7. Los Angeles, Kalimlt Press, 1995 -'Native messengers of God in Canada?: A rest case for Bahl'i universalism', Bahd'i Studies Review 6 (1996): 97-133 -'A unique eschatological interface: BahB'u'lllh and cross-cultural messianism', In In Iran. KSBBH 3, ed. P. Smith, pp. 157-79. Los Angeles, Kaiimlt Press, 1986 Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly, and Charles Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991 Cameron, G. and Momen, W., A Basic Bahd'i Chronology. Oxford, George Ronald, 1996 Caton, P., Equal Circles: Women and Men in the Bahd'i Community. Los Angeles, Kalimlt Press, 1987 -(ed.), 'Bahl'i influences on Mirzb 'Abdu'lllh, Qbjbr court musician and master of the rodif, in From Iran Fast and West, KSBBH 2, ed. J.R. Cole and M. Momen, pp. 3 1 4 4 . Los Angelcs, Kalimlt Press, 1984 Chamberlain, S. (comp.), Abdul Boho on Divine Philosophy. Boston, Tudor Press, 1916 Chanler, J., From Gaslight to Dawn. New York, New History Society, 1956 Chase, T., In Galilee. Chicago, Bahai Publishing Society, 1908; rev. edn. Los Angeles, Kalimlt Press, 1985 Chew, P.G.L., The Chinese Religion and the Bahd'i Faith. Oxford, George Ronald, 1993 -'The first forty years of the Bahl? Faith in Malaysia and Singapore', rev. edn. mimeographed. Singapore, Singapore Rahl'i Bookshop, 1991 -'The Singapore Council of Women and the women's movement', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 2511 (1994): 112-40 Cheyne, Thomas K. The Reconcilintion of Races and Religions. London; A&C Black, 1914. Cole, J.R.I., 'Bahl'u'lllh and the Naqshbandi Sufis in Iraq, 1854-1856', In From Iran East and West, KSBBH 2, cd. J.R. Cole and M. Momen, pp. 1-28. Lor Angeles, Kalimlt Press, 1984 - 'Bahl'u'lllh's 'Commentary an the SGrah of the Sun'. Introduction and translation', Bahi'iStudies Bulletin 413-4 (April 1990): 4-27 -'Bahl'u'llbh on Hinduism and Zoroastrianism: The tablet to Mimi Abu'l-Fadl concerning the questions of Manakji Limji Hatataria, introduction and provisional translation', unpublished paper -'The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahl'i Writings', Bahd'iS~udies9 (1982) - 'Iranian millenarianism and democratic thought in the 19th century', International Jourrvll of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 1-26 - Modernity and the Millennium: The Gmesis of the Bohai Faith in the Nineteenth-Cmtuv Middle East. New York. Columbia University Press. 1998 -'Problems of chr~nologyin Bahl'u'lllh'r ~ = b l eoft Wisdom'. world order 1313 (1979):24-39 Collins, W.P., Bibliography of English-Lanpage Works on the Bdbi w d Bahd'i Faiths. 1844-1985. Oxford, George Ronald, 1990

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahd'i Faith

-'Kenosha,

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Unfolding Destiny of the British Bahd'i Community. London, Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1981 -The World Order of Bahrik'lldh, rev. edn. Wilmette, Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1965 -(comp.), The Bahd'i Faith, 1844-1 952: Information Statistical and Comparative. London, Bahl'i Publishing Trust [I9531 Sims, B.R. (comp.), lapon Will Turn Ablaze! Tablets o f 'Abdu'l-Bahd, Letters of Shoehi " Effendi. ,, . and Historical Notes About laoan. lTokvol . . . Bahl'i Publishine Trust, japan, 1974 -Icomo.l. Traces that Remain: A Pictorial Historv,o f the Earlv,Davs . , o. f the Bahai Faith Among the Japanese. [Tokyo]Bahai Publishing Trust, 1989 Smith, P., 'The American BahVi community, 1894-1917: A preliminary survey', in M. Momen (ed.), Snrdies in Bdbi and Bahd'i History, Vol. 1, pp. 85-223. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, 1982 -The Bdbi and Bai,d'i Religions: From Messianic Shi'im to a World Religion. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987 -'The Rahai communities', Encyclopaedia Iranica -The Bohd'i Faith: A Short History. Oxford, Oncworld, 1996 -'The Bnhi'i Faith in the West: History and social composition', in P. Smith (ed.), The Bahd'l Faith in the West. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, forthcoming BahZi Religion: A Short Introdtcction to its History and Teachings. Oxford, -The George Ronald, 1988 - 'Millenarianism in the Babi and Baha'i religions', in Roy Wallis (ed.), Millcnniolirm ond Charisma, pp. 231-83. Belfast, Queen's University, 1982 -' A note on Babi and BahB'i numbers in Iran', Ironion Studies 1712-3 (1984): 295-301 -'Reality magazine: Editorship and ownership o f an American Bahi'i periodical', in From Iran Eost and West, KSBBH2, ed. J.R. Cole and M. Mamen, pp. 135-55. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, 1984 Smith, P. and Momen, M., 'The Blbi movement: A resource mobilization perspective', in In Iron. KSBBH 3, ed. P. Smith, pp. 33-93. Lor Angeles, Kalimlr Press, 1986 - 'The Bahai Faith 1957-1988: A survey o f contemporary developments', Religion 19 (1989): 63-91 Smith, P.R., 'The development and influence o f the Bahl'i Administrative Order in Great Britain, 1914-50', in Community Histories, KSBBR 6, ed. R. Hollinger, pp. 153-215. Los Angeles, Kalimdt Press, 1992 -'What was a Bahl'i? Concerns o f British Bahi'is, 1900-1920'. in Studies in Honor ofthe Late Hasan M. Balyuzi, KSBRR 5, ed. M. Momen, pp. 219-51. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, 1988 Sohrab, M.A., Abdul Baho in Egypt. New York, J.H. Sears for New History Foundation, 1929 -Ahdul Baha's Grandson: Story of a Twentieth Century Excommunication. New York, Universal Publishing Co. far the New History Foundation, 1943 -Broken Silence: The Story of Today's Struggle for Religious Freedom. New York, Universal Publishing Co. for the New History Society, 1942 -The Will and Testament of Abdrrl Bnho: An Analysis. New York, Universal Publishing Co. for the New History Society, 1944 Sours, M., A Study of Bahd'u'lldh's Tablet to the Christians. Oxford, Oneworld, 1990

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-Understanding Biblical Evidence. Oxford, Oneworld, 1990

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Understanding Christian Beliefs. Oxford, Oneworld, 1991 Sprague, S., A Year with the Bahais of India and Burma. London, Priory Press, 1908 Star o f the West, val. 1 (Bahoi News), vol.2-14. Chicago; Reprinted Oxford, George Ronald, 1978 Stendardo, L., Leo Tohtoy and the Bahd'i Faith, mans. J. Fox. Oxford, George Ronald, 198.5 Stephens, K.D., So Great A Cause! A Surprising New Look at the Laner Day Saints. Healdsbutg, Natatltregraph, 1973 Stiles, S., 'Early Zoroastrian conversions to the Bahb'i Faith in Yazd, Iran', in From lran Enst and West, KSBBH 2 , ed. J.R. Cole and M. Momen, pp. 67-93. 1.0s Angeles, Kalimlr Press, 1984 Stockman, R.H., The Bahd'i Faith in America, 2 vols to date, vol. 1: Origins, 18921900. Wilmette, Bah5'i Publishing Trust, 1985; vol. 2: Eorly Expansion, 19001912. Oxford, George Ronald, 1995 -'Jesus Christ in the Bahi'i Writings', Bahd'iStudier Review 211 (1992):3 3 4 1 Szanto-Felbermann, R., Rebirth. London, Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980 Tabidba'i, A.S.M.H., Shi'ite Islam, trans. S.1-I. Nasr. London Allen & Unwin, 1975 Tahenadeh, A,, The Covenont of Bahd'u'lldh. Oxford, Gcarge Ronald, 1992 -The Revelation of Bahd'u'lldh, 4 vols. Oxford, George Ronald, 197+87 Thomas, R.W., ' A long and thorny path: Race relations in the American Bahl'i community', in Anthony A. Lee (ed), Circle o f Unity: flab67 Approacltes to Current Social Issues, pp. 37-65. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, 1984 -Racial Unify: An Imperative for Progress. Wilmene, NSA o f the Uniad States, 1992 Thompson, J., The Diory ofluliet Thompson. LOPAngclcr, Kalimir Press, 1983 Townshend, G., Christ and Bahdt'lldh. London, George Ronald, 1957 - The Heart o f the Gospel, rev. edn. London, George Ronald, 1951 (first published 1939) Tudor-Pole, W., Writing on the Ground. London, Neville Spearman, 1968 Tyson, J., World Peace and World Government: From Vision to Reality. A Bahri'i Approach. Oxford, George Ronald, 1986 Ullman, C., The Transformed Self: The Psychology o f Religiom Conversion. New York, Plenum Press, 1989 Universal House o f Justice, Compilation o f Compilations. 2 "01s. Mona Vale, NSW Bahi'i Publications Australia, 1991 -The Constitution o f the Universal House offush'ce. Haifa, Bahl'i World Centre, 1972 -The Four Year Plan. Riviera Beach, Palabra, 1996 -Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order of Bahd'u'lldh. Wilmette, Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1989 -'Mason Remey and Those W h o Followed Him*. Cyclostyled MS -Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1 986: The Third Epoch of the Formative Age, comp. G.W. Marks. Wilme~te,Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1996 -The Ministry of the Custodians: An Account of the Stewardship of the Hands of the Cause. Hnifa, Bahi'i World Centre, 1992 -The Promise o f World Peace. Haifa, Bahi'i World Centre, 1985 - The Six Yem Plan, 1986-1992: Summary o f Achievements. [Haifa]Bahl'i World Centre, n.d

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Synopsis and Codification of the Kitdb-i-Aqdor. the Most Holy Book of Bohh'u'lldh. Haifa, Bahl'i World Centre, 1973 -A Wider H m i o n : Selected Messages of the Universal House ofjustice, 19831992. Riviera Beach, Palabra, 1992 -Department o f Statistics. Memorandum, 15 May 1988, unpublished -Department o f Statistics. 'Statistical Table, Six Year Plan Final Figures, 20 April 1992', mimeographed - Research Depamnent, Schobnhip. Mona Vale, NSW, Bah6.7 Publications Australia, 1995' -Research De~arrment(como.). Bahivvih .. Khdnum: The Greatest Holv Leaf. Haifa, Bahi'i world Centre, 1982 Vader.. -1.P... For the Good o f Mankind: Aumst - Forel and the Bahd'i Faith. Oxford. George Ronald, 1984 Van den Hoonaard. W.. 'The develoomenr and decline o f an early Bahi'i communiw Saint John, ~ e ~runswick, b danada, 1910-1925'. In ~ d m m u n i t y~istoriei, KSBBR 6, ed. R. Hollinger, pp. 217-39. Los Angeles, Kalimir Press, 1992 -The Origins o f the Bohd'i Community o f Canada, 1898-1948. Waterloo, Ont., Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1996 Vick, H.H., Social and Economic Development: A Bahd'i Approach. Oxford, Gcorge Ronald, 1989 Vreeland, C. (comp.),And the Trees Clapped their Honds: Stories of Bahd'i Pioneers. Oxford, George Ronald, 1994 Walbridge,J., 'The Babi uprising in Zanjan: Causes and issues', Ironion Studies 29134 (1996): 339-62 -Sacred Acts; Sacred Space; Sacred Time. Bahd'i Studies, Vol. I . Oxford,George Ronald, 1996 Warhurg, M., 'Economic rituals: The structure and meaning o f donations in the Bahni religion', Social Camposs 40 (1993): 25-31 -'Growth parrerns o f new religions: The case o f Bahai, in Roberr Towler (ed.), New Religions and thc New Europe, pp. 177-93. Aarhus, Aarhus Universiry Press, 1995 -lranske dokumenter: Forf0lgelsen of bahd'ierne i Imn. Copenhagen. Rhodos, 1985 Ward, A.L., 239 Days: 'Abdu'l-Bohd's Journey in America. Wilmette, Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1979 Weinberg, R., Ethel jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times o f England's Pioneer Worker. Oxford, George Ronald, 1995 Weixelman, J., 'The traditional Navajo religion and the BahB'i Faith', World Order 2011 (fall 1985): 31-51 Whitehead, O.Z., Some Bahd'ir to Remember. Oxford, George Ronald, 1983 Some Eorly Bohd'ir of the West. Oxford, George Ronald, 1976 Whitmore, B.W., The Dawning Place: The Building o f a Temple, the Forging o f the North American Bahd'i Community. Wilmeac, Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1984 Wilcox. P.. Bahd'i Families: Permectives. Princioles. . . Practice. Oxford. George ~ o n a l d ;1991 Wilhelm, R., Cabb, S. and Coy, C.L.,In His Presence: V i s b to 'Abdu'l-Bahri. Los Angeles, Kalimit Press, 1989 Williams, J.A. (comp.), Highlights o f Bahd'i Activities in Afn'ca, 1987-199s. n.p., 1996

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Willoya, W. and Brown, V., Warriorso f the Rainbow: Strange and Prophetic Dreams o f the lndian Peoples. Healdsburg, Naruregraph Publishen, 1962 Wilson, S.G., Bahaism and its Claims. New York, Fleming Revell, 1915; repr. New York, AMS Press, 1970 -'The Rayan o f the Bab', Princeton Theological Review 13 (1915):633-54 Winckler, B.R., My Pilgrimage to Haifa, November 1919. Wilmette, Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1996 Winckler, B.R. and Garis, M.R., William Henry Randall: Disciple of 'Abdu'l- Bahri. Oxford, Oneworld, 1996 Zinky, K. and Baram, A. (camp. and ed.), Martha Root: Herald of the Kingdom. New Delhi, Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1983 Zohoori, E., Names and Numbers: A Bohai History Reference Guide. Caribbean Printers, Jamaica, 1990

T h m t i c Index

Thematic Index

The Principal Figures and Periods of Babi-Bahh'i History Bdhism: Afnin Bib Bib, family o f Bib, writings of BQbi radicalism Baydn Black Standard Dawn-Breakers Letters of the Living Names, Book of Qayydmu'l-asmi' Seven Proofs Shiriz: the House o f the Bib Shrine of the Bib Baha"u'1ldh: Aghsdn Ahmad, Tablets o f 'AN Food', Tablet of Aqdas, Kitdb-iAqdas, Lawh-iBaghdad: the House of Bahl'u'lllh Baha'u'llih Baha'u'llih, writings o f Bahji Bishdrdt

Branch, Tablet of the Burhdn, Lawh-iCamel, Tablet of Commentary on the Sdror of the Sun Covenant, Book of Epistle to the Son of the Wolf Four Valleys Hidden Words Hikmat, Lawh-iIqdn, Kitdb-iIshrdqdt Kings, Sdra of the Kullu'z-fa'dm, Lawh-i lawh Maqsrid, Lawh-iMedicine, Tablet of Nhri family Ode of the Dove Ra'is, Tablets o f Ridvin Seven Valleys Sultdn, Lawh-iTaialliyat Tardzdt Vafd. Sdriy-ivisitation, tablets of Words of Paradise Words of Wisdom World, Tablet of

'Abdu'l-BahL Abdu'l-Bahl Abdu'l-Bahl's writings and talks Commentary on 'I was a hidden treasure' Hague, Tablet to The Memorials of the Faithful One Thousand Verses, Tablet of Politics, Treatise on Secret of Divine Civilization Some Answered Questions Tablets of the Divine Plan Traveller's Narrative Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahd Shoghi Effendi: Advent of Divine Justice Dispensation of Bahd'u'llah God Passes By guardianship Promised Day is Come Shoghi EffendiRabbini Shoghi Effendi,writings o f World Order of Bahd'u'Ndh The custodianship of the Hands: Custodians Hands of the Cause o f God The Universal House of Justice: Promise of World Peace Universal House o f Justice Universal House o f Justice, constirution o f Universal House o f Justice, writings of

Aspects of Baha'i belief and practice Administration and community life: administration administrative rights apostasy

appeals archives assemblies assistants Auxiliary Boards Ayydm-i-Hd Bah6'i International Community (BIG)

Bahai Temple Unity business and professional organizations calendar community conferencesand congresses, international . consolidation constitutions consultation Continental Board of Counsellors convention education elections family life fasting feast, nineteen day fireside funds guardianship Haziratu'l-Quds holy days holy years honorific titles houses o f justice Huqdqu'lldh incorporation individual institutes International Bahi'i Bureau International Bahi'i Council International Teaching Centre 'learned' Mashriqu'l-Adhkdr maturity, age of membership minorities

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bohd'i Faith

Naw Rdz regional Bahl'i councils review Ridvln 'summer schools' unity feast Universal House of Justice youth

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The arts: architecture art calligraphy cinema and film craftsmanship drama and dance iconography music poetry The Bahd'i'Faith and other religions: Abraham Adam Bahb'i Faith and other religions baptism Bible Buddhism caliphate Chinese religion Christianity confession of sins hadith holy war HBd Husayn Imbms Indian religions indigenous religions interfaith dialogue Islam Jesus Judaism, Jews Mahdi monasticism

390

Moses Muhammad muitahid Noah priesthood Quran religious diversity religious leaders Sabeanism Sdih Shaykhism Shi'ism Sufism tolerance 'ulamd World Parliament of Religions Zoroastrianism The Covenant: Azalis Covenant Covenant-breakers Remeyite groups and organizations Doctrines and religious teachings: action and merit angels antichrist astrology bad6 Bahi'i Faith 'Bahl'i principles' calamity 'Central Figures' conscience creation death and the afterlife detachment dispensation divine judgement dogma dreams and visions emotions eschatology esotericism

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ethics evil evil spirits evolution faith fate fear free will God golden rule greatest name health and healing heaven and hell He whom God shall make manifest human life, purpose of human nature independent investigation of truth infallibility intellect interpretation knowledge language liberty love magic Maid of Heaven Manifestation of God martyrdom materialism metaphysics millenarianism mind miracles mysticism numbers philosophy progressive revelation prophecy prophets psychic powers reason reincarnation religion religion and science repentance

Themotic Index

resurrection 'return' revelation reward and punishment ritual sacrifice salvation Satan science secularism self-knowledge sin soul suffering theology time wine wisdom Word of God world unity Expansion and 'teaching': apologetics Bahb'i Faith conversion deepening expansion Knights of Bahl'u'llbh mission opposition persecution pioneers, pioneering plans proclamation public recognition publishing radio, radio stations ~ l e r s proclamation , to the teaching Ten Year Crusade Literature: 'Abdu'l-Bahi's writings and talks Bib, Writings of Bahl'u'llih, writings of

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canonical texts lowh language literature periodicals 'pilgrims' notes' publishing review scripture Shoghi Effendi, writings of sdro translation transliteration Universal House of Justice, writings of Word of God

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A Concise Encyclopedia of the Buhi'i Faith

Practice and low: ablutions abortion ad~~ltery and fornication alcohol animals artificial fertilization ascetism backbiting begging birth control burial charity chastity circumcision cleanliness confession of sins cremation dancing. devotionalism diet divorce dress drugs excellence fear of God gambling government, Babi'i attitude towards

homosexuality inheritance law 'living the life' marriage Mashriqu'l-Adhkir military service, pacificism moderation meditation pilgrimage politics polygamy prayer prejudice purity qiblah reverence secret societies self-defence service to humanity sex slave trade, slavery smoking spiritual path spiritual qualities sterilization suicide talismans trustworthiness trurhfulness wills work World Peace Day zokrit Social teachings: agriculture armaments Eahi'i International Community (BIG) Bahi'i-UNIFEM project Bahi'i Vocational Instimte for Rural Women, Indore civilization communism

393

craftsmanship crime and punishment economic teachings education environment Esperanto government human race human rights indigenous peoples just~ce kings, kingship language law literacy minorities nationalism newspapers and journalism nuclear power peace Prosperity of Humonkind race schools slave trade, slavery social evolution social order socio-economic development tolerance United Nations, League of Nations unity war West women work World Order world unity

People and places People: 'Abbis Nfiri, M r z i Buzurg 'Abbud, Ilyis 'Abduh, Shaykh Muhammad Abdulaziz Abdulhamit n

Th-tic

Index

'Abdu'llib Wshl Abu'l-Fad1 GulpiygM, Mirzi Muhammad Adib, M i n i (Muhammad-) Hasan Afnin AghZn Ahmad al-Aj~si'i, Shaykh ~ k h h n d Hiji , 'Ali'i, Shu'a'u'llih Alexander, Agnes Baldwin Alexander I1 'Ali, Hiji Mirzi Sayyid 'Ali Bastimi, Mulli Ali-Kuli Khan Kli P a ~ a Mehmet , Emin Amin, Hiji Amir Kabir, M r z i Taqi Khin Andalib, ~qd'i\li-Asbraf Apostles of Bahi'u'llHh JHn Kishini, M i n i Aqisi, Hiji Mirzi Armstrong, Leonora Stirling Ashraf Augur, George and Ruth b i r i h , Mirzi 'Abdu'l-Husayn Tafti Azal, Subh-iAzim Badi' Bagdadi, Zia 'Mabsut' Bahiyyih Khinum Baker, Dorothy Baker, Richard St. Barbe Balyuzi, Hasan M. Banani, Musa Bausani, Alessandro Benke, George Blomfield, Lady Sara Louisa Bourgeois, Jean-Baptiste Louis Branns, Anur and h4arta Breakwell, Thomas Brittingham, Isabella D. Browne, Edward Granveille Chase, Thornton Cheyne, Thomas K. Collins, Amelia E.

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A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bah8i Faith

394

Thmotic Index

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Custodians Dayyin Dhabih Disciples of 'Abdu'l-Bahi Dodge, Arthur P. Dolgomkov, Prince Dmitri lvanovitch Dreyfus-Barney, Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney, Laura Dunn, Clara Dunn, John Hyde Esslemont, John E. Fidil (Fazel) Mizandadni, Mirzi Asadn'llih Faizi, Abu'l-Qisim Farmer, Sarah Featherstone, Collis Ferraby, John Forel, August Fozdar, Shirin Franz-Joseph Fuat P a ~ a F u ~ g h i Mirzi , Mahmfid Furfitan, Ali-Akbar Getsinger, Edward and Louisa ('Lua') Aurora Moore Giachery, Ugo Gillespie, Dizzy Gohineau, Joseph Arthur, Comte de Goodall, Helen S. Greenleaf, Charles and Elizabeth Gregory, Louis C. Grinevskaya, Izabella Arkadevna Grossman, Hermann Hidi Dawlatibidi, M i n i Hands of the Cause of God Haney, Paul E. Hannen, Joseph and Pauline Haydar-'Ali Isfahini, HBji Mimi Hayden, Robert E. Hearst, Pheobe Hoar, William H. Holley, Horace Hujjat Husayn Bushrh'i, Mu116

Husayn Khin, Mirzi, Mushinr'ddawlih Ibn-i-Ahhar Ibn-i-Asdaq Imbrie, Robert Ioas, Leroy Isfahini, Muhammad-Taqi Ishriq-Khlvari, Abdu'l-Hamid Ives, Howard Colby Jack, Marion Jamil Buriijirdi Jamil Effendi Jamilu'd-din, Sayyid, 'al-Afghini' Kappes, Lillian Karim Khin KirmBni, Hiji (Muhammad-) KBzim Rashti, Sayyid Khadem, Zikrullah Khadijih Bagum Khadijih Khinum Khammir, 'Udi Khizeh, Jalil Kheiralla, lhrahim George King and Beloved of Martyrs Knights of BahB'u'llbh Knobloch, Alma and Fanny Leach, Bernard MacNutt, Howard Maniichihr Khin Marie Maxwell, May Ellis Maxwell, William Sutherland Mihdi, Mirzi Mihdi Dahaji, Sayyid Mills, Mountfort Mishkin-Qalam Moody, Susan Muhijir, Rahmatu'llih Muhammad, Hiji Mirzi Sayyid Muhammad-'Ali, M i n l Muhammad-'Ali QB'ini, Shaykh Muhammad-'Ali ZunGzi Muhammad Isfahini, Sayyid Muhammad Mustafi al-Baghdidi, Mirzi

Muhammad-Quli, M r z i (Muhammad-) Ridi MuhammadAbidi, Mulli Muhammad Shih Muhammad ash-Shibl, Shaykh Muhammad-Taqi, Hiji Mirzi Muhammad-Taqi Baraghini, Hiji Mulli Muhlschlegal, Adelhert Munirih Khlnum Musi, Mirzl Nabil-i-Akbar Nabil-i-A'zam Napoleon 111 Nisiru'd-din Shih Nawib Nicolas, A.L.M. Nhri family Olinga, Enoch Parsons, Agnes Pius IX Qassibchi, Hiji Mahmiid Quddiis Randall, William Henry ('Harry') Ransom-Kehler, Keith Remey, Charles Mason Robarts, John Root, Martha Rosen, Baron Victor Rosenberg, Ethel Ruhi Afnan Rhhiyyih Khinum, Amatu'l-Bahd Rumi, Siyyid Mustafa Sa'd, 'Abdu'l-Jalil Bey Sidiq Khurisini, Mulli Salmin, Shaykh Samandar, Shaykh (Muhammad-) Kizim Samandarf, Tarhzu'llih Schopflocher, Siegfried ('Fred') Schwarz, (Consul) Albert and Alice Sears, William Seven Martyrs of Tehran Sharpe, Adelaide Shirizi, Mitzi-yi

Singh, Pritam Sohrab, Ahmad Tihirih Tanumafli 11, Malietoa Thatcher, Chester Ira Thompson, Juliet Thornburgh-Cropper, Mary Virginia Tobey, Mark Tolstoy, Leo Townshend, George True, Corinne Knight Tudor-Pole, Major Wellesley Tumanski, Alexander Turner, Robert Vahid Vakil, Narayenrao Rangnath Shethji Varqi, 'All-Muhammad Varqi ('Dove'), Mirzi 'AliMuhammad Varqi, Valiyu'llih Victoria Vieira, Eduardo Duarte White, Ruth Wilhelm, Roy Wilhelm I 'Wolf' and 'the Son of the Wolf Yamamoto, Kanichi Zamenhof, Lidia Zaynu'l-Muqarrabin Zillu's-sultin Bahli'i holy places and other places of significance: Akka Americas Arc, Buildings of Ashkhahad Badasht Raghdad Baghdad: the House of Bahi'u'llib Bahs'i World Centre Bahji BirfurGsh Biishihr Carmel, Mount

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396

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bah6'i Faith

Chihriq Edirne Egypt

Green Acre Haifa International Archives International Baha'i Library Iran Iraq Isfihin Istanbul Karhal6 . ..~.~ Miku Mashhad

Mashriqu'l-Adhkir Nayriz Qazvin Shiriz Shiriz: the House of the Bib shrines and holy places Shrine of the Bib Siyih-Chil Tabarsi, Shaykh Tabilz Tehran Yazd Zanjln