ЕГЭ 2009: Английский зык. Интенсивная подготовка. Справочник

Н.А. Гринченко. В.И. Омельяненко

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Англииекии язы
K СПРАВОЧНИК

МОСКВА ~:з>.

2009

УДК 373.167.1:811.111 ББК 81.2Англ-я721 Е 33

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33

ЕГЭ 2009. Английский язык. Справочник / Авт.-сост. Н. А. Гринченко, В. И. Омельяненко. - М. : Эксмо, 2009. 496 с. - (ЕГЭ. Справочники).

ISBN 978-5-699-26634-0 Справочникадресованвыпускниками абитуриентамдля подготовкик единому государственномуэкзамену по английскомуязыку. Весь теоретиче­ ский материал школьного курса сгруппированв соответствиис кодификато­

ром элемевтов содержания по авглийскомуязыку. на освове которого будут

составленыконтрольныеизмерительныематериалы ЕГЭ

2009.

Издавие будет полезноучитеJlJU<английскогоязыка.репетиторами ро·

дителям,поможетэффективноорганизоватьподготовкуучащихсяк единому государственномуэкзамену.

УДК 373.167.1:811.111 ББК 81.2Англ-я721

·ISBN 978-5-699-26634-0

© Гривченко Н. А., Омельяненко В. И., 2008 © 000 .Издательство.Эксмо., 2009

CONTENTS

Unit 1. Speaking (A) Family Life 1.1. Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2. Monologue 9 (B) Housing 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue ..'

15 17

(B) Interpersonal Communication (in family, between friends and acquaintances) 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

25 29

(r) Health and Healthcare 1.1. Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1.2. Monologue 37 (,lI;) Problems of Youth 1.1. Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 1.2. Monologue 44

(E) Youth and Pastime 1.1. Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.2. Monologue 51

1.1. 1.2. 1.1. 1.2.

OK) English-speaking Countries (geographical position, natural resources, places of interest) Dialogues Monologues (3) Tourism and Ecotourism Dialogue Monologue

58 59 81 85

(If) Environmental protection and science 1.1. Dialogue 95 1.2. Monologue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Co,n;epmaHHe

(K) Sport in the modern world 1.2. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

104 107

(JI) Contribution of Russia and English speaking countries in science and culture development 1.1. Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 1.2. Monologue 123

(M-O) The World of Professions 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

138 142

(H-O) Education 1. 1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

149 150

(TI) The World of Languages 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

166 167

(P) Peculiarities of Verbal and Non-verbal Communication in the Process of Interpersonal and intercultural Communication 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

177 178

(C) Philology as a Sphere of Professional Activity 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

182 183

(T) Mass Media and New Informational Technologies 1.1. Dialogue .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 1.2. Monologue 194 (Y) Holidays 1.1. Dialogue 1.2. Monologue

200 204

4

CO,llep.maHHe

Unit 2. Reading 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4.

Skimming Reading for Details Scanning Understanding the Structural Links Of the Text

221 233 250 255

Unit 3. Listening 3.1. Skim Listening 3.2. Selective Listening 3.3. Listening for Detailed Comprehension

264 267 272

Unit 4. Writing 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6.

Curriculum Vitae / Resume Filling in the Forms Writing a Private Letter Writing an Official/Business Letter Writing a Summary Describing the Events. Expressing your Opinion

288 290 291 293 305 306

Unit 5. Grammar 5.1. Syntax 309 5.1.1. Communicative types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, negative, imperative and word order in them. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 5.1.2. Impersonal sentences.There is fare 319 5.1.3. Compound sentences with conjunctions and, but. Complex sentences with conjunctions because, if, when, that, that is why 324 5.1.4. Sequence of tenses and indirect speech 328 5.1.5. Sentences with conjunctions neither nor, either or 331 5.2. Morphology 334 5.2.1. The Noun. Plural form of nouns.Using of the articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334

5

CO,ll;epmaHHe 5.2.2. Personal, possessive, interrogative, demonstrative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns some, any, no, every and their derivatives. . . . 5.2.3. Positive, comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives. Comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs 5.2.4. Cardinal and ordinal numerals 5.2.5. Prepositions of place, direction and time 5.2.6. Auxiliary and link verbs. Forming and using verbs in the Present, Past, Future Simple (Indefinite) in the Active and Passive voices. Present, Past Progressive (Continuous) and Present, Past Perfect in the Active voice; Present Simple (Indefinite) in 5.2.7. Identifying the non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive, the gerund, the participle I and the participle II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.8. Phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.9. Modal verbs (can/could, may/might, must, should, have to, need) and their equivalents . . .. 5.3. Lexicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.3.1. Affixes as element of word-building: un-, in-, im-, reo, dis-, mis-, -er, -or, -tion (-sion), -ing, -ness, -ment, -ist, -ism, -y, -ic, -less, -able (-ible), -ful, -ive, -aI, -ous, -(i)ty, -ly and others 5.3.2. Polisemy. Synonyms. Antonyms 5.3.3. Lexical and grammatical combinability. . Supplementary part

.356

372 382 388

395

.421 .440 .443 .456

.456 .462 .468 .473

Unit 1 SPEAKING

(A) Family Life

1.1. Dialogue Ann's mother is ill. Ann tries to help her about the house (1.1.3)*

Ann: You mustn't get up, ma. The doctor has strictly prohibited you to do so. Mother: I know, but there's so much to do about the house, my dear. Ann: You needn't fear, Mum. You leave that to me. Mother: Will you be able to manage the household, my dear? Ann: Of course, ma. And I think I'll be able to cook a dinner too. Mother: Yes, but you do the beds and tidy up the rooms first. Ann: Yes, ma. Must I change the linen? Mother: Do so, please. Tie the dirty things into a bundle and put them into the closet. Ann: Will we do any washing today? Mother: No, not today. Now that I am ill we might have to give it to the laundry. Ann: I'll wash it myself tomorrow, ma. Mother: We'll see. Now, don't forget to sweep the corners, Ann.

*

UHCppaMH B cK06Kax 060aHaQeH KO,l\ SJIeMeHTa CO,l\ePJKIDlHH, npouepHeMoro 3ll,l\aBBHMH KHM: 1.1.1. ~aJIor aTHKeTHOro xapaKTepa; 1.1.2. ~aJIor paccnpoc; 1.1.3. ,l];HaJIOr - uo6ym,l\eHHe K ,l\eHCTBHIo; 1.1.4. ,l];HaJIOr o6MeH MHeHHHMH, coo6~eHHHMH; 1.1.5. KOM6HHHpoBaHHbIH ,l\HaJIOr.

Unit 1. Speaking

Ann: Yes, ma. Is this the rag to dust the furniture? Mother: No, Ann, that rag is too coarse. There is a soft rag in the closet. Ann: When are we going to buy a vacuum-cleaner, ma? It's ever so much easier to dust the room with it. Mother: It might be, Ann, but I'm accustomed to do it in the old way. Ann: I'll tell Dad to buy one. Well, ma, the rooms are done. Isn't it time to cook dinner? Mother: It is, dear. Let's make some soup. Ann: Mama, I don't like cooking soup. May I cook something else, oh, please, mama, please! Mother: OK, what do you want to make? Ann: Pancakes with jam! Mother: Pancakes? Well, Ann, I don't think this is the best variant for the dinner... Ann: Mama, I don't know how to cook soup anyway. Mother: My! You just look in the mirror, Ann! Ann: Why? Is anything the matter with me, ma? M other: You are dirty all over with soot. And look at your sleeves! What have you been doing there? Ann: Well, I've been trying to make batter for the pancakes and thicken it with flour and suddenly the bowl just fell on the floor, and... M other: You go and wash yourself and change your dress. Ann: What a nuisance all this cooking is, mal Why can't we order something at the local restaurant or just buy canned food. Mother: There, there, my dear. Go and wash yourself and be quick about it; there's so much to do in the kitchen. There are the dishes to be washed up. You didn't wash them in the morning, Ann, did you? Ann: No, ma. How could I when I was out shopping? Mother: Quite true, dear. But we have nothing for dinner. Ann: But you mustn't, ma. The doctor... Mother: Well, I can, at least, sit there in the arm-chair and give you some necessary instructions. 8

Dialogues and Monologues

1.2. Monologue My way of life (1.2.1)* It is always hard for any person to speak about oneself. My trouble is that I am rather young, so there is not much to speak about. To begin with, my name is Natasha. But actually very few people address me this way. My friends and relatives call me Tasha for short. I was born on the twentyfirst of November 1987 to a family of a teacher and a military man. I have a brother, 4 years older than me. I am happy to have an elder brother who is my best friend on the one hand and on the other - a person who is much older than myself, so I can always turn to him with my troubles and for a piece of advice. It is a pity there are only four of us in the family. I like big friendly families but nowadays there is a tendency to have just one child or no children at all. To come back to my own self, I go to school but soon I'll leave it and have to make a choice of my profession. I don't know for sure yet what it is going to be, but I am dead sure that my choice will be made according to my inclinations. I am keen on reading in general and on reading science fiction in particular. I am mad about English. Everybody says that I am good in communication; I am easy to get on with. This makes me think that my profession may have something to do with people. I like to meet different people, but especially creative and interesting ones. I hope that in future I'll be lucky to meet good, kind, clever people in my life.

*

IJ;mpPaMlI B cKo6Kax 0603Ha'leH KO~ aJIeMeHTa co~eplKaHlIlI, rrpOBeplleMoro 3~aHlIlIMII KHM: 1.2.1. IT PO~Yl.\lIpOBaHHeCB1I3aHHblX BblcKa3blBaHIIH C IICrrOJIb30BaHIIeM OCHOBHblX KOMMYHIIKaTIIBHblX TlIrrOB pe'lH; 1.2.2. ITepe~a'la OCHOBHoro co~eplKaHlIlI rrpO'lIITaHHOro; 1.2.3. CaMoCTOllTeJIbHOe BblCKa3blBaHlIe B CB1I31I C rrpO'lIITaHHblM TeKCTOM, rrOJIY'leHHblM pe3yJIbTaTaMII rrpoeKTHoH pa60TbI; 1.2.4. PaccYlK~eHlIe 0 aKTax / C06blTlIlIX, oco6eHHocTlIX KyJIbTypbl cBoeH CTpaHbllI CTpaH 1I3Y'1aeMOrO 1I3bIKa.

9

Unit 1. Speaking

I can be called a very busy person: I go to school, so I have to do a lot of things - doing exercises, reading texts, learning something by heart, doing sums, working in different studies and so on; I try to be a good daughter and to help with some work about the house - cleaning, washing up, cooking, doing shopping; I do my best to be a true friend, so I meet my friends as often as I can and try to give them a helping hand if they want it. Together we go to parties and cinema or just for a walk once in a' while. The next thing I'd like to tell you is my likes and dislikes. Besides reading, learning English and spending time with my friends, I like travelling, especially by car; I enjoy walking in the forest, I am fond of drawing. What I dislike is quarrelling with people. I cannot stand rude unbalanced people who loose their temper very easily; those who do not keep their promises; those who are not punctual. As a sort of conclusion I'd like to say that in future I'll manage to make a good wife, an efficient specialist, a careful mother, a good human being.

Describing one's character (1.2.1) Speaking about one's character first of all it is necessary to define what the notion is. These are some qualities that make a person different from others. We can call a person goodnatured, kind-hearted, sociable, sweet, gentle, discreet, or, on the contrary, hard-hearted, ill-natured, uncommunicative, rude, impolite and insincere. All of us have some strong and weak points, but the main thing is which features dominate in one's character and what traits in people's character we appreciate the most. People often say about me that I am not like others. I don't think I am something special. But, of course, if you come closer and turn on the light, you can see that some features are typical to me. To cut the long story short I think I am a good humoured, very responsible, hard-working and emotional person. I like 10

Dialogues and Monologues creativity and appreciate this trait in others. I dislike liars and do my best to be honest, despite the fact it's sometimes hard. I try not to be late and I hate when others don't come on time. I prefer to associate with clever and polite people. It is very annoying when somebody whom I trust turns out to be unreliable. I see the man whom I am looking for also as a person-with a strong and sound body and mind. The person, who is interesting to talk to, whom I can trust and rely on. As for my interests I am fond of psychology in the sphere of dealing with people and the questions of how to form your thoughts in the most favourable way. I adore travelling, seeing other people, their traditions, customs, to get acquainted with their culture, going sightseeing. Besides I like different kinds of music, but most of all I like music with rhythm one can dance to. In a word I try to treat other people so as I want them to treat me.

My family (1.2.1) Family denotes a domestic group of people, or a number of domestic groups linked through descent from an ancestor, marriage or adoption. It also can be defined as an organizing social unit from which a person usually develops its personal identification. The importance of family is hard to overestimate. My family has always been a source of personal worth, affection, understanding and care for me. To my great regret, my family is not very large, because I like big friendly families. There are only three of us: my mother, my father and me. I'd like to begin with my mother, a pleasant-looking woman with big grey eyes and fair hair, aged 42. The most striking feature about her is that she is a wonderful listener. And this trait of hers makes people confide in her. What is more, she is always ready to help or to give some good advice. No wonder she is well-respected by her colleagues and highly 11

Unit 1. Speaking

spoken of for her proficiency at work. And for me she is the best mother one can imagine. The next one to speak about is my father, he is a middleaged man, tall, rather handsome with thick fair hair just beginning to go grey. He is a few years older than my mother but he looks young, strong and full of energy. He is not an easy person to deal with. He likes having things his own way. What is good about him is that whatever he does he does it properly. He demands the same on our part. My father is a well-read, educated person, whom we can always turn to in case of necessity. And you are sure to be given either some help or a good piece of advice. Besides he has rather important profession - he is a doctor. The last one to speak about is me. I am 17, in October I'll be 18. I am a schoolgirl now, but next year I hope to become a student of the Institute of foreign languages. I spend much time on it reading books in the original and actually never miss a chance of speaking to native speakers). Besides this I am fond of drawing. It's a beautiful kind of art and I have my lessons three times a week. So you see I am quite a busy person, but I don't complain of it. This makes my life more interesting. Nevertheless I always find some time for meeting my friends, going out somewhere or just staying at home, enjoying the company of my family. That is really grand when we gather together in the evening and have a hearty talk about everything - books, music, life, different countries.

My working day (1.2.1) I'll try to describe my usual week-day, which I spend more or less ordinary. Frankly speaking I'm a sound sleeper. My alarm clock wakes me up at seven sharp, but I hide my head under the pillow pretending that I'm sleeping yet. Then I lean out, jump out of bed. If it is spring or early autumn 12

Dialogues and Monologues I run to the window and open it wide to let the fresh air in. The bright sun and the singing of birds set me into a cheerful working mood. In winter I'm not so quick to leave my bed. But all the same it is time to get up and start getting ready for a day's work. It doesn't take me long to do my bed and to get washed. At a quarter past 7 I'm through with my shower and ready to have breakfast. Breakfast, as doctors say, must be the most substantial meal of the day. But I have neither time nor inclinations to cook something, so I just gulp down a cup of coffee and some sandwiches. I leave the house at 20 minutes to eight. It takes me about 20 minutes to get to the University. On my way to the university I often meet my friends and we go on together. As a rule I'm never late. Our classes start at half past eight and last till half past three. Usually we have three or four lectures or seminars a day. Sometimes I stay at the university because I need a book or an article which I can get in the reading room. After classes in the reading room there are always a great many students who read different books and articles, work at theirs reports or do their lessons. On my way home I can go and do a bit of shopping. When I come home, I have dinner at once for I'm awfully hungry after classes. I usually have a three-course dinner consisting of a plate of soup, some meet vegetable and a glass of juice. Then I clear away dishes and wash up, if I don't feel too press for work. I can have a nap or find something relaxing. Then I prepare my lessons. It usually takes me about three hours, but a students reading is never done. In the evening I have a supper and watch TV. Sometimes I like to go to the cinema or to take a stroll round the neighborhood with my friends if the weather is fine. But nothing is more pleasant in rainy weather than to sit in a soft arm-chair reading an interesting detective story. My working day is over. At 11 o'clock I go to bed. 13

Unit 1. Speaking

Housewife's ordinary day (1.2.1 ) Some people say that being a housewife is very easy and less responsible than to work full-time. But it isn't actually true to life. Let's try and have a look at a housewife's ordinary day to prove our statement. As a rule, a housewife rises early in the morning. First of all she turns on the gas and begins to make breakfast. By the time breakfast is ready, her husband and children are usually awake too. Breakfast is over, but housewife's work is not; it has only just begun. So she packs some sandwiches for her husband's lunch at workplace, takes her children to the kindergarten or school and starts her everyday routine. She can start with tiding up the rooms. She cleans the floor, makes the beds, dusts the furniture, etc. When everything in the house is quite neat and in the good order, the housewife can go shopping to supply all the necessary stuff. After that she begins to prepare lunch. When she sits down to lunch at midday, she feels fairly tired, but there are many things left to do about the house. For instance, the dinner has to be cooked or it may happen to be a washing-day. There is always a bundle of clothes to be washed and dried, so she fills in the washing machine and starts it. While the washing is being done, she usually has enough time to prepare something substantial and tasty for her family and to watch her favourite soap opera. Then it is high time to take her children from school and to help them to do the home task. When her husband comes home, the housewife lays the table for dinner. After the dinner she clears the table and washes up the dishes or may ask the elder children to help her with this. And that is not all. In a short while the smaller children are to be put to bed. It is only late in the evening that she manages to sit down in the arm-chair and relax for a little bit. And tomorrow it starts all over again. 14

Dialogues and Monologues

(6) Housing 1.1. Dialogue The kitchen sink and the bathtub in Helen's apartment are clogged. She calls Margaret, the apartment manager for help, but Margaret doesn't seem to care (1.1.1, 1.1.4) Helen: Hello, is Margaret there? Margaret: It's me. Helen: Hello, Margaret, this is the tenant of Apartment 10. I guess my kitchen sink is clogged up again, and so is the bathtub. Margaret: Alright, I'll send someone over tomorrow. Helen: Uhm, I'd really appreciate it if you would send someone to fix it today. It's really a bother! I can't cook, or take a shower. Margaret: Fine, I'll be up in a few minutes. Helen: Thanks. I appreciate it.

Because the apartment where he lived was noisy, Patrick decided to move out (1.1.2) Lilia: Has Patrick moved out yet? Karen: Yes. He moved out last weekend. He's now living in a very nice quiet neighborhood. Lilia: I wonder if he's paying more for rent now. Karen: I don't have the faintest idea. Even so, it's still worth it, isn't it? Lilia: You're right! I think he's probably very glad to leave that noisy apartment. Karen: Yes, he is. I know that for sure.

Olga's apartment must be very old. Soon after she moves in, she finds that the water faucet is dripping badly all the time (1.1.2) Olga: The water faucet is dripping badly again! 15

Unit 1. Speaking

Natalie: It's awful! Olga: I know. I've got to get it fixed as soon as possible. Natalie: Don't you want to get it fixed now? Olga: I wish I could, but I've got to go now. I have an appointment in twenty minutes. N atalie: Well, if you need anything, just let me know. Olga: Oh, by the way, can you give me a ride? My car is still in the shop. Natalie: You sure are having bad luck these days. Larissa and her father are talking about their new house and the ways of furnishing it (1.1.4) Father: Good morning, Larissa. I have pleasant news for mother and you. We've got a new flat. Larissa: Really! Where and what is it like? Father: In Pushkin Street. In a new house with all modern conveniences, you know, running water, central heating, gas and so on. Larissa: Which floor? How many rooms? Father: Third floor, three rooms and the kitchen. In the kitchen you can see a sink and a gas-cooker. Isn't that fine, Larissa? Larissa: It's wonderful! And what about a larder? Father: We'll have both a larder and a closet. Besides, we'll have a bath-room. Larissa: It is interesting which room will be mine. Father: We will see. I think that the small room will be our bedroom. The biggest one will be our living-room and the other will be yours. Larissa: How will we arrange the furniture? Father: It seems to me, this way. Your bedroom will contain a single bed with a wardrobe and a chest of drawers. Larissa: And what about our living-room? Father: There will be the sofa against the wall. Then a piano on one side of the room, a television set on the other and 16

Dialogues and Monologues

a carpet on the floor. Besides there wil be a writing-table, a cupboard and a set of chairs. Larissa: I would like to place a bookcase, a writing-table, a clock, and two chairs in my room. And what about a grand house-warming party, Daddy? Father: I think it's a good idea.

1.2. Monologue What is "a home" and "a house"? (1.2.1) The answer can vary because each person implies his or her own meaning. A little boy of five can answer that it is Mummy and Daddy, plenty of toys and bedtime stories. An efficient housewife says, "Home means a lot of drudgery if you want to have it clean and comfortable". A man of fifty can call it a place he returns to after work to enjoy his "wellearned" rest. If we speak to an architect, he will say that a home is any dwelling available for human habitation. We must stress on the fact that a hostel, a hospital and a hotel are not homes in the English sense of the word. But whether a crude hut or an elaborate mansion, and whatever its degree of intrinsic architectural interest, a house provides shelter and acts as a focal point for day-to-day living. The physical characteristics of a house depend on climate and location, available building materials, technical skill, and such cultural determinants as the social status and economic resources of the owner. In rural areas until modern times, people and animals were often housed together; today's houses frequently include storage, work, and guest areas, with several separate spaces for different activities. Houses can be wholly below ground level, dug out of the earth, or can be partly below and partly above the ground; most 17

u nit

1. Speaking

contemporary houses are built above ground (over cellars in cold climates). The primary structural materials employed are wood, earth, brick, and stone, with concrete and steel increasingly used, especially for city dwellings; many of these materials are also used in combination. Choice of material depends on prevalent style, individual taste, and availability. Depending on climate and available fuels, provisions may be made for heating. In modern industrialized areas, running water and interior toilets are common. Whatever its size and conveniences, a house both contains and stands for the basic human social unit.

City and country life (1.2.1) Living in the city has both advantages and disadvantages. On the plus side it is often easier to find work, and there is usually a choice of public transport, so you don't need to own a car. Also there are a lot of interesting things to do and places to see. For example, you can eat in a good restaurant, visit museums and go to the theatre or to concerts. When you want to relax, you can go to a park and just sit on a bench and read a book. The city life is full of bustle and variety, and you don't need to feel bored. However, for every plus there is a minus. For one thing, unless your job is well paid, you won't be able to afford many of the things because living in the city is often more expensive than in the country. It is particularly difficult to find a good and cheap accommodation. Besides, public transport is often dirty and crowded, especially in the rush hour. But in spite of all the crowds, many people feel lonely in big cities. They don't usually say they are lonely - instead they say they have problems with their jobs, their home life, they say they can't sleep or work well or that they are unhappy. But when I speak to them, I find it is often because they don't know enough people to spend time with or they find it difficult 18

Dialogues and Monologues

to meet people. There are thousands of people like this in Moscow - students away from their families for the first time, young people who moved to Moscow to work, mothers with young children, old people living alone. These people don't need hospitals or medicine, they need other people. For the last two hundred years there has been a tendency for people to move from rural to urban areas, mainly in search of work. For me the life in the country is wonderful - all this fresh air and the singing of the birds! What I like most about the country is that everyone knows everyone else, and they are friendly. In the city if you live in a block of flats, like me, you can be there for years and never even get to know your neighbours. There are some in my block I've never seen. There is a lot more crime and violence in the city than in the country.

Housing in Russia (1.2.1) The right to housing is guaranteed to all citizens by the constitution, but providing for adequate housing for all has become a problem in a time of major economic reforms. In the Soviet era, most housing (state-owned) was provided free or at very low costs for many citizens. According to a 1980 Soviet estimate, 20 % of urban families (and 53 percent in Leningrad) shared apartments; that percentage had dropped slightly by the end of the Soviet era. Young, unmarried Russians often found housing only in crowded hostels operated by their employer; young married couples frequently lived with one set of parents until they could locate in an apartment. In 1990 the average floor area per person in Moscow was 17.8 square meters, and in Russia as a whole it was 16.4 square meters, compared with averages in Western countries of between thirty and forty-five square meters per person. 19

Unit 1. Speaking

Since 2002, economic reform has called for many residents to begin paying more of the costs for rent, maintenance, and utilities. The government still allows somewhat generous subsidies for low-income families. But the main housing problem seems to be in maintenance and renovation of buildings that are in urgent need of both structural repairs and upgrades in utility systems. As of 1999, about 60% of the housing stock has been privatized.

What is typical of British and American housing?

(1.2.1) As well as in any other country people in Britain live in diverse range of accommodation ranging from country mansions to single rooms or hostels in inner cities. Most of them, of course, live in houses and flats, either as owneroccupiers or as tenants paying rent. Approximately 19 per cent of houses are detached (built in a long raw and joined to each other), 31 per cent are semi-detached and 29 per cent are terraced. Purpose-built or maisonettes make up 15 per cent of the housing stock and converted flats or rooms account for 5 per cent. Local housing authorities provide most of the public housing in Great Britain. Almost 10 per cent of households are rented from private landlords. In general, British people spend more money on housing than on most other items, including food and fuel. American people are judged by the houses they live in, and, of course, home ownership is one of the definitions of success in America. Since 1990, the home ownership has become more expensive and most of Americans cannot afford their own house. The house of one's dreams may be beyond many people's reach. But to own a house is still far less risky 20

Dialogues and Monologues

than to rent nowadays, since costs can be fixed with a longterm mortgage. Most of Americans live in a variety of housing that includes single detached. They live in apartments, town houses and mobile homes. The size of dwelling units and the number of rooms has increased today.

My flat and my room (1.2.1) Many-storied buildings have become an inseparable feature of our towns and cities. I live in a new 16-storeyed block of flats on the sixteenth story. Our house is situated in a marvelous district. The house is new and, as they put it, of "an improved planning". There is a big supermarket on the ground floor and it's very convenient to do everyday shopping. It's a two-bedroom flat I live in. We've got a sitting-room, two bedrooms and besides a kitchen, a bathroom and a hall. The room I like best is the sitting-room. It is quite a big one. On the floor there is a thick carpet of light shades to match very nice wall-paper. On one side of the room there is a big bookcase full of different books in Russian and English because my mother is a great lover of reading. In the sittingroom there is a big window, so the room is light and airy. There are two comfortable armchairs near a small table with a pile of magazines on it. I like the color and the look of our sitting-room suite. It makes the room look quite cozy and modern. One more detail is lots of flowers everywhere. One of the bedrooms belongs to my parents. There you can see two beds with a bedside-table near each of them, a wardrobe, which occupies quite much room. Near the window there is a desk where my father works sometimes. So, you see, the bedroom serves as a study, too. On the wall above the beds there are two beautiful water-colors. The window of the bedroom overlooks the yard that is very much like a garden with so many trees in it. There are nice curtains on 21

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the window; they are drawn when the electric light is turned on in the evening. In the left-hand corner there is a dressingtable with a big mirror. The third room is my bedroom which is my study, too. It is the smallest room in our flat, but it is very cozy and light. There isn't much furniture in it, only the most necessary pieces. There is a bed, a writing-table and a chair before it. The table has got three drawers and I keep my textbooks, notes, pens, pencils and many other things in them. I like my room and I receive my friends in it. Our kitchen is the most often visited place. Everybody likes to be there, sit and talk about this and that. But the kitchen is a special care of our mother. It is very well equipped. We have a modern refrigerator, a microwave oven, a coffee-maker, and a toaster. We haven't got a dishwasher yet, but I'm sure we shall buy it in the nearest future. There isn't much to be said about the bathroom with its bath, a shower and a wash-basin. The wash-basin has taps for hot and cold water. On the rail at the side of the wash-basin there is a towel. The looking-glass is on the wall, over the wash-basin. There are also brushes, soap-dishes, some sponges, toothbrushes and the like on a shelf above the wash-basin. I haven't mentioned yet the room each flat begins with a hall. To my mind, a hall should be big enough to room several people, but our hall is very small and if there are more than one of us in it, we feel quite uncomfortable. The hall looks more spacious thanks to some built-in closets. There is a coat-rack, a mirror and a chest of drawers in it. Of course, it would be nice to have a spacious modern twoor three-storied cottage. Perhaps, in future we'll have one.

My favorite room (1.2.1) My favorite room is my study, at the end of the house. I call it a study but sometimes it's a kitchen and sometimes it's a bedroom, too. Well, it hasn't got a bed but I fall asleep in the armchairs all the time. 22

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My mother, bless her, is very house-proud. We always have to take our shoes off when we come in the room, in case we make the carpet dirty. We can't sit back in the armchairs, in case our hair make them dirty. So we have old rugs on the floor. Our father bought this blue one at Dubai Airport when he was flying back from the Middle East. We have a small microwave oven in the corner. I make simple meals and coffee late at night. I'm a bit of a night owl. On the table there's my computer. I'm a bit of a computer fan so I have lots of toys like a scanner that I don't really need. I don't play computer games, though! Next to the computer there's my CD player, which really is important to me. I play everything from Vivaldi to Bjork but I do like rock music, played loudly. All around the walls you can see my past. I never throw anything away. You can see certificates I got when I was at school on the walls and a lot of my and my friends pictures.

How to improve an old private house (1.2.1) When my family moved into our present house, it was a little better than a slum, completely unfurnished apart from a few bits and pieces which the former occupant had either forgotten to or - more likely - decided not to take with her. (These included an enormous sideboard that weighed a ton, a chest of drawers with its only remaining door hanging off, an ugly bookcase with all its panes of glass cracked, and a broken nineteenth-century piano stool.) The floors then were just bare boards with one or two mats and strips of lino. We now have fitted carpets in every room except the bathroom (where we have special longlasting tiles), and the kitchen (polished parquet floor), plus several sheepskin rugs in the reception rooms. On arrival, we found most of the interior decorated with faded, flowerypatterned wallpaper, peeling at the picture rail. We have 23

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painted throughout in magnolia (windows and sills winered or stripped pine) except in the lounge. A few tasteful reproductions and a number of old prints (all expensively framed) are on the walls, along with some carefully selected posters in the children's rooms. My parents carried out numerous structural alternations, notably the conversion of the old garden shed into a second bathroom, complete with bath, basin and w.e. (lambswoolcovered lavatory seat and press-button flush) and the extension of the conservatory to make a sun lounge - with window seats all around it - leading on to the newly-laid patio. The roof, meanwhile, has been completely renovated, slates giving way to tiles, double glazing has been fitted on all windows, and the old fireplaces have been blocked up, except in the lounge which has retained its grate and mantelpiece for the old-world image it creates. In terms of heating, we have graduated from electric fires to gas fires, convector heaters and storage heaters and recently to full gas-fired central heating with extra-large boiler and double radiators, each with its own thermostatic control. We have also made dramatic improvements in the kitchen. The old installations were ripped out last year and in their place came: a new sink unit with mixer tap and double drainer, a line of smart cupboards all along one wall and two rows of shelves along the other, a split-level cooker, eyelevel grill, double oven. Upstairs, the old iron double bed we inherited has been replaced by elegant twin beds with interior-sprung mattresses and continental quilts (duvets), of course. My brother and I have recently moved out of our bunk beds into single beds in separate rooms; these have been specially equipped with a desk, blackboard and easel, and toy chest. All bedrooms have built-in wardrobes now and our mother has her own personal dressing table. All our (new) parents' friends say we have done a wonderful job on our property. 24

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(B) Interpersonal Communication (in family, between friends and acquaintances) 1.1. Dialogue Greetings, starting forms of conversation (1.1.1) A: Good morning B: Good morning. How are you today? A: Just fine, thanks. How are you? B: Wonderful. Things couldn't be better.

A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B:

Telling the time (1.1.1) Excuse me. Can you tell me the time, please? Yes, of course. It's seven o'clock. Thank you. No problem. What time is it? It's half past three. Thanks. You're welcome.

***

Speaking about one's age and inviting to the birthday party (1.1.2) Amy: How old are you, Philip? Philip: I'm twenty years old. But I'm going to be twenty-one on August 5th. Amy: That's next Friday! What are you going to do? Philip: Katherine is going to take me to a restaurant. Amy: Nice!!! Is she going to order a birthday cake? Philip: Probably. And the waiters are probably going to sing "Happy Birthday" to me. It's so embarrasingl!! Amy: Oh, I bet it's going to be fun. 25

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Philip: I don't know. I hope so. When's your birthday, Amy? Amy: It's in September. Philip: September what? Amy: September seventeenth. Philip: And are you going to be twenty-one? Amy: I'm twenty-one now. I'm going to be twenty-two. Philip: Oh. So do you have any plans? Amy: Well, my birthday is on a Saturday this year, so I'm going to have a party. And, of course, I'm going to invite you and Katherine. Can you come? Philip: Well, I think I can. And Katherine can probably come, too.

Two friends are speaking about Phil's girlfriend (1.1.2) Mat: What's your new girlfriend like? Phil: Katherine? Well, she's good at languages. M at: Can she speak Spanish? Phil: She knows how to speak Spanish and Japanese. Mat: Wow!!! Phil: And she's good at sports, too. She can play tennis and basketball. Mat: That's terrific!!! Phil: But there's one thing she's not good at. Mat: What's that? Phil: She's not good at remembering things. We have a date, and she's an hour late! A girl invites her boyfriend to have a dinner with her family (1.1.2) Ann: If you are not too busy, come one evening and have dinner with us. I'll introduce you to all my people. Nick: Is your family large? Ann: Yes, our family is quite a big one. There are eight of us. I have two sisters and three brothers. Nick: Are your sisters as pretty as you are? 26

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Ann: Oh, they are both prettier than I am. Ruth is the prettiest girl I know. They both have long fair hair, but Ruth's hair is longer and fairer than Margaret's. Margaret is fatter than Ruth. She doesn't like you to say she is fat; and we tell her she will get thinner when she gets older. Nick: Tell me about the others in your family, Ann. Ann: Well, the youngest and the smallest one is Fred; he is the baby of the family. He is only four. Then there are Hans and Peter, the twins. They are thirteen, and they are so like each other that people can hardly tell one from the other. Sophie is planning a birthday party and invites her friend Mona (1.1.3) Mona: Hello! Sophie: Hi, Mona! It's Sophie. Mona: Hi, Sophie. What are you doing? Sophie: Well, I'm planning my birthday party. I want to have a party on Sunday afternoon. Can you come? Mona: Oh, I'm going to my grandmother's on Sunday. Sophie: Oh, no. What about Saturday? Mona: Saturday. On Saturday I'm playing tennis. Sophie: Oh, no. When are you free? M ona: Well, Friday is fine. Sophie: OK. We can have the party then. Mona: Of course. Sophie: Good. See you at school. Bye. Sophie: Bye.

A: B: A: B: A: B:

One friend invites another to go on a hike (1.1.3) Hi. I'm glad I ran into you. Why? What's up? How'd you like to go on a hike this weekend? All weekend? Well, just Saturday and Sunday. I'm not sure I can be gone all weekend. I promised to help my sister on Saturday. 27

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A: How about Sunday, then? We could start early in the

morning. B: I might be able to do that. Tell you what. Let me check,

and I'll call you at home tonight. A: Great! I'll talk to you later. B: So long.

Two boys are speaking about their acquaintances' behavior (1.1.4) Ben: Tom and Nick are very difficult to work with. Ted: Are they? Why? Ben: Because they are sometimes very absent-minded and Tom never keeps his word. Ted: You seem to be too cruel to him. Ben: Why should I? Three friends are speaking about their acquaintances' behavior (1.1.4) A: Have you met Nick? B: I think so, but I don't remember what he looks like. A: He's a most unusual person. B: What do you mean by unusual? c: You'll understand when you see him. B: You mean it's his physical appearance? A: Not exactly. There's a certain way that he has of speaking and choosing his words that's unique. But that's not what I'm talking about. C: That's part of it. But it goes beyond speech. I guess it's what some people call "charisma." B: Oh, that. Now I know what you're talking about. I'm just full of it! A: Ha, ha. Big joke! Saying good bye (1.1.5) A: The time has come to say goodbye. B: So soon. It seems as if you just got here. 28

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A: I feel that way, too, but all good things must come to an end, they say. B: It certainly has been a pleasure seeing you again and renewing old memories. A: I've had a delightful time and I really appreciate your spending so much time showing me the sights. B: Oh. It was fun for me, too. It gave me a chance to get away from my routine and do something a little bit different. A: You'll be out to see us next year, then, as you promised? B: Oh, yes. Unless something catastrophic comes up, that's our present plan. We should be there some time early in October. A: We'll be expecting you.

1.2. Monologue Why we need friends in our life (1.2.1, 1.2.2) Why do we need friends in our life? Because it is the fact that we live! Nobody here on earth lives alone! Everybody needs somebody to share his feelings, his works, his happiness and all of it! Friends come with friendship - they are the channel of love and affection. Friends are like child's heart which doesn't know wrong thoughts. When there is a friend with us we feel secure, happy, huge support, and comfortable which you can't get from others. Now let's strike the core question for today.... Why we need friendships? The only relationship which isn't related to blood is friendship. Friendship has many forms and shapes. It is like water. If we pour the water into a jug, it takes the shape of the jug. If you pour the same water into a bowl, it takes the 29

Unit 1. Speaking

shape of the bowl. Same way friendship will take a different shapes and sizes according to our heart. Friendship gives pleasure to human beings. Where there is friendship then there will not be any sorrow. When you see a child laughing, you will forget your sorrows for a second, same way when you are with a friend you forget your sorrows. A friendship saves life. Trusted true friendship never let us down. It helps a lot to make friends to come up from the situation. Friendships never expect anything in return for all its offering. It saves life without looking into situation. Here's what I feel we need friends for: to play, to quarrel, to share, to help, to trouble, to tease, to support. To summarize, I define friendship or friends as trust/ understanding and I believe that we in our lives need someone whom we can trust or someone who believes in us. It is not just sharing joy and sorrow and helping each other but it's a big responsibility to know that person and understand his/ her feelings and moreover to trust them and believe in them. You can't become friends with a person in a month or so. It may take months and even years to know that person and to trust him/her. It is the sign of maturity and moreover some way or another our life depends on it.

My best friend (1.2.1) My best friend's name's Nick. We go to school together. We have been friends for 5 years already, since he came to our school. Some people say that we look alike but I don't think so. Nick has blue eyes and fair hair, while my eyes are brown and I'm dark-haired. Nick wears spectacles. He is a nice guy. He is very honest and just, understanding and kind. I trust him a lot, and I'm sure that I can rely on him in any situation. He never lets people down. Nick is only 19, but he is very responsible - he finishes whatever he starts. He's got only one shortcoming. He is a bit stubborn; nevertheless he is pleasant to deal with. 30

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We spend a lot of time together. We often watch video or listen to music. Sometimes we go to the theatre, or walk around the centre of the city, visiting small cafes, museums, art galleries, and shops. We talk for hours about all sorts of things (politics, love, teachers, and girls). We discuss films, television programmes, books. He is very witty and amusing and he always cheers me up when I am depressed because he has a wonderful sense of humor. I think his only fault is that he is restless and gets bored easily. I never quarrel with Nick. But if there is some misunderstanding between us, we try to make peace as soon as possible. What I like best about him is that he is always willing to help and share his knowledge, thoughts, and feelings. I respect him for his fairness, strong will, intellect, and modesty. I miss Nick when we don't see each other for a long time. Without him I would feel lonely and uncomfortable. Our friendship helps me feel strong and sure of myself.

Family relationships (1.2.1) The family is a mirror of the larger society of which it is a part. As societies change, so do families.

What makes parents good? A good parent really cares about children and does things in the best interests of his kids. A good parent knows what it's like to be a teenager and sees a viewpoint of kids. They should support you in what you do and praise you for all the good things that you do. A good parent is someone who cares but who is strict and wants their children to be successful. Most teenagers think that there is a big difference between the roles of mother and father. A mother teaches her child right from wrong and manners. A father teaches a child to be strong and confident. 31

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Girls are more closer to their mothers but there can be some exceptions. Teenage girls ask their dads for advice about homework, but always prefer to discuss school, friends and life problems with their mothers. That's because they think their mothers are understanding and eager to help. Mostly teenagers ask their parents for advice, but sometimes when things are too personal they avoid doing that. The question "If you have your own children, what you will do differently from your own parents?" showed that teenagers think that their parents are too protective and strict to them. Many teenagers think that parenting skills should be taught in high schools. Too many young parents don't know the basics of parenting. Their kids at school are "messed up" and sometimes act very strange. Another point of view is that parenting isn't something you just learn at school or college. Some teenagers consider that parenting is something you learn when you have children, with the help of your parents.

Respect for elders Almost every culture shows some degree of respect for its elders. There is an own degree of respect for elders in each separate family. It depends on the results of the bringing up process.

Domestic violence Domestic (family) violence, the physical, sexual, or psychological abuse committed by one family member on another, was a largely taboo topic within sociology until the past quarter century. Recent studies have found family violence to be all too common. Domestic violence can be perpetrated by adults toward children, by one spouse against another, among siblings, and occasionally by adult children against elderly parents. 32

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My family relationship Despite the fact that our family is not so big (I mean that we live separately from my father's or mother's parents and I have not any sister or brother, only cousins), we try to build our relationship both in terms of old and modern morality. I want to stress on the fact that no one of our close or distant relatives is forgotten on his or her birthday, we are used to sending greeting cards and letters on each good occasion and can expect to get the same greetings. My parents teach me that family is not only people you live with in the house or flat. They are very hospitable and I like it because not only they but I can have a possibility to invite my friends to our house. They are really interested in my school and everyday life. My parents are acquainted with all my friends and always allow me to go with them anywhere, because they trust us. I respect my parents and they know that I can be relied on. That's why they don't punish me; I mean that there is no violence or other means to influence in non-pedagogical way. We are all human beings who can use verbal communication to come to an agreement. And I don't remember any situation when I didn't have a voice in such negotiations. My grandparents are not very old but I can admit that my parents try to help them in everything despite whose mother or father needs help. They are family in all. However, our grandparents are still sure that it is no use helping them in every situation. It is typical of old and we understand it, but know that we must help them at any rate. I have a lot of cousins, and it is a tradition in our family to be on good terms with them and their children. My cousins are older than me and each of them has a child. It is a great happiness for me to play with them. I am very proud they wait for me impatiently. I suppose that our family relationships can be regarded as a so-called model of a good co-existence of people belonging to different generations. 33

Unit 1. Speaking

(r) Health and Healthcare

1.1. Dialogue Paul is visiting his dentist (1.1.1, 1.1.2) Paul: Good morning, Doctor. One of my front teeth is working loose, and there is a tooth at the back that wants treatment. Dentist: I am very sorry, but I'm afraid you'll have to have the front tooth out. Has the other one been very troublesome? Paul: Yes, on and off for the last few weeks, but today the pain seems to be easier. Dentist: Does this tooth hurt you when I touch it like that? Paul: No, it doesn't. Dentist: Then you must have the bad tooth stopped before the nerve gets exposed.

Paula had a great time at the beach, but she was burnt to a crisp because she forgot to put sunscreen on (1.1.2) Martha: How did Annet like her first time at the beach? Paula: She had a great time. She really enjoyed making sand castles. Martha: When did you come home? Paula: I guess we got home about 3:00. We spent good 6 hours there. Martha: That's a long time! Did Annet get burned? Paula: No, unlike myself, I slathered her in sunscreen. She didn't even turn brown. Martha: But you look like you got burnt to a crisp. Paula: You got that right! Next time, I guess I ought to remember to put sunscreen on, too! 34

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Steve doesn/t seem to have enough sleep. He's been under great pressure recently (1.1.2) Sydney: Steve, you look pale. What happened? Steve: I didn't sleep a wink last night. Sydney: Did you have something on your mind? You look so concerned! May be I can help you. Steve: Well, I'm under a lot of pressure. My boss is very pushy. He assigned me three projects. Now the deadlines are near and I still haven't finished all of my projects. Sydney: Is there anything I can do to help you? Steve: Well, I guess no one can help me but myself. For the moment, I just need someone to talk to so that I can relieve my stress.

Speaking about one's health (1.1.2, 1.1.4) A: What's the latest news about Sam? B: I talked to him last night on the phone, and he said he's feeling a little better. c: How long has he been in the hospital now? B: Nearly ten days. A: He was really sick. The doctors thought he was going to die. C: I guess he's pretty tough. B: He is, but he also got excellent care. The nurses were just super, and his family doctor gave him a lot of special attention. A: Some of these modern drugs can perform miracles, I guess. B: That and the expert care he received pulled him through. C: Does he have any idea when he'll be able to go back to work? B: He's not certain, but the doctor is saying, now, that it might be another three weeks. A: It is sure will be good to see old Sam back on the job again. I really miss him. C: Yeah. So do I. 35

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George feels ill today. He has got a headache and a sore throat. Their family doctor Mr. Jacobs comes in an hour (1.1.5) Doctor: Good morning. What's wrong with George? What

are his complaints? M ary: He slept badly. He has a terrible headache and a sore throat. We are afraid he is starting a cold or flu. Doctor: Any cough? Mary: No, not yet. Doctor: Let me examine the boy. Open your mouth, George. Show me your tongue. Say, "Ah." Mary: What's the matter with him, doctor? Doctor: Just a moment. He has a bad cold, Mrs. Brown, so he must stay in bed for a week. Mary: That's good news for George. Doctor: Good news? Why? Mary: Because he doesn't like school. Doctor: I see. Don't give the boy rich food. He can drink warm milk and tea, and I suggest that you give him something for his headache and sore throat. Mary: Will you write out a prescription? Doctor: Here it is. Let him take the medicine three times a day. You can buy it at the nearest chemist's. Mary: Is that all? Doctor: He is running a temperature. See that he doesn't go out at least for a week. I'll call on you in the evening. In case he feels worse, I'll make an injection. Mary: Why can't you make it right now? Doctor: Let him take some medicine first. George: Is the injection very painful? Doctor: Not at all. You won't feel anything. If you follow my advice, you'll recover quite soon.

36

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1.2. Monologue Let's go to the doctor (1.2.1) There is a well-known English proverb "An apple a day keeps a doctor away". But, despite the fact that one tries to do his best in keeping fit sometimes doctor is urgently needed. It happens if you have a headache, toothache, backache, stomachache or earache, if you have a sore throat, eye or finger, if you feel pain in any part of your body or if it hurts you to move. First of all you have to turn to your physician. The doctor examines you, in other words he feels your pulse, sounds your chest, heart and lungs, tests your blood pressure. The only thing you should do is to follow his directions. Otherwise a slight ailment can develop into an incurable malady. I recollect the accident, which happened to my best friend Peter. He fell of the stairs, hit his head and knocked himself unconscious. His mother called an ambulance but Peter was still unconscious when it arrived. He was rushed to hospital where they kept him for two days for blood tests. He was suffering from concussion and had to have some stitches for a large cut on the side of his head, but fortunately it was nothing more serious than that. My friend Paul was playing football. The players were running for the same ball and collided. The next day his eye was really swollen and he had a terrible bruise on his head. He made an appointment to see the doctor. My friend Ann had a terrible toothache, so she made an appointment to see the dentist. He had a look at the tooth and decided that she needed a filling. The cavity was a big one, so he had an injection first. Afterwards it felt so much better. Nowadays medicine is developing very fast and almost every disease can be cured at the initial stage, that's why we need to visit doctor's office regularly. 37

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The fundation for good health (1.2.1) In the second half of the 20th century, good health is accepted as normal by most people who live in developed countries. This has resulted partly from improved standards of parental and child care and hygiene, partly from better educational methods and communication. Unfortunately, many people take good health for granted and fail to treat their bodies with sufficient care and consideration. One of the first duties we owe to ourselves is to keep our bodies in perfect health. If our body suffers from any disorder, our mind suffers with it, and we are unable to make much progress in knowledge, and we are unfit to perform those duties which are required of us in social life. There are certain laws of health which deserve particular attention and they are so simple that even a child can learn them. A constant supply of pure fresh air is indispensable to good health. To secure this, nothing impure should remain either within or near our homes, and every room in the house especially the bedrooms, should be properly ventilated every day. Perfect cleanliness is also essential. The whole body should be washed as often as possible. The skin is full of pores, cells, blood vessels and nerves. It "breathes" the way the lungs do. Therefore it should always be clean. Besides its importance to health, there is a great charm in cleanliness. We like to look at one who is tidy and clean. If the skin is kept clean, the teeth thoroughly brushed, the hair neatly combed, and the finger-nails in order, we feel pleased with the person, even though his (her) clothes may be coarse and many times mended. A certain amount of exercise is necessary to keep the body in perfect condition. All the powers (mental and bodily) we possess are strenthened by use and weakened by disuse. Therefore labour and study should succeed each other. The best way of getting exercise is to engage in some work that 38

Dialogues and Monologues is useful and at the same time interesting to the mind. It is most essential for the old and the young to do morning exercises with the windows wide open in your room or, if possible, in the open air. Remember that exercises warm, invigorate and purify the body. Rest is also necessary to the health of both body and mind. The best time for sleep is during the darkness and stillness of the night. Late hours are very harmful to the health as they exhaust the nervous system. We should go to bed early and get up early. It is a good rule to "rise with the lark and go to bed with the lark". Most essential to our body is food. Our body is continually wasting, and requires to be repaired by fresh substance. Food, which is to repair the loss, should be taken with due regard to waste of the body. Be moderate in eating. If you eat slowly, you will not overeat. Never swallow your food wholesale - you are provided with teeth the purpose of chewing your food - and you will never complain of indigestion. We should abstain from everything that intoxicates. The evils of intemperance, especially of alcohol, are too well known. Intemperance excites bad passions and leads to quarrels and crimes. Alcohol costs a lot of money, which might be used for better purposes. The mind is stupefied by drink and the person who drinks will, in course of time, become unfit for his duties. Both health and character are often ruined. Thus we must remember that moderation in eating and drinking, reasonable hours of labour and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest, cleanliness and many other essentials lay the foundations for good health and long life.

Community health is a way to personal health (1.2.1) Community medicine's prime concern is to prevent disease. For this purpose some communal health responsibilities are 39

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introduced. Among them one can name controlling housing standarts and the maintenance of public hygiene, health screening or the elimination of sources of infection. People everywhere need a constant supply of clean water for drinking, cooking, and washing. It is collected from natural resources and stored in reservoirs. Then it is purified and distributed for public usage. Constant checks are carried out at all stages to see that no contamination occurs. Children, adults, and animals are vaccinated against disease according to the principle established by the British doctor, Edward Jenner, in 1796. He discovered that people who had been given cowpox were protected against smallpox. Nowadays babies are usually vaccinated against poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and mumps. Hygienic controls are introduced at all stages of food production. Such controls are obligatory in many countries. Foodprocessing factories, hotels, and restaurants are regularly inspected for the presence of rats, mice, and standards of hygiene. During manufacture, processed foods may be enriched with substances that benefit health, particularly vitamins and, minerals. Iron and other minerals are added to bread and cereal foods, and glucose is sometimes added to drinks and candies. A balanced diet containing the basic food types - proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fluids - is essential for personal health. Research shows that communities with a diet containing a large proportion of fish suffer less from heart disease, high blood pressure. A balanced diet is one consisting of small amount of meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, fruit and vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds. Another important thing in keeping community health is medical service. In many countries schoolchildren are tested for tuberculosis. Chest radiography is available if necessary to check for tuberculosis, lung cancer, and chronic chest infection. Women are advised to have regular tests to examine their breasts for lumps. Mothers are encouraged to 40

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take their babies and children to clinics at special centers to be examined properly. The importance of personal hygiene is accepted in nearly all countries of the world. Personal hygiene includes washing the hands after visiting the wash-room and before preparing or eating food. There are certain preventive 11 leasures that most people can take against disease - and some which depend upon their availability. Society must also incourage its citizens in having different forms of exercises to avoid excess weight and keep the heart and blood vessels healthy. The most typical types of them are swimming, skiing, racket games, dancing, cycling, walking, and jogging. Exercise is an excellent way of combating the ill effects of stress. To put it into a few words, principal aids to personal health are eating a balanced diet, taking regular exercises, learning to relax, keeping oneself, family, and home as clean as possible, avoiding smoking, drugs, and large dozes of alcohol.

Problems with weight: modern approach (1.2.1) Obesity is defined as a body weight more than 20 per cent above the norm for one's height and build. There are many factors that regulate hunger and eating. Why do some people become obese? An important factor in obesity is the body's set point, which reflects the amount of fat stored in the body. Though fat cells can increase in number and can increase or decrease in size, they cannot decrease in number. Once you have fat cells, they are yours forever. This means that obese people can lose weight only by shrinking the size of their fat cells. Because this inducesconstant hunger, it is difficult to maintain weight loss for an extended period of time. Another important factor in obesity is the basal metabolic rate, the rate at which the body burns calories just to keep itself alive. Basal metabolic rate typically accounts for 65 to 41

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75 per cent of the calories that your body ingests. This might explain why one of your friends can ingest a milkshake, two hamburgers, and a large order of French fries, yet remain thin, while another gains weight by habitually ingesting a diet cola, hamburger without a bun, and few French fries. Your first friend might have a basal metabolic rate high enough to burn a large number of calories; your second friend might have a basal metabolic rate too low to burn even a modest number of calories. Keeping diet and making physical exercises can help in solving the problem of a low metabolical rate, but it should a rational and well-balanced process. Nowadays there are more and more cases when dieting becomes dying. Renay, who is now 18, says her problem started when she was 14. She says, "I decided to go on diet because my best friend was much thinner then me. She was also very popular. I thought if I lost weight, people would like me more confidence." Renay's diet worked. She lost weight and people told her she looked good so she lost even more weight. She didn't want to stop until she was happy with her body. She was used to missing meals and saying she had eaten when she hadn't. She had seen very skinny fashion models in magazine like Vogue and she wanted to be like them. She became obsessed, started hating her body and starving herself until she became seriously ill. Fashion magazines deny that they are being irresponsible. Vogue's editor said girls got anorexia because they suffered from a low opinion of themselves. He blamed their friends and family for not supporting them enough. It might be true that in some cases, severe dieting is a cry for attention or help but seeing thin models doesn't help. Watch company Omega decided that they did not want to advertise in a magazine that promoted anorexia so they told Vogue they would not use them any more. Since than, Vogue has used one model who was not built like a matchstick and Omega have started advertising in Vogue again. Is one girl enough? 42

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Many modeling agencies have told girls who are already very under-weight to lose a lot more weight. Lucy had anorexia when she was 15. She weighted just 41 kilograms and was waiting to go into hospital to be treated for her anorexia when two agencies told her she was the right weight to model. She says "It was ridiculous. I looked like a ghost or my skin was terrible and my eyes had sunk into my face." Many girls believe that they will be more attractive to boys if they are thinner. British comedian Alan Davies thinks it is crazy. He says, "When I was in college I don't remember anyone saying "Let's go into the biology lab and find that skeleton - she's so pretty!"


1.1. Dialogue Ted leaves to visit his girlfriend Amber. Ted's mother Susan says she doesn't really like Amber (1.1.2) Ted: See you later, Mom! Susan: Where are you going, Ted? Ted: I told Amber I'd drop by. Susan: What are you two going to do? Ted: May be going to the movies or to a party. Our plans are still up in the air. Susan: Why don't you invite her over here? Ted: I don't want to hang around here. Dad is really down in the dumps. Susan: Is Amber the girl with the nose ring and the purple hair? Ted: Yeah. I'm crazy about her. Susan: Don't take this the wrong way, but she's not exactly my cup of tea. 43

Unit 1. Speaking Ted: Take it easy, Mom. We're not about to get married. We just enjoy spending time together. Susan: I guess tastes differ. Any way, have a good time! Ted: Don't worry. We'll have a blast! Susan: That's what I'm afraid of!

1.2. Monologue What's like being sixteen (1.2.1) It isn't easy being sixteen. It's a time of conflicting feelings

and desires. You want to go out and have fun, have a social life, have a boyfriend or girlfriend, maybe start a serious relationship. At the same time, important public exams are clouding the horizon and your school work is becoming more and more demanding. At home, you want your parents to treat you like an adult yet you still depend on them for money, food and practical help. It's also a time when friendships can be unstable as you experiment with your own self-image. You may feel a sense of loss as you drop old friends or arc yourself dropped by them. Those feelings of pressure and conflict at school, at home and amongst your peers are not generally helped by those tactless adults who tell you to "make the most of the best years of your life because it's all downhill after you leave school". The fact is that 16-year-olds today are a lot busier than those adults were 30 or 40 years ago. You seek your pleasures more actively and cram a lot more into your lives. You're impossibly busy trying to get homework done, revising for a science test, playing in a match, rehearsing for a play, looking your best for your new boyfriend/girlfriend and go to a friend's party. Many of you are trying to save your constant money shortage by doing a part-time job. At the 44

Dialogues and Monologues same time, your parents are suddenly expecting prior help from you at home with washing-up, baby-sitting and other domestic duties. You realise that you have to establish priorities, but you find it hard, especially when your parents want to do it for you. It is the difference between your own and your parents' priorities that makes family life explosive when you're sixteen. Many parents don't worry too much about whether their child is popular, having a good social life or going out with friends. Instead they emphasise the importance of doing well at school and getting good exam results. You know that they're right, up to a point - that you have to have qualifications to get anywhere in the competitive world. But at the same time you realise that however brilliantly you do in your exams, you won't be happy if you haven't got any friends. What words of comfort or useful advice can we give to teenagers? Living with your parents won't last for ever. So while you're with them, make use of not having to pay electricity and heating bills. Enjoy having a fridge full of food and your laundry done for you. And remember being 16 only lasts a year.

Problems of youth in Great Britain (1.2.1) Life used to be fun for "teenagers". They used to have money to spend, and free time to spend it in. They used to wear teenage clothes, and meet in teenage coffee bars and discos. Some of them still do. But for many young people, life is harder now. Jobs are difficult to find. Things are more expensive, and it's hard to find a place to live. Teachers say that students work harder than they used to. They are less interested in politics, and more interested in passing exams. They know that good exam results may get them better jobs. 45

Unit 1. Speaking Most young people worry more about money than their parents did twenty years ago. They try to spend less and save more. They want to be able to get homes of their own one day. For some, the answer to unemployment is to leave home and look for work in one of Britain's big cities. Every day hundreds of young people arrive in London from other parts of Britain, looking for jobs. Some find work and stay. Others don't find it, and go home again, or join the many unemployed in London. There used to be one kind of teenage fashion, one style, one top pop group. Then, the girls all wore mini-skirts and everyone danced to the music of the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. But now an eighteen-year-old might be a punk, with green hair and chains round his legs, or a skin head, with short, short hair and right wing politics, or a "rasta", with long uncombed hair and a love for Africa. There's a lot of different music around too. There's reggae, the West Indian sound, there's rock, there's heavy metal, country and western, and disco. All these kinds of music are played by different groups and listened to by different fans. When you read the newspapers and watch the news on television, it's easy to get the idea that British young people are all unemployed, angry and in trouble. But that's not true. Three quarters of them do more or less what their parents did. They do their best at school, find some kind of work in at last, and get married in their early twenties. They get on well with their parents, and enjoy family life. They eat fish and chips, watch football on TV, go to the pub, and like reading about pop stars. After all, if they didn't, they wouldn't be British, would they?

American youth (1.2.1) At 18, young people in the USA can take on most of the rights of adulthood. Many teenagers are making positive contributions to their communities. 46

Dialogues and Monologues America's young people are mostly hard-working. Many have after-school jobs. Nine out of ten teenagers either have a job or would like one. Child labor laws set restrictions on the types of work youth under 16 can do. Many youths work part-time at fast-food restaurants, baby-sit, hold delivery jobs or work in stores. Volunteers help take care of the elderly and handicapped. Many youths are involved in community service. Scouts also help their community. Every year they have a Scouting for Food drive where they collect canned food from their neighbors to give to those who need it. Scouts also clean up trash and litter in parks and school grounds in their neighborhood. They make a difference in the life of their community. American scouts learn about their community and their country and what makes a good citizen. They participate in flag ceremonies at the Scout meetings and at other meetings at school. Scouts practice my leadership skills. All Scouts will get a chance to serve as a leader or in some other position of responsibility. What are the favorite sports of American young people? They prefer football, basketball, baseball, wrestling, tennis, soccer, boxing, hockey, track, and golf. At leisure, students spend much time watching TV and listening music. The average American teenager listens to music about three hours a day. Rock-and-roll music is one of the favorites of teenagers in the D.S.A. There are no national dates for school vacations. Each school district sets its own. Generally, they last from the first week in June until the last week in August. Many school districts sponsor "summer school" for children who have fallen behind, or, who wants to take extra courses. Some families send their children to summer camps for a week or two. Some of the camps are operated by the Boy Scouts, the Girl Scouts or churches. The camps sponsored by the Red Cross teach swimming and boating. 47

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Among the summer camps are music camps, computer camps, hiking and backpacking camps, and camps with farms and ranches. There are camps for inner-city children. They have special summer programs from sports or music and dances. Peer pressure and unemployment may turn some youth to alcohol or drugs. However, most young people in the USA do not have problems with drinking, drug abuse, teen pregnancies or juvenile delinquency. New programs to help troubled youths are created every year. They also sponsor social event in which young people can participate. Most American youths look forward to their future with hope and optimism. Teenagers place a priority on education and careers. They are concerned about problems confronting their communities the world around them.

Russian strategy for youth development (1.2.1) Both Russian society and the Russian state authorities pay special attention to young people living in modern Russia. The draft of the Program for Social and Economic Development of the Russian Federation makes a special mention of the fact that "it is necessary to put into the foreground all kinds of measures designed to bring up competent and responsible young people who enjoy moral and physical health, and to draw attention of the regulatory bodies on all levels of government to the importance of social development of children and youth, to the maintenance of their rights to quality education, creative development, and meaningful diversions in their free time. Various institutions existing in our society must play an important role in achieving these goals." Today's situation in the field of developing the new generation of young people is twofold. On the one hand, young people in modern Russia are more self-dependent, practical and mobile than ever before. They feel responsible for their 48

Dialogues and Monologues own destiny and are thus very interested in getting highquality education along with first-class vocational training, which does influence their subsequent job placement and their future careers. Young Russians aspire to further integrate into the international youth scene, and to participate in global economic, political and humanitarian developments. On the other hand, however, young people have shown lower levels of interest and participation in political, economic and cultural developments. Also, death rate of unnatural causes is on the rise among young Russians. In the main risk group are those between 15 and 24 years of age: this group shows the largest increase of deaths due to unnatural causes, including those resulting from drug abuse and AIDS. On the average, the criminalization of young Russians is rising, too, plus various destructive subcultures and groups have been increasing their influence on Russian youth. Social integration of young people with disabilities, of orphans and of disadvantaged teenagers living in troubled families is still a very burning problem. The Government of the Russian Federation has recognized the importance of developing and effectively implementing policies aimed at improving the condition of the young people. The Ministry is currently developing a document under the title Strategy of the Russian Federation for State Youth Development Policies. Basic priorities of this Strategy for the next five years are defined by the existing situation in the realm of youth development in Russia and by the goals of the social and economic development of the country.

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(E) Youth Pastime 1.1. Dialogue Friends are talking about Nicole's weekend (1.1.2) Bred: Hi, Nicole. Did you have a good weekend? Nicole: Yes, I did. But I feel tired today. Bred: Really? Why? Nicole: Well, on Saturday I cleaned the house and played tennis. Then on Sunday I hiked in the country. Bred: And I bet you studied too. Nicole: Yeah. I studied on Sunday evening. What about you? Bred: Well, I didn't clean the house and I didn't study. I stayed in bed and watched TV. Nicole: That sounds like fun, but did you exercise? Bred: Sort of. I played golf on my computer! Classmates and friends Will, Alison, Helen and Nick are discussing their weekend (1.1.4) Will: Hi, Alison, did you have a good weekend? Alison: Yes, thanks. I had a great time. I went to the beach with Nick. Helen: Brilliant! You lucky thing! Nick: Yes, it was great. We played handball all day. Alison: What did you do, Will? Will: I went to see the Mash Boys with Helen. Nick: Oh, no! Alison: Was it good? Nick: The Mash Boys, good? Never! Helen: No, not really. It was very hot and noisy. Alison: Oh, bad luck! Helen: I wore Alison's sweater. Someone put chocolate on it. 50

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Alison: Oh, no! Will: And I bought a Mash Boys cassette. Alison: Can I hear it? Will: No, because it dropped out of my pocket! Alison: That's terrible! Nicole discusses her plans to run for the student body president. She wants her brother Ted to ask his friend to vote for her (1.1.4) Nicole: I've decided to run for student body president. If I'm going to become a senator some day, I should get some experience now. Ted: Andrea Jenkins is also running. She'll give you a run for your money! Nicole: Andrea Jenkins is stupid! I'm by far the better candidate. Ted: Don't be such a snob. I might vote for Andrea. Nicole: Stop kidding around. Let's get down to business. I need your help. Ted: You want me to help you? Nicole: Yes. I need you to talk your friends into voting for me. Ted: No way. Nicole: You scratch my bag and I scratch yours. If you help me to get the votes, I'll do your chemistry home works. Ted: This is the horse of another color. Deal!

1.2. Monologue Youth Pastime (1.2.1) The results of the opinion poll conducted among young people living in big cities and in the country add up to the 51

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following hierarchy of pastimes: music in combination with such forms of group activities as discos, concerts, and cafes come first, followed by the Internet, theatre and reading. Then come films, museums, amateur arts and engineering, and, finally, TV and classical music. The questionnaire, circulated among pupils of 9-11 forms, students and young workers, has shown that the arts are regarded second only to contacts with friends. Most young people admit they do not know how to plan their leisure. To use sociological terminology, their leisure qualifications are inadequate. According to the poll, the actual priorities are as follows: TV comes first, followed by Internet, reading, films, listening to records, radio, going out to dances and discos; then come concerts, museums, amateur arts, and finally theatre. Young people's standards make themselves felt primarily in the choice of cultural values. Of course, I like to be entertained (by watching TV shows, reading detective stories, etc). But they certainly know how to find their way amid the peat variety of cultural values, and they know how to tell genuine from imitation. A few more words about music, which plays a very important role in young people's lives. Rock is certainly more popular than classical music. Russian pop groups who play original music and meaningful texts have an especially large following. Russian girls and boys are getting increasingly interested in the leisure activities which encourage selfexpression and personality growth. Hobby is a favourite occupation of a person in his free time. I have many friends. They are very different and they have different kinds of hobbies. One of my girl-friends, for example, likes to knit very much. Another girl-friend of mine spends all her free time sewing things: skirts, blouses, dresses. She makes it nicely and she always looks good. One of my friends likes to make everything with his own hands. He can repair an iron, a radio-set, or a tape-recorder. I think it's 52

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a very good hobby. Many people are very fond of collecting. Some collect old coins, others collect post-cards. As for me, my hobby is collecting stamps. Now I have 5 albums full of stamps. I like to sit at a table in the evening and arrange new stamps in the albums or just look through the stamps. Each stamp has a story to tell about distant countries and new people. I see pictures of people, birds and animals which I have never seen. Kings and presidents pass before my eyes and I can follow the history of whole nations. My hobby is not only wonderful but very useful, too.

The life of youth in the USA (1.2.1) Young people in the United States have a wide variety of interests apart from their school. As children, both boys and girls play many of the same games. They swim, play basketball and baseball, and in recent years - soccer, go boating, and have fun in many kinds of sports and outdoor activities. Numerous youth organisations give young people a chance to develop and broaden their interests and to gain experience in working with others. Among these groups are the Boy Scouts, which count more than four million boys. This organisation is for training boys in various useful skills such as making a fire, and for developing their character. Scouts traditionally carry a penknife, and their motto is "Be Prepared. " There are also Girl Scouts, with nearly three million girls, and the Boys' and Girls' Clubs of America with over one million participants. These and other groups are guided by adults who work in volunteer services. Civic, cultural and religious groups also sponsor special programs for young people. In farm areas boys and girls learn to work together in agriculture, home-making and other activities through more 53

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than 150 thousand clubs which have more than 4 million members. In these clubs they compete for prizes in raising farm animals and growing crops. Secondary schools offer students a wide variety of activities to develop talents and skills. There are clubs for photography, music, theater, stamp collecting, natural sciences and debating. Most schools have orchestras, band and singing groups as well as a variety of competitive sports for both boy and girls. Many young people hold part-time jobs after school hours. Thousands earn money delivering newspapers or helping care for infants and young children (babysitting) in private homes. Later when they go to college, many youths continue to work part-time at a variety of jobs to help parents or to have some money for personal expenses. For several weeks during the summer vacation, about 5 million school age children go to summer camps where they get plenty of recreational activity and learn various arts and crafts, and sometimes computer skills. Most schools and colleges have some form of student government with elections to choose class representatives. These elected officers speak for their fellow students at student council meetings with teachers and school officials. They also organize social activities and take part in such community projects as raising money for public welfare.

The life of youth in Great Britain (1.2.1) Almost every aspect of Government domestic policy, including education, housing, health, social security, law and order, environmental and national heritage, affects the wellbeing of young people and shapes their future. Education and training are among the Government's priority responsibilities for young people. Underlying Britain's

Dialogues and Monologues education policy is the principle that every young person should have the opportunity to get a good basic education until the age of at least 16. Mter 16, young people are encouraged to stay at school or college to achieve more advanced educational qualifications, or they are offered the chance to take part in a broad range of government supported training programmes leading to the achievement of specific vocational skills. In this way they are in some part prepared for adult life. But the challenges that young people face at 16 and beyond, have as much to do with their ability to prosper in a rapidly changing world as they have to do with their knowledge of many basic skills. Learning how to live and behave in a multiracial society, how to respect and support each other, how to make the most of opportunities, how to make a contribution, how to appreciate both spiritual and material qualities of life - these "life skills" and moral factors fall to parents, friends and peers, and to the very fact of life within the varied rural and city communities of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, that give Britain its diverse culture. Within these communities at local, regional and national levels - hundreds of voluntary youth groups and organizations play an active role in the life of young people in Britain. The majority of these organizations have become established on a voluntary basis by groups representing the interests of a particular sector of the population. They include religious community groups - Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist; ethnic minority groups - organisations of youth in diasporas; organisations providing for particular sporting and outdoor activities or hobbies, e. g. path-walkers, mountain-climbers, rockers; groups focusing on activities for people with disabilities, etc. While parental influence at home is a key factor in every young person's life, so is the wide social environment at school, and the whole lot of influences coming from "popular culture", offering role models ranging from the stars of

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Australian soap-operas to icons of pop-music, punk or rave. A great many youth fashions, fads, likes and dislikes and ways of talking are absorbed and rapidly spread through popular TV channels and radio programmes. Surveys show that only relatively few young people regularly attend youth clubs and organisations. Most of them are more interested in some activities that do not cost money and can be picked up or dropped with ease. Lack of their own money in the younger age group means that a great deal of their time is spent with friends, window-shopping in town, cycling or skate-boarding. At 15 years old and above, young people try to find "Saturday jobs", working as assistants in shops, cafes or restaurants. There are a great many things that young people wish to buy, including clothes and magazines, CDs and cassette tape music, computer games and jewellery. They save money for bicycles, motorbikes and, eventually, cars of their own, and to have enough money to go to the discos and dances. Most young men and about half of young women in Britain take a passive interest in sport or active/take part in a sporting activity on a regular basis. Fitness is encouraged through school and by many outside organisations. Football, either in school teams or in rapidly assembled groups playing during the school break times, is highly popular. Outside school activities include darts, chess, bowling and many other more social games. Large commercial sports and leisure centres usually offer discount of membership rates for young people.

Main Youth Organizations in Great Britain (1.2.1) In Great Britain there is a number of youth organizations that work under the British Youth Council (BYC). The Council was founded in 1949. About sixty youth organizations work under it. The most popular and well-known organizations are 56

Dialogues and Monologues the National Union of Students, the Scout and Girls Guides Associations. The activities of Bye include tourism for young people, sports, canoeing, sailing, skiing, camping, mountain walking (including map reading, orienteering and cooking). First I shall dwell upon the activities of Boy Scouts and Girls Guides Association. Boys and girls belong to different sections. The members are to take an oath to be true to the Queen and God, to help other people. The Scout Association was formed in 1908 after the appearance of the book "Scouting for Boys". The movement started in England but it very quickly spread to other countries. The Association hold regular international meetings called "Jamborees". Besides their ordinary education they go in for such activities as learning all about running of camps (mapping, signalling, knotting, first aid). The National Union of Students was founded in 1922. The aim of the organization was to develop cooperation with the students of different countries to defend the interests of college and school students. The organization is nonpolitical. And the last organization to speak about is the Woodcraft Folk. It is intended for boys and girls aged 6-17. But adults also join it. Sometimes whole families belong here. The primary aim of the organization is to bring up children in the spirit of peace, friendship. Its activities include participation in anti-war movement, provision of leisure activities for children. Thus, youth organisations in Britain have been established to serve the needs of young people from every walk of life.

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(>K) English-Speaking Countries (geographical position, natural resources, places of interest) 1.1. Dialogues Two friends are trying to learn the way of remembering the Great lakes (1.1.2, 1.1.3) Ann: Today our teacher has told us the word which helps American schoolchildren to learn names of the Great lakes. Lilie: And what is it? Ann: It is "HOMES". Lilie: It is rather interesting. Ann: Do you learn all the names of them? Lilie: Yes, of course. Look. It is easy. H - Huron, 0 Ontario, M - Michigan, E - Erie, and S - Superior. Try to repeat. Ann: Well, I try. H - Huron, 0 - Ontario, M... Hmmm... I have forgotten. Lilie: It doesn't matter. Have another try. Speaking about where someone is from (1.1.2) Mark: Where are you from, Laura? Laura: Well, my whole family is in the United States now, but we're from Costa Rica originally. Mark: Oh, so you're from South America. Laura: Actually, Costa Rica isn't in South America. It's in Central America. Mark: Oh, right. My geography isn't very good!!! Two friends are discussing the existance or non-existance

of the Loch Ness Monster (1.1.4) Nick: Do you really believe in Loch Ness Monster? If we assume that a "monster" really exists in Loch Ness, what is it how did it get there? 58

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Ted: Just as there people who believe in the Loch Ness Monster there are non-believers, too. Many of these are prominent scientists who demand further evidence. In spite of many eye-witness stories and remarkable photographs, scientists simply laugh off the idea that an unknown animal exists in Loch Ness. I don't believe, too. Nick: But what do people see on the surface? Ted: Those are floating logs or large otters. Nick: But here are some of the counter-arguments made by the pro-Nessie people: logs could not move in the water the way the Monster does and even a large otter could not disturb the surface of the water as Nessie does. Ted: The search for Nessie goes on. Perhaps one day there will be sufficient proof that a monster does - or does not - exist in Loch Ness. Until now, however, that is not the case.

1.2. Monologues The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1.2.1) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) occupies the territory of the British Isles which lie to the north-west of Europe. The British Isles consist of two main islands (Great Britain and Ireland) and over 500 small islands. The total area of the UK is 244.1 thousand square kilometers. The north-west and west of Great Britain is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean. In the west the country is washed by the Irish Sea, in the east by the North Sea. The south-eastern tip of Great Britain lies only 35 km from France and now linked by tunnel under the English Channel (or La Manche) which is 32 km wide in its narrowest point. 59

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The United Kingdom consists of four main areas which are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The largest among them is England with the area of 131.8 thousand sq. km. England borders on Scotland in the north, in the east is washed by the North Sea, in the south it is separated from the continent by the English Channel, in the West it is washed by the Bristol Channel. England is mostly a lowland country with plenty of rivers and lakes. The capital of England is London, the greatest city in the country, which is as well the capital of the UK. Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides. Its territory is 20.8 thousand sq. km. It is a highland country of old hard rocks, with the highest peaks of Great Britain, rivers, waterfalls and lakes. The capital of Wales is Cardiff situated near the mouth of the Taff River. Scotland lies in the north with the territory of 78.8 thousand sq. km. Scotland is divided into three regions: the Highlands, the Lowlands and the Southern Uplands which border on England. The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh. Northern Ireland occupies the north-east of the Island of Ireland (the southern part of Ireland belongs to the Republic of Ireland which is a completely independent state). Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain of volcanic origin. There are low hills and peaks of rocks in the north-west. The rivers of Ireland are short, but deep. The largest river is the Shannon. The capital of Northern Ireland is Belfast. The population of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is 59.78 million people (July 2002). The birth rate is 11.34 births to 1000 population; the death rate is 10.3 deaths to 1000 population. Four of every five people live in towns. Over 49 million people live in England (among them 9 million in London), over 3 million live in Wales, 6 million in Scotland and about 1.5 million in Northern Ireland. The average density is 228 persons per square km. But as it is 60

Dialogues and Monologues seen from the figures the most thickly peopled part of Great Britain is England. It is not surprising then that the official language of the UK is English. The Scots, the Welsh and the Irish, who build together with the English the British nation, keep their historical traditions and their languages, which are nowadays officially supported and taught at schools. The climate of the UK is generally mild due to the influence of the Atlantic Ocean with its Gulf-stream current. Equally important for English weather is the influence of high pressure system with the anticyclones on the one hand and the low atmospheric pressure with the winds from Atlantic on the other hand. It often rains, and on the average, Britain has 204 rainy days a year, with the maximum in Scotland, and the minimum in the estuary of the river Thames. In summer even on the sunniest days it can start raining. In autumn the weather may change several times a day. Average winter temperatures are 3-6 degrees above zero, average summer temperatures range from 15 degrees above zero in the northern areas till 18 degrees above zero in the southern areas.

London (1.2.1,1.2.4) London began on two small patches of dry land in the middle of a marsh on the north bank of the Thames. That was long before the Romans came. Today London has about 7.5 million inhabitants and is the capital of Great Britain. Actually there are several Londons. First, there is the City of London. It is about one square mile in area and only a few thousand people live there. But it contains the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange, and the headquarters of many of the wealthiest companies and corporations in the world. It is the financial and business centre of Great Britain. During the day the City has a population of half a million; during the night its population isn't much more than five 61

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thousand. So you see that each night the heart of London becomes a desert where Pounds Sterling outnumber human beings by one thousand to one. Each morning this desert is invaded by a vast army of clerks, civil servants, businessmen, and so on, from the surrounding suburbs which encircle the centre in a broad ring. Then there is the County of London composed of about thirty boroughs in addition to the City. Finally, there is Greater London which includes all the above and a great deal more. But London has many other faces. There is the West End, a fashionable shopping and entertaining centre to the west of the City. There is Mayfair - upper class London - stretching from the West End to Hyde Park. There are the Houses of Parliament built on the banks of the Thames at Westminster. This institution is descended from the first of all parliaments in the thirteenth century. More poor people, mainly workers, live in the East End. This is a vast area running eastwards from the City. It includes all the main dock areas and is heavily industrialized. Despite many fine houses built by the council there are still miles of dingy little dwellings. The East End of London is usually contrasted with the wealthy, bourgeois West End and both of them, in different ways of course, can be contrasted with the aristocratic, pompously official area of Westminster. It is in fact the capital of Great Britain. From the tower of the Houses of Parliament the B.B.C. wavebands carry the chimes of Big Ben to all the territories. From Whitehall the circulars, orders and instructions of the different Ministries go out by land, sea, air, telegraph. This is where Downing Street is situated. For more than two hundred years the official residence of the Prime Minister of Great Britain has been No.10 Downing Street. Westminster Abbey is regarded as the centre of the Westminster area. This is the ancient church of Saint Peter 62

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which has been built and rebuilt many times. The most beautiful and oldest part of the Abbey is the Chapel of Henry VII, built at the turn of the fourteenth century. There are also many old individual buildings in the Westminster area. Along Whitehall you can see the two horses standing outside the barracks of the Household Cavalry. If you come here in the morning, you can see the changing of the Royal Guard. If you want to see the Whole ceremony, you must come early to the railings of the Buckingham Palace. You will see a theatrical performance which has been rehearsed and polished over the years.

Soho is my favourite part of London One of my favourite parts of London is Soho, which is right in the centre, and includes Piccadilly Circus, Shaftesbury Avenue, and Leicester Square. One of the main reasons I like it is that it is always lively and colourful, with people dashing around going about their business, which is mainly honest but not always. The place is a bit of a mess, and the buildings aren't the most beautiful in London, but the streets are always interesting, with surprises around every corner. The name is derived from a hunting call, "So-ho", that huntsmen were heard to cry as they chased deer in royal parklands. It has been a cosmopolitan area since the first immigrants, who were French Huguenots, arrived in the 1680s. More French arrived escaping the revolution during the late 18th century, followed by Germans, Russians, Poles, Greeks, and Italians. Soho is packed with continental food shops and restaurants. More recently there have been a lot of Chinese from Hong Kong. Gerrard Street, which is pedestrianized, is the centre of London's Chinatown. It has restaurants, dim sum houses, Chinese supermarkets, and in February, there are the New Year celebrations. Many famous people have lived in Soho, 63

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including Mozart, Karl Marx, and the poet T. S. Eliot. It has a reputation for attracting artists, writers, poets, and people in the media. Shaftesbury Avenue is in the heart of London's theatre land, and there are endless clubs, pubs, and cafes. There are also street markets, advertising agencies, clothes shops, music publishers, and recording studios, which makes it an exciting place to live and work. Piccadilly Circus is like a magnet for young people from all over the world. They like to sit on the steps under the statue of Eros, celebrating the freedom and friendship of youth, it is said that if you wait long enough at Piccadilly Circus, you'll meet everyone you've ever known!

London's palaces and castles London is famous for its splendid palaces. Whitehall Palace was the main residence of the royal family from 1529 to 1698. The Banqueting House of the Palace was completed in 1622 by the famous architect Inigo Jones for King James. Today it is preserved as a showplace. St. James's Palace was the official royal residence from 1698 to 1837. It now provides office space for royal officials. Prince Charles and his sons live in the palace now. Buckingham Palace has been the official royal residence since 1837. It was originally the home of John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, who lived there in the 1700's. It was rebuilt by John Nash in the 1800's. When the Queen is staying in the palace the Royal Standard flag flies above the central balcony. The palace has its own post office. About 400 people work at the palace. Every morning during breakfast bagpipes are played outside her private dining room. There are about 600 rooms at the Palace. In the State Dining Room there is a table for 60 guests. The Queen's Gallery houses paintings from the royal collections. 64

Dialogues and Monologues Kensington Palace was the principal private royal residence. Queen Victoria was born here and lived in the palace until she became Queen. It is now the residence of Princess Margaret. The State Apartments, which are open to the public, have mementoes of Queen Victoria. Princess Diana used to live here. When she died the flowers outside Palace covered a huge area.

London's parks London's largest parks are the royal parks: St. James's Park, Green Park, Kensington Gardens, and Regent's Park. St. James's Park and Green Park are noted for their shade trees and walking paths. St. James's Park is famous for the variety of birds. Duck Island is a heaven for ducks and pelicans. Green Park is indeed a green park. There are no flowerbeds but many crocuses and daffodils. Hyde Park is famous for its great entranceway, Marble Arch, and the Speaker's Corner. Large crowds gather at Speaker's Corner every weekend afternoon to hear people express their opinions. Anyone has the right to speak here. There is a tradition to swim in the icy water of the Serpentine on Christmas day. Nearby the park there is a Wellington Museum. On royal birthdays gun salutes are fired in Hyde Park. Kensington Gardens has beautiful formal gardens and a famous statue of Peter Pan. An artificially created lake Serpentine separates Hyde Park from Kensington Gardens. Londoners use the lake for boating, fishing, and swimming. Regent's Park contains the huge London Zoo. Regent's Canal runs through part of the park. Every May there is a canal procession of decorated barges. The best place to see it is at Little Venice. London Zoo was opened in 1827. Today there are over 8000 animals in the Zoo. You can adopt an animal at London Zoo for a year. Your name goes on a plaque near the animal's cage. You can walk through the Snowdon 65

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Aviary where over 150 species of birds live. In the Children's Zoo there are all kinds of pets and farm animals. Each afternoon you can see the cows being milked. In summer a baby elephant walks round the Zoo. You can have a ride on a pony, camel or llama.

British places of interest (1.2.1, 1.2.4)

England Bath is a county borough with population of 80,000 in Somerset, England. It has been noted since Roman times for its medicinal springs. Roman colonists built large pools to take advantage of the curative hot springs around Bath. Today visitors flock to see the baths, which are among the finest remains in Britain. The Roman baths were first discovered in the 19th century, lying 20 feet below street level. Two miles away from town American Museum is housed. It contains American decorative arts. Beaconsfield is an elegant old town in Buckinghamshire with population of 11,000. A historic moment is the Quaker meeting house. The grave of William Penn (16441718), founder of Pennsylvania and Philadelphia, is in the churchyard. Beaulieu is a small town in Hampshire with population of 800. The National Motor Museum, founded by Lord Montagu in 1952, commemorates his father, who was a pioneer in motoring. Over 200 vehicles on display detail the history of motoring since 1895. Beverley is a market town with population of 23,000 in Humberside. Beverley Minster is one of the most notable Gothic churches in the country. Birmingham with population over 1,000,000 is the second largest city in Britain. Birmingham developed in the 19th century. It boasts of the Symphony Hall, one of the finest 66

Dialogues and Monologues concert halls in Europe. The Hall of Memory commemorates citizens killed in both world wars. Birmingham is most productive in arts. Cathedral Church of St. Philip was consecrated in 1715. City of Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery is noted for its pre-Raphaelite works. Bristol is the port where many historic voyages began. In 1497 John Cabot sailed from Bristol to discover the northern half of the New World. Bristol retains a number of architectural treasures. Clifton Suspension Bridge still offers excellent views. Matthew Visitors' Center is the site of a reconstruction of the ship John Cabot sailed to the New World. Cambridge came into being due to its namesake - a bridge across the Cam River, the only crossing between eastern and central England. Cambridge became a seat of learning in the 13th century with the town-and-gown troubles at Oxford. Sir Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin were the students of Cambridge. The University buildings form a rich sampling of styles from Norman to modern. Liverpool is a great seaport with miles of docks. Liverpool is known for its patronage of the fine arts and education. The city also contributed several bands, foremost among them the Beatles. Oxford is a university and cathedral city originated in the Saxon period. Colleges of the University are clustered in the central part of the city. Access to some colleges is restricted. Ashmolean Museum is England's oldest museum. It contains European, Egyptian and Near Eastern antiquities and world art. Plymouth has been the starting point for several historical events. From here Sir Francis Drake sailed to engage the Spanish Armada. It was from this part that the Pilgrim Fathers sailed in the Mayflower to found a colony in the New World. This event is marked by a memorial stone. The town suffered considerable damage during WWII. 67

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Stratford-upon-Avon is believed to be the town where William Shakespeare have been born, married and buried. Many visitors come here to trace his life. The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust has restored the buildings to their original appearance. Royal Shakespeare Theatre was built in 1932 to replace an older one. Shakespearean dramas take place from April to January. Many shops and hotels are renovated in the 16th century style. The town is best investigated on foot. You might begin with the house on Henley Street where W. Shakespeare was born. The Museum is next to the foundation of the house where W. Shakespeare died. On Church Street is the grammar school that Shakespeare probably attended. Anne Hathaway's Cottage, at Shottery, a mile's work from Stratford, has been well preserved and is the most photographed farmhouse in England.

Scotland Edinburgh is the administrative and cultural capital of Scotland. In the 18th century Edinburgh began to emerge as an intellectual capital of Europe. New Town is characterised by Georgian architecture. Princes Street marks the division between the old and new. A particularly enjoyable time to visit the city is during the Edinburgh International Festival. The Festival takes place the last two weeks in August. The official program includes opera, ballet, symphony concerts, plays, movies and art exhibitions. The Military Tattoo, staged by Scottish regiments is one of the most spectacular events. City Art Center is the home of Edinburgh's fine arts collection. Edinburgh Zoo is one of the finer zoos in Europe. National Gallery of Scotland contains paintings by Scottish and European masters from the 14th to 19th centuries. Palace of Holyroodhouse is the official residence of the Queen when she is in Scotland. 68

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Aberdeen is a noble northern city which bristles with history. A number of buildings in Aberdeen are of historical interest. A Statue of Lord Byron in front of Aberdeen Grammar school recalls that this poet attended the school 1794-98. Aberdeen lies near the most "castled" part of Scotland. Balmoral Castle is a summer residence for the British Royal Family. They have come to Balmoral each summer traditionally since 1853. Braemar is a village popular with summer visitors. The Royal Highland gathering, an exhibition of Scottish sports held in September, is usually attended by the Royal family. Balmoral Castle is 6 miles east from Braemar. Glasgow was founded by the missionary St. Mungo about 550 A.D. It is a manufacturing and shipping center. Glasgow is architecturally a product of the 19th century. Kilmarnock is famous for the world's largest whiskybottling concern. Robert Burns published his first book of poems in Kilmarnock. The town's museum, within a monument to Burns, contains a copy of that book.

Wales Cardiff has been the country's capital only since 1955. It is a major coal-shipping port and manufacturing center.

Visitors enjoy the broad tree-lined streets, National Museum of Wales, Civic Center and City Hall, the Cardiff Market and the New Theatre. Beaumaris on Anglesey Island is among the prettiest towns in Wales. Beaumaris Castle was built in 1295 by Edward I to guard he straight separating Anglesey Island from the rest of Wales. Caernarfron is a peaceful resort. Dolgellau is a good center for walking or pony trekking. Harlech is known for its Castle. Harlech Castle was built by Edward I as a stronghold. It was the last Welsh castle to fall to the English. 69

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Llandudno is a large resort. The statue of Lewis Carroll recalls that the author often came to Llandudno to visit the Liddells and their daughter Alice, for whom he wrote his best known story. Llangollen is well known among music lovers as the site of the International Musical Eisteddfod, held since 1947. Every July folk singers and dancers from around the world compete here.

Northern Ireland Belfast is the capital and a chief port of Northern Ireland. Belfast is a modern city situated in a district of mountains and rivers. City Hall is marked by a copper dome and sculptured pediment. Inside is a fresco depicting the city's history. University of Belfast was founded in 1908. Newcastle is a small seaside resort. The Royal County Down Golf Course, one of the best in Britain stretches along the seafront. Dandrum Castle, 4 miles north, was built in the 12th century and is very well preserved. Omagh is known for Omagh Mellon House and Ulster American Folk Park. An outdoor museum tells the story of Ulster's link with the United States. A dozen Americans of Ulster stock have made the link to the White House, eleven ones as presidents. Some of the more memorable are Andrew Jackson, Ulysses Grant, Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. Strabane is of considerable historic interest. Printer of the American Declaration of Independence John Dunlap was apprenticed here in Gray's Print Shop. President Woodrow Wilson's ancestral home is a few miles away.

The United States of America (1.2.1 ) The United States of America, commonly called the United States or simply America, is a federal republic comprising 70

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fifty states, the District of Columbia, and six territories and dependencies. The part of the country constituting the states and the District of Columbia consists of three distinct geographical areas: the older 48 states and the District of Columbia, bounded by the Pacific Ocean in the west, Canada in the north, the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico in the south; the state of Alaska, with Canada along its eastern border and otherwise bounded (in a clockwise direction, from south to north) by the Pacific Ocean, the Bering Sea and the Bering Strait, and the Arctic Ocean; and the state of Hawaii, an island group in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The older 48 states and the District of Columbia are collectively referred to as the conterminous United States; the conterminous United States and the state of Alaska are collectively referred to as the continental United States. The land varies from heavy forests covering 2.104 mln hectares, to barren deserts, from high-peaked mountains (the highest peak is Mount McKinley in Alaska) to deep canyons (Death Valley in California is 1,064 meters below sea level). The highest mountains in the USA are the Cordilleras that run the length of the west coast and include the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. America's largest rivers are the Mississippi with its tributary Missouri, the Rio Grande, the Ohio, and the Columbia. The broad Mississippi River system runs 5,969 kilometers from Canada into the Gulf of Mexico and is the world's third longest river after the Nile and the Amazon. The USA is famous for its five Great Lakes: Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Superior and the Michigan. The first four lakes are on the border with Canada and are the largest and deepest in the USA. There are also a lot of small lakes and the northern state of Minnesota, for example, is known as the land of 10,000 lakes. The USA is rich in mineral resources; their wealth provides a solid base for American industry. It has major deposits of oil and gas in Texas and Alaska, coal in Virginia and Ohio, 71

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gold in Alaska and California, silver in Nevada, non-ferrous metals in Arkansas and Colorado. The largest cities of the USA are New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicago Philadelphia, Detroit and some others.

The USA: places of interest (1.2.1, 1.2.4)

New York City New York City is the nation's largest city and richest port. It is the national leader in business and art. New York consists of five boroughs: Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn and Richmond. Manhattan is the heart of the city. Fifth Avenue is a symbol of wealth and elegance. Seventh Avenue symbolizes the women's fashion industry. Broadway is a place where most theatres are situated. Manhattan is divided into 3 parts: down-town, midtown, and uptown. Downtown Manhattan is the business center. Wall Street America's financial center - has become world famous. The City Hall houses the offices of the Mayor. In China Town there are shops with goods from the Orient. There is the campus of NY University. Greenwich Village is home of literary and artistic world. Statue of Liberty Museum is on Liberty Island. You can get there by subway 4 and 5 its proper name is Liberty Enlightening the World. Midtown Manhattan has many places of interest, too. Museum of Modern Art has a collection of modern painting and sculpture. Carnegie Hall presents many famous musicians. Uptown Manhattan has a Memorial to Christopher Columbus in Columbus Circle. New York Coliseum is most modern exhibition hall. Central Park has playgrounds and tennis courts. Lincoln Center includes the new Met (the Metropolitan Opera) and the NY State Theatre and Philharmonic Hall. 72

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American Museum of Natural History has finest collections. Metropolitan Museum of Art collections cover 5,000 years. Columbia University was founded in 1754. The tuition is $ 6,000 a year. The Bronx in the north is a residential part of the city. The places of interest include Bronx Museum of the Arts, and Bronx Zoo. Queens in the east is both residential and industrial part of the city. The places of interest are American Museum of the Moving Image, Queens Botanical Garden, and Queens Museum of Art. Brooklyn is the largest in population. Its is home for 3,000,000. Brooklyn is called "bedroom of New York". It has its own dialect "Brooklynese". Places of interest in Brooklyn are Brooklyn Children's Museum, Brooklyn Museum, and New York Aquarium. Richmond is a borough of piers and warehouses. Its population is 200,000. The places of interest include Historic Richmond Town and Children's Museum.

San Francisco San Francisco is the financial center of the West, and the largest port on the Pacific coast. It is America's most international city speaking in more than 30 languages. San Francisco is called "the Paris of the West", and "Gateway to the Orient". It is hometown of the famous American author Jack London. There are two Bay Bridges built in the 1930s. The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge built in 1936 is over 14 km long. The Golden Bay Bridge built in 1937 is shorter but more impressive. San Francisco is famous for its historic cable car. Also of interest are: Fisherman's Wharf; Golden Gate Park, with its planetarium, museum of natural history, aquarium 73

Unit 1. Speaking and flower gardens; the Presidio, major Army installation; mission Dolores. the Veterans War Memorial Building, and the Civic Center. The Cow Palace is the home of political conventions, sports events, and livestock exhibitions. The Union Square is the commercial heart of the city.

Chicago Chicago is the nation's second largest city, the most important Great Lakes port, and the world's largest railroad terminal. The booming industry of the city attracted immigrants from all over the world. The skyscrapers were Chicago's contribution to American architecture. The first skyscraper, designed by William Jenney, was built here in 1883. The city's impressive skyline is still expending. Among the newest buildings are the 50-storey Civic Center and Marina Towers Apartments. Landmarks of interest in the Chicago area include the Merchandise Mart, the largest commercial building in the world; and the Water Tower, one of the 4 structures to survive 1871 fire.

Los Angeles Los Angeles is the nation's third most populous city. Los Angeles has the heaviest per-capita concentration of automobiles in the world. Of interest to the thousands of tourists who flock Los Angeles are Disneyland, considered the biggest attraction in the Vest; Mount Wilson Observatory; Griffith Park with its zoo, golf course, and observatory; and Laguna reach, the art center of Southern California Senator Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles in June, 5,1968, the night of California's primary elections. 74

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Buffalo Buffalo is the second largest city in New York State. Nearby there are Niagara Falls; the Buffalo Museum of Science, Historical Museum, and Zoological Gardens, and the Allbright-Knox Art Gallery.

Philadelphia Philadelphia is the forth largest city in the nation. The city is the seat of many societies devoted to philosophy, the arts and science. Its diversified economy includes such industries as printing and publishing, shipbuilding and manufacture of machinery. There are numerous historic monuments in the city. Independence hall, were the Declaration of independence was signed and the Liberty Bell is kept, is in independence National Park. Nearby is Congress Hall, seat of Congress from 1790 to 1800. Other points of interest are Elfreth's Alley, one of the nation's oldest streets; Christ Church; and the Betsy Ross house. Fairmount Park, one of the largest in the orld, contains many historic monuments and the country's oldest zoo.

Miami Miami is a world's famous resort. Miami is considered the principal gateway to Latin America. Greater Miami consists of more than a dozen independent municipalities, including Miami Beach, which is situated on an island across Biscayne Bay from Miami. The Greater Miami region is renowned for its luxurious resort hotels and fine beaches. Major tourist attractions include Bayfront Park, containing an outdoor amphitheater; the Civic Auditorium; the Miami Seaquarium, the Dade County Art Museum. Everglades Park, 75

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a preserve for tropical birds and flora, is nearby. The area has also horse-racing at Tropical and Gulfstream Parks, dog racing and deep-sea fishing. The USA Environmental Science Administration's Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories, which opened in 1967, make Miami a world leader of undersea studies.

(3) Tourism and Ecotourism 1.1. Dialogue Asking for permission (1.1.1., 1.1.4) Gerald: Excuse me. Is this seat taken? Manager: (Put off the headphones.) I'm sorry. What did you just say? Gerald: Oh. Will someone be using this seat? Manager: No. You can take it. Gerald: Would you mind moving over one seat so my wife and I can sit together? Manager: No, not at all. At the airport: checking in (1.1.1) Good morning. Can I have your ticket, please? Here you are. Thank you. Would you like smoking or non-smoking? Non-smoking, please. Would you like a window or an aisle seat? B: An aisle seat, please. A: Do you have any baggage? B: Yes, this suitcase and this carry-on bag. A: Here's your boarding pass. Have a nice flight. B: Thank you.

A: B: A: B: A:

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At the airport: passport control (1.1.1) A: Good morning. Can I see your passport? B: Here you are. A: Thank you very much. Are you a tourist or on business? B: I'm a tourist. A: That's fine. Have a pleasant stay. B: Thank you. Asking for directions (1.1.1) A: Excuse me. Is there a bank near here? B: Yes. There's a bank on the corner. A: Thank you. B: You're welcome. Asking for directions (1.1.1) A: Excuse me. Is there a supermarket near here? B: Yes. There's one near here. A: How do I get there?

B: At the traffic lights, take the first left and go straight on. It's on the left. A: Is it far? B: Not really. A: Thank you. B: Don't mention it.

In a hotel: getting room for the night (1.1.1) A: Good evening. Can I help you? B: Yes, please. I'd like a room for the night. A: Would you like a single room, or a double room? B: A single room, please. How much is the room? A: It's $55 per night. B: Can I pay by credit card? A: Certainly. We take Visa, Master Card and American Express. Could you fill in this form, please? 77

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At a restaurant: ordering the meal (1.1.1) A: Can I see a menu, please? B: Certainly, here you are. A: Thank you. What's today's special?

B: Gilled tuna and cheese on rye. A: That sounds good. I'll have that.

B: Would you like something to drink? A: Yes, I'd like a coke. B: Thank you. (Returning with the food.) Here you are. Enjoy your meal! A: Thank you.

Speaking about one's impression after the vacation (1.1.2) A: Did you enjoy the vacation? B: Yes, we did. It was really great. A: Which hotel did you stay at? B: We stayed at the Mount Stuart. A: And what was it life? B: It was very good. A: Did you eat in the hotel restaurant? B: No, we didn't. We ate at the restaurants in town. A: When did you come home? B: We came back home last Thursday.

Booking a room (1.1.2) A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B:

I'd like to book a room, please. Certainly. When would you like to stay? On 17 December, if possible. Do you want a single or a double? A single room is fine. Can I have your name, please? George Harrison. Should I spell? No, I've got it. Well, Mr. Harrison, you've got a reservation.

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A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B:

Renting a car (1.1.2) I'd like to rent a car, please. For how many days would you like the car? Just for two days. What kind of car would you like? Ford in good condition will be fine. How much is it? 60 a day. Do you accept credit cards? Yes. Follow me, I'll show you your car.

At the airport (1.1.5) Check-in clerk: Can I see your ticket, please? Passenger: Sure, I'd like a window seat, please. I'd like to look outside. Check-in clerk: I'm afraid the plane's nearly full. There are none window seats left. Passenger: Well, can I have an aisle seat then? Check-in clerk: Yes, ma'am. Here's your boarding pass. Gate 34. Do you have any luggage? Passenger: Yes, just one suitcase. Check-in clerk: Did you pack it yourself? Passenger: Yes, I did. Check-in clerk: OK, then. Could you put it on the scales, please? Asking for help (1.1.1, 1.1.4) Tom: Can you do me a favor?

Jamie: Sure. What is it? Tom: Can you keep an eye on my bag, please? Nature's calling. J amie: Sure. Will you be long? Tom: No. I just want to use the bathroom. Jamie: Go ahead. It'll be safe with me.

Asking for help (1.1.1, 1.1.4) Jilt: Excuse me, can you do me a favor?

Stranger: Sure. What can I do for you? Jill: Can you save my place for me, please? Nature's calling. 79

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Stranger: Sure. But hurry. The line is moving fast. Jill: Thanks. It won't be long. I'll be right back.

1.2. Monologue What is tourism? (1.2.1) The Romans probably started it with their holiday villas in the Bay of Naples. In the 19th century, the education of the rich and privileged few was not complete without a Grand Tour of Europe's cultural sites. Things started to change for ordinary people in 1845 when Thomas Cook, of Leicester, England, organized the first package tour. By 1939, an estimated one million people were traveling abroad for holidays each year. It is in the last three decades of the 20th century that tourism has really taken off. Tourism has been industrialized: landscapes, cultures, cuisines, and religions are consumer goods displayed in travel brochures. The effects of tourism since the 1960s have been incredible. Many of the great cities of Europe, such as Prague, Rome, and Warsaw, are finding that their historic centers are fast becoming theme parks - tourist ghettos, filled with clicking cameras and whirring camcorders, abandoned by all local residents except for the souvenir sellers. Until recently, we all believed that travel broadened the mind, but now many believe the exact opposite: "Modern travel narrows the mind".

Ecotourism (1.2.1) Ecotourism, also known as ecological tourism, is a form of tourism that appeals to the ecologically and socially conscious 80

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individuals. Generally speaking, ecotourism focuses on volunteering, personal growth, and learning new ways to live on the planet; typically involving travel to destinations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions. Responsible ecotourism includes programs that minimize the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment, and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and cultural factors, an integral part of ecotourism is in the promotion of recycling, energy efficiency, water conservation, and creation of economic opportunities for the local communities. Ideally, ecotourism should satisfy several criteria, such as: • conservation of biological diversity and cultural diversity, through ecosystem protection; • promotion of sustainable use of biodiversity, by providing jobs to local populations; • sharing of socio-economic benefits with local communities and indigenous people by having their informed consent and participation in the management of ecotourism enterprises; • tourism to places having unspoiled natural resources, with minimal impact on the environment being a primary concern; • minimization of tourism's own environmental impact; affordability and lack of waste in the form of luxury; • local culture, flora and fauna being the main attractions. For many countries, ecotourism is not simply a marginal activity to finance protection of the environment but as a major industry of the national economy. For example, in places such as Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nepal, Kenya, Madagascar, and Antarctica, ecotourism represents a significant portion of the gross domestic product and economic activity.

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History Ecotourism, responsible tourism, and sustainable development have become prevalent concepts since the late 1980s, and ecotourism has experienced arguably the fastest growth of all sub-sectors in the tourism industry. The popularity represents a change in tourist perceptions, increased environmental awareness, and a desire to explore natural environments. Such changes have become a statement affirming one's social identity, educational sophistication, and disposable income as it has about preserving the Amazon rainforest or the Caribbean reef for posterity.

What is, and is not, ecotourism The environmentalists, special interest groups, and governments define ecotourism differently. Environmental organizations have generally insisted that ecotourism is nature-based, sustainably managed, conservation supporting, and environmentally educated. The tourist industry and governments, however, focus more on the product aspect, treating ecotourism as equivalent to any sort of tourism based in nature. As a further complication, many terms are used under the rubric of ecotourism. Nature tourism, low impact tourism, green tourism, bio-tourism, ecologically responsible tourism, and others have been used in literature and marketing, although they are not necessary synonymous with ecotourism.

Five easy steps: planning your trip (1.2.1, 1.2.2) Making informed choices before and during your trip is the single most important thing you can do to become a responsible traveller. With a little planning, you can improve 82

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the quality of your trip, while making a real difference to the people and places you visit. 1. Search the web: Look for websites specializing in responsible travel, ecotourism, or sustainable tourism. 2. Consult gUidebooks: Choose guidebooks with information on your destination's environmental, social and political issues, and read before booking. Guidebooks vary in quality, even within a series, but Lonely Planet, Rough Guides, and Moon are among the best. 3. Make contact: Call or email tour operators that have firsthand knowledge of the place you are considering visiting. Check the websites of all accommodations. 4.Ask questions: Let tour operators/hotels know that you are a responsible consumer. Before you book, ask about their social and environmental policies. For instance: What is your environmental policy? What percentage of your employees are local citizens? Do you support any projects to benefit the local community? 5. Choose wisely: Are the businesses you're considering certified? Do they have eco-Iabel ratings, or have they won eco-awards?

What you can .do while travelling (1.2.1) By exploring alternative travel choices, you can have a unique trip and avoid leaving negative marks on cultures, economies, and the environment.

At the hotel Ask about environmental policies and practices. Talk with staff about working conditions and ask if the hotel support community projects. Language Learn a few words of the local language and use them. 83

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Dress Read up on local conventions and dress appropriately. In many countries, modest dress is important. Behaviour Be respectful of local citizens' privacy. Ask permission before entering sacred places, homes, or private land. Photos Be sensitive to when and where you take photos/video of people. Always ask first. Environment Respect the natural environment. Never touch or harass animals. Always follow designated trails. Support conservation by paying entrance fees to parks and protected sites. Animal products Never buy crafts or products made from protected or endangered animals. Pay the fair price Don't engage in overly aggressive bargaining for souvenirs. Don't short-change on tips for services. Buy local Choose locally-owned lodges, hotels, and B&Bs. Use local buses, car rental agencies, and airlines. Eat in local restaurants, shop in local markets, and attend local festivals/ events. Hire local guides Enrich your experience and support the local economy. Ask guides if they are licensed and live locally. Are they recommended by tour operators? 84

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Russia's wonders (1.2.1, 1.2.4) An alternative Seven Wonders of the World could easily be unearthed on Russia's territory, if only tourists were willing to dig them out. Considered the heart of Russia, Moscow is described as a place where ancient Russia meets the Soviet Union and capitalism - illustrated by the golden onion domes of the Kremlin's Orthodox churches, which look out past Lenin's mausoleum and over the massive GUM shopping complex. The Golden Ring is a group of towns and cities - including Suzdal, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and others. They offer a host of restored and abandoned churches, monasteries and fortresses, rich museums and preserved wooden villages. For those seeking a natural high, Russia's best attractions may be the Altai and Caucasus mountains St. Petersburg, on the other hand, is considered to be a more European capital. The creation of Peter the Great, it is best known for its 18th- and 19th-century palaces; the Peter and Paul fortress, a former prison, the Hermitage Museum, and the White Nights.

Welcome to Moscow! (1.2.1) We're very glad that you are here. It means that you're really interested in the city we admire so much. Whatever the reason you've come to travel to Moscow - tourist voyage, business-trip with a single free evening, just curiosity or something special you love about Moscow - we're going to have your attention as long as possible. To do it, we'll try to reveal you the mysterious dual nature of our city. That is observed in both, time and space categories. Moscow is wonderful! In summer there are baking dust and heat, and the intense, shady green and blue of birch forests and sparkling rivers encircling the city. A mystical summer moon 85

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hanging low over the red walls of the Kremlin. The world's best ice cream and the cool of the world's best metro system. Moscow State University, up on the hill, its majestic spire shimmering in the haze. Long walks in the historical Moscow centre, picturesque grand churches, night city with elaborately illuminated fountains, river cruises and many other attractions are always winning points to be adored by any tourist. In winter snow and flat gray skies draw czarist-era buildings standing elbow-to-elbow with concrete Soviet monstrosities all together in a vast, if not solemn, monochrome panorama. The hills' main overlook point is a popular point for tourists and newlyweds to pose for photos and in winter, the couples gaze long at the city before they rush giggling back to their cars, the brides' skin pink under their lacy dresses. The Kremlin, when its walls rise against a lowering, foggy winter sky, is a primal image of inscrutable power and devious maneuvers, baleful and profoundly foreign no matter where a visitor comes from. Muscovites don't just live through the Russian capital's long and harsh winters, they live in them with verve and merriment. One of Russia's prime winter art forms is figureskating. Gorky Park floods much of its sidewalks in winter, so figure-skaters can meander deep into the park, stopping off for coffee or shashlik at booths along the way, and Hermitage Gardens, a pretty but little-touristed park in the center city, also has skating. Moscow in winter is second to none to West in culture. The renowned Bolshoi Theater and Tchaikovsky concert hall are jammed nightly, the innovative Gelikon Opera draws adventurous listeners, and the stage scene is as rich and energetic as New York's and London's - some 70 theaters with nightly productions, their acting so good and tickets so cheap that even an audience member who doesn't know a word of Russian will leave feeling rewarded. Today in Moscow, good food is served with a smile. Many of the main roads are excellent, Russian beer is everywhere, 86

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cheap and of breathtaking, almost Czech, quality. And, of course tourist business is booming, plenty of European class hotels being built and renovated. Western system of small hostels and convenient cozy apartments in central Moscow has also recently entered Russia, and visitors are attracted by all various tours and excursions. Moscow is a city of long history and surprises, recently revealed by the West, and as far from disclosing all its secrets and beauties as one can imagine. This is your challenge and we're always happy to face it with you, our Dear Guest. Welcome to Moscow, great heart of Russia!

Let's tour about St. Petersburg (1.2.1)

Thematic city tour In St. Petersburg, it is well known that every stone is a monument and every house a museum, and the palace-park ensembles in the area of the Northern Capital are so numerous that a month is not enough to see all of them. St. Petersburg offers the most varied routes year-round. They include broad-ranging and thematic tours (to museums, Pushkin places, millitary museums and places, monuments of palace architecture, etc.), as well as cruises on the St. Petersburg canals. Thematic tours depend on your preferences in history, culture, music and even simple good-mood wishes. Special agencies can arrange for you even the most specific tours: to the old-time cemeteries, outstanding people's apartments, industrial enterprises etc.

Night city tour St. Petersburg is famous for its White Nights. During White Nights, when a faint twilight takes the place of night 87

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darkness, the streets, squares and embankments acquire a unique charm. Though the period of White Nights is short and comes to an end in July, it doesn't mean that a charm of St. Petersburg's night disappears. The city dominated by water still offers its guests many possibilities of feeling its beauty. One of these possibilities is offered to you during the excursion "St. Petersburg's night". This excursion combines a sightseeing drive to those landmarks of the city which are getting most fascinating when the night is getting on, and a cruise along the rivers and canals of St. Petersburg. Those choosing a river cruise have a unique chance of seeing the most romantic places of the city. A trip on board of a cozy boat reveals some hidden secrets of the city and doesn't leave anybody indifferent to its charm. This excursion doesn't repeat the excursion "Imperial Capital" but reveals some other attractions of St. Petersburg from another point of view.

St. Petersburg (1.2.1)

Rivers and canals of St. Petersburg A new perspective on the city can be gained from waterlevel and the boat trips visit some areas of the city that might not be reached on ground. There are trips with interesting route in the historical part of the city. From the very outset the city was built on water, on numerous islands in delta of Neva River. The combination of the architecture and water in St. Petersburg, as well as in Venice, has a special charm. Wide full-flowing Neva is conceived as the main prospectus of the city along which majestic palaces, temples, gardens, monuments are stretched. St. Petersburg was built on the delta of the River Neva and is spread out over numerous islands of varying sizes, frequently prompting the nickname the "City of 101 Islands". Over the 88

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centuries numerous bridges were built to connect these islands across the various tributaries of the Neva and the city's many canals (Moika, Fontanka, Kanal Griboyedova, etc.). During the summer months when the river isn't frozen, the bridges across the Neva open at night to allow ships to pass up and down the river. Bridges open from May to late October according to a special schedule. Make sure you check the schedules and don't get caught on the wrong side of the river after 2 a.m., or you will be stranded on the wrong side of the river until the drawbridges are lowered between approximately 4:30 a.m. and 5 a.m.

The Cathedral of SS Peter & Paul The Cathedral of SS Peter & Paul (1712-1733), with its landmark needle-thin spire, magnificent Baroque interior and burial site for most of the pre-Revolutionary Russian leaders, is well worth seeing. SS Peter & Paul Cathedral is the oldest church in St. Petersburg. It is also the tallest building in the Northern Capital (excluding the TV tower). Work began on the first wooden church on this site about a month after the founding of the city on July 29, 1703, according to C. Schultz in his book St. Petersburg Churches. Construction was completed in 1704, and the new church was consecrated on April 1, 1704. In 1712, work began on the current stone Peter and Paul Cathedral according to the plan of architect Dominico Trezini. The grand opening and consecration occurred on June 29, 1733. The cathedral, though plain on the outside, is radically different from traditional Orthodox churches because it is built in the style of early Baroque. With its rectangular design, bell tower and landmark needle, the cathedral is more similar to protestant churches of Central Europe, and complied with the wishes of Peter I. 89

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The cathedral's rectangular base stretches from southwest to northeast, and its walls are formed with decorative pilasters and ornate cherub heads on the windows. The multi-tiered cathedral bell tower is crowned with a landmark needle, upholstered with copper gilded sheets. The needle, built by Dutchman German von Bolis, is topped off by the figure of a flying angel bearing a cross. The majestic view of the needle and the cathedral from across the Neva, is a favorite of locals and tourists alike. The clock for the bell tower was delivered in 1720 from Holland where it was purchased for 45 thousand rubles.

St. Isaac's Cathedral St. Isaac's Cathedral was originally the city's main church and the largest cathedral in Russia. It was built between 1818 and 1858, by the French-born architect Auguste Montferrand, to be one of the most impressive landmarks of the Russian Imperial capital. One hundred and eighty years later the gilded dome of St. Isaac's still dominates the skyline of St. Petersburg. Although the cathedral is considerably smaller than the newly rebuilt Church of Christ the Savior in Moscow, it boasts much more impressive fades and interiors. The cathedral's facades are decorated with sculptures and massive granite columns (made of single pieces of red granite), while the interior is adorned with incredibly detailed mosaic icons, paintings and columns made of malachite and lapis lazuli. A large, brightly colored stained glass window of the "Resurrected Christ" takes pride of place inside the main altar. The church, designed to accommodate 14,000 standing worshipers, was closed in the early 1930s and reopened as a museum. Today, church services are held here only on major ecclesiastical occasions. Foreign visitors should buy entrance tickets just inside the right-hand door in the southern facade (not at the street90

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level ticket booth). We also recommend that you climb the 300 steps up to the cathedral's colonnade, and enjoy the magnificent views over the city.

The Church of Our Saviour on Blood This marvelous Old Russian-style church was built on the spot where Emperor Alexander 11 was assassinated on March 1, 1881. Built in 1883-1907, the church was designed in the spirit of sixteenth and seventeenth century Russian architecture, inspired particularly by St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow. The interior of the church, a memorial to the late Emperor Alexander n, was decorated with different marbles and several thousand square yards of mosaics. These mosaics were far from being ordinary; their surface was left unpolished, so that they reflect sunlight, which impressed worshipers and other visitors alike. After the October Revolution of 1917 the church met the sad fate of most churches in the country. "The Savior" was closed for services in the late 1920s, then briefly used for an exhibition of revolutionary propaganda and soon started to fall into decay, being deprived of adequate maintenance. Several times it was suggested that the church be torn down, for it stood as an "inappropriate" symbol of Christianity amidst the largely atheistic country. It is by a true miracle that the church was saved. Since 1970, the church has been managed by the staff of the St. Isaac's Cathedral. A long careful restoration began, which has lasted for over 25 years. Now with scaffolding already removed, the bell-tower dome gilded, and the interiors carefully restored, the church opened its doors to visitors. The official opening took place in August, 1997 and you can now see this jewel in the crown of St. Petersburg in its stunning beauty. There is great site for taking pictures. Lots of souvenirs stall nearby. 91

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The Yusupov Palace The story of Rasputin's murder unfolds here! On a quiet stretch of the Moika River stands a long yellow building, which was once the residence of the wealthy and respected Yusupov family and which saw one of the most dramatic episodes in Russia's history - the murder of Grigory Rasputin. In 1916 a group of the city's noble elite, including one of the Grand Dukes and led by the prominent anglophile Prince Felix Yusupov, conspired to kill the one man who they felt threatened the stability of an already war-torn Russian Empire. Grigory Rasputin, a peasant and self-proclaimed holy man, had gradually won favor with the Tsar's family through his alleged supernatural powers. His control over the decisions of the family and the Russian ruler himself, put him in a potentially manipulative position and posed a very real threat to their power. Consequently, Rasputin was murdered at the Yusupov Palace on the night of December 16-17 1916, and his death proved to be an almost greater mystery than his life had been. As excellent tour-guides lead you through the beautifully recreated interiors of the palace, the full story of the murder of Rasputin will unfold before you.

Kazan Cathedral The Kazan Cathedral is an outstanding example of the early 19th-centuryRussian architecture, erected on the site of a small stone church to hold the ancient icon of Our Lady of Kazan. The Kazan Cathedral encircles a small square with a double row of beautiful columns - an impressive colonnade. It took 10 years to construct this church (architect Voronikhin). Kazan Cathedral was meant to be a Russian version of Basilica of St. Peter's in Rome and the main church of Russia. 92

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Mter the War of 1812 (during which Napoleon was defeated) the church became a monument to the Russian victory. The captured enemy banners were put in the cathedral and the famous Russian field marshal Mikhail Kutuzov, who won the most important campaign of 1812, was buried inside the church.

Rafting the Canyon (planning the excursion) (1.2.1) It has taken the Colorado River millions of years to create this immense desert canyon, but you can experience the same length and breadth of the Canyon in only 8 days on our first ever Grand Canyon motorized rafting trip.

Typical day 7:00 a.m. We waken to the aroma of fresh-brewed coffee. Although the sun will not flood our camp for some time, tops of the Grand Canyon's walls already are aglow with sunlight. While eggs, sausage, and muffins are being cooked, sleeping bags are being packed. 9:00 a.m. We enter a series of rapids. A great blue heron takes off down-river, wings pumping. Both bird and its surroundings seem somehow prehistoric. 10:00 a.m. We stop to explore a narrow, beautifully sculptured wash named Shinumo. In shadow all but fleeting moments each day, its polished silver walls shed a light of their own. To see the sky, you must tilt your head back with great effort. 11:00 a.m. South Canyon intersects the river, signaling that Vasey's Paradise is just ahead. A paradise, indeed! Sunlight seems to explode from the fountains of water gushing from the Grand Canyon's wall. Lush growths of moss and ferns in this "paradise" seem strangely out of place in such a desert 93

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setting. We drift close to the gushing water, giving everyone aboard a welcome shower. 12:00. Our boats stop for lunch in the shade of Redwall Cavern. Inside this great cave, there's room enough for a game of softball! 2:00 p.m. As two golden eagles soar lazily overhead, we drift quietly and our boatman tells us the story of Bert Loper's historic river run in 1949. We feel the heat, but soon a roller coaster rapid refreshes· us. 4:00 p.m. We sight moon lilies, abloom at the mouth of Saddle Canyon. A hike to explore Saddle is topped off with a cold soda. 6:00 p.m. We make for Nankoweap, site of ancient Indian ruins, and our campsite tonight. 8:00 p.m. Mter a dinner of filet, dutch-oven potatoes, green salad, and cherry cobbler, we hike to the ruins, and view the river below. 9:00 p.m. Those who cannot stay awake find their sleeping bags. Bed tonight is beneath the Milky Way, and a canopy of stars that dwarfs even the Grand Canyon.

Optional activities The Grand Canyon offers an infinite variety of sights, sounds, sensations, and experiences. Whether you come to hike, fish, play in the waterfalls, or sit quietly and read by the river's edge, the Grand Canyon offers precisely what you want. It is our task to bring you in comfort and safety to the grand feast of the senses. What you select from its peerless menu is up to you. Grand Canyon offers the most spectacular geological extravaganza on earth. This grandest canyon of them all, stretching 280 miles in length, measuring from four to 18 miles in width, and averaging a mile in depth. Erosion relentlessly attacks its primeval floor and its age-old walls, carving bizarre land forms. A veritable rainbow of hues is 94

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displayed from its two billion-year-old base of black Vishnu Schist to the dazzling white Kaibab Limestone at its rim, and in between, every colour found on nature's palette. Though this is a desert setting, plants and wildlife nonetheless abound. Cactus and wildflowers dot the river's shores. Cool glens where waterfalls tumble to the river can be seen, lush with ferns. Bighorn sheep, mule deer, coyotes, and ringtail cats may be seen along the banks and in tributary canyons, while overhead, many species of birds may be observed, including hawks, golden eagles, falcons, great blue herons and egrets. Due to the length of river that will be covered on this tour, we will be using specially crafted motorized rafts. These rafts allow us to bring ample supplies for the entire journey. Motorized rafts are roomier and more stable than rowed boats, so travellers of all fitness levels can enjoy this incredible experience. Motor trips also traverse the Canyon in eight days, while row trips take fourteen days (excluding travel days). Many - perhaps most - people cannot afford to devote so much time to this type of holiday. Row trips are also substantially more expensive than motor trips, both because they take twice as long and because they require many more crew members. One of the most appealing aspects of a Grand Canyon Colorado river trip is that you need to bring very little with you to be comfortable. The climate in the canyon is mild, and just a few changes of clothes are needed. Travel light, travel happy! We supply all camping equipment, waterproof river bags, and waterproof camera boxes, and these are included in the cost of your trip. (A detailed list of recommended clothing and personal items to bring on the trip will be sent approximately 90 days before departure). Begginners welcome! No previous rafting experience is required; however, we do suggest that you are confident in and around water and that you are willing to live without a mobile phone signal for the duration of the trip! 95

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Can't swim? No problem. Neither can many of the people who raft the Canyon. We will supply U. S. Coast Guard-approved life preservers, and each person is required to wear one at all times aboard the boats. Eating on the river The design of our boats enables us to carry several hundred pounds of ice, which will last the entire trip. Every meal is prepared with fresh meats and produce. All food is prepared by our boatmen, who have mastered the art of Dutch-oven cooking. We provide generous quantities of cold soft drinks, fruit juice, and filtered water, which are available to you throughout the day. Dinners include a meat course served with a fresh vegetable, salad or soup, and a dessert. Our food is great - and plentiful.

(Ill) Nature and Ecology, Scientific Development 1.1. Dialogue Mr. Smith is changing his attitudes towards ecology problems (1.1.3) Volunteer: Good afternoon, sir. We are having a Gallup poll. Can you name the most burning problems in terms of the environmental protection? Mr. Smith: Well, actually I have never been interested in such kind of stuff. Volunteer: Really? I can hardly believe this. Don't you mind my telling you just some dry facts? Mr. Smith: If you want to... But I am busy a little bit, you know. 96

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Volunteer: It won't take much time. Do you know that every year the world industry pollutes the atmosphere with about 1,000 million tons of dust and other harmful substances? Mr. Smith: Now I do. But what can I do about this? I am just an ordinary man. Volunteer: Sir, you certainly can. If you just try to. For instance you can stop using paper bags or sprays containing freon. Or persuade your friends not to litter in the street and sort their garbage. Mr. Smith: You know it has some sense. To look deeper into the problem, it is rather hard to get rid of habitual stuff even if it is harmful for the environment. Volunteer: No doubt modern technologies make our life easier, but soon we will have to pay for this ease.

Two friends are considering the opportunity to join the Green party (1.1.4) Jack: Just have a look at this, it's horrible! Derek: Yes, it is our favorite picnic place and every year it is just the same. Garbage is everywhere. Jack: How could people be so ... Look, they had made a fire there and burnt all the grass. Bottles, paper bag, rests of food, cans... Derek: Don't be so upset. We'll clear up this mess. Jack: Yes. All over again. Sometimes it seems to me that we are the only men in this town who care. Derek: Not exactly. Recently I've seen the advertisement of the local Green party. I suppose they've got the same approach as we do. Why not try and visit their meeting? Jack: I don't know, I am not interested in politics. Derek: Bosh! Who talks about politics? We'll just try to find people with the same views as you wanted. Don't you want to have an active social position? Jack: OK, if you say so. Let's try. Will you find their address? Derek: No problem. 97

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1.2. Monologue Ecology and science (1.2.1) Increasingly, the earth science has become more closely related to people's daily lives. From topics of little more than academic interest, they have developed to provide information of fundamental importance to many human activities - from agriculture to weather forecasting. Perhaps more important, increasing knowledge has led to a better understanding of the complex interactions between the various earth processes and between human beings and their planet. The discovery and exploration of natural resources is perhaps the strongest driving force in our attempt to understand the earth. Natural curiosity, which everyone has to some degree, is aroused whenever we look around and contemplate. But there is an unpleasant side of our so-called "knowingthe-world-around-us" - nature is under threat. There are many environmental problems such as water pollution, air pollution, land pollution, noise pollution, acid rains, ozone layer destruction, global warming, overpopulation, and radioactivity, disruption of flora and fauna and depletion of natural resources. It happens because people are preoccupied with economic growth. The world's population doubled, that demands more agricultural land. Waste materials are being dumped on land, chemicals are being extensively used, animal habitats are being destroyed scientific and medical experiments are being conducted on animals, natural resources are being used irrationally. By burning forests, draining, polluting and overfishing mankind is driving many species to extinction. Oil is being spilled into rivers, radioactive wastes are being stored and biological balance is being upset. We would be able to solve these problems if plants didn't dump chemical wastes into rivers and atmosphere, the 98

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number of cars was reduced and more "smokeless zones" were introduced. The amount of pollution must be controlled very strictly and antipollution equipment should be installed. People have to use natural resources rationally and look for alternative sources for energy such as wind or solar energy. Merciless killing of animals must be stopped in order to preserve ecosystems. We have a moral duty to look after our planet. Where there are real threats to our planet, we have to take great care.

Environmental protection in Great Britain (1.2.1) In 1992 Britain participated in the "Earth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro and signed the convention negotiated there to protect biological diversity and to struggle against global climate change through the "greenhouse effect". The Conference also adopted a statement of principles designed to promote environmentally sustainable development, and a declaration of forestry. The Government of Great Britain aims: to preserve and enhance Britain's natural and cultural heritage; to encourage the more prudent and efficient use of energy and other resources; to make sure that Britain's air and water are clean and that controls over wastes and pollution are maintained and strengthened where necessary; to maintain Britain's contribution to environmental research In Great Britain buildings of special architectural or historical interest are "listed". It is against the law to demolish, extend or alter the character of any listed building without special permission. A government body, English Heritage, is charged with protecting and conserving England's architectural and archaeological heritage. It manages over 400 ancient monuments, most of which are open to public. Similar organisations operate in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. 99

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The Government supports the work of voluntary bodies in the protection of Britain's heritage by giving grants. The National Trust, a charity with over 2 million members, owns and protects 319 properties open to the public and 230,000 hectares of land. In 1989 the Government created the National Rivers Authority. 95 % of Britain's river length is of good quality; the European Community average is 75 %. The newly privatized industry in England and Wales will invest 28 billion pounds by 2000, to improve sewerage works, to bring drinking and bathing waters up to standard. In the North Sea and other seas around Britain, the Government works to cut inputs of dangerous substances to all coastal waters from rivers; stop the dumping of sewage sludge at sea; tighten standards for chemical and oil discharge at sea; reduce pollution from off shore oil installations; provide greater protection for marine wildlife; support international research and monitoring. Britain supports international cooperation on environmental protection. Britain's legislation pollution control sets out a wide range of powers and duties for central and local government, inching controls over waste, air and water pollution, litter and noise. Britain also supports measures to help to improve the global environment. It stopped throwing waste at sea after 1990 and ended; dumping of sewage in 1998. Along with its European partners, it has agreed major cuts in usage of the main gases that lead to acid rains from large combustion plants.

Environmental protection in the USA The conservation movement - the protection of natural resources and wildlife - was first formulated and implemented as a political program in the United States relatively early, during Theodore Roosevelt's administration (1901-1909), 100

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and it means that later generations of American can still enjoy their country's natural wonders. It was very difficult for many Americans to believe that their continent-sized nation with its forests, thousands of lakes, rivers and streams could face the problems which many smaller and more crowded nations faced. Also the USA had such enormous resources that it was hard to imagine they could ever be exhausted. Starting in early 1960s, however, Americans finally realized that the USA was in danger of losing many of her national treasures. What was happening to Lake Erie, the shallowest of the Great Lakes is a good example. City and industrial wastes, chemicals and fertilizers were endangering the lake with the enormous pollution. Suddenly it seemed, the lake was almost "dead", and the millions of Americans, who used its sandy beaches and fished its waters were shocked. At the same time, other problems began to receive great publicity. Some environmental activists stressed the attention to the problem caused by industrial pollution and acid rains This growth of attention led to substantial number of laws in the 1960s and 70s, and to establish of several federal agencies. Because the environmental movement in the USA has been never associated with one political group or party, it has been able to gain widespread trust and support. Federal laws such as the Clean Air Act, the Water Pollution Control Act and many others brought some improvement in the environment. All the states, of course, have adopted their own laws as, for instance, banning to throwaway bottles and cans, and forbidding industrial dumping. By 1986 forty states and more than eighty cities had passed some laws to restrict smoking in parks or at work.

Earth Day Canada is a land with abundant fresh water. In the past it may have seemed that the fresh water resources were 101

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limitless. Over time, however, water pollution damaged this resource. Greater care must be taken of it. The sources of chemical pollution in the Niagara River are of no secret. For many years chemical companies along the American side of the river buried their waste chemicals near the river. Later the dump was covered with soil and became a residential area. The residents suffered of cancer and birth defects. The houses were torn down but chemicals of deadly dioxins were leaking into Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. The attitude of most people is "Yes, we need disposal sites - but Not In My Back Yard!" This attitude has even resulted in a new term, the "NIMBY Syndrome". On April 22, 1990 Canada introduced the Earth Day which was a time of healing and hope, a time to clean the air and water, save endangered species, replenish the Earth, to reevaluate and change our lives. This is a down-to-earth project, an on-going series of events inviting grassroots participation rather than observation. It is a chance for people to take a hand in their future rather than wait for others to make the ecological decisions. Main goals of the project were to ban chlorofluocarbons worldwide; preserve old forests in temperate and tropical areas; ban non-recyclable packaging; establish a swift transition to renewable energy sources. Water and air pollution are global problems. But solutions to our planet's problems must be local. Earth Day is the catalyst to urge world leaders to address and correct the earth's ills. The success of the Earth Day was determined by local citizens who had the dedication to organize community events. The sum of these actions marked the beginning of a long-term commitment to building a safe, just and sustainable planet. The global consequences from Earth Day can be far reaching. Recent examples of international cooperation such as the 100 nations participating in the Australian ozone layer conference, the D.S. assistance following the Chernobyl disaster, thevcollaboration in the whale rescue mission, all 102

Dialogues and Monologues show how not only individuals, but also nations, can work together to increase their effectiveness.

A global problem: Amazon forests When our children are adults there will be no more Siberian tigers, African elephants, or cheetahs left in the wild. The major sources of diversity and evolution on this planet, the tropical rain forests, are falling at the rate of 100 acres a minute. At the rate we are going today, there will be no wilderness left on the planet within 30 years. The only remnants will be tiny islands which we set aside as parks and reserves - but when you have an island of wilderness, extinction within that island goes on. We are the last generation that will have any decision to make about wilderness because within our lifetimes it's all going to be gone. Around the world the skin of life is being torn apart by the deadliest predator ever known in the history of life on earth. Brazil is typical of tropical countries where, deforestation is occurring at an accelerating rate. From the jungles of Central America to Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia, the world's forests are being cut, logged, and burned at an alarming rate. Scientists fear that such destruction will result in catastrophic damage to the entire planet. For one thing, a major part of the planet's genetic biological diversity is threatened. Three quarters of Brazil's 121 million people now live in urban areas, including hundreds of thousands who reside in squalid squatter settlements found in every major city. Giant metropolitan areas continue to prow, swollen by people in search of work. Brazil's largest metropolitan area, San Paolo, has an estimated 18 million residents; its second city, Rio de Janeiro, has 12 million. The Brazilian government simply lacks the money to deal effectively with the country's massive problems of unemployment and urban poverty. 103

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(K) Sport in the Modern World 1.1. Dialogue Two classmates are eager to be the champions and discuss the easiest way to gain success (1.1.5) Peter: Hi, Arkadiy! I have just followed the sport competition which our classmates took part in. They are very vigorous and skillful. They can take part in the Olympic Games soon, can't they? Arkadiy: Yes, it is very good but it is better nowadays to be the Olympic champion yourself. Imagine, please. I go to school and our headmaster and teachers are very proud of me, give me only excellent marks. The conductor in the trolleybus allows me to go without a ticket and so on... Peter: Oh, you have a good imagination! May be, let's start training first of all! Arkadiy: Of course, our skills can make us champions in two years. But what kind of sport should we choose? Peter: Let's go boxing. It is a masculine kind of sport. Arkadiy: Oh, it is good but not for me. Peter: Well, let's play hockey. It is just the thing. It is the speed and pressure. Arkadiy: Do you know the speed of the puck? It is 120 km per hour. Peter: It is all the same. Arkadiy: It is all the same for you but I am afraid to injure myself. Peter: But people play this game, don't they? Arkadiy: Ice hockey is a good game when other people play it. But I want something special. Peter: What? Arkadiy: Something more cultural and exquisite. 104

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Peter: Let's do gymnastics. Arkadiy: To hang on the horizontal bar? I am not a bird. I have no weaves. I can fall down... Peter: Oh, it is difficult to please you. What do you want? Arkadiy: I want to be the champion, you know. Peter: But what is you favorite kind of sport? Arkadiy: Well. I must start doing morning exercises and I will be the champion. Peter: Than do it every day. Arkadiy: By the way, it is enough for me to get up early in the morning without doing any morning exercises, and I will be the champion. Peter: Well. First of all, get up everyday in time. Who prevents you from it? Arkadiy: The alarm-clock. It rings very early. Peter: Oh. You are going to do nothing and be a champion. It is impossible. Arkadiy: Why do you think so? I can attend Physical Training lessons and not miss them. By the way, has the lesson started? Peter: Yes. We have the Physical Training. Arkadiy: Oh, rather good. I can wait a little. It is not necessary to be in a hurry. Peter: You are very interesting person. You want to be a famous sportsman and do nothing.

Two friends meet at a football match (1.1.5) Nick: Hello, Alex! Alex: Hello, Nick! How did you notice me in this crowd? Nick: By chance, of course. Alex: By lucky chance; I should say. Nick: Funny why all the people come at the same time and just to the same gate as we do. Alex: But that angry crowd, how they push! Oh, here they are. Come on, Nick. 105

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Nick: Let's drop into the refreshment room first. Alex: I don't want anything except an ice-cream. Nick: I'd like some pop-corn to chew on waiting for the game. Alex: Well, now let's take our seats and settle down. Nick: Here we are and just in time. The referee and linesmen are marching to the centre of the field. Alex: Have you ever seen these teams playing before? Nick: No. Have you? Alex: Neither have I, but I have heard a lot about them.

George is not very good at school subjects, but he is quite good at sports. He goes in for horse-racing and tennis. Besides he is a football fan and tries not to miss a single game with his favourite club. Today he came from school very excited (1.1.4) S: Hi, dad! F: Hi, son. How's everything? S: Not bad. Got two A's - one in math and the other in English. You know, next week my favorite team plays against your favorite one. F: Are they really? That's great! Generally speaking they both are my favorite teams and I don't know whom to root for. S: Would you like to watch the match? F: Sure thing. S: Then you'd better start looking for a possibility of getting two tickets. This is the only chance. It'd be a pity to miss it. F: All right. I'll think it over. How is your tennis? S: I play quite a bit, but still make very little progress on our grass court. F: Sorry to hear that. I'm afraid you are just lazy. I think it's worth trying to increase the time of your training spells.

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1.2. Monologue Our attitude to sport (1.2.1) There is a truthful Latin proverb: "A sound mind is in a sound body~. Involvement in fitness and recreational activities reflects the concern of many people with health and longevity. The modern stress on appearances, what is called "good looks", is sufficient motivation for many to keep up their level of exercise. For this reason fitness training forms a noticeable part of today's life. Sport can not always be professional. The worldwide "health and fitness" boom has in part been driven by the importance of acquiring the "right" body shape. Some of the most popular sports and games related to physical culture are swimming, tennis, aerobics, shaping, bowling, skateboarding, hiking, hunting, fishing, bicycling, bungee jumping, etc. Individual recreational participants may attend fitness clubs and enjoy every possible form of exercise and fitness training. Sport is a sensuous experience, a form of a "deep play" which, quite simply, makes us feel well. It is necessary for everybody to switch to something entirely different from work. People who love sports appear to be equally adept at both modifying traditional forms of sport and inventing new ones to suit their purpose. For those who like the thrill and the freedom of floating in air there are such kinds of hobby as gliding and sport parachuting. Sailing and yachting continue to be extremely popular ways of spending spare time for well-to-do individuals. Some people pursue such activities as jogging, skiing and skating. No description of recreational sport would be complete without some mention of bowling. This game has millions of participants throughout the world. The main thing about the hobbies related to sport is that they remove tension from the mind, rest the soul, and help 107

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people to feel refreshed. It's very useful to have something to switch to, and manage to combine both hobby and career. Sport is very popular in our family. Together with my father we do our usual morning exercises at home and twice a week we have our basketball training in the sports club and in summer we like to swim most of all, because swimming makes a man healthy and strong. My favorite kind of sport is figure-skating. I am an ardent fan of our figure-skaters but, unfortunately, I can not skate. I only follow the competitions. But I am sure I will be able to skate a little after several trainings.

Sport in Russia (1.2.1) Russia is a keen sporting country, successful at a number of sports and continuously finishing in the top rankings at the Olympic games. During the Soviet era the team placed first in the total number of medals won at 14 of its 18 appearances; with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era. Since the Olympic Games in Helsinki in 1952 and continuing today, the Soviet and later Russian athletes never went below third place in the world (never below 2nd until the most recent Olympics), in number and gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014 Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi. Among the most played sports are football and ice hockey. Other sports widely played in Russia include weightlifting, gymnastics, boxing, wrestling, martial arts, volleyball, basketball and skiing. One thing we can say for certain is the similarities between Russian and American sports - first place in both countries is football. (In Russia football is soccer and in America it is football). The Russian soccer team was the first European champion in the history of the game since 1960. They were also three-time finalists and Olympic champions. Although 108

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these achievements happened in the past, the football traditions are still alive. The best Russian teams are Spartak, Lokomotiv and CSKA. Hockey has even more traditions and titles in Russia than football. The famous matches with the Canadians in the1960s and 1970s brought Russia to the top of the hockey pedestal. There are three legendary offensive hockey players Krutov, Larionov and Makarov. These players continued the Russian success in to the 1980s. The 1990s became the decade years for NHL victories for Russian superstars such as Mironov, Konstantinov, Mogilniy and Larionov. Detroit Red Wings' Sergei Fedorov and Florida's Pavel Bure were two phenomenal players. Nowadays, there are more than 70 Russians in the best World League with such leader as Ilya Kovalchuk, from Atlanta Thrashers. Russia is in the 2006 Olympic Games in Italy has a good chance at winning the gold medal. Figure-skating is another popular sport; in the 1960s the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in figure skating, especially in pairs skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in basketball. At the moment they various players in the NBA, notably Andrei Kirilenko, although they are not considered as strong as much of a basketball force as some of their Eastern European Counterparts such as Serbia or Lithuania. However in 2007, Russia defeated world champions Spain to win Eurobasket 07. Tennis finally became popular in the beginning of the 1990s when the first president of the Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin, started playing tennis. His love for this sport was passed to the people and since then, Russians started playing tennis and passing the tradition on to their chialdren. The most important player in Russian tennis was Evgeniy Kafelnikov, 109

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who was the first premiere tennis player and winner of the Davis Cup last year. Lots of Russian tennis players, Anna Kournikova and Maria Sharapova are popular in America. Chess is a favourite pastime, and a sport that has been dominated by Russians in the post-war (1945-) era. The winner of the 1948 World Chess Championship, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion. Rugby union is a growing sport in Russia. Russia is ranked 18th worldwide by the International Rugby Board (lRB) with a little over 13,000 players nationally. Russia has a professional domestic competition, the Firepower Professional Rugby League, including teams from Moscow (two clubs), Krasnoyarsk (two clubs), Chita, Krasnodar, Novokuznetsk and Penza. Krasnoyarsk, a large Siberian city, has traditionally been the stronghold of Russian rugby union. Domestic matces are covered in in the local media, and the intra-city derby match between sides Krasny Yar and Enisei-STM can attract large crowds. Rugby league is a team sport in Russia. Russia competed at the 2000 Rugby League World Cup and was knocked out in the group stage. The premier rugby league competition is called the Russian Championship. It is currently ranked 13th in the world by the Rugby League International Federation.

Russian Adventure Sports (1.2.1)

Hunting and Fishing Animals you can expect to see while hunting in one of many Russian forests are: wild boars, moose, red deer, wolves, brown bears, lynx, foxes, black cocks, wild ducks, goose and capercailzies. You should keep in mind though that species you can hunt differ according to seasons. The best season for game is September? 110

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Jeep Tours Russia has an enormous space with numerous cultural and natural monuments that makes organizing a jeep tour very favorable. Jeep tours in Russia may either be extreme or comparatively easy without exhausting physical loads. For those people who favor off-road tours, adrenaline is often more important than comfort. There is a majority of Jeep Tours in Russia, usually organized from the end of spring till the middle of fall, although there are usually special winter tours as well.

Ice Diving For many of us this is still an unfamiliar sport and pastime, but many inhabitants of and visitors to Russia, say this is the most extreme, yet most beautiful sport they have ever experienced. You haven't really done sub zero cool until you have done ice diving.

Aerobatic Tours Many of us have glanced up at the skies to see a passing jet doing graceful aerobatics that take your breath away. The beauty of these metallic birds of the sky often creates a wistfulness to be in the cockpit to feel the rush and thrill of screaming through the sky at incredible speeds and doing difficult aerobatic maneuvers. Well, that is a desire that can now be entertained.

Snowboarding For many people the thought of Russia conjures up images of vast, snowy peaks and immense cold? And in the winter 111

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time that wouldn't be far from the truth. However this is not a bad thing? The amazing snowfall in Russia also provides some amazing sporting opportunities. Snowboarding is by far one of the most popular, especially amongst younger adventurers.

Skiing Skiing is a traditional winter sport enjoyed in many places throughout the world. However, not all skiing locations offer the highest peaks or the most exhilarating slopes. And yet others only offer snow during certain seasons because warmer weather means unsuitable snow or no snow at all. So where do you go to enjoy great snow and breathtaking peaks all year around? Russia has a lot to offer skiers in this regard.

River Rafting Russia's landmass stretches across two continents, from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean which makes up an impressive one-sixth of the earth's land. Although more than 40,000 rivers drain this huge area, due to perestroika and the collapse of the Iron Curtain, they have only recently become accessible to western white water river-rafting and kayaking enthusiasts.

My favorite Russian sportsman (1.2.1) Yevgeny Viktorovich Plyushchenko, born in November 3, 1982, in Solnechny, Khabarovsk Krai, Soviet Union (Russia). is a Russian figure-skater, the seven-time National Champion. five-time European Champion, three-time World Champion. 2006 Winter Olympics gold medalist. and four-time Grand Prix Final gold medalist. 112

Dialogues and Monologues Evgeni Plyushchenko started skating at the age of four. When he was eleven years old, his ice rink in Volgograd closed. He was then sent to St. Petersburg to train under the tutelage of Alexei Mishin. Plyushchenko made quick progress on the international scene under Mishin's tutelage. As a 14-year-old, he won the 1997 World Junior Figure Skating Championships. The following year, at 15, he finished third at the senior World Figure Skating Championships. At the time, Mishin was also coaching another rising teenage star, Alexei Yagudin, who won the World Championships in 1998, and Yagudin and Plyushchenko developed a fierce rivalry. Yagudin finally decided to leave Mishin and eventually was coached by Tatiana Tarasova, but the rivalry between the two skaters continued throughout the years as they repeatedly battled it out for major titles. At the 2002 Winter Olympics, Plyushchenko and Yagudin were considered co-favorites. Yagudin skated a flawless short program to a standing ovation and finished the night in 1st place. Plyushchenko, however, botched his quad-triple combination and finished 4th in the short program. He skated a strong free skate to "Carmen" and pulled up to finish in 2nd place overall; Yagudin received the highest free skate marks under the 6.0 system in the history of Olympic competition and won the gold medal easily. After Yagudin's retirement, Plyushchenko won most of competitions he entered in the following four years. He finished second only twice. The first time was to Emanuel Sandhu at the 2003 Grand Prix Final. The second was the 2004 European Figure Skating Championships, where he lost to Brian Joubert. In Winter Olympics (2006) in Turin, Italy, Plyushchenko finished the short program ten points ahead of his closest rival, setting a new ISU record for the short program. His free skate was just as strong, and also set a new ISU record. Plyushchenko's free skating music was especially arranged for him by violinist Edvin Marton. 113

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Plyushchenko took a break from competitive skating following the 2006 Olympic season. Mter seeing the poor results of Russian skaters in the 2007 World Figure Skating Championships (which was the worst since 1960), Plyushchenko was worried about Russia losing its status as a dominant force in figure skating and announced in April of 2007 that he has decided to return to competitive skating for the 2007-2008 season, to keep Russia at a competitive level with other countries until the next generation of Russian skaters can take over. Plyushchenko has since delayed his return until the 2008-2009 season. Plyushchenko's technical achievements are numerous. He is one of the few male skaters to perform the Biellmann spin. Plyushchenko is also one of few figure skaters to have landed quadruple loops and quadruple lutzes in practice, but has never completed either of them in competition. At the age of 16, Plyushchenko was the youngest male skater to ever receive a perfect score of 6.0. He received a total of seventy five 6.0s before the new Code of Points judging system was introduced.

British sports and games (1.2.1) In some form or another sport is an important part of the Englishman's daily life. About 29 million people over the age of 16 regularly take part in sports or exercise. The most popular are walking (including rambling and hiking), swimming, snooker/pool, keep fit/yoga and cycling. Women's participation has grown significantly over the last few years, even into traditionally male-dominated activities like football and rugby. Many sports, such as athletics, boxing and football, have also been successful in attracting considerable numbers of participants from the ethnic minorities. All schools in Britain are expected to have a playing field, and most secondary schools have a gymnasium. Some have other amenities such as swimming pools and sports halls. 114

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British people are fond of sports and organized games are part of normal school life. The British are great lovers of competitive sports. The ideas of team spirit and fair play are also very important to the British. In summer, boys and girls play tennis and rounders. Rounders is similar to American baseball but there are no special gloves worn. In addition, boys can play the famous English sport of cricket. Cricket is the game peculiarly associated with England. Nearly every village has its cricket club and its own ground where a quiet of Sunday afternoon is broken only by the slap of leather on willow and a gentle ripple of applause. It is a game impossible to describe to foreigners. At times it is not a game but a kind of dignified public ritual. In winter boys and men play football or rugby, and girls and women can play netball or hockey. These are all outdoor sports the British play outside whenever possible, even in the cold British weather! There is a professional Rugby League Union, but rugby is also played by amateurs and the pupils of public schools. Rugby is played by 15 (Rugby Union) or 13 men (Rugby League), with an elliptical ball. There is an H-shaped goal at either end. Players may kick the ball or run with it in their hands, may not pass, throw or knock it forwards. Tackling is allowed. Scoring is by points: 3 for a try and 5 ft goal. Association football or soccer, the game played under FA rules is the most widespread played by two teams each of 11 men, with a round football, on a rectangular field. Players kick, dribble and pass the ball with there feet. Only the goalkeeper may handle the ball. A goal is scored when the ball sent between the opponent's goalposts. Football is the largest spectator sport. The four nations which make up Britain usually enter separate teams in international sport competitions. Unfortunately English football is still an area in Britain where racism and xenophobia still exist. It has had a long history of "trouble". In the 1950s and 60s young people were unhappy with their lives and this resulted in 115

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hooliganism at football matches. The problem of violence on the field can be amplified by the media, with its hunger for sensationalism and closeups of violence. The incidence of overt racism at football matches has declined dramatically since the early 1980s. The famous football clubs are Arsenal, Chelsea, Orient, and Queen's Park Rangers. Netball is a little similar to basketball, but the ball is not bounced on the ground. The players must throw the ball to each other and the opposing team tries to intercept it. Swimming is considered to be one of the most beneficial forms of exercise. It is enjoyed by millions of people in Britain both as recreational activity and as a competitive sport. Golf courses and tennis courts are popular meeting places of the business community in Britain. Tennis is very popular in England. Top players from across the globe converge in Lo at Wimbledon to compete for the most coveted prizes in lawn tennis. In the last week of June and the week of July, Wimbledon sweeps the whole country with tennis madness. "Wimbledon" has become of those great British institutions which everybody loves or simply learns to live with. Rowing is an Olympic sport that has a great history in Britain. Some regattas on the Thames attract many people. Horse-racing is big business, nine-tenth of betting done all over the country during race meetings. Bowls is a game for individuals. Bowls ("woods") are rolled at a smaller ball ("jack"). The game was known in Britain by the 13th century. Each player has 4 biased (properly balanced) bowls. He bowls these underarm at the jack. Business is forgotten while gentlemen go down on one knee and bowl a black "wood". When the Spanish Armada was sighted in 1588, Sir Francis Drake was playing the game of bowl. He is supposed to have said, "The Armada can wait. I must finish my game first". Britain has the reputation of a sporting nation, that's why most of sport terms are English. 116

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American sports and games (1.2.1) Sports are considered to be a mirror of the life of American people. Millions of Americans play and watch sport and games on a regular basis. The world of sport has penetrated the American consciousness to a remarkable degree. There are many sporting activities which are a part of daily American life. Both professional and recreational sports occupy much attention and time of their adherents. One of many reasons for Americans' interest in sport and fitness is the modern stress on appearances, what is called "good looks". Images of "ideal" male and female body are constructed, consumed and sold in close association with images of sport, health and fitness. Americans like competition, by teams or as individuals. American schools follow the tradition of all English-speaking societies in using sports as teaching "social values". Among these are teamwork, sportsmanship (when Americans win, they say, "well, we were just lucky"), and persistence (not quitting). Being intelligent and being good in sport is an ideal. There are colleges which have excellent academic reputations and are also good in sports. Stanford, UCLA, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Yale are among them. Recently, a new rule has been adopted which states that all college athletes must meet set academic standards. If they do not, they are not allowed to take part in sports. Among all professional football players in the FNL, more than a third has earned university degrees. Hockey, baseball, football and basketball are the "four major sports". There are many other sports in America: golf, swimming, tennis, marathons, track-and-field, bowling, archery, skiing, skating, squash and badminton, rowing and sailing, weight-lifting, boxing, and wrestling. 44 % of all Americans take part in some athletic activities once a day. Swimming, bicycling, fishing, jogging, calisthenics or gymnastics, and bowling are American's favorite participatory sports. 117

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American football occupies a special place among sport games. It derived from the English game of rugby, and started at Harvard University in the 1870s. Football became popular during the later half of the 19th century. Nowadays it remains one of the most popular kinds of sport in the USA. The sport that evokes more nostalgia among Americans than any other is baseball. So many people play the game as children that it has become known as the national game in the USA. Baseball originated before the American Civil War as rounders, a humble game played on sandlots. Early champions of the game fine-tuned it to include the kind of skills and mental judgement that made cricket respectable in England. Another American game that has traveled well is basketball, now played by more than 250 million people worldwide. It started in 1891 when a future Presbyterian minister named James Naismith (1861-1939) was assigned to teach a physical education class at a Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) training school in Springfield, Massachusetts. He was told to invent a new game to keep the young men occupied. Many teams in the National Basketball Association now have foreign players, who return home to represent their native countries during the Olympic Games. Hockey has been increasing in popularity in recent years. The other great world team sport, soccer, has had a difficult time in gaining a foothold. After a brief burst of success in the 1970s, professional soccer in the USA has assumed a minor status in relation to the other major sports. Golf and tennis are the most popular individual professional sports. Boxing is a sport that has become increasingly controversial over the years as its dangers have become more apparent. Most Americans who grow up in the North, grow up with outdoor winter sports. Skating, sledding and tobogganing are very popular. Fishing and hunting are extremely popular in 118

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all parts of the country. There are 17 million hunters in the USA Hunting is strictly controlled. There are many more fishermen (42 million), and many more lakes than bears. There are several unusual sports in the USA Americans will race just about anything that has wheels: "Funny cars" with jet engines, pick-up trucks with gigantic tires, etc. The first "people-powered" aircraft to cross the English Channel was pedaled by an American. And the first hot-air balloon to make it across the Atlantic had a crew from New Mexico. Skate-boarding, wind-surfing, hang-gliding and triathlon, swimming, bicycle racing became very popular in the USA.

The Olympics (1.2.1) The Olympics have a very long history. They began in 776 B. C. and took place every four years for nearly 1200 years at Olympia, in Greece. The decree of that time was that there should be no wars during the Olympiad. At first the Olympics lasted only five days and the competition was only in running. The Olympic programme grew as the games developed and a lot of sports events were added: long-distance, racing, wrestling, the pentathlon, horse-back racing, etc. The only prize for each contest was a garland of wild olive. The successful athlete, however, received other rewards. His friends and admirers showered him with flowers and costly gifts. His name was recorded in the Greek calendar. Poets sang his praises and sculptors carved his statue. An Olympian prize was regarded as the crown of human happiness. When the successful athletes returned home the wall to their city was broken in order to let them enter. So, they did not enter through the gate. The motto was "With such defenders we need no wall". The ancient Greek Olympic Games were for men only. Women, foreigners and slaves were forbidden to compete. 119

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When the Greeks lost their authority and became dependent on Rome the games almost stopped existing. They lasted till 394 A.D., when the Roman Emperor Theodosius I abolished them on the grounds that they were of pagan origin. Theodosius dismantled the Temple of Zeus and destroyed Olympia. Fifteen hundred years later, in 1894, a Frenchman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, persuaded people from fifteen countries to start the Olympic Games again. His words "It's a great honor to win, but still a greater honor to compete" became an Olympic motto. Only a dozen countries took-part then (285 competitors), but it was a start and a good one. It was not until the Fourth Olympics in London, in 1908 that women were allowed to compete for the first time. The Winter Olympics have been held since 1924. At first Scandinavians dominated in all kinds of Winter Sports, that's why the Flag of Norway was considered to be the flag of the Winter Games. At present the Olympic flag has a white background with five rings in the middle, in turquoise, yellow, black, green and red. No Olympic Games can start without the Olympic Flame, the symbol of the spirit of friendly competition, which comes from the classic temple on Olympia, Greece. The first of the modern series of games took place in Athens, in 1896. At the fourth Olympics, in 1908, in London, there were more than two thousand competitors, from twenty-one different countries. Since then, the number of athletes competing has increased each time. The International Olympic Committee at Lausanne, in Switzerland, decides where each Olympics will take place. They ask a city (not a country) to be host one city for the Winter Olympics and one for the Summer Olympic Games. Nearly 150 countries are represented in the International Olympic Committee.

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en) Contribution of Russia and EnglishSpeaking Countries in Science and Culture Development 1.1. Dialogue Daniel, a tourist from the USA is asking his personal guide about the Sokol Apartment Building at Kuznetsky Most Street. (1.1.2) Daniel: That's really impressive, isn't it? Guide: That's certainly is one of Ivan Mashkov's masterpieces. Daniel: He is a Russian architect, isn't he? Guide: Actually. his original surname is Sokolov. He was a son of a village blacksmith and lost both his parents in early childhood. The boy was adopted by Pavel Karpovich Mashkov, a businessman, and his wife, whose brother was a town architect in Lipetsk. It influenced on Mashkov greatly. Ivan was admitted to Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. He graduated class of architecture with an honorary medal and a construction license at the age of 19 - an exceptionally quick education by any standard. Daniel: It seems he really had this talent. Guide: Completely agree. You see Mashkov's Sokol, building, which is unique not only for his career, but to Moscow Art in general. It is the only building in the city designed in original Vienna Secession style. At the same time, the building is definitely Muscovite; the shape of its frieze repeats the lines of nearby Hotel Metropol. Daniel: Yeah, that's true. What about this picture and the name of the building? Why is it called so? 121

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Guide: Well, the mosaic of a falcon flying over a stormy sea was made by Nikolay Sapunov. The subject of this picture itself is a double citation - from Maxim Gorky's Song of a falcon and from nearby Moscow Art Theater's Seagull symbol. However, the building has nothing to do with these symbols or with Mashkov's natural name - it was named after M. Sokol, the owner. Daniel: What a coincidence! Guide: Indeed. Oh, we've completely forgotten about the time. It's high time to go. Daniel: That's a pity. OK, let's go then. An exchange English student and a Moscow University postgraduate are having a talk about the Tretyakov Gallery (1.1.5) John: Nick, where can I see old Russian painting? I saw a few reproductions in a magazine and was greatly impressed by them. Nick: The Tretyakov gallery has the richest collection, I believe. If you have time tomorrow I can take you there. (In the Tretyakov Gallery) John: These icons are marvelous. It's a great that the painters' names are known. Nick: Unfortunately we know only a few names. One of the greatest old Russian painters was Andrei Rublev. John: Do you mean the painter about whom a film was made? Nick: Yes. The film is called "Andrei Rublev". Did you see it? John: Yes, I saw it a few years ago in London. It impressed me greatly. Where can I see his pictures?

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1.2. Monologue The space exploration (1.2.1) The world knows the names of many great scientists: mathematicians, physicists, chemists, biologists, linguists, historians. A lot of discoveries have been made by them in different fields of science and engineering. But, to my mind, the greatest event of the 20th century was the flight of man into the space. No doubt special merit here belongs to Russian scientists. Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky is one of them. K. Tsiolkovsky was born in 1879 in a small Russian village near Ryazan. Through all his life he had been working on the problem of interplanetary travel. He worked out the theory of cosmic flights. K. Tsiolkovsky believed that "mankind will not remain on Earth forever", and he dreamt to see that day. But he died in 1935. The man who was standing behind Soviet space strategy from he 1930s was Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. An outstanding scientist, he devoted all his life to rocket research, constructing artificial satellites. The first artificial sputnik was launched on October 4, 1957. The Russians have every right to be proud of it. Some years later the most remarkable event in the history of cosmonautics took place. On April 12, 1961 the spaceship "Vostok", piloted by Yuri Gagarin, went up. It is due to Korolev's genius and some other top engineers' talent that Russia became the world leader in conquering space. Kerim Kerimov was one of the founders of the Soviet space program and was one of the lead architects behind the first human spaceflight ("Vostok I") alongside Sergey Korolyov. After Korolyov's death in 1966, Kerimov became the lead scientist of the Soviet space program and was responsible for the launch of the first space stations from 1971 to 1991, 123

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including the "Salyut" and "Mir" series, and their precursors in 1967, "the Cosmos 186" and "Cosmos 188". Yuri Gagarin was the first man who made his historic flight into space. The whole world applauded to this handsome young man. He orbited the earth once, staying in space for only 108 minutes, but he was the first to fly to stars. Mankind will always remember him. In commemoration of Gagarin's flight April 12th has been made the International Day of Cosmonautics. With Gagarin's flight to cosmos Tsiolkovsky's "utopian" dreams came true. A new age of space exploration began.

Tretiakov Gallery (1.2.1) Moscow is replete with art galleries and museums. Yet there is one gallery that remains a symbol of Russian art. It is the world-famous Tretyakov Gallery. The industrialist and merchant Pavel Tretiakov was a passionate collector of Russian art, mainly paintings. He was a famous patron of the arts who helped to support the "peredvizhniki" movement consisting of realistic painters in the second half of the 19th century. In 1892 he presented to the city of Moscow 1287 paintings, 9 sculptures and 518 drawings. The donation formed the basis of the Tretiakov Gallery's present collection. Lidia Iovleva, the Deputy Director of the museum, said about his contribution to the Russian culture: "Along with being the founder of the Gallery, Tretiakov was the only of the 19th century collectors who set up a national art museum. Many rich and knowledgeable people collected art in those days but none did anything as distinguishable". Presently, the gallery is being improved by carefully planned purchases. Already more than 55 thousand works are kept there. There is the rich collection of ancient Russian icon painting of the 12th-17th centuries including Andrey 124

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Rublyov's famous "Trinity", as well as significant works of painting and sculpture of the 18th-19th centuries ~ paintings by Dmytriy Levitskiy, Fedor Rokotov, Karl Bryullov, Orest Kiprenskiy, Alexander Ivanov (including his well-known canvas "The Appearance of Christ Before the People"), Ivan Kramskoy, and sculptures by Fedot Shubin. The gallery has an excellent selection of the best works by the "peredvizhniki": Ilya Repin (including "Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan"), Victor Vasnetsov, Ivan Shishkin, Vasyliy Surikov ("The Morning of the Strelets Execution"), Vasyliy Vereshchagin and others. The blossoming of many areas of Russian art at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries is also well represented. Suffice it to name such artists of the period as Mykhail Vrabel, Isaak Levitan, Nicholas Rerikh, Alexander Benua, Mykhail Nesterov, Konstantin Korovin, Konstantin Somov, Valentin Serov, Boris Kustodiev and Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin. Such an artistic movement as socialist realism is represented by works of Alexander Deineka, Arkadiy Plastov, Yuri Pimenov, Dmytriy Nalbandyan, and others. Different exhibitions are organized in the gallery. For example, one of them featured 250 graphic works and showed how the collection of graphics was put together and what were the tastes, preferences and interests of the founder himself.

Dmitri Mendeleyev (1.2.1 ) Dmitri Mendeleyev was born in Tobolsk, Siberia, on February 8th, 1834, to Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleyev and Maria Dimitrievna Mendeleyev (Kornilieva). Mendeleyev was the 13th surviving child of 17 total, but the exact number differs among sources. As a child, he was fascinated by the glass which was created at the factory his mother owned, and for a time, the young Mendeleyev worked there. At the age of 13, after the death of his father and the destruction 125

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of his mother's factory by fire, Mendeleyev attended the Gymnasium in Tobolsk. In 1849, the now poor Mendeleyev family relocated to St. Petersburg, where he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1850. Mter he graduated, an illness that was diagnosed as tuberculosis caused him to move to the Crimea in 1855. While there he became chief science master of the local gymnasium. He returned with fully restored health to St. Petersburg in 1857. . Mter becoming a teacher, Mendeleyev wrote the definitive two-volume textbook at that time: "Principles of Chemistry" (1868-1870). As he attempted to classify the elements according to their chemical properties, he noticed patterns that led him to postulate his Periodic Table. Unknown to Mendeleyev, several other scientists had also been working on their own tables of elements. One was John Newlands, who published his Law of Octaves in 1864. Another was Lothar Meyer, who published a work in 1864, describing 28 elements. On March 6, 1869, Mendeleyev made a formal presentation to the Russian Chemical Society, entitled The Dependence between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements, which described elements according to both weight and valence. The elements in Mendeleyev's Periodic Table follow one another in the order of their atomic weights. They are arranged in periods and groups. Mendeleyev's discovery made it possible for the scientists to find 38 new chemical elements to fill the empty spaces left in the Periodic Table. Mendeleyev made other important contributions to Russian chemistry. He was one of the founders of the Russian Chemical Society in 1869. Mendeleyev worked on the theory and practice of protectionist trade and on agriculture, invented pyrocollodion, a kind of smokeless powder based on nitrocellulose. Besides, he is given credit for the introduction of the metric system to the Russian Empire, investigated the composition of oil fields, and helped to found the first oil 126

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refinery in Russia. Mendeleyev studied petroleum origin and concluded that hydrocarbons are abiogenic and form deep within the earth. He wrote: "The capital fact to note is that petroleum was born in the depths of the earth, and it is only there that we must seek its origin." Mendeleyev died in 1907 in St. Petersburg from influenza, but his name would never be forgotten. Not only the Periodic table but also the crater on the Moon and element number 101 is named after him.

Russian Noble Prize winners (1.2.l) Russia can boast a lot of the Noble Prize laureate in many fields of science. Among them are: I. Pavlov (1904) and I. Mechnikov (1908) in medicine; I. Bunin (1933), B. Pasternak (1958), M. Sholohov (1965), A. Solzhenitsyn (1970), I. Brodskiy (1987) in literature; L. Landau (1962) and A. Kapica (1978) in physics and A. Sakharov (1975) for peace. I want to speak in more detail about three of them. Russian writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn is known for his works denouncing censorship and describing his prison experiences while in exile in the USSR. He was born in Kislovodsk. He served in the Soviet Army from 1941 to 1945, when he was sentenced to eight years in prison for antiStalinist remarks written to a friend. His prison experiences were the background for his first novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962). In 1969 Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Soviet Writers Union for denouncing the official censorship that had suppressed some of his writings. He received the 1970 Nobel Prize in literature. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was deported to West Germany and deprived of his Soviet citizenship in February 1974. Subsequently he settled in the United States. The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956(1973-1975), The GulagArchipelag02, 127

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(1975), and The Gulag Archipelago 3 (1975) are massively documented exposes of the Soviet prison system, terrorism, and secret police. Soviet officials dropped charges of treason against him in 1991, and Solzhenitsyn returned to live in Russia in May 1994. Lev Davidovich Landau was a prominent Soviet physicist who made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics. He received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics. He was born January 22, 1908, in Baku, Azerbaijan. Recognized very early as a child prodigy in mathematics, Landau graduated at 13 from the Gymnasium and, because he was too young to go to the university, attended the Baku Economical Technical School. At the age of 14, he matriculated at Baku State University in 1922, studying in two departments simultaneously: the Physic-Mathematical and the Chemical. In 1924 he moved to the Physics Department of Leningrad University, graduating in 1927. Landau subsequently enrolled for post-graduate study at the Leningrad PhysicsTechnical Institute and at 21 received a doctorate. The scientist got his first chance to go abroad in 1929. After brief stays in Gettingen and Leipzig, he went to Copenhagen to work in Niels Bohr's Institute for Theoretical Physics. Landau always considered himself a pupil of Bohr's, and his attitude to physics was greatly influenced by Bohr's example. Apart from his theoretical accomplishments, Landau was the principal founder of a great tradition of theoretical physics in the Soviet Union centered at Kharkov, sometimes referred to as the "Landau school". His students include Lev Pitaevskii, Alexei Abrikosov, Arkady Levanyuk, Evgeny Lifshitz, Lev Gorkov, Isaak Khalatnikov and Boris Ioffe. Speaking about Andrei Sakharov, it is worthy mentioning that his grandfather had been a prominent lawyer in Tsarist Russia who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanist principles that would later influence his grandson. 128

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His parents and his paternal grandmother largely shaped Sakharov's personality. Sakharov entered Moscow State University in 1938. Following evacuation in 1941 during the Great Patriotic War, he graduated in Agabat, in today's Turkmenistan. He was then assigned laboratory work in Ulyanovsk. During this period, in 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son before she died in 1969. He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of the Physical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and received his Ph. D. in 1947. On World War II's end, Sakharov researched cosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving to Sarov in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the next stage, the development of the hydrogen bomb. The major turn in Sakharov's political evolution started in 1967, when anti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US-Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explains the need to "take the Americans at their word" and accept their proposal "for a bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense", because otherwise an arms race in this new technology would increase the possibility of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by this kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion in the Soviet press. In May 1968 he completed an essay, Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom, where the anti-ballistic missile defense is featured as a major threat of world nuclear war. After this essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from all military-related research and returned to 129

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study fundamental theoretical physics. In 1970 he, along with Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov, was one of the founders of the Moscow Human Rights Committee and came under increasing pressure from the regime. He married a fellow human rights activist, Yelena Bonner, in 1972. In 1973 he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1975, although he was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect it. His wife read his speech at the acceptance ceremony. Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally". denying the importance and validity of all moral or cultural norms not codified in the laws. He was arrested on January 22, 1980, following his public protests against the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and was sent to internal exile in the city of Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod, a closed city that was inaccessible to foreign observers. From 1980 till 1986 Sakharov was kept under tight Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs he mentions that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. He remained isolated but unrepentant until December 1986 when he was allowed to return to Moscow as Mikhail Gorbachev initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost. A sudden heart attack had taken his life at the age of 68. He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.

Nikita Mikhalkov (1.2.1) Nikita Mikhalkov is probably the most famous Russian filmmaker who got both international acclaim and the spectators' love. He was born into a distinguished artistic family.: His great grandfather was the imperial governor 130

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of Yaroslavl, whose mother was a Galitzine princess. Nikita's father, Sergei Mikhalkov, is best known as writer of children's literature although he also wrote the lyrics to the Soviet and Russian national anthems. Nikita's mother, the poetess Natalia Konchalovskaya, was daughter of the avantgarde artist Pyotr Konchalovsky and granddaughter of another outstanding painter, Vasily Surikov. Nikita's older brother is the filmmaker Andrei Konchalovsky, primarily known for his collaboration with Andrei Tarkovsky and his own Hollywood action movies, such as Runaway Train. Mikhalkov studied acting at the children's studio of the Moscow Art Theatre and later at the Schukin School of the Vakhtangov Theatre. While still a student, he appeared in Georgi Daneliya's film I Step Through Moscow (1964) and his brother Andrei Konchalovsky's film Home of the Gentry (1969). He was soon on his way to becoming a star of the Soviet stage and cinema. While continuing his acting career, he then went to VGIK, where he studied directing under filmmaker Mikhail Romm, teacher to his brother and Andrei Tarkovsky. He directed his first short film in 1968, I'm Coming Home, and another for his graduation, A Quiet Day at the End of the War in 1970. Mikhalkov had appeared in over twenty films, including his brother's Uncle Vanya (1972), before he co-wrote, directed and starred in his first feature, At Home Among Strangers in 1974, a "Red Western" set just after the 1920s civil war in Russia. Mikhalkov established an international reputation with his second feature, A Slave of Love (1976). Set in 1917, it followed the efforts of a film crew to make a silent melodrama in a resort town while the Revolution rages around them. The film, based upon the last days of Vera Kholodnaya, was highly acclaimed upon its release in the U .S. Mikhalkov's next film, An Unfinished Piece for Player Piano (1977) was adapted by Mikhalkov from Chekhov's early play and won the first prize at the San Sebastian Film Festival. 131

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In 1978, while starring in his brother's epic film Siberiade, Mikhalkov made Five Evenings, a love story about a couple separated by World War 11, who meet again after eighteen years. Mikhalkov's next film, Oblomov (1980), with Oleg Tabakov in the title role, is based on Ivan Goncharov's classic novel. Family Relations (1981) is a comedy about a provincial woman in Moscow dealing with the tangled relationships of her relatives. Without Witnesses (1983) tracks a long night's conversation between a woman (lrina Kupchenko) and her exhusband (Mikhail Ulyanov) when they are accidentally locked in a room. In the early 1980s, Mikhalkov resumed his acting career, appearing in Eldar Ryazanov's immensely popular Station for Two (1982) and A Cruel Romance (1985). At that period, he also played Henry Baskerville in the Soviet screen version of The Hound of the Baskervilles. He also starred in many of his own films, including At Home Among Strangers, A Slave of Love, An Unfinished Piece for Player Piano and Burnt by the Sun. Incorporating several short stories by Chekhov, Dark Eyes (1987) stars Marcello Mastroianni as an old man who tells a story of a romance he had when he was younger, a woman he has never been able to forget. The film was highly praised, and Mastroianni received the Best Actor Prize at the Cannes Film Festival and an Academy Award nomination for his performance. Mikhalkov's next film, Urga (1992), set in the little known world of the Mongols, who live on the border between Russia and China, received the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Mikhalkov'sAnna: 6-18 (1993) documents his daughter Anna as she grows from childhood to maturity. Mikhalkov's most famous production to date, Burnt by the Sun (1994), was steeped in the nervous atmosphere of Stalinist purges. The film received the Grand Prize at Cannes 132

Dialogues and Monologues and the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, among many other honours. As of 2000, Burnt by the Sun was the top grossing movie to come out of Eastern Europe. Filming a sequel is under way. Mikhalkov used the critical and financial triumph of Burnt by the Sun to accumulate some $25,000,000 budget for his most epic venture to date, The Barber of Siberia (1998). The film, which opened the 1998 Cannes Film Festival, was designed as a patriotic extravaganza for domestic consumption. It featured Julia Ormond and Oleg Menshikov in leading roles, while the director appeared as Tsar Alexander III of Russia. In 2005, Mikhalkov resumed his acting career, starring in three brand-new movies. The Councillor of State, a Fandorin detective which broke the Russian box-office records; Zhmurki, a noir-drenched comedy about the Russian Mafia; and Krzysztof Zanussi's Persona non grata. On September 8, 2007, Mikhalkov's film 12, a modern adaptation of Sidney Lumet's court drama Twelve Angry Men, has received a special Golden Lion for the "consistent brilliance" of its work and was praised by many critics at the Venice Film Festival. Recently he took on a role of the executive producer of an epic movie 1612.

British science: general survey (1.2.1) British contributions to science include many great discoveries linked with famous names of Sir Isaac Newton (theory of gravitation), Robert Boyle ("the father of modern chemistry"), Michael Faraday (whose discoveries gave rise to the electrical industry), and Henry Cavendish (properties of hydrogen). In the XX century one can name J. J. Thomson, Rutherford and Sir James Chadwick (basic work on nuclear science), Gowland Hopkins (the existence of bitamins), Sir William Bragg (X-ray analysis), and many others. Medicine 133

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owes much to such pioneers as William Harvey (circulation of the blood), Edward Jenner (vaccination), Joseph Lister (antiseptics), Sir Ronald Ross (who proved the relation between malaria and mosquitoes) and many others. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is great English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, and philosopher. He was born in the little village of Woolthorpe, not far from Cambridge, on December 25, 1642. His father, a farmer, died before his son's birth. In his early years he made a sun-dial and a clock which worked by water. It is said that the sun-dial is still at Woolthorpe in the house where Newton was born. When Isaac was 14, his mother took him from school to help her on the farm. His first physical experiment was carried out in 1658, when he was 16. He jumped against and before the wind and by the length of his jump he could judge the strength of the wind. In 1661, Newton entered the University of Cambridge where he studied mathematics. In 1665 Newton began studying the theory of gravitation. When the Great Plague raged in London the students were sent home. In that quiet period of two years he finished considering his discoveries: the method of fluxions, decomposition of light and the law of gravitation. In 1669 he was appointed professor and began lectures on mathematics and optics at Cambridge. He is author of fundamental and seminal laws. He developed the theory of differential calculus at the same time as Leibniz (1646-1716). He discovered the dispersion of light into a coloured spectrum by refraction through a prism. He studied diffraction and interference of light, and invented the reflecting telescope. His work on light "Optics" (1704) led to a corpuscular theory of its nature. He developed his inverse square law of gravitation, applying it to planetary motion. Newton elaborated his laws of motion: 1) a body remains in its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted on by an external force, 2) change in motion is proportional to, and in the same direction as the applied force, 3) to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. 134

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In 1699 Newton became Master of the Mint. Isaac Newton died in 1727 at the age of 85. He was buried with honours, as a national hero. Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) is famous English naturalist. He was born on February 12, 1809. Charles' father was a well-known physician. As a boy, Charles was fond of collecting. At 16 Charles was sent to Edinburgh University to become a doctor. He had no interest in medicine but he was interested in the natural history. His father sent him to Cambridge to make a parson of him. At Cambridge Charles liked most of all entomology and botany. In 1831 Charles took his degree but refused to become a parson. As official naturalist on the survey vessel "Beagle" he sailed round the world in 1831-1836. This started his work of observation and correlation that led to his theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin finished his book The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. It caused a sensation. Darwin was violently attacked. Some copies of the book were burned. In 1871, he published The Descent of Man where he explained that mankind and anthropoid apes had the common ancestry. There was much argument about the book but Darwin's poor health prevented his taking part in the discussion. Darwin died in 1882 and was buried in Westminster Abbey near Newton's grave. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) is the father of the electric motor. He was born in a small village in a poor family of a blacksmith. As a boy Michael did not have much schooling. When he was 13 he went to work in a bookbinder's shop. He lived among books. Once he ran across an article on electricity. It struck his imagination. Faraday wanted to make experiments and devote his life to science. He made a new kind of steel and a new kind of glass. Faraday was wondering whether a magnet could give an electric current. At 40 he got a bright idea: he would move the magnet near wire. And then he got an electric current in 135

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the wire. This was a great moment in history of electricity but Faraday didn't stop. He got a current when he moved the wire instead of the magnet. He made a machine of electromagnetic induction. The machine gave Faraday a currant of electricity. It was the beginning of the electrical age, which has changed the face of the earth. James Watt (1736-1819) is a Scottish engineer and the inventor of the universal steam-engine. He was born in Scotland, where his father was a shipwright. He had a very good memory and liked mathematics. He was sent to a private school where he did well both at languages and mathematics. When James was 14 he was given the book by Isaac Newton. He liked the book so interesting that he read it many times and spent his time on experiments. At 21 he became instrument maker to Glasgow University. In April 1765, while he was out for a walk the idea of condensing the steam occurred to him. He made fundamental improvements of the steam engine. He made other inventions. He invented a copying machine which was in use 100 years. On August 19, 1819, James Watt died at his home. A few years later a monument was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. The unit of power is named after him. George Stephenson (1781-1848) is the Father of the Railways. He was son of a poor English worker. George grew up illiterate. When George was 8 he began to work. His job was to put coal under the boilers. He learnt everything he could by watching. George began to dream of becoming an engineer. When he was 17 he decided to learn to write and read. Mter 12-hour shift he went a long distance to a teacher to be taught the alphabet. During the First Industrial Revolution Stephenson designed a locomotive. He laid metal rails for is engine to run on. On July 25, 1814, his locomotive hauled 8 loaded wagons (30 tons) at a speed 4 m/h. 136

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The new railway was opened on September 27, 1825. Stephenson made an engine Rocket which would run 10 m/h. On September 15, 1830, the railway between Liverpool and Manchester was opened. His son Robert was a perfect partner and an outstanding inventor. Robert supervised the building the Rocket. A monument to father and son was erected in Westminster Abbey. William Harvey (1578-1657) is English physician who discovered the circulation of the blood. He was a son of a rich merchant. In 1588, when he was 10, he was sent to King's School in Canterbury. He studied to become a doctor and was sent to Cambridge. He took his BA at Cambridge and went to the Pa-University in Italy. It was in Padua that he got his first clue about the circulation of the blood. His anatomy teacher discovered that the veins contained valves. The discovery showed Harvey that there was passing of the blood to and fro as it was believed. In 1602, at 24, he left Padua with his degree of Doctor of medicine and returned to England. He set p in London and became a well-known doctor. In 1628 his work about heart and blood in Latin was published in Germany. The book aroused much criticism. Some of his patients thought he was mad and left torn. But time passed and medical men saw that Harvey was right. Harvey was made court physician. In 1658 William Harvey died. He was buried in Hampstead Church in Essex. The church has a special tower built in honour William Harvey's memory. Speaking about the present times, Britain is pre-eminent in radio astronomy and in many fields of electronics including miniaturization, one of the most important factors in the electronics revolution, and in radar for marine and aviation purposes. Much basic work was done in Britain on electronic computers. British advances in medicine include penicillin and other antibiotics, heart-lung machines, a new anti-viral 137

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agent, interferon, of great potential value and many other important developments in the treatment of disease. Since the first artificial splitting of the atom at Cambridge, in 1932, by Sir John Cockcroft and Dr. E. T. S. Walton, Britain's nuclear scientists have made continuous progress in harnessing atomic energy. Today eight commercial nuclear power stations are supplying electricity for factories and homes and others are being built. Some of Britain's top scientists are engaged in space research on projects such as upper atmosphere probes with British-built rockets and in work on satellite communications. Others are making vital discoveries in the laboratory into the very nature of life itself. Since 1945 27 British scientists have received international recognition for their work by gaining Nobel awards and this fact speaks for itself. Nowadays there are over 200 learned scientific societies in Britain. In ten years Britain has doubled her total number of qualified scientists.

(M-O) The World of Professions 1.1. Dialogue Speaking about choosing of the future occupation (1.1.2) A: B: A: B:

What will you be when you have finished your school? I'll become a welder if I pass my exams all right. Do you like your future profession? I think I do.

Speaking about choosing of the future occupation (1.1.2) A: Will you try to enter the University when you pass your

matriculation? 138

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B: To tell the truth, I'm not sure I will. A: But you pay so much attention to your English! B: Yes, I do. I believe a foreign language will come in handy

in my life.

Speaking about looking for a job (1.1.2) Helen: Hi, Burt. I heard you're looking for a new job. Burt: Yeah. I just had an interview yesterday. Helen: Oh. How did it go? Burt: I think I did well. They said they would make a decision by this Friday. H elen: This Friday? Looks like they want to hire the person as quickly as possible. Burt: Yeah! I think so, too. Helen: What are your chances of getting that job? Burt: I believe I have a very good chance. The director seems to like me. Helen: Well, good luck, then. Burt: Thanks. I hope it helps. Speaking about looking for a job (1.1.2, 1.1.3) A: Welcome to UniTex International. I'm sure you'll enjoy working here. B: What should I know about office practice? A: First of all, when you answer the phone you should always say your name and the name of company. B: Should I always answer the phone in English? A: Yes. I believe it will be useful for you to practice your pronunciation and speech. B: OK. What about calling people at home? A: You shouldn't call anyone at home after 20:00. It's not a good idea to disturb them. You'd better just leave a message. By the way, don't forget to use voicemail during the office hours. 139

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B: Well, everything seems to be clear. Oh, just one more thing - how do I transfer calls? A: Let me show you. It's a little difficult. I think the company should get a new phone system!

Speaking about looking for a job (1.1.2) Reese: So, how was your interview? Kent: I haven't gone to the interview yet. It's tomorrow. I'm so nervous. Reese: Don't worry. You should do fine. You have the experience. Kent: I hope so. Reese: Remember, they want someone who works well with people. You've got to show them how easy-going and personable you are! Kent: Thanks. I'll keep that in mind. Speaking about a present occupation (1.1.2) T: Yes. Where are you working now'! G: In an office at N.'s. T: In what capacity? G: Oh, just as an ordinary clerk. T: A good job? I mean a soft one? G: Soft?! Why, I work like blazes all day long! T: Do you? G: Yes. I have to wade through a pile of letters sky-high, from morning till evening. T: Really? G: And what makes it worse is that my boss shuffles off most of his work to me. T: That's bad. But you have to stick to your job, George. G: Yes. Work is rather scarce now. Speaking about a present occupation (1.1.2) A: Tell me, please, about your job.

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B: Well, I'm a conference organizer. I organize conferences all over Europe for large multinational companies. A: It sounds great. What are your duties? B: I calculate costs, book the rooms, send out the invitations to the participants and generally plan the conference schedule. A: It's not so easy as it seems I believe. B: Completely right. A: Doing anything special now? B: Well, yes. We are organizing a conference for a company in Spain.

Speaking about loosing his/her job (1.1.2, 1.1.3) A: I hear that Tom lost his job. Did you hear that, too? B: I did hear something about his job being abolished. A: What a terrible thing to happen now, just when he and

Olha are expecting their first baby! B: It is a shame, I'll admit, but I told Tom months ago to get out of that place where he works and get another job. I had a feeling that the company wasn't very stable financially. A: You mean it's not a strong company? I'd always thought it was one of the strongest around. B: If you've been reading the news in the financial section, you could see that the company was headed for trouble. I wouldn't be surprised to see it go bankrupt before the end of the year. A: It sure is too bad. Is there anything we can do for Tom? B: I'm going to call him this afternoon. I heard yesterday that there's going to be an opening in the section where I work. He can get his application in today. A: I'll check things out with my boss, too. There may be something open in one of the departments over in London.

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1.2. Monologue What is "profession"? (1.2.1 ) A profession is an occupation, vocation or career where specialized knowledge of a subject, field, or science is applied. It is usually applied to occupations that involve prolonged academic training and a formal qualification. It is axiomatic that "professional activity involves systematic knowledge and proficiency". Professions are usually regulated by professional bodies that may set examinations of competence, act as an licensing authority for practitioners, and enforce adherence to an ethical code of practice. Professions include, for example: doctors/surgeons, lawyers, engineers, logisticians, judges, pharmacists, environmental health officers, nurses, police officers, military officers, professors, bishops, priests, dentists, architects, surveyors, accountants, and most other specialized technical occupations. The process by which a profession arises from a trade or occupation is often termed professionalization. Regulation enforced by statute distinguishes a profession from other occupations represented by trade groups who aspire to professional status for their members. In all countries, professions have their regulatory or professional bodies, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and regulate the affairs of its members. For some professions there may be several such bodies. Professions enjoy a high social status. All professions involve technical, specialised and highly skilled work. Training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Training also requires regular updating of skills. The ranking of established professions in the United States based on the above milestones shows medicine first, followed 142

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by law, dentistry, civil engineering, logistics, architecture and accounting. With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim professional status: pharmacy, logistics, veterinary medicine, nursing, teaching, librarianship, optometry and social work, all of which could claim to be professions by 1900. Just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and then to the white cloaks of doctors. Although professions enjoy high status and public prestige, all professionals do not earn the same high salaries. There are hidden inequalities even within professions.

Gender inequality in the professional world (1.2.1) The gender inequality is still alive in the world. Even in the professions well-qualified women do not get the same pay as men. There is a 15 % pay gap between men and women across Europe. The situation is particularly bad in Britain. A report by the Women and Work Commission last year found that women in full-time work are earning 17 % less than men. On average significant numbers of women enter professions such as the law and medicine every year. They are increasingly well represented as heads of professional bodies and national arts organizations. Overall, since 1975, the pay gap has narrowed by 12 percentage points. Although in Britain, the fulltime gender pay gap has shrunk in the past 30 years, it is still 17 %, while for part-time work it is stuck at a shameful 40%. All this is happening when, at school and college, women are outshining men. In the medical and legal professions there has been a "gender quake" which means these professions are gradually 143

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becoming female-dominated. Yet their pay continues to lag behind that of their male colleagues.

Teaching as a profession (1.2.1)

What is this job like? Teachers teach children to read, write, do math, and much more. They use games, videos, computers, and other tools to teach children different subjects. Teachers show students skills. They also explain information. Teachers plan their lessons before they teach. Planning takes a lot of time. Teachers try to make their lessons easy to understand. They teach things in different ways so that different students can learn in the way that is easiest for them. Teachers might use a chalkboard, a projector, or a computer. They make posters or worksheets before class starts. Teachers plan the schedule for the day. Most teachers have to teach what the principal tells them. Teachers also assign homework and class projects. They often have students work together to do projects. When students are not doing as well as they should, teachers help them. After class, teachers grade papers and projects. They also make tests. They write students' report cards. And they meet with parents to try to help their children do better in school. Teachers sometimes go to workshops to learn how to teach better. Some teachers also help with sports or other afterschool activities. Most kindergarten and elementary school teachers teach several subjects to one class. In some schools, two or more teachers work as a team. Other teachers teach one special subject, such as art, music, reading, or gym. 144

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Most middle school and high school teachers focus on one subject. They might teach English, science, or history, for example. Some teach students how to do a job. High school teachers spend more time explaining a subject and less time with activities like games. Teachers work with students of many different cultures. Some students were born in the United States, and some were not. Teachers learn about different cultures so that they can help students better. Teachers like to see children learn. But sometimes teaching lots of students can be stressful. Teachers also have to deal with children who misbehave. Many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Most go on vacation during the summer. Sometimes, they teach in summer school. Some take another job. Some go to college to learn more about teaching.

How do you get ready? All teachers in public schools must have a teaching certificate, a license to teach. Some are licensed to teach preschool. Some are licensed to teach middle school or high school. Some have a license to teach a special subject. You must have a college degree to be a teacher, unless you are teaching a job skill like how to fix cars. You must take classes in education and practice teaching with the help of an experienced teacher. To be a teacher, you must pass tests in reading, writing, and other subjects. And you have to keep learning. In some States, you have to get a master's degree. You also need computer training in some States. Teachers must be able to talk to children and be good leaders. The students must trust them. Teachers must be able to make students want to learn. They also should be organized, dependable, patient, and creative. 145

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How much does this job pay? In the USA the middle half of all kindergarten school teachers earned between $33,050 and $52,590 a year in 2004. The lowest-paid 10 % earned less than $ 26,730. The highest-paid 10% earned more than $66,240 a year. The middle half of all elementary school teachers earned between $34,690 and $54,720 a year. The lowest-paid 10 % earned less than $29,060 and the highest-paid 10 % earned more than $67,930 a year. The middle half of all high school teachers earned between $36,650 and $57,600 a year. The lowest-paid 10 percent earned less than $30,260 and the highest-paid 10 percent earned more than $71,370 a year. Some teachers earn extra money during the summer by doing other jobs. Unfortunately, the teachers of the post-Soviet countries don't earn so much, but there is a tendency to increasing the teacher's salaries. Our government tries to do its best to improve the situation.

What about the future? Job opportunities for teachers over the next 10 years will vary from good to excellent, depending on the place where they live and the subject they teach. Some schools are having trouble finding enough teachers, especially in cities. Today, many schools in the USA are looking for math and science teachers and teachers who speak a foreign language and who can teach English as a second language. The number of jobs for teachers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Many teachers will retire, creating many other job openings. 146

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Choosing an occupation (1.2.1) Many people think they know the right way to go about picking an occupation, but they often wind up choosing a career that is unsatisfying. Here are ten myths of choosing a career along with resources that can help you make an informed decision: 1. Choosing a career is simple: actually, choosing a career is an involved process and you should give it the time it deserves. Career planning is a multi-step process that involves learning enough about yourself and the occupations which you are considering in order to make an informed decision. 2. A career counsellor can tell me what occupation to pick: a career counsellor, or any other career development professional, can't tell you what career is best for you. He or she can provide you with guidance in choosing a career and can help facilitate your decision. 3. I can't make a living from my hobby. Says who? When choosing a career, it makes perfect sense to choose one that is related to what you enjoy doing in your spare time, if you so desire. In addition people tend to become very skilled in their hobbies, even though most of the skill is gained informally. 4. I should choose a career from a "Best Careers" list: every year, especially during milestone years, Le. the beginning of a new decade, there are numerous articles and books that list what "the experts" predict will be "hot jobs". It can't hurt to look at those lists to see if any of the careers on it appeal to you, but you shouldn't use the list to dictate your choice. While the predictions are often based on valid data, sometimes things change. Way too often what is hot this year won't be hot a few years from now. In addition, you need to take into account your interests, values, and skills when choosing a career. Just because the outlook for an occupation is good, it doesn't mean that occupation is right for you. 147

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5. Making a lot of money will make me happy: while salary is important, it isn't the only factor you should look at when choosing a career. Countless surveys have shown that money doesn't necessarily lead to job satisfaction. For many people enjoying what they do at work is much more important. However, you should consider earnings, among other things, when evaluating an occupation. 6. Once I choose a career, I'll be stuck in it forever. Not true. If you are unsatisfied in your career for any reason, you can always change it. You'll be in good company. Many people change careers several times over the course of their lifetimes. 7. If I change careers, my skills will go to waste: your skills are yours to keep. You can take them from one job to another. You may not use them in the exact same way, but they won't go to waste. 8. If my best friend (or sister, uncle, or neighbour) is happy in a particular field, I will be too: everyone is different and what works for one person won't necessarily work for another, even if that other person is someone with whom you have a lot in common. If someone you know has a career that interests you, look into it, but be aware of the fact that it may not necessarily be a good fit for you. 9. All I have to do is pick an occupation... Things will fall into place after that: choosing a career is a great start, but there's a lot more to do after that. A Career Action Plan is a road map that takes you from choosing a career to becoming employed in that occupation to reaching your long-term career goals. 10. There's very little I can do to learn about an occupation without actually working in it: while first hand experience is great, there are other ways to explore an occupation. You can read about it either in print resources or online. You can also interview those working in that field.

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(H-O) Education 1.1. Dialogue British pupils are speaking about education (1.1.2) Kate: In Britain all children have to go to school from the age of five to sixteen. It's the law. Bill: Yes. I believe the school-leaving age has been raised to sixteen, hasn't it? Kate: Yes, it has. Bill: Do all parents send their children to state schools? Kate: Nearly all of them do, yes. But we have independent schools where the fees are high and not many parents can afford them. Many private schools are boarding schools, though they usually cater both for boarders and day pupils. British pupils are speaking about education (1.1.2) Bill: Did you get to a state primary school? Ann: Yes, I did. I went to a nursery school first, at the age of four. There was a good kindergarten in our neighbourhood, so my parents decided to send me there for a year. Bill: Can you still remember it? Ann: Yes, I have faint but very pleasant memories of it. It was a delightful place, full of fun and games, as in most nursery schools, work - if you can call it that consisted of story-telling, drawing, singing and dancing. Bill: And you went to the Infants' school at the age of five, didn't you? Ann: Yes, but you know, right up to the age of seven school life was very pleasant. It was only later in the Junior School that we began to have more formal lessons and even worry about exams. 149

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Bill: Really? Did you have to take exams at that age? Ann: Yes, we got used to them. We had to take an exam at the age of eleven called the "Eleven Plus" to see what kind of secondary school we would get into. But this exam is slowly disappearing nowadays.

1.2. Monologue Education in Russia (1.2.1)

General approach If all good people were clever and all clever people were

good, the world would be nicer than ever. I think that education is a key to a good future. And schools are the first step on the education way. Schools help young people to choose their career, to prepare for their future life; they make pupils clever and well-educated. They give pupils the opportunity to fulfil their talent. As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a high order. Nowadays, the country has 685 governmental higher education institutions, all of these having state accreditation. Besides, 619 non-governmental higher education institutions have been licensed for educational activities, 367 of these having been given accreditation in the past decade. Thus, the number of higher educational institutions is 1,304 (1,162 of which are accredited). In 2003-2004, the total number of students of higher education institutions was 5,947,500, including 5,228,700 and 718,800 in governmental and nongovernmental educational institutions respectively. 150

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The public educational system in Russia includes preschools, general schools, specialised secondary and higher education. So-called pre-schools are kindergartens in fact. Children there learn reading, writing and maths. But preschool education isn't compulsory - children can get it at home. Compulsory education is for children from 6(7) to 17 years of age. The main branch in the system of education is the general schools which prepare the younger generation for life and work. There are various types of schools: general secondary schools, schools specialising in a certain subject, high schools, gymnasiums and so on.

Secondary education The term of study in a general secondary school is 11 years and consists of primary, middle and upper stages. At the middle stage of secondary school children learn the basic laws of nature and society at the lessons of history, algebra, literature, physics and many others. Mter 9th form pupils have to sit for examinations. Also they have a choice between entering the 10th grade of a general secondary school or going to professional school. Mter graduation from the 9th grade, which is compulsory for all Russian citizens, a pupil obtains a Certificate of Incomplete Secondary Education. Mter that a pupil has to choose one of the following ways to complete his secondary education: to continue education for two more years at the secondary school or to pursue an associate degree at a Community College. The latter variant usually takes three to four years to complete but provides a pupil with educational qualification that is sufficient for most blue-collar jobs. Pupils, who finish the general secondary school, receive a secondary education certificate, giving them the right to enter any higher educational establishment. One has to study in the institute for 5 years. 151

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Higher education Higher educational institutions train students in one or several specializations. After obtaining a Certificate of Complete Secondary Education a student can enter a University or an Institute (College). A student can choose a program of higher education with duration of four to six years. There are three different degrees that are conferred by Russian universities. The first degree is the Bakalavr (Bachelor) degree. Bachelor programmes last for at least 4 years of fulltime university-level study. The programmes are elaborated in accordance with the State Educational Standards which regulate almost 80 % of their content. The other 20 % are elaborated by the university itself. The programmes include professional and special courses in Science, the Humanities and Social-economic disciplines, professional training, completion of a research paperjproject and passing State final exams. The Bachelor's degree is awarded in all fields except Medicine after defending a Diploma project prepared under the guidance of a supervisor and passing the final exams. In Medicine, the first stage lasts for six years. Holders of the Bachelor degree are admitted to enter the Specialist Diploma and Master's degree programmes. The Master's degree is awarded after successful completion of two years' full-time study. Students must carry out a year of research including practice and prepare and defend a thesis which constitutes an original contribution and sit for final examinations. Bachelor's and Master's degrees were introduced relatively recently; they did not exist during the Soviet period. Even now they are not offered by most six-year and five-year institutions. Among the major Russian universities there are the following: Moscow State University, Moscow Aviation Institute, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg State Medical Academy, St. Petersburg State Pavlov Medi152

Dialogues and Monologues cal University, St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University, Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow State Technical University (Bauman Moscow State Technical University), Moscow State Textile University named after A. N. Kosygin, Moscow State Institute of International Relations, Ural State University in Yekaterinburg, Ural State Technical University, Russian Economical Academy named after G. V. Plekhanov, Novosibirsk State University, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk State University, Kazan State University, Russian State Agricultural University (Moscow Agricultural Timiryazev Academy).

Postgraduate education After obtaining a Specialist's or Master's Degree, a student may enter a university or a scientific institute to pursue postgraduate education. The first level of postgraduate education is aspirantura that usually results in the Candidate of Sciences degree. The seeker should pass three exams (in his/her special field, in a foreign language of his/her choice, and in history and philosophy of science), publish at least three scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, write a dissertation and defend it. This degree is roughly equivalent to the Ph.D. in the United States. After graduation a student may continue postgraduate education. After several (2 to 4) years of study in doctorantura, if they obtain important scientific results, publish them and write another thesis, the Doctor of Sciences degree can be awarded. Typically, the post-graduate works in the university or scientific institute while preparing their new thesis. The average time between obtaining Candidate and Doctor degrees is roughly 10 years, and most of new Doctors are 40 and more years old. Only 1 in 4 Candidates reaches this grade. 153

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Granting of advanced degrees is overseen by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science.

Unified state exam This type of examination has been adopted recently. It is a test which is passed at the end of 9th and 11th form. It consists of three parts: Part A contains tasks where the student has to pick out the correct answer out of several, in Part B the correct answer should be written in one word, and no variants are given, and in Part C the student has to write the full solution (as in mathematics) or a composition (as in literature). The answers are written on special blanks, digitally scanned, with Parts A and B being checked automatically by the computer software. An excellent score ranges, depending on the subject, from 65 (mathematics) to 90 (foreign language) out of 100. What's good for students of 11 th form is that now they do not have to pass both their final school exams and entrance exams at a university. The score of several, usually three (e. g. to enter a Linguistics department, student has to pass Russian, English, and social science exams), subjects is summed up, this total score is the basis of accepting a student at a university. Students now also have a chance to apply at several universities and choose one after they get to know if their score is enough to enter this or that university.

St. Petersburg State University (1.2.1) The motto of the university is Hie tuta perennat (Here we stay in peace). St. Petersburg State University is one of the oldest educational institutions in Russia, situated in the city of 154

Dialogues and Monologues St. Petersburg. At various times prior to 1924, it has also been known as Petersburg University, Petrograd University, and the University of St. Petersburg. From 1924-1948, and again from 1989-1991, the university was called Leningrad State University, and from October 22, 1948 to January 13, 1989 it was called A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University. It is disputed whether the St. Petersburg State University or the Moscow State University is the oldest higher education institution in Russia. While the latter was established in 1755, the former; which has been in continuous operation since 1819, claims to be the successor of the university established on January 24, 1724 by a decree of Peter the Great together with the Academic Gymnasium and St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In the period between 1803 and 1819, the University officially did not exist; the institution founded by Peter the Great - St. Petersburg Academy - had already been disbanded, whereas the institution that was later used as the basis for St. Petersburg University was still known as the Main Pedagogical Institute. Since there is some degree of continuity between the Academy, the Pedagogical Institute, and the University, St. Petersburg State University may be considered the oldest university in Russia. Like other universities in the Soviet Union, its faculty were purged during various political and ethnic campaigns of the leadership, beginning with the Russian Revolution and continuing through the era of the Great Purge with the killing of Deans of the various faculties, many of them nonRussians who had risen after the revolution, and then the "cosmopolitan" quota purges against Jews in the 1950s. The university was awarded the Order of Lenin in 1944 and the Order of the Red Banner of Labour in 1969. As of 2004, the university has a teaching staff of 4,055, and counts seven Nobel Prize winners among its graduates. SPbSU (St. Petersburg State University) is made up of 19 specialized faculties (departments). 155

Unit 1. Speaking Among the graduators of the university there are a lot of eminent people, such as: Nikolai Gogol, Lev Gumilev, Leonid Kantorovich, Lev Landau, Dmitry Likhachev, Mikhail Lomonosov, Dmitri Mendeleev, Ivan Pavlov, Vladimir Putin, Ivan Sechenov, Anatoly Sobchak, Vladimir Vernadsky.

Educational system in Great Britain (1.2.1) Great Britain does not have a written constitution, so there are no constitutional provisions for education. The system of education is determined by the National Education Acts. British education has many different faces, but one goal. Its aim to realize the potential of all, for the good of the individual and the country. Britain's education system is traditionally decentralized. Under the Education Reform Act of 1988 England and Wales began phasing in of a compulsory National Curriculum. The Act also aims to give parents a wider choice of schools for their children. Education is compulsory from 5 (in N. Ireland) to 15 years of age. There are wide variations between one part of the country and another. The system of public education in England and Wales is organized in three stages of Primary, Secondary and Further Education. The first two are compulsory for all children. Further education is voluntary. All children must, by law, go to school when they are five. They can leave school at 15, but many boys and girls stay at school until they are 16 or 17 and then go to further education or to the university. The primary school is sorted into three categories: nursery schools (from 2 to 5), infant schools (from 5 to 7) and junior schools (from 7 to 11). The full secondary school age ranges from 11 to 18. Children go to a grammar school, or to a comprehensive school, or to an independent school. The academic year begins after the summer holidays and is divided into three terms with the intervals between them formed by the Christmas and Easter holidays. Day-schools 156

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mostly work on Mondays to Fridays only, from about 9 a.m. to between 3 and 4 p.m. Lunch is provided and parents pay for it unless they prove to the authorities that they cannot well afford to. Pre-school education is provided in nursery schools and nursery classes for children from the age of 2 to 5 years (under-fives). Primary schools consist of the infant schools and the junior schools. At infant school children aged 5-7 in the form of games learn the 3 R's: Reading, Writing and Arithmetic. It is learning through experience. Children sit at the tables that are grouped into 6 or 8 places. Much of the time is devoted to playing, drawing, painting and music. Strong emphasis on the use of Standard English is the heart of the new proposals for English lessons. Such phrases, as "I ain't done nuffink" will have to be corrected. Primary pupils are to concentrate on math applied to everyday activities, such as shopping. They should count up 1000, use simple fractions, add, multiply and divide numbers. They must be able to use measures from rulers to computer software. Children learn basic electricity and physics. In the PE the emphasis is on not only how to play games, but how to observe fair play, honest competition and good sporting behavior. At 7 teachers measure children's progress in each subject. The junior school is for children aged 7 to 11. Most junior schools carry out a policy of streaming: A - for the cleverest, B - for the next in ability, and C - satisfactory. A typical classroom is divided into "areas" for different activities. The children can work alone or in-groups under the guidance of the teacher. Pupils must know their multiplication tables, do basic algebra, and square and cubed roots. At the age of 11 passed the Eleven - Plus Examination (now - an assessment test) of three papers: English, Arithmetic and Intelligence Test. About 25 % of children win places at the grammar school, which opens the way to the University. The other 75 % will go to a secondary modern 157

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school. They prepare pupils for non-professional occupation. State Secondary schools for children aged 11-16 fall into 3 main types: secondary modern, grammar and comprehensive. Grammar Schools give the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) of two levels 0 (Ordinary) and A (Advanced). The GCSE-O marks the end of school career and a start of some white-collar profession. A small number of pupils remain at school until they are 18 to pass to sit for the GCSE-A, which is required by most universities. Schoolmasters and mistresses of the Grammar Schools wear academic gowns and mortarboards, academic caps with a flat square top. The pupils are divided into Houses and wear uniform with the school badge. Secondary Modern Schools concentrate on practical work. Boys are instructed in metal and woodwork, girls - in domestic science and cooking. The children leave this school at 15 with a certificate or Written Evidence of their studies. Comprehensive Schools provide secondary education for all children of the district irrespective of their intelligence. Over 90 % of the state secondary school population in England and Wales go to comprehensive schools. The comprehensive system aims to develop the gifts of all children to the full. These schools are usually very large. At 14 children have to take an assessment test. At 16 they take exams for the GCSE (English, French and Math or the GNVQ - General National Vocational Qualifications - design, business and tourism). At 18 pupils can take "A" - level examinations or "AS" (half of the content of A - level). Independent Schools provide education of the grammar school type and are completely independent of local authorities. They receive a grant-in-aid from the Ministry of Education. They include the preparatory schools ("prep") and public schools (for boys and girls over 13). About 7 % of pupils go to independent schools. Parents pay fees. Most of the schools are for boys, they live in separate houses. A house has about 50 boys under the care 158

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of housemaster and his wife. Much attention is paid to sport. Eaton and Harrow are the most famous of the public schools for boys and Cheltenham Ladies' liege for girls. Nearly all the men holding leading position in Great Britain were educated at public schools. The English used to say: "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eaton". In 1993, the government introduced a new type of secondary school called the City Technology College. They are in cities and concentrate on teaching science and technology. There are also a small number of special independent schools - including theatre, ballet, and Art schools. There are over 1200 special schools in England for children who have learning disabilities or behavioral problems.

Cambridge - a university town (1.2.1 ) Cambridge is one of the loveliest towns of England; it is not a modern industrial city and looks much more like a country town. It is very green presenting to a visitor a series of beautiful groupings of architecture, trees, gardens, lawns and bridges. The main building material is stone having a pinkish color which adds life and warmth to the picture at all seasons of the year. The dominating factor in Cambridge is its wellknown University, a centre of education and learning, closely connected with the life and thought of Great Britain. Newton, Byron, Darwin, Rutherford and many other scientists and writers were educated at Cambridge. In Cambridge everything centers on the University and its colleges. The oldest college is Peterhouse, which was founded in 1284. The most recent is Robinson College, which was opened in 1977. The most famous is probably King's, because of its magnificent chapel. Its choir of boys and undergraduates is also very well-known. 159

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The University was exclusively for men until 1871 when the first women's college was opened. Another was opened two years later and a third in 1954. In the 1970s, most colleges opened their doors to both men and women. Almost all colleges now are mixed, but it will be many years before there are equal numbers of both sexes. Until today there are more than twenty colleges in Cambridge. There is a close connection between the University and colleges, though they are quite separate in theory and practice. Each college has its own building, its own internal organization, its own staff and students. In order to enter the university, one must first apply to a college and become a member of the university through the college. The colleges are not connected with any particular study. Students studying literature, for example, and those trained for physics may belong to one and the same college. However the fact is that one is to be a member of a college in order to be a member of the University. The colleges are governed by twenty or thirty "fellows". Fellows of a college are "tutors" (teachers, often called "dons"). Each tutor has 10-12 students studying under his guidance. Tutors teach their own subject to those students in the college who are studying it, and they are responsible for their progress. Every college is governed by a dean. Discipline is looked after by proctors' and numerous minor officials called "bulldogs". The University is like a federation of colleges. It arranges the courses, the lectures and the examinations, and grants the degrees. A college is a group of buildings forming a square with a green lawn in the centre. An old tradition does not allow the students to walk on the grass: this is the privilege of professors and head students only. Most of the colleges, however, allow visitors to enter the grounds and courtyards. The most popular place from which to view them is from the Backs, where the college grounds go down to the river Cam. 160

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Educational system in the USA (1.2.1) Americans have shown a great concern for education since colonial times. Among the first settlers there was an unusual high proportion of educated men. Some of these men, graduates of Cambridge, founded Harvard College in 1636. The American system of education differs from the systems of other countries. There are free public schools which the majority of American children attend. There are also a number or private schools where a fee is charged. Education is compulsory for every child from the age of 6 up to the age of 16 except in some states, where children must go to school until the age of 17 or 18. Elementary or primary and secondary or high schools are organized on one of two basis: 8 years of primary school and 4 years, or 6 years of primary, 3 years of junior high school and 3 years of senior high school. The junior high school is a sort of halfway between primary school and high school. The high school prepares young people either to work immediately after graduation or for more advanced study in a college or university. An important part of high school life is extra-curricular activities; they include band or school orchestra, sports and other social activities. There is no national system of higher education in the United States. Instead, there are separate institutions ranging from colleges to universities. They may be small or large, private or public, highly selective or open to all. Handicapped children attend the same schools that anyone else does. Americans feel that they should be kept together as long as possible. There are also alternative schools. They were started by parents, religious organizations, and other private groups. Alternative schools help students who did not do well in traditional schools. They were also called free schools because they gave students more freedom to decide what and how to study. Among the most popular are the magnet schools. Most magnet schools stress a field of study, 161

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such as performing arts, mathematics or science and draw students from throughout their district. Education in America has also traditionally served the goal of bringing people together, that is, of "Americanization". There are bilingual and bicultural education programs. 80 languages are being used for instruction in American schools. Nationwide talent searches began in the 1960s. There are two tests for high school students who wish to attend a college or university. The SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) attempts to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields. The ACT (American College Testing) in English, mathematics, social and natural sciences. Each year, the SAT is taken by 2 million high school students. The ACT, used in the western part of the USA, is taken by another million school students. The tests are used by universities as standards for comparison, but are not official. Some universities are very selective. In 1984, 15,600 individuals sought admission to Stanford University. Only 2,500 (16%) were admitted. For Harvard, the figure is 17%. The concept of continuing (or lifelong) education is of great importance to Americans. Courses in business and engineering are very popular. Many large corporations offer complete degree programs. 6 million students are enrolled in industry-sponsored degree programs. 99 % of Americans are literate but 1/10 of all Americans are functionally illiterate in English. The attention given this problem reflects the fact that in North America schools and pupils are continually tested. Schools provide American students with much more than academic education. Students learn about the world through various school-related activities. 80 % of students participate in sports, school newspapers, drama clubs, debate teams, choral groups and bands.

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Studying abroad (1.2.1)

Why do I want to study abroad?

(

T

Studying abroad requires careful planning and preparation if you are to get the most out of it. This takes time. Ask yourself the question "Why do I want to study abroad?" and look at what you expect to gain from it.

Why study abroad? Studying abroad can give you the benefits of a postgraduate qualification with the extra skills and experiences gained from living in another country. Increasing numbers of universities are offering an increasingly varied and extensive range of courses, and the web makes it easier to find out about them. However, if you're interested in studying abroad, it's important to prepare carefully by thinking through the options, practicalities and personal aspects and also to allow plenty of time for this process. Studying abroad has many attractions but whether it's for you will depend on a range of factors: Academic Many postgraduate courses abroad are similar in content, duration and qualification level to UK courses. But remember that course quality and academic standards vary greatly between countries and between institutions and departments within a country. Find out about any quality assessments in your countries and subject areas of interest, and talk to staff in your academic department who may be able to help you with this. They will also be able to advise you on the best institutions and departments for your subject, which may be a key reason for studying abroad.

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Financial Course costs can vary widely between countries and between institutions within countries. UK citizens should pay no more than home students in the EU, but elsewhere will generally pay far more than home students. There is a wide range of awards, scholarships, teaching and research assistantships, but securing funding is not easy and is unlikely to cover all your costs. Practical The practicalities of living in another country need to be considered. Do you have or need to obtain language skills, for the language in which the course is taught and for everyday life? Living abroad can be stimulating and exciting, but also stressful. Previous travel and coping with new situations will help you to decide if you can cope, or want to cope, with studying abroad.

What should I bear in mind when choosing a course? In addition to making sure that your proposed course of study meets the criteria that you set out above, you should also take the following into account to make sure that you are making the right decision for you.

Can I cope with the language? If your course/research is to be conducted in another

language, are you able to understand and communicate to a high enough level to get the most out of the course? You may wish to take a class to brush up on your technical vocabulary. If the institution you are going to teaches in English, are there any other languages it would be useful to speak in order to cope with everyday life? 164

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Where can you find information on further study abroad? There are several resources available to students looking to study overseas. The best place to start is the Careers Service, which holds information on living and studying in specific areas as well as more detailed information on study abroad. Once you have identified potential institutions check their websites for specific information. You should also check their embassy/government websites for further information on visas, standard of living, etc. There are also a number of bodies and societies that offer guidance and assistance for students abroad: Study Europe is for students anywhere in the world who want to study at any level in any European country. • Studyoverseas.com. Course search and general information on study in USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Europe. • The International Education Site. • Study Abroad Search. • Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU ) Course search, funding and general information on study in those countries in the Commonwealth. • The Fulbright Commission offer a huge range of resources and services for students wishing to travel and study in the USA. • USA Study Guide. • Study in Australia for students anywhere in the world, at any level, who want to study in Australia. • The Online Careers Library also contains several links to sites giving further information on studying abroad. • Search MBA Central for MBA programmes at business schools all over the world. • Search for M asters in Law (LLM) courses worldwide The following books also give further information on studying abroad as well as guides to funding and useful contact addresses. 165

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• ACU International Awards. The Grants Register: The Complete Guide to Postgraduate Funding Worldwide. • UNESCO Study Abroad.

en) The World of Languages 1.1. Dialogue Gait, an English teacher, is checking the progress of one of her students' everyday speech (1.1.2, 1.1.3) Gait: Well, are you ready to answer? Is everything clear? Student: Yes. Gait: We'd better start now. Question one. You want to use your friend's pen. What would you say? Student: Er, give me your pen. May be not... I'd like your pen. Or can I use your pen, please? Gait: Yes. Question two. What does the word agenda mean? Student: Well, agenda means a kind of plan or schedule. Gait: OK, question three. Imagine there are over twenty new words in your lesson. What would you say to your teacher? Student: Could you explain what they mean? Gait: Any other variants? Student: Well, no. Gait: That will do. Let's move on. Question four. Your teacher asks you to read a difficult passage. What would you say? Student: Could you pass me a dictionary? Gait: Not exactly. Student: Then it should be... I wonder... or would you mind explaining the general sense of the passage? Gait: That's much better. 166

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Martin and J ane study the Russian language at university. They discuss the derived languages from Russian (1.1.2) Martin: Hi, Jane! What are you doing? J ane: I've found a very interesting book about the languages derived from Russian. By the way, do you know what Trasianka is? Martin: What's what? J ane: Trasianka. Martin: Not exactly. Jane: It is a language with Russian and Belarusian features used by the rural population in Belarus. Martin: Oh, it is something like Surzhyk in Ukraine. Jane: Completely right. Martin: I also have got a question for you. Have you read Burgess' A Clockwork Orange? Jane: No, I don't like science fiction. Martin: Well, this book also contains an artificial language based on Russian. It is called Nadsat. Jane: Really? Then I want to read this book. Can I borrow it from you? Martin: Certainly.

1.2. Monologue The importance of studying foreign languages

(1.2.1, 1.2.2) A newspaper columnist once called the modern Earth "a world village". It actually means that year by year the globe is getting smaller with the development of communication means and increase in transportation velocities. People of different countries and nations have to get along well with the progress in world trade and technology as well as with 167

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each other. So, it is very wise to learn foreign languages. "Knowledge is power", as one of the great men said. Speaking a foreign language one can not only read the papers, magazines and original books by outstanding writers, but as well watch satellite TV programs, travel easily in the different parts of the world. Besides, understanding and speaking a foreign language or two became necessary while applying for a good and well-paid job. I often say that learning a foreign language is like learning to play ball. A good ball-player spends hours, days, months, and even years practicing. The more he practices, the better he plays. He has to learn to meet the situations of the game as they arise and react to them immediately. And so it is just the same when we are talking. The ideas we wish to express come instantly to our mind, but there is no time for us to stop and think of how to put together the words we need. Acquiring the ability to use a language automatically, that is without stopping to think, is a process of habit formation. Forming a habit, any kind of habit, requires much practice. Fortunately, I began learning English even before I could understand the advantages of speaking and understanding it. Now I know that it is a must for a XXI century professional no matter what job to choose. One can not do well without one of the common European languages. I learn English because I want to read Kingsley Amis and James Joyce, Ernst Hemingway and Lewis Carroll in their native language. Besides, I like to travel. Speaking English, I shall have no troubles looking for a room or a meal anywhere in the world. I like to talk and make friends with people from different countries. Last autumn I became a member of the Student Pen-Pal Club and now I have much fun writing letters to my Swiss and American pen-friends. I hope, some day we shall meet each other and have a good time. There are also international friendship camps both in Russia and abroad where you can meet boys and girls from any country of the world. They 168

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rarely can speak Russian which is much more difficult to learn than English. In a word, I understand that I have to learn English hard and in a proper way.

The languages of international communication (1.2.1) The General Assembly, recognizing that genuine multilingualism promotes unity and international understanding, proclaimed 2008 the International Year of Languages. Acting without a vote, the Assembly emphasized the paramount importance of the equality of the Organization's six official languages. The Assembly requested the Secretary-General to ensure that all language services were given equal treatment and were provided with equally favourable working conditions and resources. These languages are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. Each of them has its rich and varied history of creation, which, of course, continues in our times. Chinese or the Sinitic language can be called either a language or language family. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the two branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages. About onesixth of the world's population (over 1 billion people) speaks some form of Chinese as their native language. It is spoken in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and other regions with Chinese communities. The identification of the varieties of Chinese as "languages" or "dialects" is controversial. Depending on classification scheme, there are between six and twelve main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most populous is Mandarin (c. 850 million), followed by Wu (c. 90 million), Min (c. 70 million) and Cantonese (c. 70 million). Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, though some, like Xiang and the 169

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Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms and some degree of intelligibility. Spanish or Castilian is a Romance language originally from the northern area of Spain. From there, its use gradually spread inside the Kingdom of Castile, where it became the principal language of the government and trade. It was later taken to Mrica, the Americas and Asia Pacific in the last five centuries by Spanish explorers and colonists. Today, it is one of the official languages of Spain, most Latin American countries, and Equatorial Guinea. In total, 21 nations use Spanish as their primary language. The language is spoken by between 322 and 400 million people natively, making Spanish the most spoken Romance language and possibly the second most spoken language by number of native speakers. Global internet usage statistics for 2007 show Spanish as the third most commonly used language on the Internet, after English and Chinese. French is a Romance language originally spoken in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland, and today by about 300 million people around the world as either a native or a second language, with significant populations in 54 countries. French is a descendant of the Latin of the Roman Empire, as are languages such as Spanish, Italian, Catalan, Romanian, and Portuguese. Its development was also influenced by the native Celtic languages of Roman Gaul and by the Germanic language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. It is an official language in 29 countries, most of which form what is called in French La Francophonie, the community of French-speaking nations. It is not only an official language of all United Nations agencies but also in a large number of international organizations. Arabic is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. It is spoken in Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestinian territories, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Western 170

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Sahara, Yemen by a majority; it is also the liturgical language of Islam. Arabic has lent many words to other languages of the Islamic world. During the Middle Ages Arabic was also a major vehicle of culture, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy, with the result that many European languages have also borrowed numerous words from it. Arabic language interests millions of non-Arabic speakers to learn it to different levels, mainly because it is the language of their holy book, the Quran, and all Islamic terms are Arabic.

The English language: the past, the present, the future (1.2.1 ) Two thousand years ago the British Isles were inhabited by speakers of Celtic language. The Celts were conquered by Romans and from 43 BC to about AD 410 the areas which are now England and Wales were part of The Roman Empire, and Latin was the language of government. Between the 4th and the 7th centuries AD the Anglo-Saxons arrived from what is now northern Germany, Holland and Denmark. The Anglo-Saxon spoke a Germanic Language which forms the basis of modern English. This language was modified by the arrival of Viking invaders in the north and the east of the country. These Scandinavian settlers spoke Old Norse, which was related to Anglo-Saxon, and which is parent language of modern Danish. The mixing of 2 languages greatly enriched the vocabulary of English. In 1066 England was conquered by the French-speaking Normans, and French became the language of government. For the next 3 hundred years three languages co-existed. The aristocracy spoke French; the ordinary people spoke English, while Latin was used in the church. Today English vocabulary is approximately half Germanic (from the Saxons and Vikings) and half Romance (from French and Latin). 171

Unit 1. Speaking In the year of 1600, in Shakespeare's time, English was spoken only by 6 million people and was a "provincial" language, while French was the leading foreign language of that century. Three centuries later 260 million people spoke English and now, at the end of the third millennium, probably one billion people speak English. It has become one of the world's most important languages in politics, science, trade and cultural relations. In number of speakers English nowadays is second only to Chinese. It is the official language of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, of the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. It is used as one of the official languages in Canada and South Africa and in the Irish Republic. It is also spoken as a second language by many people in India, Pakistan, numerous countries in Africa, where there are many different languages and people use English as an "official" or "second" language for government, business and education. Throughout the world many people use English as an international language: some use it for social purposes, others for business or study. But where will English be at the end of the third millennium? One view is that English is going to become even more important as a global lingua franca, dominating the world's trade and media while most other languages will become localized or just die out. At present over half of the world's 6,500 languages are in danger of extinction. Another view is that English is already breaking up, as Latin did, into several separate languages. There are already dictionaries of the "New Englishes", such as Australian English, full of words that a British English speaker would not recognize. Hopefully, neither of these things will happen. Although different varieties of English will continue to develop around the world, Standard English will survive for international communication. In addition, the frightening prospect of a culturally uniform world totally dominated by one language is 172

Dialogues and Monologues impossible. Already other languages are fighting back against the iron grip of English on the Net. Governments around the world are also starting to protect smaller languages and recognize the importance of cultural and linguistic diversity. English will probably stay in control for a long time, at least while the USA remains the top superpower, but it definitely won't become the only language in the world.

Modern English and its variants (1.2.1) There is one standard literary English Received Standard English - that is characterized by the Received Pronunciation (RP), but there are also several regional and social dialects. This term denotes the speech of educated people living in London and the southeast of England and of other people elsewhere who speak in this way. RP is not intrinsically superior to other varieties of English; it is itself only one particular regional dialect that has achieved more extensive use than others. It is generally heard on the BBC. Although acquiring its unique status without the aid of any established authority, it may have been fostered by the public schools (Winchester, Eton, Harrow, Rugby, and so on) and the ancient universities (Oxford and Cambridge). The polished tones of what has become known as "BBC English" still predominate on the radio, although in recent years broadcasters with regional or American accents have become increasingly popular. Other varieties of English are well preserved in spite of the levelling influences of film, television, and radio. Even in England there are many differences in regional speech. The chief division is between southern England and northern England. South of a line going from Bristol to London, people speak the type of English usually learnt by foreign students, there are local variations. 173

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Further north (roughly beyond a line going from Manchester to Hull) regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern Britain. In the Northern dialect RP (a:) (the first vowel sound in father) is still pronounced (re) (a sound like the a in fat) in words such as laugh, fast, and path; this pronunciation has been carried across the Atlantic into American English. In Wales, people often speak a clear and measured form of English with a musical intonation inherited from ancestral Celtic. They tend to aspirate both plosives (stops) and fricative consonants very forcibly; thus, true is pronounced with an audible puff of breath after the initial t. Lowland Scottish was once a part of Northern English, but two dialects began to diverge in the 14th century. Today Lowland Scots trill their r's, shorten vowels, and simplify diphthongs. Lowland Scottish is not to be confused with Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic language still spoken by about 90,700 people (almost all bilingual) mostly in the Highlands and the Western Isles. Northern Ireland has dialects related in part to Lowland Scottish and in part to the southern Irish dialect of English. Irish pronunciation is conservative and is clearer and more easily intelligible than many other dialects. The English language in America (AE) has been influenced by American Indian languages and by all the ethnic groups that have emigrated to the United States over the years. The term "americanism" was first used by John Witherspoon, president of Princeton University, in 1781. It designates any word or combination of words which, taken into the English language in the United States, has not gained acceptance in England, or, if accepted, has retained its sense of foreignness; and any word or combination of words which, becoming archaic in England, has continued in good usage in the United States. American English borrowed words from the non-English settlers, and developed many new words of its own. The

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Dialogues and Monologues native coinages were large in number, and full of boldness and novelty. To this period belong, for example, backwoods, hoecake, half-breed, hired-girl, spelling bee, moss.buck, stamping-ground. These words were all made of the common materials of English, but there was something in them that was redolent of a pioneer people and a new world. A number of important words, in daily use, began to show different meanings in England and America. Some familiar examples are store, rock, lumber and corn. What Englishmen call a shop was called a store by Americans as early as 1770, and long before that time corn, in American, had come to signify, not grains in general, but only maize.

Russian Language (1.2.1) Russian is a Slavic language in the Indo-European family. From the point of view of the spoken language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian and Belarusian, the other two national languages in the East Slavic. In many places in eastern Ukraine and Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixture, Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in formation of the modern Russian language. The vocabulary, principles of word formation and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly adopted form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic language used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used only in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with slightly different meanings. 175

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Russian phonology and syntax have also been influenced to some extent by the numerous Finnic languages of the FinnoUgric subfamily. These languages, some of them now extinct, used to be spoken right in the center and in the north of what is now the European part of Russia. They came in contact with Eastern Slavic in the early Middle Ages and eventually served as substratum for the modern Russian language. The Russian dialects spoken north, north-east and north-west of Moscow have a considerable number of words of Finno-Ugric origin. The vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been greatly influenced by Greek, Latin, Italian, French, German, Ukrainian, and English. Modern Russian also has a considerable number of words adopted from Tatar and some other Turkic languages. In general the history of Russian language may be divided into the following periods. • Kievan period and feudal breakup. • The Tatar yoke and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. • The Moscovite period (15th-17th centuries). • Empire (18th-19th centuries). • Soviet period and beyond (20th century). The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Aleksandr Pushkin in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin revolutionized Russian literature by rejecting archaic grammar and vocabulary in favor of grammar and vocabulary found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since only few words used by Pushkin became archaic or changed meaning. On the other hand, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19th century, in particular Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Griboedov, became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in the modern Russian colloquial speech. Nowadays Russian is the official language of Russia. It is also an official language of Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan 176

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and the de facto official language of unrecognized Transnistria, South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English fluency. It is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a "hard target" language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers as well as due to its critical role in American world policy.

(P) Peculiarities of Verbal and Non-verbal· Communication in the Process of Interpersonal and Intercultural Communication 1.1. Dialogue Two students are discussing their tutor's task (1.1.2) Ted: Johnny, we've got a problem. Johnny: What's wrong? Ted: I've just visited our tutor's office. He wants us to write a report about body language. Johnny: And where is the problem I wonder? Ted: I have completely no idea what body language is. Johnny: Well, it includes a lot of elements: face expression, position and gestures, of course. With the help of body language we can convey different messages. Ted: For instance? J ohnny: Well, when somebody touches his face, especially nose or chin when speaking, it may suggest that he is

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lying. Or folding arms across the chest can indicate cold or indignation. Ted: I've never thought about this in such a manner. I see you worked a lot in this field. Can you recommend me some references where I can get appropriate information? Johnny: I'll try to do my best. What's deadline for handing in this report? Ted: In two weeks. Johnny: We've got lots of time for getting ready. I've got an idea. Let's try to make a list of the most commonly used gestures and messages they convey as an appendix for our report. Any ideas? Ted: Well, waving for saying hello or goodbye... Johnny: Or to get somebody's attention. High five, it's my favourite, shaking and nodding head... Ted: Don't forget about OK sign with thumb and forefinger and crossing fingers for luck or to indicate an untruth. Strange, one and the same gesture has different meanings. J ohnny: True. I've heard that in some countries nodding head means "no" and shaking stands for "yes". Ted: Hm, one can into serious mess because of this. So, when going abroad, you should learn not only the language, but also some gestures. That's interesting.

1.2. Monologue Communication and its main types When Demosthenes was asked what was the first part of oratory he answered, "action"; and which was the second, he replied, "action"; and which was third he still answered, "action". People tend to believe actions more than words! 178

Dialogues and Monologues Have you ever heard anyone say, "His actions spoke so loudly I couldn't hear what he said?" Today, many researchers are concerned with the information sent by communication that is independent of and different from verbal information; namely, the non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is organized by language; non-verbal communication is not. . Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend about 75 % of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our clothes or the silence we keep. G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories: physical, aesthetic, signs and symbolic. Physical communication is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions. Aesthetic communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing. Signs are considered to be the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens. Symbolic communication uses religious, status, or ego-building symbols. When talking about physical communication we can comment upon some static and dynamic features of it, mainly about distance and orientation, posture and personal space, or one's face expression and gestures. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange. People may present themselves in various 179

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ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom. The superior in the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the subordinate. The direct stare of the sender of the message conveys candour and openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward glances are generally associated with modesty. To put it into a few words, appropriate usage of non-verbal means can be as important as verbal message. Nowadays a person should pay equal attention to all types of communication to get new information and to be perceived properly.

Body language (1.2.1) Body language is a term for communication using body movements or gestures instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language or other communication. It forms part of the category of paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that are not verbal language. This includes the most subtle of movements that many people are not aware of, including winking and slight movement of the eyebrows. In addition body language can also incorporate the use of facial expressions. 180

Dialogues and Monologues Although they are generally not aware of it, many people send and receive non-verbal signals all the time. These signals may indicate what they are truly feeling. The technique of "reading" people is used frequently. For example, the idea of mirroring body language to put people at ease is commonly used in interviews. It sets the person being interviewed at ease. Mirroring the body language of someone else indicates that they are understood. One of the most basic and powerful body-language signals is when a person crosses his or her arms across the chest. This can indicate that a person is putting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others. It can also indicate that the person's arms are cold which would be clarified by rubbing the arms or huddling. When the overall situation is amicable, it can mean that a person is thinking deeply about what is being discussed. But in a serious or confrontational situation, it can mean that a person is expressing opposition. Consistent eye contact can indicate that a person is thinking positively of what the speaker is saying. Individuals with anxiety disorders are often unable to make eye contact without discomfort. It can also mean that the other person doesn't trust the speaker enough to "take his eyes off" the speaker. Lack of eye contact can indicate negativity. Eye contact is often a secondary and misleading gesture because we are taught from an early age to make eye contact when speaking. Disbelief is often indicated by averted gaze, or by touching the ear or scratching the chin. So is eyestrain, or itchiness. When a person is not being convinced by what someone is saying, the attention invariably wanders, and the eyes will stare away for an extended period. Boredom is indicated by the head tilting to one side, or by the eyes looking straight at the speaker but becoming slightly unfocused. A head tilt may also indicate a sore neck, and unfocused eyes may indicate ocular problems in the listener. 181

Unit 1. Speaking Body language is a factor in human courtship as a subconscious or subtle method of communication between potential mates. Body language is noW widely used in the field of selling, where sales personnel are trained to observe and read the body language of their potential customers. Consequently, many companies such as insurance companies, direct-selling companies, and international car-showrooms nOW engage body language experts.

(C) Philology as a Sphere of Professional Activity 1.1. Dialogue Speaking about how the library operates (1.1.2) J ane: Have you brought the book for me, Peter?

Peter: I'm awfully sorry, but I still can't find anything I am looking for. The Librarian has explained everything to me, but I am still a bit lost. And I do not want to bother her too much. Jane: Is it a nice girl? Peter: She is extremely nice, but... Jane: Ah, there you are. I thought you were at home in the library. What is it like? How does it operate? Peter: First of all to be at home in a library you ought to learn how to use the card catalogues; so you will be able to find what you want without asking the librarian each time. This is your first step. But the point is that for most non-fiction books there are at least three cards in the card catalogue: 1) Author card 182

Dialogues and Monologues 2) Title card 3) Subject card For a book of fiction, poetry, or drama there are at least two cards in the card catalogue. All cards in the card catalogue are arranged alphabetically and filed in drawers. Besides, it is very important to get familiar with the system of your library. Jane: System? What do you mean by that? Peter: Let me explain it to you. Books in a library are arranged according to their subjects. Novels are in one place, science books in another. There are various systems of arranging books. The most famous one was devised by Melvil Dewey and is called the Dewey Decimal System.

1.2. Monologue Philology as a science (1.2.1) Philology, derived from the Greek terms philos, meaning love or affinity, and logos, a word with no single equivalent in English, but which means such things as "argument", "articulation", "logic", "reason", and "word". In modern usage, the term "philology" is most accurately defined as "an affinity toward the learning of the backgrounds as well as the current usages of spoken or written methods of human communication". The commonality of studied languages is more important than their origin or age (that is, their etymology), though those factors are important as well. In a sense, to understand a language, philology seeks to understand the origins of that language, and so it is often defined as "the study of ancient texts and languages", although this is a rather narrow view and is not entirely accurate. 183

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In the academic traditions of several nations, a wide sense of the term "philology" describes the study of a language together with its literature and the historical and cultural contexts that are indispensable for an understanding of the literary works and other culturally significant texts. Philology thus comprises the study of the grammar, rhetoric, history, interpretation of authors, and critical traditions associated with a given language. In its more restricted sense of "historical linguistics", philology was one of the 19th century's first scientific approaches to human language but gave way to the modern science of linguistics in the early 20th century due to the influence of Ferdinand de Saussure, who argued that spoken language should have primacy. Philology cornmends the ability to recognize the words of one language from the roots of another, by recognition of common (shared) roots and grammar.

Interpreters and translators (1.2.1) Interpreters and translators enable the cross-cultural communication necessary in today's society by converting one language into another. However, these language specialists do more than simply translate words - they relay concepts and ideas between languages. They must thoroughly understand the subject matter in which they work so that they are able to convert information from one language, known as the source language, into another, the target language. Although some people do both, interpretation and translation are different professions. Each requires a distinct set of skills and aptitudes, and most people are better suited for one or the other. While interpreters often work into and from both languages, translators generally work only into their active language. 184

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Interpreters convert spoken statements from one language to another in a range of settings. Interpreting involves listening to, understanding and memorising content, then reproducing statements, questions and speeches in a different language. Interpreters facilitate effective communication between clients at: international events and conferences; technical, business, legal or political meetings; court hearings; police interviews. There are two main forms of interpreting: working at a conference or large meeting, the interpreter sits in a soundproof booth (a separate one for each conference language) and translates instantaneously what is being said; more common in smaller meetings and discussions, the interpreter waits until the speaker has finished before giving an accurate account of what has been said. There are two types of interpretation: simultaneous and consecutive. Simultaneous interpretation requires interpreters to listen and speak (or sign) at the same time. In simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter begins to convey a sentence being spoken while the speaker is still talking. In contrast to simultaneous interpretation's immediacy, consecutive interpretation begins only after the speaker has verbalized a group of words or sentences. Consecutive interpreters often take notes while listening to the speakers, so they must develop some type of note-taking or shorthand system. This form of interpretation is used most often for personto-person communication, during which the interpreter sits near both parties. Translators convert written materials from one language into another. They must have excellent writing and analytical ability. And because the documents that they translate must be as flawless as possible, they also need good editing skills. The educational backgrounds of interpreters and translators vary. Knowing a language in addition to a native language is essential. Although it is not necessary to have been raised 185

Unit 1. Speaking bilingual to succeed, many interpreters and translators grew up speaking two languages. In high school, students can prepare for these careers by taking a broad range of courses that include English writing and comprehension, foreign languages, and basic computer proficiency. Other helpful pursuits include spending time abroad, engaging in comparable forms of direct contact with foreign cultures, and reading extensively on a variety of subjects in English and at least one other language. Beyond high school, there are many educational options. Although a bachelor's degree is often required, interpreters and translators note that it is acceptable to major in something other than a language. However, specialized training in how to do the work is generally required. A number of formal programs in interpreting and translation are available at colleges nationwide and through non-university training programs, conferences, and courses.

Librarian as a profession (1.2.1) Librarians help people find facts. They organize information and help people find books, magazines, videos, Web sites, and other information. Librarians decide which books, magazines, movies, and computer equipment to buy. They arrange books and other items so that people can find them. Many librarians work in teams to get the job done. Some librarians work in one subject such as art. Others work with children, reading to them and teaching them about books and research. Librarians work in schools and public libraries. They also work in hospitals, businesses, and other places where people need to find information quickly. Today, most libraries have computers. Some librarians develop databases and Web sites. They also help people use the computer to find what they need. 186

Dialogues and Monologues Many librarians are also managers. They make budgets and keep records. They also supervise other people who work at the library. Librarians spend a lot of time at desks or at the computer. They spend time helping people. Many librarians like this part of the job best. Librarians can work part time or full time. Some librarians work weekends or evenings. School librarians work when schools are open. They are off during school vacations. You usually need a master's degree in library science or information science to be a librarian. Before you can get a master's degree, you need a 4-year college degree in any subject or major. In most States, school librarians must have a teaching certificate. Librarians should like to read and do research. They also need computer skills.

Libraries as an unquestionable need (1.2.1) Library is a place where information in print (books, manuscripts, periodicals and musical scores) and in other forms is collected and arranged to serve people of all ages and interests. Libraries appeared in ancient times in Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Rome. Perhaps the most famous library of that early days was in Alexandria. It was founded by Ptolomy I. Ptolomy ordered the librarians to collect all Greek texts as well as manuscripts in other languages from every part of the world. The library today is a centre of all kinds of information: printed, pictured, recorded, and even electronically stored. Libraries can be found in many places. There are libraries in small towns and large cities, and there are libraries in schools, universities, and colleges. 187

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The largest and best-known libraries in the world are the British National Library in London, the Library of Congress in Washington and the Russian State Library. The national libraries of different countries keep in touch and exchange books and information. The Library of Congress (LC) was founded in 1800 for the use of both houses of Congress, the President and the Vice-President. In 1814 during the war with Great Britain the enemy soldiers marched into Washington, set fire to the Capitol and destroyed the Library of Congress. After some time it was rebuilt. American Library Association was established in 1876. Outstanding librarians tried to work out a basic set of rules by which all books would be identified and classified in a similar way so that anyone could quickly find what he was looking for. The catalogers built up a new classification scheme. Over 80 major libraries converted their collections to the LC classification scheme and it began producing and selling over 7,000,000 cards a year. Everything was done to make this library pre-eminent in America. A complete library of Russian history and culture, 80,000 volumes was bought in Siberia, as well as many thousands of books in Japanese, Chinese and other oriental languages. Chairs of American history, fine arts, aeronautics and poetry were established for general promotion of research in these fields.

The Role of dictionaries and encyclopedias (1.2.1) There are many types of dictionaries: monolingual, bilingual, specialized in any branch of industry, scientific and technical, with illustrations, dictionaries of abbreviations and others. Dictionaries usually give us information on spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Sometimes dictionaries give us etymologies that show the origin and development 188

Dialogues and Monologues of words, explanations of synonyms, and guidance on proper usage. Usually dictionaries have separate sections in the back of the book for common abbreviations, signs and symbols, biographical, biblical and mythological names, geographical names. Dictionaries contain the wealth of information. Dictionaries have changed a lot in the last few years. Thanks to modern technology we have dictionaries on CD. To look up the word in computer we simply type the word and the computer finds the word immediately. It also gives a lot of extra information. It shows how to pronounce the word, tells what kind of word it is a noun, verb, adjective or pronoun, define words and give examples of them. Of the various types of reference works - who's dictionaries, atlases, gazetteers, directories, and so forth the encyclopaedia is the only one that can be termed self-contained. Each of the others conveys some information concerning every item it deals with; only the encyclopaedia attempts to provide coverage over the whole range of knowledge, and only the encyclopaedia attempts to offer a comprehensive summary of what is known of each topic considered. To this end it employs many features that can help in its task, including pictures, maps, diagrams, charts, and statistical tables. It also frequently incorporates other types of reference works. Several modern encyclopaedias have included a world atlas and a gazetteer, and language dictionaries have been an intermittent feature of encyclopaedias for most of their history. Most modern encyclopaedias have biographical material concerning living persons, though the first edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica (1768-71) had no biographical material at all. In their treatment of this kind of information they differ, however, from the form of reference work that limits itself to the provision of salient facts without comment. Similarly, with dictionary material, some encyclopaedias such as the great Spanish Espasa - provide foreign-language equivalents as well. 189

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The teacher of English (1.2.1) Learning of a foreign language is not an easy task. It is a long and slow process that takes a lot of time and efforts. That is why it is very important to have a good teacher. Teachers do not only teach their subjects. They develop their pupils' intellect, their attitudes to life and to other people. Knowledge of foreign languages opens many doors before you, gives you many opportunities and advantages. I think very much depends on the teacher of this or that subject. First, she or he must be a very good professional, to be competent in everything what she/he teaches us, very tactful, never mock the pupils if they say or do something wrong. Learning languages and teaching them requires infinite patience, tolerance and tactfulness. It is very pleasant to have always good-looking teacher, and never see her or his face angry or unfriendly. Love for children is very important in a teacher's work.

(T) Mass Media and New Informational Technologies 1.1. Dialogue Two acquaintances are speaking about buying the best Internet service provider (1.1.2) A: So, which Internet service provider do you think we should buy? B: As far as I know Business Net is the best. It costs $39 per month and they provide broadband connection and free upgrades after a year. A: Do they give any discounts? 190

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B: Yes, they do, but only if we use the service in all the

branches. A: . Ok, I have no objections. Should I call their main office? B: No, we can register on-line and an engineer will come and

install the modem and the software next day. A: That's very convenient, isn't it? B: Certainly.

Fay and Jerry are talking about the Internet (1.1.2). Fay: Hey Jerry, how often do you use the Internet? Jerry: Oh, I use it everyday! I check my e-mail, read the news, and chat with family and friends all around the world. I love the Internet! Fay: Yeah, it's great, isn't it? Sometimes I stay online for hours. Discussing the movie (1.1.4) A: I really enjoyed that movie! B: I did, too. At first I thought it was going to be a silly comedy, but then it really got good. A: What part did you like the best? B: Oh, I don't know. I guess the scene that grabbed me the most was the one in which the old man was dying. A: I liked that one, too. In fact, I cried. B: To tell you the truth, I had a few tears in my eyes. A: Now what? B: How about a coke and a hamburger? A: Super! Discussing TV news (1.1.4) A: Did you hear about that guy who climbed a skyscraper? B: I don't believe I did. Was it on the TV news last night? A: Uh-huh. This guy - calls himself "the Human Fly" climbed up this skyscraper with nothing but some big suction cups! B: I suppose he got arrested. 191

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A: He sure did! AB soon as he got to the top of the building,

the cops were there to grab him! B: And he'll have to pay a fine, of course. A: In this guy's case it looks as if he might have to go to

jail, too!

Discussing TV news (1.1.4) A: Did you see the movie on channel 5 last night? B: No. I missed it. I went shopping for clothes. A: It was an excellent film. It had been made especially for

television, you know. B: I read the preview in yesterday's paper and hoped to watch

A: B: A:

B:

it last night, but, then, Betty called me to go shopping with her. So I went. You remember that the critic thought that it was one of the best films of the last ten years. Yes. I do remember. He felt it would be a candidate for some film awards at the end of the year. Well, if I were one of the judges, I'd pick it as the best film of the year. I haven't seen such a marvelous plot and such superb acting in a long time! Sounds as if I'll have to see it, if they ever re-run it.

Speaking about the media in America (1.1.2, 1.1.4) Peter: So tell me, Olga, I'm curious about the media in America. Do people read mostly regional or national newspapers over there? Olga: I think that really most people read regional magazines or newspapers, urn... although the national news and the international news is reported in the regional newspapers through the wire service. Peter: Right, right. Right, I see. And as far as reading habits goes as well, do most people read a newspaper every day or... ? Olga: You know, I think a large percentage of people do, but it may just be a local newspaper that they're reading, maybe from their town or a larger town nearby. 192

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Peter: Right, right. Well, as far as, er... the broader media is concerned, I mean, how about television, I mean, for example, I know that there are a lot of television channels, but how many television channels are there? Olga: Well, that really depends on where you live. In cities there are dozens and dozens of channels that you can tune into. Peter: Right. Olga: Yeah, but in the rural areas, sometimes you'll only get the three major national channels and perhaps the public broadcasting. Peter: Oh, really, aha. And what about the programmes themselves. What are the most popular types of programmes? Olga: Well. I think probably soap operas are always the most popular, but... Peter: Just like here. Olga: Yeah, but a few years ago, er... game shows were very popular and in the last couple of years chat shows or talk shows have become very popular and you can watch a talk show, talks shows that will go on from the morning all the way straight through to late at night. Peter: You're kidding, really. Olga: No, no kidding. Peter: We have got a little way to go to catch up with you there. But what about, urn... radio, for example. I mean... is ... would you say radio is more or less popular than television? Olga: Oh, I think television is the most popular. But it's different, I think than in Great Britain, radio stations in America are mostly just music stations, there's a wide variety of different kinds of music and there is a national broadcasting, national public radio it's called, that has news and plays. But most radio stations are just music. Peter: Right, right. I mean there are government restrictions; what about national broadcasting but I don't know if that's government. But what do you think that the government in any way controls the media? 193

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Olga: Gee, 1... I really hope that they don't. We're told that they don't, but you never know, it depends on the information that's being given by the government to the newsmen.

1.2. Monologue The importance of mass media in modern society

(1.2.1) There are many different ways to get knowledge about our big world. It is traveling and going sightseeing, meeting interesting people, reading books, etc. But one of the best ways of getting new information is mass media. We live today in what has been characterized as a mass-mediated culture, a culture in which the mass media play a key role in both shaping and creating cultural perceptions. The mass media do not simply mirror society. They help to create the very world they purport to cover. The mass media have done and continue doing much to excite an interest in every aspect of the country's life. The mass media are the various ways by which information and news is given to large numbers of people, especially television, radio, Internet, newspapers and magazines. The mass media now play an important role in shaping our opinions. As a result of these developments mass media eventually emerged and led to the creation of a mass audience, a large collection of people who receive messages that are directed at I hem not as individuals but ruther as a group. I think it is impossible to imagine our life without newspapers. Millions of copies of them appear every day. Many people subscribe to two or more newspapers; others buy newspapers at the newsstands. 194

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There are national daily newspapers, such as the "Izvestiya", and the "Komsomolskaya Pravda". There are also national weekly newspapers, such as the "Argumenty i Fakty" and the "Nedelya". Most national newspapers express a political opinion, and people choose them according to their political beliefs. Most newspapers contain news, detailed articles on home and international affairs, reviews of books, art and TV shows. Many of them also cover sports events, give personal advertisements and pieces of advice, and publish horoscopes, weather forecasts, jokes, anecdotes and crossword puzzles.

British and American newspapers (1.2.1)

A. Great Britain is really a newspaper reading nation. More national and regional daily newspapers are sold in Britain than in most other developed countries. In Britain there are 11 national daily newspapers and most people read one of them every day. Daily newspapers are published on every day of the week except Sunday. Sunday newspapers are larger than daily newspapers. All the Sunday newspapers are national. Most national newspapers in Britain express a political opinion, most of them right-wing, and people choose the newspaper that they read according to their own political beliefs. In some countries newspapers are owned by government or by political parties. This is not the case in Britain. Newspapers here are mostly owned by individuals or by publishing companies, and the editors of the papers are usually allowed considerable freedom of expression. Fleet Street in London used to be the home of most national daily and Sunday newspapers and that is why people often say "Fleet Street" to mean "the press" even now. 195

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British newspapers can be divided into two groups: quality and popular. Quality newspapers are more serious and cover home and foreign news while popular newspapers like shocking, personal stories. These two groups of papers can be distinguished easily because the quality newspapers are twice the size of the popular newspapers. The quality daily papers are "The Times", "The Guardian", "The Daily Telegraph" and the "Financial Times". "The Times", founded in 1785, is considered to be the most authoritative newspaper voice in the country and is said to be the paper of the Establishment. The "Guardian" appeals to welleducated readers interested in intellectual and social affairs. The "Daily Telegraph" is bought by educated upper middle and middle-class readers. The "Financial Times", printed on pink papers, is read by businessmen. The "popular" press consists of the "Daily Mail", the "Daily Express", the "Daily Star" and the "Sun". In all newspapers there is a desperate fight to maintain or improve their circulations but it is worst among the "popular" papers whose main weapons are sex, scandal and sport. Apart from London-based papers, there are many local newspapers. Most of these are evening papers (there is only one London evening paper) and many appear weekly, containing mostly analytical information. B. Americans are surrounded by information from the time they wake up in the morning until they sleep at night. In America "liberty depends on freedom of the press, and that cannot be limited without being lost" (Thomas Jefferson). When it comes to American newspapers, people outside the USA think of that serious paper, the "International Herald Tribune", said to be on the daily reading list of many world leaders. The "Herald Tribune", however, is not a really an American paper. It is published in Paris as an international 196

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digest of news taken from the "New York Times" and "The Washington Post". Many people in America have never heard of it. A total of 9,144 newspapers appear in 6,516 towns in the USA rain or shine. Including the 85 foreign-language newspapers published in 34 languages, the daily newspapers in the USA sell over 63 million copies a day. The 762 Sunday papers are larger than the regular editions. The record for a Sunday paper is held by "The New York Times". One issue in 1965 contained 946 pages, weighed 18 kg, and cost 50 cents. Reading the Sunday paper is an American tradition, for some people an alternative to going to church. The Sunday newspapers have an average circulation of 57 million copies. There is no "national" press in the USA. Most daily newspapers are distributed locally or regionally. There has been one attempt to publish a truly national newspaper, "USA Today". But it still has a circulation over million. The newspapers that circulate the most of the country are "The Wall Street Journal" (2 mln), "USA Today" (71,1), "The New York Times" (1,03), "Los Angeles Times" (1,08) and "The Christian Science Monitor". The "Wall Street Journal", which specializes in business news, has the largest circulation among U.S. papers. "The New York Times" is ranked by most as "the world's top daily". Newspapers get much news from the two news agencies AP and UPI. There are over 11,000 magazines in the U.S. The best known are "Time", "Newsweek", and "U.S. News and World Report". "National Geographic has a circulation of 10 million". Another popular phenomenon is the appearance of supermarket tabloids, sold mainly at grocery stores. Although they look like newspapers, they carry little important news and pay much attention to gossip about celebrities, stories about children and pets, and diet and health tips. The leading tabloid, "The National Enquirer", has circulation of more that 4 million. 197

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British and American radio and television (1.2.1)

A. British Broadcasting has traditionally been based on the principle that it is a public service accountable to the people through Parliament. It also embraces the principle of competition and choice. Three public bodies are responsible for television and radio services in Britain: a) the BBC - the British Broadcasting Corporation which broadcasts television and radio services; b) the ITC - the Independent Television Commission which licenses and regulates the non-BB TV services, including cable and satellite services; c) the Radio Authority which lisenses and regulates all non-BBC radio services. Television viewing is Britain's most popular leisure pastime: practically all households have TV set and most have video recorders. The Government is not responsible for programme content. The independence of broadcasters requires them to maintain certain standards: programme must display a proper balance and wide range of subject matter. The BBC has two national TV channels and five radio services. It also broadcasts in 37 different languages of the world and its audience is about 120 mln people. B. Millions of Americans in their spare time watch TV and read newspapers. The daily paper dominates family life at breakfast; TV dominates the life of the family most of the time. The TV set is not just a piece of furniture. It is someone who is "one of the family". It is also a habit-forming drug impossible to resist. The radio is turned on most of the time, creating a permanent background noise. It does not interfere with your activities. You can listen to the radio while doing some work about the house, reading a book or driving a car. 198

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There are 11,400 radio stations, 1,500 TV stations and 1,200 cable TV systems in the USA. Most commercial radio stations follow a distinctive "format": top-40 hits, hard rock, light music, classical music, jazz, religious music, all news and farm news. There are no state or federal government radios or TV stations. There is also no governmental censorship of programs. The most popular news are CBS's Sixty minutes and PBS's Newshour. There is a lot of advertising on American TV and radio. Some of the TV and radio stations are owned by big corporations or individuals. The owners can advertise whatever they choose. To advertise their goods, commercial firms buy TV and radio time. So most of the radio and TV time is taken up by advertisements.

The Internet (1.2.1) From the late 1960s to the early 1990s, the Internet was a communication and research tool used almost exclusively for academic and military purposes. This changed radically with the introduction of the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989. The first people to coin the term "internet" were two scientists, Vinton Cerf (known as "father of the Internet") and his collaborator Bob Kahn, who in 1974 devised a means by which data could be transmitted across a global-network of computers. An Oxford graduate, Tim Berners-Lee, set up the first "www server" (a Server receives and sends messages) to store the archive of the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Switzerland. The first e-mail ever sent was in 1972 between computers in two American universities. Today individuals, companies, and institutions use the Internet in many ways. Businesses use the Internet to provide access to complex databases, such as financial databases. Com199

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panies carry out electronic commerce, including advertising, selling, buying, distributing products, and providing aftersales services. Businesses and institutions use the Internet for voice and video conferencing and other forms of communication that enable people to telecommute, or work from a distance. The use of electronic mail over the Internet has greatly speeded communication between companies, and between other individuals. Media and entertainment companies use the Internet to broadcast audio and video, including live radio and television programs. They also offer online chat groups, in which people carry on discussions using written text, and online news and weather programs. Scientists and scholars use the Internet to communicate with colleagues, to perform research, to distribute lecture notes and course materials to students, and to publish papers and articles. Individuals use the Internet for communication, entertainment, finding information. and to buy and sell goods and services. The most frequently used search word on the net is "sex", typed in 1,550,000 times every month. The most mentioned male on the Internet is President Bill Clinton, whose name is linked to 1,542,790 sites. The most mentioned female on the Internet is the actress Pamela Anderson, whose name is linked to 1,542,282 sites.

(Y) Holidays 1.1. Dialogue Little Mary is discussing Thanksgiving traditions with her mother (1.1.2) Mary: Mum, next Thursday is a holiday. We have no school on either Thursday or Friday. 200

Dialogues and Monologues Mother: That's right. Next Thursday is Thanksgiving. Let's talk now about holidays. Mary, why do we celebrate Thanksgiving Day? Mary: Yes, your teacher told us yesterday. Thanksgiving is a day set aside in honor of the memory of the Pilgrim Fathers. The Pilgrim Fathers were some of the first settlers who came to America. Mter a period of great suffering, they set aside a day of thanks to the Lord for the help He had given them. Mother: That's right. Perhaps you also remember from your history lessons that the year was 1681. The day has been celebrated since that time. Although the custom lapsed at various times prior to the Civil war, it was officially revived by President Lincoln in 1863. Mary: Mum, I'd like to know why do you always cook roast turkey on Thanksgiving? Mother: Well, the turkey is a reminder of the original four wild turkeys served at the Pilgrims' first Thanksgiving Day feast. We have continued this custom of eating turkey on this day until the present time. Of course, I'm going to cook it this year. Do you like my cranberry sauce? Mary: Certainly. Kim, a student from Vietnam, asks her friend H elen to tell a few words about American holidays (1.1.2) Kim: Helen, I'm confused a bit. Helen: What's wrong, Kim? Kim: Well, our holidays differ much from traditions of my country. It is hard to me to get the main idea of your customs. Can you clarify a few things for me? Helen: I'm always ready to help. Kim: Tell me about Labor Day. Helen, what is Labor Day and why do we celebrate it? Helen: Labor Day is celebrated on the first Monday of September, it is a day set aside to honor the working people 201

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of the United States and to give them an official day of rest. It was first celebrated in 1882 by a group known as the Knights of Labor and was officially proclaimed as a National Holiday by Congress in 1882. Kim: Seems to me I've got the point. And what is meant by Decoration Day or Memorial Day, as it is sometimes called? Why do you have two names for this day? H elen: Decoration Day is a holiday celebrated on the 30th of May in honor of soldiers killed in the American Civil war. It is mostly observed in the northern states of the United States. People everywhere visit cemeteries and decorate with plants and flowers the graves of those who have died. The President of the United States usually visits the National cemetery at Arlington, Virginia, and there makes an official speech dedicated to the many veterans of foreign wars who lie buried there.

Jerry and Fei are comparing Christmas customs in the USA and China (1.1.5) Jerry: Look, Fei! I got a Christmas card from my sister. Fei: It's very beautiful. Why are the words "Happy Holidays" written on the card? Christmas is only one holiday. Shouldn't it be "Happy Holiday", without the "s"? Jerry: We don't just celebrate Christmas during this season. We also celebrate the coming of the New Year. Fei: Oh, I never thought about that before. There's more than one holiday at the end of the year. Jerry: Now that I'm in China, I want to celebrate the holidays Chinese-style. What do you and your family do for Christmas? Fei: Actually, we don't do much at Christmas. It's not really a big family holiday. Young people in China would rather spend Christmas Eve with their boyfriends or girlfriends. Jerry: So is it something like a date night? 202

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Fei: Yes, I guess you could say that. Christmas Eve is special, but we don't usually have any special plans for Christmas Day. Jerry: Don't people give gifts to each other like they do in the USA? Fei: Many parents give gifts to their kids. But more importanly, boyfriends give wonderful, special, romantic gifts to their girlfriends! Jerry: I see. How about the New Year in China. Is it a bigger holiday than Christmas? Fei: Not really. We don't celebrate it because the Spring Festival is much more important to us here in China. J erry: The Spring Festival is known around the world as "Chinese New Year". It's the beginning of the year according to the traditional lunar calendar, isn't it? Fei: That's right. The Spring Festival is the biggest family holiday in China, so we don't celebrate the western New Year. How about in New York? Do people celebrate New Year's Eve more or New Year's Day? Jerry: There are two kinds of people who celebrate quite differently. Single people, or couples without children, often go out late on New Year's Eve. They drink and party after the clock strikes midnight. There are big parties all over, but the biggest is in Times Square in Manhattan. Fei: I guess they won't have much energy left over to do anything on New Year's Day, then. Jerry: Right. But there are families who don't do anything special on New Year's Eve. Instead, they celebrate with their families on New Year's Day. Fei: What do they do on New Year's Day? Jerry: They have a big meal to celebrate and often watch parades in the big cities. The parades are quite spectacular. Fei: It sounds a little bit like our traditional Lion Dance. Jerry: Yes, it's a lot like the Lion Dance, except there is no lion! 203

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1.2. Monologue The official holidays in Russia (1.2.1) There are many national holidays in Russia, when people all over the country do not work and have special celebrations. The major holidays are: New Year's Day, Women's Day, May Day, Victory Day, and Independence Day. The first holiday of the year is New Year's Day. People see the New Year in at midnight on the 31st of December. They greet the New Year with champagne and listen to the Kremlin chimes beating 12 o'clock. There are lots of New Year traditions in Russia. In every home there is a New Year tree glittering with coloured lights and decorations. Children always wait for Father Frost to come and give them a present. Many people consider New Year's Day to be a family holiday. But the young prefer to have New Year parties of their own. A renewed holiday in our country is Christmas. It is celebrated on the 7th of January. It's a religious holiday and a lot of people go to church services on that day. Christmas in Russia is associated with a number of other practices, which represent a blend of tradition from Russia's Christian and pre-Christian past. It was once common practice, on Christmas Eve, for groups of people masquerading as manger animals to travel from house to house singing songs known as kolyadki. Some kolyadki were pastoral carols to the baby Jesus, while others were hornages to the ancient solar goddess Kolyada, who brings the lengthening days of sunlight through the winter. In return for their songs, the singers were offered food and coins, which they gladly accepted before moving on to the next home. Throughout Russia, after Christmas Eve services, people carrying candles, torches, and homemade lanterns parade 204

Dialogues and Monologues around the church, just as their grandparents and greatgrandparents did in the past. The Krestny Khod procession is led by the highest-ranking member of the Russian Orthodox Church. After the procession completes its circle around the church, the congregation re-enters and sings several carols and hymns before going home for a late Christmas Eve dinner. Christmas Eve dinner is meatless but festive. The most important dish is a special porridge called kutya. It is made of berries, wheat or other grains that symbolize hope and immortality, and honey and poppy seeds that ensure happiness, success, and untroubled rest. A ceremony involving the blessing of the home is frequently observed. The kutya is eaten from a common dish to symbolize unity. Some families used to throw a spoonful of kutya up to the ceiling. According to the tradition, if kutya sticks there will be a great honey harvest. The next holiday is the Old New Year (13th of January). Russians had a different calendar before February 1918. The difference between Julian (the old Russian) and Gregorian (European) calendars was 13 days, and after the Soviet government adopted Gregorian calendar Russians started to celebrate many holidays twice: according to the new style and the old one. Non-official Men's Day is the 23d of February, it is a public holiday called The Homeland Defender's Day. All men in Russia are liable for call-up, so they all are celebrities. On this day women usually give men small gifts. On the 8th of March we celebrate Women's Day when men are supposed to do everything about the house and cook all the meals. This is pretty nice - at least once a year women can take a break and forget about all those dishes, cooking, kids, take a magazine and relax on a coach. The 1st of April is non-official the Day of Laugh. People tell jokes to each other, newspapers and TV publish funny stories and jokes. The motto of this day: "Do not trust anybody on the 1st of April". 205

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The 1st of May is the Day of Labour. During Soviet time there were huge demonstrations on this day, as everybody was obliged to show his loyalty to the state; now only communists organise meetings on this date. The greatest national holiday in our country is Victory Day. On the 9th of May, 1945, the Soviet Army and its allies completely defeated the German fascists and the Second World War and the Great Patriotic War ended. A magnificent memorial on Poklonnaya Gora has been built to commemorate the Victory. Many veterans take part in the military parade and lay wreaths on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. All stand in silence for a minute. Radio and television broadcast popular war songs all day long. A lot of guests from different countries of the world come to Moscow to participate in the celebrations. Independence Day is a new holiday in our country. On the 12th of June, 1992, the first President of Russia was elected. The 1st of September is the Day of Knowledge - it's the beginning of a school year. Children go to schools with flowers for teachers, there are meetings before the classes start - nice and exciting. The 12th of December - The Constitution Day. This day the first Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in 1993 (previous Constitutions were all Soviet Union's). It is a recent public holiday, and there are no special customs connected with this day. Russians love to celebrate. We adopted the Western holidays such as St. Valentine, Catholic Christmas (we celebrate Christmas twice - Catholic and Orthodox) and Halloween. We also appreciate Chinese New Year, Muslim and Jewish holidays, as Russians are very tolerant to other religions. We also celebrate Easter and lots of professional holidays which are not public holidays and banks, offices and schools do not close.

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Public holidays in Great Britain (1.2.1) Generally public holidays in Great Britain include bank holidays, holidays by Royal Proclamation and "common law holidays". In England and Wales there are six bank holidays and two common law holidays. They are New Year's Day, Easter Monday, May Day, Spring Bank holiday, Late Summer Bank Holiday, Boxing Day, Good Friday and Christmas Day. In Scotland and Northern Ireland the days of their saint patrons are also public holidays. The most favourite holiday is Christmas. The fun starts the night before, on the 24th of December. Traditionally this is the day when people decorate their trees. Children hang stockings at their beds, hoping that Father Christmas will come down the chimney during the night and fill them with toys and sweets. Every year the people of Norway give the city of London a present. It's a big Christmas tree and it stands in the Trafalgar Square. Before Christmas, groups of singers go from house to house. They collect money for charities and sing carols, traditional Christmas songs. Many churches hold a service on the Sunday before Christmas. Christmas is a family holiday. All the family usually meet for the big Christmas dinner of turkey and Christmas pudding. And everyone gives and receives presents. The 26th of December, Boxing Day, is an extra holiday after Christmas. It's the time to visit friends and relatives. This day postmen and servants receive their presents in the boxes. New Year's Day is considered to be of less favour in Britain than Christmas. However, the welcoming of the New Year is growing in popularity, particularly among younger people who prefer to spend Christmas with parents, but New Year with friends. The most famous places of festivities are Piccadilly Circus and Trafalgar Square in London where crowds of people greet the New Year with the linked-arm singing of "Old Lang Syne", kissing total strangers, blowing 207

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whistles and automobile horns and shooting firecrackers. Someone usually falls into the fountain in Trafalgar Square. Unfortunately for all these midnight celebrators, January 1st is not a public holiday in England. In Scotland Hogmanay, New Years Eve is the biggest festival of the year. It is not clear where the word "hogmanay" comes from, but it is connected with the provision of food and drink for all visitors to your home on 31st December. In addition, many people believe that you will have good luck for the coming year if the first person to enter your house after midnight is a "tall dark stranger". The first visitor, or the first footer, must bring a special present - a piece of coal - to wish good luck and warmth to the house. This is an old Scottish custom. The first footer may also bring a loaf of white bread and a bottle of whisky. On entering he must place the coal on the fire, put the loaf on the table, and pour a glass for the head of the house, all normally without speaking or being spoken to until he wishes everyone "A Happy New Year". He may also carry a silver coin to wish wealth. Most Scots take part in a ceilidh (gaelic for "dance") on New Year's Eve and there is much dancing and singing until the early hours of the morning. In Wales, the back door releases the Old Year at the first stroke of midnight: it is then locked "to keep the luck in", and at the last stroke the New-Year is let in at the front. Easter is celebrated as a religious festival and as the start of spring when new life comes to the earth. In England it is a time for the giving and receiving presents which traditionally take the form of eggs, hot sweet buns, little chicks, baby rabbits and spring-time flowers. They are used to signify the Nature's reawakening. Easter Sunday falls on the first Sunday after a full moon on or after March 21st. On Easter Sunday there is the wonderful singing in Westminster Cathedral followed by the annual Easter Parade which takes its processional route through one of the London parks - nowadays in Battersea Park by the river Thames. 208

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May Day originally was a pagan spring festival. It was celebrated with garlands and flowers, dancing and games. A Maypole wreathed with flowers was erected. The girls put on their best summer frocks and plaited flowers in their hair and were waiting for the crowning of the May Queen. After this there was dancing and games followed by refreshments in the open air. Nowadays British people try to keep to this old tradition. They organize festivals with Maypole dancing in medieval style. Usually the participants are dressed in fancy costumes representing the characters from the Robin Hood legends. The most beautiful girl is given a title of the May Queen. At Oxford the college choir gathers to greet the coming of spring with a new song. Three times a year the offices and banks of England are closed on a Monday; these public holidays are known as "Bank Holidays". No business houses, factories, schools or shops are open on these days. August Bank Holiday was always celebrated on the first Monday in August, but from 1965, it has been changed to the last Monday in August. On Bank Holidays there is a bee-line for the coast, the seaside resorts are crowded, and so are the parks and the cafes. Many families take a picnic lunch or tea with them and enjoy their meal in the open air. The weather forecasts are scanned carefully the day before and a wet Bank Holiday spoils a lot of fun. Londoners may visit Whipsnade Zoo, just outside London, but the real Cockney takes his family to Hampstead Heath, a large natural park in Greater London. The annual fair is held here on August Monday, merry-go-rounds, spiral slides, bright balloons and paper hats, all add to the fun. The crowning event of the day is when "Pearly Kings and Queens" parade up and down. These are Cockneys who have sewed pearl buttons all over their dresses and suits. The couple with the most beautiful costume is declared Pearl King and Queen for one year. Alongside with the public holidays there is a lot of different traditional celebrations and ceremonies which form the unique British way of life. 209

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Traditional holidays in Great Britain (1.2.1) Twelfth Night, the 5th of January, is the eve of Twelfth Day, of the Feast of the Epiphany, twelve days after Christmas. In old times it was the most popular festival next to Christmas and Shakespeare's play "Twelfth Night" produced in 1602, was so called because it was written to be acted at the Twelfth Night festivities. Most authorities agree that the festival was a survival of the old festival of Saturn, which was held at this season and which was a time of great merrymaking. Through the centuries the custom of celebrating Twelfth Night has almost died out; it is now chiefly remembered as the time by which all Christmas decorations should be dismantled. Every February 14, on St. Valentine's Day, boys and girls, sweethearts and lovers, husbands and wives, friends and neighbours, and even the offices staff exchange greetings of affection and undying love. The modern way in which this is done is through the sending of Valentine cards on this day, as a sign of love to a person of the opposite sex. There are all kinds of cards to suit all tastes. In his magazine, Punch, as long ago as 1880, Mr. Punch, pointed out that no sooner was the great number of Christmas cards gone away than the publishers began to fill the shops with their valentines, full of "Hearts and Darts, Loves and Doves, and Floating Fays and Flowers". Young men and women in the last century spent hours fashioning a home-made card and some of these cards can still be seen in the museums of Britain today. The first Valentine of all was a Christian bishop, who before he was put to death by the Romans, sent a note of friendship to his jailer's blind daughter. The Christian Church took for his saint's day February 14th, the date of an old pagan festival where young Roman maidens threw decorated love messages to be drawn out by their boy friends. The manufacturers have fully taken advantage of the occasion to pour out their wares. Cards and presents of all 210

Dialogues and Monologues descriptions and prices are on the market. The habit of sending presents is dying out, but cards can be very expensive. Red satin heartshaped cushions, enthralling "pearl" necklaces and "diamond" brooches in pretty boxes, decorated with fancy ribbons, entwined hearts, gold arrows, roses, cupids, rhymes, sick sentiment and satire - all are on display in the stores and stationer's shops. So in the 20th century, when there are no longer any bars to communication between the sexes, the love missives of an older and slower time still pour through the letter-boxes. The jokes and sighs provoked by the Valentine cards continue, but most people have long forgotten the brave bishop who was the first to sign the letter "Your Valentine" . Mothers' Day is traditionally observed On the fourth Sunday in Lent (the Church seaSOn of penitence beginning on Ash Wednesday, the day of which varies from year to year). This is usually in March. The day used to be known as Mothering Sunday and dates from the time when many girls worked away from home as domestic servants in big households, where their hours of work were often very long. Mothering Sunday was established as a holiday for these girls and gave them an opportunity of going home to see their parents, especially their mothers. They used to take presents with them, often given to them by the lady of the house. When the labour situation changed and everyone was entitled to regular time off, this custom remained, although the day is now often called "Mothers' Day". People visit their mothers if possible and give them flowers and small presents. If they cannot go they send a "Mothers' Day card", or they may send One in any case. The family try to see that the mother has as little work to do as possible, sometimes the husband or children take her breakfast in bed and they often help with the meals and the washing up. It is considered to be mother's day off. April the first is known throughout English speaking world as All Fools' Day. By tradition it is the day on which 211

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jokes are played, when everyone is entitled, if he can, to make other people look ridiculous by getting them to believe something that is untrue or sending them unsuspectingly, upon some foolish errand. Those who fall into the trap set for them are then greeted with jeering laughter and shouts of "April Fool!" The children might decide fo make their parents with the news that the house is on fire, or that some other disaster has occurred. When they see the looks of alarm on their victims' faces they shout, "April Fool" or "April Fool, April Fool, Send your mother back to school". At school serious work is practically forgotten as the children try to pin notices on one anothr's backs. The notices say things like "Kick me", or "I'm a Fool". Teachers have to be particularly careful or they too might find themselves walking around with a silly sign on their backs. During the last century, many elaborate jokes were played upon unsuspecting people on April Fools' Day. One of the most famous jokes took place in 1860, when a few days earlier several hundreds of people, some say thousands, received through the post an official-looking letter, which, when opened, was found to contain an invitation card. The card was headed "Tower of London" and on it was printed: "Admit Bearer and Friend to view the Annual Ceremony of Washing the white Lions on April first, 1860. Admitted only at the White Gate". On the appointed day crowds of people, some in cabs and carriages, some on foot, made their way to the White Gate. But there was no gate at the Tower called the White Gate, nor were there any white lions. And the victims understood that they had been made April Fools. But they left some consolation in thinking what a lot of money in postage and printing charges it cost to the author of the joke. On this day of national good humour, the television service joins in the fun. Recently they told the story of a building that had been built up side down by mistake. They showed an example of modern architecture which actually did look better when it was turned the other way. Many people must 212

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have been fooled, and perhaps the architect himself was given food for thought. Halloween is celebrated on October 31st in England, Scotland, and Wales. The Halloween traditions are based on some of the characteristics of a Roman festival held about November 1st, in which nuts and apples, representing the winter store of fruits, played an important part. In Scotland the ceremonies of the eve were formally regarded in a highly superstitious light, and Robert Burns' "Halloween" gives a humorous and rich presentation of the ceremonies as practised in his days. According to belief all kinds of witches and ghosts wandered abroad on this night. The custom of-lighting bonfires to keep away these evil spirits survived until recently in the Highlands of Scotland and Wales. Later this evening was turned into a festival of fancy dress parties for young people. The festivity of Bonfire night is closely connected with the name of Guy Fawkes. Guy Fawkes (1570-1606) was one of the English conspirators who tried to destroy Parliament King James I as a protest against anti-Papist measures. They dug a tunnel where they stored 36 barrels gunpowder. On October 26, one of the conspirators warned Lord Monteagle about conspiracy. On November 5, the gunpowder was found, together with Guy Fawkes. He revealed the names of the conspirators and after that Fawkes was hanged. Guy Fawkes Night is one of the most popular festivals in Great Britain. There is extremely organized celebration at Winchester. People prepare elaborate guys, for which prizes are awarded. The awarded the first prize is the first to be cast upon huge bonfire. The thousands of onlookers sing: "Remember, remember The Fifth of November. Gunpowder, treason and plot, For I see no reason Why gunpowder treason Should ever be forgot". Remembrance Day (Poppy Day) on the Sunday before November 11 is observed in commemoration of British 213

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warriors who fell during the two World Wars. On that day special services are held in I churches. Wreaths are laid at war memorials throughout the country. At London's Cenotaph people observe two-minute silence and perform the Remembrance ceremony. The silence begins at the first stroke of Big Ben booming 11 o'clock. The members of the Royal family and political leaders lay wreath at the foot of the Cenotaph.Then comes the march past the memorial of ex-servicemen and women, followed by ordinary citizens. On that day artificial poppies, a symbol of mourning, are traditional sold in the streets everywhere. The money is later used to help the men who had been crippled during the war.

American holidays (1.2.1) The USA is the country which observes many national holidays. But there is no official list of national holidays because the establishment of holidays is within the province of the individual states. In most states banks, post-offices and most places of business are closed on these days. The seven major American holidays in calendar order are: Martin Luther King Day, Presidents' Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, Veteran's Day. Dr. Martin Luther King was a black clergyman who is ranked among the greatest of black Americans because of his crusade during the 1950s and 1960s to win full civil rights for his people. He spoke out and campaigned tirelessly to rid the United States of traditions and laws that forced on black Americans the status of second-class citizens. The world was shocked when Dr. King was assassinated in 1968. Ever since special memorial services have marked his birthday on January 15. By vote of Congress, the third Monday of every January, beginning in 1986 is now a federal holiday in Dr. King's honor. 214

Dialogues and Monologues Until the mid-1970s, the birthday of George Washington, first president of the United States (February, 22) was observed as a federal holiday. In addition, the birthday of Abraham Lincoln (February, 12) was observed as a holiday in most states. In the 1970s Congress declared that in order to honor all past presidents of the United States, a single holiday, to be called Presidents' Day, would be observed on the third Monday in February. Memorial Day observed on the fourth Monday of every May is a day on which Americans honor the dead. It has become a day on which the dead of all wars and all other dead are remembered. In many communities special ceremonies are held in cemeteries or at monuments for the war dead by veterans of military services. Some hold parades and others hold memorial services or special programs in churches, schools or other public meeting places. The Independence Day is regarded as the birthday of the United States as a free and independent nation. Most Americans simply call it the "Fourth of July", on which date it always falls. The holiday recalls the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. At that time the people of the 13 British colonies located along the eastern coast of what is now the United States were involved in a war over what they considered unjust treatment by the King and parliament in Britain. The war began in 1775. As the war continued the colonists realized that they were fighting not just for better treatment; they were fighting for freedom from England's rule. The Declaration of Independence signed by the leader from the colonies stated this deary and for the first time in an official document the colonies were referred to as the United States of America. Generally picnics with patriotic speeches and parades are held all over the United States on the Fourth of July. It is also a day on which fireworks displays fill the skies in the evening. The flying of flags, which also takes place on Memorial Day and some other holidays is common. 215

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Labor Day is observed on the first Monday of September. It has been a federal holiday since 1894 but was observed in some places before the day as a result of campaign by an early organization of workers called the Knights of Labor. Its purpose is to honor the nation's working people. In many cities the day is marked by parades of working people representing the labor unions. Columbus Day commemorates Italian navigator Christopher Columbus' landing in the New World on October 12, 1492. Most Americans observe this day on October 12, but the United States annual observances take place on the second Monday in October. The major celebration of the day takes place in New York City which holds a huge parade each year. Veteran's Day was originally called Armistice Day and was established to honor those Americans who had served in the First World War. It falls on November 11, the day on which that war ended in 1918. It honors veterans of all the wars in which the United States has been involved. Organizations of war veterans hold parades or other special ceremonies and the President or other high official places a wreath on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Arlington National Cemetery outside Washington, D.e. There are soldiers buried there from each war the United States has fought in since World War I. Another very important American holiday is Thanksgiving. The story of Thanksgiving is well-known among Americans. It is told and retold every year to young children in schools as one of the major American holidays approaches. The holiday is called Thanksgiving Day and is now observed on the fourth Thursday of November. This holiday has a special significance for Americans because it is traced back to that group of people who were among the first to come to the New World in search of freedom. Today families gather together, usually at home but sometimes in a restaurant, for a traditional Thanksgiving dinner. Tins almost always include some of the foods served at the first Thanksgiving, roast turkey and cranberry sauce, plus sweet potatoes and pumpkin pie. 216

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Other dishes vary according to family and regional traditions. In Minnesota and Wisconsin, for instance, wild rice is often served. Before the feast families usually pause to give thanks for ail their blessings - including the joy of being together on this day. And many families like to share the day with others, inviting to their dinner foreign students, military people stationed far from home and people who have no families. Many people attend religious services on Thanksgiving Day and watching football games - sometimes in person but usually on television - is also a popular Thanksgiving Day activity. The next day, a Friday, most people return to work. But some people take the day off to begin shopping for Christmas gifts. The day is one on which Americans also show increased concern for the poor. Gifts of food for a dinner are common. Charitable organizations and churches provide food or serve dinners for the needy. Besides Thanksgiving Day there are other holidays which might be considered uniquely American - although in some cases other nations observe similar holidays. Two Sundays are observed in special ways. One is the second Sunday in May, which is always Mother's Day, a day on which children honor their mothers, give them gifts or perhaps take them to a restaurant for dinner. The other is the third Sunday in June, which is Father's Day, and children honor their fathers in some special way. These are included in any holiday list even though every Sunday is a day of rest and recreation for most Americans. Americans widely observe other holidays which stem from traditions older than those of the United States. One is Easter, the Christian feast of the Resurrection of Jesus. Easter always falls on a Sunday. For most Americans it is a day of worship and a gathering of the family. Many follow old traditions such as the dyeing of hard-boiled eggs and the giving of gifts of candy eggs; rabbits and chicks for the children. 217

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The President of the United States even has an annual Easter egg hunt on the lawn of the White House the day after Easter, known as "Easter Monday". The other holidays stemming from old traditions are Christmas Day, December 25, and New Year's Day, January 1. The American traditions of those days are generally the same as those in other nations which observe them - but those who live in such nations may notice at least some differences. Christmas is a most important religious Holy day for Christians who attend special church services to celebrate the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Because it is a religious holy day it is not an official holiday. However since most Americans are Christians, the day is one on which most businesses are closed and the greatest possible numbers of workers, including government employees, have the day off. Many places of business even close early on the day before Christmas. When Christmas falls on a Sunday the next day is also a holiday. Gift-giving is so common at Christmas time that for most stores it means a sharp increase in sales. Christmas shopping is a major activity of many Americans in the month of December. Gifts are given to children, members of family and close friends. They are given to people who have done favors for others or who work for them. Some people bake cookies or make candies or other special food treats for friends and neighbors. Many businesses give their workers a Christmas "bonus" - gifts of extra money - to show appreciation for their work. Christmas is also a time when most Americans show great generosity to others less' fortunate than they. They send money to hospitals or orphanages or contribute to funds that help the poor. Most Americans send greeting cards to their friends and family at Christmas time. Santa Claus is a mythical man who is said to live at the North Pole where he makes toys throughout the year. The Santa Claus character is derived from age-old stories about an early Christian saint named Nicholas, known for his giving of gifts. Santa Claus pictured as a cheerful fat man with long white beard and dressed in a red suit, supposedly visits 218

Dialogues and Monologues the home, of good children on the night before Christmas and leaves them gifts. Very young American children look forward eagerly to Christmas morning when they find gifts he has left behind. The decorating of homes for Christmas is very common. Most Americans have a Christmas tree in their homes. This may be a real evergreen tree or an artificial one. In either case the tree is decorated and trimmed with small lights and ornaments. A Christmas dinner often with turkey on the menu for family and friends is also an American tradition. Besides the Christmas dinner many people hold other gala get-togethers just before or just after Christmas. Although New Year's Day is also a Christian holy day it has a long secular tradition which makes it a holiday of all Americans. Most of celebrating of the holiday takes place the night before when Americans gather in homes or in restaurants or other public places to enjoy food and beverages and to wish each other a happy and prosperous year ahead. Balloons and paper streamers and horns and other noisemakers are all around at midnight when the old year passes and the New Year arrives. One of the more colorful and unusual observances of New Year's Day takes place in Philadelphia where large groups of people wearing unusual costumes parade through the city with bands. One other day that most Americans observe even though it is not an official holiday is February 14 Valentine's Day, named for an early Christian martyr whose feast day was once observed on that day. On this day Americans give special gifts to people they love. They also send special greeting cards called Valentines to such people. Most commonly the gifts are candies or flowers. Halloween, the last day of October, has a special significance for children who dress in funny or ghostly costumes and knock at neighborhood doors. After shouting "Trick or Treat!" they are given gifts of candy or money. Originally a religious holiday - the evening before All Saints or All Hallows Day, Halloween is now celebrated by Americans more according to ancient Celtic pagan traditions. Its origins date 219

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back hundreds of years to the Druid festival of Samhain, Lord of the Dead and Prince of Darkness, who, according to Celtic belief, gathered up the souls of all those who had died during the year to present them to Druid Heaven on October 31. The Sun god shared the holiday and received thanks for the year's harvest. The Druid New Year began on November 1, marking the beginning of winter and the reign of the Lord of Death. The Druids called upon supernatural forces to placate the evil spirits, and it is from that tradition that modern Halloween gets the paraphernalia of ghosts, goblins, witches, skeletons, cats, masks and bonfires. The custom of telling ghost stories on Halloween also comes from the Druids. To honor the Sun god and to frighten away evil spirits, they would light huge bonfires atop high hills and as they sat grouped around watching the bright flames, they would relate scary happenings they had experienced. Halloween customs today, although gay and frolicsome rather than sombre, follow many of these ancient practices. When children wear ghost costumes, false faces, or witches' hats, bob for apples, eat corn candy, or carry jack-o-lanterns they are carrying on an accumulation of ancient traditions whose significance has long since disappeared. The jack-o-lantern, most typical of Halloween symbols, began with the Irish. According to legend a man named Fack, who was kept out of Heaven because he was stingy and expelled from Hell for playing tricks on the Devil, was condemned to walk the earth forever carrying a latem to light his way. In Ireland the jack-o-Ianterns were made by hollowing out large potatoes or turnips, with tapers for a light. The United States is a nation of many religious and ethnic groups. Many of these have feast days, holy days or special customs related to their religion or their nation of origin. This brief description of holidays shows that for some of these special times the customs of all or most Americans are very much the same.

Unit 2 READING

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A. Mountain climbing B. Water sports C. Shopping D. History E. Fishing F. Walking G. Music 1. What about visiting the historic Palace of Holyroodhouse, traditional home of Scotland's kings and queens since the year 1501, and now the official Edinburgh residence of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II? 2. What can be more relaxing than a day fishing on one of Scotland's superb trout and salmon rivers? And if you're lucky, you might even catch your own supper! 3. Whether you're interested in serious trekking or simply a relaxing stroll, Scotland has thousands of miles of walks,

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from the easy to the seriously challenging. The scenery is spectacular and you'll enjoy the unpolluted air and abundant wildlife while you walk. 4. Scotland has the highest mountains in the British Isles. You might like to try the highest, Ben Nevis, 1,343 meters, or start off on the gentler slopes to the south. Whether you are a beginner or a professional, Scotland has a mountain just waiting for you! 5. We have 3,700 km of coastline and countless rivers and lakes in Scotland. Sailing, canoeing, waterskiing, swimming, windsurfing -there are ample opportunities and facilities for all. 6. Scotland is rich in song. From the traditiunal bagpipe bands to the heavy rock of Big Country and Simple Minds, Scotland has music for every taste. If dancing is your hobby, you'll love Scottish country dancing, it's easy to learn and great fun for all ages, old and young alike! 7. Scotland is a paradise for the shopper! Our woolen goods are famous the world over, and a great bargain. The traditional tartan cloth makes a perfect souvenir. And don't forget our national drink - whisky! Scotland is the perfect destination for your next holiday. 2) Read the texts and find the appropriate headlines to them. Fill in the table with your answers. 1

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C. The most famous Russian handicraft D. The promising future of the Russian cinema E. "City of 101 Islands" F. 19th-20th cc. architectual monument 1. An influential wave of modernist art flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930, although some place its beginning as early as 1850 and its end as late as 1960. Notable artists from this era include El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, and Marc Chagall amongst others. This artistic movement reached its creative and popular height in the period between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and 1932, at which point the ideas of the avant-garde clashed with the newly emerged state-sponsored direction of Socialist Realism. 2. Matryoshka dolls consist of a wooden figure which can be pulled apart to reveal another figure of the same sort inside. It has in turn another figure inside, and so on. The number of nested figures is usually six or more. The shape is mostly cylindrical, rounded at the top for the head and tapered towards the bottom, but little else; the dolls have no hands (except those that are painted). The artistry is in the painting of each doll, which can be extremely elaborate. The theme is usually peasant girls in traditional dress, but can be almost anything, for instance fairy tales or Soviet leaders. 3. "Soviet Cinema" should not be used as a synonym for "Russian Cinema". Although Russian language films predominated, several republics developed lively and unique cinemas, while others did not. Most notable for their republican cinema were Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and, to a lesser degree, Belarus and Moldova. Since the dissolution of The Soviet Union, Russian cinema has greatly transformed. Although still largely funded by the 223

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state, the topics and dynamic have been updated. During the '90s, Russian filmmaking decreased sharply, going from hundreds per year to the double-digits. However, recent years have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry. The future of Russian cinema is promising. 4. The art inherited of the Byzantine churches soon became an offshoot version of the mosaic and fresco traditions. Icon paintings in Russia attempted to help people with their prayers without idolizing the figure in the painting. The most comprehensive collection of Icon art is found at the Tretyakov Gallery. Rather than being a mere imitation, Russian icons had a peculiar style and masters such as Andrei Rublev took the icon to new heights. 5. The Church of Our Saviour on Blood is a marvelous Old Russian-style church built on the spot where Emperor Alexander 11 was assassinated on March 1, 1881. Built in 1883-1907, the church was designed in the spirit of sixteenthand seventeenth century. 6. St. Petersburg was built on the delta of the River Neva and is spread out over numerous islands of varying sizes. Over the centuries numerous bridges were built to connect these islands across the various tributaries of the Neva and the city's many canals (Moika, Fontanka, Kanal Griboyedova, etc.). During the summer months when the river isn't frozen, the bridges across the Neva open at night to allow ships to pass up and down the river. 3) Read the texts and find the appropriate headlines to them. Fill in the table with your answers.

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A. Haxey Hood B. Cheese Rolling C. How to punish a student D. Up-Helly-Aa E. Sweeps Festival F. Well-dressing

1. This event takes place in different parts of the country, usually on the Spring Bank Holiday Monday. A round cheese is rolled down a hill chased by competitors. The winner is the first person to grab the cheese. It is a spectacular to watch but hazardous to take part in, with many competitors ending up with broken arms and legs. Ranwick is a small Cotswold village, south of Stroud. Cheese rolling takes place there on the first Sunday in May. After being blessed, three cheeses are rolled, anticlockwise around Randwick Church. One of these is then cut up and shared out amongst the crowds. Eating of the cheese protects ones' fertility and ensures future generations of "Runickers" - the local name for villagers. 2. This custom is popular all over Derbyshire. The wells are dressed with large framed panels decorated with elaborate mosaic-like pictures made of flower petals, seeds, grasses, leaves, tree bark, berries and moss. Well-dressings are beautiful and delicate and take a lot of work to make, and yet they only last for a few days. 3. This is a bizarre ritual carried out each Twelfth Night (Old Style Christmas Day) in the village of Haxey in Lincolnshire, near the Nottinghamshire border. According to legend it was on Twelfth Night that the wife of sir John de Mowbray was riding on horseback across the fields near Haxey on the Isle of Axholme, when a sudden gust of wind blew her large black silk hood. Thirteen Labourers in a nearby field gave a 225

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chase to rescue it, vying with one another to return its graceful owner. She was so grateful that she donated a piece of land on Westwood hill, just outside the village, for an annual enactment of the gallant recovery of her hood. 4. This occurs in the first weekend in May. The festival owes its roots to age old traditions. Sweeping chimneys was a dirty but necessary trade nearly 300 years ago. Sweeps Festival is said to be the largest gathering of Morris Dancers in the world. Notably, it is the only true English day where you can join in and listen to the music. 5. This festival is thought to be Britain's biggest fire festival and torchlight procession. A thousand years after the Vikings invaded Scotland, the people of Shetlands remember the Vikings with a festival. Every winter they make a model Viking Longship. On UpHelly-Aa night, at the end of January, the Shetlanders dress up in Viking clothes and drag the ship through the town to the sea. They sing Up-Helly-Aa songs before tossing their burning torches onto the ship and creating a massive bonfire. They do this because the Vikings put their dead men in ships and burned the bodies. 6. Report as a punishment often used in schools for persistent and serious bad behavior, such as truancy. Generally it is the strongest measure taken against a student that allows them to remain in lessons. Typically a student is given a report card, which they carry around with them at school. 4) Read the texts and find the appropriate headlines to them. One headline is odd. Fill in the table with your answers. 1

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A. Aerobatic Tours B. The main aim of sport C. Influence of doping D. Sport as a hobby E. Sportsman as a model F. Fans are in danger 1. Violence, drunkenness and vandalism have led to the English football fan being feared and despised at home and abroad. In Britain, itself, the situation is, ironically, quieter than it has been for years. It is difficult to see why the unpleasant attitude of the English hooligans is admired and imitated abroad. Young Europeans are very interested in English football culture which they see as more exciting and aggressive - spectators are nearer the pitch and even the play is more aggressive. Many English players have been adopted as role models. 2. The greatest danger to modern sport is the use of performance enhancing drugs. The prohibition of doping was a result not only of its undesirable influences on the outcome of sports event but also and more importantly because of its threat to the athlete's health potentially leading to acute harm and fatalities. When the athlete, Ben Johnson, was disqualified from the Seoul Olympic games for taking drugs, he lost more than his gold medal and his good name. He said goodbye to $5 million in possible sponsorship money. 3. Sport is big business. Today's sports stars can earn as much on television as they can on the tennis court, golf course or football pitch. Most of the money comes from advertising clothes, sports equipment, drinks and other products. Ivan Lendl earned £1.3 million a year for wearing Adidas clothes and Ray-Ban sunglasses. He was the world's richest tennis 227

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player. Sponsors want the best image for their products. They want stars who are the best on the athletics track or the motor racing circuit. 4. Baron de Coubertin's idea was not only to organize sporting competitions, but to set up a pedagogic movement in society, attempting to place sport in its proper eminent position in the range of present-day activities and more especially in the education of young people. In spite of political tensions of every kind, which culminated in the last two terrible world wars, participation becomes greater and greater. It is beyond doubt that in today's world the Olympic competitions constitute the summit of international athletic meetings. 5. The main thing about the hobbies related to sport is that they remove tension from the mind, rest the soul, and help people to feel refreshed. It's very useful to have something to switch to, and manage to combine both hobby and career. No matter what one's interests are, it is easy to find information, encouragement and companionship that make a hobby fan. Some of the most popular sports and games related to physical culture are swimming, tennis, aerobics, shaping, bowling, skateboarding, hiking, hunting, fishing, bicycling, bungee jumping, etc. Individual recreational participants may attend fitness clubs and enjoy every possible form of exercise and fitness training. 6. Many of us have glanced up at the skies to see a passing jet doing graceful aerobatics that take your breath away. The beauty of these metallic birds of the sky often creates a wistfulness to be in the cockpit to feel the rush and thrill of screaming through the sky at incredible speeds and doing difficult aerobatic maneuvers. Well, that is a desire that can now be entertained. 228

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5) Read the texts and find the appropriate headlines to them. Fill in the table with your answers..

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A. Work for pleasure B. Choosing caree is your own right C. Teaching demands working hard D. It is never late to learn E. Job can enjoy you F. Nannying is a good occupation 1. When Mary was young, she was likely to become a very good teacher. She learned to read, write and count when she was a very young child. The girl understood things quickly. Mary's mother was a doctor. So she wanted her daughter to become a doctor too. But Mary did what she wanted. Now she is an experienced teacher. She is always busy and has much work to do. Mary teaches English.

2. Billy Blackthorn left school when he was sixteen. He didn't study well and had no qualifications. He just wanted to earn some money and got himself a job in a factory. He didn't mind being a blue-collar worker, all he wanted was enough money to take his girl friend out on a Saturday night. But soon he and his fellow-workers were replaced by robots that could do their job and Bill was sacked. He was out of work for eighteen months and understood how terrible it was to be unemployed. The days seemed so long and the dole that he got was enough only for the cheapest food and second-hand clothes. Bill finally got a job as an unskilled laborer, working for a builder. He is twenty-five now and thinks that it is not too late to start attending night classes and get some extra training so that he can earn more money as a skilled worker. 229

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3. This year Joan Evans is leaving school to face the real world. Her main ambition is to live and work abroad. She wants to work with people and see the world. She hopes to go to college and do a tourism course. When she's in college, she will learn at least two foreign languages. She thinks that by the time she's 30 she'll be married and have a baby. She doesn't want to be rich and famous, but she wants to enjoy life. That's all anybody can really ask. 4. Mary Glass is thirty-nine years old and she is a doctor. She chose the medical profession because she wanted to help people and at the same time to make good money. When Mary was younger her wish was to become a teacher or a nurse but she soon realized that there was not much money in either of those professions. Mary's parents were rather old-fashioned people and thought that a woman's place is at home. So they wanted their daughter to become a secretary, marry a respectable young man, have several children and stay at home working about the house and bringing up the kids. When Mary applied to a medical college, her parents refused to give her any financial support and she had to work as a waitress in a restaurant to earn money for her college fees. She specialized as an optician, made a good career in the hospital she works, got married, had two children and is very much satisfied both with her family life and her business career. 5. Amanda Peniston-Bird, 21, is the daughter of a judge and has just completed a two-year training course to he a nanny at the Norland Nursery Training College. Her father is still a wee bit disappointed that she hasn't take after him and study law, but her mother thinks they're both proud, and also pleased, that she has made her own decisions in life and done so well. They have brought her up to be an independent thinker, so they can't complain. Everything has turned out for the best. 230

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6. Giles Mildmay, 24, has been a professional cook for three years. His father, George, owns a two-hundred-acre farm in Devon. The family has farmed in Devon for over three hundred years. Giles' younger brother Tobias is studying farm management at Exeter University. His father says, "I know that times have changed, but 1 was brought up with a butler and a cook to look after me, and 1 never went near the kitchen. I was taken aback at first when Giles announced what he wanted to do. His grandfather still hasn't got over it, but his. mother and 1 are delighted that he is doing something he enjoys. Nowadays anyone with a job that they enjoy is very lucky." 6) Read the texts and find the appropriate headlines to them. Fill in the table with your answers. 1

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A. Extra classes B. Beating as a punishment C. Punishment for vulgar language D. Punishment for violating rules or honor codes E. The resons for expulsion F. Writing extra lines 1. "Lines" is a popular form of punishment. It is the practice of requiring a student to write a stated amount. Originally this would have been to write an appropriate phrase a certain number of times (e.g. five hundred lines of "I must not kick footballs at school windows"), or an essay of a stated length (usually about five paragraphs in length, which is actually much shorter than the original version of line punishment) on a stated subject is in these days also common. Sometimes, the perpetrator is also required to read his/her essay out during a scheduled assembly period. 231

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2. Detention is the practice of requiring a student to attend class at a time when they would not normally be required to. These may be during the school day (Le. during break, or commonly, lunch), after the school day, or on a non-school day (normally Saturday), in order of severity. Duration can be from a few minutes to an hour or more. 3. Corporal punishment in formal settings, such as schools and prisons, is often highly ritualised, sometimes even staged in a highly theatrical manner. To a great extent the spectacle of punishment is intended to act as a deterrent to others and a theatrical approach is one result of this. In parts of England, boys were formerly beaten under the old tradition of "Beating the Bounds" when a boy was paraded around the boundary of an area of a city or district and would often ask to be beaten on the buttocks. 4. Washing out mouth with soap is a form of corporal punishment, usually for using vulgar language or lying. It is done by placing a bar of soap in a child's mouth and forcing him or her to hold it there until the behavior has been suitably reprimanded. It was most commonly used by mothers until the late 1950s, but continues to be practiced today. 5. Exclusion or expulsion is the removal of a student permanently from the school. This is generally a last resort. Some education authorities have a nominated school in which all excluded students are collected; this typically has a much higher staffing level than mainstream schools. Expulsion at a school or university is defined as removing a student from the institution for violating rules or honor codes. 6. Reasons for expulsion from UK schools for a single case of one of the following a pupil can be excluded permanently are the following: a serious act of violence, for example 232

2.2. Reading for details bringing a knife to school and stabbing a pupil or member of staff; a drug offense, for example the supply of a controlled drug to other pupils. A small amount of a 'soft drug' (such as one joint) is not normally considered as sufficient grounds for expulsion; a sexual offense, for example if one pupil rapes another pupil; a racially aggravated offense, for example if one pupil punches another pupil (of a different race) while shouting some racial slur.

2.2. Reading for Details 1) Read the abstracts and circle the letter next to the best answer. Fill in the table with your answers. 1

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Homes in Britain 1. Most British people obtain their home in one of three ways. The majority, about two-thirds, buy their own houses or flats. About 10 % of the population are renters, that is, they live in flats or houses which they rent privately from another person or organisation. The majority of the remaining 25 % live in accommodation that is owned by, and hired from, their local council. Council houses (or flats), as these are called, are available to everyone, but in many areas there are long waiting lists, and the homes go to the most needy people. In the past few years it has become possible for council house tenants to buy their property from the local authority at a fairly cheap price - this is determined by taking into account how much rent the person has paid to the council over the years. 233

Unit 2. Reading 2. Homes in Britain are rather expensive (an equivalent of over $100,000 value for an average house in 1991) although prices vary from area to area. They are most expensive in the London area and cheapest in northern England, parts of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as those areas differ in many aspects. When a buyer gets a loan with which to purchase a home, tax relief is offered to an upper limit of an equivalent of approximately $50,000 if the property is the buyer's main residence. 3. There are two types of organizations which are central to the buying of houses and flats. The first is the estate agent. An estate agency is, essentially, a shop which arranges for the sale of homes. Most people in the UK buy a house or a flat through an estate agent, who advertises properties for sale and takes a commission from the seller of between 1 and 2 % of the price of the house. Buyers are advised to check if the estate agent they choose is registered with a professional organization such as the National Association of Estate Agents. 4. Building societies make their money by borrowing money from some members of the public and lending it to others. Many British people have building society savings accounts. They save their money with a building society, which pays them interest. The society then lends this money to people who want to buy a house or flat and charges them a higher interest rate on the amount borrowed. This long-term loan is called a "mortgage". 5. So Mr. and Mrs. Johnson go to a local building society where they will be asked a number of questions - what type of jobs do they have? How much do they earn? What are their monthly expenses? And so on. The society will also inspect the house to see if it is worth the money they are being asked to lend. All being well, it will agree to taking 234

2.2. Reading for details part in the deal offering to lend the Johnsons up to about 90 % of the price of the house, to be paid back with interest over 25 years, or sometimes less. When all is agreed and the papers signed, the money is paid to the interest or to their legal representative and the Johnsons can move in. Over the 25 years, the Johnsons, because of the interest on the loan, will pay far more than the original price of the house - but since they are paying it in fairly small sums once a month they are, at least, able to afford it. Paragraph 1 describes: a) housing conditions in Britain; b) ways to get a home; c) council house tenants' problems; d) situation on the housing market. The main idea of paragraph 2 is that: a) you can't buy a cheap house in the London area; b) buying a £100,000-worth house you have to pay £50,000 tax; c) you don't have to pay a tax if you buy a house as your main residence; d) you'll have to pay different money for the same type of house in different parts of the UK. In paragraph 3 the author states that: a) you can't buy a house or a flat without an estate agent; b) estate agents will charge you for their services; c) all estate agents are registered with the National Association of Estate Agents; d) only two types of organizations deal with accommodation problems in the U.K. The main aim of paragraph 4 is: a) to explain what a mortgage is; b) to describe how building societies make their money; 235

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c) to advise people to save their money with building societies; d) to warn people against paying a higher interest rate. In paragraph 5 the author: a) explains conditions to get a mortgage; b) describes the procedure to buy a house; c) shows the role of the legal representatives; d) states that anybody can afford to buy a house in that way. 2) Read the text and circle the letter next to the best answer. Fill in the table with your answers.

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A Good Morning When I was a boy I lived along way from school. I had to walk through the forest to get to our school. I usually took my father's gun with me. One day, coming from school, I heard cries from Mr. Epperly's house. His dog, Old Ranger, had fought with a mad dog, half an hour before. Now all the people were afraid of Old Ranger because the dog could have become mad too. They all asked Mr. Epperly to shoot Old Ranger. Mr. Epperly said he could not do it himself. He asked some people to do it but nobody agreed. Mr. Epperly came up to me and said, "Joe, why can't you take the dog with you to the forest, on your way home and shoot it?" I told Mr. Epperly I did not want to shoot Old Ranger, "I'll give you one dollar if you do it," he said. I had never had a dollar. I did not want to shoot Old Ranger but now it seemed to me that all the people wanted it done. Mr. Epperly gave me one dollar; I took Old Ranger and went to the forest. I knew I could never shoot Old Ranger. 236

2.2. Reading for details So I decided to take him secretly home. At home I explained everything to my mother. She let me keep the dog in the yard for a month. It was the most difficult time in my life. The Epperly children did not want to walk to school with me. And the other children at school asked me, «What have you done with your dollar?" They did not want to play with me. I could not explain anything to them. Then the happy morning came. "You can take Old Ranger home now, Joe," my mother said. "A month is over. The dog isn't dangerous any more." I took the dog. He was very happy to go with me. We were not far from Mr. Epperly's house when Old Ranger barked. All the family ran out of the house. Mr. and Mrs. Epperly were very glad to see me and Old Ranger. Then I gave the dollar back to Mr. Epperly. 1. What did Mr. Epperly say? a) he would do it at once; b) he could not do it himself; c) he would do it with his son; d) he would do it with pleasure.

2. Did anybody agree to kill the dog? a) nobody agreed; b) everybody agreed; c) only two people agreed; d) the neighbour. 3. What did Mr. Epperly want the boy to do? a) to kill the dog; b) to take the dog; c) to feed the dog; d) to buy the dog. 4. What did Mr. Epperly promise to give the boy? a) a fortune; b) one dollar; 237

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c) ten dollars; d) his credit card. 5. What did the boy do after taking the money? a) took the dog home; b) killed the dog; c) sold the dog; d) ate the dog. 6. What did the mother do? a) she refused to see a dog; b) she let the boy keep the dog; c) sold the dog; d) washed the dog. 3) Read the text and circle the letter next to the best answer. Fill in the table with your answers.

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The Gift of the Magi One dollar and eighty-seven cents. That was all. And sixty cents of it was in pennies. Pennies saved one and two at a time by bulldozing the grocer and the vegetable man and the butcher until one's cheeks burned with the silent imputation of parsimony that such close dealing implied. Three times Della counted it. One dollar and eighty-seven cents. And the next day would be Christmas. There was clearly nothing to do but flop down on the shabby little couch and howl. So Della did it. Which instigates the moral reflection that life is made up of sobs, sniffles, and smiles, with sniffles predominating. While the mistress of the home is gradually subsiding from the first stage to the second, take a look at the home. 238

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A furnished flat at $8 per week. It did not exactly beggar description, but it certainly had that word on the lookout for the mendicancy squad. In the vestibule below was a letter-box into which no letter would go, and an electric button from which no mortal finger could coax a ring. Also appertaining thereunto was a card bearing the name "Mr. James Dillingham Young". The "Dillingham" had been flung to the breeze during a former period of prosperity when its possessor was being paid $30 per week. Now, when the income was shrunk to $20, though, they were thinking seriously of contracting to a modest and unassuming D. But whenever Mr. James Dillingham Young came home and reached his flat above he was called "Jim" and greatly hugged by Mrs. James Dillingham Young, already introduced to you as Della. Which is all very good. Della finished her cry and attended to her cheeks with the powder rag. She stood by the window and looked out dully at a grey cat walking a grey fence in a grey backyard. Tomorrow would be Christmas Day, and she had only $1.87 with which to buy Jim a present. She had been saving every penny she could for months, with this result. Twenty dollars a week doesn't go far. Expenses had been greater than she had calculated. They always are. Only $1.87 to buy a present for Jim. Her Jim. Many a happy hour she had spent planning for something nice for him. Something fine and rare and sterling-something just a little bit near to being worthy of the honor of being owned by Jim. There was a pier-glass between the windows of the room. Perhaps you have seen a pier-glass in an $8 flat. A very thin and very agile person may, by observing his reflection in a rapid sequence of longitudinal strips, obtain a fairly accurate conception of his looks. Della, being slender, had mastered the art. Suddenly she whirled from the window and stood before the glass. Her eyes were shining brilliantly, but her face had 239

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lost its color within twenty seconds. Rapidly she pulled down her hair and let it fall to its full length. Now, there were two possessions of the J ames Dillingham Youngs in which they both took a mighty pride. One was Jim's gold watch that had been his father's and his grandfather's. The other was Della's hair. Had the queen of Sheba lived in the flat across the airshaft, Della would have let her hair hang out the window some day to dry just to depreciate Her Majesty's jewels and gifts. Had King Solomon been the janitor, with all his treasures piled up in the basement, Jim would have pulled out his watch every time he passed, just to see him pluck at his beard from envy. So now Della's beautiful hair fell about her rippling and shining like a cascade of brown waters. It reached below her knee and made itself almost a garment for her. And then she did it up again nervously and quickly. Once she faltered for a minute and stood still while a tear or two splashed on the worn red carpet. On went her old brown jacket; on went her old brown hat. With a whirl of skirts and with the brilliant sparkle still in her eyes, she fluttered out the door and down the stairs to the street. Where she stopped the sign read: "Mr. Sofronie. Hair Goods of All Kinds". One flight up Della ran, and collected herself, panting. Madame, large, too white, chilly, hardly looked the "Sofronie". "Will you buy my hair?" asked Della. "I buy hair," said Madame. "Take your hat off and let's have a sight at the looks of it." Down rippled the brown cascade. "Twenty dollars," said Madame, lifting the mass with a practised hand. "Give it to me quick," said Della. Oh, and the next two hours tripped by on rosy wings. Forget the hashed metaphor. She was ransacking the stores for Jim's present. She found it at last. It surely had been made for Jim and no one else. There was no other like it in any of the stores, and she 240

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had turned all of them inside out. It was a platinum fob chain simple and chaste in design, properly proclaiming its value by substance alone and not by meretricious ornamentation as all good things should do. It was even worthy of The Watch. As soon as she saw it she knew that it must be Jim's. It was like him. Quietness and value - the description applied to both. Twenty-one dollars they took from her for it, and she hurried home with the 87 cents. With that chain on his watch Jim might be properly anxious about the time in any company. Grand as the watch was, he sometimes looked at it on the sly on account of the old leather strap that he used in place of a chain. When Della reached home her intoxication gave way a little to prudence and reason. She got out her curling irons and lighted the gas and went to work repairing the ravages made by generosity added to love. Which is always a tremendous task, dear friends - a mammoth task. Within forty minutes her head was covered with tiny, close-lying curls that made her look wonderfully like a truant schoolboy. She looked at her reflection in the mirror long, carefully, and critically. "If Jim doesn't kill me," she said to herself, "before he takes a second look at me, he'll say I look like a Coney Island chorus girl. But what could I do-oh! What could I do with a dollar and eighty-seven cents?" (after O. Henry) 1. Two possessions in which James and Della took a mighty pride were: a) Della's bracelet and James' watch; b) Della's hair and James' car; c) James' watch and Della's hair; d) Della's and James' true love. 2. Della tried to save some pennies: a) by bulldozing the salesman; 241

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b) by working overtime; c) by selling her hair; d) by taking a loan at the bank. 3. The word combination "mammoth task" means: a) something easy to perform; b) something very strange and obscure; c) something almost impossible to complete; d) something hard to explain. 4. The author ironically compares his main heroes to: a) the jack of diamonds and the queen of hearts; b) king and Queen of Pearls; c) snow white and Prince Charming; d) the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. 5. The author is quite sure that: a) Della and James were rather unhappy because of their poverty; b) Della constantly complained about the lack of money; c) Despite financial hardship the young couple lived happily; d) James did nothing to earn some money. 6. Which present did Della buy for her husband? a) a silver watch chain; b) a platinum watch chain; c) an iron watch chain; d) a golden watch chain. Explain what is meant by (1.2.3): On went her old brown jacket, on went her old brown hat; life is made up of sobs, sniffles, and smiles, with sniffles predominating; an electric button from which no mortal finger could coax a ring; next two hours tripped by on rosy wings. 242

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Comment on (1.2.3): The description of Della and James's apartment. Render it using your own words. • Della's attempt to seem beautiful after cutting her hair. What was the reason of it? • The title of the story. Why is it entitled in such a way? • The possible ending of the story. 4) Read the text and circle the letter next to the best answer. Fill in the table with your answers.

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A Strange Coincidence When my mother finally became too old to live alone, we decided that she should stay with us in town. I was surprised at the amount of furniture she had. All those ancient chest of drawers and wardrobes, antique armchairs and settees, valuable vases, pictures of our ancestors in golden frames and many other decorations that she had been collecting for years. There definitely was no room in our flat to store all that, so we had to leave it in her house. I always intended to clear it out and sell the place, but somehow I kept putting it off. One night I woke suddenly at four o'clock, almost in tears. I was extremely upset with a dream in which I saw two men open a window, climb into my mother's house, and start walking from room to room looking for the most valuable among her belongings. Then the burglars must have heard someone's voice outside or a door was closed, because they dropped the old beautiful mirror they were carrying and left in a hurry. Fortunately, something must have disturbed the burglars because they left without taking anything. Later that morning I received a phone call from a lady who lived next door to the house. To my astonishment, she told me that 243

Unit 2. Reading it had been broken into during the night. The dream made me feel very guilty that I had not taken better care of the house. I didn't want to believe in the supernatural, but now I'm not so sure! 1. The reason for mother's living with them was that she became _ a) too weak b) too ill c) old enough d) too old

2. a) b) c) d)

The amount of furniture she had very astonished surprised heart disturbed

him.

3. There definitely was no room in our flat to store all that, so we _ a) had to leave it in her house. b) persuaded her to leave it in her house c) had to sell it d) had to leave a few pieces of furniture in her house 4. He saw a drem in which burglars a) dropped the old beautiful vase b) dropped the old beautiful mirror c) dropped the old beautiful lamp d) took the old beautiful mirror away

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5. The burglars didn't take anything because a) everything was old and shubby b) everything was too heavy c) something must have disturbed them d) something unexpected happened 244

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The dream was as a prediction because _ in the morning he saw a broken mirror that morning he was told about the broken mirror the lady who lived next door to the house told about it over the phone d) a policeman called him concerning it

7. The man concluded that he must a) live in the house to protect the furniture b) sell the house c) hire somebody to guard the house d) take better care of the house

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The Thirsty Tourist A tourist was travelling alone in the desert. After two weeks his car stopped working. He got out and started walking. He was lost and he had no water. It was very hot and he became very thirsty. After five hours he saw a small tent in front of him. There was a woman in the tent. The tourist said to the woman, "Water. Please sell me some water." "I'm sorry. I haven't any water. I am taking ties to the market to sell," the woman replied. The tourist walked on. He became thirstier. Two kilometres later he came to another small tent. There was an old man in the tent. "Water. Please sell me some water." "I'm sorry. I haven't any water. I am taking ties to the market to sell," the man replied. The tourist put his money back into his pocket and walked on. He was very, very thirsty and also very tired. One 245

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kilometre later he arrived at a third tent. There was a man with a beard in the tent. The man said, "Do you want to buy a tie? I have many beautiful ties." "No. No. No," shouted the tourist. "I need water. Please sell me water." "I'm sorry. I only have ties," said the old bearded man. The tourist fell to the ground and started to crawl. An hour later he saw a large hotel. It was an expensive-looking hotel. The tourist crawled to the door and took out all his money. He said to the doorman, "Water! I will pay £100 for a glass of water." The doorman looked at the dirty tourist and said, "I am sorry. You can't come into the hotel if you are not wearing a tie." 1. a) b) c) d)

The author tells us about: a woman; a boy; a tourist; a thirsty tourist.

2. After his car stopped working he decided to get to the place: a) by bicycle; b) by train; c) on foot; d) by plain. 3. After - - - - hours he saw a small tent in front of him. a) two; b) five; c) a few; d) four. 4. The second paragraph tells us that: a) there was a man who sold ties and had only tea to sell; b) there was a man who sold ties and had no water to sell; 246

2.2. Reading for details c) there was nobody in his way; d) there was no water in any place. 5. a) b) c) d)

The tourist was in despair because: the old bearded man had only hot tea too; he lost his money somewhere; the old bearded man didn't want to sell him any water; the old bearded man had only ties to sell too.

6. An hour later the thirsty tourist saw: a) a very expensive-looking restaurant; b) a very expensive-looking inn; c) a very expensive-looking hotel; d) a very big hotel.

7. According to the doorman's words the tourist couldn't pay even £100 for a glass of water because: a) there was no water at all; b) he was wearing not so good tie; c) he was not wearing a tie; d) he was wearing a dirty tie. 6) Read the story and complete the comprehension tasks after it. How We Kept Mother's Day This year we decided to have a special celebration of Mother's Day. We thought it a fine idea. It made us all realize how much Mother had done for us. So we decided that we would make a great day, a holiday for all the family, and do everything we could to make Mother happy. Father decided to take a holiday from his office, so as to help in celebrating the day, my sister Anna and I stayed home from college classes, and Mary and my brother Will stayed home from school. It was our plan to make it just like a big holiday, and so we decided to decorate the house with flowers. 247

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The two girls thought it would be a nice thing to dress in our very best for such a big day, and so they both got new hats. Father had bought four ties for himself and us boys, for we wanted to have something to remember Mother by. We were going to get Mother a new hat too but she said she liked her old hat better than a new one, and both the girls said that it was awfully becoming her. Well, after breakfast we all decided that we would hire a car and take her for a beautiful drive away into the country. Mother is hardly ever able to have anything like that because she is busy in the house all the time. And, of course, the country is so lovely now that it would be just wonderful for her to have a lovely morning, driving for miles and miles. But on the very morning of the day we changed the plan a little, because Father said that it would be much better for Mother if we took her fishing. Father said that as the car was hired and paid for, we might just as well use it for a drive up into the hills where the streams are. So we all felt that it would be nicer for Mother to go fishing. Father got a new rod and he said that Mother could use it if she wanted to. When the car came to the door, it turned out that there hardly seemed as much room in it as we had supposed, and it was plain enough that we couldn't all get in. Father said not to mind him, he could just as well stay home and do some rough dirty work that would save hiring a man. Anna and Mary would gladly have stayed and helped the maid get dinner. Mother had only to say the word, and they would stay home and work. Will and I would have dropped out, but unfortunately we wouldn't have been any use in getting the dinner. So in the end it was decided that Mother would stay home and just have a lovely restful day round the house, and get the dinner. We all drove away with three cheers for Mother; and Mother stood and watched us from the verandah for as long as she could see us. 248

2,2. Reading for details

Well, we had the loveliest day up the hills that you could possibly imagine. And at home we had the grandest kind of dinner prepared by Mother. (s. Leacock) Agree or disagree with the following sentences: 1. The celebration of Mother's Day made us all realize how much Mother had done for us. 2. We decided that we would decorate our house with toys and pictures. 3. Father bought a new suit for him and ties for his sons. 4. We wanted to buy Mother a new hat and she gladly agreed. 5. It was our idea to celebrate the holiday not in the city, but in small neighboring town. 6. But in the morning of that day our plan was changed a little. 7. Father said that he would take us fishing, and the only problem was to hire a car because our family was very large. 8. When the car came to the door we found out that there was very little place inside it. 9. Anna and Mary, our sisters, agreed to stay at home and to prepare supper. 10. But in the end it was Mother who stayed at home as she suddenly felt herself not well. Put the following sentences in the right order: Lit was decided that Mother would stay home and just have a lovely restful day round the house. 2. We all decided that we would hire a car and take our Mother for a beautiful drive away into the country. 3. My sister Anna and I stayed home from college classes. 4. At home we had the grandest kind of dinner prepared by Mother. 249

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5. We were going to get Mother a new hat too but she said she liked her old hat better than a new one. 6. We decided to have a special celebration of Mother's Day. 7. We all felt that it would be nicer for Mother to go fishing. 8. Father got a new rod and he said that Mother could use it if she wanted to. 9. Mother stood and watched us from the verandah for as long as she could see us. 10. It made us all realize how much Mother had done for us.

2.3. Scanning 1) Read the texts and match the questions to them. One text is odd. A

B

c

D

E

F

A. What football team of modern times is the most successful? B. Who was the first football professional? C. What are the roots of football? D. Which soccer team was the first European champion in the history of the game since 1960? E. What country does not have enough good players for international football? F. What is the origin of the word "soccer"? 1. Football started in Britain. The University of Cambridge made the first rules in 1848. In fact, many other countries 250

2.3. Scanning

played a game like football for many centuries before that. The Chinese played "tsu chu" over two thousand years ago. "Tsu" means to kick, and "chu" means ball. Before the nineteenth century, often hundreds of people played at one time. 2. In the nineteenth century the game was very popular in English schools and universities. Finally, in 1863, a group of people started the Football Association. The word "soccer" comes from the word "association", and in England many people call the game by this name. 3. Today, football is the most popular sport in the world. You can see the World Cup on television in about one hundred different countries. But Europe still has the most players - fourteen million. South America too is very strong. Here there are far fewer players, but they do very well in the World Cup. Perhaps the most successful team of modern times is Brazil, and the most famous player, Brazil's Pele. 4. People started to watch football in the industrial towns of Britain in the late nineteenth century, mostly on Saturday afternoons. In 1876 a Scot, James Lang, was the first man to earn money from football - the first professional. Just over one hundred years later, in 1978, most Liverpool players earned six hundred pounds each week, but the best earned a quarter of a million pounds a year. 5. Things change slowly in football. Liverpool, the English champions of 1900-1901, were still the best team in the late 1970s. In Scotland, two teams, Celtic and Rangers, have won sixty-six of the eighty-one championships up to 1978. Now there are many international competitions and football is of interest world-wide. Only one major country today - the USA - still does not have enough good players for international football. 251

Unit 2. Reading

6. One thing we can say for certain is the similarities between Russian and American sports - first place in both countries is football. (In Russia football is soccer and in America it is football). The Russian soccer team was the first European champion in the history of the game since 1960. They were also three-time finalists and Olympic champions. Although these achievements happened in the past, the football traditions are still alive. The best Russian teams are Spartak, Lokomotiv and CSKA. 7. In the 1950s and 1960s young people were unhappy with their lives and this resulted in hooliganism at football matches. The problem of violence on the field can be amplified by the media, with its hunger for sensationalism and closeups of violence. The incidence of overt racism at football matches has declined dramatically since the early 1980s. 2) Read the texts and match the questions to them. One question is odd. 1

2

3

4

5

A. B. C. D. E.

Who was the first explorer of the South Pole? What were the main hardships of Scott's journey? What is the main idea of the Scott's last message? Had the rest of the Scott's expedition been ever found? How many men had Scott chosen for the final stage of the journey? F. What did the explorers call "The Barrier"?

1. In 1910 Captain Robert Falcon Scott and his crew set sail in the Terra Nova in an attempt to discover the South Pole. They made their base at Cape Evans and planed the journey to the Pole in three stages. First they were crossing of the Barrier, a great plain of ice of nearly 500 miles. Over 252

2.3. Scanning this Scott planed to send as much food and other stuff as he could by motor sledges. 2. Scott watched the men carefully. He had decided that the final dash of 150 miles would be made by four men and himself. He had to make up his mind which of men he would choose. Finally he made the choice. In addition to Scott there was Dr. Wilson, surgeon and artist, Lieutenant Bowers, Captain Oates and Edgar Evans, a British seaman. 3. It was a terrible journey. The snow was so soft that they often sank to their knees in it, and the heavy sledges were difficult to move through it. Some of the men suffered from snow blindness, and the most of them were already feeling the strain of the journey. But there was a hope of reaching the Pole that made the journey endurable. 4. On the 18th January they reached the Pole. Three of the men were frost-bitten; all were hungry and very weak. And at the Pole stood the tent, with the Norwegian flag flying above. Amundsen, the Norwegian explorer, had been a month before and had gone. Bitterly disappointed, Scott and his companions set out on the return journey. 5. Scott was the last one to die. He filled in his diary almost to the last day and wrote a noble last message: "We are weak, writing is difficult, but for my own sake I do not regret the journey, which has shown that Englishmen can endure hardship, help one another and meet death with as great a fortitude as ever in the past". 3) Read the texts and match the questions to them. One question is odd. 1

2

3

253

4

5

Unit 2. Reading A. Why do we call Pickwick Papers a humorous novel? B. What was Dickens before becoming a writer? C. Which house had Dickens dreamt to buy since his childhood? D. Was Dickens happy in his marriage? E. What was the biggest amount of Pickwick Papers' printed copies? F. What other social activities Charles Dickens took part in? 1. In 1833 Dickens had a number of papers published under the title Sketches by Boz, but in 1836 he rose to the national fame under rather strange circumstances. A firm of publishers had a number of pictures by a humorous artist Seymour and they wanted to get some short articles to illustrate them. Someone suggested that young reporter Dickens might do this job. He accepted the offer but asked for rather freer hand in the writing. So that Pickwick Papers came into being. 2. Just as young Shakespeare resolved that some day he would return to Sratford and buy a big house, New Place, so little Charles Dickens dreamed that some day, perhaps, he might live in a big house that he loved, Gadshill Place, at Rochester. But at the time there seemed little chance of it for him. He was an oldest of a large family, eight in all, and his father was rather a happy-go-lucky, irresponsible man. 3. Mr. Pickwick has got three friends: Mr. Tupman, Mr. Snodgrass and Mr. Winkle. Mr. Pickwick is a stout, goodnatured, cheerful, very simple gentleman. He is the General Chairman of the Pickwick club. Together with his friends he decides to travel about England and sent to the Club in London the account of their journeys and observations. The humour of the book consists chiefly in the absurd situation that Mr. Pickwick and his friends got themselves into. 254

2.4. Understanding the structural links of the text

4. For the first fortnightly part of Pickwick Papers the publishers printed 400 copies. Soon the book gained such popularity that for Part 15 more than 40,000 copies had to be printed. At one stride Dickens had become the most popular living novelist and he held this position until his death. 5. Alongside with writing novels, Dickens was editing newspapers and magazines, visiting different countries and giving public reading of his books to the audience. His entire life is a story of work, and work without rest. The strain of his continual work brought about his sudden death in 1870. He asked that his burial should be very simple but the whole nation wanted to give him the highest honor they could, so he lies buried in Westminster Abbey.

2.4. Understanding the Structural Links Of the Text 1) Read the abstract and fill in the gaps with the clauses given below. New anti-drugs campaign for young people New survey shows that Britain's drug problem is growing. The highest increase in drug use is among teenagers. How can they be convinced to stop. Last year, a European survey showed that the number of teenagers who had tried drugs was 6 % in Greece, 15 % in France and 30 % in Britain. Statistics show that drug use by British teenagers has doubled 1 since 1989. Half teenagers who were interviewed admitted they had tried at least one type of drug. 70 % said 1 in the past 3 months. 255

Unit 2. Reading

The drugs that the government is most worried about are stimulant drugs such as Speed and Ecstasy (or "E" as it is commonly known) and hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD. They are worried that many young people believe these drugs 2 . They think that many of teenagers will be influenced by films such as Transporting and Pulp Fiction, which show attractive people taking drugs. The government decided that it needed a new anti-drugs campaign. However, before it did this, it studied young people's attitudes. The survey showed that teenagers knew 3 but they could not actually name any health risk associated with particular drugs. It also showed that 61 % of teenage drug-users would consider stopping using drugs if they thought they were a serious danger to their health. It was also understood that many teenagers ignored drugs warnings in schools because 4 . In fact, it was proved that in some cases, the reason for taking drugs was to rebel against warnings from adults. Using the results of the survey, new campaign has been started. The new campaign hopes to treat teenagers like adults. It informs people of the health risks associated with particular drags. It does this with photos of teenagers. On the advertisements, the parts of their bodies, 5 , are indicated by biological diagrams showing the health risks. Many teenagers try drugs as a "dare" to show their friends that they are not scared. Often their friends insist until the person says "yes". The health authority hope that the advertisements will help teenagers to say "no" to this and be able to have good reason to say it. In addition to posters, the health authority has also made radio advertisements and put the number of their drags helpline (a telephone number that can be called confidentially for help) in a lot of places. The people at the helpline advise people what to do problem 6 or need more information about the dangers of drags. 256

2.4. Understanding the structural links of the text A. B. C. D. E. F.

if they have a drag to be exciting and fashionable that drugs were bad for them which can be damaged by drugs they thought they were childish they had been offered drugs

2) Read the text and fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations given below. Guess about the final phrase for this story. Hell's Angels In the 1960's, large packs of youths on motorcycles were a common sight on the open highways of the United States of America. These groups were uniform in appearance, easily recognised by their long hair and 1 . They had a very bad reputation for aggressive and destructive behaviour. Most considered themselves rebels and had little respect for law and order. They were called Hell's Angels and individual packs were known as chapters. One hot summer, a chapter of about thirty Hell's Angels from San Francisco was cruising along 2 looking for fun, which was generally at the expense of the general public. The first hour was spent encircling cars with their bikes and glaring with malice through the windows. This was guaranteed to put the fear of death into the occupants who had been fed by the media with unsubstantiated stories of robbery, rape and murder. The Angels thrived on such infamy. Around noon and tiring of the game they came across 3 . The leader of the chapter led the pack into the relatively empty parking area and informed the others that it was time to have some more "fun". With broad grins on their faces, the group entered the cafe which was almost deserted. The owner was cleaning some glasses behind the counter, while two rather ordinary-looking men sat quietly at 257

Unit 2. Reading

the back of the cafe. They were absorbed in their meals and newspapers. As the door was slammed shut, the largest of the men threw his newspaper into the air, leaped to his feet and rushed out of the back door with 4 on his face. The Angels laughed derisively. Three Angels strode nonchalantly across to the remaining diner, who was short, skinny and balding. They surrounded his small table and stared menacingly at him. He seemed oblivious to their presence. One of the Angels took 5_ _ _ _ out of the man's hand and began to stuff it into his own mouth. The man failed to react. A second Angel tore the newspaper from the man's hands and slowly ripped it to shreds. The man made no eye contact with the Angels. Then the leader took the fried egg from 6 and placed it neatly on top of the man's head, completely covering the bald area. This comic sight was greeted with uproarious laughter and stamping of feet. Despite this provocation and humiliation the man continued to sit with a stony face. Then, as the fried egg slid from his head, he rose to his feet slowly, and with head bowed submissively, he left the cafe without saying a word. With a smirk on his face the leader watched the man leave. Then he strolled to the counter and said disparagingly to the owner, "Not much of a man, eh?" The owner reflected for a moment and replied, " " A. a small roadside restaurant B. black leather jackets C. the buttered roll D. a terrified look E. the man's breakfast plate F. an empty Californian highway

258

2.4. Understanding the structural links of the text 3) Read the abstract and fill in the gaps with the clauses given below. The Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow, one of the largest in Russia, is always involved in masses of exhibition projects, most of them international, since cooperation with colleagues from abroad is high on the Museum's agenda. The Director of the Museum, Irina Antonova, told of the major events in 2006 as she met with representatives of the Russian press in Moscow. According to Antonova's words, the museum is planning an exhibition of works by a prominent British architect, Norman Foster, connected with the basic theme is the dialogue between cultural legacy and contemporary process. Another exhibition is planned around "St. Sebastian", a masterpiece 1 , which is now in the Dresden Gallery and is really superb after restoration. The Pushkin Museum is preparing an unusual exhibitionan exhibition of masks, which it is planning as a joint project with several museums. The mask, 2 , will be presented as a particular object of art with its historical and cultural background. Equally exciting from both the artistic and historical viewpoints will be an exhibition of tapestries and trellises dating from the Flemish tapestry of the 15th century to the present day in works by the Russian artist Grisha Bruskin, who lives in New York and is seen by many as 3 . As before the Pushkin Museum takes part in all sorts of cultural programs. And to the amazement of the visitors the Museum is exhibiting works by Titian and Karavadjo, 4. _ - - - - The Pushkin Museum is also launching a new permanent exposition - a gallery of French art of the late 19th - early 20th cc. and later, which will occupy the private collection hall, currently under restoration. The gallery is the biggest in Russia collection of French art of the above-mentioned period and 5 . Originally it was put together 259

Unit 2. Reading

by Moscow merchants and patrons of the art Sergei Shchukin and Ivan Morozov, who went on frequent business trips to France, 6 from the then unknown and now famous painters. A. a cult figure in contemporary art B. by the Italian artist of the 15th century Antonello de Messina C. where they bought works of art D. including the hunting, the fancy ball and even the postmortem E. competes with many foreign collections of the kind F. which will arrive in Moscow from Naples 4) Read the text and in fill the gaps with the clauses given below.

One World - One Language! Many people feel that the only realistic chance of breaking the foreign language barrier is to use a natural language as a world lingua franca. Today, English is the main contender for the position of world lingua franca. There are few competitors. Several other languages have an important local role as a lingua franca but no comparable level of international use, such as, Russian in Eastern Europe, or Spanish in South and Central America. More people in the world speak Chinese than any other language, but 1 _ _ _ _ _ _. French is still widely used, but far less than it was a century ago. Many factors contribute to the gradual spread of a language - chiefly political and military might, economic power, and religious influence. These same factors mean that the development of a world language is not viewed with enthusiasm by those 2 . Such a language, it can be argued, would give its originating culture an unprecedented influence in world affairs and scientific 260

2.4. Understanding the structural links of the text research. For example, scientists who used it as a mother tongue would be in a privileged position: 3 _ it and would more easily assimilate ideas expressed in it. Furthermore, it is thought, a world language would inevitably erode the status of minority languages and pose a threat to the identity of nations. Many people thus view the current progress of English towards world language status with concern and often with antagonism. Ironically, the main danger to the growth of a world language comes from within. As the language becomes used in all corners of the world, by people from all walks of life, it begins to develop new spoken varieties which 4 _ In the course of time these new varieties might become mutually unintelligible. It cannot be predicted how far this diversification will affect English. Linguistic predictions have a habit of being wrong. A hundred years ago, predictions were being made that 5 . It is not always easy to predict the trend that will result from increased modern contacts through travel and communications. A. they would not have to spend time learning B. in the West Chinese is too unfamiliar to be a serious contender C. are used by local people as symbols of their identity D. British and American English would by now be mutually unintelligible E. who would have to learn it 5) Read the text and fill in the gaps with the clauses given below. Paralanguage Is the content of your message contradicted by the attitude with which you are communicating it? Researchers have found that the tone, pitch, quality of voice, and rate of speaking 1 convey emotions that of the 261

Unit 2. Reading

message. The important thing to gain from this is that the voice is important, 2 , but as a complement to the message. As a communicator you should be sensitive to the influence of tone, pitch, and quality of your voice on the interpretation of your message by the receiver. Silence can be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and uneasiness or 3 . Silence can also be judgmental by indicating favour or disfavour, agreement or disagreement. For example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting. If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to him that 4 _ and should be given additional assignments. If he believes these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved "break". If he is personally insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his authority. A. B. C. D.

they are "goofing off" not just as the conveyor of the message can be accurately judged regardless of the content create a peaceful situation

6) Read the rext and fill in the gaps with the word combinations given below. Gloning a human being Cloning humans is an idea that has always been thought of as something that could be found in 1 , but never as a concept that society could actually 2 . It is much 3 . The public has been 4 with newspaper articles, magazine stories, books, television shows, and movies as well as cartoons. Much of this information in these sources leads the public 5 and makes them wonder how easy it would 262

2.4. Understanding the structural links of the text

be for everyone around them to be cloned. 6 ideas about cloning lie in many science fiction books and scare the public with their 7_ _. On February 22, 1997 scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland announced that they had done cloning of a mammal from 8 . What does this mean? In general terms, cloning is a method that involves the production of a group of identical cells or organisms that all derive from a single individual. It is not known exactly when cloning humans really became a possibility, but it is known that there are two possible ways that we can clone human. The first way involves splitting an embryo 9 and creating many new individuals from that embryo. The second method is based on taking cells from already existing human being and cloning them in turn creating other individuals that are 10 to the particular person. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J.

in the wrong direction an adult cell in the news into several halves bizarre science fiction novels experience unbelievable possibilities into several halves bombarded

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Unit 3 LISTENING

3.1. Skim Listening 1) Listen to the following pieces of information and match the numbers of speakers with the statements. There is one odd statement.

I

Speaker Statement

1

2

1_ _

-'--

3_----11--_4_----11--_5_ _ -'---'_

A. The speaker tells us about his favourite kind of cakes on Passover. B. The speaker talks about the worst Christmas he has ever had. C. The speaker likes chocolate Easter eggs. D. The speaker explanes why she can not celebrate Christmas. E. The speaker prefers Halloween to Christmas because the latter is boring. F. The speaker consider herself not very religious but likes Christmas very much. 1. Danyal I just watch TV and eat at Christmas. Easter is my favourite festival. Last Easter the whole family went for a walk, and then we had a special lunch followed by lots of Easter eggs. I like it because it's nice to see all the family and because of all the eggs. We are all chocoholics!

3.1. Skim Listening

2. Shaziya I don't celebrate Christmas at all because it's not my religion. But of course in Britain everyone is on holiday so my family goes to a relative's house, or they come to ours and we just have a family dinner. It's an excuse to get together. Last Christmas we went to Coventry to my nan's house and she made a big dinner for all of us. My favourite festival is Eid. It's the day after Ramadan which is a period of fasting in the Muslim faith, so Eid is to celebrate the end of fasting. It's a day when all the family come together, have fun, eat lots of nice food and pray. 3. Ben I'm Jewish so we don't celebrate Christmas in our family either. But, as Shaziya says, it's an excuse to get together with relatives and have a family meal. My favourite festival is Passover, which is very important in the Jewish faith and lasts for a week. On the first two nights there is a big family meal and we read from the Bible. All through the week we don't eat bread or yeast products but to compensate for this my grandmother cooks a lot of Passover cakes. This is my favourite festival because my whole family gets together and we give presents out. 4. Theo We don't really do a lot at Christmas and I think it can be a bit boring, so it's not my favourite festival. I prefer Halloween; it's supposed to be the time when witches and ghosts come to life. Everyone puts scary costumes and masks on and has fun. When I was younger I used to dress up as a vampire and go "trick or treating". That's when you knock on people's doors and say "a trick or a treat." The person has to give you a treat, for example a bar of chocolate; otherwise you play a trick on them! 5. Jennifer My favourite festival is Christmas. I'm hot really religious but it's an important time for me because all the family are 265

Unit 3. Listening

together. We have a large Christmas lunch with turkey, cranberry sauce, stuffing and Christmas pudding. We give and receive presents and then watch TV. Jennifer dislikes Christmas because it seems boring to her 2) Listen to the following pieces of information and match the numbers of speakers with the statements. There is one odd statement.

I

Speaker Statement

1

1_ _

2

3_--+_ _ 4_-+-__5_ _

A. The speaker is frightened by school gang of kids and ask for help. B. The speaker is puzzled by the bouyfriend who always take his friend with him. C. The speaker complaints that his face is all spotted. D. The speaker has a problem with appearance and has no boyfriend a s a result. E. The speaker is surprised at some words which his mother told him. F. The speaker has a problem with her girlfriend's mother who can't allow them to meet.

1. Tim I've got a terrible problem. I've got a lot of spots on my face. My mum doesn't understand the problem. She says it's just acne and she says it's normal. But I don't want to go out because everyone laughs at me. What can I do? 2. Jasmine I'm 16 and I've never had a boyfriend. But I'm not surprised. I'm fat, my hair's a mess and I haven't got any good clothes. My friends have all got boyfriends, but I'm so unattractive, I can't see how anyone could love me. It's not fair. 266

3.2. Selective listening

3. Nicolas There's a gang of kids at our school who are making my life hell. A few weeks ago they asked me for money. I said No, but then they pushed me and hit me. Like a fool, I gave them my bus fare and so I had to walk home. But that was only the start of it. Every day after that they asked for more. I started taking money from my mum's purse to pay them. Now I can't face them any more. I haven't been to school for over a week. I'm so frightened. Please help me. I can't talk to anyone else about my problem.

4. Liz My boyfriend, Steve, and I never go out on our own. He always brings his best friend with him, when we have a date. He says that he feels guilty if he doesn't invite his friend. But what about me? 5. Robert My girlfriend and I love each other very much, but her mother doesn't like me at all. A couple of weeks ago, I took her home after midnight. There was a big argument and now I'm not allowed to go to her house any more. We have to meet in secret.

3.2. Selective Listening 1) Listen to the text and fill in the gaps with missing information. Basketball James Naismith invented basketball in 1891. Naismith was a Canadian, but lived in the United States. He was a teacher at Springfield Training School in the state of Massachusetts. 267

Unit 3. Listening

He taught sports and found there were no interesting games to play indoors in the winter months. So he thought of a game. Naismith's students played the first game of basketball in the Springfield gym in 1891. There were nine men on each team. They used a soccer ball. They put each baskets on the gym wall. The goal or purpose of the game was to throw the ball in the basket. That is why he called the game basketball. A man with a ladder went to the basket. He climbed the ladder and took the ball out of the basket. Luckily, only one man got the ball into the basket in the first game. Basketball is a very fast game. Players must run up and down the basketball court or gym floor the whole game. At the same time they must control the ball. Today, most players are tall. Many of them are over seven feet tall and weigh more than 200 pounds. But one of basketball's great players was Barney Sedran. He played from 1912 to 1926 and is in the Basketball Hall of Fame. He was only 5 feet 4 inches tall and 118 pounds! Today, basketball is an international sport. In America, the National Basketball Association (NBA) has some of the best players in the world. Basketball is also an Olympic sport today. In the Olympics, the best teams from many countries play to show they are the best. 1. James Naismith invented basketball in _ 2. He was a teacher at Springfield Training School in the state of _ 3. Naismith's students played the first game of basketball in the gym in 1891. 4. Today, most players are tall. Many of them are over _ _ _ feet tall and weigh more than pounds. 5. But one of basketball's great players was Barney Sedran. He played from 1912 to 1926 and is in the Basketball Hall of Fame. He was only feet inches tall and pounds! 6. In the , the best teams from many countries play to show they are the best. 268

3.2. Selective listening

2) Listen to the text and fill in the gaps with missing information. Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, is situated on the boarder of Tibet and Nepal. Since the end of the nineteenth century climbers have been ambitious to conquer Everest and stand on the highest point of land in the world. On Friday, 29 May 1953, two members of the British Everest Expedition succeeded in reaching the top. They were the first men known to have done so. Before the successful climb of 1953 there had been ten other expeditions. The first attempts were made from north, after permission had been obtained from the ruler of Tibet. The first expeditions were organized by the Alpine Club and the Royal Geographical Society. The aim of the 1921 expedition was to examine the mountain and the surrounding area, and find a route by which a later expedition might hope to reach the top. The climbers were successful in mapping possible routes up the mountain from the north, the north-east, and the north-west. One of them, George Mallory, reached a height of over 24,000 feet, and was able to see an immense valley on the south-west side of the mountain. It was from this valley that the climb was made in 1953. The expedition of 1924 again approached the mountain from the north. Two of the climbers, Mallory and Irvine, set up a camp at 26,800 feet. From this camp they sent back a message saying that the weather was good and that they hoped to reach the top and get back to their tent the next day. They were seen the next afternoon through a break in the clouds at a height of about 28,230 feet. They did not return to their tent, and the weather made it impossible for other climbers to go to their help. Mallory's ice-axe was found nine years later by members of another expedition. In 1951 a British expedition, led by Eric Shipton, found a way into the immense valley to the south-west of the 269

Unit 3. Listening

mountain. The exploration and map-making were of the greatest value to the men who won success in 1953. 1. Mount Everest, feet high, is situated on the boarder of Tibet and Nepal. 1953, two members of the British 2. On Friday, 29 Everest Expedition succeeded in reaching the top. 3. Before the successful climb of there had been ten other expeditions. 4. The aim of the expedition was to examine the mountain and the surrounding area. 5. George Mallory reached a height of over 24,000 . again approached the mountain 6. The expedition of from the north. 7. Two of the climbers, Mallory and Irvine, set up a camp at feet. 8. In a British expedition, led by Eric Shipton, found a way into the immense valley to the south-west of the mountain.

3) Listen to the text and fill in the gaps with missing information. Nobody Had Believed It Was Possible In 1912, the Titanic hit an iceberg on its first trip across the Atlantic, and it sank four hours later. At that time, the Titanic was the largest ship that had ever traveled on the sea. It was carrying 2207 people, but it had taken on enough lifeboats for only 1178 people. When the passengers tried to leave the ship, only 651 of them were able to get into lifeboats. The Carpathia was 58 miles away when the Titanic called on its radio for help. It arrived two hours after the great ship had gone down, and it saved 705 people. Some of the survivors had been in the icy water for hours when they were saved. Most of the passengers hadn't lived that long; 1502 people had lost their lives. 270

3.2. Selective listening

Through the whole tragedy, the Californian was only ten miles away. Its officers were close enough to see the Titanic, but they didn't understand the situation. They never received the Titanic's call for help, and they didn't come to the rescue until too late. Why was there such a great loss of life? Why were there so few survivors? Why didn't the Californian come to help? First of all, nobody had prepared for such a tragedy. Nobody had believed that the Titanic could sink. The steamship company had thought that its ship would be completely safe in all situations. They'd followed an old rule for the number of lifeboats, so they'd supplied lifeboats for only half the people. The passengers had not yet received their lifeboat numbers, nor had they practiced lifeboat drill before the accident. Many of them had not even dressed warmly, for the ship had hit the iceberg late at night, and they didn't believe they were in danger. The ship had already received six ice warnings on its radio when it struck the iceberg. Nevertheless, it had not changed its direction or its speed. It was impossible to change direction quickly enough when the iceberg came in sight. When the Titanic hit the iceberg, the radio officer on the Californian had just gone to bed. He'd tried to warn the officers on the Titanic about the ice before he'd gone to bed, but the officers hadn't listened. Mter this accident, ocean travel changed. Now there are always enough lifeboats for everybody. Ships don't go so far north in winter, and they watch carefully for ice. Radio officers work 24 hours a day. A tragedy like the sinking of the Titanic should never happen again. 1. In 1912, the Titanic hit an iceberg on its first trip across the - - - - 2. It was carrying people, but it had taken on enough lifeboats for only people. _ 3. When the passengers tried to leave the ship, only of them were able to get into lifeboats. 271

Unit 3. Listening

4. The was _ _ miles away when the Titanic called on its radio for help. 5. Through the whole tragedy, the was only ten miles away. 6. The had thought that its ship would be completely safe in all situations. 7. The ship had already received ice warnings on its radio when it struck the iceberg. 8. After this accident, ocean travel changed. _ work 24 hours a day.

3.3. Listening for Detailed Comprehension 1) Listen to the interview and choose the right variant from each three given.

Interviewer: So, Terry. You've been in London quite a long time now. Terry: Mmm. Interviewer: What differences do you notice between the two countries? Terry: Obviously the biggest difference is the people. The average Englishman is... mmm ... cold and not very open. Interviewer: Oh! Terry: In the States it's very different. We start conversations with people in the street. We're a lot more enthusiastic and spontaneous than people here. You know, when I first came, I couldn't understand what was wrong, but now I see that I was trying to be too friendly too soon. Interviewer: But urn, tell me, do the English improve as you get to know them? Terry: Oh yes! 272

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

Interviewer: Oh, good! Terry: Once you've made a friend, it's a friend for life, but it takes a very long time. I'll tell you something that I think is very important. English people in America are respected. Everyone wants to talk to them. We're inquisitive, we love the accent. But Americans in England are thought to be a little inferior because they get excited by everything. They think everything is so "cute". One thing I've learned - it's funny now, but it wasn't at the time - I couldn't understand why, when I was talking to someone, they would move away, you know, move backwards. I thought, "Do I smell? Am I boring?" The reason was, you see, Americans stand closer when they're talking. Interviewer: Ah, that's interesting. What about your impressions of living here? How does that compare with the States? Terry: Well, mmm... I think life's a lot easier in the States. It's easier to make money and it's easier to spend it. Shops are open all the time over there. When I first came to England you had to race to reach the supermarket before 5.30, but this has changed. Some shops are open later now, and on Sundays, but they are still harder to find than in the States. Interviewer: Yeah. But it is a lot better than it was. Terry: Sure. And another thing is Americans work a lot harder than you do here. To the English, their private lives are important, their holidays are important, their gardens are important, their dogs are important, but for Americans, work is the most important thing in our lives. You know, holidays seem to be longer here, and around Christmas and New Year the whole country closes down for two weeks! I nterviewer: Oh. come on! Terry: It's true! We, Americans, are like the Japanese in this respect. We live to work. Interviewer: So you don't like London very much! 273

Unit 3. Listening

Terry: Oh. You would think so from what I'm saying, wouldn't you? No, in fact I really love it here. I go home once a year and I really look forward to coming back here. This is my home now. I find life safer, more relaxed, and much more enjoyable. The Underground isn't very clean but at least you can use it and feel safe. And your taxi drivers are wonderful! They tell you their life stories and know every street in London. Maybe I've gotten into English habits! England doesn't have the dramatic beauty of the States, but oh, it... it's very pretty and charming in a way that I find comforting. 1. The biggest difference between two countries - the UK and the USA - is 1) their climate 2) their people 3) their economy

_ 2. American are more 1) vigorous 2) enthusiastic 3) enthusiastic and spontaneous 3. 1) 2) 3)

Americans have a rule to make gestures keep the distance come closer

while speaking.

4. Some shops in England are open later now, and on Sundays, but they are still _ 1) they are still very expensive 2) they still supplie things of law quality. 3) they are still harder to find than in the States. 5. The most important thing for British people is I) their work 274

_

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

2) their private life 3) their internatioanal affairs 6. Celebrating the New Year and Christmas in England 1) continues for about two weeks. 2) doesn't differ from American one. 3) is shorter than it is In the USA. _ 7. The speaker says that he 1) doesn't like London at all and is going to come back the USA. 2) likes London very much and has never seen something more beautiful. 3) in fact really love to live here and is adjusted to its life. 2) Listen to the interview and choose the right variant from each three given.

Interviewer: Why/how did you become a teacher? Teacher: It's in the blood really. But I was always going to be a French teacher, till I spent a year in France as an undergraduate and realized there were about 60 million French people there who spoke French better then I ever could. That's when I started to think about becoming an English teacher. I nterviewer: What thing do not many people know about you? Teacher: If there's dark chocolate and milk chocolate on the table, I'll take the dark - usually. Interviewer: What is you are never without? Teacher: A sense of humor - I hope. Interviewer: What is you best teaching moment? Teacher: Deciding something is "die best" (or "the worst") is virtually impossible for me. But what is great for me is, 275

Unit 3. Listening

I guess, the same as what is great for everyone. It's when someone gives you some feedback which shows what they have appreciated or enjoyed what you have done. Interviewer: What is you worst teaching moment? Teacher: It's the absence of feedback what makes for awful classroom experiences. The group (or individual) who reacts negatively isn't as bad as die group that doesn't react at all. That is what I dread most when I go into classroom. Interviewer: How you'd like to be remembered as a teacher? Teacher: I'd just like to be remembered. People remember people or events what were important for them, and if being in a class of mine turns out to have been important for someone, what could be better as a teacher? Interviewer: What is you biggest mistake? Teacher: Investing my savings in die stock market in November 1999 - since when it has gone dramatically downhill. Interviewer: What is your greatest success? Teacher: Finding love and having three wonderful children. Interviewer: What is your greatest regret? Teacher: Apart from not having written Julian Dakin's book, I haven't got many. I suppose I would have liked to become rich and famous, but I'm happy, I can afford to live, and I'm being profiled in ETp, so it can't all be bad! Interviewer: What is your favorite class? Teacher: The ones I'm teaching at the moment. If you teach a class wishing they were another group, you won't enjoy it - and nor will they! My message to new teachers is: find out what it is about teaching that gives you a buzz - and focus on that. If nothing about teaching gives you a buzz, get another job. Interviewer: What is your favorite language teaching anecdote? 276

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

Teacher: I was the learner. My French teacher said to me, "Vous €tes nes en France?" (Were you born in France?) I thought she said ''Vous etiez en France?" (Have you been to France?) So I said, "Dui, trois fois!" (Yes, three times.) Interviewer: What English teaching is? Teacher: It is like baking a cake when each cookery book has a different recipe and die ingredients are different each time you open the packet. Interviewer: If you hadn't been a teacher, what would you have been? Teacher: Millionaire - maybe. Interviewer: Would you let your children go into ELT? Teacher: My son has just started a Linguistics and English Language course at university. Should I worry? Well, one thing I've learnt as a parent is that there is nothing whatsoever you can do to stop your offspring doing what they want to do - or to make them do something they don't want to do. And it does mean we can always have a good chat about glottal stops when we want to annoy the rest of die family. 1. The speaker became an English teacher because . 1) he didn't know any other subject 2) he understood that he knows French worse than English 3) because he liked English more than French 2. 1) 2) 3)

One thing people don't know abot him is that he _ _. likes chocolate most of all likes dack chocolate doesn't like chocolate at all

3. 1) 2) 3)

He is never without - - - - - an optimism a sense of humor songs 277

Unit 3. Listening

4. His best teching moment is when someone gives you some feedback which shows what they _ 1) have understood what you have done 2) have appreciated or enjoyed what you have done 3) have learned what you have done 5. If he hadn't been a teacher, he would have been a __. 1) millionaire 2) a president 3) a businessman 6. His son has just started a Linguistics and English Language course at university and he _ 1) is satisfied with it 2) is puzzled with it 3) is afraid of it 7. 1) 2) 3)

As his son is a philologist too, _ the rest of the family has nothing to speak about he always tries to give him a piece of advice they can always have a good chat about glottal stops

3) Listen to the following abstract and mark the sentences given below true, false or not stated.

r-_1_-t--_2

3_-t--_4

pj__

5__

7__

Amish people: another way of life Imagine a world without telephones or television, without cars or electricity. In this world the women wear long dresses. There is no industry. Everyone works on farms and travels by horse or on foot. Where do you think this world is? Europe in the seventeenth century, perhaps? In fact, it is Pennsylvania in America in the 1990s. It is the world of the Amish people. 278

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

The Amish people went to America in the eighteenth century and since then their lifestyle has not changed at all. They don't even speak English among themselves. They speak German as their ancestors did. The Amish are farmers and they base their life on the Bible. There were no tractors or telephones in the Bible and there are no tractors or telephones in the Amish villages today. Amish life is very strict and very simple. Their clothes are very plain. The men and boys wear dark jackets and trousers, plain shirts and hats. The women and girls wear long dresses and small bonnets. They have long hair and they don't wear any make-up or jewellery. Family life is very important for the Amish. They live in large families and everyone helps with the work. The day starts when the sun rises and it ends when the sun sets. The men and boys work in the fields and the women and girls work in the houses when something big is needed, such as a new barn, all the neighbours help to build it. While the men and boys cut, lift and hammer the wood, the women and girls prepare the food and look after the children. Nobody works on Sundays, because everyone goes to church. But life for the Amish is not all work. They have a lot of village parties. They don't dance or play musical instruments, but they sing hymns and they have a good time. There is no electricity in the world of the Amish. They don't use chemicals on their farms. The rules are strict. But there is no crime and no pollution. Nobody is poor and nobody is lonely. 1. The Amish people went to America in 16th century. a) True b) False c) Not stated

2. Amish life is very strict and very simple. a) True b) False c) Not stated 3. Amish people base their life on Bible. a) True b) False c) Not stated 279

Unit 3. Listening

4. Amish people often use all modern gadgets to make their life easier. a) True b) False c) Not stated 5. Usually Amish people have large families. a) True b) False c) Not stated 6. More and more young Amish people refuse to keep to the tradition. a) True b) False c) Not stated 7. Amish girls like to dance very much. a) True b) False c) Not stated 4) Listen to the following abstract and mark the sentences given below true, false or not stated. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

AIDS: Living with HIV By the year 2005 AIDS has become a six leading cause of death among 15- to 24-year-old Americans. In the United Kingdom after the year 2004 the amount of children who have a parent who is HIV-positive or has AIDS reached the level of 10,000. Some of these children will be told about their parent's illness, others won't be told until after their parent's death. Which way is better? Should these children know the truth or is it better for them to be happy in their innocence? Here is a story of a 14-year-old boy John who knows that his mother is ill but doesn't know why. John doesn't go on school trips, play football or even see his friends very much apart from when he is in school. His teachers think he is lazy because he never does his homework, but the truth is 280

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione very different; John spends most of his time cleaning the house, shopping, looking after his sister and giving his mother medicine. His mother is HIV-positive and he is the only person who looks after her. John's mother will probably die before someone tells him the whole story. The social workers believe that he won't have been prepared for the shock that the news that a parent has died of AIDS can bring. It will be terrible for him because now he can't get any support or help from the other people. Daniel's mother told him what was wrong with her when Daniel was twelve. She wanted to tell him because it was obvious that she wasn't well. He freaked when she told him and was angry with her for getting ill, however it is a common reaction. Daniel didn't seem able to cope with the lie and is always worried that she won't tell him when her illness becomes more severe. He is worried about her all the time but he hasn't told anyone at his school. He says he would be bullied if anyone found out. Many people think that this is a good reason not to tell their children, because keeping something secret when it is making them unhappy can be unbearable. They will be more likely to become more introverted or to drink or take drugs as a way to escape reality. Sometimes children must be told because they need to be tested themselves. However, in many cases, this is not necessary. Young children often can't understand why their parents are ill; they are often ignored at school because other kids' parents have told them to stay away from the kid whose parent has AIDS. HIV-positive parents don't want their children to feel different and isolated so they don't tell anyone.

1. John knew from the very beginning that his mother was ill. a) True b) False c) Not stated 281

Unit 3. Listening 2. John's teachers and classmates help him to overcome his grief. a) True b) False c) Not stated 3. Daniel's reaction as for the truth about his mother's health was rather natural. a) True b) False c) Not stated 4. At his 14 John is a breadwinner for the whole family. a) True b) False c) Not stated 5. Daniel is hiding the whole truth even from his closest friends. a) True b) False c) Not stated 6. Classmates can ignore such children as John and Daniel because their parents told them to do so. b) False c) Not stated a) True 7. The author states that parents should tell the whole truth to their children. a) True b) False c) Not stated 5) Listen to the following abstract and mark the sentences given below true, false or not stated.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Madame Tussaud Marie Tussaud was born in Strasbourg in 1761. Her father died two months before she was born, and her family moved to Switzerland. Her mother worked for a German doctor. The doctor was a kind man who enjoyed making wax models of parts of 282

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

the human body. He soon got a reputation for making good likeness of people's heads as well. He moved to Paris because he wanted to earn money by making models of the rich and famous. Soon Marie and her mother joined him in Paris. When she was six years old, the doctor taught her how to work in wax. Her portraits became so popular that by the time she was twenty she was living in the Palace of Versailles because the royal family invited her to live there. The French Revolution started in 1789, and this was the beginning of hard times for Marie. However, she met and married Francois Tussaud, who was an engineer. They had three children, a daughter who died and two sons. In 1802 she received permission from Napoleon to go to London, because she wanted to take her waxwork collection to England. She went round Britain and Ireland with her four-year-old son, and her shows were a great success. She never saw France or her husband again. She opened her exhibition centre in London in 1835, and it has been in the same place ever since. Marie died in 1850. Madame Tussaud's is now London's most popular tourist attraction. About 2.2 million people visit it every year. 1. Marie Tussaud was separated from her husband because of the French revolution. a) True b) False c) Not stated 2. Father started to teach Marie to work with wax when she was 11. a) True b) False c) Not stated 3. Madame Tussaud's Museum is held in the same building since 1835. b) False c) Not stated a) True

283

Unit 3. Listening

4. For some time Mary lived at the French Royal court. a) True b) False c) Not stated 5. Mary became rather popular at the age of twenty. a) True b) False c) Not stated 6. Napoleon didn't give her a permission to leave France, so he had to flee. a) True b) False c) Not stated 7. There are a lot of pictures of the most famous painters in Madame Tussaud's. a) True b) False c) Not stated 6. Listen to the following abstract and mark the sentences given below true, false or not stated. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Noah Webster The most famous of all American dictionary makers, Noah Webster was as influential in the history of American English as George Washington in the American revolution. From the Dissertation on the English Language in 1789 to his great monuments of 1828, an American Dictionary of the English Language (referred to simply as Webster's), his work is reak landmark in American history. He was born in Hartford, and, like many of the American revolutionaries, turned from law to reaching as a means of making his living. That was of those career changes that transform man's life. Britain was at war with the colonies and schoolbooks, traditionally imported from London, were in short supply. So, very much in the spirit of a new world, he set about filling that gap. Between 1783 and 1785 while still 284

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

in his twenties Webster published three elementary books in English: a speller, a grammar and a reader. The American Speller turned out to be a runaway bestseller, selling over 80 million copies in Webster's lifetime (second to the Bible). The success of the American Speller gave Webster more than enough to live on, and he devoted the rest of his life to the championing of the cause of the American language, its spelling, its grammar and its pronunciation. He wrote: "Our honour requires us to have a system of our own, in language as well as in government". 1. The first books published by Webster were a grammar, a speller and a reader. a) True b) False c) Not stated

2. Before working as a publisher Webster studied medicine. a) True b) False c) Not stated 3. Webster worked mainly in the field of Australian English. a) True b) False c) Not stated 4. The textbook by Webster was even more popular than the Bible. a) True b) False c) Not stated 5. Before Webster's publications textbooks were imported from London. a) True b) False c) Not stated 6. The work of all Webster's life was a grammar reference book. a) True b) False c) Not stated 7. Webster was rather unhappy in his childhood. a) True b) False c) Not stated 285

Unit 3. Listening

7) Listen to the following abstracts and mark the sentences given below true, false or not stated.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

A. Dr. Lamb divides people into several categories according to their manner of shaking hands. If you extend a hand straight forward during an interview or tend to lean forward, you are an "operator" - good for an organization requiring an infusion of energy or dramatic change of course. If you tend to draw yourself up to your tallest during the handshake, Lamb considers you are a "presenter". You are a master at selling yourself or the organization in which you are employed. If you take a lot of space while talking by moving your arms about, you are a good informer and good listener. You are best suited for an organization seeking a better sense of direction. Lamb believes there is a relationship between positioning of the body and movements of the limbs and facial expressions. He has observed harmony between the two. On the other hand, if certain gestures are rehearsed, such as those made to impress others, there is a tendency to separate the posture and the movements.

B. Most Americans favor a distance of approximately 19 inches, or just about arm's length, though for Western Europeans and Americans, a space of 14 to 16 inches would be considered non-intrusive. Those from the U.K. are more comfortable if the person with whom they are speaking maintains a distance of 24 inches. Business owners and corporate executives in Korean and China generally prefer at least that much room 286

3.3. Listening for detailed comprehensione

and Japanese business executives have indicated a preference for even greater personal space of roughly 36 inches. On the other hand, those from Middle Eastern countries favor a personal space of only 8 to 12 inches, and they could perceive a greater distance as suspicious behavior. 1. The type of "operator" is a master in selling himself to the employer. a) True b) False c) Not stated 2. Russian like a lot of personal space. a) True b) False c) Not stated 3. Korean and China businessmen prefer not so much personal room as Japanese do. a) True b) False c) Not stated 4. Dr. Lamb believes that there is no relationship between positioning of the body and facial expressions. a) True b) False c) Not stated 5. The Americans prefer a personal space of approximately 24 inches. b) False c) Not stated a) True 6. One of the types distinguished by Dr Lamb is presenter. a) True b) False c) Not stated 7. Body language is a factor in human courtship. a) True b) False c) Not stated

287

Unit4 WRITING

4.1. Curriculum Vitae I Resume (ABTo6Morpacl»MH I Pe31OMe) Resumes (Curriculum vitaes) play an important role in getting the job you dreamed about as the job can be lost on the basis of an interview only. The interviewer usually sees the resume before he sees the applicant. The resume gives the first impression of the applicant to the employer. It should be neat and well organized. Here are the summarized points of what has been written here:

POJIb pe3IOMe OqeHb BamHa ~JISI IIOJIyqeHHSI pa6oTbI, 0 KOTOpOH BbI MeqTaeTe, IIOCKOJIbKY O~HOl'O JIHIIIb co6ece~OBaHHSI MomeT OKa3aTbCSI He~OCTaTOqHO. 06bIQHO HHTepBbIOep IIpOCMaTpHBaeT pe3IOMe IIepe~ BCTpeQeH C IIpeTeH~eHToM. M HMeHHO pe3IOMe epopMHpyeT y IIOTeH~HaJIbHOrO

pa6oTO~aTeJISI

IIepBoe BIIeQaTJIeHHe 0 Bac. l103TOMy pe3IOMe ~OJIm­ HO 6bITb TOQHbIM H XOpOIIIO CepOpMyJIHpOBaHHbIM. BOT Te OCHOBHble ~aHHbIe, KOTopble Heo6xo~HMO IIpe~cTaBHTb:

Personal data: name (fam- JIUqHLIe ,n;aHHLIe: epaMHJIHSI,

ily name, other names (first name and second name(s)), age (date of birth), marital status (single, married, divorced), number of children, address, phone number.

HMSI, OTqeCTBO, B03pacT (~a­ Ta pom~eHHSI), ceMeHHoe IIOJIOmeHHe (XOJIOCT/He 3aMymeM, meHaT/3aMymeM, pa3Be~eH/pa3Be~eHa), KOJIHqeCTBO ~eTeH, Mpec, HOMep TeJIeepoHa.

Unit 4. Writing

EXAMPLE NAME: Janet Martin Address: 12 Harcourt Road London SW1 England Tel: (0171) 5436789 Date of birth: 27th March 1968 Marital status: Single Nationality: British Education: 1984-86: Greenfields School - Yorkshire (3 A-levels) 1986-89: Capital Business School, London MBA, specialised in International Business Languages: English - mother tongue German - fluent French - spoken Italian - good working knowledge Professional Experience: Summer 1987: Crane Engineering - Assistant to the Personnel Manager, responsible for a study on work methods 1989... : United Telecom - Assistant to the Marketing Manager Hobbies: Sailing, horse-riding, jazz Further qualifications: Driving license Good computer skills

4.2. Filling in the Forms Different kinds of forms are used for different purposes, for example, for opening visas, for getting the job. You must give short answers. As an example you can use the Resume (4.1).

B pa3Jm:QHbIX clfTyan;lulx Tpe6yeTcH 3anOJIHHTb pa3HbIe BIf,lJ;bI aHReT, HanplfMep, ,lJ;JIH nOJIyqeHIfH B1f3, pa6oTbI. CJIe,lJ;yeT ,lJ;aBaTb RpaTRlfe OTBeTbI. RaR nplfMep MO:>KHO IfCnOJIb30BaTb COCTaBJIeHlfe pe3IOMe (4.1).

290

4.3. Writing a private letter

4.3. Writing a Private Letter ;

3anOMHHTe CTpyKTypy JIH'IHOrO aHrJIHHCKOro nHCbMa!

6 Pushkin St. Dmitrov 146150 Russia (11) 28 January 2008 (12) Dear (1) Mr and Mrs Bennet, (2,3) Thanks for your letter. It was great to hear from you (4). In your letter you asked me about my life since I've returned home. I'm home now, but I have to start working immediately, so this is the first time possible for me to write (5). My family is fine. They had a good summer holiday by the lake. We are all very excited because of my brother's marriage before Christmas. He and his wife are looking for a flat near the city centre but it is very difficult to find one. If they don't find soon, they wiJI have to stay with us (6). Are you happy with your new house? Is it bigger than your old house? Please tell me more about it. Write soon. Best wishes, (8, 9) Ann (10)

1. 06pam;eHlIe

06hI'IHO Ha"tllIHaeTC.ll C

Dear,

K IWTOpOMy ,lI;O-

6aBJI.lleTC.ll IIM.ll nOJIY"tJ:aTeJl.ll. 2.06pam;eHlIe nlIIUeTC.ll He nOCepe,ll;HHe, a OT JleBOrO Kpa.ll 6e3 oTcTyna.

3. IIocJle

o6pam;eHII.ll HyiKHO nOCTaBHTb He BOCKJIHn;aTeJlb-

HhIH 3HaK, a 3an.llTYIO.

4. BbIpa3HTe

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HYiKHO).

5. YKaiKlITe

npH"tIlIHY HanHCaHlI.ll 3Toro nHCbMa H C006m;H-

Te, 0 "tIeM nOH,lI;eT pe"tlb. 6.0TBeTbTe Ha BonpOChI, eCJlH BaM OHH 6bIJIH 3a,ll;aHbI.

7. 3a,LJ;aHTe IIHTepecyIOm;He Bac BonpOCbI. 8. B KOHn;e nHCbMa He 3a6Y,ll;bTe nOCTaBHTb 3aBeprnaIOm;yIO IPpa3y, HanpHMep, Yours sincerely, Best wishes, Love, Love and all good wishes, etc. 291

4.4. Writing an official I business letter 7. llocJIe 3aBeplIIaIO~eR «ppa3hI He 3a6Y)J;bTe nOCTaBHTb 3anHTyIO. 8. llocJIe 3aBeplIIaIO~eR «ppa3hI Ha OT)J;eJIbHOR CTpOKe HanHlIIHTe CBoe HMH. 9. A,D;pec nOJI~aTeJIH nHlIIeTCH B TaKOM nopH)J;Ke: a) HMH H «paMHJIHH MpecaTa; 6) HOMep ,n;OMa, Ha3BaHHe YJIHI.J;hI; B) ropo)J;, nO'lTOBhIR HH)J;eKC; r) CTpaHa.

4.4. Writing an Official I Business Letter 3alIoMHHTe CTpyRTypy THIIHlIHoro ,a;eJIOBOrO IIHCbMa!

The structure of a typical business letter

1. Letterhead

Brownlee & Co Ltd

2. Sender's address

5 High Street, Blackheath, London SF3B 5HY tel: 01-852-6872

3. Recipient's address

Mr. C. Chamberlain Managing Director Evans Universal Ltd. Lord Shaftsbury Avenue, London Wl A 7WW

4. Reference

Our ref: MS/WID/15/88

5. Date

26th October 2001

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4.5. Writing a summary

4.5. Writing a Summary Summary is a short statement of important ideas, results or details (usually of an article). Such written works contain mostly simple sentences or not very long complex ones to make what you want to say laconic and logical. There are a lot of enumerations, generalizations. For example:

"Summary" 3TO KopoTKoe H3JIOmeHHe OCHOBHbIX H,n;eH, pe3YJIbTaTOB H ,n;eTaJIeH (o6bI'IHO B CTaTbe). TaKoro po,n;a TeKCTbI COCTaBJIHIOT B OCHOBHOM H3 npoCTbIX H KpaTKHX npe,n;JIomeHHH, 'ITo6bI H3JIOmeHHe 6hIJIO JIOrH'IHbIM H JIaKOHH'IHbIM. 3,n;ecb 'IaCTO BCTpe'lalOTCH nepe'lHCJIeHHH, o606II\eHHH. HanpHMep:

The article is concerned with (deals with ) ... The subject of the article is... At the beginning of the article the author describes (dwells on, touches upon. explains)... Then (after that, further on, next) the author passes on to / goes on to say that... / gives a detailed (brief) analysis (description). The article ends with... The book ends with the depiction (analysis) of... It was noted... The report is devoted to the problem of...

CmambR KacaemCR... TeMou cmambU R8JlRemCR...

B lta'laJle cmambU a6mop onuCb18aem (ocmana8JlU6aemCR na, KacaemCR, o6oRcnRem ) ... 3ameM (nocJle amozo, iJaJlee) a6mop nepexoiJum K... / z06opum, 'lmo... / iJeJlaem iJemaJlbnblU (KpamKuu) anaJlU3 (onucanue). CmambR 3aKan'lU6aemCR... Knuza 3aKan'lU6aemCH onucanueM (anaJlU30M ) ... BblJlO OmMe'leno... ~OKJlaiJ nOC8R14en npo6JleMe...

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Unit 4. Writing

EXAMPLE

In the short story "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty" author James Thurber humorously presents a character who fantasizes about himself as a hero enduring incredibly challenging circumstances. In his real life, Waiter Mitty lives an ordinary, plain life; he is a husband under the control of an overbearing, critical wife. Thurber uses lively dialogue to give readers an understanding of Mitty's character. The story takes place over a period of about twenty minutes; during this brief time, Mitty drives his wife to the hairdresser and runs errands that his wife has given him while he waits for her. In between his worrying that he is not doing what she wants him to do, he daydreams about himself as a great surgeon, brilliant repair technician, expert marksman, and brave military captain. This story shows that fantasy is often a good alternative to reality.

4.6. Describing the Events. Expressing your Opinion 1) Write a weather forecast for today in the UK. Good evening. It's been a sunny day in most places today, but that's going to change for some of you tomorrow. Let's have a look at the picture for tomorrow morning. Some wet and windy weather is already moving into the north-west of Scotland, and tomorrow morning the rain will spread to the whole of Scotland. There will be some very strong northerly winds - 35 mph in some places. And it won't be very warm, with temperatures of only 8 or 10 degrees. 306

4.6. Describing the events. Expressing your opinion

Let's look now at Wales and northern England. Here it will be a dry but cloudy day, and it won't be very warm. Temperatures will only be about 15 degrees in the north-west and a bit warmer - 17 degrees - in the north-east. There will be very little wind. In the south it will be warm and sunny again with temperatures up to 23 degrees, but there will be some thunderstorms in the south-west. Winds will be very light and from the south.

2) Write an announcement in the Internet or in the newspaper on the topic "Tourism". A Dear visitors to St. Petersburg! We are glad to introduce you our accommodation services in St. Petersburg. At present we dispose one of the most complete data base of city's and suburbs apartments, therefore we could provide you with any type of accommodation starting with a simple home stay or budget apartment and finishing with a very modern design and western standard one, luxuries villas in the country are also available. So here you can find apartments with different prices and conveniences located in all districts of our city while looking through attached photos and brief descriptions. We offer you all types of apartments such as one-room apartments, two-room apartments, three, four- and even five-room apartments with a variety of facilities and advantagesl Moreover the prices are flexible and reasonable. Our apartments are available for short and longterm rentals. If you decide to stay in our apartments, we can meet you in the airport and drive to the apartment, arrange tour-guide or translator services, Russian visa support and other services. As a renting price depends on the season we'd kindly ask you to look through our database, make you choice and contact us as soon as possible in order we could inform 307

Unit 4. Writing

you on the apartment's availability. If you have any questions or you need any additional information, please do not hesitate to contact us. B The first impressions tour. See the main Moscow sights in a few hours This bus tour will be interesting if you want to get the first impression about Moscow, orient yourself, see the main sights, see some bits of the city life, and get used to the city. You'll learn more about the history and culture of our city, as well as about the life of the people. You'll see the main spots, and (if you feel like it) some hidden interesting places that'll give you richer insight about Moscow. Type: bus and walking; Duration: 3 hours; Price: $28 per tour (per person); Availability: Daily 11 a.m and 2.30 p.m. C

Specialized Moscow tours: architecture, estates, monasteries, old mansions, Moscow metro Cultural tours to Moscow architecture masterpieces, interesting estates and monasteries, historical areas of the city. It's also possible to make a tour of Moscow metro an underground museum. These tours are made by certified guides with a solid knowledge of Moscow history and cultural background. Type: walking or driving tour; Duration: 3-4 hours; Price: $18 to $46 per tour per person; Availability: any time, upon request.

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4.5. Writing a summary

UnitS GRAMMAR

5.1. Syntax 5.1.1. Communicative types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, negative, imperative and word order in them From the viewpoint of the role in the process of communication sentence are derived into four types: declarative, negative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

TO'fRH 3peHHH pOJIH B KOMMYHHKaU;HH rrpOu;ecce rrpe,n;JIOmeHHe ,n;eJIHTCH Ha YTBep,n;HTeJIhHbIe, OTpHII,aTeJIhHbIe, BorrpOCHTeJIhHhIe H no6y,n;HTeJIhHbIe.

C

Television is a reflection of the modern world. The first modern typewriter was developed by Christopher Sholes and two of his friends. I can't swim. Nobody was present at our meeting. Is this a pen? There are a lot of new books, aren't there? Give me a piece of chalk, please. Would you be so kind to give me you book?

309

5.1. Syntax

14) rrpe,n;yrrpem,n;eHHH:

4) warnings:

Look out! (ITo6epezucb! )

5) announcements:

15) BhIBeCKH, 06'hHBJIeHHH:

Keep off the grass. ( IT0 mpa6e lie xooumb.)

Let's do Let's not do

,IJ;aBail:(Te) C,n;eJIaeM ,IJ;aBail:(Te) He ,n;eJIaTh Let's do everything together. (J(a6au(me) coeJtaeM 6ce 6Mecme.) Let's have some tea. (J(a6au(me) nonbeM 'lalO.) Let's not wait for them! (J(a6au(me) lie 6yoeM ux JlCOamb!) Let's not make a noise! (J(a6ai1(me) lie 6yoeM wyMemb!)

5.1.2. Impersonal sentences. There is fare IIpe,ZJ;JIo~eHHH c

Sentences with there is/there are

there is/there are

In sentences describing something the formal subject there is introduced. Usually it is combined with the verb to be in corresponding number and tense form.

B rrpe,n;JIOmeHHHX, orrHChIBaIOrn;HX cyrn;ecTBoBaHHe qeroJIH60, BBO,n;HTCH epopMaJIhHOe rro,n;JIemarn;ee there. "Ilarn;e Bcero cKa3yeMhIM B TaKHX rrpe,n;JIOmeHHHX 6hIBaeT rJIarOJI to be B cooTBeTcTByIOrn;eil: epopMe qHCJIe H BpeMeHH.

319

Unit 5. Grammar

The children aren't in the There are no children (=not any children) in the room. room. They are in the garden. (J(emu He 6 l(,OMname. (B lWMname nem (nul(,al(,ux) iJemeu.) Onu 6 caiJy.) 2. HeJIb3J1 3aMeHMTb cym;ec- 2. Cym;ecTBMTeJIbHOe MomHO TBMTeJIbHOe JIM'1HbIM MeCTOMMeHMeM.

3aMeHMTb JIM'1HbIM MeCTOMMeHMeM.

There is some bread on the table.

The bread is on the table. It's on the table.

5.1.3. Compound sentences with conjunctions and, but. Complex sentences with conjunctions because, if, when, that, that is why Compound and complex sen- CJIO:IKHOCOqUHeHHLIe M CJIO:IKtences. HOnO,lJ;qUHeHHLIe rrpe,n;JIomeHMS'! The parts of the compound l.{acTM CJIOmHOCO'1MHeHHOsentences and the parts of the ro rrpe,n;JIOmeHMS'! M '1JIeHbI sentences are joined by the rrpe,n;JIOmeHMS'! coe,n;MHHIOTCJI conjunctions and, but, or, etc. COI03aMM and (u), but (HO, a), or (UJlu) M T. ,n;.

You and he may go out. Yesterday I was tired, and my mother let me stay at home. There are a lot of books there: fairy tales, detective stories, and love stories. I like to swim but only in the swimming pool. A complex sentence has an in- CJIOmHorro,n;'1MHeHHOe rrpe,n;dependent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as conjunctions because, since, after, although, or conjunctive prono-

JIOmeHMe COCTOMT M3 PJIaBHOro rrpe,n;JIOmeHMJI, K KOTOpOMy rrpMcoe,n;MHeHbI O,n;HO MJIM 60JIbme 3aBMCMMbIX rrpM,n;aTO'lHbIX rrpe,n;JIOmeHH:H. B CJIOmHOCO'lMHeHHOM rrpe,n;JIo-

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Unit 5. Grammar

so that, in order that, lest, for fear

Of purpose (n;eJIH)

The teacher explained the rule twice in order the pupils could understand it. I if

Of condition (yCJIOBHH)

If she doesn't come in time, I shall go to the theatre alone. Of manner (o6paaa ,n;encTBHH)

Ias

if, as though

You ought to speak English as I do. as; as/so... as; not as/so . as; more/less... than; the . the

Of comparison (cpaBHeHHH)

I shall do as I like. Of concession (ycTyrrHTeJIbHoe)

although, though, even though, even if, much as, while, whereas

However busy he is, he always visits me on Friday.

5.1.4. Sequence of tenses and indirect speech CorJIaCOBaHue BpeMeH

Sequence of Tenses

A present (or future) tense in 3a HaCTOHIIJ;HM (6y,n;yIIJ;HM) the principal clause may be BpeMeHeM B r JIaBHOM rrpe,n;followed by any tense in the JIOmeHHH CJIe,n;yeT JIlo6oe BpeMH B rrpH,n;aTOqHOM. subordinate object clause.

I know that he plays tennis well. A past tense in the principal 3a rrpOIIIJIbIM BpeMeHeM B clause is followed by a past rJIaBHOM rrpe,n;JIOmeHHH CJIetense in the subordinate object ,n;yeT rrpOIIIJIOe BpeMH B rrpH,n;aTOqHOM. clause.

I knew that he played tennis well. 328

5.1. Syntax

5. The verb "to speak" takes 5. fJIaroJI "to speak" npHHHa direct object in the follow- MaeT npaMoe ,n;onOJIHeHHe B ing case: CJIe,n;yIOw;eM CJI~ae: to speak English; to speak a foreign language. 6. When we change Direct 6. Kor,n;a MbI MeHaeM npainto Indirect Speech we MyIO peqb Ha HenpaMyIO, MbI must: ,n;OJI:iKHbI: a) omit the quotation marks a) BbmycKaTb KaBbIqKH ("

... ");

...

b) change the reporting verb into the one best suited to express the sense of the Direct statement, question, command or exclamation; c) introduce the Indirect Speech by some conjunction;

(" "); 6) MeHaTb rJIarOJI B HenpaMoll

peqH Ha HaH60JIee no,n;xo,n;aW;Hll no CMbICJIY K npaMoMy yTBep:iK,n;eHHIO, Bonpocy, npHKa3Y HJIH BOCKJIHD;aHHIO; B) npe,n;cTaBJIaTb HenpaMyIO peqb COOTBeTcTByIOW;HM coI030M; d) change the pronouns; r) MeHaTb MeCTOHMeHHa; e) observe the sequence of ,n;) HCnOJIb30BaTb COrJIaCOBatenses; HHe BpeMeH; f) change the words express- e) MeHaTb CJIOBa, BHpa:iKaIOing distance. W;He paCCToaHHe.

5.1.5. Sentences with conjunctions neither ... nor, either ... or The determiners both, either and neither are used when referring to groups of two people, objects or events. Both refers to two things of a group of two, either refers to one thing of a group of two, and

Orrpe,n;eJIaIOW;He CJIOBa both, either, neither HCnOJIb3YIOTca no OTHorneHHIO K rpynrre ,n;BYX JIHD;, npe,n;MeToB, aBJIeHHll. Both COOTHOCHTca C ,n;ByMa cyw;ecTBHTeJIbHbIMH, either C O,n;HHM, neither He

331

J"nit 5. Grammar

5.2. Morphology 5.2.1. The Noun. Plural form of nouns. Using of the articles Noun is the main part of HM.H cyru;ecTBHTeJIhHOe speech denoting people, ob- :no caMOCTO.HTeJIhHa.H 'IaCTh jects, processes and phenom- pe'IH, KOTOpa.H 0603Ha'IaeT ena. JIIO,ll;eH, npe,ll;MeTH, npo:u;ecChI H HBJIeHH.H H OTBe'IaeT Ha BonpoChI ICmo? /'lmo? English nouns are divided into B aHrJIHHCKOM H3hIKe cycountable and uncountable. ru;eCTBHTeJIhHhle ,n;eJIHTCH Ha HC'IHCJIHeMhIe H HeHC'IHCJIHeMhIe.

1. Countable nouns denote 1. HC'IHCJI.HeMhle cyru;eCTBHpeople, animals, objects, con- TeJIhHhle 0603HaQalOT JIIO,n;eH, crete notions. atHBOTHhIX, npe,n;MeThI, KOHKpeTHhle nOHHTH.H. book, tiger, hedgehog, chair, bus, cup, notion, candle

2. Uncountable nouns denote materials and substances, abstract notions, mental processes, feelings and emotions.

2. HeHC'IHCJI.HeMhIe cyru;eCTBHTeJIhHhIe 0603Ha'Ia1OT Beru;eCTBa H atH,n;KOCTH, a6CTpaKTHhIe nOHHTH.H, npo:u;eCChI yMcTBeHHoH ,n;eHTeJIhHOCTH, a TaKate eMO:U;HH H QyBcTBa.

love, friendship, music, water, oil, gas, chalk

3. There are some nouns which 3. HeKoTophIe cyru;eCTBHcan be used both as a countable TeJIhHble MoryT HCnOJIh30and as an uncountable noun. BaThCH H KaK HC'IHCJIHeMhIe, H KaK HeHC'IHCJI.HeMhIe. wine (ee14ecmeo) - HeUC'lUC.Mle,Moe cY14ecmumeJtbHoe wines (Map,ca, copm) - UC'lUcJtM,MOe cY14ecmeumeJtbHoe

334

Unit 5. Grammar f) the names of streets, lanes, squares, parks, gardens;

i

e) Ha3BaHHSI yJIHU;, nepeYJIROB, nJIOII\a,zJ;eH, napKOB, CKBepOB, cTpoeHHH;

Downing Street, Trafalgar Square, Hyde Park, Waterloo Bridge, Ashley House NB! the Market Square, the National Square, the Strand, the High Street, the Main Street, the Mall (BE)

I m)

g) the names of universities and airports.

Ha3BaHHSI yHHBepcHTeTOB H aaponopTOB.

Oxbridge, Indiana University, Kennedy Airport NB! the University of Illinois, the University of Essex,

the Ohio State University

5.2.2. Personal, possessive, interrogative, demonstrative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns some, any, no, every and their derivatives VVords that can be used instead of nouns referring to people or things without really naming are called Pronouns. They have all characteristics mentioned for nouns and some of them have separate forms to show Objective Case. There are 12 classes of pronouns. They are: personal, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, conjunctive, quantitative, indefinite, universal, and negative.

CJIOBa, HCnOJIb3YIOII\HeCSI BMeCTO CYII\eCTBHTeJIbHbIX H YKa3bIBalOII\He Ha JIHU;O HJIH npe,n;MeT, He Ha3bIBaSI ero, Ha3bIBalOTcSI MeCToHMeHHSIMH. OHH HMelOT Bce BbImeYKa3aHHbIe xapaKTepHCTHKH Cyrn;eCTBHTeJIbHbIX, H HeROTopbIe H3 HHX MoryT HCnOJIb30BaTbCSI B <popMe HenpSIMOro na,n;ema. CYII\eCTByeT 12 KJIaCCOB MecToHMeHHH. STO JIHqHbIe, npHTSImaTeJIbHbIe, B03BpaTHbIe, B3aHMHbIe, yKa3aTeJIbHbIe, BonpOCHTeJIbHbIe, OTHOCHTeJIbHbIe, COI03HbIe, ROJIHqeCTBeHHbIe, Heonpe,n;eJIeHHbIe, 0606rn;alOII\He H OTpHu;aTeJIbHbIe.

356

Unit 5. Grammar

5.2.3. Positive, comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives. Comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs The Adjective

ITpHJIaraTeJIbHOe

The Adjective is the part of speech which denotes properties of a substance directly (qualitative) or through relation to materials (relative).

IIpMJIaraTeJIhHoe :3TO '1aCTh pe'lM, IWTopaH o603Ha'1aeT Ka'leCTBa npe,n;MeTa MJIM Bern;eCTBa np51MO (Ka'leCTBeHHhle npMJIaraTeJIhHhIe) MJIM '1epe3 OTHomeHMe K ,n;pyrMM npe,n;MeTaM MJIH Beru;eCTBaM. ECJIM B npe,n;JIOiKeHMM HeCKOJIhKO npHJIaraTeJIhHhIX c pa3HhIMM 3Ha'leHMHMM, TO OHM ,n;OJIiKHhI CTOHTh B COOTBeTcTByIOru;eM nopH,n;Ke. B COOTBeTCTBMM C HX MOp
But if there are several adjectives of different meanings in the sentence, they must stand in the appropriate order. According to their morphological composition adjectives can be subdivided into simple (kind, new), derived (with suffixes or prefixes: careless, weekly, etc.) and compound (grass-green, well-known, man-made, blueeyed, etc.).

CTerreHH cpaBHeHHH

Degrees of Comparison

1. There are three degrees of comparison: positive, analytic, and superlative (irregular). The superlative is generally used with the definite article.

Cyru;ecTByIOT TpM CTeneHM cpaBHeHMH npMJIaraTeJIhHhlX: nOJIOiKMTeJIhHaH, cpaBHMTeJIhHaH MnpeBOCXO,n;HaH. IIpeBocxo,n;Ha51 CTeneHh 06hI'IHO ynoTpe6JIHeTCH C onpe,n;eJIeHHhIM apTMKJIeM.

1.

372

Unit 5. Grammar

5.2.4. Cardinal and ordinal numerals Bce aHrJIHHCKHe qHCJIHTeJIbHbIe no.n;pa3.n;eJISITbCSI Ha KOJIHqeCTBeHHble H noPSI.n;KOBble. KOJIHqeCTBeHHble qHCJIHTeJIbHbIe 6bIBaIOT npOCTbIMH, CJIO:lKHbIMH H COCTaBHbIMH. 1. The cardinal numerals from 1. IIpOCTbIe KOJIHqeCTBeH1 to 12 as well as 100, 1,000, HbIe qHCJIHTeJIbHbIe - STO 1,000,000 are simple. qHCJIa OT 1 .n;o 12, a TaKJKe

All the English numerals are divided into cardinals and ordinals. There simple, derived and composite cardinal numerals.

100, 1000, 1000000. one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, hundred, thousand, million 2. The numerals from 13 to 19 2. qHCJIHTeJIbHbIe OT 13 .n;o and those indicating tens are 19, a TaK:lKe 0603Haqarom;He derived. The numerals from 13 .n;eCSITKH Ha3bIBaIOTCSI CJI:omto 19 are formed by adding the HbIMH. qHCJIHTeJIbHbIe OT 13 suffix -teen to the correspond- .n;o 19 06pa3yIOTCSI npH6aBing number of units. They have two stresses: on the first syllable and on the suffix. When followed by a stressed syllable they lose the stress on the suffix.

JIeHHeM cY
thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety 382

Unit 5. Grammar

5.2.5. Prepositions of place, direction and time A preposition is a function word indicating a relation between two notional words. Its semantic significance becomes evident when different prepositions are used with one and the same word:

IIpe,IJ;JIOr - BcrroMOraTeJIbHoe CJIOBO, rroKa3bIBaIOm;ee oTHomeHHH Mem,ZJ;y CJIOBaMH, HMeIOm;HMH 3HaqeHHe. CeMaHTHqeCKaH 3HaQHMOCTb rrpe,ZJ;JIora CTaHoBHTCH HBHOM, Kor,ZJ;a pa3HbIe npe,ZJ;JIorH ynoTpe6JIHIOTCH C O,ZJ;HHM 1'1 TeM me CJIOBOM:

to go to the park, to go across the park, to go round the park, to go out of the park, to go through the park, etc. A preposition may altogether change the meaning of the verb:

IIpe,ZJ;JIor MomeT TaKme MeHHTb 3HaQeHHe rJIarOJIa:

he shot the officer (he aimed at him and hit him) he shot at the officer (he aimed at him but probably missed) Although the tradition of differentiating prepositions from other parts of speech (conjunctions, and in some cases adverbs) is well established, it is not always easy to draw the border-line; nearly all one-word prepositions can also function as adverbs or as conjunctions, their status being determine: only syntactically. A few words - after, before, since,

XOTH Tpa,n;HIJ;HH OTMemeBaHHH npe,ZJ;JIOrOB OT ,ZJ;pyrHx QaCTeM peQH (COI030B 1'1, B HeKOTopbIX CJIyqaHx, HapeQHM) ,ZJ;OBOJIbHO pacrrpOCTpaHeHa, HHor,ZJ;a HeJIerKO HX pa3rpaHHQHTb; nOQTH Bce O,ZJ;HOCOCTaBHbIe npe,n;JIOrH MoryT lPyHKIJ;HOHHpOBaTb KaK HapeQHH 1'1 KaK COI03bI, HX cTaTyc orrpe,ZJ;eJIHeTCH CHHTaKCHQeCKH. HeKOTOpbIe CJIOBa - after, before, since, for

388

5.2. Morphology

OF (cooTBeTcTByeT pyCCKOMy pO,lJ;HTeJILHoMy na,lJ;emy) a glass of milk some of us a Member of Parliament

CTaKaH MOJIOKa HeKOTopble H3 Hac l£JIeH napJIaMeHTa

5.2.6. Auxiliary and link verbs. Forming and using verbs in the Present, Past, Future Simple (Indefinite) in the Active and Passive voices. Present, Past Progressive (Continuous) and Present, Past Perfect in the Active voice; Present Simple (Indefinite) in future actions after conjunctions if, when. Construction "be going to" A verb is a part of speech that expresses action, being, or condition and that changes form to show time.

fJIaroJI - 3TO l£aCTb pel£H, KOTopaSl BblpamaeT ,lJ;eHCTBHe HJIH COCTOSlHHe H MeHSleT
to hear, to be, to understand, to find, to create The verb presents a system of finite and non-finite forms. Non-finite forms usually have some verbal and nonverbal features. They are the infinitive, the gerund, participle I and participle n.

fJIaroJI npe,lJ;CTaBJIeH CHCTeMOH JIMl£HblX H 6e3JIHl£HbIX
to work, working, working, worked 395

5.2. Morphology

06paTHTe BHHMaHue Ha oco6eHHOCTH nepeBO,lJ;a npe,lJ;JlomeHHH B ,lJ;eHCTBHTeJlLHOM H CTpa,lJ;aTeJlLHOM 3aJlOraX Ha pycCKHH R3LIK! Active Voice He is driving to the airport. (OH e~eT B aaponopT.)

Passive Voice He is being driven to the airport. (Ero BeayT B aaponapT.) The squirrel ate the nut. The nut was eaten by the (BeJII
5.2.7. Identifying the non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive, the gerund, the participle I and the participle 11 HH(}mHHTHB lIHcpHHHTHB HeJIHqHa.a cpopMa rJIarOJIa, ROTopa.a Ha3hIBaeT ~eH:CTBHe (nponecc) B HaH60JIee o6rn:eM BH~e. Bo Bcex CBOHX cpopMax H cpyHKU;HRX HHcpHHHTHB HMeeT CrrerrHaJIhHhIH MapRep, qaCTHU;y to: to see, to go, to learn, etc. Sometimes the bare infinitive lIHor~a HcnoJlhayeTcR HHcpHis used. Here are some words HHTHB 6ea qaCTHrrhI to. BOT and phrases followed by a HeROTophle CJIOBa H Bhlpamebare infinitive: HHR, aaROTophIMHOHCJIe~yeT: 1) auxiliary verbs; \1) BcnOMOraTeJIhHhIe rJIaroJIhI; I don't like jogging. They will see you tomorrow. The Infinitive The Infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names the process in a most general way. In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the particle to:

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5.2.8. Phrasal verbs "Phrasal verbs" is often used as a general notion of the combination of the verb and one or more additional elements. It is necessary to distinguish two types of these elements: prepositions and adverbs. Prepositions cause the appearance of the object (i. e. Noun Phrase). Such an object appears after the preposition in the sentences except the interrogative sentences with the question word, subordinate clauses, etc. The adverbs can often be used with the nominal word combinations, but such a nominal word combination is not an object to the adverb and is facultative.

Ha3BaHHe "pa30BbIe rJIarOJIbI" 'laCTO HCrrOJIb3yeTcH KaK 06ru;ee rrOHHTHe, Ha3bIBalOru;ee CO'leTaHHe r JIarOJIa H XOTH 6bI o,n;Horo ,n;orrOJIHHTeJIbHOrO 3JIeMeHTa. He06XO,n;HMO pa3JIH'laTb ,n;Ba BH,n;a ,n;orrOJIHHTeJIbHbIX ,meMeHTOB: rrpe,n;JIOrH H Hape'lHH. IIpe,n;JIorH rrpe,n;rrOJIaralOT HaJIH'lHe HMeHHoro CJIOBOCO'leTaHHH (Noun Phrase), T. e. HaJIH'lHe ,n;orrOJIHeHHH. 3TO ,n;orrOJIHeHHe CTOHT rrOCJIe rrpe,n;JIora B rrpe,n;JIOJReHHHX, 3a HCKJIIO'leHHeM BorrpOCHTeJIbHbIX C BorrpOCHTeJIbHbIM CJIOBOM, rrpH,n;aTO'lHbIX rrpe,n;JIOJReHHH H ,n;p. Hape'lHH 'laCTO MoryT yrroTpe6JIHTbCH C HMeHHbIMH CJIOBOCO'leTaHHHMH, HO HMeHHoe CJIOBOCO'leTaHHe He HBJIHeTCH ,n;orrOJIHeHHeM K Hape'lHIO H He 06H3aTeJIbHO CTOHT rrOCJIe Hero.

Preposition: The woman pushed the stroller up the street. ()KeH14UHa mO.n1WJla aemclCYIO lCOJlHClCY 88epx no YJlu/,(e.)

Adverb: The woman looked up the telephone number. The woman looked the telephone number up. ()KeH14UHa nOUClCaJla HOMep 6 meJle(jJOHlWM Cnpa60l{HUlCe.)

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5.2. Morphology

5.2.9. Modal verbs (can/could, may/might, must, should, have to, need) and their equivalents Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by the communicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive.

MO,ll;8.JIhHhle 1'JIa1'OJIbI, B OTJIHqHe OT ,lI;py1'Hx 1'JIarOJIOB, He 0603HaqaIDT ,lI;eMCTBHH HJIH COCTOHHHH, a TOJIhKO nOKa3bIBaIDT OTHOIIIeHHe 1'0BopH~ero K ,lI;eMCTBHIO, BbIpameHHoMy HH
There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, may,

must, should, ought must, should, ought (to), (to), shall, will, would, need, shall, will, would, need. dare, to be (to), to have (to). The dare. to be (to), to have (to).

latter two are modal only in IIocJIe,ll;HMe ,lI;Ba HBJIHIOTCH one of their meanings. MO,ll;aJIhHhIMH TOJIhKO B O,ll;Ten of them (except for to be HOM M3 3HaQeHHM. to and to have to): ,1l;ecHTh H3 HHX (KpoMe to be

to

M

to have to):

a) do not take -s in the third a) He npH6aBJIHIDT -s B Tpeperson singular; TheM JIMu;e e,ll;MHCTBeHH01'O QMCJIa; b) have (except for can and 6) HMeIOT TOJIhKO O,ll;Hy <popmay) only one form and no My (KpOMe can M may) M He past tense; MMeIOT
Unit 5. Grammar

Need Need can be used both as a no- Need MomeT HCrrOJIb30BaTbCH H KaK CMbICJIOBOH, H KaK tional and a modal verb. As a modal verb it has only MO,llaJIbHbIH rJIarOJI B KaqeCTBe MO,llaJIbHOrO rJIaone form. rOJIa OH HMeeT TOJIbKO O,llHY epOPMY· The main meaning of the verb MO,llaJIbHbIH rJIarOJI need need is the necessity. BbIpamaeT Heo6xo,llHMOCTb HJIH rroTpe6HocTb.

I need a pen. ( M ne ny:»cna py'tlW.) The Perfect Infinitive used B COqeTaHHH C rrepepeKTHbIM with the verb need shows that HHepHHHTHBOM need rrOKa3bIan un necessary action has BaeT, qTO 6bIJIO COBepmeHO been performed. HemeJIaTeJIbHOe ,lIeHCTBHe.

You need not have done this ( He ny:»cno 6blJlO amozo OeJlamb)

5.3. Lexicology 5.3.1. Affixes as element of word-building: un-, in-, im-, re-, dis-, mis-, -er, -or, -tion (-sion), -ing, -ness, -ment, -ist, -ism, -V' -ic, -less, -able (-ible), -ful, -ive, -ai, -ous, -(i)ty, -Iy and others Many English words contain affixes - prefixes or suffixes. Knowing the meanings of common affixes can help you figure out meanings of words in which this affixes appear.

MHorHe aHrJIHHCKHe CJIOBa HMelOT B CBoeM COCTaBe aep
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Unit 5. Grammar

5.3.2. Polisemy. Synonyms. Antonyms Polysemy

MHOr03HalIHOCTL

Polysemy is such a lexical relation where a single word can have different senses. This phenomenon is typical of English. For instance, the word make has at least 20 meanings as a verb and 7 as a noun (according to V. Muller's dictionary). The usage of the particular meaning is connected with the grammatical and syntactical functions of the word. In other words the particular meaning depends from the context (especially when talking about translation).

MHOr03HalIHOCTb (noJm:ceMHH) - :3TO TaKoH THn JIeKCHqeCKHX oTHoIIIeHHH, Kor,n;a O,n;HO H TO me CJIOBO MomeT HMeTb pa3JIHQHbIe 3HaQeHHH. STO HBJIeHHe THnHQHO ,n;JIH aHrJIHHCKOro H3bIKa. HanpHMep, CJIOBO make HMeeT, no MeHhIIIeH Mepe, 20 3HaQeHHH KaK rJIarOJI H 7 KaK cy~e­ CTBHTeJIbHOe (B COOTBeTCTBHH co CJIOBapeM B. MIOJIJIepa). llCnOJIb30BaHHe onpe,n;eJIeHHoro 3HalIeHHH TaKme CBH3aHO C rpaMMaTHQeCKHMH H CHHTaKCHQeCKHMH
The school is in Murray Street. (building) The boys love their school. (institution) Working abroad is a hard school for anyone. (opportunity for learning)

Synonyms and antonyms

CHHOHHMbI H aHTOHHMLI

Synonyms are different words with identical or similar meanings. Full synonyms are rare. There are bound to be semantic, stylistic,

3TO pa3Hhle CHHOHHMLI CJIOBa C o,n;HHaKOBbIM HJIH 6JIH3KHM no CMhICJIY 3HaQeHHeM. TIOJIHhle CHHOHHMbI BCTpeQaIOTCH pe,n;Ko. Mem,n;y

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Unit 5. Grammar 06paTHTe BHHMaHHe Ha cpaBHeHHe CHHOHHMOB rJlarOJIa

to

hear! Hear Denotes ability to perceive sound; in other words, it means having a fully-functional auditory nervous system. I heard a strange noise outside.

Listen Denotes hearing and trying to comprehend what is being said. Are you listening to me?

Comprehend denotes understanding input. I was trying to comprehend the things I had heard.

5.3.3. Lexical and grammatical combinability Syntactical combinability is the ability of words to ap- MOCTb - 3TO B03MomHOCTb pear in certain grammatical CJIOB nOHBJIHTbCH B onpestructure. ,n;eJIeHHOH rpaMMaTHqeCKOH CTpYKType.

Adjective Adjectives are combined with IIpHJIaraTeJIbHbIe COqeTaIOTseveral parts of speech. CH C HeCKOJIbKHMH qaCTHMH peqH. 1. They may combine with 1. OHH MoryT COqeTaTbCH C nouns. But if there are HMeHaMH cym;ecTBHTeJIbHbIseveral adjectives of each MH. ECJIH pH,n;OM CTOHT Hetype, adjectives of different CKOJIbKO npHJIaraTeJIbHbIX meanings stand in the C pa3HbIMH 3HaqeHHHMH, TO following order: OHH pacnOJIaraIOTCH B CJIe,n;yIOm;eM nopH,n;Ke: 468