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1.1
PRACTICE WITH NOUNS ANTICIPATION
Exercise 1 Task 1. Familiarize yourself with the text and fill in the following chart with the italicized words from the text. Consult the Grammar notes below. Translate the text into Russian. Supply it with the suitable title. The company of Harper & Grant Ltd. was started forty-two years ago by two men: Ambrose Harper and Wingate Grant. Wingate Grant died many years ago, and his son Hector, who is in his fifties (aged between fifty and sixty) is the present Managing Director, Ambrose Harper is the Chairman. is now an old man, semi-retired, but he still cornes in to the office regu-larly to attend the board meetings and keep an eye on the business. The company started by making steel wastepaper bins for offices. With the increase in smoking, these were considered much safer than the old type of basket made of cane and straw, because there were less likelihood of fire. Old Mr. Grant, the Managing Director's father, put the business on its feet when he captured a big contract to supply government offices with steel wastepaper bins. He always said that luck, or happy coïncidence, turned a business into success orfailure. He was ramer like Napoleon, who always asked if an officer was lucky before giving him a higher command. Mr.Grant Senior used to tell the story that, in the week before he landed his contract, a cane wastepaper basket had caught fire in a government depart-ment, the fire had spread rapidly and destroyed a number of irreplaceable documents. From wastepaper bins, Harper & Grant began to manufacture other items of office equipment: desks, chairs, cupboards, filling cabinets and smaller abjects, such as filing cabinets, stapling machines and so on, until now when there are fifty-six different items listed in their catalogue. Today, nearly ail the items produced by this company are made of pressed steel. The steel arrives in sheets from a steel works in South Wales. It is then eut by machinery into the required pieces; these pieces are then pressed into shape and fixed together by welding (joining two metal parts by heating so that the metals flow together), or by drilling holes in the metal and securing the two pieces with a boit or a rivet. Common singular nouns basket
Common plural nouns regular bins
irregular men
Proper nouns Hector
Non-count nouns abstract steel
collective group
Task 2. Divide the text into several logical parts. Supply them with the headings. Exercise 2 4
A. With some words, when the stress is on the first syllable, the word is a noun. When the stress is on the second syllable, it is a verb. Sometimes the meanings are related ('progress - to pro'gress), they can also be quite different ('conduct - to con'duct). Consult a dictionary and underline the syllable that you will stress when speaking: 1. John needs a permit to go on an expensive fact-fmding tour of a country. 2. Mr. Grant can't permit you to waste money for very little profit. 3. Will they increase exports next year? 4. Mr. Martin is looking for an increase in exports. 5. We must export more. 6. You know what the boss thinks about exports. 7. abjects to the attempt to break into the new market. 8. Don't treat me as if I were an abject. 9. What's his record in business? 10. The firm recorded a loss after a disastrous attempt to export to South America. 11. Our imports have increased. 12. The developing countries import too much. 13. Some goods do not require resources to produce them. 14. The home produce of these goods does not meet the demand for them. 15. Within a free market System, new businesses find easy access to the economy and opportunites to succeed. 16. Total group sales and trading surplus were lower than the previous year largely because of the transfer of special steels. 17. The payments were transferred to reserves for putting back into the business. 18. What is the difference between the subjects of microeconomics and macroeconomics? 19. Each commodity market is subject to special conditions. 20. In the USA anti-trust laws subject activities aimed at cornering the market to special anti-trust laws that restrict such activities. 21. Improvements in the methods of processing food have repeatedly allowed the suppliers to raise the supply at a given cost. 22. They offer services for those who need buildings but are unfamiliar with the processes and economies of construction. 23. Go back to the shop and try to cancel a purchase and ask for complete refund. 24. Ail money will be refunded if the goods are not satisfactory. 25. Refunding is funding of a debt again by the government. 26. We paid a charge on our excess baggage. 27. The demand for goods was in excess of the actual need. 28. If you need the expert advice you will consult the specialist. 29. The Congress advised the President against signing the treaty. 30. After the QUIZ the teacher proceeded to explain the mistakes to the class. 31. sold his shop and invested the proceeds in a computer repair business. 32. In most firms the relationship between management and unions is good, but sometimes a labour dispute occurs. B. Note the pronunciation of the following pairs of words. Transcribe them and submit the examples of your own. Translate the words into Russian. elaborate, n coordinate, n associate, n estimate, n
[ [ [ [
] ] ] ]
– – – –
elaborate, v coordinate, v associate, v estimate, v
[ [ [ [
] ] ] ]
PRACTICE Ask yourself these questions when checking nouns. 5
1. What kind of noun is it? Is it a count or noncount? Countable nouns can have singular or plural forms and take singular or plural verbs. You can put a number before this kind of noun and a / an . People do not settle into one role, the role of a consumer; they seule into two major roles : of a consumer and a producer. A producer makes the goods or provides the services that consumers use. Noncount nouns refer to general things such as qualities, substances, or topics. They cannot be counted and have only a singular form. We do not normally use a/an or a number directly before uncountable nouns. You may have several resources – time, energy, money, talent, knowledge and skills, charm, intelligence, imagination. Yet your resources are limited. Nouns not normally countable in English accommodation advice assistance baggage behavior bread business (=trade) capital (=money) cash chaos chess china clothing conduct cookery countryside courage cutlery damage dancing education equipment evidence food fruit fun
furniture garbage gossip grass hair (all the hairs on the head) happiness harm help homework hospitality information jealousy jewelry knowledge lauehter leisure linen luck luggage machinery meat money mud music
nonsense parking permission poetry the post /mail (=letters) produce progress rubbish safety scenery shopping smoking spelling strength stuff timber traffic transport travel underwear (jeanswear, etc. wealth weather
news
work (housework, etc.)
2. Is there a quantifier with the noun that can be used to identify the nature of the noun? A quantifier is a word that indicates an amount or quantity. a. Some quantifiers are used with both plural count nouns and noncount nouns. all any enough
a lot of plenty of more
most some lots of
Goods which cannot be stored for any length of time without going bad are called "perishables ". Any scarcity forces you to decide what y ou want most. Children find that there are a lot of things in the world they want in early childhood. A lot of money is needed to meet personal needs. 6
b. Some quantifiers are used only with noncount nouns. a little
much
a large / small amount of
a bit of
Too much money is needed to satisfy non-essential wants. c. Some quantifiers are used only with plural count nouns. both a few a couple of many several a number of
the majority of / a majority of dozens of/hundreds of
You probably want many things – clothes, entertainment, money for travelling. d. Some quantifiers are used only with singular count nouns.
Later young people learn another lesson. Each country will answer three major economie questions in a different way. 3. Is the form of a noun correct? The plural form for most nouns has an -s or ( after -o;-s;-x;-ch;-sh) -es ending. a. Some nouns form their plurals with a vowel change or an ending change (man/men). Penny can have a regular plural pennies when we are referring to separate coins (ten pennies) or a collective plural, pence, when we are referring to a total amount (tenpence). Note the following nouns, which have irregular spelling in the plural: Singular alumna alumnus phenomenon datum stratum analysis criterion medium memorandum basis crisis 'caput 'bureau/ bu'reau
Plural
(
)
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) )
(
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,
alumnae alumni phenomena data* strata analyses criteria media* memoranda bases crises capita (per capita) bureaus/bureaux
* is used with a singular or plural verb (L.G. Alexander, "Longman English Grammar")
b. Some nouns form their plurals by changing a consonant before adding -s or -es, (wolf- wolves; leaf- leaves; wife - wives) or by changing -y into -les (country - countries); except -ay,-ey, -oy, -uy (boy - boys) c. Some nouns form their plurals by adding an ending. (child - children, ox - oxen) d. Some have the same plural and singular forms. bison deer offspring series means ( corps fish spacecraft species works ( • Exports, imports (
) )
) take a plural verb but 7
export, import ( ) are singular. • Note mat dozen and score have the same plural and singular form if they go after the numeral: two dozen (of) eggs, three score (of) years (but scores / doz.ens ofpeople) e. When a noun is used as an adjective, it takes a singular form. The goods can be storedfor two weeks. ( noun) This is a two-week store of goods. We also use - 's with (or -s' with plural words) periods of time. I've got a week's/three weeks' sick leave. f. Collective nouns (crowd, firm, team, group, etc.) refer to an entire group. When these are groups of people we often think of them as a number of people (="they"), not as one thing (="it"). So we often use a plural verb: The staff at the firm (-they) are not happy with outside consultants. When a collective noun indicates a period of time, a sum of money, or a measurement, it takes a singular verb. Two weeks is enough time to provide goods. Ten dollars is not enough to meet the needs of a family. g. Some nouns end in -s but are actually singular and take singular verbs. Academie subjects: economies, statistics, politics, mathematics...; news. Economies if studied thoroughly influences how you earn a living. But when the reference is specifie, the verb must be plural. Their statistics are extremely helpful(
).
Nouns like crossroads, headquarters, kennels, series, species, and works (=factory) are singular when they refer to one: John hasjust read a series of articles about the recent discovery ofoil. They are plural when they refer to more than one: There are a lot of TV series about turning a business into success orfailure. h. Many compound nouns are formed by using one noun (as an adjective) in front of another noun. When this happens, this first noun is almost always singular (even if the meaning is plural). a toothbrush (a brushfor cleaning teeth) a shoeshop (a shop which sells shoes) We normally form plurals of compound nouns by adding -(e)s to the second word. Foodstuffs belong to the category ofperishable goods. But note that compounds ending in -in-law, -in-chief and -by add -s to the first word. one brother-in-law – two-brothers-in-law a passer-by – some passers-by editor-in-chief– editors-in-chief But where men or women is prefixed both parts are made plural. men drivers women drivers i. Goods ( ), clothes ( ), riches ( ), proceeds ( ), wages ( contents ( ) normally* occur only in the plural and are followed by a plural verb. By "perishable " we mean goods which cannot be storedfor any length of time without going bad.
),
* But in modem English one may corne across the following: Scarcity is the situation that exists when demandfor a good, service or resource is greater than supply. 8
Exercise 1 Read the extract and construct 9 sentences on the pattern with the words in italics. Translate the sentences into Russian. There is / are... at the factory of Harper & Grant LTD. The factory consists ofworkshops where the actual making of a desk or filing cabinet is done. These are divided into the Tool Room(l), Works Stores(2), Press Shop(3), Machine Shops(4), Assembly Shop(5), Paint Shop(6), Inspection(7), Packing and Despatch Departments(8). There is also the Warehouse(9) where finished articles are stored waiting for sale. Exercise 2 Choose the correct form. e.g. There were / was some imported goods in the store. 1. Economies is/are the study of how people use their resources to produce, distribute and consume goods. 2. The news that he was enable to earn a living was/ were quite surprisr ing. 3. Two weeks isn't/ aren't a very long time to become used up, is it / are they ? 4. Money isn't / aren't the most important thing in life, is it / are they ? 5. Seven pounds is / are an average weight for a new-born. 6. Politics is / are Professer Brown's speciality. 7. The knowledge gained from the experience was / were invaluable 8. Several Japanese was/were reported to complain that the fish had gone bad. 9. The imports has / have greatly increased which may influence the supply. 10. A knowledge of statistics, the analysis of how people and countries use their resources to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services is/are so important. 11. Sooner or later even very expensive clothes is/are used up. 12. What is / are his politics-as to breaking into the South American mar-ket? Exercise 3 Choose the correct form. e.g. I'd like some information / informations about the supply of goods. 1. Sue is a woman with blond hair / hairs who lives opposite. 2. Did you have a good travel / journey from Switzerland ? 3. We have the problem of scarcity and we'd like some advice / advices. 4. The supply of a bread/some bread did not correspond the demand for it. 5. I’d like to find out the cost of tuition, have you got an information/ any information? 6. is trying to find a work / job at the moment, he must do it to earn a living. 7. Economists studied different phenomenon / phenomena in order to solve the problem of scarcity. 8. Foodstuff / foodstuffs belong to the category of goods that go bad if are stored too long. 9. Pennies / pence are made of bronze. 10. The tin of cola costs 60 pennies / pence and you won't economize much. 11. Mass medium/media are a good source of job openings. 12. In the English speaking countries eggs are sold in dozen/dozens. Exercise 4 If the underlined word or words are used incorrectly, make correction. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
More people are involved in silk production than in any another activity in the district. One of the two major economie roles is that of a consumer and other is that of a producer. Some consumer goods last long, other goods go bad and become used up soon. Another goods, such as furniture, or refrigerators, last longer. Teaching is yet another action called service. Some goods are bought for personal use while another are bought for resale. 9
7. People make other economie discoveries when they are still young. 8. Another advice will help you to develop a useful personal budget. 9. One expense may turn higher than planned while another may be lower. Exercise 5 Choose the underlined word combination that is incorrect. 1. Hair found on the victim's iacket were studied by the police, which helped them to find the criminal. A D 2. The knowledge of economies was passed from one generation to another generations. A D 3. One series of statistical booklet that was used at the seminar was written by the students themselves. A D 4. Examples of fixed expense are rent pavments, higher purchase instalments, tuition. A D 5. Make a family budget with your adult childs identifying its monthly income and expenses. A D 6. There are the data of our field survey over there on the files cabinet. They are very important. A D 7. It was so difficult for a poor man to earn his living because he had to provide for his numerous son-in-laws A and other relatives. D 8. John Martin has just read an article in "The Times" about the recent discovery of a large number of oil in the A North Sea. D 9. There have never been any woman - managers at this works. A C D 10. The contents of the letter were not made public, but bad news travel fast. A B C D 11. The Managing Director stopped to cool his temper a bit and the three stood motionless, like sheeps in the A stare of a python. D 12. Tony's FBI criminal file described him as five-feet-eight. medium build, a hundred and fortv-six pounds. A black hairs, strong nose, brown eyes, arrested and charged with a bank robbery. D Exercise 6 Render the following into English: 1.
, (
2. 3.
) ,
,
. . ,
,
.
4.
, ,
. 10
5.
,
.-
,
. 6.
,
,
,
. ,
.
7. 8.
, -
.
, .
9.
,
, (for money reasons).
10.
,
(job-
hunting). 11. 12.
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,
.
.
,
.
?
? 13.
.
,
? -
. Exercise 7 CONTEXT Read the text below. In most of the lines there is one wrong word or word combination. Some lines, however, are correct. • If a line is correct, put a tick (V) in the space in the right-hand column. • If there is a mistake in the line, write the correct word in the right-hand column. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
The firm has a history of slow, steady growth. Hector Grant firmly believes that he knows the best way to run firm. However, his nephew Peter Wiles (son of the Mr.Grant's sister), who joined the company six years ago and is Production Manager, and John Martin, appointed two years ago to be Sales Manager, is more adventurous. They want to treble Harper & Grant' s business over the next a few years and are certain that, with modem businesses techniques and increased exports, they can achieve this. A small firm cannot possibly afford to have on its staff experts in ail modem management technique. It usually hires expert advise from outside consultants and bureaux. On the other hand, it is important that members of the firm's management are aware of the more sophisticated techniques. It's a common knowledge that, while this change-over from the old way to the new is taking place, there are often difficulties and conflict. But Harpers
... ... a firm
& Grant Ltd., like the majority their rivals, must get right up-to date and enlarge their business or they will be outpaced by a firm whose business organization. is better than their own
• In what way do the managerial methods differ among the officiais in Harper & Grant Ltd.? • What are the peculiarities of running a small business?
PRACTICE WITH ARTICLES, DEMONSTRATIVES & OTHER DETERMINERS Ask yourself these questions when checking articles and demonstratives. 11
1. Should an indefinite article (‘a’ or ‘an’) be used? Use "a" or "an" : a. before singular count nouns when the noun is mentioned for the first time. Your grandparents probably never attended a class called economies. b. when the singular fonn is used to make a general statement about ail people or things of that type. A producer makes the goods or provides the services that consumer s use. (All producers make goods or provide services.) c. in expressions of priee, speed, and ratio. 60 miles an hour four times a day 50 pence a dozen half a pound of tea / a halfpound oftea a quarter of a pound of coffee / a quarter pound of coffee "A" or "an" are not used: d. before plural nouns. Services are actions, such as haircutting, cleaning or teaching. e. before non-count nouns. A persan who makes lemonade and then sells it is producing goods. 2. Should the defïnite article "the" be used? "The" is used: a. before a noun that has already been mentioned: If a company is a producer, the company produce only productsfor which it has the right kind of resources. or when it is clear in the situation which thing or person is referred to: A consistent overspending suggests that the budget should befollowed more closely. b. before adjectives used as nouns: The poor have to think hard about how to meet their needs for goods and services. c. when there is only one of something, e.g. the sun, the earth, the world, the best car. d. before some nationality words e.g. the English (the people of England), the Dutch (the people of Holland),...etc. Note that these words ail end in -sh (the English), -ch (the French), or -ese (the Japanese). With other nationalities we use a plural noun ending in -s with or without the (e.g.(the) Italians, (the) Germans). e. with canals, deserts, forests, oceans, rivers, seas, and plural islands, lakes and mountains (the Suez Canal, the Black Forest, the Hawaiian Islands, the Atlantic Ocean). f. when the name of a country, or state includes the word "of", the type of government, or a plural form. The Republic oflreland The United Kingdom The Philippines g. with the following states, cities, and places. 12
(the Ukraine, the Netherlands, the Argentine(but Argentina), the Vatican, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Hague, the City (of London) h. with the names of hotels, cinemas, museums, clubs, restaurants, pubs. the Plaza Hotel the Odeon Cinema the Swan Restaurant i. before names with of. the Bank of England (but: Moscow Narodny Bank, or Mellon Bank) the University of London (but: London University) j. with the names of newspapers and journals: The Times , The Washington Post. "The" is not used with: a. planets and singular islands, lakes, mountains, and parks: Central Park Fiji Island Lake Baikal Mount Everest b. the names of countries and states, continents and cities, streets: (Japon, Russia, Africa, Chicago, Mexico City, Oxford Street) 3. Which article, if any, should be used? a. The expression “a number of “ means “several “or “many “ and takes a plural verb. The expression “the number of“ refers to a group and takes a singular verb. A large number of producers suffer a loss when goods go bad. The number of producers has fallen because of the economie crisis. b. The following nouns do not always take an article: prison school college church car bus train
bed
home plane
court
jail sea the names of meals
Look at how the meaning changes: Jack went to bed . ( - Jack went to sleep.-the general idea of sleep ) Jack went to the bed. (Jack walked over to a particular bed - the specifie object ) Jack bought a bed. (Jack purchased an object called a bed.) c. Noncount nouns are used without an article to refer to something in general. People settle into two major economie roles:consumer and producer. Sometimes an article is used to show a specifie meaning. A knowledge of economies is important to everyone now. 4. Are the demonstratives ("this","that","these","those") used cor-rectly? a. The demonstratives are for objects nearby the speaker: this, these; and for objects far away from the speaker: that, those. b. Demonstratives are the only adjectives that agree in number with their nouns. This section will explain the basic questions. These sections are concerned with the problems of economie decisions. c. When there is the idea of selection, the pronoun "one" or "ones" often follows the demonstrative. I need a job. I’ll get this(one). If the demonstrative is followed by an adjective, "one", or "ones" must be used. I need a job. I’ll get this part-lime one. 13
But:We do not usually say my one(s), your one(s), etc. Instead we say mine, yours....etc. Your car isn't fast enough. Let's take mine. But one(s) can be used with a possessive if there is an adjective. Let's take your new one. 5. What should be used in front of abbreviations? a. We make abbreviations with the first letters of the most important words. We than treat these abbreviations like ordinary nouns and use them with a/an, the or zero. I've just bought a VCR. (-a Video Cassette Recorder) We use an + vowel sound (an E.D.P. - Electronic Data Processing) and a + consonant sound (a VW = a Volkswagen) b. We use a/an and full stops with titles: She is an M.A. (= Master of Arts) c. We use the in front of institutions when we can't say them as single words. We don't use full stops: I listen to the news on the BBC. (-the British Broadcasting Corporation) We are members of UNESCO. (=the United Nations Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization) Exercise 1 Write the correct article ("a","an", or"the"). If no article is needed, write "o". 1. ..John Martin, ... Sales Manager is discussing ... article he has just read in ... Times newspaper about... recent discovery of oil in ... Abraca. 2. I decided to compare my monthly expenses with .... expense chart of my friend. 3. ...young, like everyone else, have unlimited wants and limited recourses. 4. Ambrose Harper is ...old man, but he still cornes to ... office regularly to ... board meetings. 5. ... number of irreplaceable documents were destroyed when ... cane wastepaper basket caught fire in ... government office. 6. I’ve been thinking of that scheme of yours to sell our products to ... Netherlands. They say ... Dutch are going to raise their imports rapidly. 7. I decided to convince my relative, ... clerk at ... Bank of Scotland, to lend me ... money to cover ... cost of my further education. 8. ... number of sources of money you can rely upon is decreasing. 9. A lot of goods are trans-shipped via ... Hague, which is more expensive. Exercise 2 Choose the correct form, checking demonstratives. 1. I was shocked by that / those news. 2. There is ail this / these red tape involved in getting an import licence. 3. A field survey shows why that / those specimen of goods is attractive. 4. That / those economies courses offered at the university are very elementary. 5. I know this / that manager ver there. 6. This / these expenses are to be reduced with effective economie decisions. 7. The consumers buy this / these cotton shirts more than these / those silk ones. 8. Our expenses are much higher than your former one / ones. 9. She presented him with the French watch, but he wanted the Swiss one / ones. 10. Perishable goods can be stored less than non-perishable - / ones. Exercise 3 Possessives usually replace articles before nouns. We can say the car or Peter's car, but not Peter's the car or the Peter's car. But a possessive word can have its own article: the boss's car. Note also: that car of Peter's, a friend of Peter 's (like a friend ofmine). 14
Put
for correct sentences; rewrite the incorrect ones.
1. Is Peter the Grant' s nephew? 2. Consumer goods are products, such as food, clothing, and cars, that satisfy people's economie needs or wants. 3. Is this the manager's file? 4. Do you know John's last name? 5. Here is the Harper's address. 6. The answers to the questions depend on a country's human, natural, and capital resources, and also on its customs and values. 7. You also try to focus your partner's the attention on the difference between fixed, optional, flexible expenses. 8. That overspending of John's reached the peak of 1.5% . 9. What is the general relationship between a person's education and that individual's earning power? 10. The consumer's desire for a commodity tends to diminish as he buys more units of it. 11. What's the Wilsons' number? 12. It's a crazy idea of John Martin. 13. Where is that uncle of Peter? 14. We can say that the utility of a commodity decreases as the consumer's stock of that commodity increases. Exercise 4 Supply a/an, the or "-". 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Mr. Buckhurst is ... F.C.A.(=Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants). John got ... B.Sc. (=Bachelor of Science) from Durham University in 1988. Do you know how much ... MP (=Member of Parliament) earns? We studied ...BASIC (=Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) at the computer class. Does Ukraine belong to ... NATO (= North Atlantic Treaty Organization)? Modernizing a business requires a management team which is aware of ... O.R. (-Operational Research), ... D.C.F. (=Discounted Cash Flow a method of calculating the profitability of new plant and machinery), -... P.E.R.T. (Project Evaluation and Review Technique), etc. 7. The shareholders are invited to attend ... A.G.M. (= the Annual General Meeting). 8. ... NASA (=National Aeronautics and Space Administration) had a setbackin 1986. 9. ... I.Q. is a common abbreviation for an Intelligence Quotient. 10. ... EEC (=the European Economie Community) established common tariffs against products from non-EEC nations. 11. ... GATT (=General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) encompassed 22 countries in 1947, later the group expanded to somewhat about 100 countries. Exercise 5 Choose the article or demonstrative that is incorrect. 1. Goods that have to be trans-shipped via Netherlands turn to corne sooner than the other ones. A D 2. When they go to college, young want to use their income effectively and learn to economise on every A twopence and to keep the budget thoroughly. D 3. Those consumers, who drink tea four times in a day usually buy not less than a half pound of tea and often A of the best quality. D 4. I do not know if there are any correspondent banks in the Ukraine to transfer money from our account A with Bank of England. 15
D 5. Producers like these are one pence a dozen, you'd better look for some other ones. A D 6. Germans, Italians as well as Dutch use English to communicate. A C D 7. Milk belongs to the category of perishable goods, the shoes do not, as they can be stored for a long time A D without going bad. 8. A number of the rich among the Italians does not vary much from that among other nations. A B C D 9. Nakamurasan is a Japanese. Having studied his preliminary desk research, the manager made a conclusion A that Japanese are very elever people. C D 10. Mr. Denis Stocks, a retired policeman, has justbeen given a B.Sc. for twelve years' research into an A ancient Egyptian industrial methods. D
1.2 PRACTICE WITH SUBJECTS Ask yourself these questions when checking nouns. 1. Does the sentence contain a subject? All complete sentences contain a subject. Exception: the command form, in which the subject is understood. ( "Buy some tea.") a. Various structures may be used for subjects. • Noun The subject may consist of one or more nouns: A producer makes the goods or provides services. People or businesses can produce goods. • Pronoun You find that there are lots of things in the world you want. • Clause ( contains noun + verb) The first Persian carpet I bought was very expensive. Several different clause structures can be used for subjects. Wh-structures: Where we go depends on the job opportunities. Yes/no structures Whether I develop a personal budget or not doesn't matter. "The fact that" structures (the fact is frequently omitted in these structures); The fact that he pays his expenses regularly is a miracle. That he pays his expenses regularly is a miracle. • Gerund ( -ing forms) and Gerund phrase Working became hard. Working ten years on the mine was enough. • Infinitive and Infînitive phrase To save is important. To save on optional expenses is the only way out. 2. Does the subject agree with the verb? The subject (S) and the verb (V) must agree in person and number. _________________S_____________________ _V_ Entertainment, personal care, or college supplies are optional expenses for a student. 16
Note the following subject-verb agreement rules: a. A prepositional phrase does not affect the verb. ___s___ ______v______ All sources of money in the budget have been listed. b. The following expressions do not affect the verb: accompanied by in addition to
along with together with
among as well as
___________S___________ _V_ Allowance and part-time jobs, along with interest on savings are money resources. c. Subjects joined by "and" or " both...and..." take a plural verb. Both rent payments and higher purchase instalments are fixed expenses. d. When "several", "many", "both" and "few" are used as pronouns, they take a plural verb. Several keep track of their actual incarne and expenses for a month. e. When the following phrases are used, the verb agrees with the subject that is closer to the verb in the sentence: either ... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but also. Neither rent nor transportation costs have been included into the list of spending. f. The expression a number of( meaning "several") is plural. The expression the number of is singular. A number of items have been deducted from the paycheque. The number of deducted items is small. g. When a word indicating nationality refers to a language, it is singular. When it refers to people, itis plural. Japanese was a difficult language for me to learn. The Japanese are very inventive people. h. When clauses, infinitives or gerunds are used as subjects, they usually take a singular verb. What it takes is not worth money or effort. Investing in capital resources is wise. i. Some words are often confused by students as being plural. The following words must be followed by singular verbs and pronouns in formai written English. any+singular noun anybody anyone anything
nobody no one nothing
some+singular noun somebody someone something
every everybody everyone everything
each either* neither*
* either and neither are singular if they are not used with or and nor.
Everybodv who has not sorted an import license should apply for it. If either of voit takes a leave now, we will not be able to complete the survey. 3. Have "it" and "there" been used correctly? We use there+be to say that something exists; we use it, the\+he to give more details. a. Sometimes a speaker wants to focns on the type of information that is expressed by an adjective. Since an adjective cannot be used in a subject position, the word "it" is used as the subject: It was late and nobody could use the lost money. Sometimes a speaker wants to emphasize a noun and its relative clause. The speaker uses "it" in the subject 17
position followed by the verb "be": It is
mother who makes the family budget.
b. Sometimes a speaker wants to say that something exists, or wants to mention the presence of something. The word "there" is used as the subject and agrees with the nearest noun or noun phrase. __S__ _V_ ________N PHR_________
There are very high tariffs and duty on certain products. "There" can be an adverb which tells where something is.(2) "There" can also be used to fill the subject position.(1) There(1) is preliminary desk research over there(2) on the shelf. Exercise 1 Write "R" (right) if the subject agrees with the verb, and "W(wrong) if it does not. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Sam, along with other students, plans on protesting the change in academie fequirements. Neither her sons nor her daughter know what their annual income is. Accumulating play money are what seems to be the attraction of many board games. What was decided during the meeting has been well documented. The chairmen, together with the Board members, are meeting the partners. Two weeks is plenty of time to finish the course. Peter Wiles, who joined the company six years ago and is Production Manager, and John Martin, appointed two years ago to be Sales Manager, are very adventurous. 8. Modernizing a business to increase its profits are a complicated affair. 9. Douglas together with some critics of the new export markets ask whether the field survey will actually do any good. 10. Several theories on this subject have been proposed. 11. The view on these management techniques vary from time to time. 12. The General Manager as well as his staff are trying to sort out the import license. 13. Anybody who have lost his ticket should report to the desk. 14. Nobody works harder than John does. 15. Everybody who have labour trouble can't meet the delivery dates. 16. There were some people at the Board of Trade who had a different way of looking at things. 17. Every forward-looking manager's convinced there's quite the right time for this probe now. 18. There are tariffs on certain products, but the Board of Trade assure me that our office equipment would not be liable for duty. 19. After he had received a reservation for a first-class return flight, John decided that everything were in order. 20. There are a couple of likely competitors for this project. The rest of the firms are indifferent. Exercise 2 Choose the correct subject from the possible choices. 1. Even though 26% of Californian residents do not speak English in their homes, only_____do not speak English at ail. (A) that 6% of them (B) those of the 6% of them (C) to the 6% of them (D) 6% of them 2. _____are effective means of communication. (A) Theatre, music, dance, and folk taies (B) That theatre, music, dance, and folk taies (C) use theatre, music, dance, and folk taies (D) Using theatre, music, dance, and folk taies 3. When China's dramatic economie reforms began to encourage private enterprise,_____began to set up a variety of businesses immediately. 18
(A) that entrepreneurs (B) to be an entrepreneur (C) entrepreneur (D) entrepreneurs 4. ____is a big waste of time and money for very little profit. (A) The firm breaks into the new market (B) Breaking into the new market (C) Break is taken into the new market (D) The new markets 5. In the city centre_____noisy market stalls set in narrow alleys. (A) it (B) it is (C) there (D) there are 6. In America,_____a growing demand for Indonesian food. (A) there is (B) it is (C)it (D) there 7. Nowadays people in most countries use money because ____ impossible to carry on trade in the modem world without it. (A) it (B) there (C) there is (D) it is 8. _____ unnecessary red tape and promote research were the main objectives of the committee. (A) stop (B) That to stop (C) The stop of (D) Stopping 9. When we want to economise, _____that helps us to spend money more effectively. (A) that the personal budget (B) it is the personal budget (C) the personal budget (D) there is the personal budget 10. _____were produced because of the scarcity of resources. (A) The number of goods (B) A number of goods (C) Number of (D) Number of a good 11. _____ know next to nothing about the difference between fixed, flexible, and optional expenses. (A) Both of (B) Both Alex and you (C) Both you (D) Of you both 12. Either Sara or the Seddons______how much is spent on tuition. (A) knows (B) is knowing (C) know (D) are knowing Exercise 3 CONTEXT Taskl Read the conversation below. In six of the lines there is one wrong word or word combination. Other 19
lines, however, are correct. • If a Une is correct, put a tick ( ) in the space in the right-hand column. • If there is a mistake in the line, use the correct word. G. A.
G.
Morning, Alex! What's up? Hello, George! Oh, these expenses, ...! It is the problem that annoys me so much. Don't you think that a number of items we bought last week is unnecessary? Spending money this way is not wise. I'd agree with you to a certain extent. But both I and Paul knows next to nothing about the way to use our money as effectively as possible.
A.
Fair enough! What we are to do is to develop a useful personal budget.
G.
Come off it! You can't be serious! It is ail a big waste of time for very little profit! It is plenty of things we can do instead of this scheme of yours to keep track of our actual incomes and expenses. Neither me nor Paul knows what to do with expenses. I'm not sure I quite agrée. When I was in Germany, I noticed that the Germans record how much they spend for food, entertainment, clothing, college supplies, personal care, transportation, etc. To be able to reduce expenses it is impossible if you do not know what changes you would make in your budget. It's quite true. That one should make thé budget is clear. On balance, we should list ail the sources of money and see that expenses should not be higher than income. The ability to deal realistically with scarcity and to promote effective spending are the first things we are to leara.
P.
A.
G.
That may well be true. Every efforts to be smarter is worth trying! I am bound to agree. Let's try. who hesitates is lost!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Task2 Single out the points of view about the way to develop a useful personal budget presented by: • Paul • Alex • George REVISION Below are some flashes of conversation in which different students speak about their life at college. Tick ( ) the correct words or word combi-nations. Use the patterns in the role-play "MAKING A PERSONAL BUDGET" Roger: I’m in my third year at college | the college a college on the computer course and I have already learnt how to programme computers using a BASIC an BASIC| BASIC . Most of work| a work| the work is practical with a lot of time spent at the keyboard. I’m looking forward to getting the my own| my own| my the own car soon. At present a taxi transport| the transport transports me between home and college and this is a bit expensive. Keith: This is my second year at college. I am in a "sandwich" course involving |three years of theory| three years theory| three year of theory and a year spent in industry. I do part-time job| a part-time jobs| a part-time job at weekends - except when I have to play in a football match - working in a hotel. The means| These means| This means| that, with pocket money from my parents, I’ve usually got enough to do the things I want. 20
David Most higher education students receive| student receive| student receives some financial support from LEAs (local education authorities) with the rest their money| rest of their money| the rest of their money made up through parental support or through the Student Loans Company set up by central government to provide subsidized loans for students. Frank Over 90 per cent of students on first degree receive| receives| a receive awards covering tuition fees and maintenance. Parents also contribute, the amount| the numberj a number depending on their income. In addition, students are eligible for an interest-free loan.
PRACTICE WITH VERBS (1) Verbs indicate a point in time or period of time in the past, present or future. Verbs must agree in number and person with the subject. The verb may consist of a single word or a main verb with one or more auxiliary words. ANTICIPATION Exercise 1 a. Familiarize yourself with the text and use the present simple of the verbs in brackets. Consult the Grammar notes below. b. Translate the text into Russian. Today Mr.Grant's secretary, Elizabeth Corby, (to get) a telephone call from a man called George Duncan. (to have) an introduction to Harper & Grant from a mutual acquaintance, Jock Macpherson. Mr. Duncan is only staying in London for a few days and he (to telephone) to fix an appointaient to see Mr. Grant. Elizabeth (to tell) him that Mr. Grant is very busy and (to suggest) a later date. But Mr. Duncan, who is rather shorttempered, (to expect) that he can have an appointment whenever he (to want) one. He also (to ask) if he can see over the factory itself to see how some of the office furniture is made. Elizabeth (to have) a good secretary's sixth sense that this might be a valuable customer, so she finally (to fix) an appointment for him at half past three this afternoon. When Mr. Grant (to corne) into the office she tells him about the appointment. As Mr. Grant (to be) so busy, she (to suggest) that she herself should show Mr. Duncan round the factory. Mr. Grant reluctantly (to agree) to see him. He also (to remember) that the mutual acquaintance, Jock Macpherson, is a great talker who in the past has wasted a lot of time and then bought very little. He (to think) that perhaps his friend, Mr. Duncan, will be the same, so he (to warn) Elizabeth to interrapt the interview after a short time with the excuse that there is someone else waiting to see him. c. Write positive or negative short answers. 1. 2.
3. 4. 5.
Does Elizabeth get a telephone call from a man called - Yes, she does. George Duncan? Doesn't Mr. Duncan have an introduction to Harper & Grant - Yes, he does. from a mutual acquaintance? (Mr. Duncan has an introduction to Harper & Grant) Is Jock Macpherson a mutual acquaintance of Mr. Duncan - No, he isn't. | and Elizabeth Corby? Isn't Mr. Duncan staying in London for a long time? - No. he isn't. Does Mr. Duncan telephone to fix an ap-pointment to see - … Mr. Grant'? 21
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Doesn't Elizabeth suggest him a later date because Mr. Grant is very busy? Is Mr. Duncan rather short-tempered? Can Mr. Duncan have an appointaient with H. Grant whenever he wants one? Can’t Mr. Duncan see ver the factory to see how some of the office furniture is made? Does Elizabeth fail to have a good secre-tary's sixth sense that this might be a valu-able customer?
- ... -… -… -… -…
Doesn’t she finally fix an appointment for him at half past - ... six this afternoon? When Mr. Grant cornes into the office does she tell him - ... about the appointment? As Mrs. Corby is so busy, does she suggest that Mr. Grant - … should show Mr. Duncan round the factory? Is Mr. Grant happy to see Mr. Duncan? - ... Isn’t Jock Macpherson a great talker? -… Does H.Grant forbid Elizabeth to interrupt the interview after - … a short time even with the excuse that there is someone else waiting to see him?
Exercise 2 Show poli te interest in what your partner says: Model: Jock Macpherson has wasted a lot oftime and îhen - Has he? bought very Unie. Mr. Duncan isn't a great talker as his friend Jock – Isn’t he? Macpherson. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Elizabeth shows the visiter round the works. Mr. Duncan visits the different departments of the factory, or shops as they are called. Aftcr the visit to the factory Mr. Duncan goes to see Mr. Grant. Mr. Duncan lias indicated that he wishes to place a large order for office furniture for his new office block which is compieting construction in Scotland. 5. As agreed. after a short lime Elizabeth interrupts the interview. 6. Mr. Grant is no longer interested in escaping from his visiter. 7. Elezabeth is not at ail surprised by H. Grant’s sudden change of attitude. 8. Elizabeth knows her boss very well. 9. . Harper & Grant Ltd. have ail their administrative departments in the office block: Sales, Accounts. Personnel, Market Research and so on. 10. The larger items of office equipment are stored in the warehouse. 11. The firm keeps a stock of the faster-moving items so that urgent orders can be met quickly form the stock. 12. Mr. Grant assures M. Duncan that they make the best furniture on the market. 13. Mr. Duncan wonders if the production of Harper & Grant Ltd is the cheapest on the market. 14. Harper & Grant Ltd have a wide range of priees. 15. Mr. Grant thinks their priees compare favourably with anything on the market. 16. The priees depend on the Unes the customers choose. 17. We n’t supply you from the stock. 18. I am the Managing Director of G.P. Duncan & Company. 19. We make artificial fertilizers. 20. I want our new office block furnished. 21. We can give you a quotation, including delivery charges. 22
22. Two months is our deadline. 23. I ne ver like promising a date until I know I can honour it.
PRACTICE WITH PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS Ask yourself these questions when checking if the verb tense is correct. 1. What does the Present Simple denote? The Present simple is used to denote: a. Repeated actions or habits. Every economie choice involves opportunity cost. b. Situations which are permanent (continuing for a long time ). They live in Brighton now. (That is their permanent home. ) c. General truths. Vegetarians don’t eat meat or fish. d. A future action: – in adverbial clauses of time and condition; If you buy a car, you won’t spend the same money for a stereo. – with the verbs of motion, such as : to go, to corne, to leave, ... etc. The train leaves at ten tomorrow. e. Actions going on at the present moment (with the verbs not used in the continuous form). - See Question 3 below. They understand the problem now. 2. What does the Present Continuous denote? The Present continuous is used : a. to talk about something which is in progress at the moment of speaking; Don 't interfere! We are making our choice now. b. to talk about something which is in progress around the present, but not necessarily exactly at the moment of speaking; You are spending a lot of money these days. She is looking for a job now. c. to talk about situations which are changing or developing around the present. The population of the world is increasing very rapidly. Your English is improving. d. When there are two actions, one of which is in progress, and the other is a habituai action, the first is expressed by the Present continuous and the second by the Present simple. When people make a choice between two possible uses of their resources, they are making a tradeoff between them. e. We can use " always " with the continuous forms to mean "too often". People not paying attention to special education are always losing their money when they start their own business. Our neighbours are always having arguments. ("Always" – expresses anger or irritation here. "Always" normally means " on ail occasions ". In this meaning we use it in simple forms). 23
I always pay rent by cheque. But:I am always paying for you when we go out . "Always" goes before a full verb, but after the auxiliary verb (to be). f. We use the present continuous to talk about something that we have already arranged or planned to do in the future. She is taking an emm on Monday. 3. Is the verb used in the continuous form? What is the difference between stative and dynamic verbs? We call a few verbs like love stative because they refer to "states". A state has no beginning and no end. We don't "control" it, so we don't normally use stative verbs in continuous (progressive) tenses. I1hink you are right. We can describe three classes of verbs: • Dynamic verbs which have simple or progressive forms (most verbs in English) I often speak to our Works Manager, l'm speaking to him now. • Verbs which are always stative: This quotation belongs to me. • Verbs that have stative or dynamic uses: They are looking (a deliberate action) at her in anger because she looks (a state) awful. Society sees the true costs ofmaking one decision rather than another. (see = understand ) There are five groups of stative verbs referring to: Feelings (like, love, hate,...) Thinking/believing (think, understand, believe, mean, suppose, know, remember, understand, forget, realise,...) Perception (hear, see, smell, sound, taste,...) Wants (want, prefer, need, ...) Being/having/owning (appear, seem, belong, possess,... etc.) Note! Some of the above verbs have more than one meaning: we can see these verbs in the continuous when they describe actions: Simple uses: I think (-believe) y ou are right
Continuous uses: Sch! I'm thinking! ( think=use the mind)
Do you see what I mean? (=understand)
Are you seeing the doctor today?
Note! Verbs of physical feeling (feel, ache, hurt, etc.) can be used in either the continuous or simple forms. I feel ill. I am feeling I’ll. Exercise 1 Complete the sentences. Use the present simple of the verbs in brackets: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Jet engines (make) a lot of noise. She (work) from Monday to Friday. She (not/ work) at weekends. We (not/come) from Canada. We (corne) from the USA. Ail production (involve) a cost. The capital resources (include) a variety of tools and machines. A producer (to make) the goods or (to provide) the services that consumers (to use). Scarcity (to force) you to decide what you want tnost. When a person (to make) a choice between two possible uses of his resources, he is making a tradeoff between them. 24
9. If a nation (to increase) its production of consumer goods, its people will live better today. 10. Since every economie decision (to require) a choice, economies is a study of tradeoffs. Exercise 2 Complete the questions in the present simple. Mind that we use do/does to make questions and negative sentences. Model:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
If you need money, why ... (you / not / get) a job ? I don't understand the word "tradeoff. What ... (tradeoff / mean)? This decision is perfect. Why ... (you / not / evaluate) my choice? Who ... (understand) the true costs of making one decision rather than another? Since resources are limited and human wants are unlimited, who ... (make / choices) about people's wants? If you make choices that best satisfy your wants, what ... (you / to be aware of)? As each choice involves costs, how ... (we / call) the value of time, money, goods and services given up in making a choice? 8. If a person has a lot of choices, then how many ... (opportunity costs / exist)? 9. If economie models are used to help solve economie problems, what... (their usefulness / depend on)? Exercise 3 Choose the correct form. e.g. We produce / are producing capital goods and consumer goods. 1. 2. 3. 4.
We use various resources when we produce / are producing goods or services. They count / are counting the costs not only in terms of money, but in terms of resources used. We always make / are making choices between people's wants and needs. When people make a choice between two possible uses of their resources they make / are making a tradeoff between them. 5. We always require / are requiring natural resources when we are building a bridge. 6. Everybody assumes / is assuming that this decision is the best to fit the goal. 7. Economists always seek / are seeking solutions and make / are making comparisons between the economie model and the real world. 8. An individual makes / is making careful decisions now about how to allocate personal resources. 9. When we talk about "the national labour force" we think / are thinking of ail those people available for work within the nation. 10. People always lose / are losing their money when they start their own business without special education. 11. is trying / tries to find a job at the moment, he must do something to earn a living. Exercise 4 Translate the following sentences: 1.
, .
2. 3.
,
.
. 4. 5.
,
. ,
. 6. 7.
,
. , . 25
8.
,
,
.
. 9. 10.
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
. 11.
, (gradually)
12.
,
. (to wear earphones),
. 13. 14.
? !
.
PRACTICE WITH THE PAST SIMPLE AND THE PAST CONTINUOUS 1. Is the form of the verb in the past simple correct? The form of the past simple is the same for ail persons:
I, you. we, he
Regular verbs worked increased
Irresjular verbs went made
We use did to io make questions and negative sentences: I made a choice. – Did he make a choice'S – didn 't make a choice. 2. Is the past simple used correctly? a. We use this tense to talk about actions and situations in the past. The development committee arranged everything. decided to invest his capital in the new enterprise two years ago. b. The past simple denotes an action performed within a period ol lime which is already over. The time of action may be indicated by adverbial of past time (yesterday, a week ago, last year. ... etc.) Some vears ago my parents couldn't afford a loan to cover education. c. The past simple denotes a succession of past actions. The buyers saw the display oj'the machines and sent an inquiry to the finn. d. When "who", "what", or "which" is the subject of a past simple question, we do not use "did". Who made a choice between two possible uses of resources? 3. Is the past continuous used correctly? a. We use the past continuous to talk about something which was in progress at a past time. The action or situation had started but it had not finished at that time. The economists were evaluating the opportunity costs involved. b. The action was going on at a definite moment in the past and this moment is indicated by another past action or by an adverbial phrase. The people were building a bridge and the construction required different resources. c. The past continuous is often used after such phrases as " the whole day ", "ail day long". They were discussing a very important project the whole day. 26
d. The past continuous is used to denote an action thought of as a continuai process. In this case the adverbs "always", "ever", constantly are used. The past continuous is to be found in emotional speech. The priees were constfintly rising! One couldn't keep up with them! Exercise 1 Choose the correct form. e.g. Tliev opened / were opening a new account last week. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
The capital resources included / were including a variety of tools and machines. The society understood / was understanding the true costs of making one decision rather than another, was always losing / always lost his money when he provided capital for new businesses Employers obtained / were obtaining their net profits only after they had paid all expenses. Formally the term "market " denoted / was denoting a place set aside for buying and selling. He realised / was realising the real costs of things and found the right solution. When John studied / was studying at college he had to make very important decisions. People who were willing to sell a commodity contacted / were con-tacting people who were willing to buy it. 9. The engineers discussed / were discussing the scheme at the meeting the whole day. 10. The manager of the repair department explained / was explaining the poor quality of the work by the lack of the qualified workmen. 11. He spoke / was always speaking too fast. I could hardly understand half of what he said then. 12. When she read / was reading a new labour contract, she found it necessary to increase wages. 13. Mother stared / was staring out of the window; she seemed deep in thought. Exercise 2 Look at the underlined verbs in each sentence. Choose the forra of the verb that is incorrect. 1. Several thousand workers at the plant were threatening to go on strike unless the company was improving its latest pay offer. 2. We were listening to the sound of voices in the corridor, then the door opened and Mr. Dent was appearing. 3. When the society was understanding the true costs of making one decision rather than another it could make the best decision. 4. This section helped us to understand that every economie choice was involving opportunity cost. 5. Since we had limited resources and unlimited wants people and societies had to make choices about what they were wanting most. 6. These students worked the whole summer and earned enough money to satisfy their wants in clothes and leisure. 7. They drew the family budget with their adult children and the young children had to make choices about what they were wanting most. 8. If your coat was wearing out in a year, it certainly wasn't good value. Exercise 3 Find a mistake if there is any in the sentence. 1. They both studied the quotation carefully; so was the man three tables away, who was watching them both A carefully. D 2. If you are desiring tobuy a new house, give up all the unnecessary expenses. A C D 3. You always buy a lot of essential goods from us. Can we assume that we sold them more cheaply than orner A D shops? 4. While Joanna wrote the report, Peter was looking for more precise information. 27
A
D
5. A mixed economy is one with a combination of nationalism and private enterprise and fit the goals of many A D producers. 6. When I worked for the Japanese I alwavs was making silly mistakes. A B C D 7 The supporters of this economie model are assuming that the principle of supply and demand is more A effective than government control in regulating the economy. D 8. This company was producing a wide range of high-quality leather goods which are always available to A customers. These products fit the customers’ values. D 9. Many companies are trying to cut labour costs and gradually reduce their work force now. A D 10. The manager's eyebrows were moving up and down like the Dow-Jones index in an election year - he was A always sounding like a textbook. D Exercise 4 Render the following into English. 1.
, ,
.
2.
, (rents)
,
(fares).
3.
,
, .
4.
, .
,
5. 6.
. , ),
(
. ,
,-
.
7.
,
.-
! 8.
,
.
,
, . 9. 10.
,
,
,
.
,
.-
!
2.2 PRACTICE WITH QUANTITY When we talk about quantity we use such words as : some , any much, many, a lot, (a) little, (a) few no, none Ask yourself these questions when checking quantity words:
all, every, each both, either, neither more, most, half
1. Is the word order correct? a. We can use these words ( except "none", " a lot", "half) directly be-fore a noun. 28
Have you got any money? Both choices are equal. There are some expenses involved. b. We can use these words ( except " no", "every") before of + the. her, your, this, etc. + noun. Either of the choices will satisfy human wants. Neither of us accepted the offer. Half (of) friends earn their living. After "ail", "half" and "both" we can leave oui 'of before "the", "her", " ","your", "this", etc. Both of the tradeoffs were evaluated. But after "ail", "half", and "both" we can't leave out "of" before an object pronoun. Have you counted the opportunity costs? - Not all of them. c. We can use these words ( except " no", every") alone, without nouns. – Can the students satisfy a lot of their wants wiîh their grants? – No, not many. 2. Should "some" or "any" be used? a. We use some and any before plural nouns and uncountable nouns to talk about an indefmite quantity: some money any money some choices any choices b. Some is mostly used in affirmative sentences and any - in negative sentences. I’ve got some money, but he hasn't got any money. c. We use any after the words with a negative meaning ( without any, hardly any ). You can't make a choice between two possible uses of your resources without any opportunity
st.
d. We can use some or any after "if": If you need some money, earn it. e. We normally use any in " open" questions ( we don't expect a particular answer). Have you got any information ? But we use some in questions when expect people to say "yes". Have you got some information? ( I think you have il). We also use some in questions when we want to encourage people to say "yes" (in requests and commands). Can you lend me some money? f. We also use any to mean "it doesn't matter which" or "whichcver you like". You can make any choice you like. I can earn money any place I choose 3. Should "many", "much", "a lot (of)", "(a) little", or "(a) few" be used? a. We use much and (a) little with uncountable nouns, and "many" and "(a) few" with plural countable nouns. much information many tradeoffs (a) little money `(a)few problems We use "a lot of, "lots of with both uncountable and plural countable nouns. a lot of money a lot ofchoices lots ofmilk lots of questions plenty oftime plenty of jobs (a lot / lot = a great quantity or number; plenty = more than enough ) 29
A lot of resources are used to produce goods and services. b. We use much and many mostly in questions and in negative sentences. How much work do you have ? Has he got many problems ? I haven't got much money. Note: In affirmative sentences we normally use a lot (of), lots (of), plenty (of); not much and many. You have got a lot of money (plenty of work). But we often use "much" and "many" after "too", "as""so","very". I've spent too much money. I've got so many jobs today. Note: The plan is much too complicated. c. A little and a few are positive ideas. A little means a small amount. but some: a few means a small number, but some. I've got a little money, so l could lend you some if you want. I think he cashed a check a few minutes ago. d. Little and few, without a are more negative ideas. Little means not much or almost no; few means not many, almost no. It is an extremely poor country: it has few natural resources and little good agricultural land. e. Little and few ( without a ) are rather formai. In everyday speech, it is more common to use " not much"; "not many", "only a little ( a few)", or "hardly any" ( = "almost no"). I've got very little money. I've got not much money. Hardly any students passed the exam. 4. Should "no" or "none" be used? a. We use "no"(= not a , or not any) before a noun; There is no production without costs. There are no natural resources in this region. We can use "no" before singular countable and uncountable nouns; I've got no information about the construction of this plant. b. "None" is a pronoun, we use it alone, without a noun. How many concepts of opportunity costs are used to explain how the economy works? - None. Before
", "this", "the", etc. or an object pronoun ("us", "them") we use none of. None of the problems were serions enough. None of us have any rnoney.
When we use "none of" with a plural noun, the verb can be singular or plural. A singular verb is more formal. None of the costs is / are counted in ternis of money but also in tenus of resources used. 5. Are "ail", "every", "everybody", "everything". "whole" used cor-rectly? a. "All" and "every". "Every" has a similar meaning to "ail" and means "ail without exception". All the students in the gmup passeed the exam in Economies. 30
All production involves a cost. "All" is used with plural words, "every" is used with singular worcis only all people - everv persan All people make a choice between two possible uses of their resonrces. Every persan who buys a car cannot spend the saine monev for a stereo. "All" but not "every" is used with uncountable nouns. Have y ou spent all money on books ? b. "All", "everybody" and "everything" We do not normally use "all" alone, without a noun to mean "everybody", "everyone". All the engineers tookpart in the discussion of a new plan. Everybody took part in getting an import licence. But we can use "all" to mean everything in the structure "ail (that)+relative clause" Have you got all (that) y ou need? We also use "all" to mean "the only thing(s)" or "nothing more". All I want is to make the right economie choice. c. "All" and "whole" "Whole" means "complete" or "every part of it". It is normally used with singular countable nouns. I've spent the whole day frying to catch him, but lie wasn't available. We can use "the", "
", "this". etc. with "all" and "whole". but the word order is different.
Compare: all the day - the whole day ; all my life - my whole life We can use " a whole " before a singular noun. We spent a whole day together. But we don't use "whole" with uncountable nouns. All the future personal growth is taken into consideration. (Not: The whole growth...) d "All day" and "every day". We use "all" with Singular countable nouns: day, moming, week, year... to mean "the whole of" I worked hard all day. (=the whole day). We use "every" with day, morning, etc..., to say how often something happens. I work hard every day (=Monday, Tuesday, etc...) We can use "the whole day / morning", etc. instead of "all day / morning", etc. I've been seeking the right solution the whole mornins /all moming. "The whole" is stronger in that case. 6. Should we use "every" or "each"? We use "every" when we think of a whole group; we use "each " when we think ofthe members ofthe group separately, one at a time. I asked every persan at the Each persan evaluated tradeoffs between meeting the same question. two possiblen choices. 7. Should we use "both", "either", or "neither"? 31
a. "Both" = "the two together" or "one and the other". We use "both" before a plural countable noun. Both concepts seemed deep and right. We use "both of" before "the", "your", "these", etc. + plural noun and we often leave out "of. Both (of) choices involve costs. Note: We cannot leave out "of" before the plural object pronouns: you, us, them. Both of them have to earn their living. We can use "both" after an object pronoun. I consider them both very skilled workers. b. "Either" / "neither" are used before a singular countable noun. "Either" = "one or the other"; "neither" = "not one or not the other" Either production involves costs. Neither choice is justifiee. "Either of '/"neither of" are used before your, these, the ,etc.+ a plural countable noun or before the plural object pronouns you, us, them. Either of these producers makes goods and provides services that consumers use. Neither of them could answer major economie questions. Note: After "neither of we can use a singular or a plural verb. Neither of the costs is / are counted in terms of money but also in ternis of resources used. Neither of the resources used for the bridge is / are availablefor something else. But : A singular verb is more common in a formai style. c. We use "both ", "either", "neither" to link the ideas in these structures: both... and... either... or... neither... nor... This cost is counted both in terms of money and in terms of resources used. The capital resources these people use include both tools and machines. We can either buy a car_or spend our money for a stereo. Neither land nor water belongs to consumer goods but are considered to be natural resources. Exercise 1 Fill in the blanks. Complete the sentences using the following quantity pronouns (Some of them can be used twice.): A any afew neither (of)
D plentyof E a lot of(2) F either
G some (2) H others/other I both (of)
J (a) little both... and L some other
1. After graduation from high school_____young people choose to go to college:____want to get full-time jobs, _____ decide to obtain a technical job training. 2. What are_____considerations in making a choice? 3. You can't make a choice between two possible uses of your resources without_____opportunity cost. 4. _____decision school graduates make affects the rest of their lives. 5. I know that you've got_____money. Could you lend me_____? 6. Young people have_____opportunities today to earn their living, but they don't always make the most of them. 7. ____of us lias any chance for research in our new jobs. 32
8. ____ the concepts of opportunity costs and tradeoffs are used to explain how the economy works. 9. If a person has _____ choices then more than one opportunity cost exists. 10. The capital resources these people use include____a variety of tools ____machines. 11. If you spend_____time watching TV you cannot spend the same time at the library. Exercise 2 Choose the correct pronoun and complete the sentence. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
People and societies don't have much / many natural resources and must be aware of ail the trade-offs. Every / each opportunity cost is the value of time, money, natural resources and labour. All / every people make choices about what they want most. We have got ail the / the whole information about the construction of this plant. Another / other natural resources are available and used by construction workers. Unfortunately, a few / few economie inodels help economists to analyse economie problems and solve them. 7. Nothing / none of the decisions were correct and justified. 8. Don’t you have little / a little money to lend me? 9. There are hardly some / any students in your group who need financial help to attend college. 10. One can't make a choice between two possible uses of resources with-out some/any opportunity cost. 11. No / neither of ihese economie models fits our goals. Try to find a better one. 12. The managers made quite a number of promises bet'ore the meeting, but haven't kept either/ kept none. 13. The two workshops look very much alike but frankly speaking I don't Hke both of them / either. 14. 1 have tclephoned Mr. Grant three limes this week and I reckon l've mentioned Mr. Macpherson's reference every / each time. Exercise 3 CONTEXT Task 1 Read the conversation between Mr Ward and his son Alan. In eight of the lines mere is one wrong word or word combination. Other lines, how-ever, are correct. • If a line is correct, put a tick ( ) in the space in the right-hand column. • If there is a mistake in the line, use the correct word. MrW:
A:
MrW:
A:
MrW:
I say, dear, sixteen is a crucial age. This is when every young man and girl have to decide whether to stay at school, to go on to a college, to look for a job, or to start a Youth Training Programme. Well, that' s the thing! Our tutor says that every have to think about gaining employment in a job market which demands more and increasingly skilled workers. In my youth little young people studied for "A" and "AS" level qualifications. I hear it is a more frequent practice nowadays. True enough. These are two-year courses in single subjects. Students will usually take either two nor three subjects which may be combined with one or two "AS" courses. These are offered by both schools and colleges. Yes, but on the other hand, if you need some advice, ask a School careers adviser. Some advisers teach much useful skills: e.g. Filling out a curriculum vitae, writing letters. applying for a job, because for many young people this is unchartered terri tory.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 33
A:
Mr W:
A:
MrW:
Yes, but on the other hand, higher education is attractive, ton I have heard that the proportion of young people entering university and other advanced education is expected to reach 1 in 3 in the near future. But while attending college I’ll gel no income and no any practical job experience, and lose some time and a lot of inoney. No way! Going to college means using time and monev now to gain greater advantages in the future. I know that any students on first degree and comparatively advanced courses receive both awards covering tuition and maintenance. How right that is! Most parents also contribute, but that depends on their income. They say students are granted some interest-free loans through the Student Loans Company. Besides, the Government guarantees a place on the Youth Training Programmes to every of us who is not in full-time education or in work. On balance, to a certain extent education is worth the expense, especially, if the objective is to gain greater advantages in the future.
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
3.1 PRACTICE WITH VERBS (2) ANTICIPATION Exercise 1 • Familiarize yourself with the text. • Rephrase the word combinations in bold type, supplying them with the appropriate determiners from the box. You may use sortie of them more than once or not al ail. • Consult the Grammar notes below. • Translate the text into Russian.
An Emergency in the Sales Office John Martin is due back from his trip to Abraca today and there is a pile of work on his desk. Unfortunately, there is also an unpleasant surprise waiting for him. His very efficient secretary, Sally Langley, has telephoned to say that she is ill and cannot corne into the office today. Eliza-beth Corby, Mr. Grant's secretary, copes with the emergency by going to see the Chief Clerk in the General Office and asking him if he will lend Mr. Martin one of his shorthand-typists while Sally is away. The Chief Clerk, Mr. Baker, has agreed to lend Fenella, who is inexperienced but willing. Elizabeth has told her where to find the stationery, given her a few helpful hints and then left her to her fate. Mr. Martin has a much bigger emergency to with as soon as he arrives. Thirty desks have failed to arrive in Holland, and the agent there, Mr. Van Eyck, rings Mr. Martin in a panic because he is responsible for seeing that they are delivered by a certain date to the Dutch customers. The firm use forwarding agents to clear the goods through customs, transport them and deliver them. But something has gone wrong somewhere along the Une. Apart from this, and many other jobs which need his attention John has got to report to Mr. Grant on his trip to Abraca. They haven't discussed the chances of opening up a new market there, who they will use as an agent and how the money to pay for the goods will be transferred to Britain. Mr. Grant is likely to decide he wants an irrevocable letter of credit. A letter of credit is sent by a bank to an exporter informing him that payment for goods is at the bank. When the exporter proves that the goods have left the country (by showing a of a bill of lading with the signature of the captain, or person responsible, proving that the goods have been loaded on to the ship) the money is then paid to the exporter. The buyer - say in Abraca - tells his own bank to send a letter of credit to the exporter's bank in London. It is therefore a promise to pay as soon as the exporter has shown 34
proof that he has sent the goods. At the end of the day John has cleared up some of his work, but poor Fenella is nearly at her wits' end.
PRACTICE WITH THE PRESENT PERFECT Ask yourself these questions when checking adjectives. 1. What kind of action does the Present Perfect form denote? The Present perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment and connected with it. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present tense and Participle II of the notional verb. I'm a little frightened for I have lost way. The production of furniture has fallen sharply this year. 2. Do we use any particular words to modify the Present Perfect? The Present Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, yet, already. a. We use just for very recent events; just goes after the auxiliary verb have. I have just stopped buying bananas at the current price as the financial sacrifice is greater than the satisfaction of eating them. b. We use yet when we are expecting something to happen; yet normally goes at the end of the clause. We use it in this way only in questions and negatives. Mr. Worthing, I suppose, has not returned from town yet. It's nearly 10 'clock. Has Andrew obtained the necessary information yet? . We use already when something bas happened sooner than expected; already normally goes after the auxiliary verb have. Where is Kate? - She has already left. Could you make a shopping list for me ? -1 have already mode it. Already can also go at the end of a clause for emphasis. She has left already. The consumer's desire for computers has diminished already, d. We use the Present Periect wilh today, this morning, this aftemoon, etc., when these periods of time are not finished al the time of speaking. I have written six letters this morning. (It is still "this morning. " ) The customers have bargained over the best prices this afternoon. ( It is still "this afternoon) 3. What words help us denote the period of action under consideration? a. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on. In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. – The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. – Since is used to indicate the starting. point of the action. – If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Simple. The suppliers haven 't ehanged their prices since May. Mr. Cooper, I have known yon now for something like fourteen years. The prices for the majority of goods and services have changed a lot since you provided us with your quotations. She has worked in London for six months. (= She slill works there now.) 35
b. We often use the Present Perfeet with "indefinite" time words: ever (=at any time up to now), never (= at no time up to now) and before. What's the best film you have ever seen? has never rated meat highly. Have we ever rated thisfirm as sound? 5. Should we use the Present Perfeet or the Past Simple? The Present Perfeet always connects the past and the present. The Past Simple tells us only about the past. We use the Present Perfeet to talk about something which started in the past and continues up to the present. I have lived in London for ten years.( = I still live in London now). has rated meat very highly for several years.(= rates it highly now.) She has bought vegetables at the current priee for a long time. We use the past simple to talk about something which started and finished in the past. I paid by sight draftfor 5 years. (= I do not pay by sight draft now.) rated meat very highly for several years but now he does not eat it at ail. She bought vesetables at the current price but at the moment she can 't afford it. Exercise 1 a. Complete the sentences using the Present Perfeet Simple of the verbs in brackets. b. Give a short summary of what each of the speakers has said. Supplier: All right. gentlemen. Shall we start? You ... (study) our offer. ... (have)you? Customer: Yes. we ... carefully (examine) it. In principle we ... (find) the tenns and conditions quite acceptable. S: Good. If you agree to our proposai it won't take us long to finalise the matter. C: We hope not, but we'd like to clarify some points. The major point is the equipment cost. We rate your models' quality and reliability highly but you ... (quote) a very high priee. Fin afraid. Our firm would find it difficult to accept it. S: Fin not sure you are right about it. $50 per unit is quite a reasonable priee. You see, the total cost may seem a bit high, but it is fully justified. As you know we .... (improve) the model lately. The alterations we ... just (make) cover the resources, power cost, the amount and the quality of the product. C: It sounds convincing. As I ... (hear) for a few months already the consumer's desire for your production tends to increase, but, probably, this is no reason for raising the cost so much. As to our firm, with each successsive purchase the financial sacrifice becomes greater than the satisfaction of getting your equipment. We are inclined to bargain over priees. S: Yes, that is one way of looking at it, but l'd like to point out that there is a current annual rise in world priees for this particular type of equipment and materials. And we can hardly ignore it. : Well, I think we'll have to look into the matter again. Our Consultant Company ... (present) to us their competitors' materials this week. They are the latest. I hope our experts ... already (compare) the technological characteristics. S: Well, I... (think over) your reasons. My opinion is that we can make the only concession for you, as we ... (be) good partners for a long time. As I see it we'll be able to give you a 2% discount off the value of the contract. C: All right. But I think we need a couple of days to discuss what you ... just (say) and to give our final reply. S: Fine. We are ready to resume the talks at your convenience. Exercise 2 Write "R" (right) if the tense is used correctly, and "W" (wrong) if it is not. 1. The production of chemical equipment has fallen sharply 2 years ago. There was no demand for it. 2. We have never planned our expenditure before. 3. m has been hearing for three days already that the government is inclined to control the priees for major consumer goods and services. 36
4. This black evening dress was sold at $100 for a long time, but today the sellers have changed the priee. 5. The utility of meat has changed for friend greatly, since he made a decision to become a vegetarian. 6. Today I stopped buying tomatoes at the current priee as m financial sacrifice is greater than the satisfaction of eating them. 7. Did you ever see our assembly shop? You can see the finished prod-ucts here. Look, here is the latest model of pumps. We modified it lately. 8. Have you seen the latest adds of diet bread yet? It's very attractive and emotional. Exercise 3 Render the following into English: 1.
, .
,
,
. 2.
,
,
.
. 3.
.
,
.
. .
4. ,
, ?
5.
, .
,
.
, ,
.
6. –
. ,
–
,
.
,
?
,
,
,
-
. 7. –
,
,
? –
.
30
,
. .
–
.
.
!
PRACTICE WITH THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Ask yourself these questions when checking the Present Perfect Continuous. 1. What action does the Present Perfect Continuons denote? a. The Present Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on. I've been workins all day. The Present Perfect Continuous denotes an action which was recently in progress but is no longer going on at the present moment. You are not well today. You look distressed. You have been weeping. b. The Present Perfect is used to express repeated actions in the past. - How have y ou been spending your y? - I have been buying pictures since then. c. The Present Continuous is often used with an emotional colouring. I suppose you have been telling lies again. 37
2. What words, if any, are used to identify the Present Perfect Continuous? The Present Perfect Continuous is generally used with since (denoting the starting point of the action), for (denoting the whole period of duration). If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite. I have been looking out for your white dressfor the last ten minutes. People have been rotins the utility of war equipment highly since the beginning of the war. 3. Is it possible to use the Present Perfect Continuous with the verbs not admitting of the continuous form? With the verbs not admitting of the continuous form the Present Perfect is the only tense possible. "She's dead - has been deadfor hours. " said the doctor. I've heard for a long unie already that there is an excess of bicycles on the home market but our experts keep silence. 4. Which tense is used with non-terminative verbs? With certain non-terminative verbs, such as to live, to work, to study, to teach, to travel, etc., both the Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous are used. We have worked at the problemfor several months. (The fact Is emphasized). We have been workins and working at the problem for months and I don 't think we are likely to solve it. (The process is emphasized). 5. Should the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous be used? a. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action while with the Present Perfect Continuous there is an implication of incompleteness. has made some payments. Now he has to save. John is ont of money. has been making some payments. b. We use the Present Perfect Continuous to talk about how long some-thing has been in progress. We have been planning our expenditure since 12 'clock. How long have you been typing letters ? We use the Present Perfect to talk about what has been achieved in a period of time. I've typed four letters so far this morning. We have planned the greater part of our expenditure since 12 o'clock. c. We use the Present Perfect Continuous for situations which are more temporary (continuing for a short period). has been living there for just afew weeks. We have been buying milk at the current price for just two days. We use the Present Perfect for situations which are more permanent (continuing for a longer time). You have worked hard ail your life. d. Sometimes there is only a small difference in meaning between the two forms. I have been preparine /I have prepared report for a week. How long has she been workins/has she worked at the preliminary desk research? 38
Exercise 1 Complete the sentences using the appropriate tense of the verbs in brackets. 1. I’m sorry, I’m late. ... (you / wait) long? 2. We ... (plan) our expenditures since early morning but we are still in the process. 3. Our specialists ... (study) the relative demand for office furniture for 3 months and now they can demonstrate the results of their survey. 4. They ... (advertize) the new type of shampoo everywhere for a month. 5. – How long ... you (look for) the shipping documents for the thirty M-type desks? - I ... (try) to find them since morning, but I think it'll take me the whole day. 6. ... (clear up) some of Sally's work ? It has been a hectic day. 7. Mr. Best, the Sales Clerk, ... (record) the invoiced sales and order in-take for the month since January 3. 8. I ... (dial the number direct) for half an hour, but in vain. Let's do it through the operator. 9. The National Bank ... (rate) this agent as sound since he got a more detailed report on his performance. 10. These agents ... (make) the long - term assessment for a week. Do you think we should hire some more specialists? Exercise 2 Choose the correct form. 1. – Can I have a look at your intake for the month? - Certainly. You can keep it if you like. I have been reading / have read it. 2. They have been paying / have paid through a London branch this month, but we haven't received the payment yet. 3. I’ m very sorry, but 30 desks have failed / have been failing to arrive in Holland. 4. Eve has been saving / has saved nearly two thousand pounds so far this year. 5. What's the matter? Has something been going / has something gone wrong along the line? 6. I have always been paying / have always paid by sight draft. l'm against irrevocable letter of credit. 7. John has been ringing / has rang you up for 2 hours. is on the line. 8. Something has happened / has been happening to our forwarding agent in Rotterdam. I can't locale him. 9. John has tried / has been trying to find the file under Bills of Lading concerning consigned motor vessel "Kelpie", date of clearance London Docks, 12th September for 2 hours. 10. Sally Langley has telephoned / has been telephoning to say that she is ill and cannot corne to the office.
PRACTICE WITH THE PAST PERFECT Ask yourself these questions when checking the Past Perfect Tense. 1. What kind of action does the Past Perfect denote? The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase. After she had cried out, she felt easier. Fortunately, the hold-up had been investisated before we started. By that tirne he had siven the exact date of clearance. The definite moment can be understood from the situation. The forwarding agent had cleared the goods through customs and was delivering them. The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect. Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole day. Something had sone wrong along the line. 2. Are any words used to underline the meaning of the Past Perfect? a. The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly ... when, scarcely... when, no sooner ... than. 39
They had no sooner sent a letter of credit to an exporter than the goods were loaded on to the ship. Nell had scarcely set a note with the memo when the manager asked her to bring it. For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted. No sooner had she set a note with the letter than she heard the trill of the bell. b. The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, already, yet. Sally, who had already taken some action, was sorting the outgoing letters. John had not vet reyorted to Mr. Grant and was nearly at his wits' end. Exercise 1 a. Complete the sentences using the past simple of the verbs in brackets. 1. – Why were you so angry when I saw you yesterday? - Oh, I___ (just / have) a big argument with my parents. 2. I tried contacting my pen pal when I was in the US, but she , ___ (change) her address and no one knew where she_____(move) to. 3. was very nervous when he first drove in Britain because he ____ (not / drive) on the left before. 4. When I heard his voice on the phone, I knew I ____ (speak) to him be fore. Then I remembered I_____(already / meet) him. I also remem bered that I_____(not like) him very much. b. Put one verb in each sentence into the past perfect and the other in to the past simple. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
-Did you catch the train yesterday? - No, it ____ (already / leave when we____(get) to the station. Andrew_____(do) the test before, so he____(find) it very easy. I____(not / laugh) at the joke because I_____(hear) it before. We_____(leave) the restaurant when we_____(have) dinner. When I found my wallet I _____ (discover) that somebody ____ (took) the credit cards out of it.
Exercise 2 Choose the correct tense. 1.
Suddenly I realized that the financial sacrifice_____greater than my satisfaction of buying video films at the current priee. (A) became (B) had became (C) bas become (D) had become 2. (A) (B) (C) (D)
This year Bob Hardiman_____yet the time to be qualified for the full pension. has not completed does not completed has completed had not completed
3. No sooner_____Peter and Yan the case to H.G. than Mr. Grant understood that he had to change his decision. (A) explained (B) had explained (C) has explained (D) have explained 4. Everybody noticed how upset she was. She_____ration stamps for meat, butter and sugar. (A) looses (B) has lost 40
(C) lost (D) had lost 5. (A) (B) (C) (D)
A consumer, who____already enough items of a commodity, was not interested in getting more of it. bought has bought have bought had bought
6.
They_____the priees in advance that's why when planning our expenditure we must accept these fîxed priees. (A) fixed (B) have fixed (C) fix (D) had fixed 7. (A) (B) (C) (D)
Hardly Elizabeth ___ with the emergency, when she saw a pile of work on Mr. Bell's desk. coped has coped had had coped
8.
The clerks______the envelopes with ail order acknowledgements and delivery notes but the monthly statements of aceounts were still un-touched. (A) already had franked (B) had already franked (C) franked already (D) already franked 9. (A) (B) (C) (D)
When the exporter____that the goods had already left the country the money is then paid to the exporter. proved had prove had proved had to prove
10. (A) (B) (C) (D)
A letter of credit is a promise to pay as soon as the exporter has shown proof that he____the goods. had sent sent has send has sent
11. (A) (B) (C) (D)
Simon wasn't at home when I phoned. had went had gone went gone
_____out.
12.
Sally was at the General Office when we arrived, but she____out soon afterwards to emergency in the Sales Office. (A) had gone (B) went (C) has gone (D) had go
with the
13.
When John Martin cleared some of his work, Fenella_____the copies of the shipping documents for the 41
thirty M-type desks sent to the Netherlands. (A) brought (B) had brought (C) to bring (D) has brought 14. (A) (B) (C) (D)
A letter of credit was sent by the bank to the exporter informing him that payment for goods_____. made was made had been made has been made
Exercise 3 Translate into English. 1. 2.
,
,
. ,
. 3.
,
,
. ,
4. 5.
.
. ,
,
,
.
,
.
PRACTICE WITH THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Ask yourself these questions when checking the Past Perfect Continuous. 1. What kind of action does the Past Perfect Continuons denote? a. The Past Perfect Continuous denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and vvas still going on at that moment. Either the starting point of the action is indi-cated (since), or the whole period of duration (for). We couldn't go ont because it had been rainine since early morning. We couldn't find tins letter in the " in tray " because Sally had not been sorting the letters for four days and it was due to corne the day before vesterday. b. We use the Past Perfect Continuous when we are talking about the past and we want to refer back to an earlier past. ____earlier past____ _past_ George Duncan had been waitins for an hour, when Hector Grant agreed to s him. We use the Past Perfect Continuous (e.g. George Duncan had been waiting for an hour) to talk about something which had been in progress up to the past time we are talking about (e.g. when Hector Grant agreed to see him). The consumers had been bargaining over prices for a long time when the seller mode a discount at last. Bob Hardiman had been workins for "Harper & Grant Ltd" for 30 years when he had to leave the company. 2. Which tense is usually used with the verbs not admitting of the con-tinuous form? With the verbs not admitting of the Continuous the Past Perfect is the only tense possible. The reception girl had seen the stranger for five minutes already before that man noticed her. 3. Which tense do we usually use with non-terminative verbs? With certain non-terminative verbs, such as to live, to work, etc. both the Past Perfect and the Past Continuous are used. said he had worked for twenty years. (The fact is emphasized). said he had been workins for a long time without achieving final results. (The process is emphasized). 42
Exercise 1 Complete the sentences using the correct tense. 1. Our company ____ (produce) office equipment for nearly 2 years when we____(realize) that the consumers demand for it____ (go) down. 2. Before John Martin___ (go) to Abraca, he ____ (disccuss) his preliminary desk research with H.Grant and finally he___(get) a reservation for a first-class return flight to Abraca. 3. The managing director_____ (examining) the data provided by the Consultant company since he arrived. And now he _____ (be busy) with them as well he is going to discuss the results with the specialists. 4. John Martin_____(argue) with H.G. for an hour, when he____(decide) to leave the firm. 5. I____(know) about a first-class reputation of the manufacturing plant for several years before I ____ (make) a decision to place an order with it. Exercise 2 Translate into English. 1.
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2. 3.
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5.
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, . Exercise 3 CONTEXT Read the dialogue below. If the word or word combination in italics is wrong, correct it. Brendan made a trade off between college education and immediate economie well-being infavour of the lutter and started the business of his own, but he still needs advice from his friend Mary who decided that further education is worth money and effort. They are discussing a new line of products in Brendan's shop. B. The shop has doing well but I’m afraid that consumers may stop buying things if I don't introduce new items of goods. M. I'm inclined to think that your new line of merchandise has risen the demand for goods in your shop. B. That's what I wanted to talk to you about. I wonder if this time we charged the appropriate priee. We had no sooner charge the price for the new stock of merchandise previous time than the demand for it drops. Can you give some ideas how to charge priees? M. Generally, there are two types of pricing policies. There is prie emphasis and price deemphasis. B. What's the difference? M. The price emphasis policy emphasizes low prices. This encourages sales. But low priees doesn't give extra services. B. True enough. If I have quoted a really low price, that means n credit, home delivery, repair, installation and other services M. That's what I mean. But many people are interested only in the low price and not in the extra services. B. That's one way of looking at it, but no sooner had I set the price then I had to think thoroughly about it, because the price determines the number of sales. M. You have my full support! A good example of price emphasis is "loss leader" pricing. It means that yorschoose one item and sell it at a very low price. The customers, who have came to your shop to buy this 43
loss leader can decide to buy a few other things they need. B. It sounds interesting. What other things can you tell? M. There is also off-even pricing. Let's say you have been selling tape recorders for $69,95 instead of $80.00 for a rnonth. Though it is in fact about the same, the low price can produce a favourable psychological effect. B. What are the other ways to attract the customers? M. If you ever compete with well-known products you must have started with specially low priees. Mind. that it's important to advertise this. You should use newspaper ads, maybe do a big window and floor display. B. It makes sense. Can I raise the price after my customers had tried a new brand and got accustomed to it. M. Yes. They will continue to buy it. B. I see. And what about the price de-emphasis you just mentioned? M. It concerns high quality expensive items. You don't call attention to the price at ail. B. I take your point. Your suggestions have always been very useful. Don't forget you have a discount on any shopping you do in my shop.
3.2 PRACTICE WITH ADJECTIVES Ask yourself these questions when checking adjectives. 1. Which form of an English adjective do we use with singular and plural nouns? Adjectives in English only have one form, which we use with singular and plural nouns. an old man / old men an old car / old cars When a noun is used as an adjective, it does not have a plural form. Compare: five pounds / a five-pound note two weeks / a two-week holiday 2. What is the place of an adjective in English? a. An adjective can corne in two places in a sentence: – before a noun According to our basic needs and additional individual wants we require different kinds of commodities. – after the verbs be, look, appear, seem, feel, taste, smell, sound,...etc. when we describe the subject of a sentence. Our wants are very complex. The price seems high. The soup smells good, but tastes awful. b. A few adjectives can corne after a verb, but not before a noun: asleep, alone, alive, awake, afraid, ill, well. is asleep. (not: an asleep man) Before nouns we use : sleeping living frighiened sick healthy
instead of instead of instead of instead of instead of
asleep alive afraid ill well
(a sleeping man) (a living habit) (a frightened animal) (a sick child) (healthy people)
c. In expressions of measurement, the adjective normally cornes after the measurement noun. 's eighteen years old. I’m 1.80 metre s tall. 3. What is the order of adjectives when we use two or more adjectives together? a. When we use two or more adjectives together, "opinion" adjectives (nice, beautiful) normally go before "fact" adjectives ( sunny, blue ). a nice sunny day a beautiful blue dress 44
b. When two or more fact adjectives corne before a noun, they normally go in the following order: size + age + shape + colour + origin + material + purpose + NOUN a large plastic box ( size + material ) a young Russian girl ( age + origin ) a tall thin man ( size + shape ) a black plastic shopping bag ( colour + material + purpose ) Exercise 1. Put the words in the right order: e.g. is / a / generons / Kate / woman / very. – Kate is a very generous woman. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
There was an excess of (spiral / thin / writing / imported) blocks, but we needed the thick ones. We tried to bargain over two (round / expensive / wooden / large) tables. For him the purchase of a pair of (leather / expensive / black) shoes is a financial sacrifice. blue / seen / have / my / you / - shirt ? I’m afraid customers will soon stop buying (red / those / plastic / cheap) raincoats. People with lower incomes rate the utility of (Japanese / tiny) TV sets very highly. I cannot approve of buying too much (French / fancy / white) roll's . My son is inclined to think that (black / high /English / leather / new) boots are a must for a teenage boy.
Exercise 2 Open the brackets and complete each sentence using the most suitable adjectives. 1. Peter Wiles was worrying about the future of the company because old Ambrose Harper was seriously__. was a very___person. (sick / ill) 2. If a state's economy is___, the priees of the majority of goods and services do not change over short periods of time. (healthy / well) 3. You look___. You are so pale and tired. (sick / ill). 4. was___(afraid / frightened). Suddenly he saw___(a sleeping / asleep) man in the dark room. 5. The little boy was___(asleep / alone / alive) in the whole world. resembled___(a frightened / afraid) bird. 6. In some of Canadian provinces it is___(a living / alive) tradition to give Christmas "boxes" of gifts on December 26th to those, who have served the family throughout the year and also among the family and children. 7. Nurses look after____(sick / ill) people. 8. I am (afraid / frightened) that if there is an excess of consumer goods, the relative demand for them will go down. Exercise 3 Look at the underlined parts in each sentence. Choose the one that is incorrect. 1. I’m afraid we should have a two-weeks field survey to find out exactly the relative demand for these nineA pound T-shirts outside the UK. D 2. If a period of employment is interrupted for more than six months, the employee has to work a further A period to be entitled to a full pension. The period is five year long. D 3. Priee controls and ration stamps were also discussed during two-day summit as a well-known way of A dealing with temporary shortages of gasoline and heating oil. D 45
4. It will be half an hour walk. The distance is only a two miles long. A D 5. Our customers are usually offered a ten pages catalogue containing information about our firm's products. A D 6. Peter Wiles, Production Manager, and John Martin, Sales Manager, are young and very adventurous. A Hector Grant is only ten year older, but he is inclined to be cautious and firmly believes that he knows the best way to run a business. D 7. When Henryk was fourteen years old he was interesting in the control of the underground school market A D in cigarettes and liquor. 8. At last m saw the new coloured book he was looking for, the priee was $ 15. And he had only fiveA dollar note for his needs. D
PRACTICE WITH COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES Ask yourself these questions about comparatives and superlatives. 1. Is the comparative or superlative form correct? a. Short adjectives. One-syllable adjectives and adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms by adding -er and -est to the base. Base cheap small
Comparative cheaper smaller
Superlative cheapest smallest
When we add -er or -est to adjectives, there are sometimes changes in spelling. big bigger biggest b. Longer adjectives. Two-syllable adjectives and adverbs adding in -er, - y, -ly . and a few other two-syllable adjectives (quiet, simple, narrow, gentle). add -er, or -est to the base form. clever cleverer cleverest Adjectives ending in a consonant + -y , change -y into -i and add -er, or -est. easy easier easiest c. Some two-syllable adjectives and adverbs and ail those with three or more syllables use "more" and "most" with the base form. expensive more expensive most expensive boring more boring most boring modem more modem most modem happily more happily most happily Some two-syllable adjectives can take either –er/-est or more/most, e.g. polite, common, pleasant, stupid. common more common most common d. Irregular comparatives and superlatives are as follows: e. good (adj.) better best 46
well (adv.) bad (adj.) badly (adj.) little (adj. and adv.) many (adj.) much (adj. and adv. ) far (adj. and adv.) late (adj. and adv.)
better worse worse less more more farther, further later
old (adj.)
older, elder
best worst worst least most most farthest, furthest last (final) latest (most recent) oldest, eldset
* Note that further ( but not farther ) an mean "more" or "in addition", e.g. Stop doing it if you have any further complaints. (=(iny more complainte) ** We use older/oldest but not elder/eldest in comparisons. e.g. My sister is older than Me. ( not elder than me) We use elder/eldest (often before a noun. e.g. sister, son...etc.) mostly to talk about members of a family. ( elder sister) 2. Is the comparative or superlative used correctly? a. Comparatives and superlatives are used to modify a noun or after a verb. The higher price would discourage the customers. The lowest price I afford is $47 per unit. A point in time cornes when the financial sacrifice is greater than the satisfaction of eating bananas. b. After a comparative we often use than. (Note: The words «the» and "than" are not used together in a comparative structure). In wartime the utility of bombs is higher than the utility of pianos. For maritime nations submarines are more useful than for mountain republics like Switzerland. In an informai style we use object pronouns, e.g. me, him after than: You are a wiser consumer than me. In a more formai style we use a subject pronoun, e.g. I, he+ verb: You are a wiser consumer than I am. Some people think that the subject form + verb is more "correct". c. Before a comparative we can use (very)much, a lot, a little, a (little)bit, rather or far: very much taller a lot more important a little cheaper a bit more expensive rather colder far more interesting Before a superlative we often use by far or easily: by far the cheapest
easily the most attractive
d. The superlative is used in the following structures: – With prepositions This priee is the most reasonable of all. has the best stock of this cornmodity in* the world. *After superlatives we use in to show what place we are talking about. Of is not normally used, but it is possible in expressions the happiest day of my life, the hottest day of the year and after a superlative without a noun: This is the least expensive of the butcher's products. 47
– With clauses Rye bread here is the best I'm likely to find. 3. Is the expression of equality and inequality used correctly? Expression of equality or inequality can be made using the base form of the adjective or adverb with "as ... as", "not as ...as", "not so ... as". We use as...as to say that two people, things, ... etc. are the same in the same way. This brand of bread is as tasty as that one but it is valued not so highly as the first one. Our basic needs are not as/so complex as our additional individual wants. 4. Is the parallel comparison used correctly? When a two-clause sentence begins with a comparative, the second clause also begins with a comparative. The hisher the price is, the fewer bananas we buy. Exercise 1. Maria is slightly fat. She is speaking about the problems of losing weight. Complete what Maria says using comparatives of the adjectives in brackets; add than where necessary. "Oh, Why is bread such a tasty thing! I think it's much more difficult (much / difficult) to do without bread than any other food. Sometimes I feel that my waist is getting__1_ (fat), not__2__(thin)! When you first start dieting, it seems__3__(a lot easy) doing exercises and cutting down on bread looks__4__(much / simple). However, when you become__5__ (a little / advanced), it gets__6__(a lot / complicated). There are also so many brands at the baker's! My will appears to be far too weak! I’m al-ready looking for something__7__(rather / efficient) cutting down bread." Exercise 2 Underline any comparative that is used incorrectly. e.g. Northern Mexico generally receives the less rain than does Central Mexico. You should underline the less rain than because the words the and than are not used together in a comparative structure. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Fancy bread is the more tasty and popular of ail kinds of bread in the shop. lowa produces the more feed corn than any other state. The cheaper of the two suitcases was more suitable for short trips. The northern side of the settlement has a better supply of foodstuffs. Waiting to be reduced is higher of the two priees. Evaluating the quality of a product can be difficult for a customer. The higher the quality, the higher the price. 7. Choices are not simpler for consumers because many factors influence buying decisions. 8. More often than not a smart buyer makes best buying decisions than an inexperienced one. Exercise 3 Complete these sentences about the world today using the structure:
e.g. Computers are becoming more and more important in our lives. (important) 1. 2. 3. 4.
The world's population is getting___. (big) The problem of feeding ail the people in the world is getting ___. (bad) Many of the world seas, rivers and lakes are becoming___. (polluted) Life is becoming___. (automated) 48
Exercise 4 Make sentences using the structure:
e.g. (small) a purchase is /(easy) it is to adjust the budget The smaller a purchase is, the easier it is to adjust the budget. 1. (complicated) the problem / (hard) it is to find a solution. 2. (wise) the choice is / (good) the quality of a product is. 3. (big) a car is / (expensive) it is to run. 4. (bad) the weather / (dangerous) it is to drive on the roads. 5. (old) he gets / (thoughtful) he becomes. 6. (fast) he tried to work / (little) he was able to accomplish. 7. (many) advances and improvements are made in technology, (convenient) the banking transactions become. 8. (much) populated the area becomes, (much) noise one has to contend with. Exercise 5 Put for correct sentences; rewrite the incorrect ones. e.g. He is the intelligentest of ail the people at the Academy. You should underline " the intelligentest" because the correct superlative is " the most intelligent." 1. This is one of most expensive restaurants in Milton. 2. Let your child choose the most and the least expensive ways to purchase goods. 3. Only a smartest consumer knows how to use advertising for his pur-poses. 4. The water in Half-Moon Bay is the bluest of blues. 5. I think that was one of the worse days of my life. 6. This is the coldest day in the month. 7. My neighbour is one of the boringest people I know. 8. What is the most popular brand of beer in your pub? 9. Tell me if you have any farther problems. (= any more problems) 10. The eldest customer was given a free basket of food. Exercise 6 Task 1. Complete the sentences using as...as and the adjectives in the box. e.g. Are you as old as Mike ? - No, I am younger than he is.
1. Jill is almost._____her father. She is 164 cm and he is 166 cm. 2. It didn't take long to walk to the station. It wasn't____I’d thought it was. 3. "Was the exam____you'd expected?" "No, it was much harder". 4. Going by coach is almost _____ taking the train. They both cost around $100. Task 2. Make comparisons using isn't as/so ...as and the adjective in brackets. e.g. Japon /India (large / industrialised) Japon isn 't as/so large as India. But India isn't as/so industrialised as Japan. 5. a giraffe / an elephant ( tall / strong /fast ) 49
6. iron / gold ( strong / valuable ) 7. a gorilla / a human ( intelligent / strong ) 8. a car / a bicycle ( expensive / fast / easy to park ) Exercise 7 Render the following into English. 1. – –
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4.1 PRACTICE WITH VERBS (3) ANTICIPATION Exercise l a. Familiarize yourself with the text. Consult the Grammar notes below and comment on the use of the word combinations in bold type. Translate the text into Russian. Peter Wiles, Hector Grant's nephew, is the Production Manager. is going to have a very hectic day, but he thinks he will have a quiet morning dictating into a dictating machine a long report which his secretary, Jane, can type back later. John Martin cornes into Peter's office very worried. He has just received a memo from the Production Department telling him that mere will be a delay in delivery of some special plastic coated steel sheets. These sheets are wanted for an important order. They will form part of a console for a computerized control System, the place where one man can sit and be responsible for the production of a large, fullyautomatic chemical plant. To get the order, Harper & Grant had to promise to deliver these desks before a certain date. If they fail to deliver on time they will lose money, because there is a penalty clause in the contract. To make these desks, the firm need steel sheets, which are coated, or covered, with plastic. The plastic coating is finished in a heat-treatment oven called an annealing oven. But the steel company who supply these sheets will not be able to deliver on the date they promised: that is to say, they cannot honour their contract with Harper & Grant. But Harper & Grant did not have a penalty clause in their contract with the suppliers, so they may lose money unless something can be done about it pretty quickly. b. Construct 10 conditional sentences based on the facts given above. Foliow the model: e.g. If John has a very hectic day he will not dictate a report into a dictating machine. If John dictates a report, his secretary, Jane, will type it later. 50
PRACTICE WITH FUTURE: WILL, GOING
AND THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR THE FUTURE.
Ask yourself these questions when checking ways of expressing the future. 1. When do we use will to talk about the future in English? a. We use shall / will + infinitive when we are simply giving information about the future, or predicting future events which are not already decided. You will not have anything left to buy other things, because voit have spent ail the money. As the price of the item increuse, a smaller quantity will be bousht. When we predict the future, we often use will with the following verbs and expressions: think, expect, believe, be sure, be afraid. I think it will help you to understand how demand and supply work. b. We also use will when we decide to do something at the moment of speaking. I'm tired, I think I’ll go to bed early tonight. 2. When is the expression to be going to used? a. Sentences with this expression connect the future and the present. Hurry up! We are going to miss our train. b. We use it to emphasise the idea of intention, of a decision that has already been made. I am going to stop him putting us in a mess because of overdue delivery even if it's the last thing I do. 3. What is the difference between will and to be going to when used in predictions about the future? a. We use will to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future. I don't think the customer will accept the time limit in the contract. b. We use will when we decide to do something at the moment of speaking. What shall I do tomorrow? I know! I’ll clear up some o fmy office work. c. We use to be going to to talk about something in the future, which we can see as a resuit of something in the present, when there is something in the present situation that shows what will happen in the future (especially the near future). Oh, no! Look at those cars! They are going to crash! d. We use to be going to when we have already decided to do something. – I've heardyou are rescheduling the production line. – That's right, I am soins to meet an urgent order. 4. In what case do we use the present continuous to express the future? a. We use the present continuous to talk about something that we have already arranged or planned to do in the future. I can't come to y ou tomorrow afternoon, I am working overtime tomowrrow. b. When we use the present continuous in this way, we often give the future time. Tomorrow I am meeting with the manager of the shop that has sold a faulty calculator to me. 5. When do we use the present continuous and to be going to to express future in English? a. When we talk about things, we have already arranged to do or planned to do in the future, we can use the present continuous or going to. 51
Mr. Martin is havins (soins to have) a talk with H.Grant about the delay in delivery of some special plastic coated sheets tomorrow morning. b. When we make predictions about the future we can use going to (or will), but not the present continuous. We have failed to meet the delivery date! It’s going to cost us a lot of money! Exercise 1 Choose the correct form of the verb. 1. I hear the government has announced they will raise / are going to raise taxes again. 2. At what point will the consumer stop buying /is the consumer going to stop buying the commodity at the current priee? 3. My car won't start / isn't going to start. It must be the cold, I think. 4. Why don't you come round tomorrow and I shall cook / am going to cook you a meal? 5. I’ll start / am going to start a new job next week. 6. A consumer will go on buying / is going on buying a product for as long as he continues to be satisfied. 7. The demand for the commodity will go down / is going to go down if the quantity of the commodity increases. 8. – Someone told me that you are delivering the console control desks for a big computer company. -Yes, we will / are going to sign one more contract with it next month. 9. The suppliers have got some trouble. Fin afraid they will be / are going to be late with delivery. 10. – Would you like to corne to the Sales Office and discuss the penalty clause with us? - Ail right. I shall corne / am going to accept it. 11. – Have you changed your mind about accepting the offer? - No, I shall accept / am going to accept it. 12. – I’ve come out without any money. -Never mind, I’ll lend / am going to lend you some. How much do you want? 13. Look what I’ve just bought at an auction! -What an extraordinary thing! Where will you put it / are you going to put it? 14. Fve planned my actions for the next week. -That is very elever of you. What will you do/are you going to do with that penalty clause? Exercise 2 Put the verb into the correct form using will or going to. 1. The priees determine who____(to buy) the products and what___(to be) the mix of consumer and capital goods. 2. – Look! There is smoke coming out of the assembly shop! It's on fire! - Good heavens! I_____(to call) the fire brigade immediately! 3. – We haven't delivered goods in time. -Yes, our partners_____(to claim) compensation. 4. – Have you decided on what to do when the priee goes up? -Oh, yes. If the priee goes up a little, chances are I_____(to pay) extra amount rather than go without this product. 5. – What shall we do with the failure of suppliers to deliver on time? – I don't know! I can't make up my mind! – Come on, hurry up! Make a decision! -Okay then. We____(to insist) on the penalty. 6. – Why are you looking for the file under Bills of Lading? – Mr.Martin____(to find) the exact date of clearance for this vessel. 7. In a perfect market there can be only one priee for a given commodity; the lowest priee which sellers____(to accept) and the highest which consumers____(to pay). 8. The financial sacrifice_____(to become) too great when the quality of a commodity gets worse. 9. – I hear you have been offered a job. - That's right, but___(not to take it). 10.– This food is awful, isn't it? – Yes, it's disgusting! I______(to complain). Exercise 3 Complete the conversation. Use will /shall, going to, present continuous and the yerbs given. Write a short 52
summary of the situation. Mary and Nigel run a shop together. Mondav M.: I don't know what__(we /do). We've hardly made any money for ages. N.: I think we should advertise. We can send our leaflets. M.: Yes._______(that /probably /get) our name more widely known. But do you think_____(people /corne ) into the shop? N.: Well, we could try advertising in the local paper. M.: That might be better.______(I /phone) and find out their rates. And what about local radio? N.: Good idea._______(I /phone) them? M.: OK, thanks. Tuesday M.: We haven't got enough money to pay for ail the advertising we need. I've been in touch with the bank.____(I /see) the manager on Friday. N.: ______(he /give) us a loan, do you think? M.: I hope so. Friday Manager: So you want to borrow some money. How______(you/spend) it? M.: __ (we /advertise) on local radio and in the paper. We've planned it carefully. We only need 500 pounds. Manager: Very well.______(the bank /lend) you the money. But you must pay us back in three months. Can you do it? M.: _______(we, do) it, I promise. Manager: Now, go and see the loans clerk and______(he /help) you fill in the necessary forms. M.: Thank you for your help. Manager: You're welcome.
PRACTICE WITH THE PRESENT SIMPLE FOR THE FUTURE 1. What kind of events do we mean when we use the present simple for the future? a. We use the present simple to talk about future events, which are part of a fixed timetable or fixed programme. (About the programme of training Steel Company Ltd Operational Personnel in N.) • The company submits an application for specialists ' training in Feb-ruary. • The first group of specialists cornes in April. • A Letter of Credit for training the specialists is opened by Steel Company Ltd. upon receipt of a cable request. We use the present simple in this way when we think of something in the future as a fact, or as arrangement or plan which cannot change. Next day the auction starts its work at 10.00 and finishes at 17.00. b. We use the present simple to refer to the future in clauses of time and condition after when, while, as soon as, after, before, until, if, un-less, as / so long as , provided / providing (that). I will phone you when I find out the exact price of a new popcorn maker. We won 't sell our goods until the price amounts to $10 per unit. I will be able to take part in the bidding if my friend lends me $5 till tomorrow. Note: We can also use the present perfect after when, if, etc. to show that the first action will be finished before the second. I’ll lend you a five-dollar note when I've sot it. Exercise 1 Complete the sentences using the correct form of the tense in brackets. 53
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Our train____(leave) Moscow at 3.00 on Saturday and____(arrive) in Minsk at 9.00 on Sunday. The most important bidding_____(start) at 11.00 and_____(finish) at 16.00 on Friday. We've got plenty of time. Our plane ___ (not / take off) until 7 o'clock. 1___(lend) you the money provided you_____(pay) me back tomorrow. When the experts_____(bring up) the problem of supply and demand, we wish to remind them that the buyers usually want the priee that gives them the most value for the least cost. 6. We'd like to have some clarifications.____the consumer (be entitled) to any compensation if goods____(break down) through no fault of him. 7. We______(outbid) the last recorded priee until we______(be sure) that the purchase is worth buying. 8. We___(claim) compensation if they___(fail) to deliver desks on time? 9. The programme reads that the pension fund meeting______(be held) next Friday. 10. What time the delegation______(arrive)? 11. There is a penalty clause: we_____(stand) to lose ten per cent of our priee each week of overdue delivery. 12. According to the contract we_____(keep) the production line clear till the end of the month. 13. His father______(not give) him any more money until he learns not to waste it. Exercise 2 Choose the correct form of the verbs in the anecdote. Socialism; If you have / will have two cows, you give / will give one to your neighbour. Communism; If you have / will have two cows, you give / will give them to the government and the government gives / will give you some milk. Fascism: If you have / will have two cows, you keep / will keep the cows and give / will give the milk to the government; then the government sells / will sell you some milk. Capitalism: If you have / will have two cows, you sell / will sell one and buy / will buy a bull. Exercise 3 Correct the expressions marked in bold type. The proprietor of a highly successful optical shop was instructing his son as to how to charge a customer. "Son, he said, after you have fit the glasses, and he asks what the charge will, you say, "The charge is $10." Then pause and wait to see if he will flinch. If the customer will not flinch, you then say, "For the frames. The lenses will to be another $10". Then you pause again, this time only slightly, and watch for the flinch. If the customer won't flinch this time you say firmly, "Each".
PRACTICE WITH THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS; WILL B + ...-ING, This form is sometimes called "future progressive". 1. In what cases do we use future continuous? a. We use will be +... -ing to talk about something which will be in progress at a time in the future. I’ll be having dinner at 7.00. Don't phone me at 8.00. I’ll be having talks conceming a loan with the bank manager. b. We also use will be + ...- ing to talk about things in the future which are already planned, or which are part of a regular routine. Goods I bought 2 hours ago are faulty. I’ll be going back to the shop and asking for complete refund tomorrow morning anyway. 54
c. We often use will be + ...- ing as a polite way of asking about some-one's plans, especially when we want someone to do something for us. Will you be using your calculat or at the lesson? I wondered if I could borrow it. When we use will be + ...- ing in this way, it often suggests that we do not want to change the other person's plans.
PRACTICE WITH THE FUTURE PERFECT: WILL HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE 1. In what cases do we usually use the future perfect? We can use will have + Past Participle to talk about something that will be completed by (not later than) a certain time in the future. I’ll have studied the demand schedule by 6 p. m. Improvements in the methods of processing food won't have been mode by the arrivai of inspectors. Will the buyers have taken a decision what priees they are willing to pay at the auction by 11 a.m. ? When we use this structure, we think of a future time and look back from that future time to say that something will be completed. Mr. Grant will have owned Harper & Grant Ltdfor 10 years next January. "- I’ll visit the shop to make complaint at 18.00. - No, l'm afraid, the shop will not have worked by then. Can you corne earlier?"
PRACTICE WITH THE FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST: WAS / WERE GOING TO 1. What occasions do we mean using the future in the past? We can use was / were going to + infinitive to say that something was planned for the future at a past time. They were going to accept a repair or a replacement but in the end they changed their minds. Note that when we use this structure, it often means that the planned future action did not happen. I was going to study supply last week, but decided to examine demand instead. I thought you were going to cancel a successive purchase yesterday. Why didn't you ? Exercise 1 Peter Wiles is the Production Manager. is going to have a very hectic day tomorrow. Look at Peter's plan. What will Peter be doing at these times tomorrow? 9.00-9.30 10.00-12.00 13.00-14.00 14.30-15.30 16.00-17.00
Dictate a report on the trip to A. to the secretary. Report to the Managing Director. Have lunch with the Sales Manager. Meet Alan Smith, the Globe Forwarding Company. Look through the contract of Computer Company. Attention: Penalty clause!
17.30-18.00
Phone the Works Manager.
Exercise 2 Complete the sentences using the will have + Past Participle form of the verbs in brackets. 1. I need my car first thing tomorrow morning. Do you think______ (you / repair) it by then? 2. Let's hurry. The auction_______(start) by the time we get there. 3. – We promise to pay the account within 5 days. – No, that's too late. We_____(place) the matter in the hands of our solicitors by the end of the week. 55
4. – Let's meet outside the shop at 6 p.m. – Ail right. I think I______ (persuade) Alex to make a complaint, because, I am sure, the law is on our side. 5. The Managing Director is inclined to begin negotiations at 10 a.m. ______you (clarify) ail the details of the contract by the moment? 6. – One of our customers came to make a complaint about the faulty mixer. is aggressive! – The manager will be with you in half an hour. – This man_________(break) ail the shop Windows by then! 7. Guy is in casino. has very little money and he is spending too much too quickly. Before the end of this hour, he_________(spend) ail his money. 8. You should stop using the faulty washing machine! By the time you call the repairman it________(break) completely. 9. I paid cash for a faulty lamp, but I didn't keep the receipt. I’m afraid it's too late. Tomorrow it_______(be) 8 days with me. 10. I________(return) my companion's money by June 25th. Exercise 3 Complete the sentences with the correct form using the future in the past of the verb in brackets. 1. She_______(drive) to Boston last week, but her car broke down, so she had to go by train. 2. Henryk_______(change) his job last year, but the General Director offered him the new post and higher salary, so he made his mind to stay with the firm. 3. The auctioneer_____(bring out) a used electric popcorn maker, but there was no demand for it, so he had to change the lot. 4. Our new calculator broke down after only 3 working days. So we ______(negotiate) its quality level with the supplier of this type of goods. 5. The buyers_____(study) the information provided by the manufacturing firm thoroughly before purchasing goods. 6. I understood that the firm were________(make a refund). Why didn't they? 7. I______(ask) how the calculator was operated, but somebody interrupted me. 8. Paul thought the shop_______(put right the faulty parts). Why did the shop refuse him? 9. The customer_______(return) the damaged item, but he didn't keep the receipt and couldn't prove that he had bought it in that shop. Exercise 4 Do it in English: 1.
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4.2 PRACTICE WITH ADVERBS Practice with adjectives and adverbs of manner Ask yourself these questions when checking adjectives and adverbs of manner. 1. What do adjectives and adverbs of manner tell us? a. Adverbs of manner say how something happens or is done; they modify verbs, e.g. quickly, terribly,fast, badly, well, etc. This is a serions problem and it needs thinking abour carefully. We 'll have to think quickly. b. An adjective tells us more about a noun. The prices are extremely high. 2. How are adverbs of manner formed? a. Most of adverbs of manner are formed by adding -ly to the adjective.
b. We use fast, hard, late as both adjectives and adverbs. is a hard worker / works hard. But! "Hardly" means "almost no". I've hardly got any money left. c. Not ail words ending in -ly are adverbs. Some adjectives also end in -ly and have no adverb forms: (un)likely; (un)friendly; costly; deadly; lavely; sitty; ugly. Setting your house be a costly and time consuming business. We use these adjectives instead of adverbs in different structures: The manager of the firm received a new employee in a friendly way. (not: friendlily) Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, quarterly – are both adjectives and adverbs. Yearly dividends were paid out to (the) stockholders. Practice with adverbs of manner, place, time 1. What kind of adverb is it? An adverb can be one word (quickly, slowly) or a phrase (at the aiiction). Besides adverbs of manner there are: • adverbs of place, that say where something happens (in the market/at the bank/on the Stock Exchange); • adverbs of definite time, that say when something happens (this year I last month I once every two weeks). 2. Where to place an adverb? What is the word order like? a. Adverbs of manner, place and time normally go after the direct object. _direct object_+_adverb_ 57
The manager considered the project verv carefully. ___direct object_+ _adverb___
bought a f'aulty calculator yesterday. b. The adverb goes after the verb if there is no direct object. __verb_____+___adverb__
The faulty parts were studied carefully. c. If there is more than one adverb, the usual order is: manner + place + time The foodstuffs were sold profitably at Brendan's shop last month. manner
place
time
d. An adverb does not normally go between a verb and its direct object. If you are at the auction you must decide everything quickly. (Not: decide quickly everything) The firm employed the workers the other day. (Not: employed the other day the workers ) e. Some adverbs of manner, place and time also go at the beginning of a clause if we want to emphasize it. Tomorrow we have to take part in the bidding. 3. Should we place an adverb before or after the verb? a. An adverb normally goes before a full verb but after the verb "to be" or an auxiliary verb (have, will, In a market economy buyers and sellers usually answer the basic economie questions. Consumers are usually sensible to sorne price changes than to others. has never taken part in the bidding before.
).
b. An adverb goes after the first auxiliary when there is more than one auxiliary. Items have just been sold to the highest bidder. c. In negative sentences adverbs of probability (probably, certainly) normally go before the negative won't; not, etc. We probably won't fulfil the customers' demand. 4. What is the place of the adverbs of time: still, y et, already? a. Still goes before a full verb or after " to be " or an auxiliary verb. These factors still influence the process of production of goods. Economists are still using a tool called a demand schedule to studv demand. b. Yet is used only in questions and negatives and normally goes at the end of a clause. Have y ou studied our catalogue and price list yet? These goods aren 't sold to the highest bidder yet. c. We normally use "already" before a full verb or after "to be" or an auxiliary verb. has already made up his mind about asking for a refund. already changea jobs many times. d. We can also use "already" at the end of a clause for emphasis. I've paid his bills already. Exercise 1 Choose the correct answers. 58
1. They have close / closely studied the terms of Black & Cofor the machines they were going to buy. 2. As the items are sold one at a time buyers must fast / fastly decide what priees they are willing to pay. 3. I’m sorry to say but we are not complete / completely satisfied with the quality of your goods. 4. The boxes containing spare parts are not safe / safely packed. It should be done more proper / properly. 5. If the company wants to attract new customers they must wide / widely advertise their goods. 6. If your shoes came apait without misuse after only one day's wear, it is a very serious / seriously problem and it should be settled reasonable / reasonably. 7. The company makes profits and pays quarter / quarterly dividends to their stockholders. 8. You have to think of the price of the house as it is a cost / costly purchase. 9. The sellers sometimes change the terms of delivery if they are not very good / well for the customers. 10. We are interested in buying these computers as we require them urgent / urgently. Exercise 2 Complete the sentences by putting the parts in brackets in the proper order. 1. Since the company (increased / has / lately / considerably / the priees) they are not attractive to customers. 2. didn't have enough time to read (yesterday / attendvely / the contract). 3. The engineers (carefully / studied / later on in the day / the terms of the contract). 4. (Use / economiste / nowadays / a demand schedule / widely) to study consumers' demand. 5. People (invariably / the same amount of products / buy / now). 6. If you spend (at once / at the auction / all your money) you will have to drop out very quickly. 7. John is eager to buy (one of these days / this picture / at the auction) outbidding ail the other participants. 8. Since Bond & . always provides shipping facilities to their customers it (sells / on GIF ternis / usually / their goods). 9. To make these desks (the firm / by the end of the week / urgently / steel sheets / needed). Exercise 3 Put the adverb in brackets into the correct place (with the verb). 1. The customers have been trying to contact us the whole day. (probably) 2. Suppliers want the priee that allows them to make the most of money. (usually) 3. This section will help you understand how consumers fulfil their demands. (certainly) 4. We live in the changing world of computer technology. (rapidly) 5. The auctions of sellers and buyers set the priees of goods and services, (always) 6. Have you studied reasons for elasticity of demand? (yet) 7. I recommend you not to accept a repair and to ask for a replacement of a faulty vacuum cleaner. (strongly) 8. Mike is waiting for a compensation from a shop. (still) 9. You and the supplier must negotiate a reasonable seulement, (certainly) 10. A car may cost 50% of your annual income. (easily) Exercise 4 Choose the one underlined word combination which is incorrect. 1. Ann has a lot of responsibility in her job but she isn't very good-paid. A D 2. The people for the experiment were chosen complete at random. A D 3. There is one more topic to discuss the question namely of your salary. A B C D 4. tried hardly to find a job but he had no luck. A B C D 5. When I came to the firm the company's staff treated me very friendly. A D 6. Consumers have been always more sensitive to some priee changes than to others. 59
A C D 7. Up-to-date equipment is introduced continually into production. A D 8. Your decision actually is the resuit of your tastes and your available cash income at the moment. A D 9. The number of cars demanded greatly changes as car prices change. A D 10. Upon receipt the customers had close looked through the terms of the contract and agreed to sign it at A once. D 11. She can hardly control her feelings. Even though she is an elderly woman and her son is 40, she looks A after him motherly. D 12. doesn't hardly ever write to us. But we nonnally do not worry if he visits Fenella. – Oh! Fenella is A sometimes not responsible for what she does. D Exercise 5 CONTEXT Read the conversation between a customer (C.) and a manager (M.) In most of the lines one word or word combination is not in its proper place. Some lines, however, are correct. • If a line is correct, put a tick ( ) in the space in the right-hand column. • If there is a mistake in the line, correct it.
60
C. M C.
M. C. M. C. M.
C. M. C. M C. M. C.
M. C. M.
Good morning, miss. I'd like to speak to the manager. I am the manager, sir. How can I help you? Oh, really? It's this radio. It doesn't work. I last month bought it here costly. Look, you switch it on and nothing happens. Could I see your receipt? Receipt? I haven't got one. Oh, you immediately should have obtained a receipt at the department when you bought it. I did probabiy. I must have thrown it away. Ah, well, have you got any other proof of purchase? The customer is given usually a guarantee simultaneously when he pays for the purchase at the shop. No. It must have been in the box. I didn't probabiy keep it and threw that away too. Oh, dear. You ought to have kept it. We need to know the date of exactly the purchase. What? I bought it yesterday. That young man served willingly me. Oh, I paid by check. I have got still the check stub. That's all right then. Did you check the radio before you left the shop thoroughly? Check it? No, it was in the box. I expected it to work. It wasn't a cheap radio, it evidently is a good make. You should have checked it. Come on ! Stop telling me what I should have donc, and do something! Either give immediately me my money back or give me another radio! There is no need to get aggressive, sir. Let me look at it. You see on the back this switch? Yes? It's on "mains", and should be on "battery". You should have read first the instructions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Practice with time: any more, any longer, no longer. 1. When do we use not... any more, not... any longer, and no longer? a. We can use not... any more, not... any longer and no longer to say that a situation has changed. Any more and any longer go at the end of a clause. This man doesn't work here any more (or any longer). retired two months ago. Mr.Brown doesn't live in this house any more (or any longer). moved to the new house. My brother is not a student any more (any longer). (Anymore may be written as one word, especially in American English). b. No longer goes in the middle of the sentence (before a full verb, or after be or an auxiliary). This man no longer works here. retired two months ago. Mr.Brown no longer wants to cancel the purchase. decided to accept a replacement. We are no longer expecting some of the purchase priee back. We do not normally use no more in this way. 2. When do we use no more? We use no more with nouns, to talk about quantity or degree – to say how much. There is no more credit for you in this bank! 61
She is no more an analyst than I am. We do not use no more as an adverb to express the idea of actions and situations stopping. Instead we use no longer, not ... any longer or not... any more (informai). PRACTICE WITH ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY OR REPETITION 1. What is the meaning of these adverbs? Often, seldom, hardly ever, ever, never, sometimes, usually, frequently, always, normally, rarely, occasionally are adverbs of frequency or repetition. These adverbs say how often something happens. 2. Where shall we put them in a sentence? a. We normally put them in the middle of a sentence before the verb, but after be or an auxiliary verb. I always examine the goods I buy at once. She is always inspecting the goods she buys. She never deals with complaint. She has never broken hier side of a bar gain. When there is more than one auxiliary verb, the adverb normally goes after the first auxiliary. This car lias never been repaired. b. Sometimes, usually, often, occasionally, normally, frequently can also go at the beginning or end of a clause. Sometimes it is possible t bargain over priees. Often the value you place on an item will differ from its monetary value. c. Adverb phrases of frequency every morning / evening, once a week normally go at the end (or the beginning) of a clause. I do physical exercises every morning. I play tennis once a week. d. Adverbs of definite frequency daily, weekly, monthly, yearly normally go at the end of a clause. Correspondence cornes twice daily. e. We use sometimes and frequently before not or before isn't, doesn't, etc. Joe is sometimes not responsible for what he says. is frequently not at home. Sue sometimes isn't reliable. She frequently doesn't get home till 11. We can't use not toform negatives with hardly ever, etc. hardly ever panics. (Note
doesn 't hardly ever panic. or
almost always doesn 't write)
PRACTICE WITH ADVERBS OF PROBABILITE: 1. What do the adverbs of probability denote? We use the adverbs certainly, definitely, obviously, probabfy, perhaps, maybe, clearly to say how sure we are about something. She probably thinks that a certain glue will mena broken china. 2. At what place do we put the adverbs of frequency in the sentence? a. They normally go before a full verb, but after be or an auxiliary verb. The delivery has obviously been delayed. 62
is certainly the man who will put the things right. b. In negative sentences they normally go before the negative won't, isn't, not, etc. She probably won't prove that the dress was bought at that shop as she hasn 't kept the receipt. You certainly can't expect all of the purchase price back if your washing machine worked for half a year perfectly and then broke. c. Perhaps and maybe normally go at the beginning of a clause. Perhaps there was no time limit in the contract. Maybe we 'll do without the penalty clause. Mind that maybe is quite informai. PRACTICE WITH ADVERBS OF DEGREE. Adverbs of degree fairly, quite, rather, pretty, too, enough, so modify adjectives or other adverbs. 1. What is the place of these adverbs in a sentence? a. They normally go before the adjective or adverb which they modify. The agreement we managed to negotiate was quite reasonable. (adverb + adjective) Mr. Wiles accepted the idea to reschedule the production line fairbt well. (adverb + adverb) b. Too goes before adjectives and adverbs; enough goes after adjectives and adverbs. It is too late to take part in the bidding. I think I’ll drop oui of the bargaining, I am too tired. c. So is an adverb and shouldn't be confused with an adjective such. We use so before an adjective alone, without a noun, or with an adverb. The demandfor hot dog buns is so hieh, because they are used with popular hot dogs. The demand curve shows that the desire to buy the item changes so slowly. We use such before a noun, with or without an adjective. This is such nicepork! But its price has doubled and I am bound to buy substitutes. I can't afford such a waste of money. Note: We can use so (but not such) with many and much. There were so many overdue deliveries, that we had to daim compensation. I've got so much to do to honour the contract. We can use such (but not so) before a lot (of). It's a dreadful nuisance that there were such a lot of auctioneers at the auction. 2. What is the difference in meaning between rather, fairly, quite and pretty? a. Rather is stronger than quite or fairly; we can use rather to mean "more than is usual", "more than is wanted or more than is expected". The cost of having ail the items ready ex works is rather high. (Rather is not often used in this way in American English). Rather tends to combine with "negative" adjectives: The demand for plastic coated sheets is high but rather unstable. With "positive" adjectives, rather often suggests "surprisingly" 63
The results are rather good - we managed to offset the penalty clause sooner than l expected. Rather can modify noun phrases with or without adjectives. It generally cornes before articles, but can also corne after a /an if there is an adjective. We decided to set rather a low price. (= a rather low price). b. In general, quite is a little stronger than fairly. Fairly does not suggest a very high degree: if you say that somebody is fairly niee or fairly elever, for example, he or she will not be very pleased. I’m quite tired. We have been put in such a mess! I’m fairly tired, but I stand to get on to the Buying department. Compare: How is the demandfor the console control desks? – Rather good, I was surprised. – Fairly good. Not the best one in the chart. c. We can use pretty with a similar meaning to rather but we use pretty in a more informai style. You decided to outbid ail the others and bought the oil-painting at a pretty high price. d. Quite = less than "very", but more than "a little" and goes before a /an, or some verbs: I quite like the related items, but they do not influence the demandfor the main stock. It is quite permanent. Quite can also mean "completely", especially with a number of adjectives: sure right true unnecessary different amazing certain wrong safe extraordinary impossible amazed The transaction was quite different from what I expected. (= completely different ) Everything they owned was quite unnecessary. Exercise 1 Put the correct word in brackets in the correct place in the sentence. 1. You aren't responsible for the complaint. The investigation found that the calculator broke down through the fault of the customer. (any more / no longer) 2. Ann works for the same bank in London (any longer / no longer). 3. This claim compensation is unpaid (any longer / no longer). 4. We have to accept penalty clauses, otherwise we don't get contracts (any more / no longer). 5. I expect some of the purchase priee back because my machine worked perfectly for a while and then broke and doesn't work (any longer / no longer). 6. We can't argue and must negotiate a reasonable agreement. (no more / any longer) 7. There is a large ship-building industry in Britain (any more/no longer). 8. Some of the things used as money earlier do not have value (any longer / no longer). 9. I wanted to cash my check because I didn't have money (any more/no longer). 10. Demand is influenced by the priee of related items, (no more/any more). Exercise 2 Put the adverbs of frequency and repetition in the correct place in the sentences. Sometimes more than one answer is possible. 1. Students work after school or during summer to sometimes earn money for buying some of the things they want. 2. always has been interested in using a demand schedule to study demand. 3. is late for hardly ever appointments. 4. Many often people include savings as a fixed expense because they save regularly a part of their income. 64
5. High school students must make choices normally about what to do after graduation. 6. Evaluating sometimes the quality of a product can be difficult for the customer. 7. The consumer's decision always is a matter of personal taste. 8. This product is in great demand rarely, so we produce it in a small quantity. 9. Time deposits also sometimes are considered a form of money. 10. Customers are served very usually quickly, but today there were so many people at the bank, that it took a lot of time to cash my check. Exercise 3 Put the adverbs of probability in the correct place in the sentence. Peter Wiles is going to have a hectic day. (probably) thinks he will have a quiet morning dictating into a dictating machine a long report. (maybe). His secretary, Jane can type it back later. (perhaps). John Martin cornes into Peter's office because he isn't satisfied with the delay in delivery of some special plastic coated sheets. (obviously). These sheets are wanted for a special order. To get this order, Harper & Grant had to promise to deliver these desks before a certain date, (definitely) If they fail to deliver on time, they will lose money, because there is a penalty clause in the contract. (certainly) But Harper & Grant did not have a penalty clause in their contract with the suppliers. (occasionally). So they will lose money unless something can be done about it pretty quickly. (probably) Exercise 4 Complete the sentences using the correct word in brackets. Sometimes either word is possible. A customer (A.) tries to cancel a purchase and asks a manager (M.) for a complete refund. A. M.
A. M. A. M. A. M.
I’m sorry to have to say this but my calculator seemed to work in the shop and when I got home, I found that it added and subtracted (quite / fairly) well, but didn't divide or multiply. I’m very sorry, this is (pretty / rather) an unpleasant case, but when a customer buys something from our shop he must be (fairly / quite) sure that a shop will consider complaints if the goods are not ( pretty / quite) satisfactory. I am at your service. Look, unless you make a refund (fairly / rather) quickly, I’ll place the matter in the hands of my soliciter! Keep calm, Mr.A! I am (pretty /fairly) sure this is a misunderstanding. How did you operate the calculator? That way. Oh, ... . Sorry, my fault! I didn't (rather / quite) realise ... . I think you may have forgotten to read the instructions. It may have slipped my mind, I was (quite / rather) inattentive, I’m afraid. That's all right! Mind that it is necessary to read the instructions (rather / quite) carefully.
Exercise 5 In the following sentences, choose the correct form in brackets. 1. There were not (enough people / people enough) to consider the complaints and to determine goods as satisfactory. 2. Allen has checked the thing (enough carefully / carefully enough) to operate it in the appropriate way. 3. Do you have (enough time / time enough) to go to the shop with me and help me with the complaint. 4. The demand for substitutes rises (enough fast / fast enough) because the priee of the genuine product has doubled. 5. Improvements in the methods of processing food allowed suppliers to increase supply (enough soon/ soon enough). 6. We arrived (enough early / early enough) to get on to the manager and to put him in a mess. 7. You should type (enough slowly / slowly enough) that you will not make an error. 8. There are (enough orders / orders enough) for the goods vvhich are wanted for stock and have no time 65
limit. 9. We have (enough funds / funds enough) to share the extra cost of a field survey. 10. This man doesn't have (enough experience / experience enough) to honour the delivery in this urgent situation. Exercise 6 A. Complete the expressions using so or such: • I’ (so /such) sorry to mention this, but... . • I’m in (so /such) a mess! I’m not quite sure how to put this, but.... • There is ( so I such) much l've been meaning to tell you:... . • We are very sorry about (so I such) rnany mistakes in ... . • We wish to apologisefor (so Isuch) a waste of... . • I regret to mention it, but it was (so I such) a serions mistake to ... . • I’m sorry but it was (so I such) a heçtic day that.... • There were (so I such) niany ... , that 1... . • It's (so /such) a dreadful nuisance that... . B. Produce flashes of conversation with these expressions and apologize or complain to your colleague. Let your partner reply with one of the following expressions: • Take it easy! • I regret to heur that! • I’m (so) sorry about it! • Oh, that's ail right! • Never mind! Model: A. It's such a dreadful nuisance that you have forgotten to get last year's sales figures from the Sales Manager. Now she has left the building. B. I’ so sorry about it! – – – – – – – – – –
You have forgotten to get last year's sales figures from the Sales Manager. Now she has left the building. Your colleague shouldn't have made a long-distance private call on the office phone. Your colleague should have telexed New Orleans, not written a letter. A telex is quicker and more reliable than airmail. You have made an appointment for your colleagues to see the Managing Director in five minutes' time – it was the only time the MD was free this week. Your colleague should have contacted the Data Processing Manager before sending an order for computer software. You have forgotten to phone Boston and now if s too late as ifs after office hours for them. Your colleague should have checked with you before placing the order with the people in Bonn. You have left the file at home – it contains the documents your colleague needs to have for a meeting today. You didn't send the quote to Garfield International yesterday, and now you may have lost the order. Your colleague shouldn't get back to the office late after lunch – you always have to answer the phone for him or her.
5 PRACTICE WITH MODAL VERBS (1) ANTICIPATION Familiarize yourself with the text. Consult the Grammar notes be-low. Comment upon the meaning of the verbs in italics. Single ont the modal verbs and their equivalents. Defïne their meaning. Translate the 66
text into Russian. Harper & Grant Ltd. is a growing company. A growing finn needs to advertise. Up till now, the Sales Manager, John Martin, lias dealt with the advertising. has to employ an Advertising Agency to design the advertisements and place them in certain newspapers or magazines. An Advertising Agency is an organisation which is supposed to handle advertising on behalf of the advertiser. It employs artists, copywriters. etc., who are specialists in the field. Ils staff ought to be specialists in buying space in newspapers, or time on radio and television. They are usually able, there-fore, to do a far more professional job than the advertising manager who belongs to a finn and who therefore has a limited experience. However, many firms now have to employ an advertising manager as well to liaise with the agency. At Harper & Grant, John Martin is now too busy on the sales side to be able to handle the work involved. needs an expert to supervise an advertising campaign, check proofs, make sure that the agency use the media which best suit the company’s interests. The media are the various means by which one may advertise, for example in newspapers, magazines, on television, and on hoardings, large display boards, etc. John Martin also cannot with the increasing public relations work. This side of the business involves contacts with the public at large through newspapers, magazines and television, and must give editors correct information about the company and ils products, when such information is needed. Mr. Grant has agreed that they had better appoint a new advertising manager, who should relieve John Martin of this work but still be ultimately responsible to him for advertising. In fact, the new department must be a branch of his Sales Department. However, Mr. Grant is very interested in public relations and insists that the new "ad man" ought to be responsible to him for this side of the job. An advertisement has been inserted in the "situations vacant" column of several appropriate newspapers, giving details of the new appointment and inviting applications for the job. John Martin has to go through the written applications and decide which of the applicants have the right qualifications for the post. is then supposed to interview the selected applicants from his short list and send his candidate, or candidates, to Mr. Grant for the final interview. ABILITY. PERMISSION. NECESSITY. OBLIGATION Ask yourself these questions when checking modal verbs: 1. What are modal verbs? Is there any difference between them and ail other verbs? Modal verbs are not used to talk about things which are definitely happening, or have definitely happened. Modal verbs are used when we say that we expect things to happen, that events are possible, or necessary, or improbable, or impossible, or when we say that things did not happen, or that we are not sure whether they happened. Each modal verb has at least two meanings: • One - to talk about the possibility or probability of a situation or event. • The other meanings are varied, and depend on the particular verb. Some of them are used to refer to obligation, others to permission, others to willingness, ability, or futurity. People may communicate in different ways. It be said that the price ruling in a market indicates the point where supply and dernand ineet. The goods must work properly. 2. What time do modal verbs usually refer to? Modal verbs usually refer to the present or the future. However, all modal verbs, except "shall", can be used together with perfect infinitives to talk about the past. This structure has a special meaning of speculating (thinking of what probably happened) or imagining (thinking about how things could have been different). – You should have obtained a receipt in the shop when you bought the thing. – I probably did. I must have thrown it away.
PRACTICE WITH ABILITY 1. How can we express ability? 67
a. When we want to say that someone has or had the general ability to do something we use the modal verb can /could or the expression be able to. Not all teenagers can / are able to work in the evening. In former days part of a town was kept as the market where people could / were able to gather to buy or sell goods. Mind that can is more common. 2. What is the difference between can / could and be able toi a. When we want to say that someone had the ability to do something and did it in a particular situation, we must use was / were able to and not could. "Bell & Sons were able to affect the sale and purchase of aeroplanes as thev had a monopoly in this kind of transport. b. There is an exception with the verbs of perception and some verbs of thinking, such as see hear smell taste feel understand think remember We use could with these verbs when we actually did these things in particular situations. The price was printed in red and we could see it distinctly. c. We use could not for both general ability and particular situations. As the buyer and the seller couldn't meet in person they communicated through their agents. d. When we want to say that someone had the opportunity or ability to do something in the past but did not do it we use could have + past parti-ciple. The company could have obtained complete control over oil in the country but they lost their chance. e. Can is not used for expressing the future, so we use be able to in such cases. You will be able to find a job if you look through newspapers. Exercise 1 Complete the sentences using
, could or be able to in the affirmative or negative form.
1. Governments will take legal actions to restrict or hait business activities of monopolies through anti - trust laws. 2. In the mid-1980s only 80% of all teenagers who wanted to work _____find a job. 3. Though he was a good engineer he______find a job. 4. I______understand why you want to meet the manager face-to-face. 5. How long have you______control the market? 6. The manager wasn't in the office for very long, but we______speak to him for a few minutes. 7. Be careful when you fill out an application, because this step______ be critical. 8. He always bought a lot of newspapers and thus_____read ail adds. It didn't take him long to find a job. 9. As public job agencies______help you, try a private firm. 10. John_____not with the increasing public relations work. Exercise 2 If the underlined word or words are used incorrectly, write the correction in the space. 1. Newspaper ads were able to become a good source of openings, but there was no newspaper in that settlement.______________ 2. He could have got the job, but he even didn't try to._____________ 3. The employer wasn't able to look through ail applications at once. 68
4. We could have known ail about priees for that commodity in the market as we studied the problem closely._____________ 5. They could have contacted him, but he didn't leave his name and address._______ 6. You were able to read the instructions if your wife didn't throw it away with the box.________ 7. Peter couldn't have believed that the Managing Director had really-appointed the woman applicant advertising manager._____________ 8. She didn't speak very frankly, but I could understand that I was quite high on her list._________ 9. He could brief the agency on the kind of advertising campaign we want only because the new advertising manager turned out to be quite efficient._________ 10. She could have become an account executive a year ago, but decided to join a training scheme run by Palmer & Vincent Agency for a year. 11. A lot of people thought the manager could discuss the layout of the leaflets with the clients, but he didn't.______________ 12. The firm could have to advertise on television, but they didn't plan to go into television.________________ 13. We were able to give our account to a firm of advertising agents, but we were not satisfied with their performance.______________ 14. John Martin could have supervised an advertising campaign if he was not so busy.__________
PRACTICE WITH PERMISSION 1. How can we ask for permission? We use can, could, may and might to ask for permission. Could is a polite form; may and might are more formai. Could / can /may / mieht I ask you a personal question ? Might / may I make a suggestion ? 2. How can we give permission? We use can or may ( not could or might ). Could I use vour name as reference? -Of course, von may. Can 1 look at the proofs? - Certainly, you can. 3. What is the difference between different verbs used to talk about permission? a. When we talk about things that are already permitted or not permitted we use can( 't) or he ( ) allowed to. All foodstuffs cannot / are not allowed to be sold after the expiration date as they go bad. Monopolies Commission can / is allowed to examine ail special arrangements and mergers. b. Speaking about general permission to do something in the past we can use could as well as was / were allowed to. Last year clients could/were allowed to visit the office from 9 a. m. till 4 p.m. c. But when we want to say that someone had permission to do something and they did it in a particular past situation we must use was / were allowed to (could is not possible). Certain producers were allowed by law to have a full monopoly over the sale of their goods. Exercise 1 Complete the sentences using one of the words or word combinations. 1. If things are faulty when you first use them, you_____go back to the shop and ask for complete refund. (A) can (B) could (C) was allowed to 2. _______I ask you to show me that washing machine in operation? (A) might (B) could (C) was able to 3. Ail troubles arose from the fact that Benson & .______import their production. 69
(A) could (B) were allowed to (C) are allowed 4. Could I look through your magasine? - Of course, you_______. (A) may (B) could (C) might 5. Now everybody___use these new telephones in the hall but for soine fee. (A) is allowed to (B) could (C) might 6. Until the 19th century people _______ travel freely between most countries without a passport. (A) couldn't (B) are allowed to (C) could 7. After talking to the director we_______make a special school bulletin board for ads. (A) could (B) were allowed to (C) might 8. Applicants___to present references of individuals who could attest to their work abilities. (A) could (B) might (C) were allowed 9. The firm___advertise on television because it was much too expensive. (A) was not allowed to (B) couidn't (C) could 10. Joanna____take the final interview because she was likely to have the right qualifications. (A) was allowed to (B) could (C) might
PRACTICE WITH OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY must / mustn't have got to / haven't got to
have to / don't have to don't need to / needn't
1. What is the difference in use between must and have to when they express obligation and necessity? a. We normally use must when the authority cornes from the speaker. And we use have to when the authority comes from outside the speaker. The goods must be as described on the pack (I insist). We must keep the receipt, it'll help us to prove where and when we bought thé thing (I think it is necessarv).
I have to cancel tins purchase. (My family insists as the goods are damaged). I have to see the einplover at 10 o'clock. (I've i got an appointment).
b. We only use must (+ infinitive) to talk about the present and the future. When we talk about the past we use had to. Before beginning to interview the candidates the manager had to study their applications. c. Must has no infinitive. -ing form or participles. So when necessary, we make these forms with have to. Next week you will have to select candidates for the interview. is tired of havins to interview candidates. d. We also can use have got to (but not for the past actions), which is more informai. Note that have to is used for things that happen repeat-edly. Do you often have to accept a repair I've got to accept two renairs this or replacement when goods are evening. faulty? 2. How can we express the absence of necessity to do something? a. We use mustn't when there is an obligation not to do something. And we use don't have to when it is not necessary to do something. You mustn't speak to clients Buyers and setters do not always yourself. have to meet face-to-face. (Do not speak.) (It is not necessary. ) 70
b. We can also use other expressions to say that it is not necessary to do something. I don 't need to look for a job. I haven 't sot to look for a job. I needn 't look for a job. c. We often use needn't when the speaker gives someone permission not to do something. You needn't pay me back the money you owe me until next week. ( = I give you permission not to pay.) 3. What is the difference in use between needn't have to and didn't need to ? a. Needn't have + past participle says that someone did something, but it was not necessary - it was a waste of time. I needn't have spent so much of my allowance on books. Most of them I could have borrowed from the library. We needn 't have hired another advertising agent. There is not enough work for those we already have. b. Didn't need to + infinitive says that something was not necessary ( but it doesn't say if someone did it or not ). Though it often means that someone did not do something as it was not necessary. She needn't have written about She didn't need to write about her work her work habits and skills, we habits. know her (It wasn't necessary; we don't know if she (It wasn't necessary, but she did it or not; but most likely she didn 't do did). this ) Exercise 1 Complete the sentences using must or a form of have to, have got to. 1. In former days people who wanted to buy or sell something_______ gather on special days in some special place called the market. 2. Analysing the situation we can say that priees will inevitably _______fluctuate. 3. ______you___leave tomorrow? 4. The list of the selected applicants is too long, I think 1______choose only one of them for the final interview. 5. You______ask permission any time you want to make some changes, it is inevitable. 6. We don't_______agree to a discount, our goods are in great demand. 7. You_______pack these things very carefully, they are fragile. 8. At an auction buyers_____quickly decide what price they are willing to pay. 9. In order to get what you want in the market you will_____outbid all the others who want the same. 10. As there is a pile of applications for the job of an advertising manager, J.Martin ________ go through them and decide which of the applicants have the right qualifications for the post. Exercise 2 Choose the correct form. 1. You mustn't / needn't pay in cash in an auction. 2. Your decision mustn't / haven't to be the resuit of your tastes, but of the necessity. 3. You mustn't / don't need to look through ail these advertisements. Here is a letter from Mr. ., he is hiring you. 4. You mustn't / don't have to write to Bell &Co., they have just phoned. But we must / have to send our agent there. 71
5. The law of a country mustn't / needn't permit producers a full monopoly over the sale of their goods. 6. The Government mustn't / haven't got to invent any new laws, the existing antitrust laws are very effective. 7. You mustn't / don't need to negotiate with the supplier, he must / have to make a replacement by law. 8. Robert didn't need to sell / needn't have sold his car when he had no money, because a few days later he won a lot of money in a competition. 9. – What sort of advertising campaign are you up to? Television? -Well, it mustn't / needn't be television – it’s too expensive. But it must / need to be efficient. 10. This experience is very valuable. You must / have to study it carefully and mustn't / needn't ignore it. 11. You needn't have sold / didn't need to sell your house to the first bidder. I know several persons who would like to have it for a higher price. 12. The Customs needn't have checked / didn't need to check ail boxes as they found what they were looking for in the first one. 13. You needn't have made / didn't need to make changes in your old store house, you only wasted your money. 14. The advertising was perfect, so she needn't have worried / didn't need to worry about the sale. PRACTICE WITH OBLIGATION AND ADVICE should
ought to
had better
be supposed to
shall
1. When do we use should or ought to to express obligation and advice? a. We can use both should and ought to to talk about obligation and duty, to ask for and give advice, and in general to say what is right or good. They should / ought to meet in persan if they want to corne to a decision. You shouldn't / oughtn 't to change prices now. Don't you think the Government should / ought to restrict "cornering the market"? b. We use should / ought to have + past participle to say that someone did the wrong thing in the past: The Government shouldn't have allowed that several companies obtained complete control over the most important commodities. You ought to have made your requirements more reasonable (but you did not). c. We should not use do with ought to in negative and affirmative sentences. Ought we to place an advertisement with papers ? You ought not to come in person, first send in the letter of application. 2. How can we express recommendation or ask for advice, opinion or instructions? a. Had better + infinitive without to expresses a strong recommendation in a particular situation. It refers to the present or future, not past. These goods are in the perishable category, you'd better sell them as soon as possible. You had better not go beyond anti-trust laws. b. We can use shall I? when we want to know someone's opinion or when we want advice or instructions. Shall I fill the application? How long shall I wait for the answer? Exercise 1 Complete the advice using words from the box. Make several variants if possible.
72
1. – I’ve lost my credit card. – You_____(report) it to the credit card company immediately. 2. You_____(break) the law. 3. – I’m bored with my job. – Perhaps, you____(look for) another job. 4. – My new car keeps on breaking down. - 1 think you_____(claim) a replacement. 5. You______(work) so hard; you_____(relax) more. 6. You ______ (examine) all the arrangements or the conference may fail. 7. You (make) improvements in the methods of processing food at your factory even a year ago. 8. You__(leave) your name and address in the job agency, you could have already got results. 9. You____(claim) a refund if goods are damaged through your fault. 10. The plane is just going to take off. You______(put out) that cigarette. Exercise 2 Complete each question using shall 1 and the most suitable verb in the box. ask wear get say return speak to publish look for invite tell 1. Who_____about the delivery of pumps? 2. How much money______from the bank? 3. ______an advertisement to find a job? 4. On what date_______you the money? 5. Where______the letter? 6. When_______candidates for the final interview? 7. What_______the manager if he asks about your practical job experience? 8. What_______to make a favourable impression on the Managing Director at the final interview? 9. Who_______is calling and with which purpose? 10. ______ the new advertising manager to contact the public at large through newspapers to give correct information about the new pricing policy? Exercise 3 Imagine that you have received a lot of applications for a job in your firm. Select only one of them that looks promising. Criticize the rest of them using should / ought to for the absence of curriculum vitae (career history), references or any information about the work record, training or qualification.
73
REVISION Exercise 4 If the underlined word or words are used incorrectly, write the correction in the space. 1. We shouldn't forget that monopoly is one of the factors which affect the sale and purchase of commodities._________ 2. Must you be more specifie, please?________ 3. Today raarkets, such as the world sugar market or gold market needn't have any geographical location.__________ 4. If your washing machine irreparably broke down after only several day working you should ask for a complete refund.________ 5. You didn't need to bring your machine here, we could have repaired it in your place.__________ 6. Packing industry analysts say that changes in food packing alone able to_change how people live in the future.__________ 7. It is supposed that in a perfect market competition must always be unrestricted and sellers have to be numerous.__________ 8. Since ail five bidders stayed in the auction through $5, five machines could be sold, but the priee went up.___________ 9. If you spend ail your money on a popcorn maker, you will not have to buy popcorn, oil, sait and your plan will not work.__________ 10. I think we will be able to affect the priees on the office equipment in the near future, as we have managed to corner the market of office furniture.__________ 11. The Managing Director and the Seller were not able to meet in person, that's why they decided to communicate through correspondence. 12. – Could (1) I join the training scheme run by your agency? - Certainly, you could (2). (1)_______________; (2)______________ 13. The state could by law have a full monopoly over certain products. 14. My boss insists on rejecting ail the women-applicants so I must select only males._______________ 15. What exactly are your plans at the moment? Shall I handle this ac-count? Shall I coordinate the work of the visualiser, the copywriter, artists and typograghers?_______ 16. You shouldn't have discussed the layout of the floor display with the client, it is the work of the visualiser._________________ 17. Joanna must do the work of the specialists when there is a crisis, as there usually is!_________________ Exercise 5. 74
Render the following into English: :– .
, : –
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.
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.
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.
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.
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. –
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Exercise 6 Give advice as to how to write a curriculum vitae (CV), keeping in mind the specimen below. Dates and information written in bold type appeared as a result of your advice and criticism. Write 10 sentences using modal verbs aad expressions: should, ought to, ought not to, had better do srnth., had better not do smth., needn't have to, . Follow the model: - You should write yourfirst naine in full. - You'd better give more details about your work with Millbank Foods.
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6 PRACTICE WITH MODAL VERBS (2) ANTICIPATION Familiarize yourself with the text. Consult the Grammar notes be-low. Comment upon the meaning of the verbs in italics. Single out the modal verbs and their equivalents. Define their meaning. Translate the text into Russian. A pension is money paid to an employee when he leaves on reaching a certain age. In Britain there is a compulsory scheme in which the employee must pay a fixed amount every week and the employer a larger amount. Then on retirement the worker is supposed to get his state pension. Nowa-days, however, an increasing number of companies operate their own pension schemes so that they could give their employees more money to retire on. These schemes are usually governed, or ruled, by a trust deed. The trust is separate from the company. Trustees are appointed and they hold meetings regularly, to approve money for pensions, examine the fund accounts and so on. Every employee working for Harper & Grant, for example, must pay a certain amount of his wages into the fund. This money is invested so that it might increase ils value, and after a certain period of employment the employee qualify for a pension. 76
As a resuit of the productivity drive, Mr. Grant wants to close down unprofitable departments. Nearly ail the redundant workers have been absorbed into other departments, but there is one, Bob Hardiman, who, Mr. Grant says, will have to go. is, a craftsman in the old style, that is, he is a carpenter able to do fine hand carving, which is now hardly ever required. Ian Hampden, the Personnel Manager, thinks that Mr. Grant is wrong. How the firm get rid of someone who has been with the firm so many years? He is sure that Mr. Grant ought to change his mind. Mr. Grant, however, is determined on his new plans to streamline the company, and make it more profitable and competitive. lan goes to see Peter to find out if he sug-gest a way of persuading Mr. Grant to see reason. The pension fund meeting is due to be held shortly and Bob Hardiman's pension will have to be approved. Peter remembers that a few years ago Bob Hardiman had to leave the company to look after his father, who had become an invalid. When his father died, Bob Hardiman rejoined the company. Peter realizes at once that according to the articles of the trust, if an employee leaves the firm for a time he must then work a certain number of years in order to qualify for the full pension. Bob Hardiman has not yet completed this time. He has, in fact, three more years to go. If he is sacked, or fired, now and not given his full pension it would have an extremely bad effect on everybody. since he has been with the firm so long. Peter, at the meeting, cunningly suggests that the company makes up the difference. In other words, the company pays Bob Hardiman the money to make up his pension from the fund to the full amount that it would have been if he had not interrupted his employment. Peter is shrewd enough to know that Mr. Grant will not want to do this and may perhaps decide that the lesser of the two evils is to let the man stay until his proper retirement age. The firm can't risk its reputation.
PRACTICE WITH POSSIBILITY, PROBABILITY, DEDUCTION Ask yourself these questions when checking possibility, probability, and deduction. POSSIBILITY 1. In what way can we express possibility in the present or the future? a. We use may, might and could to talk about present or future possibility. A monopoly may arise from a variety of different causes. In Britain the Monopolies commission examines ail special arrangements and mergers which might lead to undesirable monopolies. b. We use the negatives may not and might not with this meaning, but not could not. If a society uses ail its resources to produce consumer goods now, its people may not be able to buy the things they want in future. 2. What is the way to express possibility in the past? a. We can use may / might / could+have+past participle to talk about possibility in the past. The goods might have been packed very carelessly. Many beggars have appeared recently, this could have been resulted from mass unemployment. b. We also use could and might ( but not may ) with have + past participle to say that something was possible in the past but did not happen. You were stupid to try that job at your age. You might have killed yourself. 3. What other modal verbs are used to express possibility? a. We use can to talk about theoretical possibility. Can often has a similar meaning to sometimes. You can influence your physical growth by the food you choose to eat and the amount of exercise you g et. b. We use may, might or could (not can) to say that perhaps something will happen in the future or that perhaps something is true at the moment of speaking. Economic growth may cause such problems as air and water pollution. 77
c. We use could about theoretical possibility in the past. could be really horrible when he was a child. d. We use can in questions about possibility. How can individuals or nations be, self-sufficient in today's complex economie world? PROBABILITY 4. What modal verbs are used to express probability? a. We use should or ought to to say that something is probable at the moment of speaking, or in the future. Continuing economie growth at the oftoday should damage our world. b. We use should have / ought to have + past participle when we ex-pected something to happen and we do not know if it happened or not. ought to have passed his exam, I was surprised that he failed. DEDUCTION 5. How can deduction be expressed with the help of modal verbs? a. We use must in deduction to say that we are sure about something. Air and water pollution must be the resuit of economie growth. must earn a lot of money.
has bought a new house.
b. We use can 't in deduction to say that something is impossible. The country has a favourable balance of trade, it can't import more than it exports! c.
express deductions about the past we use must / can't + have + past participle. The goods were damaged, they must have been packed carelessly.
Exercise 1 Rephrase these sentences using the modal verbs in brackets to express possibility. 1. Perhaps the suppliers are enable to deliver goods in time. (could) 2. Perhaps they will cover the costs later. (might) 3. Perhaps they hired help from outside. (may) 4. Perhaps they billed the wrong customer for that item (might) 5. Perhaps he doesn't know the exact rate of growth. (may) 6. Perhaps they earned sizeable profit, (could) 7. Perhaps he isn't investing in capital resources. (might) 8. Perhaps I’ll benefit from this deal. (may) 9. Perhaps they are going to justify this highly expensive purchase. (could) 10. Perhaps she didn't get returns from her investment. (may) Exercise 2 Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the infinitive. 1. Some mistakes must___________(to make) in assembling the parts of the machine. 2. Such defects may easily__________(to lead) to a serious breakdown of the machine. 3. The expert pointed out that the goods must__________(to be) in a bad condition already at the time of dispatch. 78
4. She must___________ (to listen) to our conversation because she knew everything. 5. The steamer may____________(to arrive) tomorrow morning. 6. may___________(to return) to Moscow but I haven't seen him yet. 7. This book may ________ (to seem) to him very dull but he must _________(to read) it very attentively as he can list all the advantages of economie growth easily. 8. Economie activity might_______ (to begin) with the caveman, who was economically self-sufficient. 9. The activity of this company is quite legal, it can't_____(to effect) by antitrust laws. 10. The purchase of new equipment for the company and the decision to replace the old one must _______ (to be justified) by the desire to grow faster. 11. Though I can't say for sure, I think that everyone might________(to contribute) to the growth of capital resources in a way when he worked and earned more than just the money to cover his wages. 12. He may_______(to try) two or three jobs, I am not sure, but he is still unemployed. Exercise 3 Match the two columns of these sentences. A 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6.
You can't have lived in Tunisia You must know Tokyo is expensive You must have met some fascinating people You aren't be tired You must be exhausted You may find it difficult to settle down
a. b. c. d. e. f.
after all your hard work for ten years after touring the world for years if you have lived there without learning some Arabie when you've just had a holiday during your trip to Africa
a. b. c. d. e. f. g
when she was supposee to be working because she woke up early anyway but she is too tired or she will miss lier interview unless she is ill if she isn't going to work today because she wasn't feeling tired
B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
She should be working She shouldn't stay in bed all day She shouldn't have fallen asleep She mustn't oversleep She doesn't have to get up yet She didn't need to rest She needn't have set the alarm clock
Exercise 4 Translate into English, using modal verbs. 1.
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2.
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,
. 3.
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. 4. 5.
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9.
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, 79
. 11.
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. 12. 13. 14.
, ,
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.
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,
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,
. Exercise 5 Consider the following CAREER HISTORY. Finish the sentences be-low with the obtained information in view.
1. Mr. Michaelides must be well informed about the sale of engines be-cause.... 2. Mr. Michaelides can't have been fired from his post of Sales Manager in Poseidon Shipping company, because .... 3. Mr. Michaelides might be valued highly by his management because 4. Trident Engines must have taught Mr Machaelides a lot as ... . 5. Poseidon Shipping company must have chosen Mr. Machelides for the post of Sales Manager because ... . 6. may set up and train sales teams to cover different markets because ... 7. Mr. Mackaelides must have researched and established new markets in ... because ... . 80
8. You must have dialed 0453 8767 to speak to Mr. Machaelides because 9. George may be needed at the talks with the Italians because ... . 10. Mr. Machaelides could be really efficient when ... .
PRACTICE WITH REQUESTS, OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS, HABITS, REFUSALS, PROMISES AND THREATS 1. What modal verbs help us express requests? a. We can ask for something with
, could, may. Could is less direct and more polite. Could you lend me a certain sum of money? We use the same verbs to ask for permission: Could I ask you a personal question ?
b. We can ask someone to do something in different ways: – Will you ? - to ask someone to do something. Will you back me up and ask Mr. Grant to look for more foreign business? – Can, could. Could you find the copies of the shipping documents for the M-type desks? – Would like is used as a polite way of saying what we want. I would like a more detailed report from you on paper, plus your long-term assessment. 142 – Would with the verb mind helps make the polite requests. Would you mind arranging the documents andputting them into the files? c. Note the meaning of yes and no after requests with mind: Would you mind waiting? – No, that's ail right. (= I am happy to wait) – Yes, I would! ( = I am not happy to wait! ) 2. What are the ways to express offers? a. We use will, shall I?, can I could to offer to do something for someone. I’ll help you with this work. Shall I take Mr. Duncun round the factory for you? b. We also use would with verbs such as like, prefer and rather to make polite offers and invitations. Would you like to see round the factory fïrst and then meet our Managing Director? 3. In what way can one express suggestions? We use shall; let's; why don't we?; how I what about?; can; could to express suggestions. The business must grow. Let's close down unprofitable departments. Redundant workers could be absorbed into other departments, but some of them will have to go. What about setting oui our own pension scheme to give our employees more money to retire on. Why don't we increase the value of the pension fund by profitable but safe investment ? 4. What are the ways to express habits? a. We use used to + infînitive to talk about the past habits which are now finished, about past states and situations which are no longer true. Bob Hardiman used to do fine hand carving , which is now hardly ever required. We do not use used to to say how long something happened worked for this firm for ten years. The negative is normally didn't use to or never used to. 81
I never used to have deals with this bank, it is not reliable any longer. We begin questions with did... use to ... ? Did you use to persuade Mr. Grant to see reason? b. When we talk about someone's typical behaviour or characteristic habits we use will or would (to refer to the past). The old manager of the firm would corne to the office regularly and attend the board meetings. c. When we talk about the past states we can use used to, but not would. This old man used to be a craftsman in the old style, but as there was no call for elaborate hand-carving on desks he was sacked. 5. How can we express refusais? To express refusais we use won't or wouldn't ( for the past ). Mr. Grant won't send John Martin to Abraca, we know his views on that. The car won't start. It must be cold. wouldn't introduce any modem management technique. His approach was so conservative. 6. What is the way to express promises and threats? We can use will to express strong intentions in promises and threats: If the Director doesn't change his mind on this problem I will resign! I promise I won't let our boss dismiss the old man without full pension! Exercise 1. Match the two columns: A 1. Can you
a.
2.
Would you like
b.
3.
Could you
c.
4.
The firm used to
d.
5.
Would you mind
e.
1
Let' s
a.
2.
Why don't we
b.
3.
What about
c.
4.
Would you like
d.
5.
Mr. Wiles, will you
e.
to look up the articles of the pension fund? let me know the day and the time which would suit you best. coming to my office tomorrow and discussing our plans for the future production? discussing the problem with our Chairman, as the scheme itself was his idea? supply me from the stock? to look through the pension fund accounts? go on with our agenda and discuss the next point about the problem of redundancy? plan a much larger extension of our plant ? report, please on the resuit of our field sur-vey? compensating the redundant worker out of the company 's funds to make his pension up to the proper amount? 82
Exercise 2 Put the following indirect statements into direct speech to express re-quests and offers. Use Will you?, can/could, Would like?, Would mind?; Will/shall?, Would prefer?.
1. asks me to find out what percentage of shares our rival holds in the company. 2. The manager asked me if I would mind waiting. 3. She offered me employment at the sales office. 4. The man said he had run out of petrol and asked me to give him a lift. 5. He asks if he will have to do the whole exam again if he fails in one paper. 6. The driver asked me to go out of the car as he had to change a wheel. I offered to help. 7. He said I have a lot of parcels and offered to carry some for me. 8. The manager asked for my CV. 9. The boy asked me for 40p to buy an ice-cream. 10. The old craftsman asked the Personnel Manager to help him stay with the company until his proper retirement age. Exercise 3 Answer the following requests in the positive or in the negative. 1. Would you mind joining a training scheme? -______________(You are positive about it because it may help you find a well-paid job.) 2. Would you mind introducing computers in your bank instead of old cash-machines? -____________(You are negative about it because it needs retraining and you are too old to be enlisted to any training scheme). 3. Would your manager mind hiring an old worker fired because of redundancy? __________ ( is reluctant to do so because there are plenty of young workers). 4. Would your wife mind going out to work for your family to make both ends meet?____________(She had never had a job before I got fired but she is willing to help). 5. Would Barny Horn's parents mind his enlisting in the navy? __________(They didn't like the idea. but that was the only way to avoid pressure at home). 6. Would Mr. Grant mind paying B.Hardiman the money to make up his pension from the fund to the full amount that it would have been if he had not interrupted his employment?_________(Mr. Grant will not want to do this and may perhaps decide that the lesser of the two evils is to let the man stay until his proper retirement age). 7. Would the company mind selling half of the shares of the company to outsiders?________(They are reluctant to risk, because if the shares are bought by a rival firm, or a larger company that wants to take them over, the present set-up, organisation, could change completely). 8. Would you mind staying with the company until your proper retirement age?___________(I am happy to stay, in order to qualify for a full pension). 9. Would the workers of the company mind paying a certain amount of wages into the pension fund?___________(They'll agree because they will get more money to retire on. Besides the scheme will be governed by a trust deed and the trust will be separate from the company). 10. Would you mind updating the factory's delivery bay?___________ (We are not ready to do so, because we must reserve money for it first.) Exercise 4 Choose the one underlined word combination, which is wrong. Make the necessary corrections. 1. The old craftsman is well-known in the company because he used to work A there for twenty years, and he would do elaborate hand-carving on desks 83
nobody else could do. D 2. Karen used to sell her shares very often nowadays. She can't make A both ends meet but her grandmother left her a considerable fortune, she would buy shares everywhere in old days. D 3. Would Mr. Harper mind saving an old worker from redundancy? A – Yes, he would! You know what a soft heart he has! He used to support C D old employees every time he visited the Pension Fund Meeting. 4. I can't say that your accounts are impeccable as usual! I wouldn't approve A them! - Shall I revise them once again? Would you mind agreeing the D accounts next meeting? 5. I promise I can't let my family enter a period of hardships! If the company A dismisses me, I will work at three jobs to make both ends meet! D 6. He only managed to find a job of a taxi-driver. The job is heavier than the A previous one. He would be a typesetter when there were no computers in D publishing houses. 7. We used not to have accounts with Lincoln Trust as it was always mixed A up in some dubious deals. Our management wouldn't agree to invest in high-risk D projects. 8. Could you be more specifie? Did vour firm used to have deals with that A bank? Would vou mind rating it ? - No. that's ail ri ght. The bank is sound D 9. Would you mind considering the benefits and problems of A rescheduling the production line? - No, that's ail right. Let's to close the C D unprofitable projects. 10. - Why don't we to increase the production ? We used to produce more A consumer goods earlier and the customers would buy them all. D
7.1 PRACTICE WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE ANTICIPATION Exercise 1 Task 1. Familiarize yourself with the text and explain the use of the passive voice. Consult the Grammar notes below. Translate the text into Rus sian. Supply it with the suitable titic. 84
Hector Grant. Managing Directoi, is worried about productivity. bas decided to engage consultants, who are specialisls in work study techniques, to see how efficiency and output can be irnproved by Harpcr &. Grant. Any good management is keen to improve efficiency. but nowadays this bas become a largely specialised field, and outside consultants who are experienced in particular techniques can be called in to study work sys-tematically and suggest improvements and ways of stepping up, increasing, productivity. When this applies to manual work it is usually ealied work study, and the idea is to find out the most efficient way of doing something before the formulation of piece rates or incentive bonus schernes. The study of office Systems and paperwork is usually called O. & M. (Organisation and Methods). Work study could, of course, be applied to routine office jobs, such as invoice typing. Mr. Grant bas decided to call in a firm called Smith-Weston Consultants Ltd. Their representative, Mr. Scott, is present at a meeting called by Mr. Grant to explain the service to his executives. Mr. Grant thinks that production methods on the factory floor could be improved, but he bas never considered that a check on efficiency might run from the top to the bottom of the firm. Task 2. Turn the given situation into a possible dialogue between Hector Grant and one of bis colleagues. PRACTICE Ask yourself these questions when checking passive voice. 1. How do we form passive verbs? In an "active" sentence, the subject performs the action. In a "passive" sentence, the subject receives the action. a. change an active sentence into a passive sentence, follow these steps: * Place the object of the active sentence at the beginning of the passive sentence. * If there are any auxiliaries in the active sentence, place them immediately after the new subject agreeing in number with the subject. * Insert he verb be after the auxiliary or auxiliaries in the same form as the main verb in the active sentence. * Place the main verb from the active sentence after the auxiliaries and be in the past participle. * Place the subject of the active sentence after the verb in the passive sentence proceeded by the preposition by or with. (This can be eliminated if it is not important or is understood.) Active: Economists study different sides of the economy. Passive: Different sides of the economy are studied by economiste. b. The rules for choosing tenses in the passive are the same as in the active. Study the following possible word orders for passive voice. TENSE Present Simple
Present Continuous Simple Past
STRUCTURE am/is/are + PP*
EXAMPLE The annual report is examined not only by the shareholders.
am/is/are being + PP
Now the annual report is being examined by the shareholders .
was/were + PP
The annual report wasn 't examined carefully then. The report was being examined when we came. Some new equipaient lias been ordered bv the companv lately.
Past Continuous
was/were being + PP
Present Perfect
have/has been + PP
85
Past Perfect
had been + PP
I knew why the annual report had been examined.
Future Simple
will be + PP
Future Perfect
will have been = PP
You will be told when the time cornes. Everything will have been done by Monday.
* PP - Past Participle MODALS
Active: The manager should sizn these contracts today. Passive: These contracts should be signed by the manager today. MODALS + PERFECT
Active: Somebody should have informed the chairman about the results. Passive: The chairman should have been informed about the results. 2. When do we use the passive? a. We use the passive when we do not know or it is not so important who or what does / did the action. Marks be changea into dollars at the bank. The dividends are paid twice a year. b. If we want to say who did or what caused the action, we use by or with.
GNP be determined by different methods. The book "The General Theory of Employment, Invest and Money" was written by Keynes and published in 1935.
The manager's desk was covered with papers. These photos were taken with a very cheap camera. c. Verbs give, send, lend, offer, show, pay, teach, promise, refuse, tell, and some others, can have two objects. Someone sent us(A) the annual(B) report of GKN. In cases like these we can make two different passive sentences. (A) We were sent the annual report of GKN. (B) (B) The annual report of GKN was sent to us. Note that it is more usual for passive sentences to begin with the person. BUT explain, suggest, dictate, announce, etc. which must be followed by a foobject cannot be used in structure A. The rule was explained to us. (Not: We were explained the rule.) 86
d. When we talk about what other people say, believe, expect, ... etc. we can use two possible passive forms. Compare: Active: People say that Mr. Ross is a millionaire. Passive I: It + passive + that + clause It is said that Mr. Ross is a millionaire. Passive II: Subject + passive + to infinitive Mr. Ross is said to be a millionaire. These passive forms are often used in a formai style and with verbs:
It is known that annual reports are divided into two sections. Annual reports are known to be divided into two sections. It is expected that a new law will be introduced next year. A new law is expected to be introduced next year. When the belief, etc. refers to an earlier action, we use to have + P.P. Compare: It is believed that the decline in production started last month. The decline in production is believed to have started last month. e. When we describe an action, which we (I, you, he. she, they) arrange but don't do ourselves, we use the passive form to have smth. done:
I had suit cleaned. We must have comparisons of the current year and the prior year's financial information included in the annual report. I’m having letter of application typed at the moment. Note that we can also have smth. done when - we do not arrange for someone else to do something for us: I had car stolen last month. - something unpleasant or unexpected happens to someone. Arnold had one of his teeth knocked out in a fight. Get can be used in the same way as have in an informai style: I must get jacket cleaned. Exercise 1 Choose the correct form: active or passive. 1. Society often (is measured / measures) success in terms of money. 2. Countries also (try / are tried) to measure the success of their national economies. 3. Each time a new product (sold / is sold), GNP increases. 4. Outside consultants (can call / can be called) in to study work systematically. 5. The study of office Systems and paperwork (calls / is called) O. & M. (Organisation and Methods). 6. Some economists (may study / may be studied) changes in the unemployment rate. 7. We think productivity (could increase / could be increased) as a resuit of our proposed activities. 8. Microeconomists (use / are used) various methods to measure the performance of the economy. 9. GNP (is included / includes) only goods sold for the first time. 10. If the survey (conducts / is conducted) in conjunction with the scheme, it'll suit us. 11. The factory (produces / is produced) millions of cars every year and most of them (export / are exported). 87
12. Pensioners (have given / have been given) a new pay rise by the government. The news (announced / was announced) earlier today. Exercise 2 Complete the sentences putting the verbs in brackets in the passive form. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
I so________in this sample survey. (to interest) Not every good or service produced or sold during the year can____. (to count) When goods________(1), no wealth________(2). (1. to resell; 2. to create) GNP is a standard by which the economy as a whole can_________. (tojudge) The payments left $ 1 million which________(1) to reserves in order _________back into business. (1. to transfer; 2. to put) 6. Explain why an investor should________in the balance sheet of the company he wants to invest in. (to interest) 7. Last year $29 million________ back from investments and GKN's share of profits in related companies. (to add) 8. At 10 a.m. the Managing Director found that mail _________ correctly. (not to sort) 9. I regret to say that an important letter cannot________in the file, (to find) 10. Recently everyone______on group rates as a spur to productivity. (to put) 11. We couldn't use the computer yesterday morning. It_______(repair) at that time. 12. By the time I arrived at the office there were no fillin forms left. They _____. (All / use) 13. We didn't discuss the results of O. & M. and work study because it ______(not/ complete) yet. 14. I couldn't evaluate the performance of the new manager last Monday. __________(to interview) by the Managing Director from 10 to 2 a.m.; and at 3 I had to leave. Exercise 3 Rewrite these sentences using have + abject + past participle, changing some words if necessarv. e.g. Someone delivers the newspapers. (We) - We have the newspapers delivered. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
The computer is no good: we are changing it. (We) I think it's time to serve the car. (It's time to) We ask someone to check the accounts every month. (We) Someone sends the money to my bank account in London. (I) I don't like the office curtains. It's time to change them. (I think I’ll) I sent the data to the specialists: they are processed there now. (I) We want to find out the way to improve efficiency and output: we are formulating piece rates and incentive bonus schemes. (We) 8. Our boss has never considered that a check on efficiency might run from the top to the bottom of the firm. (I think we must) 9. said it's time to do a sample study. (I also think it's time) 10. Someone does a research on the management side. (We) Exercise 4 Complete the sentences with by or with. 1. New businesses were formed ___ entrepreneurs, seeing the opportunity for profit. 2. The information was supplied____leading indicators, embracing the number of workers employed, construction activity, and the formation of new businesses. 3. The delivery bay was covered____final goods. 4. I was annoyed*__a customer, who was time-consuming but useless. 5. John has been annoyed_____a pile of routine work. 6. Ail the decisions were made____government planners and base on their expectations of future economie performance. 88
7. The rate of return on investment for the stock was determined____ our agent. 8. We tried to evaluee the performance of the investment company____ fhe statement of stockholder's equity and incorne statement. 9. His explanation was illustrated__a of an animal report of GM. 10. The chart, which reported the income the company received from sales, was commented____a chief accountant. * to be annored with smh. /at /ahoitt .inith.
Exercise 5 Read each sentence. Then make a new sentence with be + supposed to, as in the example. Mind that supposed to sometimes suggests some doubt about whether something is true or not. People say that GKN stocks are a very profitable investment. GKN stocks are supposed to be a very profitable investment. People say that GKN stocks were a very profitable investment. GKN stocks are supposed to have been a very profitable investment. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
People say that the new technology is very time-consuming. People say that the new stocks are rather unreliable. People say that the Sales Manager went to New York last week. People say that we can make educated decisions with such data. People say that the rate of growth was very high two years ago. People say that leading indicators measure a wide variety of business activities that change in economie activity. 7. People say that H& G transferred $1 min. to reserves when it paid interest on bank borrowings. 8. People say that taxes include up to $51 million. 9. People say that GKN got the trading surplus of $146 min. last year. 10. People say that the trading surplus rose by $21 min. compared with the previous year.
with
Exercise 6 Choose the incorrect form or usage of the passive. 1. I wanted to interview by the head of the company, but the personnel manager was likely to sound out ail A D the applicants first. 2. Can it be explained why final goods and services are emphasising in measuring GNP? A D 3. What must to be included if GNP is figured by counting income? A C D 4. Mr Grant now owns such a large proportion of the shares that he will have to ask to join the Board. A D 5. Peter is much spoken about because he is the only person who thinks that John must be maid director of A D the company. 6. If the order will be placed with them, it will be one of the largest orders the firm has ever received. A D 7. To determine GNP information collected for every good or service produced in the nation during a year. A D 8. Six million dollars was transmitted to reserves for putting back into the business. A B C D 9. This work study survey was made with a group of consultants who are known as specialists in work study A D techniques. 10. Those graphs were draw with such pale lines that the fluctuations could hardly be seen. 89
A
D
Exercise 7 Do it in Russian using the passive where necessary. 1. – . – –
, «
.
, (to have smth. done)
»
.
,
.
,
.
2.
. , ,
,
,
,
.
Exercise 8 A. Translate the following sentences into Russian. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
The statement of stockholders' investment is suspicious it cannot be relied upon. Minority shareholders are well taken care of by GKN. Why was a chart of financial highlights laughed at? The General Manager is always listened to with great interest. The Sales Manager has never been spoken to like that. The income statement is very well spoken of. The Chief Accountant who was immediately sent for said that this amount must have been added twice in the balance sheet. 8. The security Officer's warning was not taken notice of. 9. I should like to read the statement of account referred to by Mr. D. 10. This subject will be dealt with at the next meeting. 11. The Managing Director promised that the matter would be looked into. 12. The time of shipment has been agreed upon. 13. As an agreement had not been arrived at, the dispute was decided by arbitration. 14. The car components were disposed of by auction. 15. The clause proposed by the Board of Directors was objected to by the shareholders. B. Translate the following sentences into English. Make use of the Passive. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
,
.
? . . . , .
7. 8. 9. 10.
,
-
,
,
. .
, ,
. .
Exercise 9 Rewrite these sentences in the passive. Translate them into Russian. (Mind point 2.C But ... (p.141), and the verbs to announce – , to attribute – , to communicate – , to declare – , to deliver , to describe – , to explain – , to introduce ( ), to propose – , to prove – , to read – , to repeat – , to ship – , to submit ( ), to suggest – 90
, to write
, etc.
1. suggested this plan to us. 2. – What did the Chief Accountant explain to you at the last meeting? - explained the use of the company's return on sales to us. 3. Here is the letter of guarantee which they submitted to us. 4. They will deliver the goods to our agents at the end of the week. 5. They will announce to us the information on the cornpany's stock, namely the number of shares outstanding and issued, at the annual meeting. 6. The management attribute part of the total profit expected from longterm contracts to reserves. 7. When we came, the secretary had already read that extract from the Managing Director's report to Mr. Martin. 8. We have already repeated detailed instructions to the executives and told them to fulfil everything at once. 9. They submitted the list of extraordinary items to the management. 10. Mr. Ortega said that they would have shipped the goods to us before the director of the rival company left. 11. The contractors were proving the cause of the damage to us when the unexpected news came. 12. They will have introduced Mr. Thunder to us before they agree upon the sale of Steelstock. 13. You must declare this camera to the Customs. 14. They could have suggested this idea to you. Thus you could have avoided a lot of trouble. 15. You needn't explain this to anyone.
7.2 RELATIVE CLAUSES Ask yourself the following questions about relative clauses. 1. How do we form relative clauses? a. A relative clause is used to form one sentence from two separate sentences. The clause is doing exactly the same work as the adjective. The relative'pronoun replaces one of two identical noun phrases and relates the clauses to each other. The relative pronouns and their uses are listed here. b. PRONOUN USE IN FORMAL ENGLISH that things which things who people whom people whose usually people Note : In speaking, that can be used for people, but not m formai written English. Methods that are used to measure the performance of the economy are numerous. Macroeconomists who measure the performance of the economy use varions methods. It is a standard by which the economy as a whole can be judged. This is the executive whom the chieftold to accomplish the task. I dont like guests whose visits are time-consuming. b. The relative pronoun completely replaces a duplicate noun phrase. There can be no regular pronoun along with the relative pronoun. This is the book that I bought ( ù) at the bookstore. c. Remember that a sentence with a relative clause can always be reduced to two separate sentences, so each clause must contain a verb. We bought the CD-player. The CD-player had been advertised at a reduced price. duplicate noun phrase
We bought the CD-player that had been advertised at a reduced price. John is the man. We are going to recommend John for the post. 91
John is the man whom we are going to recommend for the post. 2. What is the reason for the use or omission of commas in relative clauses? There are two kinds of relative clauses in the written language: a. Relative clauses vvithout commas (sometimes called defining,restrictive, or identifying) provide essential information about the subject or object: What kind of govemment would be popular? - The governrnent which promises to eut taxes. b. Relative clauses with commas ( sometimes called non-defining, non-restrictive, or non-identifying ) provide additional information, which can be omitted. The govemment, which will be popular, promises to eut taxes. The inclusion or omission of commas may seriously affect the meaning of the sentence. 3. Which relative pronouns do we use in place of noun or pronoun subjects? a. Who and that (we generally prefer who) can be used in place of noun subjects or subject pronouns when we relate to people. When they refer to the subject they cannot normally be omitted. The officiais listened to the lecturer. evaluated the performance of the firm. The officiais listened to the lecturer who evaluated the performance of the firm. Who must be used in non-defining clauses: that is not possible. The lecturer is expected to evaluate the performance of the firm. is reported to be very experienced. The lecturer, who is reported to be very experienced, is expected to evaluate the performance of the firm. b. Relative pronouns which can be used with reference to things and animais are which and that can be used in place of the subject pronouns it or they. When which/that refer to the subject, they cannot be omitted. These are the data which / that show personal consumption expenditures. Which or that are possible in the defining relative clause. The rates of growth decreased. They were discussed at the conference. The rates ofgrowth which / that decreased were discussed at the conference. Which must be used in non-defining clauses: that is not possible: The final goods are now ready for delivery. They were ordered a week ago. The final goods, which are now ready for delivery, were ordered a week ago. 4. Which relative pronouns do we use in place of objects of relative clauses? a. Who(m)and that can be used in place of noun objects that refer to people, or in place of object pronouns (me, you, him, etc.) When they refer to an object, they are usually omitted, but only in defining clauses. When included, whom is commonly reduced to who in everyday speech. is the executive who(m)/ that I met at the Department of Commerce. b. When the reference is to a person or persons as the object of the verb we often use that. Alternatively, we omit the relative pronoun to avoid the choice between who I whom. That energetic man works for the Commerce. Department. We met him on holiday. That energetic man ( who(m) / that) we met on holiday works for the Commerce Department. c. Who(m) must be used in non-defining clauses: that is not possible. The author of "Business English " proved to be a well-known specialist. I met her at the seminar last month. The author of "Business English ", whom 1 met at the seminar last month, proved to be a well-known specialist. 92
d. That and which, referring to things and animais, are interchangeable in the object position. However, both are commonly omitted, but only in defining clauses. Gross private domestic investment accountsfor about 13% of GNP. We include it into spending of businesses for new capital goods. Gross private domestic investment, which we include into spending of businesses for new capital goods, accountsfor about 13% of GNP. e. We can use which to refer back to a whole clause. Compare: They decided to invest some money in stocks. This was very wise of them. They decided to invest some money in stocks, which was very wise of them. 5. What is the difference in use between who and whom? a. Who is used when the noun phrase being replaced is in the subject position of the sentence. Whom is used when it is from the object position. Note: In speech, whom is rarely used, but it should be used when appropriate in formai written English. Remember the following rule:
The men are engagea in accomplishing the task. The men are at the reception. The men who are engagea in accomplishing the task are at the reception. The men are engagea in accomplishing the task. 1 don't like the men. The men whom I don 't like are engagea in accomplishing the task. b. We also use the form whom after a preposition. In this case, the preposition should also be moved to the position before whom in formai written English. The men are engagea in accomplishing the task. The customer is talking to the men. The men to whom the customer is talking are engagea in accomplishing the task. However, if the preposition is part of a combination, it may remain with the verb. 6. With which words do we use relative clauses of time, place and reason? Defining and non-defining relative clauses of time, place and reason are possible in which when, where and why are used in place of relative pro-nouns. They can also replace words like the time, the place and the reason. Though we can say the time when, the place where and the reason why(that), we cannot say *the way how*. a. Time defining: 1989 was the year when net exports of goods increased. non-defining: 7989, the year when net exports of goods increased, is referred to in the article. b. Place defining: This is the place where new workers are hired to increase production. non-defining: "Bell &
", where new workers are hired to increase production, advertises job openings.
c. Reason defining: 93
That is the reason why (for which) it is so time-consuming. non-defining: My success in business, the reason why (for which) he dislikes me, has been due to hard work. (The reason cannot be omitted before why.) d. That is possible (but optional) in place of when, where and why only in defining clauses: That is the place (that) you can get a better exchange rate. e. We use whose in relative clauses ( in place of his, their, etc.) to talk about possession. This is the applicant whose CV is missing. (This is the applicant. His CV is missing). Exercise 1 Join the following pairs of sentences together: make the second sentence in each pair a relative clause of the first sentence. Choose the correct pronoun ( who or which/that ). 1. Economie growth is not a sufficient condition on its own to ensure an increase in economie welfare. Economie growth is a necessary condition for economie development. 2. We threw out the computer. It never worked properly. 3. Many people travelled west to seek their fortune. The California Gold Rush didn't bring wealth to them. 4. Development can be determined by various criteria. The criteria relate to poverty, inequality and unemployment. 5. Analysing a national economy involves many factors. Some of these factors cannot be measured by data. 6. Microeconomics is the part of economies. It analyses specifie data affecting an economy. 7. Statistics measure GNP. Gross national product is the value of ail goods and services produced for sale during a year. 8. Checking accounts are very common now. The checking accounts require a minimum balance. 9. The accountant is not here today. You spoke to the accountant yesterday. 10. John has received a scholarship. John's grades are the highest in the school. 11. Frank is the man. We are going to nominale Frank for the office of treasurer. 12. The director of the program is planning to retire next year. The director graduated from Harvard University. Exercise 2 Complete the sentences using who for people and that for things; if it is possible to leave out who or that, write (who) or (that) - in brackets. e.g. I can't find the files (that) I brought this morning. Have you seen the file that is in Mr.Martin's office now? 1. Mr. Scott is the man____will explain the service to the executives. 2. The representative of Smith-Weston Consultants Ltd.____we spoke to is present at the meeting. 3. This is the study of office Systems and paperwork ____is usually called O.& M. 4. What is the name of the company_____you work for? 5. An investigator is someone____ examines something in detail. 6. Who is that man_____Sally is sorting the mail for? 7. Are ail these the letters_____came in this morning post? 8. Have you found the memo____you lost? 9. The people____used to get extra money in urgent circumstances are well-qualified. 10. I don't Hke surveys_____I haven't bargained for. Exercise 3. Join each pair of sentences using whose. 1. I know someone. His boss is not interested in this sample survey. 94
2. is the man. His shop was put on group rates as a spur to productivity. 3. They are the consultants. Their firm suggests improvements and ways of stepping up productivity. 4. That's the employee. His employer started work study in the factory. 5. Are you the one? Your manager thinks that production methods could be improved. 6. I’m the person. My credit cards were stolen. 7. They are the experts. Their study could be applied to routine office jobs. 8. Mr. Grant knows someone. His representative had a hand in this matter. Exercise 4 Complete the sentences using where, when or why I that. 1. Did Peter tell Jan the reason______he wanted to save old Mr. Hardy from redundancy? 2. Do you remember the time_______there were no computers? 3. The introduction of computers in typesetting was a time_____many workers lost their jobs. 4. The room_____we checked Mr. Buckhurst pension fund accounts was very small. 5. The pension fund meeting_____you want to see Mr. Grant is due to be held shortly. 6. Is there a reason____the firm Will be in trouble in case of a takeover? 7. What is the name of the company____Mr. Grant ordered a productivity study? 8. I don’t understand the reason_____ne referred to a previous letter. 9. Did she mention the reason_____she agreed to piece rates? 10. Is there a time_____we can refer to a previous letter? Exercise 5 Add commas (,) where necessary. 1. 2. 3. 4.
The question__that is bound to corne up during the discussion___ will help us to see the problem. Mr. Hardiman___who is an elderly man__is now redundant. Bob Hardiman__who had left the company to look after his father__ rejoined it after his father's death. The contribution__ which Mr. Hardiman had paid into the pension fund__gave him the right to qualify for a pension. 5. Mr. Nelson__who is due to retire__is entitled to a full pension. 6. The people__who live next door__helped my father to find retraining courses. 7. Interest on bank borrowings and other loans__that we paid__left $1 million, and 'we can transfer it to reserves. 8. A friend of mine__whose father is the manager of the company__helped me to get a job. 9. The population of London__which was once the largest city of the world__is now falling. 10. The first category of statistics__that make up the composite index of leading economie indicators__is employment. Exercise 6 Complete the sentences using who, that or which, but only where necessary - leave a blank if possible. In one sentence two answers are possible. 1. We examined the articles of the pension fund____ ______stated the conditions of employment with the company. 2. The pension fund accounts_____we examined were impeccable. 3. 's lost the chances______retraining gave him. 4. Peter,______has only been with the company for a few years, can make full use of the workers. 5. This is the application_____came in today's post. 6. The chairman,______is an elderly man, feels very tired. 7. If the shares___Mr. Harper owns are bought by a rival firm, the present set-up could change completely. 8. Where are the data____measure the amount of work you have donc? 9. A customer is someone____buys something from a shop. 10. Macroeconomics is the branch of economies______analyses interrelationship among sectors of economy. 95
Exercise 7 Identify the one underlined word , phrase or ponctuation mark that must be changea in order for the sentence to be correct. 1. The expert, who was engaged in work study, was talking to the Sales A Manager who's report contained a lot of doubtful information. D 2. If the contractor's goals are improvements and ways of stepping up productivity, he should be interested in A a firm what has consistently made impressive work study surveys. D 3. Analysing a national economy involves many factors, some of that cannot be measured by data. A D 4. GNP is known to be the value of goods and services which produced for sale during one year. A B C D 5. Not everything produced is counted. The types of products counted are limited with some factors. A D 6. The annual report is a message to the stockholders from corporate management which tells the A stockholders the company's fmancial status at the end of the fiscal year and what planned by the D management. 7. The second part of the annual report is filled with charts and graphs who however gives a clear picture of A the company's performance. D 8. What I like to know is if there is any reason that the annual report should be studied so careful. A B C D 9. Being deducted from the income, salaries, advertising, maintenance, that are operating costs, total the A D profit or loss. 10. The balance sheet is a chart that includes the assets and liabilities of the company and the company A should have the balance sheet to do carefully. C D 11. The annual reports of the companies , which are bankrupt, should have been studied carefully and the A investors could have avoided a lot of problems. D 12. The second part of the annual report has the balance sheet. the income statement and the equity included, A what can be used to determine whether a corporation is profitable. D Exercise 8. Render the following into English: – –
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8.1 PRACTICE WITH REPORTED SPEECH ANTICIPATION Task 1. Familiarize yourself with the text. Consult the Grammar notes below. Translate the text into Russian. Supply it with the suitable title. Task 2. Use direct speech instead of indirect in the italicized part of the text. Turn the given situation below into several possible dialogues. The chief responsibilities of a Personnel Manager are employing and dismissing staff and looking after and improving the employees' welfare and conditions of work. When an employee arrives at a factory to start work the first thing he does is to clock in. A time clock punches a mark on the worker's time card to correspond with the exact time of arrivai. Trying to cheat this System is a very serions offence. But some days ago Harper & Grant had trouble in the press room with one of the press operatives who arrived an hour and a half later. The reporters of some newspapers were informed about the accident and tried to clarify the situation with the help of an Hampden, the Personnel Manager of Harper & Grant. First of ail Ian Hampden explained to the reporter that Harper & Grant did not have a closed shop, that meant, they did not make it a condition of employment that a worker must belong to a certain trade Union. The reporter was surprised to hear that ninety per cent of the workers were members of one or other of the unions. All the toolmakers, skilled machiners (machinists), sheet-metal workers, assembly-shop workers and fitters belonged to one union, the electricians to another and the office staff to a clerical union, lan also added that every member had to pay a subscription, a sum of money paid regularly to the particular union (often referred to as union dues). Then lan said that a shop steward, who was elected by the workers on the shopfloor, looked after each union's affairs. It was the first time that the reporter had corne across the nome, Ian explained to the reporter that the shop steward was at the day-to-day level of representation between a company and a union. represented the workers in a particular shop, or department, in a factory. The shop stewards were recognized by the management, and they served as a channel of communication both ways. The Personnel Manager told the reporter that they were allowed to collect union dues on the premises, but they could hold meetings in the factory or office block only with the permission of the management. In addition to the above explanation the reporter was informed that besides obtaining the best possible working conditions for their members, unions in Britain, as in many other countries, also organized medical schemes, insurance and legal aid for their members. And they used part of their funds, the money collected from the members, to pay a weekly sum of money to their members if they were out on officiai strike. Ian said that an officiai strike was one 97
recognized by the union. Strike pay was small compared with the workers' normal wages. They did not draw it if it was an unofficial strike or a "wild cat" strike. Of course the reporter wanted to find out whether Harper & Grant Ltd. had any problems with the trade unions. The Personnel Manager stressed that in most firms the relationship between management and unions was good, but sometimes a shop steward was ambitions to get more personal power. lan said that in their case a certain shop steward used a worker who had a grievance, something making him angry or annoyed, to create trouble in the works. His aim was to help put pressure on the management in connection with a daim for a general wage increase. lan added that many employees, of course, thought they were underpaid, and some managements were reluctant to increase wage until forced to do so. Some firms have introduced profit-sharing schemes, so that employees could share directly in the results of harder work or better organization. The reporter knew that the difficulty was that the majority were not prepared to take a eut in wages if the firm had a bad year. Ian pointed out that good employee-management relations often presented difficulties and problems. Some firms solved those problems better than others. As for their firm, Ian continued, usually Harper & Grant had good relations with their employees, as they were a comparatively small "family" firm. PRACTICE We use direct speech when we speak. We use indirect (reported) speech when we are telling someone what another person says or said. Ask yourself these questions when checking reported speech. 1. What reporting verbs do we use in reported speech? The commonest reporting verbs in both direct and indirect speech are say, tell, and ask. a. After tell we normally use a personal indirect object (tell somebody) to say who is told. Say is followed by an optional to + the person who is addressed: said/ told me (that) his wife was self-employed. I said to Sara that I was not wealthy because I had a lot of debts. We never use a comma after say or tell someone. If we need to mention the listener, tell + indirect object is preferable to say + to someone. b. Ask (with or without a personal indirect object) can report a question. Ask (someone) is followed by if/whether or a question-word: She asked me whether /if I had received any fringe benefits. c. Mind fixed expressions with say, tell, and ask: • say afew words, say no more, say nothing, say your prayers, say so: - Poverty is an incarne of $9,862 a year for the farnily offour. - Who says so? - The Bureau of the Census said so in 1992. • tell + object: (can) tell the difference, tell a lie, tell a story, tell the tirne, tell the truth, tell y ou so. • ask after someone, ask (for) a faveur, ask a question, ask the price. 3. How does a verb change in reported statements? a. When the reporting verb is in the past (e.g. he said, you told me ), the tense in the reported speech normally "moves back": • Verbs in the present change into the past: Speaker's words I am counting the wages. I have to stop at the bank.
Reported speech She said she was counting the wages. You told me you had to stop at the bank.
doesn 't get any interest. Val has found a part-time job.
You said he didn 't get any interest. told us that Val had found a part-time job.
98
• Verbs already in the past, change into the past perfect or they do not change: We tried to avoid debts. They said they had tried (tried) to avoid debts.
• Verbs already in the past perfect, do not change. They had fixed up the house by June.
He said they had fixed up the house by June.
• Modal verbs change as follows: can – could; will – would; shall I can plough it back into business. He said he could plough it back into business. I will buy used tools.
He said he would buy used tools.
We may hire laid off workers.
He said we might hire laid off workers.
• The past modals could, would, should and might do not change in They should estimate the costs. I told him that they should estimat e the costs. The firm could meet ils payroll. They said that the firm could meet its pavroll. • Must either does not change or it takes the past form (of have to) had to. I must pay the rent. said that he must ( had to ) pay the rent. 3. Do we always change tenses in reported speech when we use a past reporting verb? a. If we report something that is still true now, we sometimes use the same tense as the speaker. - The Bureau of the Census defines poverty as an incarne of $9,862 a year for a family of four. - He said that the Bureau of the Census defines poverty as an incarne of $9,862 a year for a family of four. But even if something is still true, we often change the tense. He said that the Bureau of the Census defined poverty as the incarne of $9,862 a year for a family of four. b. We always change the tense when there is difference between what was said and what is really true. She said that she was 18 year s old, but infact she's only 16. . But a speaker n choose to report a statement or a question using the tenses that match his viewpoint, based on the facts of the situation as he sees them at the time of speaking. Note the different viewpoints expressed in the following examples: Mr. Frost says (now) he has read the income statement and didn't understand it. (then, when he finished reading, or then, while he was reading). Mr. Frost said (then) he has read the income statement (now) and didn't understand it (then). Mr. Frost said (then) he had read the income statement (then) and doesn 't understand it (now). Mr. Frost said (then) he had read Tony's book (then) and didn't understand it (then). (L.G. Alexander, Longman English Grammar) 4. Do pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. change in reported speech? a. Pronouns ( I, me, ... ) and possessive adjectives ( , your, ...) oflen change in the reported speech. Pat said, "I have grown in a middle income family. My parents weren 't rich. " Pat said (that) she had grown in a middle income family, her parents weren 't rich. 99
b. People use words like here, now, today, to talk about the place where they are speaking and the time they are speaking. If we report these words in a different place or a different time, they often change.
place
time
verbs
Speaker's Words here this these now today tonight tomorrow yesterday two days ago last night come /bring
Reported Speech there that / the those then that day that night the next day / the following day the day before/the previous day two days before/ earlier the night before go / take
5. How do we report questions? a. Tenses, adjectives, pronouns, etc. in reported questions change in the same way as in reported statements. Are you sure? The manager asked me if I was sure. In reported questions, the word order is the same as in statements (e.g. / was sure ), and we do not use a question mark (?) b. In reported questions, we do not use the auxiliary verb do(does laid). How does it differ from A ? He asked how it differed from A. c. When there is no question word ( e.g. what, where, why ) we can use if or whether to introduce a reported question. Do you receive fringe benefits? I asked if they received fringe benefits. 6. What is the way to report orders, requests, warnings, advice and invitation? a. We report orders, requests, warnings, advice and invitations using the structure verb+object+to infinitive or verb+to infinitive. "Could you help me?" I asked (him) to help me. "You shouldpay the expenses. " He advised( me) to pay the expenses. "Cet out of the room!" She told the man to get out of the room. b. In negative orders, promises etc. we use not to+infinitive. "Don't define the sources of incom. " He told me not to define the sources of income. 7. What changes do if- and time clauses undergo in reported commands and questions? a. Questions with time and if-clauses should be reported with the time or if-clause last. "When/If I see her, what shall I say? " she asked. - She asked what she should say when/if she saw him. b. Sometimes it is advisable to use say/said that + time/if clause + be/should + infinitive to avoid a clumsy sentence. "If / when you see him, ask him to ring me, " she said. - She said that if/ when I saw him I was to ask him to ring her. 100
Exercise 1 Write the correct form of say or tell in the following sentences. Be care-ful to observe sequence of tenses. 1. Harvey______he would provide a source of finance for investment. 2. - Where is Peter? - ______the customers how to eut down on beat waste when they use the new model of a boiler. 3. Who_____you that she is scheduling meatless meals to avoid debts? 4. When did you____Mary that the garage sale in our neighbourhood would be on Friday? 5. My sister______us that we should apply common sense to eut down on beat waste. 6. No one in the second grade class could______time. 7. My mother always______us to take to buying used clothes to make both ends meet. 8. What time did you______that the lecture had begun? 9. Who______that we are having a seminar tomorrow? 10. The judge instructed the witness to______the whole truth about the sources of his income. 11. The little boy_____a lie about not eating the cookies before lunch. 12. Our trainer______that we would not have any break in the circle of poverty. 13. Because he could not____the difference, the man bought both moclels. 14. I saw my boss in the office and______that I had wanted to offer him to buy into the firm. 15. Never______a secret to a person who spreads gossip. Exercise 2 Translate the sentences into English. (Refer to le) 1.
,
.
,
! 2. 3. 4. 5.
,
? .
, .-
?-
. !
. .
.
Exercise 3 Report these statements with said moving the clauses "one tense back".
101
DIRECT SPEECH STATEMENTS INDIRECT SPEECH STATEMENTS present becomes past 1. Jack: I need a holiday. Jack said (that) he needed a holiday.______________ 2. Jill: I’m not wasting my time. ___________________________________________ present perfect becomes past perfect 3. Mac: I’ve had some good news. ___________________________________________ 4. : I've been cutting expanses. past becomes past or past perfect (past perfect is often optional) 5. Pam: I repaid the loan at once. ____________________________________________ 6. Sue: I was waiting for you. ____________________________________________ ___________________________________________ past perfect does not change 7. Loo: I had reported it earlier. 8. Joe: I had been sleeping. modal "present" becomes "conditior nal" or "past" 9. Jan: I will get a refund later. ____________________________________________ 10. Dot: I may buy into the firm. ____________________________________________ 11. Tim: I can rent this apartment. ____________________________________________ "shall" with a future reference becoimes "would" 12. Kim: I shall take the job. ____________________________________________ "shall" in offers and suggestions bec omes "should" 13. Rob: Shall I doit myself? Rob asked whether ... __________________________ "past" or "conditional" modals do not change 14. John: I could get the loan. ____________________________________________ 15. Ted: I might hire him. ____________________________________________ 16. Ann: I would utilise the refuse. ____________________________________________ "perfect" modal forms do not change 17. Lee: I must have lost ail the rent ____________________________________________ 18. Jim: I couldn't have spent that. ____________________________________________ 19. Lou: I needn't have said so. ____________________________________________ 20. Don: I ought to have fired him. ____________________________________________ "should" (="it's advisable") doesn't change 21. Len: I should submit a claim. ____________________________________________ "should" used in place of "would" in conditionals becomes "would" 22. Lee: If I were you I should let it. ____________________________________________ "must" (=necessity in the past) does not change, or becomes "had to" 23. Dan: I must buy into the firm. ____________________________________________ 24. Ned: I must eut down on clothes. ____________________________________________ "must" (=necessity in the future) does not change, or becomes"would have to" 25. Paul: I must raise the funds. ____________________________________________ 26. Bet: I must save my income. ___________________________________________ "must" (= deduction or possibility) does not change 27. Jill: Joe must be a thief. ___________________________________________ "mustn't"(=prohibition) does not change, or becomes "couldn't" 28. Bill: I mustn't refuse her offer. ___________________________________________ 29. Phil: You mustn't eut aid for us. ___________________________________________ Exercise 4 Put these statements in the reported speech: 1. "Mr. Hampden, we've got trouble in the press room this morning," said Ted Fielding. 2. "I cleaned Mr. Wiles's car last night out of works' time," Smith told lan Hampden. 3. "An hour and a half will be subtracted from your pay this week. And I must warn you that if this happens again it will be a case of dismissal," the Personnel Manager told the worker. 4. "I don't think we have anything to say to each other," said Jack Green. 102
5. "Shop stewards are allowed to collect union dues on the premises, but they can hold meetings in the factory or office block only with the permission of the management," said the Manager. 6. "I decided to stay here no matter how difficult it was to meet expenses," Caria told Ted. 7. "Caria knew that her children would have to eat waffles or nothing," said the interviewer. 8. "In economie theory, "labour" is any work undertaken in return for fixed payments," said the lecturer. 9. "When our family bought the house, we experienced some problems but managed to benefit from it", Mark Lorraine told his son. 10. "We shall have to find building sites and hire architects and subcon-tractors", Mary Farrar told her husband. 11. " You haven't given me quite enough. The bill is for $14 and you've paid me only $ 13," he pointed out. 12. "I’ve no idea what the time is but I’ll dial 100 and find out," said his daughter. 13. "We like working on Sundays because we get double pay," explained the fitters. 14. The advertisement said, "If you answer the questions correctly, you may win $100." 15. "They couldn't open the safe on the spot so they carried it away with them," the night watchman reported. 16. "Yesterday m and I went to look at a house that he was thinking of buying. It was rather a nice house and had a lovely garden but m decided against it because it was opposite a cemetery," said Celia. Exercise 5 In this exercise someone says something to you, which is the opposite of what they said before. You have to answer / thought you said ... e.g. "That plan is expensive. "- "I thought you said it wasn 't expensive " 1. "I need to borrow some money."- "I thought you said ... ." 2. "We haven't yet done anything on the management side." 3. "The shop stewards are recognised by the management." 4. "Trade unions organise medical schemes, insurance and legal aid for their members." 5. "We are going to ask the Union to press a wage claim". 6. "I don't like that accusation, Mr.Hampden." 7. "I feel there should be some System of profit sharing". 8. "My card was punched for eight o'clock." 9. "I haven't got any union dues to pay, because I don't belong to any of the trade unions." 10. "Mr. Hardy's reputation is very stable as he serves as a channel of communication both ways." Exercise 6 Report these Yes/No questions moving the clauses "one tense back". 1. "Are, ynu sure?" asked me if/ whether I was sure. 2. "Has Pat been working here long? wanted to know____________. 3. "Will you see Smith, because you're so much better at handling things like this than I am?"- I was wondering if 4. "Is Syraes reliable?" - Do you know ______________________. 5. "Must I define changes for the job and income categories?" - I asked the trainer if________________________________? 6. "May I take a point?" wanted to know_____________________. 7. "You don't mind if I just interrupt a moment, do you?" - She wanted to know__________________________________• 8. "You see my point, don't you?"- She asked us 9. "Will you be raising the subject of cutting business expenses or not?" wanted to know________________________________• 10. "Did you report the calls for doggie-bags?" .wondered________. Exercise 7 Report these question-word questions moving the clauses "one tense back". Mind that the inversion after a question-word in a direct question changes to statement word order in the reported question and , if necessary, the tense is changed at the same time. 103
e.g. - Where has Sally put the folder? - Do you know where Sally has put the folder? 1. - What is it ail about, Ted? - Have you got any idea ________________________________? 2. - What do you want me to do? - Could you tell me________________________________? 3. - Why are people turning to secondhand markets for things like bikes? She wondered____________________________. 4. - What kind of aid has Marco h ad? You wanted to know____________________________________. 5. - What do you feel your colleagues will think about it? -I wonder________________________________________. 6. - What did Mary Farrar's surplus amount to after paying business expenses? -I want to know___________________________________. 7. Where did Mary Farrar learn the economies of building? - Could you tell me________________________________? 8. - What percentage of your income cornes from fringe benefits? - Do you know___________________________________? 9. - How long have you been with this firm? - Did you tell him_________________________________? 10. - Which companies will John be investing in? - You didn't say___________________________________. Exercise 8 Report these subject-questions moving the clauses "one tense back" only where necessary. Mind that a direct subject-question has the same word order as a statement. e.g. - Who is next please?" - The Personnel Manager wanted to know who was next. 1. "Which Memorandum carried the clause?" l'd like to know 2. "Whose report haven't we heard yet?" The Chief Accountant asked us to tell him______________________. 3. "Who hasn't honoured the delivery dates?" Tell me 4. "What money will they repay the loan on their house with?" I haven't any idea_________________________________. 5. "Which firms have won grants for reequipment?" This article doesn't say___________________________________. 6. "Which number can be devided by three?" The teacher asked 7. "What will happen to the costs involved in construction?" Another Board member enquired______________________. 8. "Who is going to keep ail the other accounts?" The customer tried to find out_______________________________. 9. "Which of them will have to keep payroll?" reminded me that I should ask____________________________. 10. "Who had paid for utilities before Caria got her job?" I’m afraid no-body knows_______________________________. Exercise 9 Put the following into indirect speech. The first 6 questions require no change of order. 1. "What happened to the redundant worker after dismissal?" said one of the men. 2. "Which of his sons inherited his estate?" asked another. 3. "Who is going to share the income of the enterprise?" enquired a third. 104
4. "What will happen to his checking account?" asked someone else. 5. "Which team won the previous match?" said Bill. 6. "Who has just dropped a $50 note?" I asked. 7. "Why does the priee go up so soon?" she wondered. 8. "Is a return ticket cheaper than two singles? said my little dauahter. 9. "Will you go on strike when the others do?' the shop steward asked him. 10. "Can you read the last line on the chart?" the accountant asked me. 11. "Are you sorry for what you did?" the Personnel Manager asked the worker accused of a very serious offence. 12. "Could I speak to Mr. Martin?" said the caller. "I am afraid he is out", said the secretary. "Could I take a message ?" Exercise 10 Change the following direct commands, requests, invitations etc. using tell, order, ask, beg, advise, rernind, warn, reproach etc., remember that the person addressed is often not mentioned in a direct command, but must be mentioned in an indirect command. e.g.
said, "Go away" -
told me (
, us, them, etc.) to go away.
1. "Lend me your calculator," I said to Mary. 2. "Don't believe everything you hear," he warned me. 3. "Please, fill up mis form," the secretary said. 4. "Open the safe!" the manager ordered the clerk. 5. "Please, do as I say," he begged me. 6. "Read it before you sign it," he said to his client. 7. "Invest into the firm," I advised my friend. 8. "Don't argue with me!" the senior officer said to his subordinate. 9. "See if you can find any receipt," the shop assistant said. 10. "Pay at the cash desk," the bank teller said to the client. 11. "Think well before you go to the Managing Director," the shop steward warned Smith. 12. "Don't worry about anything, Mrs. Wiles," said her soliciter. "Leave it all to me." 13. Notice: Please do not ask at the desk for change for telephone calls. 14. "Don't make mountains out of molehills," he said. 15. "Read it yourself if you don't believe what I say," he told me. 16: "You might have checked these figures for me," he said. 17. "Answer this complaint for me, will you?" he said. "And remember to keep a ." 18. "Would you mind paying cash?" said my landlady when I took out my check-book. Exercise 11 Put into indirect speech the following commands and questions with if-clauses and time clauses. 1. "If I find the missing file what shall I do with it'?" he said. -"Keep it till you see me again," I replied. 2. "If anyone rings up," she said, "say that I’ll be back shortly." 3. "When you arrive at the factory don't forget to punch a mark on the worker's time card to correspond with the exact time off arrivai," he said. 4. "What will happen if the strike continues?" he said. 5. "If the energy crisis continues with sky-high priees to follow, how will we make both ends meet?" wondered the housewives. 6. "When you have completed one section, go on to the next," the traîner told the trainee. 7. "If you don't like the current account, open the deposit account," advised the manager. 8. "If I lose my traveller's cheque, will the bank repay me?" I asked. 9. "If the firm introduces profit- sharing scheme, some workers will not take a cut in wages because of the bad year," he said to me. 10. "As soon as you find a hotel, ring me and give me the address," he said. 11. "I must warn you that if this happens again it will be a case of dismissal," Ian warned him. 105
12. "I feel there should be some System here of profit sharing. If not, we shall go on having Httle incidents like this one," added the Personnel Manager. 13. "I don't care whether you like it or not!" he exclaimed. 14. "If you dismiss me there will be a walk-out," he warned the management. 15. "Workers on strike do not draw a strike pay if it is an unofficial strike," commented the man. Exercise 12 Identify the one underlined word, phrase or punctuation mark that must be changed in order for the sentence to be correct. 1. It was August and they had fixed up the house by June. - Who told so? Martin did , but he didn't tell the A D exact time of their arrivai 2. The watchman reported that the burglars were not able to open the safe on the spot and had carried it. A D 3. The wife said that yesterday they had gone to look at the house but had decided against it because it was A D opposite the cemetery 4. Did he tell you which of the models he had bought? - He could not say the difference and bought both A D models. 5. Mr.Frost asked what was he to do with the purse if he found it and I told him to keep it till he saw me. A D 6. I asked the manager whether the agency would repay me if I send a complaint in writing. A D 7. Jim Green warns the worker to think well before he went to the manager and told the lie. A D 8. I wanted to pay cash but my landlady asked me that I would mind paying by check. A B C D 9. She reproached me that I might have checked these figures I had received from the office. A D 10. The superior asked the subordinate if he was sorry for what he did when the later had been accused of a A D very serious offence. 11. I thought you said you hadn't got any dues to pay, because you didn't belong to any of the trade unions. A B C D 12. The housewives wondered how would they make both ends meet if the energy crisis continued and it A was followed by sky-high priees. D 13. Mr. Frost said then that he had read the income statement and now he doesn't understand it and wants me A C to say the difference between the first and the second estimate. D 14. He said that he must pay the rent and would have no money lelt, but he may get some aid from the trade A union, and would manage to survive in that case. D
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Alexander, L. G. Longman English Grammar Practice (Intermediate level). Longman,1998. 2. Alexander, L. G. Longman English Grammar. Longman, 1998. 3. Bail, W.J. and Wood, F.T. Dictionary of English Grammar. Prentice Hall Phoenix ELT, 1997. 4. Beaumont, D., Oranger, C., The Heinemann English Grammar. Oxford, Heinemann International, 1989. 5. Beggs, David; Fisher, Stanley; Dornbusch, Rudiger. Economies. 106
6. Gear, Jolene. Cambridge preparation for the TOEFL test. Ldn., Cambridge University Press, 1994. 7. Mack Angela, The Language of Business, Avon, BBC, 1990. 8. Murphy, Raymond. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press, 1999. 9. Swan, Michael and Walter, Catherine. How English Works. Oxford University Press, 1997. 10. Swan. Michael. Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press, 1999. 11. Thompson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1999. 12. . H., . . . ., 1999.
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............................................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 PRACTICE WITH NOUNS................................................................................................................................................ 4 Practice with articles, demonstratives & other determiners .................................................................................................... 11 1.2 PRACTICE WITH SUBJECTS.............................................................................................................................................. 16 Practice with verbs (1)............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Practice with Present Simple and Present Continuous............................................................................................................. 23 Practice with the Past Simple and the Past Continuous ........................................................................................................... 26 2.2 Practice with quantity ............................................................................................................................................................. 28 3.1 PRACTICE WITH VERBS (2)............................................................................................................................................... 34 Practice with the present perfect .............................................................................................................................................. 35 Practice with the present perfect continuous............................................................................................................................ 37 Practice with the past perfect.................................................................................................................................................... 39 Practice with the past perfect continuous ................................................................................................................................. 42 3.2 PRACTICE WITH ADJECTIVES......................................................................................................................................... 44 Practice with comparatives and superlatives............................................................................................................................ 46 4.1 PRACTICE WITH VERBS (3)............................................................................................................................................... 50 Practice with future: will, going and the present continuous for the future....................................................................... 51 Practice with the Present Simple for the future........................................................................................................................ 53 Practice with the future continuous; will b + ...-ing, ............................................................................................................... 54 Practice with the Future Perfect: will have + past participle..................................................................................................... 55 Practice with the Future-in-the-past: was / were going to......................................................................................................... 55 4.2 PRACTICE WITH ADVERBS............................................................................................................................................... 57 5 PRACTICE WITH MODAL VERBS (1) .................................................................................................................................. 66 Practice with ability .................................................................................................................................................................. 67 Practice with permission ........................................................................................................................................................... 69 Practice with obligation and necessity ...................................................................................................................................... 70 6 PRACTICE WITH MODAL VERBS (2) .................................................................................................................................. 76 Practice with possibility, probability, deduction ...................................................................................................................... 77 Practice with requests, offers, suggestions, habits, refusals, promises and threats.................................................................. 81 7.1 PRACTICE WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE .......................................................................................................................... 84 7.2 RELATIVE CLAUSES........................................................................................................................................................... 91 8.1 PRACTICE WITH REPORTED SPEECH............................................................................................................................ 97 Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................................ 106
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