WORLD MILITARY HISTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY
HISTORY OF WARFARE General Editor
kelly devries Loyola College Founding Editors
theresa vann paul chevedden VOLUME 16
WORLD MILITARY HISTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY Premodern and Nonwestern Military Institutions and Warfare BY
BARTON C. HACKER
BRILL LEIDEN BOSTON 2003 •
Illustration on the cover: Imperial armies have regularly relied on indigenous troops, a practice that has played an important part in the intercultural transfer of military technology and organization. Here Indian troops serve a British gun in “The Bombay Artillery,” a painting by Capt. H. Bunnett reproduced as a color plate in Walter Richards, Her Majesty’s Army: Indian and Colonial Force. A Descriptive Account of the Various Regiments Now Comprising the Queen’s Forces in India and the Colonies (London: J. S. Virtue, n.d. [ca. 1882]).
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hacker, Barton C., 1935World military history bibliography : premodern and nonwestern military institutions and warfare / by Barton C. Hacker. p. cm. – (History of warfare ; v. 16) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 90-04-12997-9 (alk. paper) 1. Military history–Bibliography. 2. Military art and science–Bibliography. 3. Armed Forces–Bibliography. 4. East and West–Bibliography. 5. Military history, Modern–Bibliography. I. Title. II. Series. Z6724.H6H33 2003 [D25] 016.355’009–dc21 2003051938
ISSN 1385–7827 ISBN 90 04 12997 9 © Copyright 2003 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands
CONTENTS
Preface ........................................................................................
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PART ONE
GENERAL AND COMPARATIVE TOPICS IN THE HISTORY OF MILITARY INSTITUTIONS World Military History .............................................................. Crosscultural Military Activity .................................................. Imperial Armed Forces .............................................................. Old World Colonial Wars ........................................................ Technology Transfer .................................................................. Disease and Conquest ................................................................
3 12 22 34 49 62
PART TWO
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD Ancient Military Institutions and Warfare .............................. Prehistory .................................................................................... Preclassical Near East ................................................................ Mesopotamia .............................................................................. Egypt .......................................................................................... Anatolia and the Levant ............................................................ Crete, Mycenae, and Archaic Greece ...................................... Iran and Persia .......................................................................... The Classical World .................................................................. Classical Greece .......................................................................... Rome .......................................................................................... Bronze and Iron Age Europe .................................................. Ancient South and Southeast Asia .......................................... Preimperial China ...................................................................... Early Imperial China ................................................................
75 82 89 97 105 110 115 120 125 131 139 147 155 162 171
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PART THREE
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN EURASIA SINCE ANTIQUITY Eurasian Military Institutions and Warfare ............................ Byzantium .................................................................................. Medieval Europe ........................................................................ Early Modern European Armed Forces and the Military Revolution ................................................................ Russia .......................................................................................... West Asia and the Middle East ................................................ Medieval Islam .......................................................................... Iran .............................................................................................. North African State Societies .................................................... The Ottoman Empire ................................................................ Central and Northern Asia ...................................................... Medieval India ............................................................................ Southeast Asia ............................................................................ East Asia .................................................................................... Imperial China .......................................................................... Modern China ............................................................................ Premodern Japan ........................................................................ Modern Japan ............................................................................
179 189 194 205 219 226 232 236 241 247 254 260 270 276 284 292 302 311
PART FOUR
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA AND OCEANIA Subsaharan Africa in General .................................................. Western Sudan .......................................................................... Guinea Coast .............................................................................. Ethiopia, the Horn of Africa, and the Eastern Sudan .......... Eastern Africa ............................................................................ Southern and Central Africa .................................................... Oceania ...................................................................................... New Guinea ................................................................................
319 328 340 353 359 368 378 386
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PART FIVE
PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE Precolumbian American Complex Societies ............................ The Americas General .............................................................. Mesoamerican Civilization ........................................................ Olmec and Maya ...................................................................... Zapotec/Mixtec/Teotihuacan .................................................... Toltec/Aztec .............................................................................. Andean Complex Societies ........................................................ Precontact North America ........................................................
401 407 414 421 438 448 458 470
PART SIX
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN POST-CONTACT AMERICA Eastern North America .............................................................. Western North America ............................................................ Tropical South America ............................................................ Iberian Conquest and Indian Resistance ................................ Colonial Wars in North America ............................................ Colonial Armed Forces .............................................................. Military Acculturation in the Americas .................................... National Indian Wars ................................................................ Latin America ............................................................................
487 499 512 521 534 542 549 557 568
PART SEVEN
NON-WESTERN MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE AFTER WORLD WAR II Nonwestern Military Affairs since 1945 .................................. 577 Wars in the Third World ........................................................ 590 USSR .......................................................................................... 606 Middle East ................................................................................ 612
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South and Southeast Asian Military Forces ............................ 619 East Asia .................................................................................... 626 Post World War II Subsaharan Africa .................................... 636 Latin America ............................................................................ 646
PART EIGHT
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN WORKS NOT PRIMARILY HISTORICAL War in Social Thought ............................................................ 659 War Explained Biologically ...................................................... 685 War Explained Culturally .......................................................... 715 Nonstate Warfare ...................................................................... 744 State Origins .............................................................................. 760 Index of Names ..........................................................................
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PREFACE
A brief history of the origins and development of this bibliography may help potential readers and users judge its value for their purposes. In graduate school during the 1960s I became interested in the fundamental question that was then generally identified as “the rise of the West.” It seemed to me then, as it does now, that a major part of the explanation lay with some unique characteristics of European military institutions. Framed in that way, the question clearly demanded comparative analysis. Standard military history provided little help with nonwestern military institutions. For one thing, military historians were far more interested in refighting past battles than they were in understanding the place of military institutions in society. For another, they followed the common view of a straight-line historical development from the Greeks to us, with the rest of the world brought in from the wings as foes, victims, or, occasionally, conquerors. These remarks only slightly overstate the problem. That situation, I might add, has changed markedly since the mid-1960s. My first taste of teaching military history in the early 1970s helped me clarify my thinking about these problems. Organizing my courses around the study of military institutions rather than wars forced me to seek materials far removed from conventional military history textbooks. In particular, I had begun to locate a growing body of literature on the origin of the state, which often seemed to implicate “militarism,” the make-do term for the central place of military institutions in society—English has no convenient term corresponding to army as “naval” corresponds to “navy.” In addition to looking for what might be available on the history of military traditions other than Western, I also began to explore the place of war and military institutions in the history of social thought. By the late 1970s I had identified and examined a substantial number of books and articles though I had yet to undertake any comprehensive search. In 1978 I began the systematic compilation that led to the present bibliography. It assumed its present form, however, only gradually as I worked my way through the books and bound periodicals of two university research libraries, first at the
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University of Nevada Las Vegas, then at Oregon State University, Corvallis. My extensive travels throughout the 1980s and early 1990s also allowed me to locate materials at a number of other libraries throughout the United States. This bibliography focuses on studies of preclassical and indigenous nonwestern military institutions published from 1967 to 1997. Studies of particular battles or wars appear only to the extent that I judged them to illuminate military institutions. Although I have included sections on Classical antiquity and post-Roman European institutions, references in these areas have more been noted in passing than subject to systematic collection. That they are nonetheless so numerous reflects the obvious fact that far more is published in these areas than any others. Much the same is true for the late 20th century. Once indigenous military institutions have given way to Western model armed forces, a transition period that varies chronologically from region to region, their study increasingly shifts from history to social science. In most instances, that begins after World War II. I have made no great effort to follow reprintings, paperback editions, or other forms of republication of the items listed, but I do mention those I have discovered. Except in a few instances where the changes seem significant, I have made little effort to keep up with new editions of textbooks. Entries marked with an asterisk (*) are works I know only by reference. Time and circumstances have not permitted me to examine every item personally. Rather than omit potentially useful references that may be incomplete, I have included them with this identification. Included in this category are entries taken from reviews in scholarly journals, reference works, and bibliographies, notably Dissertation Abstracts International and The American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature: Third Edition, edited by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (2 volumes; New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); cited as AHA Guide, preceded by the initials of the compiler. The starting date for this bibliography, 1967, is to some degree arbitrary, but it also reflects a real historiographical event. At about that time there seems to me to have been a significant shift in the character of academic studies of military institutions in both history and the social sciences. I have discussed this change more fully in two articles cited here: “Military Institutions and Social Order: Transformations of Western Thought since the Enlightenment” and “Military
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Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology.” The terminal date is merely convenient. Any essentially single-handed effort like this one is bound to have errors both of commission and omission. We (the publisher and I) intend to produce periodic supplements to this bibliography covering new literature, which will also allow us to correct and expand the core bibliography. We intend as well to publish a companion bibliography covering works published before 1967. To these ends, I urge users of this bibliography to contact me with any suggestions they may have. Contact information follows: Barton C. Hacker NMAH-4013 Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC 20560-0620 USA Email:
[email protected]
PART ONE
GENERAL AND COMPARATIVE TOPICS IN THE HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INSTITUTIONS
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WORLD MILITARY HISTORY
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of warfare and military institutions, including works spanning the ancient and modern worlds, or which address military activities on more than one continent. Historiographical and bibliographic works are also included. Anderson, J. H. “Piracy and World History: An Economic Perspective on Maritime Predation.” Journal of World History 6 (1995): 175–99. Arnold, Thomas F. “A Brief History of the Pick and Shovel.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Summer 1997): 98–107. Ashworth, G. J. War and the City. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. On the origins, developments, and significance of urban fortification, see chap. 2, “The Fortified City,” 12–62.
Asprey, Robert B. War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in History. 2 vols. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1975. Bachrach, Bernard S. “On Roman Ramparts, 300–1300.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 64–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. *Baumgartner, Frederic J. From Spear to Flintlock: A History of War in Europe and the Middle East to the French Revolution. New York: Praeger, 1991. From the Greek phalanx through Byzantine and Arab empires to Europe, medieval to early modern.
Beckett, Ian. “The Tradition.” In Guerrilla Warfare, edited by John Pimlott, 7–29. London: Bison Books, 1985. Bergman, C. A., E. McEwen, and R. Miller. “Experimental Archery: Projectile Velocities and Comparison of Bow Performance.” Antiquity 62 (1968): 658–70. *Blaxland, Gregory. Egypt and Sinai: Eternal Battleground. New York, 1968.
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Brereton, J. M. The Horse in War. New York: Arco, 1976. Brice, Martin H. Stronghold: A History of Military Architecture. New York: Schocken Books, 1985. Burch, Ernest S., Jr. “War and Trade.” In Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska, edited by William W. Fitzhugh and Aron Crowell, 227–40. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988. The section on “War,” 229–33, includes illustrations of weapons and armor.
Campbell, I. C. “The Lateen Sail in World History.” Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995): 1–23. Chaliand, Gérard, ed. Guerrilla Strategies: An Historical Anthology from the Long March to Afghanistan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. Chandler, David. The Art of Warfare on Land. London: Hamlyn, 1974. Includes chapters on ancient and nonwestern warfare.
Cleator, P. E. Weapons of War. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967. Unusual attention to preclassical and nonwestern warfare
Clutton-Brock, Juliet. Horse Power: A History of the Horse and Donkey in Human Societies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992. Much of the text concerns the military roles of equids.
Davies, Nigel. Human Sacrifice: In History and Today. New York: William Morrow, 1981. Davis, Paul K. Encyclopedia of Invasions and Conquests: From Ancient Times to the Present. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 1996. de la Croix, Horst. Military Considerations in City Planning: Fortifications. Planning and Cities. New York: George Braziller, 1972. Illustrated and documented surveys, including “Prehistoric Origins,” 12–14, and “Pre-Classical Antiquity,” 15–20.
Dien, Albert E. “Ancient Chinese Armor.” Early China 3 (Fall 1977): 105–107. On personal armor from earliest times to Sung, in an essay review of Yang Hung, “Chung-kuo ku-tai te chia-chou [Studies on the ancient Chinese armour],” K’ao-ku hsüeh-pao 1 (1976): 19–46, 2 (1976): 59–96.
Dupuy, T. N. The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill, 1980. Pays some attention to preclassical and nonwestern warfare.
Eckhardt, William. “Civilizations, Empires, and Wars.” Journal of Peace Research 27 (February 1990): 9–24.
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Eckhardt, William. Civilizations, Empires and Wars: A Quantitative History of War. Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland, 1992. See especially chaps. 1, “Primitive Warfare,” 7–26; 2, “Archaic and Ancient Wars, 2000 to 500 B.C.,” 27–40; 3, “Classic Wars, 500 B.C. to A.D. 500,” 41–56; and 4, “Medieval Wars, A.D. 500 to 1500,” 57–73.
Ellis, John. Cavalry: The History of Mounted Warfare. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1978. See especially chap. 1, “The Coming of the War Horse: The Beginnings to 750 B.C.,” 7–21.
Floyd, Dale E. The World Bibliography of Armed Land Conflict from Waterloo to World War I. 2 vols. Wilmington, Delaware: Michael Glazier, 1979. Part 2, “Continents, Smaller Land Areas and Countries,” 61–282, includes many nonwestern citations, though mostly centered on Western conquest or penetration.
Gabriel, Richard A., and Donald W. Boose, Jr. The Great Battles of Antiquity: A Strategic and Tactical Guide to Great Battles That Shaped the Development of War. Westport, Connecticut, and London: Greenwood Press, 1994. Schematic presentation of 31 major battles, wars, or campaigns from 1794 B.C. (Megiddo) to A.D. 1453 (Constantinople), including the preclassical mideast, China, Japan, Korea, and the Mongols, as well as Greeks and Romans.
Gamble, James D. Battle Axes. Providence, Rhode Island: Mowbray, 1981. Including Europe, Middle East, Far East, Africa, and the Americas.
Gann, Lewis. Guerrillas in History. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1971. Gardiner, Robert, and John Morrison, eds. The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since Pre-Classical Times. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1995. Gardiner, Robert, and Basil Greenhill, eds. The Earliest Ships: The Evolution of Boats into Ships. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1996. Eurasian development from prehistory to about 1000 A.D., well-illustrated and fully documented, with attention to naval activities.
Goffart, Walter. “Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians.” American Historical Review 86 (1981): 275–306. Barbarian threats were a constant feature of Roman history.
Goody, Jack. “Slavery in Time and Space.” In Asian and African Systems of Slavery, edited by James Watson, 16–42. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980. Armed force as the ultimate basis of slavery.
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Gorelik, Mikhael V. Warriors of Eurasia: From the VIII Century B.C. to the XVII Century A.D. Stockport, England: Montvert Publications, 1995. Greer, John P. The Armies and Enemies of Ancient China: 1027 B.C.–1286 A.D. Los Angeles: Wargames Research Group, n.d. (c. 1975). Notes and drawings primarily of Chinese forces from Chou to Yuan, but among the enemies described are a number of steppe and Central Asian peoples.
Hacker, Barton C. “Military Technology and World History: A Reconnaissance.” The History Teacher 30 (1997): 461–87. Hacker, Barton C. “Military Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology.” Technology and Culture 35 (1994): 768–834. Heath, E. G. Archery: A Military History. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1983. Hobsbawm, Eric. Bandits. Pageant of History Series. London: George Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969. Reprinted New York: Dell Books, 1971. Hogg, Ian. The History of Fortification. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981. Holsti, Kalevi J. Peace and War: Armed Conflicts and International Order, 1648–1989. Cambridge Studies in International Relations 14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Hopper, Frederick. The Military Horse. South Brunswick, New Jersey, and New York: A. S. Barnes, 1976. Hughes, Quentin. Military Architecture. Excursions into Architecture. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1974. Hurley, Vic. Arrow against Steel: The History of the Bow. New York: Mason/Charter, 1975. Ifeka, Caroline. “War and Identity in Melanesia and Africa.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 9 (April 1986): 131–49. Inikori, J. E. “Africa in World History: The Export Slave Trade from Africa and the Emergence of the Atlantic Economic Order.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 74–112. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Slave trade as stimulus to warfare, 106–108.
Jones, Archer. The Art of War in the Western World. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987.
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Jones, David E. Women Warriors: A History. Washington and London: Brassey’s, 1997. Anecdotal accounts of women warriors worldwide and throughout history.
Kagan, Donald. On the Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace. New York: Doubleday, 1995. Five case studies—Peloponnesian War, Hannibal’s wars, World War I, World War II, Cuban Missile Crisis—explore commonalities in the causes of war.
Keegan, John. The Face of Battle. New York: Viking Press, 1976. Kightly, Charles. Strongholds of the Realm: Defenses in Britain from Prehistory to the Twentieth Century. London: Thames & Hudson, 1979. Laffin, John. Women in Battle. London: Abelard-Schuman, 1967. Mainly European and American, but see chap. 4, “1827–1900: The Siamese Guards; Warriors of Dahomey; Girls of the Civil War,” 45–52.
Laqueur, Walter. Guerrilla: A Historical and Critical Study. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1976. Laqueur, Walter, ed. The Guerrilla Reader: A Historical Anthology. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press, 1977. McNeill, William H. The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Melegari, Vezio. The World’s Great Regiments. Translated by Ronald Strom. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969. Reprinted London: Spring Books, 1972. See chap. 4, “Beyond Europe’s Frontiers: Asia, Africa and Oceania,” 193–221.
Montgomery of Alamein, Viscount. A History of Warfare. Cleveland, Ohio, and New York: World, 1968. Includes chapters on oriental warfare.
Moriarty, James Robert. “Ritual Combat: A Comparison of the Aztec ‘War of Flowers’ and the Medieval ‘Mêlée.” In Colorado State College, Museum of Anthropology, Miscellaneous Series 9, unpaged. Greeley: The Museum, November 1969. Ritual in civilized warfare.
Newark, Tim, and Angus McBride. Celtic Warriors, 400 B.C.–A.D. 1600. London: Blandford, 1986. Paperback edition, 1988. Newark, Tim. Women Warlords: An Illustrated History of Female Warriors. London: Blandford, 1989. Includes chapters on the Amazons of the ancient world, the women warriors of Brazil and Dahomey, Artemisia and Zenobia, and medieval women warriors, with substantial bibliographies.
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Nickel, Helmut. Arms and Armor in Africa. New York: Atheneum, 1971. Both North Africa and Subsaharan Africa.
O’Connell, Robert L. “The Life and Hard Times of the Crossbow.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Winter 1989): 46–49. O’Connell, Robert L. Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Paret, Peter. “The History of War.” In Historical Studies Today, edited by Felix Gilbert and Stephen W. Graubard, 372–92. New York: W. W. Norton, 1972. Paret, Peter. “The History of War and the New Military History.” In Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz and the History of Military Power, by Peter Paret, 209–26. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Paret, Peter. “Military Power.” Journal of Military History 53 (1989): 239–56. Reprinted in Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz and the History of Military Power, by Peter Paret, 9–25. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Paret, Peter. “Nationalism and the Sense of Military Obligation.” Military Affairs 34 (1970): 2–6. Reprinted in Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz and the History of Military Power, by Peter Paret, 39–52. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Quammen, David. “The Ineffable Union of Horse and Man.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Spring 1989): 36–45. On the origins and development of cavalry.
Quigley, Carroll. Weapons Systems and Political Stability: A History. Washington: University Press of America, 1983. Military institutions and warfare from prehistory through the 15th century A.D.
Rausing, Gad. The Bow: Some Notes on Its Origin and Development. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia: Papers of the Lunds Universitets Historiska Museum Series 6. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag; Lund: CWK Gleerups Förlag, 1967. Renauld, Pierre. “Développement de la technologie et des techniques militaires: Influence sur la stratégie et la tactique (avant l’apparition de l’arme atomique).” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaires no. 41 (1979): 13–35. Summary report of a commission.
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Reid, William. Arms through the Ages. New York: Harper & Row, 1976. Rohrlich-Leavitt, Ruby, and June Nash. “Patriarchal Puzzle: State Formation and the Decline of Women’s Status in Mesopotamia and Mesoamerica.” Heresies, no. 13 (1981): 60–65. Institutionalization of militarism as a major factor.
Rosenthal, Monroe, and Isaac Mozeson. Wars of the Jews: A Military History from Biblical to Modern Times. Hippocrene Jewish History Series. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1990. Rustad, Michael L. Women in Khaki: The American Enlisted Woman. New York: Praeger, 1982. Chap. 1, “Women and War,” 1–52, offers a social history of women and armies since antiquity.
Saint Germain, Paul-Ivan de. “De l’influence de l’armement sur l’évolution de l’art de la guerre.” Revue Historique des Armées no. 178 (March 1980): 3–12. Samuel, Alan E. “Philip and Alexander as Kings: Macedonian Monarchy and Merovingian Parallels.” American Historical Review 93 (1988): 1270–86. On the relations between kingship and the army.
Sharer, Robert. “Did the Maya Collapse? A New World Perspective on the Demise of the Harappan Civilization.” In Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, edited by Gregory L. Possehl, 367–77. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, with American Institute of Indian Studies, 1982. Among the explanations of Maya collapse are those based on spreading intestine warfare or military invasion (376–77).
Shifferd, Patricia A. “Aztecs and Africans: Political Processes in Twenty-two Early States.” In Early State Dynamics, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde, 39–53. Studies in Human Society, vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987. Monopolizing force, one of two main criteria for the state, is more difficult to achieve than the other, bureaucratization; three contexts supported military centralization and the generally problematic control of the army: imperialism, raiding for wealth, or external threat.
Spring, Christopher. “African Hilt Weapons.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 204–217. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview, both North and Subsaharan.
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Stewart, John. “The Elephant in War.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Spring 1991): 58–67. Sturgill, Claude C. The Military History of the Third World since 1945: A Reference Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1994. Research guide organized by world region, with many references to earlier work despite the title.
Tilly, Charles. Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 990–1992. Studies in Social Discontinuity. Revised edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1992. Trench, Charles Chenevix. “Horsemanship in History.” History Today 20 (1970): 771–81. van Creveld, Martin. “Technology and War I: To 1945.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War, edited by Charles Townshend, 175–93. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. van Doorninck, Frederick H. “New Evidence Concerning Developments in Anchor and Hull Construction Technology during the Roman and Byzantine Periods.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 26–33. New York: Garland, 1980. Veale, F. J. P. Advance to Barbarism: The Development of Total Warfare from Sarajevo to Hiroshima. Revised ed. New York: Devin-Adair, 1968. Despite the title, includes chapters on prehistoric and preclassical warfare, as well as much other pre-20th century material.
Vuksic, V., and Z. Grbasic. Cavalry: The History of a Fighting Elite, 650 B.C.–A.D. 1914. London: Cassell, 1993. Introductory essay, “Cavalry—History, Tactics and Organization,” 9–37, followed by 100 colored plates (with accompanying text), beginning with an Assyrian horsearcher of the 7th century B.C. and ending with a Russian cavalryman of 1914.
Watterson, Barbara. The Egyptians. The Peoples of Africa. Oxford and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1997. The history of the Egyptian people from prehistory to the present includes discussion of military affairs; see index entries: “army”; “navy”; “weapons.”
Wells, C. M. “The Defense of Carthage.” In New Light on Ancient Carthage, edited by John Griffiths Pedley, 47–65. Papers of a symposium sponsored by Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, on its 50th anniversary. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980. History of the city walls sketched, excavations of the medieval Byzantine walls described.
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Wesler, Kit. “Trade, Politics and Native Polities in Iroquoia and Asante.” Comparative Studies in History and Society 25 (1983): 641–60. Wheatcroft, Andrew. The World Atlas of Revolutions. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983. From the American Revolution to the 1980s.
Widengren, Geo. “On Horsemanship: A Review Article.” Ethnos 48 (1983): 210–20. The book reviewed, The Role of the Horse in Man’s Culture, by Harold B. Barclay (London and New York: J. A. Allen, 1980), is weak on cavalry, to which the review is mostly devoted: an outline history with citations to the key literature, especially Iranian and Persian (215–18).
Ziff, William B. “The Jew as Soldier, Strategist and Military Adviser.” In The Hebrew Impact on Western Civilization, edited by Dagobert Runes, 240–312. Paperback abridged from 1951 edition, Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1976. Capsule military history from biblical times to creation of Israel, with stress on fighting.
CROSSCULTURAL MILITARY ACTIVITY
Studies of battles, wars, and other forms of military interaction between agents of distinct cultures, or between distinct regions, from the fall of ancient empires through World War II. *Allouche, Adel. The Origins and Development of the Ottoman-Safavid Conflict (906–962/1500 –1555). Islamkundliche Untersuchungen 91. Berlin: Schwarz, 1983. First phase of the struggle, to the Peace of Amasya, viewed in regional context.— JW AHA Guide 18.220
Allsen, Thomas T. Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Military organization of the Mongol state is a central theme, but see especially chap. 7, “Recruitment of Manpower,” 189–216.
Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ìlkhànid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Attenborough, David. The First Eden: The Mediterranean World and Man. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1987. See part 3, “The Wastes of War,” 122–73, on armies, navies, and warfare around the Mediterranean, including chapters on horse barbarians in the fall of Rome, the spread of Islam, the Crusades, and the Ottoman conquests.
Austen, Ralph A. “The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade: A Tentative Census.” In The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, edited by Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, 23–76. New York: Academic Press, 1979. See especially “Indirect Evidence: Black Servile Military Forces,” 51–58.
Bacharach, Jere L. “African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Case of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (808–1171).” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 13 (1981): 471–95. Military uses of nonstate peoples by state institutions.
Barfield, Thomas J. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China. Studies in Social Discontinuity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Basil Blackwell, 1989. Military and other interactions from the Hsiung-nu to the Manchus.
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Beaumont, Roger. “Introduction: Cross-Cultural Military Relations.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited James C. Bradford, 3–14. Texas A&M Military History Series 50. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987. Bennett, Matthew. “Storm from the East.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 44–53. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. *Bidwell, S. Swords for Hire: European Mercenaries in Eighteenth-Century India. London, 1971. Bracewell, Catherine Wendy. The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth-Century Adriatic. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1992. Raiding and warfare along the borders between Habsburg, Ottoman, and Venetian empires by an ethnically and religiously diverse people operating from Senj, a small north Adriatic fortress town.
Bushnell, John S. “Miliutin and the Balkan War: Military Reform vs. Military Performance.” In Russia’s Great Reforms, 1855–1881, edited by Ben Eklof, John Bushnell, and Larissa Zakharova, 139–58. IndianaMichigan Series in Russian and East European Studies. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Carr, Caleb. “The Devil Soldier.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Spring 1992): 48–55. Frederick Townsend Ward and reorganized Ching armies.
Carr, Caleb. The Devil Soldier: The Story of Frederick Townsend Ward. New York: Random House, 1992. Chambers, James. The Devil’s Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe. New York: Atheneum, 1979. See chap. 5, “The Mongol War Machine,” 51–67.
Clissold, Stephen. “Christian Renegades and Barbary Corsairs.” History Today 26 (August 1976): 508–15. Coles, Paul H. The Ottoman Impact on Europe. History of European Civilization Library. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968.
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*Collins, Roger. The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989. Why it happened and what it meant.—TFXN AHA Guide 20.169.
Connaughton, Richard. The War of the Rising Sun and Tumbling Bear: A Military History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904–5. London: Routledge, 1988. Cook, Haruko Taya, and Theodore F. Cook. Japan at War: An Oral History. New York: New Press, 1992. Coox, Alvin D. Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939. 2 vols. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1985. Curtin, Philip D. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Studies in Comparative World History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Avoids Eurocentric bias, up-to-date bibliography. See especially “Protection Costs, Coercion, and the State,” 41–45, in chap. 3, “Africa: Traders and Trade Communities.”
*Davidson, H. R. Ellis. The Viking Road to Byzantium. London: Allen & Unwin, 1976. Viking expansion in eastern Europe, 9th–12th centuries, roles as traders and mercenaries in emergence of Rus’ and in Byzantium.—SCF AHA Guide 34.169.
Devisse, J., with S. Labib. “Africa in Inter-Continental Relations.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 635–72. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. North African states paid in gold for hired fleets and troops from Christian Spain (649–50)
Donnelly, Alton S. The Russian Conquest of Bashkiria, 1552–1740: A Case Study in Imperialism. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1968. Dower, John W. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986. *Dunnell, Ruth. “The Fall of Xia: Sino-Steppe Relations in the Late Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Centuries.” In Rulers from the Steppe: State Formation on the Eurasian Periphery, edited by Gary Seaman and Daniel Marks, 158–85. Proceedings of the Soviet-American Academic Symposia in Conjunction with the Museum Exhibition, “Nomads: Masters of the Eurasian Steppe,” 2; Ethnographics Monograph Series
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2. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, Center for Visual Anthropology, Ethnographics Press, 1991. On the Mongolian conquest of Hsia and its Inner Asian background.—RWD AHA Guide 9.148.
*Ecsedy, Hilda. “Trade-and-War Relations between the Turks and China in the Second Half of the Sixth Century.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 21 (1968): 131–80. On the nature and purposes of nomadic contacts with China.—MRD AHA Guide 9.127.
Emmert, Thomas A. Serbian Golgotha: Kosovo, 1389. East European Monographs 278. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. The Serbian defeat by the Ottomans and its apotheosis.
*Farag, W. A. “Some Remarks on Leo of Tripoli’s Attack on Thessaloniki in 904 A.D.” Byzantinische Zeitschrift 82 (1989): 133–39. Successful Arab naval expedition against Byzantium’s second largest city, as described in Greek and Oriental sources.—APK AHA Guide 8.165.
Fernández-Armesto, Felipe. Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229–1492. University of Pennsylvania Press Middle Ages Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987. Paperback edition, 1992. Including the Spanish Reconquest, the conquest of the Canaries, and conflicts in Africa.
Finucane, Ronald C. Soldiers of the Faith: Crusaders and Moslems at War. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. Florovsky, A. V. “Russo-Austrian Conflicts in the Early 18th Century.” Translated by John Keep with Leslie Collins. Slavonic and East European Review 47 (1969): 94–114. France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. *Friendly, Alfred. The Dreadful Day: The Battle of Manzikert, 1071. London: Hutchinson, 1981. Popular account of first major battle between Turks and Byzantium.—APK AHA Guide 8.179.
Gabrieli, Francesco, ed. and trans. Arab Historians of the Crusades. Translated by E. J. Costello. The Islamic World. Berkeley: University of California Press, for the Near Eastern Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1969. Paperback edition, 1984.
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Grinter, Lawrence E. “Cultural and Historical Influences on Conflict in Sinic Asia: China, Japan, and Vietnam.” In Conflict, Culture, and History: Regional Dimensions, by Stephen J. Blank et al., 117–92. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, January 1993. Adda Bozeman’s thesis about the cultural roots of conflict finds some support in East Asia, but state institutions also matter.
Grunfeld, Foster. “The World of Alfonso X.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Spring 1997): 74–81. 13th-century illuminations of the reconquest.
*Har-El, S. Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–91. The Ottoman Empire and Its Heritage: Politics, Society and Economy, 4. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995. Harris, J. E. “The African Diaspora in the Old and the New Worlds.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 113–36. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. African mercenaries in India, 16th–18th centuries, 130–36.
*Hayashi, Saburo. Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978. History of Japanese army as portrayed by General Staff.—FGN AHA Guide 13.303.
Heathcote, T. A. “War in the Orient.” The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 54–69. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. Hess, Andrew C. “The Battle of Lepanto and Its Place in Mediterranean History.” Past & Present no. 57 (November 1972): 53–73. Just a major frontier clash, with the real decision settled by the Turkish defeat of the Portuguese at Alcazar (Morocco), 4 Aug. 1578.
Hess, Andrew C. The Forgotten Frontier: A History of the Sixteenth-Century Ibero-African Frontier. Publications of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies 10. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. Chap. 2, “A Military Revolution,” 11–25.
Hori, Kyotsu. “The Economic and Political Effects of the Mongol Wars.” In Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History, edited by John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, 184–98. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. Hori, Kyotsu. “The Mongol Invasions and the Kamakura Bakufu.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1967.
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Hoyt, Edwin P. Japan’s War: The Great Pacific Conflict, 1853 to 1952. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. Reprinted New York: Da Capo Paperback, n.d. *Ienaga, Saburo. The Pacific War, 1931–1945: A Critical Perspective on Japan’s Role in World War II. New York: Pantheon, 1979. Major Japanese historian’s unvarnished account.—FGN AHA Guide 13.306.
*Iriye, Akira. Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981. Revisionist study of Pacific war.—FGN AHA Guide 13.308.
*Jackson, Peter. “The Crusade against the Mongols (1241).” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991): 1–18. Important but neglected.—JSCRS AHA Guide 20.332.
Jandora, John W. “The Battle of Yarmùk: A Reconstruction.” Journal of Asian History 19 (1985): 8–21. Fragmentary sources leave much to guesswork about the Arab victory over Byzantines in 636, but the Arabs seem to have won by immobilizing the Byzantine cavalry with infantry, then using their cavalry to seize the victory.
Kaba, Lansiné. “Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591–1612).” Journal of African History 22 (1981): 457–75.
Invasion supported by first use of firearms, but novel technology could not sustain the conquest against irregular warfare.
Kaegi, Walter E. Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Paperback edition, 1995. *Kaegi, Walter Emil. “Heraklius and the Arabs.” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 (1982): 109–33. Effective Byzantine resistance to Arab invasion after debacle at Yarmuk.—APK AHA Guide 8.141.
Kortpeter, Carl Max. Ottoman Imperialism during the Reformation: Europe and the Caucasus. New York University Studies in Near Eastern Civilization 5. New York: New York University Press; London: University of London Press, 1972. Kotker, Norman. “The First Crusade.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Winter 1990): 24–35. How Europeans defeated Turks at the end of the 11th century.
Kotker, Norman. “The Golden Mirage of Songhai.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Spring 1992): 92–99. Moroccan invasion of Songhai in 1590 across the Sahara pitted guns against swords and lances.
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Kotker, Norman. “Kulikovo Field.” Military History Quarterly 6 (Autumn 1993): 20–31. Victory of the Muscovite Grand Duke Dmitri Ivanovich on the banks of the Don against the Golden Horde under Mamay.
*Lawrence, T. E. Crusader Castles. 2d edition. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1988. Lee, Jonathan. The “Ancient Supremacy”: Bukhara, Afghanistan and the Battle for Balkh, 1731–1901. Islamic History and Civilization 15. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996. Lenman, Bruce P. “The Transition to European Military Ascendancy in India, 1600–1800.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 100–30. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. *Lilie, Ralph-Johannes. Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber: Studien zur Strukturwandel des byzantinischen Staates im siebten und achten Jahrhundert. Miscellanea Byzantina Monacensia 22. Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und neugriechische Philologie der Universität, 1976. Analysis of Arab-Byzantine wars (640–800) and restructuring of Byzantine economy and defense system.—APK AHA Guide 8.158.
Livermore, Harold. The Origins of Spain and Portugal. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971. From the barbarian invasions of the later Roman Empire to the Muslim conquest.
Lotter, Fridrich. “The Crusading Idea and the Conquest of the Region East of the Elbe.” In Medieval Frontier Societies, edited by Robert Bartlett and Angus Mackay 267–306. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. *Lourie, Elena. Crusade and Colonisation: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Aragon. Aldershot, England: Variorum; Brookfield, Vermont: Gower, 1990. Includes “Society Organized for War.”—FLC AHA Guide 20.938.
McClintock, Michael. Instruments of Statecraft: U.S. Guerrilla Warfare, Counterinsurgency, Counterterrorism, 1940–1990. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992. McGinn, Bernard. “The Crusades.” Morristown, New Jersey: General Learning Press, 1973. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Of Fortresses and Galleys: The 1568 Acehnese Siege of Melaka, after a Contemporary Bird’s-Eye View.” Modern Asian Studies 22 (1988): 607–28. European-style fortifications baffled Southeast Asian siege techniques, despite the use of heavy ordnance.
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*Marshall, Christopher. Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Paperback edition, 1992. Simon Lloyd review War in History 1 (1994): 233–34. From the end of the third crusade to the demise of the Latin kingdom. Takes off where Smail ended, emphasizing Christian manpower shortage.—JSCRS AHA Guide 20.850.
Marshall, P. J. “Western Arms in Maritime Asia in the Early Phases of Expansion.” Modern Asian Studies 14 (1980): 13–28. Reprinted in Technology and European Overseas Enterprise: Diffusion, Adaption, and Adoption, edited by Michael Adas, 47–62. An Expanding World: The European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, vol. 7. Aldershot, England: Variorum, 1996. Western military institutions outpaced Asian from the 16th century onwards, but distance and lack of numbers prevented superiority from becoming sovereignty until 19th century.
Nicolle, David C., and Richard Hook. The Crusades. Elite Series 19. London: Osprey, 1988. Nicolle, David C. Hattin 1187. Campaign Series 19. London: Osprey, 1993. Nicolle, David C., and Angus McBride. Hungary and the Fall of Eastern Europe, 1000–1568. Men-at-Arms Series 195. London: Osprey, 1988. Nicolle, David C., and Christa Hook. Knight of Outremer. Warrior Series 18. London: Osprey, 1996. Olaniyan, Richard. “Africa and External Contacts.” In African History and Culture, edited by Richard Olaniyan, 56–80. Lagos: Longman Nigeria, 1982. “The Transatlantic Slave Trade,” 62–66, emphasizes links between slaves, guns, and war.
*Olson, Robert W. The Siege of Mosul and Ottoman-Persian Relations, 1718–1743: A Study of Rebellion in the Capital and War in the Provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975. Nadir Shah’s campaigns against the Ottomans.—JW AHA Guide 18.235.
Parker, Geoffrey, and I. A. A. Thompson. “The Battle of Lepanto, 1571: The Costs of Victory.” Mariner’s Mirror 64 (February 1978): 13–22. Parry, V. J. “La manière de combattre.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 218–256. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. European response to Ottoman armies, 16th–18th centuries.
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Partner, Peter. God of Battles: Holy Wars of Christianity and Islam. London: HarperCollins; Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997. Pearce, Jenny. Under the Eagle: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Caribbean. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press, 1982. Primarily current, but see Part 1, “The Eagle Rises (1823–1962),” 5–38.
Perjés, Géza. The Fall of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary: Mohács 1526– Buda 1541. Translated by Márió D. Fenyó. War and Society in East Central Europe, vol. 26. East European Monographs 255. Boulder, Colorado: Social Science Monographs; Highland Lakes, New Jersey: Atlantic Research & Publications, 1989. Pierson, Peter. “Lepanto.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Winter 1997): 6–19. Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221. The Middle Ages. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. Reilly, Bernard F. The Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain, 1031–1157. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992. Paperback edition, 1995. Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Atlas of the Crusades. London: Times Books, 1991. Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. The Middle Ages. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. Roy, Philippe. “Influence reciproque des armées asiatiques et africaines et des armées européenes sur l’art de la guerre (stratégie et tactique) et ses composantes: recruitement, organisation, armement, logistique.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaires no. 49 (1980): 51–64. Based chiefly on Montecuccoli’s memoirs: Islamic cavalry against east European fortifications.
*Searing, James F. West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce, 1700–1860. African Studies Series 77. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Principal agricultural states south of the Senegal River (Kajoor, Bawol, Waalo) became dependent on slave soldiery.—reviewed by Joseph C. Miller, AHR 100 (1995): 203–4.
Shelton, Geoffrey. “Plevna.” Military History Quarterly 6 (Winter 1994): 84–93. The 1877–78 Russo-Turkish war and the 137-day battle.
Smail, R. C. Crusading Warfare, 1097–1193. 2d edition, with a new introduction and revised bibliography by Christopher Marshall. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Paperback edition, 1995.
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Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Ayn Jàlùt: Mamlùk Success or Mongol Failure?” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 44 (1984): 307–345. Analysis of Mongol organization, tactics, and logistics.
Smith, Richard J. Mercenaries and Mandarins: The Ever-Victorious Army of Nineteenth Century China. KTO Studies in American History. Millwood, New York: KTO Press, 1978. Spector, Ronald H. Eagle against the Sun: The American War with Japan. New York: Free Press, 1984. Reprinted New York: Vintage Books, 1985. Streater, Jasper. “The Battle of Manzikert.” History Today 17 (1967): 257–63. Tate, Georges. The Crusaders: Warriors of God. Translated by Lory Frankel. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Time-Life Books, Editors of. Japan at War. World War II. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1980. Ufford, Letitia W. (Princeton Research Forum). “The Egyptian Invasion of Greece, 1825: The First Arab Use of ‘Westernized’ Military Forces.” Paper presented at the Society for Military History annual meeting, Fredericksburg, Virginia, 10–12 April 1992. *Urban, William. The Livonian Crusade. Washington: University Press of America, 1981. Military and political affairs, 1290s–1560s.—PPR AHA Guide 20.730.
*Urban, William. The Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Study Center, 1989. Conquest and conversion of Lithuania, to 1400.—PPR AHA Guide 20.731.
Vesely, R. “The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 137–69. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Status of imperial Ottoman troops in Egypt (142); “Internal Military Conflicts,” 147–55; Ottoman military intervention, 166–67.
Walder, David. The Short Victorious War: The Russo-Japanese Conflict 1904–5. London: Hutchinson, 1973. Westwood, J. N. The Illustrated History of the Russo-Japanese War. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1974. Westwood, J. N. Witnesses of Tsushima. Tokyo: Sophia University; Tallahassee, Florida: Diplomatic Press, 1970.
IMPERIAL ARMED FORCES
European imperialism and imperial armed forces, from circa 1500 to World War II, including native troops and opponents of imperial forces, as well as general works on empires and imperialism. Adas, Michael. European Imperialism in Asia. Forums in History. St. Louis, Missouri: Formum Press, 1974. Adekson, J. Bayo. “Ethnicity and Army Recruitment in Colonial Plural Societies.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 2 (1979): 151–65. Persistent consequences of colonial uses of native troops in sub-Saharan Africa; uses of the “martial races” concept.
Alavi, Seema. The Sepoys and the Company: Tradition and Transition in Northern India, 1770–1830. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Alder, G. J. “Britain and the Defence of India—The Origins of the Problem, 1798–1815.” Journal of Asian History no. 1 (1971). Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Paperback edition, 1986. Narrative political-military history.
The Army in India, 1850–1914: A Photographic Record. Introduction by Field-Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck. London: Hutchinson, with the National Army Museum, 1968. *Bailes, H. R. “The Influence of Continental Examples and Colonial Warfare upon the Reform of the Late Victorian Army.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1980. *Bailes, H. R. “Technology and Imperialism: A Case Study of the Victorian Army in Africa.” Victorian Studies 24 (1980): 82–104. Balesi, Charles John. From Adversaries to Comrades-in-Arms: West Africans and the French Military, 1885–1918. Waltham, Massachusetts: Crossroads Press, 1979. Balesi, Charles. “West African Influence on the French Army of World War I.” In Double Impact: France and Africa in the Age of Imperialism, edited by G. Wesley Johnson, 93–104. Contributions in Comparative Colonial Studies 16. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1985.
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Ballhatchet, Kenneth. “Recent Historians of the Raj.” Victorian Studies 12 (1969): 458–61. Barber, James. Imperial Frontier: A Study of Relations between the British and the Pastoral Tribes of North East Uganda. EAPH Historical Studies 3. Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1968. Barua, Pradeep. “Military Developments in India, 1750–1850.” Journal of Military History 58 (1994): 599–616. Military institutional change in Mysore among Marathas and Sikhs in part responded to East India Company pressure, in part to indigenous factors.
Barrows, Leland. “The Impact of Empire on the French Armed Forces, 1830–1920.” In Double Impact: France and Africa in the Age of Imperialism, edited by G. Wesley Johnson, 53–91. Contributions in Comparative Colonial Studies 16. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1985. Barthorp, Michael, and Pierre Turner. The British Army on Campaign, 1816–1902 (4): 1882–1902. Men-at-Arms Series 201. London: Osprey, 1988. Barthorp, Michael, and Jeffrey Burn. Indian Infantry Regiments, 1860– 1914. Men-at-Arms Series 92. London: Osprey, 1979. Bayley, C. A. Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780– 1830. Studies in Modern History. London and New York: Longman, 1989. Narrative political-military history.
Beach, D. N. “The Uses of the Colonial Military History of Mozambique.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 26 (1986): 707–13. On the problem of completing a colonial conquest—i.e., winning the last battle.
*Beaumont, R. Sword of the Raj: The British Army in India, 1747–1947. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1977. Bhatia, H. S., ed. Military History of British India (1607–1947). New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1977. See especially chaps. 6, “India: Its Heritage and Its Army,” 60–94, a condensed military history of India; and 7, “European and Native Troops,” 95–116.
*Bitterli, Urs. Cultures in Conflict: Encounters between European and NonEuropean Cultures, 1492–1800. Translated by Richie Robertson. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1989. Valuable general interpretation of Old World imperialistic encounters.—JPG AHA Guide 39.571.
Bryant, G. J. “The Cavalry Problem in the Early British Indian Army, 1750–1785.” War in History 2 (1995): 1–21.
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Callahan, Raymond. The East India Company and Army Reform, 1785–1798. Harvard Historical Monographs 67. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972. Caplan, Lionel. Warrior Gentlemen: “Gurkhas” in the Western Imagination. Providence, Rhode Island: Berghahn Books, 1995. Depiction of Gurkhas in European writing, especially military.
Carr-Gregg, Charlotte. “The Changing Structure of Prisoners of War during 19th Century Warfare in New Zealand.” Oceania 51 (1981): 161–80. One aspect of the impact of civilized on primitive warfare.
Chirenje, J. Mutero. “Portuguese Priests and Soldiers in Zimbabwe, 1560–1572: The Interplay between Evangelism and Trade.” International Journal of African Studies 6 (1973): 36–48. Clayton, Anthony. France, Soldiers and Africa. London: Brassey’s Defence, 1983. Clayton, Anthony, and David Killingray. Khaki and Blue: Military and Police in British Colonial Africa. Monographs in International Studies, Africa Series 51. Athens: Ohio University, Center for African Studies, 1989. Clayton, Laurence A. “Ships and Empire: The Case of Spain.” Mariner’s Mirror 62 (1976): 235–48. Clayton, Laurence A. “The Star of Empire.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 114–29. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. Cohen, Stephen P. The Indian Army: Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. See especially chap. 2, “Recruitment and Ideology,” 32–56, on the development of the sepoy system.
Corvoisier, André. “Louis XIV et l’Extrème-Orient.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 25–38. Crowell, Lorenzo M. “Logistics in the Madras Army circa 1830.” War & Society 10 (October 1992): 1–33. Crowell, Lorenzo M. “Military Professionalism in a Colonial Context: The Madras Army, circa 1832.” Modern Asian Studies 24 (1990): 249–74. Appropriately judged—as the colonial army of a multiethnic state—the Madras army was thoroughly professional, though not in the same terms as a contemporary European army.
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Denoon, Donald. “Dependence and Interdependence: Southern Africa from 1500 to 1800.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 683–702. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Seaborne basis of Portuguese empire.
Diffie, Bailey W., and George D. Winius. Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580. Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. Chap. 8, “Navigation: Portuguese Haven-finding in the Ocean Sea,” 123–43.
Echenberg, Myron. Colonial Conscripts: The “Tirailleurs Sénégalais” in French West Africa, 1857–1960. Social History of Africa. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann; London: James Currey, 1991. Pioneering study of West Africans in French service; chap. 2 covers the French conquest of West Africa up to World War I.—Reviewed by David Robinson, American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1372–73.
Echenberg, Myron. “Les migrations militaries en Afrique occidentale française, 1900–1945.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 14 (1980): 429–50. Massive French recruitment effort (and attempts to avoid conscription) reshaped West African society.
Echenberg, Myron. “Paying the Blood Tax: Military Conscription in French West Africa, 1914–1929.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 9 (1975): 171–92. French military exploitation of black population.
*Elliott, John H. “The Seizure of Overseas Territories by the European Powers.” In The European Discovery of the World and Its Economic Effects on Pre-Industrial Society, 1500–1800, edited by Hans Pohl. Papers of the Tenth International Economic History Congress, 1990. Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftgeschichte 89. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1990. Elphick, Richard. Kraal and Castle: Khoikhoi and the Founding White South Africa. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1977. 2d edition. Johannesburg: Raven Press, 1985. Khoikhoi-Dutch relations, 1488–1701, including the First and Second KhoikhoiDutch Wars; on traditional war and raiding, see “War: Its Purposes and Prosecution,” 53–57, in chap. 3, “Power and Wealth in Traditional Cape Khoikhoi Society.”
Elphick, Richard, and Hermann Giliomee, eds. The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1989.
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Enloe, Cynthia H. Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980. See especially “The Gurkha Syndrome: State Utilization of ‘Martial Races,’ ” 23–49.
Farwell, Byron. Armies of the Raj: From the Mutiny to Independence, 1858– 1947. New York: W. W. Norton, 1991. Farwell, Byron. The Gurkhas. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984. From the conquest of Nepal to the present, Gurkha units in the British army.
Farwell, Byron. Mr. Kipling’s Army: All the Queen’s Men. New York: W. W. Norton, 1981. Social history of the British Army in the age of imperialism.
Farwell, Byron. “A Reputation for Intimidation.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Spring 1989): 82–89. History of the Gurkhas as British mercenaries.
Gann, L. H., and Peter Duignan. The Rulers of British Africa, 1870–1914. Hoover Institution Publication. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1978. Chap. 4, “Military Organization and Campaigns,” 102–53.
Gann, L. H., and Peter Duignan. The Rulers of German Africa, 1884 –1914. Hoover Institution Publication. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1977. Chap. 6, “The Armed Forces,” 104–30: native forces under white command.
Ghose, Saroj. “Commercial Needs and Military Necessities: The Telegraph in India.” In Technology and the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India, 1700–1947, edited by Roy MacLeod and Deepak Kumar, 153–76. New Delhi: Sage, 1995. Gilbert, Arthur N. “Recruitment and Reform in the East India Company Army.” Journal of British Studies 15 (November 1975): 89–111. Strictly on recruitment of European troops in the 18th century.
Goodard, Eric. “The Indian Army: Company and Raj.” Asian Affairs 63 (1976): 263–76. Grundlingh, Albert. “Black Men in a White Man’s War: The Impact of the First World War on South African Blacks.” War & Society 3 (May 1985): 55–81. Grundlingh, Albert. Fighting Their Own War: South African Blacks and the First World War. New History of Southern Africa Series. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1987.
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Gupta, Narayani. “Military Security and Urban Development: A Case Study of Delhi, 1857–1912.” Modern Asian Studies 5 (1971): 61–77. How British concerns for defending the capital of their Indian empire shaped the city’s economic and commercial growth.
Gutteridge, William F. “Military and Police Forces in Colonial Africa.” In Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960, vol. 2, The History and Politics of Colonialism, 1914–1960, edited by L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, 286–319. Hoover Institution Publications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Hall, Robert. “Aborigines, the Army and the Second World War in Northern Australia.” Aboriginal History 4 (1980): 73–95. Recruitment in World War II.
Hamid, S. Shahid. So They Rode and Fought. Tunbridge Wells, England: Midas Books; New York: Hippocrene Books, 1983. History and catalogue of the British Indian army’s cavalry.
Haron, Nadzan. “Colonial Defense and British Approach to the Problems in Malaya, 1874–1918.” Modern Asian Studies 24 (1990): 275–95. Colonial conquest and rule depended on native resources and manpower, native troops forming the bulk of colonial armed forces for French and British alike.
Harrington, Peter. “The Raj through Indian Eyes.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Winter 1997): 86–93. Graphics by Indians, mainly depicting soldiers.
Harris, R. G., and Chris Warner. Bengal Cavalry Regiments, 1857–1914. Men-at-Arms Series 91. London: Osprey, 1979. Headrick, Daniel R. The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851–1945. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. Headrick, Daniel R. The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850–1940. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Headrick, Daniel R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Headrick, Daniel R. “The Tools of Imperialism: Technology and the Expansion of European Colonial Empires in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Modern History 51 (1979): 231–63. Headrick, Rita. “African Soldiers in World War II.” Armed Forces and Society 3 (1978): 501–26.
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Heathcote, T. A. The Indian Army. New York: Hippocrene, 1974. Superb study.
Heathcote, T. A. The Military in British India: The Development of British Land Forces in South Asia, 1600–1947. Manchester History of the British Army. Manchester, England: University of Manchester Press, 1995. Heggoy, Alf Andrew, and John M. Haar. The Military in Imperial History: The French Connection. Military History Bibliographies 4. New York: Garland, 1984. Hervey, Albert. Ten Years in India; or, The Life of a Young Soldier [1850]. Abridged and introduced as A Soldier of the Company: Life of an Indian Ensign, 1833–43, by Charles Allen. London: Michael Joseph, with the National Army Museum, 1988. Ingram, Edward. “The Rules of the Game: A Commentary on the Defence of British India, 1798–1829.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (1975): 257–79. Isaacman, Allen. “The Origin, Formation, and Early History of the Chikunda of South Central Africa.” Journal of African History 13 (1972): 443–61. Voluntary warrior slaves recruited to police Portuguese crown colonies eventually submerged original ethnic diversity in new set of institutions and cultural identity; with regiment as basic political unit, they subsequently played significant military and political roles in south central Africa.
Jacob, Alaric. “The Bayards of British India.” History Today 22 (1972): 62–69. Kiernan, V. G. “Colonial Africa and Its Armies.” In War and Society: A Yearbook of Military History, vol. 2, edited by Brian Bond and Ian Roy, 20–39. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1971. Kiernan, V. G. European Empires fom Conquest to Collapse, 1815–1960. Fontana History of European War and Society. London: Fontana, 1982. Reprinted as From Conquest to Collapse: European Empires from 1815–1960. New York: Pantheon Books, n.d. Killingray, David. “The Idea of a British Imperial African Army.” Journal of African History 20 (1979): 421–36. Kirk-Greene, Anthony H. M. “’Damnosa hereditas’: Ethnic Ranking and the Martial Races Imperative in Africa.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 3 (1980): 393–414. Current ethnic-military problems traced to the British colonial concept of “martial races” developed in India and applied in Africa.
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Knight, Ian. Go to Your God Like a Soldier: The British Soldier Fighting for Empire, 1837–1902. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1996. Knight, Ian, and Richard Scollins. Queen Victoria’s Enemies (1): Southern Africa. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 212. London: Osprey, 1989. Knight, Ian, and Richard Scollins. Queen Victoria’s Enemies (2): Northern Africa. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 215. London: Osprey, 1989. Abyssinia, Asante, Egypt, Sudan, Nandi [Kenya], Somalia, Nigeria [Sokoto]
Knight, Ian, and Richard Scollins. Queen Victoria’s Enemies (3): India. Men-at-Arms Series 219. London: Osprey, 1990. Knight, Ian, and Richard Scollins. Queen Victoria’s Enemies (4): Asia, Australasia and the Americas. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 224. London: Osprey, 1990. Illustrated survey indigenous foes of Britain in south and east Asia, in Australia, and in New Zealand. The American enemies were Canadian rebels.
Lawford, James P. Britain’s Army in India: From Its Origins to the Conquest of Bengal. London: George Allan & Unwin, 1978. Includes the development of the sepoy army.
Lawrence, A. W. Fortified Trade-Posts. London: Jonathan Cape, 1969. Shortened revised edition of Trade Castles and Forts of West Africa (1963). Longer, V. Red Coats to Olive Green: A History of the Indian Army, 1600–1974. Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1974. Narrative history focused on military actions.
MacGregor-Hastie, Roy. Never to Be Taken Alive: A Biography of General Gordon. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1985. *Mason, P. A Matter of Honor: An Account of the Indian Army, Its Officers and Men. London: Jonathan Cape, 1974. Meskill, Johanna M., John Meskill, and Ainslie T. Embree. The NonEuropean World, 1500 –1850. World Civilization Series. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1971. Mostert, Noël. Frontiers: The Epic of South Africa’s Creation and the Tragedy of the Xhosa People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. Ness, Gayl D., and William Stahl. “Western Imperialist Armies in Asia.” Contemporary Studies of Social History 19 (1977): 2–29.
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Newitt, Malyn. “Plunder and the Rewards of Office in the Portuguese Empire.” In The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800, edited by Michael Duffy, 10–28. Exeter Studies in History 1. Exeter, England: University of Exeter, 1980. Newitt, Malyn. “Portuguese Conquistadores in Eastern Africa.” History Today 30 (1980): 19–24. Obichere, Boniface E. “Military Dependence in Historical Perspective: The Case of Nigeria.” The Conch: A Sociological Journal of African Cultures and Literatures 5 (1973): 82–104. British native troops and the long-term consequences.
Omissi, David. “ ‘Martial Races’: Ethnicity and Security in Colonial India, 1858–1939.” War & Society 9 (May 1991): 1–27. Parker, Geoffrey. “Joint Stock and Gunshot: European Conquest and Trade, 1500–1800.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Summer 1992): 8–17. The principal export of preindustrial Europe was violence.
*Perkins, Kenneth J. Qaids, Captains, and Colons: French Military Administration in the Colonial Maghrib, 1844–1934. New York: Africana, 1981. Compares Tunisia and Morocco, French military officers’ evolving administrative role between local populace and settlers.—LV/MS/CVF AHA Guide 18.379.
Petillo, Carol Morris. “Leaders and Followers: A Half-Century of the U.S. Military in the Philippine Islands.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited James C. Bradford, 183–213. Texas A&M Military History Series 50. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Ploeg, Anton. “The Establishment of the Pax Neerlandica in the Bokondini Area.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 161–77. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. Violence and fighting prevailed among the precontact cultures of West Irian.
Porch, Douglas. “French Colonial Forces on the Saharan Rim.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited by James C. Bradford, 163–182. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Porch, Douglas. The French Foreign Legion: A Complete History of the Legendary Fighting Force. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
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Porch, Douglas. “Legends of the Foreign Legion.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Winter 1991): 13–25. Contrasts between fact and legend.
Porch, Douglas. The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution. London: Croom Helm; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1977. Chap. 2, “Colonies and Coups: Portugal’s Colonial Wars,” 28–60.
*Quinn, David B., and A. N. Ryan. England’s Sea Empire, 1550–1642. London: Allen & Unwin, 1983. Best survey available, authoritatively combining political, military, technical, and economic factors.—DMH AHA Guide 23.125.
Razzell, P. E. “Social Origins of Officers in the Indian and British Home Army, 1758–1962.” British Journal of Sociology 14 (1963): 248–60. *Reddy, K. N. “Indian Defence Expenditure: 1872–1967.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 7 (1970): 467–88. Robarchek, Clayton A. “Blood Drunkenness and the Bloodthirsty Semai: Unmasking Another Anthropological Myth.” American Anthropologist 89 (1987): 356–65. The alleged loss of control experienced by Semai conscripts during Malay insurgency operations in the 1950s rests largely on a misinterpreted paragraph in Dentan’s 1968 Semai ethnography, which ideologues have siezed on to demonstrated universal human aggression.
Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Revised edition. Washington: Howard University Press, 1981. See chap. 4, “Europe and the Roots of African Underdevelopment—To 1885,” 93–146, especially “Continuing Politico-Military Development in Africa—1500 to 1885,” 113–35.
Rodrigues, L. A. “The Portuguese Army in India.” Journal of Indian History 57 (1979): 80–89. Saunders, A. C. de C. M. “The Depiction of Trade as War as a Reflection of Portuguese Ideology and Diplomatic Strategy in West Africa, 1441–1556.” Canadian Journal of History 17 (1982): 219–34. An example of Western preoccupation with military concerns.
Saxena, K. M. L. The Military System of India (1850–1900). New Delhi: Sterling, 1974. Scham, Alan. Lyautey in Morocco: Protectorate Administration, 1912–1925. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970.
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Schulten, C. M. “Tactics of the Dutch Colonial Army in the Netherlands East Indies.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 59–68. Senior, Hereward. “Mercenaries in the British Service.” History Today 20 (1970): 504–10. Seymour, William. “The Company That Founded an Empire.” History Today 19 (1969): 642–50. *Shibley, A. H. “The ‘Irregular’ System in the British-Indian Army.” Journal of the Asiatic Society, Bangladesh (Dacca) 20 (1975): 73–81. Smith, Roger C. Vanguard of Empire: Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Spiers, Edward M. The Army and Society, 1815–1914. London and New York: Longman, 1980. The 19th-century British Army, with much attention to its overseas campaigns.
Spiers, Edward M. The Late Victorian Army, 1868–1902. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1992. See especially chaps. 7. “The Army in an Age of Imperialism,” 179–207; 10, “Colonial Campaigning,” 271–304; and 11, “The Second Boer War: The Ultimate Test,” 305–33.
Tan, T. Y. “The Military and the State in Colonial Punjab, 1900– 1939.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Cambridge University, 1992. Thompson, J. Malcolm. “Colonial Policy and the Family Life of Black Troops in French West Africa, 1817–1904.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 23 (1990): 423–53. Marriage and family as inducement to support colonial regime; use of women to support troops in the field.
Ukpabi, Samson C. “Military Recruitment and Social Mobility in Nineteenth Century British West Africa.” Journal of African Studies 2 (1975): 87–107. British use of native troops and its consequences.
Ukpabi, Samson C. “Recruiting for the British Colonial Forces in West Africa in the Nineteenth Century.” Odu: A Journal of West African Studies n.s. no. 10 ( July 1974): 79–97. British use of native troops to eliminate native resistance to British rule.
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Ukpabi, Samson C. “West Indian Troops and the Defence of British West Africa in the Nineteenth Century.” African Studies Review 17 (1974): 133–50. Imperial expansion with native levies.
Vogt, John. Portuguese Rule on the Gold Coast, 1469 –1682. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979. Watson, I. Bruce. “Fortifications and the ‘Idea’ of Force in Early English East India Company Relations with India.” Past & Present, no. 88 (August 1980): 70–87. English sovereignty developed behind defensive walls, later expanding to redress grievances, then to gain hegemony.
Wheeler, Douglas L. “The Portuguese Army in Angola.” Journal of Modern African Studies 7 (1969): 425–39. Wills, John E., Jr. “Review Article: Maritime Asia, 1500–1800: The Interactive Emergence of European Domination.” American Historical Review 98 (1993): 83–105. Including an assessment of European military prowess and statelike organization in the process.
Wilson, Henry S. The Imperial Experience in Sub-Saharan Africa since 1870. Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion, vol. 8. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. See index entries: Armies and warfare; Arms.
OLD WORLD COLONIAL WARS
Studies of European conquest, pacification, intervention, and indigenous resistance, in Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania, mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries. Afigbo, A. E. “Patterns of Igbo Resistance to British Conquest.” Tarikh 4 (1973): 14–23. Including armed resistance.
*Andaya, Leonard Y. The Heritage of Arung Palakka: A History of South Sulawesi (Celebes) in the Seventeenth Century. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 91. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1981. Detailed account of the Dutch conquest of the Makassar sultanate of Gowa, attempting to rehabilitate the reputation of a Sulawesi warlord widely regarded in modern Indonesia as a traitor for collaborating with the invaders.—Essay review by Bullock, separately cited.
Atmore, Anthony. “The Passing of Sotho Independence, 1865–1870.” In African Societies in Southern Africa: Historical Studies, edited by Leonard Thompson, 282–301. Published under the auspices of the African Studies Center, UCLA. New York: Praeger, 1969. Details of the military-political conquest.
Barker, A. J. The Civilizing Mission: A History of the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–1896. New York: Dial Press, 1968. Barthorp, Michael. The Zulu War: A Pictorial History. Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, 1980. Paperback edition, 1984. Beachey, Ray W. The Warrior Mullah: The Horn Aflame, 1892–1920. London: Bellew, 1990. Beal, Clifford. “Omdurman.” Military History Quarterly 6 (Autumn 1993): 34–45. British victory destroyed the Mahdist forces and secured the Sudan for half a century, but the use of artillery and machineguns presaged World War I.
Beede, Benjamin R. Intervention and Counterinsurgency: An Annotated Bibliography of the Small Wars of the United States, 1898–1984. New York and London: Garland, 1985.
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Belich, James. The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1986. Significant reinterpretation of the Maori wars, 1860–1872, with much on the adaptation of Maori tactics and their success, plus a subtle analysis of the racism that underlay persistent misreporting.—Karen P. Sinclair, AHR 93 (1988): 485–86.
Bennett, Norman Robert. Arab versus European: Diplomacy and War in Nineteenth-Century East Central Africa. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1986. Primarily, European conquest of Zanzibar.
Bodin, Lynn E., and Chris Warner. The Boxer Rebellion. Men-at-Arms Series 95. London: Osprey, 1979. Bond, Brian, ed. Victorian Military Campaigns: The Sikh Wars; The Third China War, 1860; the Expedition to Abyssinia, 1867–8; the Ashanti Campaign, 1873–4; the South African War, 1880–1; the Egyptian Campaign, 1882; the Reconquest of the Sudan. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967. Boutilier, James. “Killing the Government: Imperial Policy and the Pacification of Malaita.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 43–87. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. Suppression of traditional warfare in the Solomons.
Brantley, Cynthia. The Giriama and Colonial Resistance in Kenya, 1800–1920. Berkeley: University of California, 1981. Bridgman, Jon M. The Revolt of the Hereros. Perspectives on Southern Africa 30. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. Brown, Paula. “Chimbu Disorder: Tribal Fighting in Newly Independent New Guinea.” Pacific Viewpoint 23 (1982): 1–21. Pacification persisted only until Australia left.
Brown, Paula. “Conflict in the New Guinea Highlands.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 26 (1982): 525–46. Colonial pacification left intact, although altered, the pristine pattern of raid and fight integrating Simbu society.
Bulbeck, F. David. “The Landscape of the Makassar War: A Review Article.” Canberra Anthropology 13 (1990): 78–99. A review article of Andaya’s Heritage of Arung Palakka, cited separately, which offers a succinct military analysis of the climactic battle and adds archaeological information about the military capacity and fortifications of the native defenders.
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Caulk, Richard. “ ‘Black Snake, White Snake’: Bàhta Hagos and His Revolt against Italian Overrule in Eritrea, 1894.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 293–309. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Clammer, David. The Zulu War. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1973. Clayton, Laurence A. The Wars of French Decolonization. Modern Wars in Perspective. London and New York: Longman, 1994. Cooper, Randolf G. S. “Cross-Cultural Conflict Analysis: The ‘Reality’ of British Victory in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, 1803–5.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Cambridge University, 1992. Cornwell, Bernard. “The Tiger of Mysore.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Summer 1997): 8–17. Tippoo Sultan of Mysore, war with the British, and the conquest of Seringapatam in 1799.
*Critchett, Jan. A “Distant Field of Murder”: Western District Frontiers, 1834–1848. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1990. Barry Morton Gough review AHR 97 (1992): 914–15. Aboriginal responses to British rule.
Crummey, Donald. “Banditry and Resistance: Noble and Peasant in Nineteenth-Century Ethiopia.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 133–49. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Davidson, Basil. The People’s Cause: A History of Guerrillas in Africa. Longman Studies in African History. Burnt Mill, Essex: Longman, 1981. Part 1, “The Old Tradition,” 1–54, on traditional warfare and the early anticolonial struggle.
Deac, Wilfred P. “ ‘We Will Fight You Forever.’ ” Military History Quarterly 7 (Autumn 1994): 58–69. The Maori wars, emphasizing Maori fortifications.
Del Boca, Angelo. The Ethiopian War, 1935–1941. Translated by P. D. Cummins. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. *de Moor, J. A., and H. L. Wesseling. Imperialism and War: Essays on Colonial Wars in Africa and Asia. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989. Denoon, Donald. “Participation in the ‘Boer War’: People’s War, People’s Non-War, or Non-People’s War?” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 109–22. London: Frank Cass, 1972.
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Denzer, La Ray. “Sierra Leone—Bai Bureh.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 233–67. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. Des Forges, Alison L. “ ‘The Drum Is Greater Than the Shout’: The 1912 Rebellion in Northern Rwanda.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 311–31. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Douglas, Bronwen. “Conflict and Alliance in a Colonial Context: Case Studies in New Caledonia.” Journal of Pacific History 15 (1980): 21–51. Complex interrelationships between colonial pacification and native warfare.
Edgerton, Robert B. Like Lions They Fought: The Zulu War and the Last Black Empire in South Africa. New York: Free Press, 1988. Experience of combat from both sides.
*Edwards, David B. Heroes of the Age: Moral Fault Lines on the Afghan Frontier. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Great heroes and epic battles of the last century as told by refugees in the camps. Review: American Anthropologist 99 (1997): 441–42.
Ekichi, Felix K. “Traders, Missionaries and the Bombardment of Onitsha [Nigeria], 1879–1880.” Conch 5 (1973): 61–81. *Ellis, Stephen. The Rising of the Red Shawls: A Revolt in Madagascar, 1895–1899. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Social and religious factors in Imerina insurrection against Europeans and local collaborators.—EAE AHA Guide 19.690.
English, Barbara. The War for a Persian Lady. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1971. The Anglo-Persian war of 1856.
Fagan, Brian M. Clash of Cultures. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1984. Indigenous warfare and armed resistance to European conquest by Africans, Americans, and Polynesians, 1488–1900.
Fay, Peter War. The Opium War, 1840–1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early Part of the Nineteenth Century and the War by Which They Forced Her Gates Ajar. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975. Fay, Peter Ward. The Forgotten Army: India’s Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Organization and operations of the Indian National Army, Japan’s ally in World War II.
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Featherstone, Donald. Victorian Colonial Warfare: India, from the Conquest of Sind to the Indian Mutiny. London: Cassell, 1992. Featherstone, Donald. Victorian Colonial Warfare. Africa: From the Campaigns against the Kaffirs to the South African War. London: Cassell, 1992. Ferguson, R. Brian, and Neil L. Whitehead. “The Violent Edge of Empire.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 1–30. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Fernyhough, Timothy. “Social Mobility and Dissident Elites in Northern Ethiopia: The Role of Peasants, 1900–69.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 151–72. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Fika, Adamu Mohammed. The Kano Civil War and British Over-rule, 1882–1940. Ibadan: Oxford University Press, 1978. Fynn, J. K. “Ghana—Asante (Ashanti).” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 19–52. New York: Africana, 1971. Gavin, R. J. “The European Conquest of Africa.” In The Making of Modern Africa, vol. 1, The Nineteenth Century, by A. E. Afigbo, E. A. Ayandele, R. J. Gavin, J. D. Omer-Cooper, and Robin Palmer, 340–63. 2nd edition. London: Longman, 1986. Gavin, R. J. “Middle Africa: Crisis, Revolution and Colonial Conquest in Middle Africa.” In The Making of Modern Africa, vol. 1, The Nineteenth Century, by A. E. Afigbo, E. A. Ayandele, R. J. Gavin, J. D. Omer Cooper, and Robin Palmer, 317–39. 2d edition. London: Longman, 1986. On military technology and state formation in the region across Africa from the Congo and Angola in the west to Uganda and Tanzania in the east.
Gooch, Brison D. “Recent Literature on Queen Victoria’s Little Wars.” Victorian Studies 18 (December 1973): 217–24. Gray, Richard. “Portuguese Musketeers on the Zambezi.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 531–33.
Before the Maxim gun, the invincibility of firearms was a myth; technology alone will not confer military superiority (or perhaps musket not superior to bow?).
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Griess, Thomas E. “A Case Study in Counterinsurgency: Kitchener and the Boers.” In New Dimensions in Military History: An Anthology, edited by Russell F. Weigley, 327–56. San Rafael, California: Presidio Press, 1975. Gump, James O. The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulus and the Sioux. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994. Gwassa, G. C. K. “African Methods of Warfare during the Maji Maji War 1905–1907 [Tanzania].” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 123–48. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Hall, Richard. “Desperate Citadel.” Military History Quarterly 7 (Summer 1994): 72–81. Two centuries of Portuguese power in East Africa ended with the fall of Fort Jesus in Mombasa after a 33-month siege, 11 March 1696–13 Dec. 1698.
Hargreaves, John D. “The French Conquest of Dahomey.” History Today 30 (March 1980): 5–9. Haythornethwaite, Philip J. The Colonial Wars Source Book. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1995. Heathcote, T. A. The Afghan Wars, 1839–1919. London: Osprey, 1980. Hibbert, Christopher. The Great Mutiny: India 1857. New York: Viking Press, 1978. Chap. 2, “Soldiers and Sepoys,” offers on overview of the Indian Army and its discontents.
Holt, Thaddeus. “ ‘You Have Been in Afghanistan, I Perceive.’ ” Military History Quarterly 6 (Winter 1994): 32–37. The battle of Maiwand, 27 July 1880, in the Second Afghan War.
Hoskins, Janet. “The Headhunter as Hero: Local Traditions and Their Reinterpretation in National History.” American Ethnologist 14 (1987): 605–22.
How headhunters became resistance fighters (against Dutch pacification) on Sumba (Indonesia).
Hoskins, Janet. “On Losing and Getting a Head: Warfare, Exchange, and Alliance in a Changing Sumba, 1888–1988.” American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 419–40.
How former values of fierceness, martial prowess, and violent conquest gave way to modern values of rivalrous diplomacy, feasting, and alliance after Dutch pacification in 1920s of the eastern Indonesian society.
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Hurd, Douglas. The Arrow War: An Anglo-Chinese Confusion, 1856–1860. New York: Macmillan, 1967. Huttenback, Robert A. “The ‘Great Game’ in the Pamirs and the Hindu-Kush: The British Conquest of Hunza and Nagar.” Modern Asian Studies 9 (1975): 1–29. Late 19th-century diplomacy and war on India’s northern frontier.
Ikime, Obaro. “Colonial Conquest and African Resistance in the Niger Delta States.” Tarikh 4 (1973): 1–13. Ikime, Obaro. “Nigeria—Ebrohimi.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 205–32. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. Iliffe, John. “The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion.” Journal of African History 8 (1967): 495–512. Reprinted in Perspectives on the African Past, edited by Martin A. Klein and G. Wesley Johnson, 528–46. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1972. Uprising in German Tanganyika, 1905–1907.
*Isaacman, Allen F., and Barbara Isaacman. The Tradition of Resistance on Mozambique: The Zambesi Valley, 1850–1921. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. African resistance to Portuguese colonialism.—WHW AHA Guide 19.765.
Iyob, Ruth. The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. African Studies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Jacobs, Wilbur R. “The Fatal Confrontation: Early Native-White Relations on the Frontiers of Australia, New Guinea, and America— A Comparative Study.” Pacific Historical Review 40 (1971), as reprinted in The American Indian, edited by Norris Hundley, 27–54. Santa Barbara, California, and Oxford: Clio Books, 1974. Warlike proclivities as factor in differential fates.
James, Lawrence. The Savage Wars: British Campaigns in Africa, 1870–1920. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Johnson, Patricia Lyons. “When Dying Is Better Than Living: Suicide among the Gainj of Papua New Guinea.” Ethnology 20 (1981): 325–34. Acculturation (= Australian-imposed ban on warfare) shifts male roles toward capitalism, female toward proletarian.
Kantak, M. R. The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774–1783: A Military Study of the Major Battles. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1993.
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Kanya-Forstner, A. S. The Conquest of the Western Sudan: A Study in French Military Imperialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969. Mainly narrative, but see chap. 1, “Introduction: The Colonial Army and the Western Sudan,” 1–21.
Kanya-Forstner, A. Sidney. “Mali—Tukulor.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 53–79. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. *Katjavivi, Peter. A History of Resistance in Namibia. 1988 edition. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World, 1990. Black resistance to German and Boer colonialism in South West Africa.—WHW AHA Guide 19.770.
Kawani, Teruaki. “Allied Military Cooperation in the Boxer Rebellion and Japan’s Policy.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 97–106. Kea, Ray A. “ ‘I Am Here to Plunder on the General Road’: Bandits and Banditry in the Pre-Nineteenth-Century Gold Coast.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 109 –32. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Khurana, Gianeshwar. British Historiography on the Sikh Power in Punjab. New Delhi: Allied, 1985. Kimambo, Isaria N. “Mbiru: Popular Protest in Colonial Tanzania 1944–1947.” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 237–57. London: Frank Cass, 1972. *Kimba, Idrissa. Guerres et servitude: les populations du Niger occidental au dix-neuvième siècle et leurs réactions face à la colonisation (1896–1906). Niamey, Niger: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines, 1981. Studies of reactions of societies of southwestern Niger to European pressure and French conquest at turn of century.—DWR AHA Guide 19.221.
Kiste, Robert C. “The People of Enewetak Atoll vs. the U.S. Department of Defense.” In Ethics and Anthropology: Dilemmas in Fieldwork, edited by Michael A. Rynkiewich and James P. Spradley, 61–80. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976. Knight, Ian, and Gerry Embleton. Boer Wars (1), 1836–1898. Menat-Arms Series 301. London: Osprey, 1996. Knight, Ian, and Gerry Embleton. Boer Wars (2), 1898–1902. Menat-Arms Series 303. London: Osprey, 1997.
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*Lamphear, John. The Scattering Time: Turkana Responses to Colonial Rule. Oxford Studies in African Affairs. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1992. Finely crafted narrative of conflicts and wars of conquest fought 1900–1920 by British and Turkana pastoralists of northwest Kenya, notable for substantial information on Turkana side and analysis of military action.—reviewed by Edward I. Steinhart, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1655–56.
Lebra-Chapman, Joyce. The Rani of Jhansi: A Study in Female Heroism in India. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. Separating history from legend in the biography of an Indian heroine in the 1857 Mutiny.
McAleavy, Henry. Black Flags in Vietnam: The Story of a Chinese Intervention. New York: Macmillan, 1968. On the Tonkin War of 1884–1885.
McBride, Angus. The Zulu War. Men-at-Arms Series 57. London: Osprey, 1976. McKnight, David. “Fighting in an Austrialian Aboriginal Supercamp.” In The Anthropology of Violence, edited by David Riches, 136–63. London: Basil Blackwell, 1986. In part reflects a relic of former intertribal fighting (143, 145–47), hedged with rules and rituals; the methods survive, as do some of the restraints.
McLynn, Frank. Hearts of Darkness: The European Exploration of Africa. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1992. See especially chapters 8, “Guns and Ivory,” 172–88; 9, “Slavery and the Slave Trade,” 189–212; 11, “The Impact of Disease,” 227–52; and 12, “Armed Clashes,” 253–74.
Marks, Shiela. “Class, Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 351–72. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Marks, Shiela. Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906–08 Disturbances in Natal. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. Bambatha rebellion, last Zulu revolt against British rule.—WHW AHA Guide 19.778.
Marshall, Mac. Weekend Warriors: Alcohol in a Micronesian Culture. Explorations in World Ethnology. Palo Alto, California: Mayfield, 1979. Chap. 7, “Running Amok in Truk,” 117–23, considers alcoholic behavior in relation to former patterns of fighting and warfare.
Mockler, Anthony. Haile Selassie’s War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1941. New York: Random House, 1984.
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Muffett, D. J. M. “Nigeria—Sokoto Caliphate.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 268–99. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. Myint, Daw Ni Ni. Burma’s Struggle against British Imperialism, 1888–1895. Historical Research Series 2. Rangoon: Universities Press, 1983. Newbury, Colin. “Resistance and Collaboration in French Polynesia: The Tahitian War, 1844–7.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 82 (March 1973): 5–27. *Newton-King, Susan. “The Enemy Within: The Struggle for Ascendancy on the Cape Eastern Frontier, ca. 1760–1800.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of London, 1992. *Newton-King, Susan. The Khoikhoi Rebellion in the Eastern Cape (1799– 1803). Communications of the Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town, 5. Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1981. Final phase of Khoisan military resistance to European colonists.—RHE AHA Guide 19.655.
Nguyen, Thanh Thi. “The French Conquest of Indochina, 1858–1902.” Ph.D. dissertation, Political Science, Cornell University, 1992. Nicolle, David, and Raffaele Ruggeri. The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–36. Men-at-Arms Series 309. London: Osprey, 1997. Obichere, Boniface I. West African States and European Expansion: The Dahomey-Niger Hinterland, 1885–1898. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1971. O’Connor, Richard. The Spirit Soldiers: A Historical Narrative of the Boxer Rebellion. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1973. Ogot, Bethwell A., and William R. Ochieng’. “Mumboism—An AntiColonial Movement [Kenya].” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 149–77. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Ohadike, Don C. The Ekumeku Movement: Western Igbo Resistance to the British Conquest of Nigeria, 1883–1914. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1991. Oloruntimehin, B. Olatunji. “Senegambia—Mahmadou Lamine.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 80–110. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971.
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*Omvedt, Gail. “Women and Rural Revolt in India.” Journal of Peasant Studies 5 (1978): 370–403. Padfield, Peter. Tide of Empires: Decisive Naval Compaigns in the Rise of the West. 2 vols. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979–1982. Palmer, Robin H. “War and Land in Rhodesia.” Transafrican Journal of History 1 ( July 1971): 43–62. The Matabele War (1893) and Shona and Ndebele risings (1896–1897) affected land policies in Rhodesia.
Palmer, Robin H. “War and Land in Rhodesia in the 1890s.” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 85–107. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Pélissier, René. “Campagnes militaires au Sud-Angola (1885–1915).” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 33 no. 9 (1969): 54–123. The Portuguese conquest of Angola.
*Pélissier, René. Naissance du Mozambique: Résistance et révoltes anticoloniales (1854–1918). 2 vols. Orgeval, France: Pélissier, 1984. Military history of the Portuguese conquest.
Pemble, John. The Invasion of Nepal: John Company at War. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Chap. 1, “The Gurkhas,” 1–29, traces the rise of the Gurkha empire and describes its army on the eve of Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16; chap. 4, “The Bengal Army,” 90–124, reviews the force’s history and discusses its organization and use of native troops.
Pemble, John. “Resources and Techniques in the Second Maratha War.” The Historical Journal 19 (1976): 375–404. Maratha military organization and doctrine at the beginning of the 19th century, focusing on the effective adoption of Western military technology.
Person, Yves. “Guinea—Samori.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 111–43. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. Pitre, K. G. The Second Anglo-Maratha War, 1802–1805 (A Study in Military History). Poona: Dastane Ramchandra, 1990. Plumb, J. H. “The Opium War.” Horizon 16 (Autumn 1974): 80–95. Podolefsky, Aaron. “Contemporary Warfare in the New Guinea Highlands.” Ethnology 23 no. 2 (1984): 73–87. Why war remerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a culture materialist analysis: Introduction of steel axes and salt reduced need for intertribal trade, thus for intertribal marriage; in the long run that meant weakened intertribal links and a greater likelihood that dispute might become war.
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Pollak, Oliver B. “The Origins of the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852–53).” Modern Asian Studies 12 (1978): 483–502. Porch, Douglas. “Imperial Wars: From the Seven Years War to the First World War.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War, edited by Charles Townshend, 81–99. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Ranger, Terence. “Bandits and Guerrillas: The Case of Zimbabwe.” In Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa, edited by Donald Crummery, 373–96. London: James Currey; Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1986. Ricklefs, M. C. War, Culture and Economy in Java, 1677–1726: Asian and European Imperialism in the Early Kartasura Period. Asian Studies Association of Australia Southeast Asia Publications Series 24. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1993. Rodman, Margaret. “Following Peace: Indigenous Pacification and Northern New Hebridean Society.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 141–60. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. On the cycle of warfare before pacification, 141–50.
Rodney, Walter. “European Activity and African Reaction in Angola.” In Aspects of Central African History, edited by Terence O. Ranger, 49–70. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1968. Sources of slave raiding (56–57).
Rohwer, Jürgen. “International Naval Cooperation during the ‘Boxer’ Rebellion in China 1900/01.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 79–96. Ross, David. “Dahomey.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 144–69. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. Ross, Robert. “The !Kora Wars on the Orange River, 1830–1880.” Journal of African History 16 (1976): 561–76. Predatory raiding as transient response to civilized pressure.
Rystad, Göran. “The Philippine Struggle for Independence and Its Effects on American Expansionism at the Turn of the Century.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 107–130.
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Sansom, Basil. “Sex, Age and Social Control in Mobs of the Darwin Hinterland.” In Sex and Age as Principles of Social Differentiation, edited by Jean S. La Fontaine, 89–108. Association of Social Anthropologists Monograph 17. London: Academic Press, 1978. Adaptations of aboriginal warfare to urban environments.
Schofield, Victoria. Every Rock, Every Hill: The Plain Tale of the NorthWest Frontier and Afghanistan. London: Buchan & Enright, 1984. Selby, John. The Paper Dragon: An Account of the China Wars, 1840–1900. London: Arthur Barber, 1968. Shieffelin, Edward L. “Asaro Valley Pilgrimage.” Natural History 95 ( June 1986): 24, 26–27. Essay review of Read, Return to the High Valley, stressing the easy abandonment of the warrior role and its associated definition of masculinity in terms of ferocity, toughness, arrogance, etc.
Singh, Shailendra Dhari. Novels on the Indian Mutiny. New Delhi: ArnoldHeinemann India, 1973. Smith, Robert S. “Nigeria—Ijebu.” In West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, edited by Michael Crowder, 170–204. New York: Africana (Holmes & Meier), 1971. Stokes, Eric. The Peasant Armed: The Indian Rebellion of 1857. Edited by C. A. Bayly. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986. See especially chap. 2, “The Military Dimension: The Sepoy Rebels,” 49–99.
*Strathern, Andrew. “Contemporary Warfare in the New Guinea Highlands—Revival or Breakdown.” Yagl-Ambu 4/3 (1977): 135–46. Strathern, Andrew. “Tribesmen or Peasants?” In Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies, edited by Andrew Strathern, 137–57. Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology 11. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Population buildup and land shortage revived traditional warfare in the 1970s (141–43).
Sturtevant, David R. Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840–1940. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1976. Sundaram, Chandar S. “A Paper Tiger: The Indian National Army in Battle, 1944–1945.” War & Society 13 (May 1995): 35–59. Swan, Jon. “The Final Solution in Southwest Africa.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Summer 1991): 36–55. The revolt of the Hereros and its suppression at the turn of the century.
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Tate, D. J. M. The Making of Modern South-East Asia, vol. 1, The European Conquest. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Temu, A. J. “The Giriama War 1914–1915 [Kenya].” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 215–36. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Tulenko, Thomas. “Two Invasions of Afghanistan.” History Today 40 (1980): 7–12. Ukpabi, Samson C. “British Military Expeditions in West Africa Reexamined.” Pan-African Journal 8 (1975): 31–43. Traditional view of 19th-century expeditions as intended to suppress native disorder is false—actually stirred up trouble to provide pretext for expansion.
Ukpabi, S. C. “West Africa and Europe in Military Confrontation.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 6 (1971): 101–106. Review article on military resistance to European conquest.
Uzoigwe, G. N. “The Kyanyangire, 1907: Passive Revolt against British Overrule [Uganda].” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 179–214. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Vilhanov a-Pawlikav’a, Viera. “The War of Independence, 1897–1899: The Culmination of Anti-Colonial Activities in the Kingdoms of Buganda and Bunyoro.” Asian and African Studies (Bratislava) No. 20 (1984): 143–76. Waller, John H. Beyond the Khyber Pass: The Road to British Disaster in the First Afghan War. New York: Random House, 1990. Ward, Andrew. “Stalking the Nana Sahib.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Winter 1989): 38–45. The Cawnpore massacre and the Indian mutiny.
Warner, Philip. Dervish: The Rise and Fall of an African Empire. New York: Taplinger, 1975. *Warwick, Peter. Black People and the South African War, 1899–1902. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Black participation was substantial.—WHW AHA Guide 19.819.
Weiskel, Timothy C. “Changing Perspectives on African Resistance Movements and the Case of the Baule Peoples.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 545–61. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Guerrilla war in an acephalous society.
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*Whitehouse, Howard. Battle in Africa, 1879 –1914. Fieldhead: Fieldbooks, 1987. Wong, J. Y. “The Arrow Incident: A Reappraisal.” Modern Asian Studies 8 (1974): 373–89. Wright, John B. Bushman Raiders of the Drakensberg, 1840–1870: A Study of Their Conflict with Stock-keeping Peoples in Natal. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1971. Young, John. They Fell Like Stones: Battles and Casualties of the Zulu War, 1879. London: Greenhill Books; Novato, California: Presidio Press, 1991.
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Studies of the movement of military technologies and techniques across regional or continental boundaries, from the fall of ancient empires to the present, emphasizing modernization, westernization, and other topics related to the transfer of Western military technology to the nonwestern world. Technology transfer between the Old World and the New World are treated separately. Adas, Michael. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell University Press, 1989. Ágoston, Gábor. “Ottoman Artillery and European Military Technology in the Fifteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung. 47 (1994): 15–48. Ambirajan, S. “Science and Technology Education in South India.” In Technology and the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India, 1700 –1947, edited by Roy MacLeod and Deepak Kumar, 112–33. New Delhi: Sage, 1995. Including discussion of military origins of engineering education.
Atmore, Anthony, J. M. Chirenje, and S. I. Mudenge. “Firearms in South Central Africa.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 545–56. Differential impact of new technologies on societies of varying complexity.
Atmore, Anthony, and Peter Sanders. “Sotho Arms and Ammunition in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 535–44. On the adoption and spread of new military technology, a slow process of sometimes modest impact.
Austen, Ralph A., and Daniel Hendrick. “The Role of Technology in the African Past.” African Studies Review 26 (September-December 1983): 163–84. Remarks on technological conservatism vs. political and military innovation (174), reinforced by imported horses and firearms (176–77).
Bennett, Adrian Arthur. John Fryer: The Introduction of Western Science and Technology into Nineteenth-Century China. Harvard East Asian
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Monographs 24. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, East Asian Research Center, 1967. From 1868 to 1896, Fryer translated scientific and technical material at the government arsenal in Shanghai.
Berg, Gerald M. “The Sacred Musket: Tactics, Technology, and Power in Eighteenth-Century Madagascar.” Comparative Studies of Society and History 27 (1985): 261–79. Black, Cyril, and L. Carl Brown. Modernization in the Middle East. Princeton, New Jersey: Darwin Press, 1992. Extensive index entries under military.
Bradley, Joseph. Guns for the Tsar: American Technology and the SmallArms Industry in Nineteenth-Century Russia. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1990. Broadbridge, Seymour. “Shipbuilding and the State in Japan since the 1850s.” Modern Asian Studies 11 (1977): 601–13. State intervention at cricial points profoundly and positively affected the shipbuilding sector; initial Bakufu and domain adoption of Western technology purely military, little commercial shipbuilding until 1896 (601–605).
Brown, Shannon R., and Tim Wright. “Technology, Economics, and Politics in the Modernization of China’s Coal-mining Industry, 1850– 1895.” Explorations in Economic History 18 (1981): 60–83. Noting links to arsenals and shipping, usual failure of attempts to adapt traditional Chinese techniques to management of industrial enterprise.
Cahen, Claude. “Les changements techniques militaires dans le Proche orient médiévale et leur importance historique.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 113–24. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Caulk, R. A. “Firearms and Princely Power in Ethiopia in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of African History 13 (1972): 609–30. Technological change and state formation.
Chan, Anthony B. Arming the Chinese: The Western Armaments Trade in Warlord China, 1920–1928. University of British Columbia Press Asian Studies Monographs, vol. 4. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982. Chen, Yalan. “The Effect of the Autocratic Monarchy of the Qing Dynasty on Science and Technology.” In Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Fan Dainian and
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Robert S. Cohen, 315–26. Translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996. After making and using Western-style guns to consolidate power, Qing rulers largely abandoned further development of modern arms and suppressed their use (321–22, 324–25).
Clark, Edward C. “The Ottoman Industrial Revolution.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 5 (1974): 65–76. Cook, Weston E., Jr. The Hundred Years War for Morocco: Gunpowder and the Military Revolution in the Early Modern Muslim World. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1994. Institutional and organizational changes required to adapt the new gunpowder technology revolutionized 16th-century Moroccan society and helped sustain its independence against European and Ottoman conquerors for a century.
Cook, Weston F., Jr. “Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400–1492.” War & Society 11 (October 1993): 24–40. Dernberger, Robert E. “The Transfer of Technology to China.” Asia Quarterly 3 (1974): 229–52. *Deschamps, Paul. Les châteaux des croisés en Terre-Sainte. 3 vols. Paris: Geuthner, 1934–1977. Standard work on Crusader castles, now dated.—JSCRS AHA Guide 20.839.
*Duncanson, Dennis J. “Modernization under the Manchus: Some Recent Harvard Studies.” Asian Affairs ( June 1972). Elena, Alberto. “Models of European Scientific Expansion: The Ottoman Empire as a Source of Evidence.” In Science and Empires: Historical Studies about Scientific Development and European Expansion, edited by Patrick Pettijean, Catherine Jami, and Anne Marie Moulin, 259–267. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 136. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1992. Military technology and industry as major motives for Ottoman interest.
Fisher, Humphrey J. “The Eastern Maghrib and the Central Sudan.” In Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 3, From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 232–330. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. See especially “Iron, Horses and Guns,” 305–12.
Fisher, Humphrey J., and Virginia Rowland. “Firearms in the Central Sudan.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 215–39.
How and why firearms had only modest effects on precolonial military and political institutions.
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Gao, Pingshu. “Cai Yuanpei’s Contribution to China’s Science.” In Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Fan Dainian and Robert S. Cohen, 395–417. Translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996. Western science pursued as a means to promote military strength.
Gemery, H. A., and J. S. Hogendorn. “Technological Change, Slavery and the Slave Trade.” In The Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History of Africa and India, edited by Clive J. Dewey and A. G. Hopkins, 243–58. Commonwealth Papers 21. London: Athlone Press, for the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1978. On the impact of firearms, see “Technical Change in Slave Gathering,” 246–54.
Guilmartin, John Francis, Jr. Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974. Guy, J. J. “A Note on Firearms in the Zulu Kingdom with Special Reference to the Anglo-Zulu War, 1879.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 557–70. Adopting new technology may leave traditional methods largely unchanged.
Hacker, Barton C. “The Weapons of the West: Military Technology and Modernization in 19th-Century China and Japan.” Technology and Culture 18 (1977): 43–55. Hill, Donald R. “The Role of the Camel and the Horse in the Early Arab Conquests.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 32–43. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Hill, Donald R. “Trebuchets.” Viator 4 (1973): 99–114. Howe, K. R. “Firearms and Indigenous Warfare: A Case Study.” Journal of Pacific History 9 (1974): 21–38.
European firearms had small effects in the 19th-century Loyalty Islands because war did not demand killing.
Hyland, Ann. The Medieval Warhorse: From Byzantium to the Crusades. Stroud, England: Sutton, 1994. Paperback edition, 1996. Ihsanoglu, Ekmedleddin. “Ottomans and European Science.” In Science and Empires: Historical Studies about Scientific Development and European
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Expansion, edited by Patrick Pettijean, Catherine Jami, and Anne Marie Moulin, 37–48. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 136. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1992. See “War Technology,” 39, on 15th–16th century developments, and “Educational Institutions,” 43–44, on establishment of the Imperial Military School in 1834.
Inalcik, Halil. “The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of FireArms in the Middle East.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 195–217. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Inikori, J. E. “The Import of Firearms into West Africa, 1750–1807: A Quantitative Analysis.” Journal of African History 18 (1977): 339–68. The uses of firearms in slave raiding and state building (349–52).
Isichei, Elizabeth. “Ndikelionwu and ‘Ada’ Warfare: An Awka Perspective.” In Igbo Worlds: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Descriptions, edited by Elizabeth Isichei, 106–107. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978. Traditions of the impact of firearms.
Jankovich, Miklós. They Rode into Europe: The Fruitful Exchange in the Arts of Horsemanship between East and West. Translated by Anthony Dent from Pferde, Reiter, Völkerstürme (Munich: BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, 1968). London: Harrap; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971. Jansen, Marius B. “Rangaku and Westernization.” Modern Asian Studies 18 (1984): 541–53. Medicine and military technology as the cental interests of Japanese in Western learning under the Tokugawa Bakufu.
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. “The Age of Transition: The Mid-Eighteenth to the Early Nineteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, volume 1, From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 572–619. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Among other factors, “the importation of Western arms launched mainland Southeast Asia into the most spectacular and expansive era of indigenous statehood and centralization.” (573) Armed force was central to state-building.
Kea, Ray A. “Firearms and Warfare on the Gold and Slave Coasts from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 185–213. Reprinted in Technology and European Overseas Enterprise: Diffusion, Adaption, and Adoption, edited by Michael Adas, 89–106. An Expanding World: The European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, vol. 7. Aldershot, England: Variorum, 1996. Mainly on trade, but see section 3, “Firearms and Warfare,” 207–13.
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Kennedy, Thomas L. “Chang Chih-tung and the Struggle for Strategic Industrialization: The Establishment of the Hanyang Arsenal, 1884– 1895.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 33 (1973): 154–82. Kennedy, Thomas L. “The Establishment and Development of the Kiangnan Arsenal, 1860 to 1895.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1968. Dissertation Abstracts 30 (August 1969), 640–A.
On the founding and early operations of the first and largest machine industry in 19th-century China, intended to set an example of modernization for the nonmilitary sector but a victim of Chinese institutional barriers.
*Kennedy, Thomas L. “Industrial Metamorphosis in the Self-strengthening Movement: Li Hung-chang and the Kiangnan Shipbuilding Program.” Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong (September 1971). *Kennedy, Thomas L. “The Kiangnan Arsenal in the Era of Reform, 1895–1911.” Chung-yang yen-chiu yüan Chin-tai shih yen-chiu so chi-k’an ( July 1972). Kennedy, Thomas L. “Li Hung-chang and the Kiangnan Arsenal, 1860–1895.” In Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, edited by Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, 197–214. East Gate Book. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Kennedy, Thomas L. “Mausers and the Opium Trade: The Jupeh Arsenal, 1895–1911.” In Perspectives on a Changing China: Essays in Honor of Professor C. Martin Wilbur on the Occasion of His Retirement, edited by Joshua A. Fogel and William T. Rowe, 113–35. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press; Folkestone, England: Dawson, 1979. *Kennedy, Thomas L. “Some Development Concepts Associated with Early Employment of Steam Machinery in China.” Journal of the China Society (Taipei) 8 (1971). Khan, Iqtidar Alam. “The Role of the Mongols in the Introduction of Gunpowder and Firearms in South Asia.” In Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology, edited by Brenda J. Buchanan, 33–44. Bath, England: Bath University Press, 1996. Kiefer, Thomas M. “Guns of the Tau Sug.” Natural History 83 ( JuneJuly 1974): 45–51.
Consequences for a Philippine society of a massive influx of firearms since World War II.
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Kiefer, Thomas M. “Power, Politics, and Guns in Jolo: The Influence of Modern Weapons on Tao-Sug Legal and Economic Institutions.” Philippine Sociological Review 15 (1967): 21–29. Trends toward fragmented politics, relaxed ethics, greater economic activity, and higher homicide rates.
Kim, K. H. Japanese Perspectives on China’s Early Modernization: The Selfstrengthening Movement, 1860 –1895. A Bibliographical Survey. Michigan Abstracts 4. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1974. Kipp, Jacob W. “The Russian Navy and the Problem of Technological Transfer: Technological Backwardness and Military-Industrial Development, 1853–1876.” In Russia’s Great Reforms, 1855–1881, edited by Ben Eklof, John Bushnell, and Larissa Zakharova, 115–38. IndianaMichigan Series in Russian and East European Studies. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Kuo, Ting-yee, and Kwang-ching Liu. “Self-stregthening: The Pursuit of Western Technology.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, Part 1, edited by John K. Fairbank, 491–542. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Langensiepen, Bernd, and Ahmet Güleryüz. The Ottoman Steam Navy, 1828–1923. Edited and translated by James Cooper. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1995. Leibo, Steven A. Transferring Technology to China: Prosper Griquel and the Self-strengthening Movement. China Research Monograph 28. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asian Studies, 1985. A Frenchman’s role in creating an army against the Taipings, then in creating and directing the Fughon dockyard.
Lewis, Bernard. The Muslim Discovery of Europe. New York: W. W. Norton, 1982. Chap. 9, “Science and Technology,” 221–38, stresses the special interest in military and naval technology, no other Western accomplishment being much superior to Muslim (223–27); and establishment of military schools in 18th century as chief means of trying to regain engineering, technical, and scientific parity with the West (234–38). On military education, see also chap. 3, “On Language and Translation,” 71–88, at 85–88.
Liu, Kwang-ching. “The Confucian as Patriot and Pragmatist: Li Hung-chang’s Formative Years (1823–1866).” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 30 (1970): 5–45. Reprinted in Li Hung-chang and China’s Early
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Modernization, edited by Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, 17–48. East Gate Book. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Liu, Kwang-ching. “Li Hung-chang in Chihli: The Emergence of a Policy, 1870–1875.” In Approaches to Modern Chinese History, edited by Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright, 68–104. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. Reprinted in Li Hungchang and China’s Early Modernization, edited by Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, 49–75. East Gate Book. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Liu, Kwang-ching. “Politics, Intellectural Outlook, and Reform: The T’ung-wen Kuan Controversy of 1867.” In Reform in Nineteenth-Century China, edited by Paul A. Cohen and John E. Schrecker, 87–110. Harvard East Asian Monographs 72. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, East Asian Research Center, 1976. Military modernization and western technology, 104–107.
Liu, Kwang-ching. “Self-strengthening and Reform.” Paper presented at the American Historical Association annual meeting, New York 1968. Lovejoy, Paul E. “The Impact of the Slave Trade on Africa.” Trends in History 3 (1982): 19–36. On military technological change and political forms, see “Political Impact on Africa,” 26–30.
*McGarity, J. M. “Foreign Influence on the Ottoman Turkish Army, 1800–1918.” Ph.D. dissertation, American University, 1968. Marks, Shula, and Anthony Atmore. “Firearms in Southern Africa: A Survey.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 317–30. Differential responses to Western military technology in groups of varying complexity.
Merid Wolde Aregay. “A Reappraisal of the Impact of Firearms in the History of Warfare in Ethiopia (c. 1500–1800).” Journal of Ethiopian Studies 14 (1976–1979): 98–122. Firearms appeared in northeast Africa early but for three centuries remained ancillary, an ornament of warfare rather than a significant factor; that changed only with introduction of percussion-cap weapons in the 1850s.
Miers, Sue. “Notes on the Arms Trade and Government Policy in Southern Africa between 1870 and 1890.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 571–77. Mitchell, William E. “A New Weapon Stirs up Old Ghosts.” Natural History 82 (December 1973): 74–84. Introduction of shotguns after World War II to the Wape of New Guinea and the elaboration of ritual to cope with the change.
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Murphey, Rhoads. “The Ottoman Attitude towards the Adoption of Western Technology: The Role of the Efrencî Technicians in Civil and Military Applications.” In “Contributions à l’histoire économique et sociale de l’Empire Ottoman,” edited by Jean-Louis Bacqué and Paul Dumont, 287–98. Collection Turcica 3 (1983): 1–503. Needham, Joseph. The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969. Oberling, Pierre. “The State as Promoter of Technology Transfer: The Early Years of Ottoman Aviation.” In “Turks, Hungarians and Kipchaks: A Festschrift in Honor of Tibor Halasi-Kun,” edited by Pierre Oberling, 209–14. Journal of Turkish Studies 8 (1984): 1–303. Özbaran, Silah. “The Ottomans’ Role in the Diffusion of Firearms and Military Technology in Asia and Africa in the Sixteenth Century.” Translated by Seçil Akgün. Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 77–84. *Pankhurst, Richard. “The Advent of Fire-Arms in Ethiopian Ecclesiastical Manuscripts.” Ethiopia Observer 15 (1972): 51–62. *Pankhurst, Richard. “The History of Fire-Arms in Ethiopia Prior to the Nineteenth Century.” Ethiopia Observer 11 (1968): 202–25. *Pankhurst, Richard. “An Inquiry into the Penetration of Fire-Arms into Southern Ethiopia in the 19th Century Prior to the Reign of Menilek.” Ethiopia Observer 12 ( ): 128–36. Pankhurst, Richard. “Linguistic and Cultural Data on the Penetration of Fire-Arms into Ethiopia.” Journal of Ethiopian Studies 9 (1971): 47–82.
What language suggests about firearms in Ethiopia, 15th–19th centuries.
*Pankhurst, Richard. The Penetration and Implications of Fire-Arms in Ethiopia Prior to the Nineteenth Century. Addis Ababa: Haile Sellassie I University, 1968. *Pankhurst, Richard. “The Rôle of Fire-Arms in Ethiopian Culture (16th. to 20th. Centuries).” Journal des Africanistes 48 no. 2 (1971): 131–44. Parker, Geoffrey. “Taking up the Gun.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Summer 1989): 88–101. How the states of East Asia resisted European dominion until the 19th century by selectively adopting Western military technology. (Adapted from Parker, The Military Revolution [1988]).
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Petrovi‘, Djudjica. “Fire-Arms in the Balkans on the Eve of and after the Ottoman Conquests of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 164–94. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Pong, David. “Confucian Patriotism and the Destruction of the Woosung Railway, 1877.” Modern Asian Studies 7 (1973): 647–76. Pong, David. “Keeping the Foochow Navy Yard Afloat: Government Finance and China’s Early Modern Defence Industry, 1866–75.” Modern Asian Studies 21 (1987): 121–52. Pong, David. “Li Hung-chang and Shen Pao-chen: The Politics of Modernization.” In Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, edited by Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, 79–107. East Gate Book. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Pong, David. Shen Pao-chen and China’s Modernization in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Pong, David. “Western Technicians and Technical Aid in China’s Early Developmental Experience: The Foochow Navy Yard, 1886– 1875.” Papers on Far Eastern History 20 (Sept. 1979): 83–104. French assistance.
*Qaisar, Ahsan Jan. The Indian Response to European Technology (A.D. 1498–1707). New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Mark Naidis review AHR 91 (1986): 1255–56. Including military technology and fortress building.
*Quataert, Donald. Ottoman Manufacturing in the Age of the Industrial Revolution. Cambridge Middle East Library 30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Richards, W. A. “The Import of Firearms into West Africa in the Eighteenth Century.” Journal of African History 21 (1980): 43–59. Roberts, Andrew D. “Firearms in North-Eastern Zambia before 1900.” Transafrican Journal of History 1 ( July 1971): 3–21. Firearms insignificant until last third of 19th century, and the spread of iron weapons (spears) around mid-century had a greater military and political impact; new weapons, spears or guns, became change agents in the hands of self-made men, hereditary rulers being less interested in novelty.
*Roberts, Stephen. “Imperial Chinese Steam Navy.” Warship International 11 no. 1 (1974).
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Sherby, Oleg D., and Jeffrey Wadworth. “Damascus Steels.” Scientific American 252 (February 1985): 112–15, 118, 120. Shineberg, Dorothy. “Guns and Men in Melanesia.” Journal of Pacific History 6 (1971): 61–82. Developing firearms and the changing forms of European combat against native peoples.
Smaldone, Joseph P. “Firearms in the Central Sudan: A Revaluation.” Journal of African History 13 (1972): 591–607. Incipient transformation of Sudanese states from feudal to bureaucratic stimulated by military transformation.
Smith, Richard J. “Foreign-training and China’s Self-strengthening: The Case of Feng-huang-shan, 1864–1873.” Modern Asian Studies 10 (1976): 195–223. Smith, Richard J. “Li Hung-chang’s Use of Foreign Military Talent: The Formative Period, 1862–1874.” In Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, edited by Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, 119–42. East Gate Book. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Sörbom, Per. “The Reception of Western Technology in China and Japan.” In Technological Development in China, India and Japan: CrossCultural Perspectives, edited by Erik Baark and Andrew Jamison, 35–56. London: Macmillan, 1986. Although the reception differed, both countries sought Western military technology.
Sturton, I. A. “Re: The Imperial Chinese Steam Navy, 1862–1895 (W.I. 1974, No. 1).” Warships International no. 1 (1975): 5–10. Sugimoto, Masayoshi, and David L. Swain. Science and Culture in Traditional Japan. Rutland, Vermont, and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1989. On military technology among “Techniques Strategic to Modernizing Processes,” 168–86, see especially “Firearms and Cannon,” 170–74; see also index entries for military.
Swanson, Glen W. “War, Technology, and Society in the Ottoman Empire from the Reign of Abdülhamid II to 1913: Mahmud }evket and the German Military Mission.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 367–385. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Tenkorang, S. “The Importance of Firearms in the Struggle between Ashanti and the Coastal States, 1708–1807.” Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 9 (1968): 1–16. Gaining access to European weapons as major motive for war.
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Urlich, D. U. “The Introduction and Diffusion of Firearms in New Zealand, 1800–1840.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 79 (1970): 399–410. How Maori society accepted firearms.
Vayda, Andrew P. “Maoris and Muskets in New Zealand: Disruption of a War System.” Political Science Quarterly 85 (1970): 560–84. How new military technology destroyed the balanced system maintained by older forms of warfare.
Waley-Cohen, Joanne. “China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century.” American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1525–44. Apparent Chinese imperial disdain for Western science and technology reflected domestic politics and concern for autonomy in foreign relations, a pose belied by great Chinese interest in Western military technology.
Wang, Chia-chien. “Li Hung-chang and the Peiyang Navy.” In Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, edited by Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-ching Liu, 248–62. East Gate Book. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Wang, Yusheng. “Li Shanlan: Forerunner of Modern Science in China.” In Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Fan Dainian and Robert S. Cohen, 345–68. Translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996. Advocate of revitalizing science and technology to improve manufacturing as a means of matching Western ships and guns.
Wang, Yusheng. “Hua Hengfang: Forerunner and Disseminator of Modern Science in China.” In Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Fan Dainian and Robert S. Cohen, 369 –93. Translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996. Worked at the Anqing and Jiangnan Arsenals and translated a number of works he believed would contribute to improving China’s military capacity.
White, Gavin. “Firearms in Africa: An Introduction.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 173–84.
Stressing limited impact of firearms on native forms of war; introducing three commissioned papers, by Kea, Fisher and Rowland, and Echenberg.
White, Lynn, jr. “The Crusades and the Technological Thrust of the West.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 97–112. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
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Zelenietz, Martin, and David Kravitz. “Absorption, Trade and Warfare: Beachcombers on Ponape, 1830–1854.” Ethnohistory 21 (1974): 223–49.
The nature of precontact warfare explains why the introduction of firearms had little impact.
¥ygulski, Z. “Oriental and Levantine Firearms.” In Pollard’s History of Firearms, edited by Claude Blair, 425–62. New York: Macmillan, 1983.
DISEASE AND CONQUEST
Studies of the spread of Eurasian diseases, population collapse in the Americas and the Pacific, and the role of disease in European conquests since the 16th century. *Alchon, Suzanne Austin. Native Society and Disease in Colonial Ecuador. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. From preconquest to 18th century.—MAB AHA Guide 37.201.
Baker, Brenda J., and Lisa Kealhofer. “Assessing the Impact of European Contact on Aboriginal Populations.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 1–14. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. Berdan, Frances Frei. “Trauma and Transition in Sixteenth Century Central Mexico.” In The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650, edited by Warwick Bray, 163–95. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1993. Disparities between native Mexicans and Spanish invaders in military technology and culture contributed to the Spanish conquest, but disease may have been more decisive (177–80).
Blakely, Robert, and Bettina Detweiler-Blakely. “The Impact of European Diseases in the Sixteenth-Century Southeast: A Case Study.” Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 14 (1989): 62–89. Evidence from King site, a 16th-century Georgia village in the Coosa chiefdom visited by the Spanish, does not support the thesis of regional pandemic but rather that of relatively channeled torrents of disease (see Milner, below).
Brothwell, Don. “On Biological Exchanges between the Two Worlds.” In The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650, edited by Warwick Bray, 233–46. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1993. European disease decimated American populations (238–44).
Bushnell, O. A. The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawai’i. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
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Burnett, Barbara A., and Katherine A. Murray. “Death, Drought, and de Soto: The Bioarchaeology of Depopulation.” In The Expedtion of Hernando de Soto West of the Mississippi, 1541–1543: Proceedings of the de Soto Symposia, 1988 and 1990, edited by Gloria A. Young and Michael P. Hoffman, 227–36. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1993. Cook, Noble David. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520 –1620. Cambridge Latin American Studies 41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Estimated 9 million precontact Indians had become 670,000 a century later, mainly through European diseases.
*Cook, Noble David, and W. George Lovell, eds. “Secret Judgments of God”: Old World Disease in Colonial Spanish America. The Civilizations of the American Indians, vol. 205. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Judicious, balanced, model of interdisciplinary cooperation, on the demographic collapse in Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, and Equador.—Reviewed by Donald B. Cooper, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1711–12.
*Cook, Sherburne F., and Woodrow Borah. Essays in Population History. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971–1979. Diverse essays on population history of Mexico, the Caribbean, and California.— MAB/SS AHA Guide 37.206.
Cook, Sherburne F. The Indian Population of New England in the Seventeenth Century. University of California Publications in Anthropology, vol. 12. Berkley: University of California Press, 1976. Cook, Sherburne F. The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Cook, Sherburne F. The Indian Population of New England in the Seventeenth Century. University of California Publications in Anthropology, vol. 12. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. War contributed to population decline less by direct killing than by the economic disruption it caused.
Crosby, Alfred W. “Conquistador y pestilencia: The First New World Pandemic and the Fall of the Great Indian Empires.” Hispanic American Historical Review 47 (1967): 321–37. Reprinted in The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, by Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., 35–63. Contributions in American Studies 2. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1972. The Spanish conquest may have owed more to European diseases than military prowess.
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Crosby, Alfred W. “Metamorphosis of the Americas.” In Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration, edited by Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, 70–89. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. Of the biological transformation caused by the Old World intrusion in the New World, disease was by far the most decisive.
Crosby, Alfred. “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America.” William and Mary Quarterly 38 (1976): 289–99. Whether or not Europeans brought war, they always brought diseases to which native Americans had never before been exposed.
Curtin, Philip D. Death by Migration: Europe’s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Relocation costs (excess mortality vs. staying home) of European troops in the tropics, 1815–1914, based on analysis of British and French military medical records.
*Curtin, Philip D. “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade.” Political Science Quarterly 83.2 (1968): 190–216. Seminal study of health, demographic, and socioeconomic consequences of intermixing disease environments as unanticipated byproducts of European conquest in Americas and slave trade.—KCP AHA Guide 19.932.
*Daniels, John D. “The Indian Population of North America in 1492.” William and Mary Quarterly 49 (1992): 298–320. De Bevoise, Ken. Agents of Apocalypse: Epidemic Diseases in the Colonial Philippines. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995. Late 19th century epidemics. Rev: Current Anthropology 37 ( June 1996): 578.
Dobyns, Henry F. “Brief Perspective on a Scholarly Transformation: Widowing the ‘Virgin’ Land.” Ethnohistory 23 (Spring 1976): 95–104. Essay review of works on American depopulation; European disease allowed the colonization of a widowed, not a virgin, land.
Dobyns, Henry F. “More Methodological Perspectives on Historical Demography.” Ethnohistory 36 (Summer 1989): 285–99. Response to critics of the following title; cf. Snow and Lanphear, and Henige, below.
Dobyns, Henry F. “New Native World: Links between Demographic and Cultural Changes.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 541–59. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. Dobyns, Henry F. Their Number Become Thinned: Native American Population Dynamics in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee
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Press, with the Newberry Library Center for the History of the American Indian, 1983. See especially the section on “Warriors and Population,” 174–89, in chap. 4, coauthored by William R. Swagerty, “Timucuan Population in the 1560s”; and “War for Conquest and Other Reasons,” 333–34, in chap. 7, “Depopulation as a Dynamic of Cultural Change.”
Dunnell, Robert C. “Methodological Impacts of Catastrophic Depopulation on American Archaeology and Ethnology.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 561–80. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. Harris, Marvin. “Depopulation and Cultural Evolution: A Cultural Materialist Perspective.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 581–86. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. Hauptman, Laurence M. “Refugee Havens: The Iroquois Villages of the Eighteenth Century.” In American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History, edited by Christopher Vecsey and Robert W. Venables, 128–39. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1980. Tribal remnants displaced by advancing European forces or diseases found new homes among the Iroquois.
Henige, David P. “On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics.” Hispanic American Historical Review 58.2 (1978): 217–37. Available sources preclude estimating size or measuring rate of decline, debated in later issue 58.4 (1978): 700–12.—MAB AHA Guide 37.209.
Henige, David P. “On the Current Devaluation of the Notion of Evidence: A Rejoinder to Dobyns.” Ethnohistory 36 (Summer 1989): 304–307. The author’s response to Dobyns’ critique of the following article.
Henige, David P. “Primary Source by Primary Source? On the Role of Epidemics in New World Depopulation.” Ethnohistory 33 (Summer 1986): 293–312. Poor use of sources invalidates Dobyns’ conclusions.
Hill, M. Cassandra. “Protohistoric Aborigines in West-Central Alabama: Probable Correlations to Early European Contact.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda
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J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 17–37. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. Johnson, Jay K., and Geoffrey R. Lehmann. “Sociopolitical Devolution in Northeast Mississippi and the Timimg of the de Soto Entrada.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 38–55. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. *Johnston, Susan M. “Epidemic Effects as Causes of Warfare in the Northeast after 1640.” M.A. thesis, Carleton University, 1982. Johnston, Susan M. “Epidemics: The Forgotten Factor in Seventeenth Century Native Warfare in the St. Lawrence Region.” In Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit and Metis, edited by Bruce Alden Cox, 14–31. Carleton Literary Series, No. 142; Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1987. Changing patterns of warfare owed less to the opportunities and demands of the fur trade than to the social, physical, and psychological effects of epidemics.
Kealhofer, Lisa. “The Evidence for Demographic Collapse in California.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 56–92. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. Kirkby, Dianne. “Colonial Policy and Native Depopulation in California and New South Wales, 1770–1840.” Ethnohistory 31 (1984): 1–16. Population declines of 70 percent attributed to detribalization and acculturation, the goal of both colonizing powers despite divergent policies.
*Lowell, W. George. “ ‘Heavy Shadows and Black Night’: Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82 (1992): 426–43. *MacLeod, D. Peter. “Microbes and Muskets: Smallpox and the Participation of the Amerindian Allies of New France in the Seven Years’ War.” Ethnohistory 39 (Winter 1992): 42–64. McNeill, William H. Plagues and People. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubeday, 1976. See especially chap. 5, “Transoceanic Exchanges, 1500–1700,” 199–234.
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Miller, Elizabeth. “The Effect of European Contact on the Health of Indigenous Populations in Texas.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 126–47. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. Milner, George R. “Epidemic Disease in the Postcontact Southeast: A Reappraisal.” Mid-Continental Journal of Archaeology 5 (1980): 39–56. European diseases should be visualized as torrents down corridors of least resistance, sometimes ending in cul-de-sacs, rather than as pandemics raging across entire regions.
Newson, Linda A. The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras under Spanish Rule. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986. Conquest and its consequences.—MAB AHA Guide 37.210.
Newson, Linda A. “The Demographic Collapse of Native Peoples of the Americas, 1492–1650.” In The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650, edited by Warwick Bray, 247–88. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1993. The disruption of native societies by disease in many areas led to increased levels of intertribal warfare (272).
*Newson, Linda A. “Indian Population Patterns in Colonial Latin America.” Latin American Research Review 20.3 (1985): 41–74. Thoughtful analysis.—MAB AHA Guide 37.211.
Palkovich, Ann M. “Historic Depopulation in the American Southwest: Issues of Interpretation and Context-embedded Analyses.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 179–97. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. Parry, J. H. The Spanish Seaborne Empire. The History of Human Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972. See chap. 11, “Demographic Catastrophe,” 213–28.
Perttula, Timothy K. “European Contact and Its Effects on Aboriginal Caddoan Populations between A.D. 1520 and A.D. 1680.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 501–18. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.
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Perttula, Timothy K. “The Long-Term Consequences and Effects of the de Soto Entrada on Aboriginal Caddoan Populations.” In The Expedtion of Hernando de Soto West of the Mississippi, 1541–1543: Proceedings of the de Soto Symposia, 1988 and 1990, edited by Gloria A. Young and Michael P. Hoffman, 237–54. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1993. Ramenofsky, Ann F., and Patricia Galloway. “Disease and the Soto Entrada.” In The Hernando de Soto Expedition: History, Historiography, and “Discovery” in the Southeast, edited by Patricia Galloway, 259–79. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Ramenofsky, Ann F. Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987. How disease contributed to the European conquest of America.
*Rosenblat, Angel. La población de América en 1492: Viejos y nuevos cálculos. Publicaciones del Centro de Estudios Históricos 1. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1967. Critical of Borah and Cook 1960, reaffirming author’s previous, much lower estimates.—MAB AHA Guide 37.215.
*Sánchez-Albornoz, Nicolás. “Demographic Change in America and Africa Induced by the European Expansion, 1500–1800.” In The European Discovery of the World and Its Economic Effects on Pre-Industrial Society, 1500 –1800, edited by Hans Pohl. Papers of the Tenth International Economic History Congress, 1990. Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftgeschichte 89. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1990. *Sánchez-Albornoz, Nicolás. The Population of Latin America: A History. Translated by W. A. R. Richardson. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Valuable synthesis from precolumbian era to present, chaps. 2–4 on the colonial period.—MAB AHA Guide 37.216.
Schlesier, Karl H. “Epidemics and Indian Middlemen: Rethinking the Wars of the Iroquois, 1609–1653.” Ethnohistory 23 (Spring 1976): 129–45. Disease and social disruption, rather than economic motives, account for the 17thcentury wars.
Smith, Marvin T. “Aboriginal Population Movements in the Early Historic Period Interior Southeast.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov,
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and M. Thomas Hatley, 21–34. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Disease, famine, and war touched off by de Soto’s expedition, reinforced by English slavers and native-acquired firearms, explain southeastern population shifts during the 16th and 17th century.
Smith, Marvin T. Archaeology of Aboriginal Culture Change in the Interior Southeast: Depopulation during the Early Historic Period. Ripley P. Bullen Monographs in Anthropology and History 6. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1987. On the disintegration of chiefdoms resulting from European contact at a distance, largely through disease-caused depopulation.
Snow, Dean R., and Kim M. Lanphear. “European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics.” Ethnohistory 35 (Winter 1988): 15–33. Smallpox and other diseases reached the northeast only in the 17th century; the evidence supports Dobyns’ estimated of up to 95 percent mortality, but a century later.
Snow, Dean R., and Kim M. Lanphear. “ ‘More Methodological Perspectives’: A Rejoinder to Dobyns.” Ethnohistory 36 (1989): 299–304. Critical remarks on Dobyns’ depopulation thesis, above.
*Stannard, David E. American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Population decline perceived as genocide.—Review by Russell Thornton, Journal of American History 80 (1994): 1428.
Stannard, David E. Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai’i on the Eve of Western Contact. Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii, 1989. Population collapse from European disease much greater than traditionally allowed suggests a precontact population of 800,000, rather than the usual 200–300,000.
Stannard, David E. “The Consequences of Contact: Toward and Interdisciplinary Theory of Native Responses to Biological and Cultural Invasion.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 519–39. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. *Stannard, David E. “Disease and Infertility: A New Look at the Demographic Collapse of Native Populations in the Wake of Western Contract.” Journal of American Studies 24 (1990): 325–50. *Starna, William A. “The Biological Encounter: Disease and the Ideological Domain.” American Indian Quarterly 16 (Fall 1992): 511–19.
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Stodder, Ann L. W. “Paleoepidemiology of Eastern and Western Pueblo Communities in Protohistoric and Early Historic New Mexico.” In Bioarchaeology of Native American Adaptation in the Spanish Borderlands, edited by Brenda J. Baker and Lisa Kealhofer, 148–76. The Ripley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996. Thornton, Russell. “American Indian Historical Demography: A Review Essay with Suggestions for Further Research.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 3 (1979): 69–74. Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 186. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. Though a minor factor overall in decimating the American Indians, war sometimes mattered a lot; see “Warfare and Genocide,” 47–49, in chap. 3, “Overview of Decline: 1492 to 1890–1900”; and “Warfare,” 85–86, in chap. 4, “Three Hundred Years of Decline, 1500–1800.”
*Thornton, Russell, with C. Matthew Snipp and Nancy Breen. The Cherokees: A Population History. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990. War, disease, and displacement contributed to steady population decline until about 1800.—Reviewed by David Henige, Journal of American History 78 (1991): 1045–46.
Verano, John W., and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds. Disease and Demography in the Americas. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. Part 1 comprises 13 papers on “Disease before and after Contact,” Part 2 the same number of papers on “Population before and after Contact.”
Verano, John W., and Douglas H. Ubelaker. “Health and Disease in the Pre-Columbian World.” In Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration, edited by Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, 209–23. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. Though the New World was not the disease-free paradise sometimes depicted, its disease environment was far less stringent than the Old World’s.
Watts, Sheldon. Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism. New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1997. See chaps. 3, “Smallpox in the New World and the Old: From Holocaust to Eradication, 1518 to 1997,” 84–121; and 6, “Yellow Fever, Malaria and Development: Atlantic Africa and the New World, 1647 to 1928,” 213–68.
Wood, Peter H. “The Changing Population of the Colonial South: An Overview by Race and Region, 1685–1790.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A.
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Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, 35–103. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Indian population collapsed throughout the region during the early 18th century, with epidemic disease the main cause though slave-raiding and warfare helped.
*Zambardino, Rudolph A. “Mexico’s Population in the Sixteenth Century: Demographic Anomaly or Mathematical Illusion?” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 11.1 (1980): 1–27. Mathematician criticizes Borah and Cook, concludes population perhaps 5–10 million in 1518.—MAB AHA Guide 37.217.
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PART TWO
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
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ANCIENT MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE
Military Institutions and Warfare in the Ancient World. General, comprehensive, and comparative works from prehistory to the fall of ancient empires. This section also includes interregional military activity. *Azzaroli, A. An Early History of Horsemanship. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985. Berdan, Frances F. “The Reconstruction of Ancient Economies: Perspectives from Archaeology and Ethnohistory.” In Economic Anthropology: Topics and Theories, edited by Sutti Ortiz, 83–95. Monographs in Economic Anthropology 1. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, and Society for Economic Anthropology, 1983. See especially “The Role of the Economy in Imperial Expansion,” on war as economic activity.
Bouzek, Jan. “Relations between Barbarian Europe and the Aegean Civilizations.” Advances in World Archaeology 4 (1985): 71–114. The transfer of military institutions and technology from the Aegean to Europe was a major form of interaction.
Bowden, Edgar. “Three Stages in the Evolution of Slavery in Precivilized Societies.” Behavior Science Notes 8 (1973): 111–21.
The first slaves, as war captives demonstrating their captors’ superiority but offering little economic benefit, served symbolic rather than material function.
*Carlton, Walker. “Ancient Warships, 700–31 B.C. (Part 1).” SAN no. 3 (1971–1972). Carney, Thomas F. The Shape of the Past: Models and Antiquity. Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press, 1975. Chap. 5, “The Military and Society in Antiquity,” 235–78.
Casson, Lionel. The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times. 2d ed. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1991. Political, military, commercial, and technological aspects of ancient naval history.
Casson, Lionel. “Ancient Naval Warfare.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Autumn 1991): 74–81. How the ram transformed naval warfare.
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Casson, Lionel. Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971. Scholarly review of the evidence, which is scanty before 1000 B.C., but then grows more substantial; see especially chap. 4, “The Eastern Mediterranean: 1000–500 B.C.,” 43–76.
*Chang, Chun-shu. “War and Peace with the Hsiung in Early Han China: The Hsiung nu Challenge (200–133 B.C.) and the Origins of Han Wu ti’s Military Expansion.” Essays in Commemoration of the Eightieth Birthday of Professor T’an Hsi-sheng, 698–711. Taipei, 1979. Chang, K. C. “Ancient Trade as Economics or as Ecology.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, 211–24. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975.
Although hard to distinguish archaeologically, the balanced, reciprocal flow of goods in trade must be distinguished both from the coerced one-way flow of grain and energy that supports civilization, and the one-way exchange of goods, including captives, through raiding and military coercion.
Clark, Grahame. “Archaeology and Human Diversity.” Annual Review of Anthropology 8 (1979): 1–20. The archaeological marks of civilization include cities, concentrations of wealth, stratification, fortifications, and personal armor (10–11).
Cleuziou, Serge. “From the First Towns to the Invention of Writing.” In Prehistory: The World of Early Man, edited by Jean Gullaine, 93–106. Translated by Stephen Bunson. New York: Facts On File, 1986. “City, state, writing and warfare are the key themes.” (93) From Mesopotamia and Egypt to India and China.
Crespigny, Rafé de. “The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Fall of Later Han.” Paper presented at the First National Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, May 1976. Abstract in Early China 2 (Fall 1976): 57. Raiding from the northwest frontier area.
Dalton, George. “Karl Polanyi’s Analysis of Long-Distance Trade and Its Wider Paradigm.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, 63–132. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. Notes raid and plunder as means of acquiring goods (104–105) and tax as payment for military protection; trade became an alternative to raid, tribute, or taxation (108–109).
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Eph’al, Israel. The Ancient Arabs: Nomads on the Borders of the Fertile Crescent, 9th–5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew University; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982. From nomad raiding to the integration of nomad tribes into the imperial military establishment.
Ferrill, Arther. The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great. London: Thames & Hudson, 1985. Flenniken, J. Jeffrey. “The Past, Present, and Future of Flintknapping: An Anthropological Perspective.” Annual Review of Anthropology 13 (1984): 187–203. Foley, Vernard, and Werner Soedel. “Ancient Oared Warships.” Scientific American 244 (April 1981): 148–58, 160–63. Gabriel, Richard A. The Culture of War: Invention and Early Development. Contributions in Military Studies 96. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. *Gabriel, Richard A., and Karen S. Metz. From Sumer to Rome: The Military Capabilities of Ancient Armies. Contributions in Military Studies 108. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1991. Organization, operations, and technology compared and evaluated.
Gonen, Rivka. Weapons of the Ancient World. Cassell’s Introducing Archaeology Series 8. London: Cassell, 1975. The tools of war from prehistory through classical antiquity.
Grierson, Philip. “The Origins of Money.” Research in Economic Research 1 (1978): 1–35. Money originated from wergeld, coin later from such administrative needs of government as paying mercenaries.
Harding, A. F. The Mycenaeans and Europe. London: Academic Press, 1984. Chap. 6, “Warfare, Weapons and Armour,” 151–87.
Harmand, Jaques. La guerre antique de Sumer à Rome. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1971. Topical survey of ancient warfare, unusual in its attention to preclassical armies.
Hindess, Barry, and Paul Q. Hirst. Pre-Capitalist Modes of Production. London and Boston, Massachusetts: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975. Chap. 2, “The Ancient Mode of Production,” 79–108, discusses warfare and the ancient state in the context of economic institutions.
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Hodges, Henry. Technology in the Ancient World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970. See especially chap. 4, “Of Monuments, Ships, Metallurgy and Military Technology (3000–2000 B.C.),” 90–133.
Humble, Richard. Warfare in the Ancient World. London: Cassell, 1980. Johnstone, Paul. The Seacraft of Prehistory. Edited by Seán McGrail. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. See especially the section on “The War-Ship,” 79–81, in chap. 7, “The Later Mediterranean.”
Keightley, David N. “Clean Hands and Shining Elements: Heroic Action in Early Chinese and Greek Culture.” In Religion and Authority, edited by Toben Siebers, 13–51. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Korfmann, Manfred. “The Sling as a Weapon.” Scientific American 229 (October 1973): 35–42. Lendle, Otto. “Antike Kriegsmaschinen.” Gymnasium: Zeitschrift für Kultur der antike und humanistische Bildung 88 (1981): 330–356. On catapults and other war machines.
Lichtenstädter, Ilse. Women in the Aiyâm Al-'Arab: A Study of Female Life during Warfare in Preislamic Arabia. London: The Royal Asiatic Society, 1935. Especially chap. 2, “The Arab Woman in Warfare,” 13–50, on woman as cause of war, victim, and other peripheral issues.
Lindsay, Jack. Blast Power and Ballistics: Concepts of Force and Energy in the Ancient World. London: Frederick Muller, 1971. See the discussion of artillery, 306–11, in chap. 11, “Mechanics,” 273–312; and chap. 14, “Ballistics and Mechanics,” 383–406.
Littauer, Mary Aiken. “Early Stirrups.” Antiquity 55 ( July 1981): 99–105. Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest. The World of Archaeology. London: Thames & Hudson, 1978. Including fortifications and weapons.
Maddin, Robert, James D. Muhly, and Tamara S. Wheeler. “How the Iron Age Began.” Scientific American 237 (October 1977): 122–31. Reprinted in Civilization: Readings from “Scientific American,” edited by Brian Fagan, 57–64. San Francisco: Freeman, 1979. Development and spread of iron technology, especially for weapons, at the end of the second millennium B.C.
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Majno, Guido. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1975. Momigliano, Arnaldo. “Some Observations on Causes of War in Ancient Historiography.” Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Classical Studies 1 (1968): 199–211. North, Anthony. “Barbarians and Christians.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 30–43. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview.
O’Connell, Robert L. “The Composite Bow.” Military History Quarterly 6 (Autumn 1993): 46–47. Earliest known depiction is on a stele from c. 2200 B.C., but it may have originated on the steppes much earlier.
O’Connell, Robert L. “The First Warriors.” Military History Quarterly 8 (Winter 1996): 80–85. Adapted from Ride of the Second Horseman.
O’Connell, Robert L. “The Insolent Chariot.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Spring 1990): 80–81. Chariots owed their success mainly to their psychological impact on poorly trained infantry.
O’Connell, Robert L. “The Mace.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Spring 1991): 92–93. The first weapon designed specifically to kill people.
Piggott, Stuart. Wagon, Chariot and Carriage: Symbol and Status in the History of Transport. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992. See especially chap. 2, “Chariots and Chariotry,” 37–68, on the origins, development, and Eurasian-wide dispersal of a major weapon system.
Prusek, Jaroslav. Chinese Statelets and the Northern Barbarians, 1400–300 B.C. Dordrecht: D. Reidel; Prague: Academia (Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences), 1971. Rowlands, M. J. “Defence: A Factor in the Organization of Settlements.” In Man, Settlement and Urbanism, edited by Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby, 447–62. Research Seminar in Archaeology and Related Subjects, London University, 1970. London: Duckworth, 1972. On the physical shaping of prestate communities by warfare.
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So, Jenny F., and Emma C. Bunker. Traders and Raiders on China’s Northern Frontier. Seattle: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, with University of Washington Press, 1995. Exhibit catalogue. See, on Shang chariotry introduced from the steppes, “The Introduction of Wheeled Transport: Late Second Millennium B.C.,” 26–27, in chap. 1, “The People, the Land, the Economy.” On chariotry and cavalry, see “Horse and Chariot Fittings,” 43–44, and “The Arrival of Mounted Tribes: Seventh-Sixth Century B.C.,” 47–50, in chap. 3, “Expanded Cultural Exchange, ca. 1000–500 B.C.”
Spier, Robert F. G. Material Culture and Technology. Basic Concepts in Anthropology. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess, 1973. Notes weapon-making as the earliest important use of metals in the development of settled societies.
Starr, Chester G. The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Strong, Donald. The Early Etruscans. New York: G. P. Putnams’s Sons, 1968. On the military basis of early Etruscan society, see chap. 5, “Government and People,” 53–65.
Wertime, Theodore A. “The Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science 182 (30 November 1973): 875–87. Updating the following title.
Wertime, Theodore A. “Pyrotechnology: Man’s First Industrial Uses of Fire.” American Scientist 61 (1973): 670–82. P. 672: “Until the late third millennium, metals were mainly employed for warfare (axes, arrowheads, knives, daggers, swords) and for decoration or sumptuary purposes. It is mainly at Sumer, in the Third Dynasty of Ur, that one finds men branching out into more commonplace bronze objects such as nails, agricultural implements, chisels, files, spatulas, and the like.”—citing H. Limet, Le travaille du métal au pays de Sumer (Paris: Université de Liège, 1960), 190–236.
Willetts, R. F. “The Cretan System of Maintaining Armed Forces.” In Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique, by Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 65–75. Colloques nationaux du C.N.R.S. 936. Paris: Editions du C.N.R.S., 1977. Primarily Hellenistic, but also background on earlier practices.
Worley, Leslie J. Hippeis: The Cavalry of Ancient Greece. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1994. Mounted warfare from the Mycenaeans through the Macedonians.
Yü, Ying-shih. Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
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Zampaglione, Gerardo. The Idea of Peace in Antiquity. South Bend, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1972. The idea in classical antiquity and in Jewish and Christian thought.
PREHISTORY
Scholarly and popular studies of warfare and weaponry in prehistory, from earliest times to the Neolithic. Bar-Yosef, Ofer. “Earliest Food Producers—Pre-Pottery Neolithic (8000–5500).” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 190–204. New York: Facts On File, 1995. “Inter-societal exchange systems between hunter-gatherers and farmers, and among hunter-gatherers themselves, are currently the subject of much discussion in the literature. Socio-economic stresses encourage reciprocity in exchange or warfare. Such situations either develop mutual dependence on a steady supply of food, raw materials, labor and commodities or lead to conquest. However, the evidence for extensive or intensive warfare is as yet missing from the archaeological record.” (199)
Behrens, Hermann W. “Der Kampf in der Steinzeit (Ein Diskussionbeitrag vom Aspekt des Prähistorikers).” Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien 108 (1978): 1–7. Beltran [Martinez], Antonio. Rock Art of the Spanish Levant. Translated by Margaret Brown. The Imprint of Man. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. See the sections on “Warriors and Conflict,” 48–51, and “Arms and Equipment,” 54–55, in chap. 4, “Techniques, Materials and Subject Matter.”
Bergman, Christopher A. “The Development of the Bow in Western Europe: A Technological and Functional Perspective.” In Hunting and Animal Exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia, edited by Gail Larsen Peterkin, Harvey M. Bricker, and Paul Mellars, 95–105. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4. Washington: American Anthropological Association, 1993. Binford, Lewis R. Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Animal bone accumulations indicate early man to have been scavenger rather than predator.
Bordaz, Jacques. Tools of the Old and New Stone Age. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1970. How Old World stone tools and weapons were made and used.
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Brain, C. K. The Hunters or the Hunted? An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Correcting Dart on the predatory transition from ape to man.
*Burgess, Colin, P. Topping, C. Morant, and M. Maddison. Enclosures and Defenses in the Neolithic of Western Europe. BAR [British Archaeological Reports] International Series 403. Oxford: BAR, 1988. *Capelle, T. “Erkenntnismöglichkeiten ur- und frühgeschichtlicher Bewaffnungsformen.” Bonner Jahrbücher 182 (1982): 265–88. Churchill, Steven E. “Weapon Technology, Prey Size Selection, and Hunting Methods in Modern Hunter-Gatherers: Implications for Hunting in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic.” In Hunting and Animal Exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia, edited by Gail Larsen Peterkin, Harvey M. Bricker, and Paul Mellars, 11–24. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4. Washington: American Anthropological Association, 1993. Clark, Grahame. World Prehistory in New Perspective. 3d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Primarily an archaeological survey of civilized origins, with considerable attention to war and weapons.
Cunliffe, Barry W., ed. The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Extensive discussions of warfare and weaponry; see index entries: “warfare and warriors”; and “weapons.”
*Deatley, Suzanne P., and Frank J. Findlow. Exploring the Limits: Frontiers and Boundaries in Prehistory. BAR [British Archaeological Reports] International Series 223. Oxford: BAR, 1984. Divale, William Tulio. “Systemic Population Control in the Middle and Upper Paleolithic: Inferences Based on Contemporary HunterGatherers.” World Archaeology 4 (1972): 222–43. Evolution of war in mid-Paleolithic as part of a system of population control.
Farmer, Malcolm F. “The Origin of Weapon Systems.” Current Anthropology 35 (1994): 679–81. Recent research suggests that bow-and-arrow systems may have descended from dart throwers (atlatls), both appearing to have originated in the Maghreb and both based on similar, relatively complex mechanical principles eventually perfected in the composite bow.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “Violence and War in Prehistory.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and
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David W. Frayer, 321–55. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Ferrill, Arther. “The Second-Oldest Profession.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Autumn 1990): 24–29. On the Neolithic origins of war.
Fischer, Anders. “Hunting with Flint-tipped Arrows: Results and Experiences from Practical Experiments.” In The Mesolithic in Europe: Papers Presented at the Third International Symposium, Edinburgh 1985, edited by Clive Bonsall, 29–39. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1985. Within 50 meters, a single arrow had a good chance of killing even a large animal.
Franz, Leonhard. Die Kultur der Urzeit Europas. Handbuch der Kulturgeschichte, Abteilung 2, Kultur der Volker. Frankfurt am Main: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Athenaion, 1969. See the section on “Der Krieg,” 353–74, surveying the archaeology of weapons, armor, and other warlike material in ancient Europe.
Frayer, David W. “Body Size, Weapon Use, and Natural Selection in the European Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic.” American Anthropologist 83 (1981): 57–73. The change from spear to bow as the chief weapon of hunters did not significantly influence human physical evolution.
Frayer, David W. “Ofnet: Evidence for a Mesolithic Massacre.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 181–216. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Cranial remains from Ofnet Cave in Bavaria (7000 B.P.) provide evidence for interhuman violence in the central European Mesolithic, in the form of mass homicide followed by ritual burial.
Gimbutas, Marija. The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe. Edited by Joan Marler. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991. Endemic warfare and fortification building did not exist through the Neolithic, but originated in the Bronze Age (viii, x; chap. 10, “The End of Old Europe: The Intrusion of Steppe Pastoralists from South Russia and the Transformation of Europe,” 351–401); see also index entries: defense; war; weapons.
Gregg, Susan Alling. Foragers and Farmers: Population Interaction and Agricultural Expansion in Prehistoric Europe. Prehistoric Archeology and Ecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Chap. 3, “Population Interaction,” 37–59, discusses the bases for competition (including raiding and warfare) and cooperation between Mesolithic foragers and Neolithic farmers.
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Hayden, Brian. “Population Control among Hunter/Gatherers.” World Archaeology 4 (1972): 205–21. Strict sexual division of labor and warfare offer selective advantage in early hominid groups.
Keeley, Lawrence H., and Daniel Cahen. “Early Neolithic Forts and Villages in NE Belgium: A Preliminary Report.” Journal of Field Archaeology 16 (1989): 157–76. Evidence of fortification casts doubt on the “peaceful” Neolithic.
Keeley, Lawrence. “Frontier Warfare in the Early Neolithic.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 303–19. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Evidence for hostile relations between indigenous Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Linear Pottery Culture, the first farmers to colonize northwest Europe (7000 B.P.); archaeologists too often fail to recognize that adapting to the social environment can include organized violence.
Knecht, Heidi. “Late Ice Age Hunting Technology.” Scientific American 271 ( July 1994): 82–87. Kohl, P. L. “Materialist Approaches to Prehistory.” Annual Review of Anthropology 10 (1981): 89–118. *Korfmann, Manfred. “The Natufian: An ‘Indigenous Palestinian Culture’? A Consideration of Natufian Long-Range Weapons.” Berytus 20 (1971) Levy, Thomas E. “Cult, Metallurgy and Rank Societies—Chalcolithic Period (ca. 4500–3500 B.C.E.). In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 226–44. New York: Facts On File, 1995. See especially “Resource Competition,” 239–40: Population growth and intensified land use promote warfare and violent seizure of resources. “The marked increase in mace heads found throughout the country is a clear indication of more organized inter-group conflict compared with earlier periods. The construction of numerous ‘subterranean villages’ in Beersheva valley, . . . may also be related to warfare.”
Mellaart, James. The Neolithic of the Near East. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975. Archaeological survey, with numerous but scattered remarks on fighting and weapons.
Mercer, R. J. “A Neolithic Fortress and Funeral Center.” Scientific American 252 (March 1985): 94–101. Evidence of massive timber fortifications on Hambledon Hill in southwestern England dated from mid to late 4th millennium, apparently destroyed and burned after conquest, c. 3300 B.C.
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Moore, Andrew M. T. “The Development of Neolithic Societies in the Near East.” Advances in World Archaeology 4 (1985): 1–69.
Up-to-date survey of changes between 8000 and 4000 B.C. finds no evidence of warfare, beyond an occasional mention of defensive architecture.
Milisauskas, Sarunas. European Prehistory. Studies in Archeology. New York: Academic Press, 1978. Including systematic discussion of warfare, weapons, and fortification.
Phillips, Patricia. The Prehistory of Europe. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980. Iberian rock-shelter wall paintings, perhaps epipaleolithic, include what appear to be scenes of war; if so, they offer the only preneolithic evidence of war (145).
Polomé, Edgard C. “The Gods of the Indo-Europeans.” Mankind Quarterly 21.2 (1980): 151–63. Archaeological evidence of fortifications and weapons coincided with appearance of Indo-Europeans in Europe, c. 4300 B.C. and the replacement of mother goddess by warrior gods; see especially “Warrior Gods,” 159–61.
*Renfrew, Colin. Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. 1988 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Controversial challenge to view of Indo-European languages spread by mounted warriors from western Russia during early bronze age, arguing instead for peaceful diffusion of agriculture from ca. 7000 B.C.E.—CGT AHA Guide 6.184.
Renfrew, Colin. Before Civilization: The Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973. Chap. 10, “The Emergence of Civilization in Europe,” 192–213, notes the diagnostic significance for its subject of fortification (205–206), weaponry (209), and warfare (210–11).
Renfrew, Colin. “Beyond a Subsistence Economy: The Evolution of Social Organization in Prehistoric Europe.” In Reconstructing Complex Societies: An Archaeological Colloquium, edited by Charlotte B. Moore, 69–95. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Supplementary Studies 20. Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1974. How to recognize chiefdoms archaeologically, with war as a regular feature of competition between individualizing chiefdoms (79).
Roper, Marilyn Keyes. “Evidence of Warfare in the Near East from 10,000–4,300 B.C.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 299–343. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. A review of the archaeological literature lends some credence to the existence of group-sanctioned killing in prehistory.
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Roper, Marilyn Keyes. “A Survey of the Evidence of Intrahuman Killing in the Pleistocene.” Current Anthropology 10 (1969): 427–459. Systematic review of archaeological and physical anthropological claims of human killing.
Rozoy, J.-G. “The Revolution of the Bowmen in Europe.” In The Mesolithic in Europe: Papers Presented at the Third International Symposium, Edinburgh 1985, edited by Clive Bonsall, 13–28. Edinburgh: John Donald, n.d. Arrowheads are the most distinctive artifacts for defining the European Mesolithic.
Sandars, N. K. “The Religious Development of Some Early Societies.” In The Origins of Civilization, edited by P. R. S. Moorey, 103–27. Wolfson College Lectures 1978. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Contemporary evidence about the basically warlike or peaceful nature of primitive man is ambiguous, though the earliest representation of man killing man is Mesolithic
Schutz, Herbert. The Prehistory of Germanic Europe. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1983. Remarks on the Mesolithic origins and civilized intensification of war (63–64), and on warriors (68).
Settegast, Mary. Plato Prehistorian: 10,000 to 5000 B.C. in Myth and Archaeology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Rotenberg Press, 1987. Chap. 1, “The War of 8500 B.C.,” 15–74, reviews development of war and weapons, and the evidence for significant changes around 8500.
Shard, Diana. “The Neolithic Revolution: An Analogical Overview.” Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 165–70. Remarks on women’s status and the origins of war.
Singh, Purushottam. Neolithic Cultures of Western Asia. London and New York: Seminar Press, 1974. Including weapons and fortifications.
Straus, Lawrence Guy. “Upper Paleolithic Hunting Tactics and Weapons in Western Europe.” In Hunting and Animal Exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia, edited by Gail Larsen Peterkin, Harvey M. Bricker, and Paul Mellars, 83–93. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4. Washington: American Anthropological Association, 1993. Vencl, Slavomil. “Interprétation des blessures causées par les armes au Mésolithique.” L’Anthropologie (Paris) 95 (1991): 219–28. Cemeteries and evidence of violent death may testify to intense conflicts over food resources between competing local communities.
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*Vencl, Slavomil. “K problematice fortifikací v archeologii— Fortifications and Their Problems in Archaeology.” Archeologické Rozhledy 35 (1984): 284–315. *Vencl, Slavomil. “Po átky zbraní—The Origins of Weapons. On the Question of Recognizability of Prehistoric Arms.” Archeologické Rozhledy 32 (1979): 640–694. *Vencl, Slavomil. Problémy poznání vojenstuí v archeologii—Problems Relating to the Knowledge of Warfare in Archaeology. Prague: Archeologicky´ ústov SAV, 1984. Vencl, Sl. “War and Warfare in Archaeology.” Translated by Petr Charvát. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3 (1984): 116–32. War as example of the kind of archaeological study which demands attention to remains perished as well as remains preserved.
PRECLASSICAL NEAR EAST
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of preclassical military institutions and warfare, including some general histories of the Ancient Near East that comment on military organization and warfare. Burney, Charles. The Ancient Near East. Archaeology and Civilization Series. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977. Comments on military organization.
Buttery, Alan. Armies and Enemies of Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 3200 B.C. to 612 B.C. Goring-by-Sea, England: Wargames Research Group, 1975. Illustrated but undocumented summary of technical data on organization, tactics, and accoutrements, derived from standard secondary sources.
Carroll, Robert. “War in the Hebrew Bible.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 25–44. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. *Churchin, Leonard A. “A Frontier War in the Third Millennium B.C.” Comparative Frontier Studies (Fall 1978): 3–? Cleuziou, Serge. “From the First Towns to the Invention of Writing.” In Prehistory: The World of Early Man, edited by Jean Gullaine, 93–106. Translated by Stephen Bunson. New York: Facts On File, 1986. “City, state, writing and warfare are the key themes.” (93) From Mesopotamia and Egypt to India and China.
Collon, Dominique. First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Part 3, “Subjects and Themes on Cylinder Seals,” includes chap. 24, “Transport,” 158–61 (discussing war chariots); and chap. 25, “Fortresses and Warfare,” 162–63.
Daniel, Glyn. The First Civilizations: The Archaeology of Their Origins. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1968. Remarks on war and military factors in the origins and early development of civilized societies.
De Bruyn, M. J. “The Battle of Qadesh: Some Reconsiderations.” In To the Euphrates and Beyond: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Maurits N. van Loon, edited by O. M. C. Haex, H. H. Curvers, and P. M.
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M. G. Akkermans, 135–65. Rotterdam and Brookfield, Vermont: A. A. Balkema, 1989. Detailed examination of sources to fix topography and sequence of events.
*De Bruyn, M. J. The Battle of Qadesh: A Re-Interpretation of Its Sources and Reconstruction. Amsterdam. Deshayes, Jean. Les civilisations de l’Orient Ancien. Paris: Arthaud, 1969. See chap. 7, “La guerre,” 141–75; bibliography, 646.
Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. See “Weapons and Armour,” 197–207, in chap. 5, “Arts and Crafts.”
Drews, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200. B.C. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993. The collapse of civilization in the eastern Mediterranean around 1200 B.C. resulted chiefly from a military revolution, the displacement of chariotry by infantry as the dominant force in war.
Eddy, Frank W. Archaeology: A Cultural-Evolutionary Approach. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984. On the rise of warfare with irrigation and state formation, see especially the section on the “Bronze Age,” 192–208, in chap. 8, “Later Stone Ages and Civilizations of the Old World.”
Eph’al, Israel. “On Warfare and Military Control in the Ancient Near Eastern Empires: A Research Outline.” In History, Historiography and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures, edited by Hayim Tadmore and Moshe Weinfeld, 88–106. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1983. Fairservis, Walter A., Jr. The Threshold of Civilization: An Experiment in Prehistory. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975. Remarks on the causes and effects of war at successive stages of social evolution.
Gale, Richard. Great Battles of Biblical History. London: Hutchinson, 1968. British general’s popular commentary on war in biblical lands from the patriarchs to the fall of Masada.
Goedicke, Hans. “The ‘Battle of Kadesh’: A Reassessment.” In Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh, edited by Hans Goedicke, 77–121. Baltimore, Maryland: HALGO, 1985. *Gottwald, Norman K. “War, Holy.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Supplement, 942–44. Updates Toombs, discussing more recent research and theories on biblical holy war.
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Harding, Anthony. “Stone, Bronze and Iron.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 8–19. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview of preclassical knives and swords.
Hawkes, Jacquetta. The First Great Civilizations: Life in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and Egypt. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973. On military institutions, see especially part IV.2, “Life in the Valley of the Twin Rivers: The Social and Political World,” 144–85; and part VII.2, “Life in the Nile Valley: The Social and Political World,” 375–405.
Herzog, Chaim, and Mordechai Gichon. Battles of the Bible. New York: Random House, 1978. Biblical military history.
*Hobbs, T. R. A Time for War: A Study of Warfare in the Old Testament. Old Testament Studies 3. Wilmington, Delaware: Michael Glazier, 1989. Manpower, materiel, and the ancient Israelite art of war.
*Kang, Sa-Moon. Divine War in the Old Testament and the Ancient Near East. Beiheft zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 177. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989. Old Testament holy war differs in no significant way from the divine war associated with kingship everywhere in the ancient Near East.
Kotker, Norman. “Megiddo.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Spring 1991): 104–11. Warfare in 1468 B.C. as shown in battle between an invading Egyptian army and a Syrian-Canaanite coalition.
Kraig, Bruce. “Feeding the Troops 3000 B.C.E.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Summer 1992): 18–23. Logistics in Mesopotamian and Egyptian armies.
Kraig, Bruce. The Formation of Civilization. The Forum Series, FE 160. St. Louis, Missouri: Forum Press, 1979. Brief introduction to the origin of civilization in the Near East, with some attention to military institutions.
Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. “Third Millennium Modes of Exchange and Modes of Production.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and Lamberg-Karlovsky, 341–68. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. See especially 360–62, on distinctions between exploitation (economic imperialism) and conquest (political imperialism).
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Lambert, W. G. “Booty from Egypt?” In Essays in Honour of Yigael Yadin, edited by Geza Vermes and Jacob Neusner, 61–70. Totowa, New Jersey: Allanheld, Osmun, for the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Studies, 1983. Question raised by a partial clay tablet in late Babylonian script describing huge booty.
Littauer, Mary Aiken, and Joost H. Crouwel. Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. Handbuch der Orientalistik, 7th Abteilung, 1st Band, 2nd Abschnitt, B-. Lieferung 1. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979. Summary chiefly of the archaeological evidence, including warlike uses.
Lowell, Ian Russell. “The Dawn of Warfare.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations that Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 8–15. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. McEwen, Edward, Robert L. Miller, and Christopher A. Bergman. “Early Bow Design and Construction.” Scientific American 264 ( June 1991): 76–82. McNeill, William H., and Jean W. Sedlar, eds. The Ancient Near East. Readings in World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Reprinted sources, some on military developments, c. 2000–500 B.C.
McNeill, William H., and Jean W. Sedlar, eds. The Origins of Civilization. Readings in World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Selection of early Mesopotamian and Egyptian texts, some of military relevance.
Maddin, Robert, James D. Muhly, and Tamara S. Wheeler. “How the Iron Age Began.” Scientific American 237 (October 1977): 122–31. Development and spread of iron technology, especially for weapons, at the end of the 2nd millennium B.C. in the Near East.
Maisels, Charles Keith. The Emergence of Civilization: From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture, Cities, and the State in the Near East. London: Routledge, 1990. Index entries show how large a part war played.
Mazar, Amihai. “The Fortification of Cities in the Ancient Near East.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson, 3:1523–37. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995. Miller, Robert, Edward McEwen, and Christopher Bergman. “Experimental Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Archery.” In
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“Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, 178–95. World Archaeology 18 (1986): 153–290. Moorey, P. R. S. “The Emergence of the Light, Horse-drawn Chariot in the Near-East, c. 2000–1500 B.C.” In “Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, 196–215. World Archaeology 18 (1986): 153–290. Morschauser, Scott. “Observations on the Speeches of Ramesses II in the Literary Record of the Battle of Kadesh.” In Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh, edited by Hans Goedicke, 123–206. Baltimore, Maryland: HALGO, 1985. Muhly, James D. “How Iron Technology Changed the Ancient World—And Gave the Philistines a Military Edge.” Biblical Archaeology Review 8 (November-December 1982): 40–54. Popular article on military technological developments in the late second millennium B.C.
Murnane, William J. The Road to Kadesh: A Historical Interpretation of the Battle Reliefs of King Sety I at Karnak. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 42. 2d edition. Chicago: Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1990. How Egypt came to be at war with the Hittites.
Nissen, Hans J. The Early History of the Ancient Near East, 9000–2000 B.C. Translated by Elizabeth Luzeier, with Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Narrative history notes military activity, especially in chaps. 5, “The Period of Rival City-States (ca. 2800–2350 B.C.),” 129–64; and 6, “The Period of the first Territorial States (ca. 2350–2000 B.C.),” 165–97.
Oates, David, and Joan Oates. The Rise of Civilization. New York: Dutton, 1976. Comments on the role of warfare in a survey of the ancient Near East through the appearance of the first Mesopotamian cities.
Oberhuber, Karl. Die Kultur des alten Orients. Handbuch der Kulturgeschichte, part 2, Kulturen der Völker. Frankfurt am Main: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Athenaion, 1972. See especially the section on “Kriegwesen,” 273–87, in chap. 3, “Der Mensch und die Gesellschaft.”
Ollenburger, Ben C. “Introduction: Gerhard von Rad’s Theory of Holy War.” In Holy War in Ancient Israel, by Gerhard von Rad, 1–33. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1991. With special attention to the sources of von Rad’s lightly documented theory.
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Patrick, Stephen B. “Armageddon: The Genesis of Warfare, 3000 to 500 B.C.” Strategy & Tactics no. 34 (September 1972): 5–23. Sketchy overview of military institutions and warfare in the ancient Near East, oriented toward wargamers and based on standard sources.
Pennells, Ernest. “Middle Bronze Age Earthworks: A Contemporary Engineering Evaluation.” Biblical Archaeologist 46 (1983): 57–61. How a modern engineer believes fortifications were constructed.
Pfeiffer, John E. The Emergence of Society: A Prehistory of the Establishment. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977. Popular survey of civilized origins.
Piggott, Stuart. “The Beginnings of Wheeled Transport.” Scientific American ( July 1968). Reprinted in Civilization: Readings from “Scientific American”, edited by Brian Fagan, 65–73. San Francisco: Freeman, 1979. On the evidence for transcaucasian origins.
Piggott, Stuart. The Earliest Wheeled Transport: From the Atlantic Coast to the Caspian Sea. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983. On the origins of chariots and related issues, see especially chap. 3, part 2, “SpokedWheel Horse Draught,” 87–104.
*Porada, E. “Battlements in the Military Architecture and in the Symbolism of the Ancient Near East.” In Essays in the History of Architecture Presented to Rudolf Wittkower, edited by D. Fraser et al. London, 1967. Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near East. 2 vols. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1958–1975. Anthology abridged from Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, 1950) and The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, 1954), including materials related to military affairs.
Redman, Charles L. The Rise of Civilization: From Early Farmers to Urban Society in the Ancient Near East. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1978. Remarks on the relevance of warfare to social change, especially chaps. 7, “The Origins of Urban Society: In Search of Utopia,” 214–43; 8, “First Strides toward Urbanism: The Emergent City,” 244–78; and 9, “The Rise of Politics and State Society: King of the Four Quarters,” 279–322.
Rohrlich-Leavitt, Ruby. “Women in Transition: Crete and Sumer.” In Becoming Visible: Women in European History, edited by Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz, 38–59. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1977. Saggs, H. W. F. Civilization before Greece and Rome. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1989. See especially chap. 9, “The Brotherhood of Nations,” 176–94.
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*Sandars, N. K. The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean, 1250–1150 B.C. Revised edition. London: Thames & Hudson, 1985. Fullest English-language discussion of the migrating peoples in part responsible for collapse of bronze age civilization.—CGT AHA Guide 6.186.
*Singer, Itamar. “The Battle of Nihriya and the End of the Hittite Empire.” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie 75.1 (1985): 100–23. Important evaluation of text from Ugarit recording battle between Hittites of King Tudhaliya III (IV) and Assyria of King Tukulti-Ninujrta I.—JDM AHA Guide 5.378.
Soden, Wolfram von. The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East. Translated by Donald G. Schley. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans; Leominster, England: Gracewing, 1994. Chap. 6.5, “State and Society: The Army and Warfare,” 82–86.
Spalinger, Anthony J. “Notes on the Reliefs of the Battle of Kadesh.” In Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh, edited by Hans Goedicke, 1–42. Baltimore, Maryland: HALGO, 1985. Spalinger, Anthony J. “Remarks on the Kadesh Inscriptions of Ramesses II: The ‘Bulletin.’ ” In Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh, edited by Hans Goedicke, 43–75. Baltimore, Maryland: HALGO, 1985. Stager, Lawrence E. “The Impact of the Sea Peoples in Canaan (1185–1050 B.C.E.).” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 332–48. New York: Facts On File, 1995. *Toombs, Lawrence E. “War, Ideas of.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4:796–801. Overview of concepts and history of holy war, updated by Gottwald.
Tosi, Maurizio. “L’armamentario militare nei più antichi Stati del Vicino Oriente.” In Armi e armature asiatiche, by Bianca Maria Alfieri, Lionello Lanciotti, Giorgio Mantici, Adolfo Tamburello, and Maurizio Tosi, 13–58. Arte e Tecnica: Collana enciclopedica delle arti applicate. Milan: Bramante Editrice, 1974. Tritsch, F. J. “The ‘Sackers of Cities’ and the ‘Movement of Populations.’ ” In Bronze Age Migrations in the Aegean: Archaeological and Linguistic Problems in Greek Prehistory, edited by R. A. Crossland and Ann Birchall, 233–39. Park Ridge, New Jersey: Noyes Press, 1974. On the nature of the military bands participating in the demise of Mycenaean and Hittite civilization.
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Trump, D. H. The Prehistory of the Mediterranean. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. See especially chap. 5, “The Third Millennium B.C.,” 103–105, remarking on the role of military institutions and warfare in civilized development.
Wallinga, H. T. Ships and Sea-Power before the Great Persian War: The Ancestry of the Ancient Trireme. Mnemosyne, Supplements, 121. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993. Watkins, Trevor. “The Beginnings of Warfare.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 15–35. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Military institutions and warfare in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Weinfeld, Moshe. “Divine Intervention in War in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East.” In History, Historiography and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures, edited by Hayim Tadmore and Moshe Weinfeld, 121–47. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1983. Review of biblical passages showing divine intervention.
*Weippert, Manfred. “ ‘Heiliger Krieg’ in Israel und Assyrien: Kritische Anmerkungen zu Gerhard von Rads Konzept des ‘Heiligen Krieges im alten Israel.’ ” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 84 (1972): 460–493. Mari, Hittite, and Neoassyrian evidence point to Israel’s practice and ideology of warfare as common to the ancient Near East, not a distinctive kind of holy war.
*Wevers, John W. “War, Methods of.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4:801–805. Concise treatment of such issues as geography, transport, fortification, and siege warfare.
*Wevers, John W. “Weapons and Implements of War.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4:820–25. Development of weaponry, offensive and defensive, from the Neolithic to the Iron Age.
Wise, Terence, and Angus McBride. Ancient Armies of the Middle East. Men-at-Arm Series 109. London: Osprey, 1981. Wright, Henry T., and Gregory A. Johnson. “Population, Exchange, and Early State Formation in Southwestern Iran.” American Anthropologist 77 (1975): 267–89. Some attention to role of warfare.
MESOPOTAMIA
Scholarly and popular studies of military institutions and warfare in Mesopotamia, Babylon, and Assyria, from earliest times to the midFirst Millennium B.C.E. Adams, Richard McC. Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Numerous remarks on fortifications and military policy.
Adams, Richard McC. “The Mesopotamian Social Landscape: A View from the Frontier.” In Reconstructing Complex Societies: An Archaeological Colloquium, edited by Charlotte B. Moore, 1–20. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Supplementary Studies 20. Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1974. Periodic cycling between strong central government and nomadic invasion is best explained by internal factors rather than the military prowess of “invaders,” who usually moved into power vacuums.
Adams, Richard McC., and Hans J. Nissen. The Uruk Countryside: The Natural Setting of Urban Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972. Chap. 2, “Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Early Urbanization,” 9–33, discusses costs of fortification as a factor in city size and shape.
*Algave, Guillermo. The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Significant but controversial thesis centered on the coercive extraction of material resources on the Mespotamian periphery.—reviewed by Henry T. Wright, American Anthropologist 97 (March 1995): 151–52.
Bailkey, Nels. “Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development.” American Historical Review 72 (1967): 1211–36. In general, Mesopotamia anticipated Greek development from primitive monarchy, though oligarchy, to tyranny, but never proceeded to democracy. Military basis (war leadership) of primitive monarchy, supplanted after Gilgamesh by oligarchy of priests (2700–2550), succeeded by secular tyrants with private armies (2550–2370); Sargon (2370–2315) as military usurper and empire builder.
Bersani, Leo, and Ulysse Dutoit. The Forms of Violence: Narrative in Assyrian Art and Modern Culture. New York: Schocken Books, 1985. Numerous reproductions of palace reliefs related to military activity, as well as other forms of violence.
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*Brandes, M. A. “ ‘Waffenkammer’—ein neues Siegelthema der UrukZeit.” Forschungen und Funde–Festschrift Bernhard Neutsch, 77–87. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft 21, 1980. Cassin, Elena. “A propos du char de guerre en Mésopotamie.” In Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, edited by Jeanne-Pierre Vernant, 297–308. Civilisations et sociétés, vol. 11. Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968. Origins, functions, and construction of chariots in Mesopotamia during the third and second millennia B.C.
*Charvát, Petr. “Early Ur—War Chiefs and Kings of Early Dynastic III.” Altorientalische Forschungen 9 (1982): 43–60. Charvát, Petr. “The Kish Evidence and the Emergence of States in Mesopotamia.” Current Anthropology 22 (1981): 686–88. Armed force as the central focus of emergent secular power.
*Cooper, Jerrold S. Reconstructing History from Ancient Inscriptions: The Lagash-Umma Border Conflict. Sources from the Ancient Near East 2/1. 2d edition. Malibu, California: Undena, 1987. History’s first documented war, end of Early Dynastic Period, ca. 2500 B.C.E.— EL in AHA Guide 5.48.
Crawford, Harriet. Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. On the military role of Sumerian kings, see chap. 2, “History, Chronology and Social Organisation,” 13–28, passim; on the ubiquity of metal weaponry, chap. 7, “Manufacturing Industry and Trade,” 124–50, at 133–34.
Curtis, J. E., Tamara S. Wheeler, James D. Muhly, and Robert Maddin. “Neo-Assyrian Ironworking Technology.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 123 (1979): 369–90. Study focused by the relevance of this technology to Assyria’s military prowess.
Dalley, Stephanie. “Ancient Mesopotamian Military Organization.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson, 1:413–22. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995. *Dalley, Stephanie. “Foreign Chariotry and Cavalry in the Armies of Tiglath Pilesar III and Sargon II.” Iraq 47 (1985): 31–48. Foreigners in the Assyrian army.—EL AHA Guide 5.106.
Dalley, Stephanie. Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities. London: Longman, 1984. Chap. 7, “Warfare and Diplomacy,” 139–55, includes extensive quotations from palace documents.
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*Dalley, Stephanie, and J. N. Postgate. “New Light on the Composition of Sargon II’s Army.” In The Tablets from Fort Shalmaneser, 27–47. Cuneiform Texts from Nimrud 3. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 1984. Excellent discussion of evidence on Assyrian army, which needs a serious full-length study.—PG in AHA Guide 5.107.
Eichler, Barry L. “Of Slings and Shield, Throw-Sticks and Javelins.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 103 (1983): 95–102. Primarily on the definition of a Sumerian term variously translated, with some information on Sumerian military technique.
Gadd, C. J. “The Cities of Babylon.” In The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 1, part 2, Early History of the Middle East, edited by I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond, 93–144. 3rd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. See chap. 5, “Armies and Warfare,” 121–24, on early Sumerian warfare.
Garelli, Paul. “Note sur l’évolution du char de guerre en Mésopotamie jusqu’à la fin de l’Empire assyrien.” In Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, edited by Jeanne-Pierre Vernant, 291–95. Civilisations et sociétés, vol. 11. Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968. Chariot equipment and tactical uses.
Gelb, I. J. “Prisoners of War in Early Mesopotamia.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 32 (1973): 70–98. On the immediate and long-term disposition of captives, including the use of slavesoldiers.
*Gerardi, Pamela. “Declaring War in Mesopotamia.” Archiv für Orientforschung 33 (1986): 30–38. Translation and discussion of Babylonian declaration of war from 1st millennium B.C.E.—EL AHA Guide 5.108.
Glock, Albert B. “Warfare in Mari and Early Israel.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Michigan, 1968. On military institutions in 18th-century B.C. Mesopotamia, stressing administrative control as the key to military efficiency.
Grayson, A. Kirk. “Assyrian Rule of Conquered Territory in Ancient Western Asia.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson, 2:959–68. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995. Grayson, A. Kirk. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium B.C., I (1114–859 B.C.). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods, vol. 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991.
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Harris, Rivkah. Ancient Sippar: A Demographic Study of an Old Babylonian City (1894 –1595 B.C.). Publications de l’Institut historique et archéologique néerlandais de Stamboul 36. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, 1975. See chap. 2, “The Administrative Structure,” part 3, “The Military Organization,” 86–116, mainly on personnel recruitment and such peacetime activities as corvée.
Harrison, Richard. “Ashurnasirpal II and Ninth-Century Assyria.” History Today 27 (1977): 772–78. On the establishment of the Assyrian state, with close attention to military factors.
Healy, Mark, and Angus McBride. The Ancient Assyrians. Elite Series 39. London: Osprey, 1991. Healy, Mark. Nebuchadnezzar, Scourge of Zion. Heroes and Warriors series. Poole, England: Firebird Books, 1989. Illustrated sketch of Babylonian warfare in the mid-first millennium B.C.
Ikeda, Yutaka. “Royal Cities and Fortified Cities.” Iraq 41 (1979): 75–87. In Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, rule resides in royal cities, while fortified cities are centers of resistance.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. “Sumer” and “Akkad.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations, edited by Arthur Cotterell, 72–89. New York: Mayflower, 1980. Stresses military aspects of Mesopotamian origins and development.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. Toward the Image of Tammuz and Other Essays on Mesopotamian History and Culture. Edited by William L. Moran. Harvard Semitic Studies, vol. 21. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970. Reprints several relevant essays originally published from 1939 to the 1950s.
Johnson, Gregory A. “The Changing Organization of Uruk Administration on the Susiana Plain.” In The Archaeology of Western Iran: Settlement and Society from Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest, edited by Frank Hole, 107–39. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987. See “Susiana ‘Foreign Relations,’ ” 125–126, on the still poorly understood interactions between emerging complex polities during the Fourth Millennium B.C.E.
Kendall, Timothy. “Warfare and Military Matters in the Nuzi Tablets.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Brandeis Univesity, 1975. In Dissertation Abstracts International (1975), 3026–A. On the military organization of the Hurrian Empire of Mitanni in the the 15th century B.C.
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Kotker, Norman. “The Assyrians.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Summer 1991): 8–19. Military institutions, 11th–7th centuries B.C.
*Malbran-Labatg, Florence. L’Armée et l’organisation militaire de l’Assyrie. École Pratique des Hautes Études, Quatrième section: sciences historiques et philologiques 2; Haute2s Paris, 1982. Matthews, Victor H. “Legal Aspects of Military Service in Ancient Mesopotamia.” Military Law Review 94 (Fall 1981): 135–51. Justification for war, military service, desertion, hostages and prisoners of war, in Mari and Babylon, 1830–1750 B.C.
Moorey, P. R. S. “The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500–2100 B.C.” Iraq 44 (1982): 13–38. Cautious comments on bronze and innovative weapons technology as factors in the emergence of complex societies in Sumer.
Nissen, Hans Jörg. “The City Wall of Uruk.” In Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, edited by Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby, 793–98. London: Duckworth, 1972. Most likely a response to warlike threat from nearby communities.
Oates, Joan. Babylon. Ancient Peoples and Places. London: Thames & Hudson, 1979. Remarks on military factors in Babylonian history.
Oates, Joan. “Mesopotamian Social Organisation: Archaeological and Philological Evidence.” In The Evolution of Social Systems, edited by J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, 457–85. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978. How far the evidence goes toward understanding social organization, including the role of the military.
Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. Revised edition, completed by Erica Reiner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977. Mesopotamian history and culture, with attention to military matters.
Parrot, André. “Les fouilles de Mari, dix-nevième campagne (printemps 1971).” Syria 48 (1971): 253–70. Plate XIV:4, p. 260, publishes a small incised stone slab from Mari dated to the late Early Dynastic period and carrying the earliest depiction of a siege scene in Mesopotamian art.
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Pettinato, Giovanni. The Archives of Ebla: An Empire Inscribed on Clay. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1981. Chap. 5, “The Dynasty of Ebla and Its Historical Documents,” includes a section on “War,” 99–102.
Porter, Barbara N. “ ‘These Are Monstrous Deeds. . . .’ ” Military History Quarterly 9 (Summer 1997): 70–79. The Assyrian civil war of 680 B.C.
Postgate, J. N. “The Economic Structure of the Assyrian Empire.” In Power and Propaganda: A Symposium on Ancient Empires, edited by Mogens Trolle Larsen, 193–221. Mespotamia: Copenhagen Studies in Assyriology, vol. 7. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1979. How the army was supported.
Potts, D. T. Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1997. Not much specifically military, but useful on metallurgy, wall-building, etc.
Reade, J. E. “The Neo-Assyrian Court and Army: Evidence from the Sculptures.” Iraq 34 (1972): 87–112. Graphic evidence for military organization in the first millennium.
Redman, Charles L. “Mesopotamian Urban Ecology: The Systemic Context of the Emergence of Urbanism.” In Social Archeology: Beyond Subsistence and Dating, by Charles L. Redman et al., 329–47. New York: Academic Press, 1978. In this positive feedback ecological model of the urban revolution, armies are shown developing in response to wealth concentrating in growing towns, then becoming an independent force acquiring further wealth, and so forth; militarism is posited as a source of negative feedback.
Roaf, Michael. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. New York and Oxford: Facts On File, 1990. Warfare figures prominently throughout, but see especially “Mesopotamian Warfare,” 194–95.
Rohrlich, Ruby. “State Formation in Sumer and the Subjugation of Women.” Feminist Studies 6 (1980): 76–102. Institutionalization of militarism as a key factor in state formation and women’s status.
Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. 2d edition. New York: Penguin, 1980. Mesopotamian history with due attention to military matters.
Rowton, M. B. “Sumer’s Strategic Periphery in Topological Perspective.” In Zikir Sumim: Assyriological Studies Presented to F. R. Kraus on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday, edited by G. Van Driel, Th. J. H. Krispijn, M. Stol, and K. R. Veenhof, 318–25. Nederlands Instituut
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voor het Nabije Oosten Studia Francisci Scholten Memoriae Dicata, vol. 5. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982. Military and political consequences of Mesopotamian geography.
Safren, Jonathan D. “Dàr-Yahdun-Lim—The Raison d’etre of an Ancient Mesopotamian Fortress City.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 32 (1989): 1–48. The city was situated to block armies advancing toward Mari from upper Mesopotamia or north Syria, and to pacify and control pastoralists in the countryside.
Saggs, H. W. F. The Might That Was Assyria. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984. See chap. 16, “The Assyrian Army,” 243–68.
Sandars, N. K. The Epic of Gilgamesh: An English Version with an Introduction. Revised edition. New York: Penguin, 1972. Aspects of early 3d millennium warfare.
Sasson, Jack M. The Military Establishments at Mari. Studia Pohl: Dissertationes scientificae de rebus orientis antiqui. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1969. On the military institutions of a Mesopotamian state around the 18th century B.C.
Solyman, Toufic. Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der Götterwaffen im alten Mesopotamien und ihre Bedeutung. Beirut: Henri Abdelnour; Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1968. Mace, ax, and other weapons as attributes of divinity.
*Weeks, N. “The Old Babylonian Amorites: Nomads or Mercenaries,” Orientalia Lovanensia Periodica 16 (1985): 49–57. Whitehouse, Ruth. The First Cities. Oxford: Phaidon; New York: E. P. Dutton, 1977. Dismisses military institutions and warfare as significant factor in rise of Sumerian civilization (66–72), but judges them likely decisive in developing kingship during early Dynastic period (188–89).
Wiseman, D. J. “The Assyrians.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 36–53. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Yoffee, Norman. “The Collapse of Ancient Mesopotamian States and Civilization.” In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, edited by Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, 44–68. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. Sociopolitical history of Mesopotamia, distinguishing the regular collapse of Mesopotamian states from the final collapse of Mesopotamian civilization, the latter in part precipitated by Babylonian, then Assyrian militarism, and eventually completed by Persian conquest.
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Yoffee, Norman. “The Decline and Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization: An Ethnoarchaeological Perspective on the Evolution of Social Complexity.” American Antiquity 44 (1979): 5–35. Remarks on coercion and conflict in state formation in the course of a vigorous challenge to social evolutionism; see “In the Matter of Social Complexity,” 14–17.
EGYPT
Scholarly and popular accounts of military institutions and warfare in ancient Egypt and Nubia, from earliest times to the Persian conquest. Aldred, Cyril. The Egyptians. Ancient Peoples and Places 18. London: Thames & Hudson, 1984. War discussed as a factor in the origin of the Egyptian state and in its later history, but see especially the section on “The Armed Forces,” 188–92, in chap. 14, “Egyptian Social Groups.”
Baines, John, and Jarmír Málek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York and Oxford: Facts On File, 1980. In addition to the relevant maps, see the section on “The Army,” 202–203.
Casson, Lionel, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Ancient Egypt. Great Ages of Man: A History of the World’s Cultures. Revised edition. New York: Time, 1968. See especially chap. 3, “Pathway to Power,” 50–60, and the accompanying picture essay, “The War Machine,” 61–69.
Centre de Documentation et d’Etudes sur l’Egypte Ancienne. L’armée dans l’Egypte ancienne. Egypt: Abu Fadil Press, n.d. Mainly reproductions of reliefs, paintings, and other works depicting ancient Egyptian armies.
Chevereau, Pierre-Marie. “Contribution à la prosopographie des cadres militaires de l’Ancien Empire et de la Première Période Intermédiaire.” Revue d’Egyptologie 38 (1987): 13–48. Catalogue of military titles, positions, etc., identified in documents of the Old Kingdom and first interregnum.
Clark, J. Desmond, J. L. Phillips, and P. S. Staley. “Interpretations of Prehistoric Technology from Ancient Egyptian and Other Sources, Part I: Ancient Egyptian Bows and Arrows and Their Relevance for African Prehistory.” Palæorient 2 (1974): 323–88. Clark, J. Desmond, J. L. Phillips, and P. S. Staley. “Interpretations of Prehistoric Technology from Ancient Egyptian and Other Sources, Part II: Prehistoric Arrow Forms in Africa as Shown by Surviving Examples of the Traditional Arrows of the San Bushmen,” Palæorient 3 (1975–1977): 127–50. Emphasizing the persistence of traditional forms until recent times.
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Curto, Silvio. L’arte militare presso gli antichi Egizi. Quaderno 3. Turin: Museo Egizio di Torino, 1970. Photographs of works of art and related materials on ancient Egyptian military institutions and warfare.
Davis, Whitney. Masking the Blow: The Scene of Representation in Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art. California Studies in the History of Art 30. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. The ruler’s decisive act of conquest as a central theme of late prehistoric Egyptian pictorial representation.
Hayes, Rose Oldfield. “Warfare and the Disappearance of Meroe: A Preliminary Application of Cross-Cultural Findings to Nile Archaeology.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship et al., 345–57. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. Also on origins (despite the title), with useful remarks about relationships between state, civilization, culture, and military institutions.
Hayes, William C. “Egypt: Internal Affairs from Tuthmosis I to the Death of Amenhophis III.” In The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 1, part 2, Early History of the Middle East, edited by I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond, 313–416. 3rd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. See chap. 9, “The Army, Navy, and Police Force,” 363–72, on the reorganized armed forces of the New Kingdom.
Hayes, William C. The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, part 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1990. See especially the section on “The Soldier and His Weapons,” 277–84, in chap. 14, “Professions and Crafts of the Middle Kingdom.”
Healy, Mark, and Angus McBride. New Kingdom Egypt. Osprey Military Elite Series 40. London: Osprey, 1992. Military organization and operations, 1674–1085 B.C.
Helck, Wolfgang. “Militär (Personal-Organisation).” In Lexikon der Ägyptologie, fascicle 25, edited by Wolfgang Helck and Wolfhart Westendorf, 127–34. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1980. Hoffman, Michael A. Egypt before the Pharaohs: The Prehistoric Foundations of Egyptian Civilization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979. On war see especially chap. 6, “The Late Palaeolithic: Of Floods, Droughts, and a Promise Unfulfilled,” 78–102; and chap. 20, “The Emergence of Egypt,” 306–47.
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James, Frances. “Stone Knobs and Chariot Tracks.” Expedition 16 (Spring 1974): 31–39. On chariot technology and its introduction to Imperial Egypt.
Janssen, Jacobus J. “The Early State in Ancient Egypt.” In The Early State, edited by H. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 213–34. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 32. The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Notes the minor role of military institutions in the Old Kingdom, chiefly conscripts and local militia used in mining expeditions and the like.
Jones, Dilwyn. Boats. Egyptian Bookshelf. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995. Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. London: Routledge, 1989. Numerous remarks on the army and on military architecture (see index), but see especially the discussion of New Kingdom militarism, 223–30, in chap. 5, “New Kingdom Egypt: The Mature State.”
Kemp, Barry J. “Fortified Towns in Nubia.” In Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, edited by Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby, 651–56. London: Duckworth, 1972. On Middle and New Kingdom Egyptian garrison towns.
Kemp, Barry J. “Imperialism and Empire in New Kingdom Egypt (c. 1575–1087 B.C.).” In Imperialism in the Ancient World, edited by P. D. A. Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker, 7–57. The Cambridge University Seminar in Ancient History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. On the significance of war and military institutions in defining the state.
Kobishchanov, Yuri M. Axum. Edited by Joseph W. Michels, Translated by Lorraine T. Kapitanoff. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979. “The Army,” 208–214, in chap. 4, “Political Organization of the Axumite State,” in 5th century A.D.
Landström, Björn. Ships of the Pharaohs: 4000 Years of Egyptian Shipbuilding. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1970. Including New Kingdom warships, 108–13.
*Littauer, M. A., and J. H. Crouwel. Chariots and Related Equipment from the Tomb of Tut’ankhamùn. Tut’ankhamùn’s Tomb Series 8. Oxford: The Griffith Institute, 1985. Definitive catalogue and commentary, important among other things for its study of chariot construction and warfare—review by C. N. Reeves, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 76 (1990): 232–36.
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Mertz, Barbara. Red Land, Black Land: Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Revised edition. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1978. See chap. 8, “I Fought Incredibly,” 149–62.
Mertz, Barbara. Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphs: A Popular History of Ancient Egypt. Revised edition. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1978. Remarks on armies and weapons.
Michalowski, Kazimierz. Art of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York: Harry N. Abrams, n.d. Reproductions of several relevant works of art.
Newby, P. H. Warrior Pharaohs: The Rise and Fall of the Egyptian Empire. London: Faber & Faber, 1980. Military history of Egypt in the second millennium B.C.
Preger, Elfriede. Ancient Egypt—A Survey. South Bend, Indiana: and books, 1975. For an illustrated sketch of Egyptian arms, see “Flint Tools and Weapons,” 27–29, and “Metals, Metal Tools and Weapons,” 71–74.
Ruffle, John. The Egyptians: An Introduction to Egyptian Archaeology. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977. See the section on “The Army,” 121–24, in chap. 9, “The Structure of the State.”
*Schulman, Alan R. “Chariots, Chariotry and the Hyksos.” Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 10 (1980): 105–53. Schulman, Alan R. “Military Organization in Pharaonic Egypt.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson, 1:289–301. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995. Shaw, Ian. Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Shire Egyptology 16. Risborough, England: Shire, 1991. *Smith, Stuart Tyson. “Askut and the Changing Nature of Egyptian Imperialism in the Second Millennium B.C.” Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993. Spalinger, Anthony John. Aspects of the Military Documents of the Ancient Egyptians. Yale Near Eastern Researches 9. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1982. On Egyptian military inscriptions from the 18th dynasty, considered chiefly as a literary genre.
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Spalinger, Anthony John. “Historical Observations on the Military Reliefs of Abu Simbel and Other Ramesside Temples in Nubia.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 66 (1980): 83–99. Useful for reconstructing events of the reign, and for other historical purposes.
Spalinger, Anthony John. “The Northern Wars of Seti I: An Integrative Study.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 16 (1979): 29–47. Chiefly concerned with establishing the chronology from foreign as well as Egyptian sources.
Strouhal, Eugen. Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Translated by Deryck Viney. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. Chap. 15, “The Fortunes of War,” 201–13, includes excellent illustrations.
Trigger, Bruce G., Barry J. Kemp, David O’Connor, and Alan B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. See index for extensive but scattered remarks on army, military, soldier, war, etc.
Trigger, Bruce G. Early Civilizations: Ancient Egypt in Context. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993. Paperback edition, 1995. See “The Army,” 49–52, in chap. 2, “Economic Foundations.”
Welsby, Derek A. The Kingdom of Kush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires. London: British Museum Press, for the Trustees of the British Museum, 1996. See chap. 2, “The Heydey of Kush,” 19–56, especially sections on “The Army,” 39–44; “The Defence of the Frontiers of Kush,” 44–45; and “Military Installations,” 45–50.
ANATOLIA AND THE LEVANT
From earliest times to the Persian conquest Bar-Yosef, O. “The Walls of Jericho: An Alternative Interpretation.” Current Anthropology 27 (April 1986): 157–62.
Massive stone perimeter wall and tower may have been a defense against flood and mudflow, since there is no evidence of war (mass killing, burned settlements, fortifications) before the sixth millennium.’
Beal, Richard H. “Hittite Military Organization.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson, 1:545–54. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995. *Beal, Richard H. The Organisation of the Hittite Military. Texte der Hethiter 20. Heidelberg: Winter, 1992. First detailed description of Hittite army, including discussion of organization, strategy, tactics, weapons, and armor, based chiefly on Hittite texts.—JDM AHA Guide 5.388.
Chahin, M. The Kingdom of Armenia. London: Croom Helm, 1987. See chap. 17, “Military Equipment: Costume,” 192–97, of the Kingdom of Urartu.
Dever, William G. “The Late Bronze, Iron Age, and Hellenistic Defenses of Gezer.” In Essays in Honour of Yigael Yadin, edited by Geza Vermes and Jacob Neusner, 19–34. Totowa, New Jersey: Allanheld, Osmun, for the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Studies, 1983. Archaeological evidence vs. architectural reason as basis for understanding the citywall system.
Dever, William G. “Social Structure in Palestine in the Iron II Period on the Eve of Destruction.” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 416–31. New York: Facts On File, 1995. On the significance of fortification, see “Architecture,” 422–23; see also “Conquests, Destructions and the Archaeological Record,” 431.
Drower, Margaret S. “Syria c. 1550–1400 B.C.” In The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, part 1, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1800–1380 B.C., edited by I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger, 417–525. 3d edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. See chap. 7, “Warfare and Society,” 493–506.
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*Frick, Frank S. The Formation of the State in Ancient Israel: A Survey of Models and Theories. The Social World of Biblical Antiquity 4. Sheffield, England: Almond, 1985. Current archaeology and ethnology applied to biblical studies, sketching the sociopolitical process beginning with agricultural intensification from segmentary lineage (“tribal period”) through chiefdom (Saul) to state (David in Jerusalem).
Hauer, Chris, Jr. “The Rise of the Israelite Monarchy: A Challenge to Circumscription Theory.” In Paul B. Roscoe and Robert B. Graber, eds., “Circumscription and the Evolution of Society,” American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1988): 428–37. Helms, S. W. “Jawa: A Fortified Town of the Fourth Millennium B.C.” Archaeology 27 (1974): 136–37. In Abstracts in Anthropology 5 (1974): 5716. Uncovering a large fortified settlement and dam in Jordan dating from late Chalcolithic suggests need to reassess the entire area as a site of early urbanization.
Heltzer, Michael. “Some Problems of the Military Organization of Ugarit.” Oriens Antiquus 18 (1979): 245–53. Technical discussion of terms, 14th–13th centuries B.C.
Holladay, John S., Jr. “The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah: Political and Economic Centralization in the Iron IIA–B (ca. 1000–750 B.C.E.).” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 368–98. New York: Facts On File, 1995. Standing armies as one of the hallmarks of a centralized state attested archaeologically by chariot stables and fortifications.
*Houwink ten Cate, P. H. J. “The History of Warfare According to Hittite Sources (II).” Anatolica 11 (1984): 47–83. Ilan, David. “The Dawn of Internationalism—The Middle Bronze Age.” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 297–319. New York: Facts On File, 1995. See especially “The Technology and Technique of Warfare and the Prestige of Personal Combat,” 311–13; and “Symbols of Power and Modes of Defense: The Great Rampart Fortifications,” 316–17.
*James, S. T. “The Arms and Armour from Dura-Europos, Syria.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of London, 1991. Karageorghis, Vassos. “Deux avant-postes militaires de la fin du XIIIe siècle av. J.-C., à Chypre.” L’Académie des Inscriptions and Belles-lettres, Comptes Rendus (1982): 704–24. Probable Hittite garrison.
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Kotker, Norman. “King David’s Wars.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Winter 1989): 80–91. Hebrew warfare in the 10th century B.C.
Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites, and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. Ancient Peoples and Places, vol. 83. Revised edition. London: Thames & Hudson, 1986. See chap. 4, “Warfare and Defence,” 53–73.
Malamat, Abraham. “Conquest of Canaan: Israelite Conduct of War According to Biblical Tradition.” In Encyclopedia Judaica Year Book 1975/6, 166–82. Jerusalem, 1977. Biblical tradition analyzed in conventional modern military terms, with substantial bibliography and notes.
Malamat, Abraham. “How Inferior Israelite Forces Conquered Fortified Canaanite Cities.” Biblical Archaeological Review 8 (March-April 1982): 24–35. Tactical and strategic analysis inspired by Liddell Hart’s theory of the indirect approach.
Malamat, Abraham. “Israelite Conduct of War in the Conquest of Canaan.” In Symposia Celebrating the Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Founding of the American Schools of Oriental Research (1900–1975), edited by Frank Moore Cross, 35–55. Cambridge: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1979. Technical military analysis based chiefly on biblical sources.
Margowsky, Yitzhak. “War and Warfare: To the Destruction of the First Temple.” In Encycopaedia Judaica, vol. 16, 266–78. Jerusalem and New York: Macmillan, 1971. Ancient Hebrew military institutions and warfare.
Muffs, Yochanan. “Abraham, the Noble Warrior: Patriarchal Politics and Laws of War in Ancient Israel.” Journal of Jewish Studies 33 (1982): 81–107. Also in Essays in Honour of Yigael Yadin, edited by Geza Vermes and Jacob Neusner, 81–107. Totowa, New Jersey: Allanheld, Osmun, for the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Studies, 1983. Military aspects of the Old Testament patriarchs, heroism, and legality, as suggested by Abraham’s distribution of booty in Genesis 14.
Muhly, James D. “How Iron Technology Changed the Ancient World—And Gave the Philistines a Military Edge.” Biblical Archaeology Review 8/6 (1982): 40–54. Popular article about military technological developments in the late second millennium.
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*Muhly, James D., et al. “Iron in Anatolia and the Nature of the Hittite Iron Industry.” Anatolian Studies 35.1 (1985): 67–84. New analytical evidence for development of iron technology in Bronze Age Anatolia, reviews alleged Hittite iron monopoly.—JDM AHA Guide 5.395.
Porter, Bezalel. Archives from Elephantine: The Life of an Ancient Jewish Military Colony. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. Chap. 2, “Elephantine-Syene Garrison: Organization, Officials, and Duties,” 30–61.
Rad, Gerhard von. Holy War in Ancient Israel. Translated from the 3rd edition of Der heilige Krieg im alten Israel (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1958) by Marva J. Dawn. Introduction by Ben C. Ollenburger. Bibliography by Judith E. Sanderson. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1991. On the character of biblical warfare.
Sanderson. Judith E. “War, Peace, and Justice in the Hebrew Bible: A Representative Bibliography.” In Holy War in Ancient Israel, by Gerhard von Rad, 35–166. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1991. Extensively annotated bibliography oriented toward peace studies.
Smend, Rudolf. Yahweh War and Tribal Confederation: Reflections upon Israel’s Earliest History. Translated from the 2d edition by Max Gray Rogers. Nashville, Tennessee, and New York: Abingdon Press, 1970. Extension of von Rad’s Holy War thesis.
Swartley, Willard M. Slavery, Sabbath, War and Women: Case Issues in Biblical Interpretation. Scottdale, Pennsylvania, and Kitchener, Ontario: Herald Press, 1983. See chap. 3, “The Bible and War,” 96–149.
Vaux, Roland de. “Palestine in the Early Bronze Age.” In The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 1, part 2, Early History of the Middle East, edited by I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond, 208–37. 3d edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Chap. 2, “The Fortified Cities,” 214–18, emphasizes the striking contrast between chalcolithic unfortified villages and early bronze age walled cities.
Yadin, Yigael. “The Transition from a Semi-Nomadic to a Sedentary Society in the Twelfth Century B.C.E.” In Symposia Celebrating the Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Founding of the American Schools of Oriental Research (1900–1975), edited by Frank Moore Cross, 57–68. Cambridge: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1979. Archaeological evidence supports violent conquest rather than peaceful penetration.
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Yadin, Yigael. “Warfare in the Second Millennium B.C.E.” In Patriarchs, edited by Benjamin Mazar, 127–59. The World History of the Jewish People, vol. 2. Givatayim: Jewish History Publications; New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1970. Discusses weapons, military organization, battle, and siege.
CRETE, MYCENAE, AND ARCHAIC GREECE
Scholarly and popular studies of military institutions and warfare in the eastern Mediterranean and Greek mainland, from the Third to the mid-First Millennium. Anderson, J. K. “Greek Chariot-borne and Mounted Infantry.” American Journal of Archaeology 79 (1975): 175–87. Bowden, Hugh. “Hoplites and Homer: Warfare, Hero Cult, and the Ideology of the Polis.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Branigan, Keith. The Foundations of Palatial Crete: A Survey of Crete in the Early Bronze Age. New York: Praeger, 1970. Chap. 6, “Society and Social Organization,” 114–25, notes the apparent lack of interest in matters military, unique among Bronze Age societies.
Castleden, Rodney. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. London and New York: Routledge, 1990. On the myth of Cretan pacifism, apparently based on the observed absence of fortifications, see “Testing the Tradition,” 162–67, in chap. 7, “The Minoan Personality”; see also “Arms and Armour,” 18–21, in chap. 2, “The People.”
Chadwick, John. The Mycenean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres, 1976. See chap. 9, “Weapons and War,” 159–79.
*Costourou, Magda. “Mycenean Offensive Weapons.” Athens Am. Archaeol. 5 (1972): 331–37. Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. “Weapons and Armour,” 197–207, in chap. 5, “Arts and Crafts.”
Drews, Robert. The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988. Especially chap. 5, “The New Warfare,” 74–120.
Finley, M. I. Early Greece: The Bronze and Archaic Ages. Revised edition. New York: W. W. Norton, 1981. Extensive but scattered discussion of war and military institutions.
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Greenhalgh, P. A. L. Early Greek Warfare: Horsemen and Chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Chariots and horses in Dark Age Greece, arguing their primary use in transport rather than fighting.
Hiller, Stefan. “Pax Minoica Versus Minoan Thalassocracy: Military Aspects of Minoan Culture.” In The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality, edited by R. Hägg and N. Marinatos, 27–30. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 1982. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag, 1984. Archaeological evidence for a long-lasting Minoan arms industry supports the idea of significant military power.
Hood, Sinclair. “A Minoan Empire in the Aegean in the Sixteenth and Fifteenth Centuries B.C.?” In The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality, edited by R. Hägg and N. Marinatos, 33–37. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 1982. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag, 1984. Ambiguous evidence suggests that after the political unification of Crete, Minoan political control expanded in the Cyclades and mainland Greece.
Hopper, R. J. The Early Greeks. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1977. See chap. 6, “The Beginnings of Consolidation: Tyrants and Hoplites,” 109–55, especially 142–45 on soldiers and the origin of hoplite armies.
Jackson, Alastar. “War and Raids for Booty in the World of Odysseus.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 64–76. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Jeffery, L. H. Archaic Greece: The City States, c. 700 –500 B.C. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976. See “Early Cavalry and Hoplite Warfare,” 67–68, in chap. 5, “Euboia and the Lelantine War”; and “Government and Army System,” 118–20, in chap. 8, “Sparta: The Messenian Wars and the Peloponnesian League.”
Karageorghis, Vassos. Cyprus: From the Stone Age to the Romans. Ancient Peoples and Places. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1982. Including scattered remarks on weapons and fortifications.
Lawrence, A. W. Greek Aims in Fortification. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Chap. 1, “Relations of Greek to Preceding Military Architecture,” 3–38, discusses Mycenean and west Asian precedents.
Littauer, Mary Aiken, and Joost H. Crouwel. “Chariots in Late Bronze Age Greece.” Antiquity 57 (1983): 187–92. Why Greenhalgh’s thesis about mounted warfare with spears will not suffice.
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Littauer, Mary Aiken. “The Military Uses of the Chariot in the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age.” American Journal of Archaeology 76 (1972): 145–57. On the question of late Mycenaean use of chariot as battle wagon or transport.
Luce, J. V. Homer and the Heroic Age. London: Thames & Hudson, 1975. Chap. 5, “Weapons and Warfare,” 101–20.
Manning, Sturt W. “The Military Function in Late Minoan I Crete: A Note.” In “Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, World Archaeology 18 (1986): 284–288. The lack of evidence for a military presence does not mean the absence of armed forces.
Mellersh, H. E. L. The Destruction of Knossos: The Rise and Fall of Minoan Crete. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1993. Reprint of 1970 edition. Morrison, J. S., and R. T. Williams. Greek Oared Ships, 900–322 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. Scholarly review of the evidence from Homer to the death of Alexander; see especially parts 1, “The Homeric Period, 900–700 B.C., 7–69; and 2, “The Archaic Period, 700–480 B.C.,” 73–165.
Niemeier, Wolf-Dietrich. “The End of the Minoan Thalassocracy.” In The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality, edited by R. Hägg and N. Marinatos, 205–14. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 1982. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag, 1984. Earthquakes, internal strife and collapse, Mycenaean occupation.
Nixon, Lucia. “Changing Views of Minoan Society.” In Minoan Society, edited by O. Krzyszkowska and Lucia Nixon. 237–43. Proceedings of the Cambridge Colloquium, 1981. Bristol: Bristol Classic Press, 1982. Archaeological evidence does not support the three most common generalizations about the Minoans: the high status of Minoan women, the so-called Minoan peace, and the positive social atmosphere of the Minoan Bronze Age.
Palmer, L. R. “War and Society in a Mycenaean Kingdom.” In Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique, by Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 35–62. Colloques nationaux du C.N.R.S. 936. Paris: Editions du C.N.R.S., 1977. How military institutions were supported.
Platon, Nicolaos. “The Minoan Thalassocracy and the Golden Ring of Minos.” In The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality, edited by R. Hägg and N. Marinatos, 65–69. Proceedings of the Third
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International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 1982. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag, 1984. Iconic evidence for the extent of Minoan sea power.
Renfrew, Colin. The Emergence of Civilization: The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium B.C. London: Methuen, 1972. See especially the sections on “Piracy and Security in the Prehistoric Aegean,” 262–64; “The Development of Weapons in the Third Millennium B.C.,” 319–25; and “Hostility and the Inception of Warfare,” 390–99.
Snodgrass, Anthony M. Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment. London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1980. See especially chap. 3, “The Just City?” and the discussion of military institutions and warfare as the basis of the Greek state.
Starr, Chester G. The Economic and Social Growth of Early Greece, 800–500 B.C. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. Chap. 2, “Motive Forces in Economic Development,” 21–54, acknowledges military foundations of the polis and economic significance of booty.
Taylour, William. The Mycenaeans. Ancient Peoples and Places. Revised edition. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1983. See chap. 7, “War and Trade,” 135–54.
Time-Life Books, Editors of. Wondrous Realms of the Aegean. Lost Civilizations. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1993. Well-illustrated popular account; see especially “Of Arms and the Man: Mycenaean Warriors on the Battlefield,” 138–39.
*Van Wees, Hans. “Kings in Combat: Battles and Heroes in the Iliad.” Classical Quarterly new series 38.1 (1988): 1–24. On the role of commanders and nature of warfare in Homer.—EMH AHA Guide 6.535.
*Van Wees, Hans. “Leaders of Men? Military Organization in the Iliad.” Classical Quarterly new series 36.2 (1986): 285–303. On the role of commanders and nature of warfare in Homer, difficulty of using Homer as historical source, distinction between Homeric and hoplite warfare.— EMH AHA Guide 6.536.
*Van Wees, Hans. Status Warriors: War, Violence and Society in Homer and History. Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology 9. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1992. War derives from society not nature, as shown by Homeric Greece.—review by Charles D. Hamilton, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1579.
Vernant, Jean-Pierre, Ed. Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne. Civilisations et Sociétés, No. 11. Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968. See especially the “Appendice: Recherches compartives sur le problème du char,” 291–318, with notes by Garelli and Cassin.
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*Wallinga, H. T. Ships and Sea-Power before the Great Persian War: The Ancestry of the Ancient Trireme. Mnemosyne supplement 121. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993. Survey of Greek warship development.—MC AHA Guide 6.534.
Warren, Peter. The Aegean Civilizations. The Making of the Past. Lausanne: Elsevier Phaidon; New York: E. P. Dutton, 1975. Heavily illustrated popular account includes numerous references to weaponry; see index under “weapons.”
Webster, Gary S. “Social Archaeology and the Irrational.” Current Anthropology 37 (1996): 609–27 (“Comments/Reply,” 618–25). Distinctive fortified houses on Sardinia (as well as Malta and elsewhere) ca. 2000 B.C.E. may best be explained in social context of intense feuding, or vendetta.
IRAN AND PERSIA
Scholarly and popular studies of military institutions and warfare in Iran, including the wars against Greece and Rome, from earliest times to the eve of the Islamic conquest. Alden, John R. “The Susa III Period.” In The Archaeology of Western Iran: Settlement and Society from Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest, edited by Frank Hole, 157–70. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987. Situation between persistently inimical Mesopotamian and highland Iranian polities may explain the decline of Susa and depopulation of Susiansa plain.
Al-Salihi, Wathiq I. “Military Considerations in the Defences of Hatra.” Mesopotamia 22 (1987): 195–214. Fortifications of a pre-Islamic Arab city that controlled commercial and military routes parallel to the Two Rivers between Rome and Parthia.
Badian, E. “Alexander in Iran.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 420–501. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Beramini, Giovanni. “Parthian Fortifications in Mesopotamia.” Mesopotamia 22 (1987): 195–214. Bickerman, Elias. “The Seleucid Period.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 3–20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Political overview of the Seleucid kingdom discusses the army’s role in maintaining the regime (8–10) and in its final defeat (37–38)
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Much of the narrative addresses Roman-Parthian conflicts, including “The Campaign of Carrhae,” 48–58; and “Mark Antony in Àzarbàìjàn,” 58–66; and subsequent wars.
Bresciani, E. “The Persian Occupation of Egypt.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 502–28. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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Burn, A. R. “Persia and the Greeks.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 292–391. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Campbell, Brian. “War and Diplomacy: Rome and Parthia, 31 B.C.– A.D. 235.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 213–240. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Cardascia, Guillaume. “Armée et fiscalité dans la Babylonie Achéménide.” In Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique, by Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1–10. Colloques nationaux du C.N.R.S., 936; Paris: Editions du C.N.R.S., 1977. Financing the Achaemenid armies.
Cassin-Scott, Jack. The Greek and Persian Wars, 500–323 B.C. Menat-Arms Series 69. London: Osprey, 1977. Cook, J. M. The Persian Empire. New York: Schocken Books, 1983. See chap. 10, “The Armed Forces and Communications,” 101–12.
Cook, J. M. “The Rise of the Achaemenids and Establishment of Their Empire.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 200–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Crouwel, Joost H. “Ancient Persian Weapons in the Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam.” Persica 6 (1972–1974): 115–129, plates xi–xvi. Danamaev, Muhammad A., and Vladimir G. Lukonin. The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran. Translated by Philip L. Kohl with D. J. Dadson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. See chap. 2, “The Social Institutions and the Economic Structure of the Achaemenid Empire,” part K, “The Army,” 222–37.
Diakonoff, I. M. “Elam.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 1–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Diakonoff, I. M. “Media.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 36–148. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Dodgeon, Michael H., and Samuel N. C. Lieu, comps. and eds. The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, A.D. 226–363. London: Routledge, 1991. Paperback edition, 1994.
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Frye, R. N. “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 3–20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Political overview centers on the wars with Byzantium.
Garsoïan, Nina. “Byzantium and the Sasanians.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 568–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Cultural interchange included military technology and organization (580–81, 588–89).
Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. *Greenwalt, Crawford H. “When a Mighty Empire Was Destroyed: The Common Man at the Fall of Sardis, ca. 546 B.C.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 136.2 (1992): 247–71. Recent archaeological evidence on conquest of Lydian kingdom of Croesus by Cyrus of Persia, remarkable for skeleton of warrior killed during siege of Sardis.—JDM AHA Guide 5.325.
Hallock, R. T. “The Evidence of the Persepolis Tablets.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 588–609. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Includes discussion of the Persepolis fortification tablets.
*Hallock, R. T. Persepolis Fortification Tablets. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. Transliteration and transcription of over two thousand texts dealing chiefly with ration payments to officials, workers, and others.
Head, Duncan. The Achaemenid Persian Army. Stockport, England: Montvert Publications, 1992. Isaac, Benjamin. The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East. Revised edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. Roman military organization and policy in Parthia and Persia under the Republic and Principate.
Kurz, Otto. “Cultural Relations between Parthia and Rome.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 559–67. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. See “Military Technology and Strategy,” 561–63.
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*Lepper, Frank A. Trajan’s Parthian War. 1948 ed. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1979. Including topography, chronology, strategy, and motivation of the A.D. 113–117 campaigns.—MWW AHA Guide 5.457.
Mallowan, Max. “Cyrus the Great (558–529 B.C.).” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 392–419. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993. Part 1, “Empire,” comprises five chapters detailing the conquest of Mesopotamia and the wars with Persia.
Nelson, Richard. Armies of the Greek and Persian Wars, 500 to 350 B.C.: Campaigns, Organization, Tactics, Dress and Weapons. Dallas, Texas: Wargames Research Group and Heritage Models, 1975. Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. Sassanian Armies: The Iranian Empire, Early 3rd to Mid-7th Centuries A.D. Stockport, England: Montvert, 1996. Oates, David. Studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq. London: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1968. Chap. 4, “East against West: 1. Rome and Parthia,” 67–92, on the military history of northern Iraq as frontier between Rome and Parthia; chap. 5, “East against West: 2. The Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Persia,” 93–117, the same frontier later.
Oppenheim, A. L. “The Babylonian Evidence of Achaemenian Rule in Mesopotamia.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 529–87. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Pelekidis, Chryssis P., and Alexander I. Despotopoulis. “From Marathon to Thermopylai, Salamis and Plataiai.” In History of the Hellenic World: The Archaic Period, 296–373. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975. Military organization and warfare between Greeks and Persians, c. 513–479 B.C.
Ray, John D. “Soldiers to Pharaoh: The Carians of Southwest Anatolia.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson, 2:1185–1194. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995. Sekunda, Nick, and Simon Chew. The Persian Army, 560–330 B.C. Elite Series 42. London: Osprey, 1992.
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Sekunda, Nick. “The Persians.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 82–103. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Stern, Ephraim. “Between Persia and Greece: Trade, Administration and Warfare in the Persian and Hellenistic Periods (539–63 B.C.E.).” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 432–45. New York: Facts On File, 1995. See especially “Warfare,” 445.
Sulimirski, T. “The Scyths.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by Ilya Gershevitch, 149–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Wiesehöfer, Josef. Ancient Persia. Translated by Azizer Azodi. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1996. Wenke, Robert J. “Western Iran in the Partho-Sasanian Period: The Imperial Transformation.” In The Archaeology of Western Iran: Settlement and Society from Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest, edited by Frank Hole, 251–281. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987. See “Partho-Sasanian Administrative Institutions,” 259–62.
Wilcox, Peter, and Angus McBride. Rome’s Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Men-at-Arms Series 175. London: Osprey, 1986.
THE CLASSICAL WORLD
General, comprehensive, and historiographic studies of military institutions and warfare in the Greek and Roman Worlds, including specific battles, wars, and conquests. Arvites, James A. “The Military Campaigns of Adrianople.” History Today 31 (April 1981): 30–35. Austin, Michel. “Alexander and the Macedonian Invasion of Asia: Aspects of the Historiography of War and Empire in Antiquity.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 197–223. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. *Austin, N. J. E. Ammianus on Warfare: An Investigation into Ammianus’ Military Knowledge. Brussels: Latomus, 1979. His viewpoint that of staff officer rather than commander, but knowledgeable of strategy, tactics, and especially intelligence.
Bar-Kochva, Bezalel. Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle against the Seleucids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Part 1, “Historical Evaluation,” 2–148, discusses tactics, arms, organization, and related issues for Seleucid and Jewish forces; part 2, “Accounts of the Battles: Introduction, Text and Commentary,” 151–409, provides sources and analyses for each battle; 12 appendixes elucidate specific topics.
Bath, Tony. Hannibal’s Campaigns: The Story of One of the Greatest Military Commanders of All Time. London: Patrick Stephens, 1981. Reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1992. Beeston, A. F. L. “Warfare in Ancient South Arabia (2d–3d Centuries A.D.).” Qahtan: Studies in Old South Arabian Epigraphy, fascicle 3, 1976, 1–72. Essay on military institutions, supported by translated texts.
Bennett, Matthew. “Warriors of Greece and Rome.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 16–29. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. Bickerman, Elias. “Judah Maccabee.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 16–26. New York: Signet Books, 1967.
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Biton. Construction of War Machines and Artillery. Annotated translation in Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises, by E. W. Marsden, 61–103. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Bradbury, Jim. “Greek Fire in the West.” History Today 29 (May 1979): 326–31. Broshi, Magen. “The Credibility of Josephus.” In Essays in Honour of Yigael Yadin, edited by Geza Vermes and Jacob Neusner, 379–84. Totowa, New Jersey: Allanheld, Osmun, for the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Studies, 1983. Often reliable despite share of errors.
Burns, Thomas S. “The Battle of Adrianople: A Reconstruction.” Historia 22 (1973): 336–45. Caven, Brian. The Punic Wars. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1980. Reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1992. Connolly, Peter. “Greece and Rome.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 20–29. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview of classical knives and swords.
Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Croke, Brian. “A.D. 476: The Manufacture of a Turning Point.” Chiron 13 (1983): 81–119. *Crump, Gary A. “Ammianus and the Late Roman Army.” Historia (no. 1, 1973). *Crump, Gary A. “Ammianus Marcellinus as a Military Historian.” Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte 27 (1975). David, Jean-Michel. The Roman Conquest of Italy. Translated by Antonia Nevill. The Ancient World. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Oxford: Blackwell, 1996. Dawson, Doyne. The Origins of Western Warfare: Militarism and Morality in the Ancient World. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1996. De Beer, Gavin. Hannibal: Challenging Rome’s Supremacy. New York: Viking Press, 1969.
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Driver, John. How Christians Made Peace with War: Early Christian Understandings of War. Scottdale, Pennsylvania, and Kitchener, Ontario: Herald Press, 1988. The christianization of the empire under Constantine made Christians willing soldiers, justified theologically by Ambrose and Augustine.
Ferrill, Arther. “Attila at Châlons.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Summer 1989): 48–55. The battle in 451 A.D. that saved the Roman Empire in the West.
Garlan, Yvon. War in the Ancient World: A Social History. Translated by Janel Lloyd. Ancient Culture and Society. New York: W. W. Norton, 1975. Guilmartin, John F., Jr. “Light Troops in Classical Armies: An Overview of Roles, Functions, and Factors Affecting Combat Effectiveness.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited James C. Bradford, 17–48. Texas A&M Military History Series 50. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Hacker, Barton C. “Greek Catapults and Catapult Technology: Science, Technology, and War in the Ancient World.” Technology and Culture 9 (1968): 34–50. Hanson, Victor Davis. “Cannae.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Summer 1990): 60–65. The battle of 216 B.C.
Hanson, Victor Davis. “Delium.” Military History Quarterly 8 (Autumn 1996): 28–35. The battle in 424 B.C.E. signified major transition in hoplite warfare.
Hanson, Victor Davis. “The Father of Military History [Thucydides].” Military History Quarterly 9 (Summer 1997): 28–37. Hanson, Victor Davis. “From Phalanx to Legion, 350–250 B.C.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 32–49. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Hanson, Victor Davis. “The Leuctra Mirage.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Winter 1990): 54–59. The Theban victory in 371 B.C. was not as revolutionary as touted.
Harnack, Adolf. Militia Christi: The Christian Religion and the Military in the First Three Centuries. Translated by David McInnes Gracie. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press, 1981.
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Heron of Alexandria. Belopoeica. Annotated translation in Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises, by E. W. Marsden, 18–60. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Heron of Alexandria. Cheiroballistra. Annotated translation in Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises, by E. W. Marsden, 206–33. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Lazenby, J. F. The First Punic War: A Military History. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1996. *Lazenby, J. F. Hannibal’s War: A Military History of the Second Punic War. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1978.
Comprehensive traditional military history, narrative survey and analysis firmly grounded in ancient sources.—DAC AHA Guide 7.216.
Marsden, E. W. Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. Marsden, E. W. Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. In addition to translations of Heron, Biton, Philon, and Vitruvius, includes chaps. 7, “The Arrow-shooting Ballista of the Fourth Century A.D. and Later,” 234–48; and 8, “The Onager,” 249–65.
Oakley, Stephen. “The Roman Conquest of Italy.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 9–37. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Ober, Josiah. “Hannibal’s Dilemma.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Summer 1990): 50–59. On the indecisiveness of “decisive” battles.
Peddie, John. Hannibal’s War. Stroud, England: Sutton, 1997. Peddie, John. Invasion: The Roman Invasion of Britain in the Year A.D. 43 and the Events Leading to Their Occupation of the West Country. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987. Philon of Byzantium. Belopoeica. Annotated translation in Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises, by E. W. Marsden, 106–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Philon of Byzantium. Poliorketika. Annotated translation in Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises, by E. W. Marsden, 69–107. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
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Picard, Gilbert Charles, and Colette Picard. Carthage: A Survey of Punic History and Culture from Its Birth to the Final Tragedy. Translated by Dominique Collon. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1968. Polanyi, Karl. The Livelihood of Man. Edited by Harry W. Pearson. Studies in Social Discontinuity. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Selling booty and buying provisions propelled market development in classical antiquity; see “Markets for Mercenaries,” 127–134, in chap. 10, “Market Elements and Market Origins.”
Polanyi, Karl. “Traders and Trade.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, 133–54. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. Military organization of self-supporting armies (such as Macedonian) as model for long-distance trading in ships’ crews and caravans (147–49).
Poliakoff, Michael B. Combat Sports in the Ancient World: Competition, Violence, and Culture. Sport and History Series. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987. Rabinovich, Abraham. “The Trauma of Betar.” Military History Quarterly 5 (Winter 1993): 88–95. New archaeological evidence on the Bar Kochba rebellion, 132–135 A.D.
Roland, Alex. “Greek Fire.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Spring 1990): 16–19. St. John, Robert. “Bar Kochba.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 30–36. New York: Signet Books, 1967. Santosuosso, Antonio. Soldiers, Citizens and the Symbols of War: From Classical Greece to Republican Rome, 500–167 B.C. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997. *Seibert, Jakob. Forschungen zu Hannibal. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftlicher Buchgesellschaft, 1993. Comprehensive bibliography and analysis of Hannibal’s campaigns and related topics in period of Second Punic War.—CMW AHA Guide 7.218.
*Seibert, Jakob. Hannibal. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftlicher Buchgesellschaft, 1993. Narrative of Hannibal’s campaigns, documented in title above.—CMW AHA Guide 7.219.
Soedel, Werner, and Vernard Foley. “Ancient Catapults.” Scientific American 240 (March 1979): 150–157, 159, 160.
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Swan, Jon. “The Batavian Revolt.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Spring 1997): 98–110. German revolt in 69 A.D.
Vigneron, Paul. Le cheval dans l’antiquité greco-romaine (Des guerres médiques aux grande invasions). Contributions à l’histoire des techniques. Annales de l’Est, la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines de Nancy. 2 vols. Nancy: Berger-Levrault, 1968. First volume covers basics of hippology, harness and other trappings, and techniques associated with using horses in commerce, agriculture, sports, and the military.
Vitruvius. De architectura, x. 10–12. Annotated translation in E. W. Marsden, Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises, 186–205. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Warry, John. Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980. Webster, Graham. Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome, A.D. 60. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1978. Webster, Graham. Rome against Caratacus: The Roman Campaigns in Britain, A.D. 48–58. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1982.
CLASSICAL GREECE
Military Institutions and Warfare in Greece, Macedon, and the Hellenistic World. Aineias Tacticus. Aineias the Tactician: How to Survive under Siege. Translated with Introduction and Commentary by David Whitehead. Clarendon Ancient History Series. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Mid-4th century B.C. guidance for the besieged.
Anderson, J. K. “Hoplite Weapons and Offensive Arms.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 15–37. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Anderson, J. K. Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. Anderson, J. K. “Wars and Military Science: Greece.” In Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and Rome, edited by Michael Grant and Rachel Kitzinger, 1:679–701. 3 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1988. *Baatz, Dietwulf. “Hellenistische Katapulte aus Ephyra (Epirus).” Mitt. deutsche Archäol. Inst., Athen. Abt. 97 (1982): 211–33. *Badian, E. “Alexander the Great, 1948–67.” Classical World (OctoberNovember 1971). Survey article, in two parts.
Bar-Kochva, Bezalel. The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972. *Best, Jan G. P. Thracian Peltasts and Their Influence on Greek Warfare. Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 1. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff, 1969. Lightly armed troops were integral part of hoplite warfare, not late addition.— EMH AHA Guide 6.515.
Billows, Richard A. Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Paperback edition, 1997. Military matters were central to the Hellenistic state; see the discussion of military
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and naval administration in chap. 7, “Antigonos’s Administration of His Asian Realm, 237–85, at 260–68; and Appendix 2, “Antigonos’s Military and Naval Forces,” 353–60.
Borza, Eugene N. “What Philip Wrought.” Military History Quarterly 5 (Summer 1993): 104–109. Military innovations of Alexander’s father.
Bosworth, A. B. Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Part II, “Thematic Studies,” chap. C, “Alexander and the Army,” 229–58.
Bryant, Joseph M. “Military Technology and Socio-Cultural Change in the Ancient Greek City.” Sociological Review 38 (1990): 484–516. *Bugh, Glenn Richard. The Horsemen of Athens. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, for the Center for Hellenic Studies, 1988. The standard work on the Athenian cavalry, mainly 5th–4th centuries B.C.—MC AHA Guide 6.391.
Burkert, Walter. Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth. Translated by Peter Bing. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. On the relation between war and ritual, see especially “The Function and Transformation of Ritual Killing,” 35–48, in chap. 1, “Sacrifice, Hunting, and Funerary.”
Casson, Lionel. “Demetrius, Besieger of Cities.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Autumn 1989): 102–109. Early Hellenistic siege warfare.
*Cawkwell, George. Philip of Macedon. London: Faber & Faber, 1978. Topics include army reorganization.—JB AHA Guide 6.226.
Connolly, Peter. The Greek Armies. London: Macdonald Educational, 1977. Devine, Albert. “Alexander the Great.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, ed. John Hackett, 104–129. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Ducrey, Pierre. Warfare in Ancient Greece. Translated by Janet Lloyd. New York: Schocken Books, 1985. Engels, Donald W. Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Forrest, George. “Greece: The History of the Archaic Period.” In The Oxford History of the Classical World, edited by John Boardman,
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Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray, 19–49. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Military factors strongly shaped “The Invention of Politics,” 26–35 (at 28–30); “The Leadership of Sparta,” 35–38; and “The Persian Wars,” 38–48.
Fox, Robin Lane. Alexander the Great. New York: Dial Press, 1974. Foxhall, Lin. “Farming and Fighting in Ancient Greece.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 134–45. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Gabrielsen, Vincent. Financing the Athenian Fleet: Public Taxation and Social Relations. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. *Garlan, Yvon. “Cités, armées et strategie à l’époque hellénistique d’après l’oeuvre de Philon de Byzance.” Historia (No. 1, 1973). *Garlan, Yvon. “Études d’histoire militaire et diplomatique.” Bull. corr. hell. 98 (No. 1, 1974): 95–118. Garlan, Yvon. Slavery in Ancient Greece. Revised edition. Translated by Janet Lloyd. Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell University Press, 1988. See especially “The Military Role of Slaves,” 163–76, primarily support.
Griffith, G. T. “Peltasts, and the Origin of the Macedonian Phalanx.” In Ancient Macedonian Studies in Honor of Charles F. Edson, edited by Harry J. Dell, 161–67. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1981. Hall, Edith. “Asia Unmanned: Images of Victory in Classical Greece.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 108–33. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Hammond, N. G. L. “Army Transport in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries.” Greek, Roman, Byzantine Studies 24 (1983): 27–31. Hammond, N. G. L. The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. See chap. 6, “The Winning of Military Supremacy, 359–23.”
Hanson, Victor Davis. “The Future of Greek Military History.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 253–56. London and New York: Routledge, 1991.
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Hanson, Victor Davis. “Genesis of the Infantry, 600–350 B.C.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 12–31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Hanson, Victor Davis. “Hoplite Technology in Phalanx Battle.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 63–84. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Hanson, Victor Davis. “The Ideology of Hoplite Battle, Ancient and Modern.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 3–11. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Hanson, Victor Davis. The Other Greeks: The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization. New York: Free Press, 1995. Arguing for continuity of archaic and classical Greece, derived from hoplite military organization based on freehold farmers; see chaps. 6, “The Ways of Fighters,” 221–89; 7, “The Economy of Agrarian Warfare,” 291–323; 8, “Hoplites as Dinosaurs,” 327–55; and 9, “The Erosion of the Agrarian Polis,” 357–403.
*Hanson, Victor Davis. Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece. Pisa: Giardini, 1983. Why ravaging crops was ineffective.—SMB AHA Guide 6.519.
Hanson, Victor Davis. The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. *Heinen, H. “Heer und Gesellschaft im Ptolemäerreich.” Anc. Soc. 4 (1973): 91–114. Hodkinson, Stephen. “Warfare, Wealth, and the Crisis of Spartiate Society.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 146–76. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Hornblower, Simon. “Greece: The History of the Classical Period.” In The Oxford History of the Classical World, edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray, 124–55. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. See especially the section on “War,” 141–45.
Kern, Paul B. “Military Technology and Ethical Values in Ancient Greek Warfare: The Siege of Plataea.” War & Society 6 (September 1988): 1–20. Krentz, Peter. “The Nature of Hoplite Battle.” Classical Antiquity no. 1 (1985): 50–61.
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*Launey, Marcel. Recherches sur les armées hellénistiques. Revised edition. 2 vols. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 169. Paris: de Boccard, 1987. Massive specialized studies on various aspects.—EMH AHA Guide 6.524.
Lazenby, John F. “Hoplite Warfare.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 54–81. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Lazenby, John F. “The Killing Zone.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 87–109. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Lazenby, John F. “Logistics in Classical Greek Warfare.” War in History 1 (1994): 3–18. Lazenby, John F. The Spartan Army. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1985. Part 1, “Preparation,” 3–80, describes army organization, training, etc., from the 8th century B.C. Part 2, “Battle,” 83–162, recounts several campaigns.
*Lengauer, W∑odzimierz. Greek Commanders in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.: Politics and Ideology, a Study of Militarism. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1979. Transformation of military command from civic duty to professional career, loyalty shifting toward fellow commanders rather than the state.—MC AHA Guide 6.526.
Manicas, Peter T. “War, Stasis, and Greek Political Thought.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 24 (1982): 673–88. Archaic and classical warfare in the context of developing polis and political philosophy.
Markale, Minor M., III. “The Macedonian Sarissa, Spear, and Related Armor.” American Journal of Archaeology 81 (1977): 323–39. Detailed description of the technology, its normal use, and the implications for organization and tactics.
Markale, Minor M., III. “Use of the Sarissa by Philip and Alexander of Macedon.” American Journal of Archaeology 82 (1978): 483–97. Millett, Paul. “Warfare, Economy, and Democracy in Classical Athens.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 177–96. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. *Morrison, J. S., and J. F. Coates. The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Technology, tactics, and organization discussed.—EMH AHA Guide 6.392.
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Ober, Josiah. “Early Artillery Towers: Messenia, Boiotia, Attica, Megarid.” American Journal of Archaeology 91 (1987): 569–604. Ober, Josiah. “Fortress Attica.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Winter 1991): 26–33. Athenian 4th century B.C. military organization, especially border fortifications.
*Ober, Josiah. Fortress Attica: Defense of the Athenian Land Frontier, 404–322 B.C. Menmosyne, Supplements 84. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985. Ober, Josiah. “Hoplites and Obstacles.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 173–96. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Onians, John. “War, Mathematics, and Art in Ancient Greece.” History of the Human Sciences 2 (1989): 39–62. Military institutions shaped Greek culture, exemplified in geometric art, cosmology, music, mathematics, and architecture.
Price, Simon. “The History of the Hellenistic Period.” In The Oxford History of the Classical World, edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray, 315–37. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. See especially the section on “Courtiers and Soldiers,” 325–30.
*Pritchett, W. Kendrick. The Greek State at War. 5 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Indispensable series of detailed studies, with full citations to ancient sources.—EMH AHA Guide 6.529.
Renault, Mary. The Nature of Alexander. New York: Pantheon Books, 1975. Rice, Ellen. “The Glorious Dead: Commemoration of the Fallen and Portrayals of Victory in the Late Classical and Hellenistic World.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 224–57. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Richards, John W. “The Evolution of the Spartan Social System.” Mankind Quarterly 20 (1980): 331–43. Society geared to military prowess was not unique to Sparta.
*Ridley, R. T. “The Hoplite as Citizen: Athenian Military Institutions in Their Social Context.” L’Antiquité Classique 48 (1979): 508–48. Rihll, Tracey. “War, Slavery, and Settlement in Early Greece.” In War and Society in the Greek World, edited by John Rich and Graham
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Shipley, 77–107. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 4. London: Routledge, 1993. Sekunda, Nick, and Angus McBride. The Army of Alexander the Great. Men-at-Arms Series 148. London: Osprey, 1984. Sekunda, Nick. “Hellenistic Warfare.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 130–135. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Sekunda, Nick, and Angus McBride. Seleucid and Ptolemaic Reformed Armies, 168–145 B.C. 2 volumes. Stockport, England: Montvert, 1994–1995. Snodgrass, Anthony M. Arms and Armour of the Greeks. Aspects of Greek and Roman Life. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1967. Snodgrass, Anthony. “Interaction by Design: The Greek City State.” In Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry, 47–58. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Uniformity of hoplite warfare lay at the very center of the concept of polis, illustrating the relevance of peer polity interaction.
*Spence, I. G. The Cavalry of Classical Greece: A Social and Military History with Particular Reference to Athens. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Greek cavalry as combat arm: tactics, armament, and organization.
Starr, Chester G. “The Athenian Century.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Winter 1989): 30–37. On the Athenian navy in the 4th century B.C.
Steffy, J. Richard. “The Greek Ship: New Evidence through Nautical Archaeology.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 1–9. New York: Garland, 1980. Tandy, David W. Warriors into Traders: The Power of the Market. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. Vernant, Jean-Pierre. Myth and Society in Ancient Greece. Translated by Janet Lloyd. New York: Zone Books, 1988. See chap. 2, “City-State Warfare,” 29–53, 265–68.
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World. Translated by Andrew Szegedy-Maszak. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. New articles and updated versions of earlier articles, listed separately.
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Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. “The Black Hunter and the Origin of the Athenian Ephebia.” In The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World, by Pierre Vidal-Naquet, 106–28. Translated by Andrew Szegedy-Maszak. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, and P. Lévéque. “Epaminondas the Pythagorean; or, The Tactical Problem of Right and Left.” In The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World, by Pierre VidalNaquet, 61–82. Translated by Andrew Szegedy-Maszak. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Updated version of article originally published in Historia 9 (1960): 294–308. Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. “Recipes for Greek Adolescence.” In The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World, by Pierre Vidal-Naquet, 129–56. Translated by Andrew Szegedy-Maszak. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Updated version of article originally published in Faire de l’Histoire 3 (1974): 137–68. How Athenian youths became warriors.
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. “The Tradition of the Athenian Hoplite.” In The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World, by Pierre Vidal-Naquet, 85–105. Translated by Andrew SzegedyMaszak. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Updated version of article originally published in Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, edited by Jeanne-Pierre Vernant, 161–81. Civilisations et sociétés, vol. 11. Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968. On the merged military and civic character of the polis.
Wheeler, Everett L. “The General as Hoplite.” In Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, edited by Victor David Hanson, 121–70. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Winter, F. E. Greek Fortifications. Phoenix: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada, supplementary vol. 9. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971.
ROME
Alston, Richard. Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History. London and New York: Routledge, 1995. *Astin, A. E. Scipio Aemilianus. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967. Including military career, ca. 160–130 B.C.E.—DAC AHA Guide 7.268.
Baatz, Dietwulf, and Michel Feugère. “Elements d’une catapulte romaine trouvée à Lyon.” Gallia 39 (1981): 201–209. Baatz, Dietwulf. “The Hatra Ballista.” Sumer 33 (1977): 141–51. Description of a stone thrower discovered in 1971/1972, apparently dating from mid-2d century A.D., first and only such machine known.
*Barnwell, P. S. Emperor, Prefects, and Kings: The Roman West, 395–565. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Barbarian kings remained half prefect, half master of soldiers.—FLC AHA Guide 20.138.
*Birley, Eric. The Roman Army Papers, 1929–1986. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1988. 45 papers by doyen of Roman army and frontier studies.—CMW AHA Guide 7.310.
Bishop, M. C., and J. C. N. Coulston. Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome. London: B. T. Batsford, 1993. Historically organized survey of the archaeological, epigraphical, documentary and other evidence, heavily illustrated, with a comprehensive bibliography.
Bowersock, G. W. Roman Arabia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983. See chap. 7, “Boundaries and Defenses,” 90–109.
Brand, C. E. Roman Military Law. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968. Braund, David. “Piracy under the Principate and the Ideology of Imperial Eradication.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 195–212. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. *Brunt, P. A. “The Army and the Land in the Roman Revolution.” In The Fall of the Republic and Related Essays, by P. A. Brunt, 240–80. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. Political consequences of veterans’ demands for land allotments in first century B.C.—DAC AHA Guide 7.205.
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Burns, Thomas S. Barbarians within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, ca. 375–425 A.D. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. Campbell, Brian. “The Marriage of Soldiers under the Empire.” Journal of Roman Studies 68 (1978): 153–66. Campbell, Brian. The Roman Army, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. A Sourcebook. London: Routledge, 1994. Compilation of ancient sources on the various aspects of military organization, service, activities in peace and war, etc.
*Campbell, J. B. The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 B.C.–A.D. 235. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. How emperor maintained army support, including soldiers’ legal status, military law, political role of army.—CMW AHA Guide 7.312.
*Capdeville, Gérard. “Le centurion borgne et le soldat manchet.” Mél. École Fr. Rome 84 (1972): 601–621. *Carney, T. F. A Biography of C. Marius. 2d edition. Chicago: Argonaut, 1970. Analytical survey of military and political career, ca. 120–86 B.C.E.—DAC AHA Guide 7.270.
*Cavenaile, Robert. “Prosopographie de l’armée d’Égypte d’Auguste à Dioclétien.” Aegyptus ( January-December 1970). Connolly, Peter. “The Early Roman Army.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 136–48. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Connolly, Peter. “The Roman Army in the Age of Polybius.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 149–68. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Cornell, Tim. “The End of Roman Imperial Expansion.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 139–70. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Davies, Roy W. Service in the Roman Army. Edited by David Breeze and Valerie A. Maxfield. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, with the University of Durham, 1989. Collection of 10 papers on enlistment, daily life, training, remounts, diet, medical service, and other aspects of military organization.
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Dixon, Karen R., and Pat Southern. The Roman Cavalry: From the First to the Third Century A.D. London: Batsford, 1982. Organization, training, employment and daily routine.
*Dobson, Brian, and David J. Breeze. Roman Officers and Frontiers. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1993. Including 13 essential papers on legionary organization and career structures.— CMW AHA Guide 7.315.
Dobson, Brian. “The Empire.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 192–221. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. Elton, Hugh. The Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. See especially chap. 5, “The Army on the Frontier,” 59–76.
Elton, Hugh. Warfare in Roman Europe, A.D. 350–425. Oxford Classical Mongraphs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. Paperback edition, 1997. Evans, John K. War, Women and Children in Ancient Rome. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. The domestic consequences of Rome’s expansion from city-state to empire.
Evans, Robert F. Soldiers of Rome: Praetorians and Legionnaires. Cabin John, Maryland: Seven Locks Press, 1986. Evans, Laurence. “Food, Transport, and Policy: Roman Maritime Logistics.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 10–25. New York: Garland, 1980. *Fentress, Elizabeth W. B. Numidia and the Roman Army: Social, Military, and Economic Aspects of the Frontier Zone. B.A.R. [British Archaeological Reports] international series 53. Oxford: B.A.R., 1979. Army’s role and impact on the North African province.—CMW AHA Guide 7.437. Ferrill, Arther. The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation. London: Thames & Hudson, 1986. *Fink, Robert O. Roman Military Records on Papyrus. American Philological Association Monographs 26. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Western Reserve University Press, for American Philological Association, 1971. Definitive publication of materials from Dura-Europas and elsewhere, giving unrivalled view of military organization at the unit level.—CMW AHA Guide 7.316.
*Gabba, Emilio. Republican Rome: The Army and the Allies. Translated by P. J. Cuff. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Reprinted articles and reviews, especially valuable for the professionalization and political impact of the late Republican army.—DAC AHA Guide 7.210.
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*Goffart, Walter. Barbarians and Romans, A.D. 418–584: The Techniques of Accommodation. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980. Tax mechanisms and hospitalitas (quartering soldiers in private homes) as techniques for incorporating barbarians into empire’s western provinces.—TFXN AHA Guide 20.146.
Gordon, C. D. “Vegetius and His Proposed Reforms of the Army.” In Polis and Imperium: Studies in Honour of Edward Togo Salmon, edited by J. A. S. Evans, 35–58. Toronto: Hakkert, 1974. Graf, David F. “The Saracens and the Defense of the Arabian Frontier.” American School of Oriental Research Bulletin 229 (1978): 1–26. Roman Arabia from Trajan to Diocletian.
Grant, Michael. The Army of the Caesars. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974. Grant, Michael. The Climax of Rome: The Final Achievements of the Ancient World, A.D. 161–337. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1968. Chap. 2, “The Military Achievement,” 13–43.
*Greenhalgh, P. A. L. Pompey, vol. 1, Pompey: The Roman Alexander. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1981. Readable survey, ca. 80–48 B.C.E., sound on military campaigns if not politics.— DAC AHA Guide 7.273.
Hanson, Victor Davis. “The Roman Way of War, 250 B.C.–A.D. 300.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 50–61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Harmand, Jacques. L’Armée et le soldat à Rome: De 107 à 50 avant notre ère. Paris: Éditions A. & J. Picard, 1967. Part 1 on technology, 2 on the common soldier in context of Roman society and government.
Harris, William V. War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Corrected paperback edition, 1985. Hyland, Ann. Equus: The Horse in the Roman World. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1990. Extensive treatment of procurement, training, and care of military horses.
Hyland, Ann. Training the Roman Cavalry: From Arrian’s “Ars Tactica.” Dover, New Hampshire: Alan Sutton, 1993.
143
Kahn, Arthur D. The Education of Julius Caesar: A Biography, a Reconstruction. New York: Schocken Books, 1986. *Keppie, Lawrence. Colonisation and Veteran Settlement in Italy, 47–14 B.C. London: British School at Rome, 1983. Epigraphic and archaeological evidence that veterans settled by Caesar and Augustus generally stayed put.—CMW AHA Guide 7.214.
Keppie, Lawrence. The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. London: B. T. Batsford, 1984. Reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1994. Keppie, Lawrence. “The Roman Army of the Later Republic.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, edited by John Hackett, 169–91. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. *Leach, John. Pompey the Great. 1978 edition. London: Croom Helm, 1986. Sober account of Pompey’s military and political career, ca. 85–48 B.C.E.—DAC AHA Guide 7.277.
Le Bohec, Yann. The Imperial Roman Army. Translated from the French. New York: Hippocrene Books; London: B. T. Batsford, 1994. *Lepper, Frank A., and Sheppard S. Frere, eds. Trajan’s Column: A New Edition of the Cichorius Plates. Wolfboro, New Hampshire: Sutton, 1988. Comprehensive analysis, scene by scene, with detailed notes on controversial points, indispensable.—CMW AHA Guide 7.321.
*Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church, and State in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Barbarization of Roman army by ca. 400, conflict between Germanic generals and civil government.—APK AHA Guide 8.142.
Liebeschuetz, Wolfgang. “The End of the Roman Army in the Western Empire.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 265–76. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Luttwak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976. Paperback edition, 1979. Martin, Colin. “The Gods of the Imperial Roman Army.” History Today 19 (1969): 255–63.
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Mattingly, D. J. “War and Peace in Roman North Africa: Observations and Models of State-Tribe Interaction.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 31–60. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Mellersh, H. E. L. The Roman Soldier. New York: Taplinger, 1968. *Nicolet, Claude. Rome et la conquête du monde méditerranéen, 264–27 avant J.-C., vol. 1, Les structures de l’Italie romaine. 5th edition. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1991. Includes discussion of military institutions.—DAC/CMW AHA Guide 7.147.
*Nicolet, Claude. The World of the Citizen in Republican Rome. Translated by P. S. Falla. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Including military service.—DAC AHA Guide 7.194.
Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. Rome’s Enemies 5: The Desert Frontier. Men-At-Arms Series 243. London: Osprey, 1991. Parker, S. Thomas. Romans and Saracens: A History of the Arabian Frontier. American Schools of Oriental Research, Dissertation Series 6 [UCLA, 1979]. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1986. How the Romans sought to control nomad raiding along the line from south Syria to the Gulf of Aqaba.
Patterson, John. “Military Organization and Social Change in the Later Roman Republic.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 92–112. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Powell, Geoffrey. “The Roman Legions and Their Officers.” History Today 17 (1967): 758–64. Purcell, Nicholas. “The Arts of Government.” In The Oxford History of the Classical World, edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray, 560–91. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. See especially the section on “The Army,” 571–76.
Rankov, Boris, and Richard Hook. The Praetorian Guard. Elite Series 50. London: Osprey, 1994. Robb, John. “Violence and Gender in Early Italy.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David
145
W. Frayer, 111–44. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Traumatic injuries at a site in southern Italy (7th to 3rd centuries B.C.) were much more common among males and linked, both directly and indirectly, to warfare.
*Robinson, H. Russell. The Armour of Imperial Rome. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975. Helmets and body armor through 3rd century A.D.—CMW AHA Guide 7.329.
*Rosenstein, Nathan S. Imperatores victi: Military Defeat and Aristrocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Elite strategies for minimizing consequences of defeat, including duties of common soldiers.—DAC AHA Guide 7.195.
Rossi, Lino. Trajan’s Column and the Dacian Wars. Translated by J. M. C. Toynbee. Aspects of Greek and Roman Life. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1971. *Saulnier, C. L’Armée et la guerre dans le monde étrusco-romaine (VIII e–IV e siècle). Paris: de Boccard, 1980. Archaeological and iconographical evidence for pre- and early Republican weapons and tactics, set against broader background of Etruscan expansion, eastern chariot warfare, etc.—DAC AHA Guide 7.170.
*Scullard, H. H. Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1970. Analytical survey, especially valuable on military career.—DAC AHA Guide 7.280.
Sekunda, Nick, Simon Northwood, and Richard Hook. Early Roman Armies. Men-at-Arms Series 283. London: Osprey, 1995. Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1984. Arab troops in Roman (Byzantine) service, invaluable but controversial.—CMW AHA Guide 7.542.
Simkins, Michael, and Ronald Empleton. The Roman Army: From Caesar to Trajan. Men-at-Arms Series 46. London: Osprey, 1984. Simkins, Michael, and Ronald Empleton. The Roman Army: From Hadrian to Constantine. Men-at-Arms Series 93. London: Osprey, 1979. Simkins, Michael, and James Field. Warriors of Rome: An Illustrated Military History of the Roman Legions. London: Blandford, 1988. *Smith, R. E. “The Army Reforms of Septimus Severus.” Historia (no. 3, 1972).
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Somerset Fry, Plantagenet. Roman Britain: History and Sites. Newton Abbot and London: David & Charles; Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, 1984. Chap. 10, “The Roman Army in Britain,” 158–85.
Speidel, Michael P. The Framework of an Imperial Legion. Fifth Annual Caerleon Lecture. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales, 1992. Speidel, Michael P. Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors’ Horse Guards. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994. Speidel, Michael P. Roman Army Studies, Volume 1. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1984. John W. Eadie review American Historical Review (December 1985): 1171–72: 37 articles that define main directions of research over past decade, reevaluation of ancient evidence focused on internal workings of the army.
Tomel, Maria Antoinietta. “La tecnica nel tando impero romano: Le macchine da guerra.” Dialoghi di Archeologia 4 (1982): 63–88. Watson, G. R. The Roman Soldier. Aspects of Greek and Roman Life. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1969. Webster, Graham. The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries A.D. London: A. & C. Black, 1969. Reprinted New York: Funk & Wagnalls, n.d. Webster, Graham. “Wars and Military Science: Rome.” In Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and Rome, edited by Michael Grant and Rachel Kitzinger, 1:703–19. 3 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1988. Whittaker, C. R. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A Social and Economic Study. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. Whittaker, Dick. “Landlords and Warlords in the Later Roman Empire.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 277–302. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Ziolkowski, Adam. “Urbs direpta; or, How the Romans Sacked Cities.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 69–91. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993.
BRONZE AND IRON AGE EUROPE
Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson, eds. Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Avery, Michael. “ ‘Stoning and Fire’ at Hillfort Entrances of Southern Britain.” In “Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, World Archaeology 18 (1986): 216–30. Birley, Robin. “A Frontier Post in Roman Britain.” Scientific American 236 (February 1977): 38–46. Bradley, Richard. “Economic Change in the Growth of Early HillForts.” In The Iron Age and Its Hill-Forts: Papers Presented to Sir Mortimer Wheeler on the Occasion of His Eightieth Year, at a Conference Held by the Southampton University Archaeological Society, 5th–7th March 1971, edited by David Hill and Margaret Jesson, 53–69. University of Southampton Monograph Series 1. Southampton: Southampton University Archaeological Society, for the Department of Archaeology, 1971. Bradley, Richard. “The Pattern of Change in British Prehistory.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 44–70. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. “Weapons and Warfare,” 66–67, not much in evidence before late bronze age, still clearer in early iron age with skeletal wounds, combat-damaged weapons, and hill forts.
Burns, Thomas S. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. See chap. 8, “Warriors and the Military System,” 184–201.
Champion, Timothy. “Fortification, Ranking and Subsistence.” In Ranking, Resource and Exchange: Aspects of the Archaeology of Early European Society, edited by Colin Renfrew and Stephen Shennan, 61–66. Papers from a symposium, Philadelphia, May 1980. New Direction in Archaeology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Fortifications as evidence for social ranking and land use.
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Champion, Timothy, Clive Gamble, Stephen Shennan, and Alasdair Whittle. Prehistoric Europe. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. See chaps. 7, “Prestige, Power and Hierarchies, 2300–1400 B.C.,” 197–237; 8, “The Rise of the State in Mediterranean Europe,” 239–67; 9, “Competition and Hierarchy in Temperate Europe,” 269–95; and 10, “Towns and the State in Temperate Europe,” 297–325.
Coles, J. M., and A. F. Harding. The Bronze Age in Europe: An Introduction to the Prehistory of Europe c. 2000–700 B.C. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979. Remarks on fortifications and what they imply for warfare in the later Bronze Age.
Coles, John. “Parade and Display: Experiments in Bronze Age Europe.” In Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean: Studies Presented in Honour of Hugh Hencken, edited by Vladimir Markotic, 50–58. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1977. Experiment suggests that bronze shields and weapons served mainly for display, leather shields and flint arrowheads proving more effective in use.
Cunliffe, Barry W. Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century B.C. until the Roman Conquest. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. See especially chap. 13, “The Development of Hillforts,” 227–64; and chap. 16, “Society and Social Change,” 301–309, discussing military technique and social organization.
Cunliffe, Barry W. “Some Aspects of Hill-Forts and Their Cultural Environments.” In The Iron Age and Its Hill-Forts: Papers Presented to Sir Mortimer Wheeler on the Occasion of His Eightieth Year, at a Conference Held by the Southampton University Archaeological Society, 5th–7th March 1971, edited by David Hill and Margaret Jesson, 53–69. University of Southampton Monograph Series 1. Southampton: Southampton University Archaeological Society, for the Department of Archaeology, 1971. Ehrenberg, Margaret. Women in Prehistory. Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture, vol. 4. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. See the sections on “Women in War,” 162–64, and “Tribal Chiefs and Commanders in Battle,” 164–71, in chap. 5, “The Celtic Iron Age.”
Eiroa García, Jorge Juan. “Estrategia y armamento en la Europa protohistórica.” In Temas de historia militar, vol. 1, Ponencias del primer Congreso de historia military, Zaragoza, 1982, 15–64. Colección Adalid: Biblioteca de pensamiento militar, vol. 2; Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de EME, n.d. [c. 1983]. On the origins and characteristics of organized warfare in Europe prior to Roman conquest, almost half illustrations (46–64).
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Ellis, Peter Beresford. The Celtic Empire: the first Millennium of Celtic History, c. 1000 B.C.–51 A.D. Durham, Carolina Academic Press, 1990. Feachem, R. W. “Unfinished Hill Forts.” In The Iron Age and Its HillForts: Papers Presented to Sir Mortimer Wheeler on the Occasion of His Eightieth Year, at a Conference Held by the Southampton University Archaeological Society, 5th–7th March 1971, edited by David Hill and Margaret Jesson, 19–39. University of Southampton Monograph Series 1. Southampton: Southampton University Archaeological Society, for the Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, 1971. Forde-Johnston, James L. Hillforts of the Iron Age in England and Wales: A Survey of the Surface Evidence. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1976. Detailed survey of pre-Roman defensive enclosures testifying to to technical skill and social organization.
Fowler, P. J. “Hill-Forts, A.D. 400–700.” In The Iron Age and Its HillForts: Papers Presented to Sir Mortimer Wheeler on the Occasion of His Eightieth Year, at a Conference Held by the Southampton University Archaeological Society, 5th–7th March 1971, edited by David Hill and Margaret Jesson, 203–13. University of Southampton Monograph Series 1. Southampton: Southampton University Archaeological Society, for the Department of Archaeology, 1971. Gelling, Peter, and Hilda Ellis Davidson. The Chariot of the Sun: And Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969. Chap. 2, “Weapons, Footprints, Snakes,” 27–42, covers bronze age weapons; chap. 13, “Weapons,” 145–52, discusses the military technology of the following era.
Gilman, Antonio. “The Development of Social Stratification in Bronze Age Europe.” Current Anthropology 22 (February 1981): 1–23. The need to defend economic assets led to the creation of armed protectors who, through self-aggrandizement, became a ruling class.
Gilman, Antonio. “Trajectories towards Social Complexity in the Later Prehistory of the Mediterranean.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 146–68. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. On increasing intergroup conflict in the late 3d and early 2d millennium, see “Warfare,” 162.
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Guilbert, Graeme, Ed. Hill-Fort Studies: Essays for A. H. A. Hogg. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1981. Numerous remarks on fortifications throughout, but only Ralston explicitly addresses warfare.
Harding, A. F. “The Bronze Age in Central and Eastern Europe: Advances and Prospects.” Advances in World Archaeology 2 (1983): 1–50. The section on “Society: Settlement and Burial,” 12–14, discusses competing views on military democracy, political organization, and the like.
Harding, Anthony. “Reformation in Barbarian Euope, 1300–600 B.C.” In The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe, edited by Barry Cunliffe, 304–35. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. See especially “Warfare,” 329–35.
Harding, Derek W. The Iron Age in Lowland Britain. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. See chap. 4, “Fortifications and Warfare,” 54–76.
Harding, Derek W. The Iron Age in the Upper Thames Basin. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. See chap. 5, “Fortifications,” 45–60.
Hedeager, Lotte. Iron-Age Societies: From Tribe to State in Northern Europe, 500 B.C. to A.D. 700. Translated by John Himes. Oxford and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1992. See especially “Military Organizations,” 90–93, in chap. 3, “Social and Political Systems,” but see also index entries for Army; Elites, Military; Warfare; and Weapons.
Hedeager, Lotte. “Processes toward State Formation in Early Iron Age Denmark.” In New Directions in Scandinavian Archaeology, edited by Kristian Kristiansen and Carsten Paludan-Müller, 217–23. Lyngbey: National Museum of Denmark; Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1979. The processes were trade, political consolidation, and conquest.
Hogg, A. H. A. Hill-Forts of Britain. London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon, 1975. See chap. 6, “Origins, Attack and Defence,” 47–52.
Holder, P. A. The Roman Army in Britain. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982. James, Edward. The Franks. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988. James, Simon. “Britain and the Late Roman Army.” In Military and Civilian in Roman Britain: Cultural Relationships in a Frontier Province, edited
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by T. F. C. Blagg and A. C. King, 161–86. BAR [British Archaeological Reports] British Series 136. Oxford: B.A.R., 1984. James, Simon. The World of the Celts. London: Thames & Hudson, 1993. See chap. 5, “The Celts at War,” 72–85, an illustrated survey.
*Johnson, Anne. Römische Kastelle des ersten und zweiten Jahrhunderts n. Chr. in Britannien und in den germanischen Provinzen des Römerreiches. Edited by Dietwulf Baatz. Translated by Gabriele Schulte-Holtey. Mainz von Zabern, 1987. Compendium of archaeological data on Roman forts, updated and enlarged from Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd Centuries A.D. in Britain and the German Provinces. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983.—CMW AHA Guide 7.319.
*Johnson, Stephen. Late Roman Fortifications. Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, 1983. Town walls and new designs for frontier forts in the western provinces of the 3rd and 4th centuries.—CMW AHA Guide 7.539.
Johnson, Stephen. The Roman Forts of the Saxon Shore. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976. Kristiansen, Kristian. “Chiefdoms, States, and Systems of Social Evolution.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 16–43. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Warfare played decisive role in the expansive phases of north European bronze and iron ages, but ideological and economic factors were of equivalent significance in the formation of elites and states.
Kristiansen, Kristian. “The Formation of Tribal Systems in Later European Prehistory: Northern Europe, 4000–500 B.C.” In Theory and Explanation in Archaeology: The Southampton Conference, edited by Colin Renfrew, Michael J. Rowlands, and Barbara Abbott Segraves, 241–80. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Suggests that middle Neolithic agricultural decline led to increased competition for land and intensified warfare, as observed by Vayda in New Guinea (260–61).
Kristiansen, Kristian. “Ideology and Material Culture: An Archaeological Perspective.” In Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology, edited by Matthew Spriggs, 72–100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. See especially 84–86, on weapons and accoutrements in northern European Bronze Age graves as evidence of warlike society, political significance of warriors, and male status.
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Levy, Janet E. Review of Iron-Age Societies, by Lotte Hedeager. American Anthropologist 95 (1993): 750–51. “State development is tied in complex ways . . . to increasing military actions aimed at controlling important productive resources, such as land and iron ore.” (750)
Markale, Jean. Women of the Celts. Translated by A. Mygind, C. Hauch, and P. Henry. London: Gordon Cremonesi, 1975. On women as warriors, see chaps. 2, “The Judicial Framework,” 30–40, at 38–39; and 9, “Women in Social Life,” 250–55, at 252–53.
Millett, Martin. “Forts and the Origins of Towns: Causes and Effects.” In Military and Civilian in Roman Britain: Cultural Relationships in a Frontier Province, edited by T. F. C. Blagg and A. C. King, 65–74. BAR [British Archaeological Reports] British Series 136. Oxford: B.A.R., 1984. Musset, Lucien. The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe, A.D. 400–600. Translated by Edward and Columba James. London: Elek Books, 1975. Reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Neustupnÿ, Jir˘í. “The Time of the Hill-Forts.” In Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean: Studies Presented in Honour of Hugh Hencken, edited by Vladimir Markotic, 135–39. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1977. Hill-forts more likely answered to the domestic needs of dominant elites than to their defense against outside intruders.
Piggott, Stuart. “Early Towns in Europe.” In The Origins of Civilization, edited by P. R. S. Moorey, 34–53. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Defensive hilltop forts as centers of town development.
Ralston, Ian. “The Use of Timber in Hill-Fort Defences in France.” In Hill-Fort Studies: Essays for A. H. A. Hogg, edited by Graeme Guilbert, 78–89. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1981. On warfare and other purposes of hill-forts.
Randers-Pehrson, Justine Davis. Barbarians and Romans: The Birth Struggle of Europe, A.D. 400 –700. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. Paperback edition, 1993. Rivet, A. L. F. “Hill-Forts in Action.” In The Iron Age and Its HillForts: Papers Presented to Sir Mortimer Wheeler on the Occasion of His Eightieth Year, at a Conference Held by the Southampton University Archaeological Society, 5th–7th March 1971, edited by David Hill and Margaret Jesson, 189–202. University of Southampton Monograph Series 1. Southampton: Southampton University Archaeological Society, for the Department of Archaeology, 1971.
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Rowlett, Ralph M. “The Iron Age North of the Alps.” Science 161 (1968): 123–34. In part, on iron, military technology, and rise of chiefdoms.
Sherratt, A. G. “Socio-Economic and Demographic Models for the Neolithic and Bronze Ages of Europe.” In Models in Archaeology, edited by David L. Clarke, 477–542. London: Methuen, 1972. Systems approaches to understanding social change in prehistoric society, noting economic significance of tribal war (509), war as mechanism of state expansion (510–11), Bronze Age fortifications (533–34), and warlike competition for land (535).
Shetelig, Haakon, and Hjalmar Falk. Scandinavian Archaeology. New York: Hacker Art Books, 1978. See chap. 22, “Weapons,” 377–405.
Stanford, S. C. “Invention, Adoption and Imposition—The Evidence of the Hill-Forts.” In The Iron Age and Its Hill-Forts: Papers Presented to Sir Mortimer Wheeler on the Occasion of His Eightieth Year, at a Conference Held by the Southampton University Archaeological Society, 5th–7th March 1971, edited by David Hill and Margaret Jesson, 41–52. University of Southampton Monograph Series 1. Southampton: Southampton University Archaeological Society, for the Department of Archaeology, 1971. Taavitsainen, J.-P. Ancient Hillforts of Finland: Problems of Analysis, Chronology and Interpretation with Special Reference to the Hillfort of Kuhmoinen. Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja 94. Tammisaari: Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistys [Finnish Antiquarian Society], 1990. Thompson, E. A. The Goths in Spain, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. “The Army,” 145–47, in chap. 6, “The Gothic Population”; and “The Army,” 262–67, in chap. 11, “Administration.”
Tilley, Christopher. “Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Middle Neolithic of Southern Sweden.” In Ideology, Power and Prehistory, edited by Daniel Miller and Christopher Tilley, 111–146. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Archaeological analyses as basis for inferences about legitimate authority and power differentials between and within groups.
Todd, Malcolm. Everyday Life of the Barbarians: Goths, Franks and Vandals. London: B. T. Batsford; New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1972. See chap. 5, “Weapons and Warfare,” 96–122, a good survey.
Todd, Malcolm. The Northern Barbarians, 100 B.C.–A.D. 300. London: Hutchinson University Library, 1975. See chap. 5, “Armament and Warfare,” 159–81.
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Wacher, John. The Coming of Rome. Britain before the Conquest: An Archaeological History of the British Isles, c. 1500 B.C.–A.D. 1066. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1979. Chap. 6, “The People of Roman Britain—The Army and the Administration,” 106–140.
Webster, Graham. “The British under Roman Rule: A Study in Colonialism.” History Today 30 (October 1980): 18–24. Wolfram, Herwig. History of the Goths. Translated by Thomas J. Dunlap. Revised from the 2d German edition, 1979. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
ANCIENT SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
From earliest times to the eve of the Muslim Conquests Agrawal, D. P. The Archaeology of India. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies [Copenhagen], Monograph Series, No. 46. London and Malmö: Curzon Press, 1982. On Indus fortifications, see 151, 171, 191.
Allchin, Bridget, and Raymond Allchin. The Birth of Indian Civilization: India and Pakistan before 500 B.C. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin, 1968. The archaeological evidence, including weapons and fortifications, reviewed and assessed.
Allchin, Bridget, and Raymond Allchin. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Remarks on fortification, weapons, and other military aspects of the rise and fall of Indus civilization.
Allchin, F. R. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Bakshi, G. D. Mahabharata: A Military Analysis. New Delhi: Lancer International, 1990. Bellwood, Peter. “Southeast Asia before History.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1, From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 55–136. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Throughout Southeast Asia, the appearance of bronze weapons and tools appears closely related to the rise of complex societies (116–31, passim).
Bhakari, S. K. Indian Warfare. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1981. Vedic warfare, c. 600–1200.
Bronson, Bennet. “The Late Prehistory and Early History Thailand with Special Reference to Chansen.” In Early Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, R. B. Smith and W. Watson, 315–36. New York: Oxford Press, 1979.
of Central South East edited by University
Remarks on the interaction of long-distance trade and territorial aggrandizement in the origin of the state.
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*Dales, G. F., and others. “Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast.” Antiquity 36 (1962): 86–92. Harappan forts on the Makran coast bordering Iran, as cited by Sankalia 1974, 390–91.
Devahuti, D. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. On a north Indian kingdom of the late 6th century, see the section on the army, 186–94, in chap. 6, “Harsha’s Administration.”
Dewall, Magdalene von. “Local Workshop Centres of the Late Bronze Age in Highland South East Asia.” In Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, edited by R. B. Smith and W. Watson, 137–66. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Weapons were both the most widespread and ubiquitous bronze tools.
Dhavalikar, M. K. Ajanta: A Cultural Study. Poona: University of Poona, 1973. Chap. 7, “Arms and Armour,” 104–14, as depicted in the Ajanta paintings (frescoes on walls of rock-cut temples), corresponding to Deccan dynasties, the Satavahanas (c. 235 B.C.–A.D. 225) and Vakatakas (c. 250–510 A.D.).
*Eggermont, P. H. L. Alexander’s Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia. Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta 3. Louvain: Leuven University Press, 1975. Closely documented work on the later campaigns, after the crossing of the Indus and capitulation of Taxila.—SS AHA Guide 15.170.
Fairservis, Walter A., Jr. The Roots of Ancient India. 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. Archaeological survey of prehistory, the rise of Harappan civilization, and its decline, with some discussion of weaponry and related matters.
Ferrill, Arther. “Alexander in India: The Battle at the Edge of the Earth.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Autumn 1988): 76–84. Mainly the battle of the Hydapses, 336 B.C.
*Goldman, Robert P. Gods, Priests, and Warriors: The Bhrgus of the “Mahabharata.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Monograph on a particular set of warrior priests, interesting implications for social history.—SS AHA Guide 15.107.
Higham, Charles F. W. The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia: From 10,000 B.C. to the Fall of Angkor. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Consolidation of a centralized state-like (mandala) polity required control of “The Means of Destruction,” 346–47 (in chap. 6, “The Angkorian Mandala: A.D. 802–1431”).
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Higham, Charles F. W. The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Higham, Charles F. W. “Prehistoric Rice Cultivation in Southeast Asia.” Scientific American 250 (April 1984): 138–43ff.
On the rise of centralizing chiefdom and state in the first millennium B.C. based on an aristocratic, bronze-using, warrior society.
Jacobson, Jerome. “The Harappan Civilization: An Early State.” In Studies in the Archaeology of Indian and Pakistan, edited by Jerome Jacobson, 137–73. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, with American Institute of Indian Studies, 1987. Kautilya. The Arthashastra. Edited, rearranged, translated and introduced by L. N. Rangarajan. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1992. Kautilya. The Kautilìya Artha≤àstra. Translated by R. P. Kangle. 3 vols. Bombay University, 1965–1972. Reprinted Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986. Standard translation of treatise on statecraft attributed to Kautilya (or Canakya), minister of Mauryan ruler Chandragupta, date probably between 4th century B.C.E. and 3d century C.E.
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. “Urban Processes in the Harappan Tradition: A Preliminary Model from Harappa.” In Harappa Excavations: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millennium Urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow, 29–60. Monographs in World Archaeology 3. Madison, Wisconsin: Prehistory Press, 1991. The site’s massive wall and outlying walled settlements suggest some degree of conflict, but evidence for sustained large-scale military activity is lacking, as is any indication of conquest in forming the Indus civilization. Regional alliances, trade and shared social-ritual beliefs seem the more likely basis for integration.
Khanduri, Chandra B. “Military Advancement in Ancient India, I. Chanakya’s War Machine.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 2:342–52. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Chanakya’s (Kautilya’s) Arthasastra and what it reveals about military institutions and conduct of war.
Mate, M. S. “Harappan Fortifications: A Study.” In “Studies in Indian Archaeology: Professor H. D. Sankalia Felicitation Volume,” edited by S. B. Deo and M. K. Dhavalikar, 75–84. Indian Antiquary (Bombay), 3rd series, vol. 4 (1970). Fortification reflected merely local security measures, playing no role in polity or military system; unlike Egypt or Sumer, Indus civilization was not based on military institutions.
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Mookerji, Radha Kumud. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. 4th edition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988. See especially chap. 10, “The Army,” 165–82, based heavily on the Arthashastra of Kautilya.
Mudar, Karen. “Complex Polities in Central Thailand: The Dvaravati Kingdom.” In Abstracts, American Anthropological Association, 92d annual meeting, Washington, 17–21 November 1993, 434. Earliest complex polity in central Thailand, the Dvaravati Kingdom (6th–11th century A.D.) emergence signified by appearance of large, moated sites sometimes with ramparts.
Mukherji, Tara Bhusan. Inter-State Relations in Ancient India. Meerut: Meenakshi Prakashan, 1967. War and peace in the Vedas, concluding with an analysis of chap. 9, “Kautilya’s Ideas,” 152–210.
Murthy, K. Krishna. Mirrors of Indian Culture. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1982. Chap. 5, “Weapons,” 56–67, covers Harappan and Vedic India.
Oppert, Gustav. “Military Advancement in Ancient India, II. Gunpowder Originated in Ancient India.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 2:353–60. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Ambiguous evidence from Sanskrit texts; cf. Vaidya.
Oppert, Gustav. “Political Maxims and Laws of War in Ancient India.” In Origin and Development of Legal and Political System in India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 1:25–32. 3 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1976. Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra. Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty. 8th edition, with commentary by B. N. Mukerjee. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996. Sampath, M. D. “Warfare in Ancient South India.” Journal of Ancient Indian History 8 (1974–1975): 233–53. Sampath, M. D. “Warfare in Ancient South India.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 2:361–77. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Military institutions and technology, causes and conduct of war, based on Tamil epigraphy.
Sangameswaran, C. S. “Ancient Military India, I. King and His Army.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 3:347–56. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Military organization and weaponry, as described in Chanakya’s (Kautilya’s) Arthasastra.
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Sankalia, H. D. The Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, 1974. Excavation of the pre-Harappan Kot Diji culture (2500–2000 B.C.) revealed a substantial fortification wall (338–39); other pre-Harappan fortification at Kalibangan (344–45). Just as Wheeler’s identification of fortifications at Harappa and Mohenjodaro had overthrown Marshall’s hypothesis of a peaceful people living in unwalled cities, these new discoveries question Wheeler’s suggested overthrow of Harappan civilization by the Aryans, since Harappa itself may have been the wall destroyer.
Sharma, L. P. Ancient History of India (Pre-Historic Age to 1200 A.D.). Sahibabad: Vikas, 1981. Chap. 4, “The Indus (Sindhu) Valley Civilization,” includes a section on “Weapons,” 27.
Sharma, S. P. “Art of War in Ancient India.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 1:366–76. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Mainly Vedic.
*Sparreboom, M. Chariots in the Veda. Memoirs of the Kern Institute, Leiden, 3. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985. Srivastava, A. K. Ancient Indian Army: Its Administration and Organization. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1985. Taylor, Keith W. “The Early Kingdoms.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, volume 1, From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137–82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. “The historical record for Southeast Asia begins with the arrival of Chinese soldiers and officials along the shores of the South China Sea towards the end of the third century B.C.” (137) State-building through warfare characterized most of the region’s polities.
Thapar, B. K. “New Traits of the Indus Civilization at Kalibangan: An Appraisal.” In South Asian Archaeology: Papers from the First International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists Held in the University of Cambridge, edited by Norman Hammond, 85–104. Park Ridge, New Jersey: Noyes Press, 1973. See especially “Settlement Patterns,” 92–101, on fortifications as characteristic of Indus sites.
Thapar, Romila. “The State as Empire.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 409–26. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 35. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Military conquest as basis for forming a more highly evolved state, the empire, illustrated by the Mauryan Empire.
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Thapar, Romila. “State Formation in Early India.” International Social Science Journal 32 (1980): 655–69.
Evolution of Vedic chiefdoms into states during the middle of the first century B.C.
*Trautmann, Thomas R. Kautilya and the “Arthasastra”: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971. Computer analysis focuses on economic data.—SS AHA Guide 15.167.
Vaidya, G. N. “Ancient Military India, II. Fire-Arms in Ancient India.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 3:356–64. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Oppert’s evidence for Vedic firearms fails.
Vigasin, A. A., and A. M. Samozvantsev. Society, State and Law in Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling, 1985. Study of Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
*Wheatley, Paul. Nagara and Commandery: Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Tradition. Research Papers 207–208. Chicago: University of Chicago, Department of Geography, 1983. Differing sources of urban tradition in the first millennium C.E.—DKW AHA Guide 16.65.
Wheatley, Paul. “Satyànrta in Suvarnadvìpa: From Reciprocity to Redistribution in Ancient Southeast Asia.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, 227–83. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. Religion and trade rather than conquest best explain state formation in Southeast Asia, but institutional changes associated with states included military, as soldiers replaced warriors (246–47).
Wheatley, Paul. “Urban Genesis in Mainland South East Asia.” In Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, edited by R. B. Smith and W. Watson, 288–303. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Remarks on war and military institutions in the origin of the state.
Wheeler, Mortimer. The Indus Civilization: Supplementary Volume to the Cambridge History of India. 3rd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. See the section on “Military Aspects of the Indus Civilization,” 72–78.
Winzeler, Robert L. “Ecology, Culture, Social Organization, and State Formation in Southeast Asia.” Current Anthropology 17 (1976): 623–40. Social organization, including military, as key to state formation.
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Winzeler, Robert L. “The Study of the Southeast Asian State.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 455–67. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 35. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. War and military institutions (the means of destruction defined for Africa by Goody [1971]) were major determinants of Southeast Asian state formation.
PREIMPERIAL CHINA
Studies of China from earliest times to unification, as well as general and comprehenive works on ancient China through the fall of the Han Dynasty Ames, Roger T. “Wisdom and Warfare: The Art of Generalship in Early China.” Paper presented at the Association for Asian Studies annual meeting, San Francisco 1988. Abstract in Early China News: The Newsletter of the Society for the Study of Early China 2 ( January 1989): 26. On the ubiquity of military concerns in early Chinese philosophical literature.
Anonymous. “The Master of Demon Valley.” In Thunder in the Sky: Secrets on the Acquisition and Exercise of Power, translated by Thomas Cleary, 1–85. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala, 1993. Treatise on the psychology and strategy of statecraft attributed to the Warring States period of ancient China, middle of the first millennium B.C.E.
*Byrne, Rebecca Zerby. “Harmony and Violence in Classical China: A Study of the Battles in Tso-chuan.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1974. Analysis of an Eastern Chou text.
Chang, Ch’i-yün. China’s Cultural Achievements during the Warring States Period. Translated by Orient Lee Yangmingshan. Taiwan: Chinese Culture University Press, China Academy, 1983. Chap. 12, “The Strategists Who Left behind Books on Strategy,” 345–66.
*Chang, Ch’i-yün. “Confucius’ Military Philosophy.” Translated by Orient Lee. Chinese Culture 23 ( June 1982): 1–19. Chang, Kwang-chih. The Archaeology of Ancient China. 4th edition, revised and enlarged. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1987. Survey with much on warfare and weapons.
Chang, Kwang-chih. Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983. Chap. 7, “The Rise of Political Authority,” 107–29, discusses the nature of archaeological evidence for warfare (108, 110) and identifies military force as one of the central factors in state formation.
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Chang, Kwang-chih. “The Continuing Quest for China’s Origins, II: The Shang Civilization.” Archaeology 30 (May 1977): 187–93. Warfare among the most important factors in origin of the Shang state (190–91).
Chang, Kwang-chih. Early Chinese Civilization: Anthropological Perspectives. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series 23. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. Reprints several relevant articles, cited separately.
Chang, Kwang-chih. “In Search of China’s Beginnings: New Light on an Old Civilization.” American Scientist 69 (1981): 148–60. On the origins of war in 3d-millennium Longshan culture, see “The Beginnings of Chinese Civilization,” 155–57.
Chang, Kwang-chih. “Sandai Archaeology and the Formation of States in Ancient China: Processual Aspects of the Origins of Chinese Civilization.” In The Origins of Chinese Civilization, edited by David N. Keightley, 495–521. Studies on China 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Remarks on armed force in social evolution and state formation.
Chang, Kwang-chih. “Settlement Patterns in Chinese Archaeology: A Case Study from the Bronze Age.” In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Egon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhal, 361–74. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. Towns with defensive walls as the fundamental social unit of Bronze Age China; bronze vessels served in ritually sanctioning segmentary lineage, bronze weapons in deploying force itself.
Chang, Kwang-chih. Shang Civilization. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. History with strong treatment of military institutions; see especially chaps. 3, “The Shang Dynasty and Its Ruling Apparatus,” 158–209; 4, “Economy and the Political Order of the State,” 210–59; and 7, “General Issues Concerning the Shang Civilization,” 322–55.
Chang, Kwang-chih. “Urbanism and the King in Ancient China.” World Archaeology 6 (1974): 1–14. Remarks on the military establishment and warfare.
Creel, Herrlee Glessner. The Origins of Statecraft in China, vol. 1, The Western Chou Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. From the beginnings of government in China through the first century B.C.; see especially chap. 10, “The Military,” 242–316.
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Dien, Albert E. “The Leigudun Armor and Some of Its Implication.” Paper presented at the American Oriental Society annual meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, 1981. Abstract in Early China 6 (1980–1981): 130. Discussion of 12 suits of lacquered leather army (c. 430 B.C.) found in 1978.
*Dien, Albert E. “A Study of Early Chinese Armor.” Artibus Asiae 43 (1982): 5–66. Dien, Albert E. “Warring States Armor and Pit Three at Qin Shihuangdi’s Tomb.” Early China 5 (1979–1980): 46–47. Fried, Morton H. “Tribe to State or State to Tribe in Ancient China?” In The Origins of Chinese Civilization, edited by David N. Keightley, 467–93. Studies on China 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Warfare as factor in the formation of state and tribe.
Gernet, Jacques. Ancient China: From the Beginnings to the Empire. Translated by Raymond Rudorff. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. Remarks on changing military institutions and conduct of warfare. See especially chap. 3, “The Archaic Period: The Shang and Western Chou [18th? to 8th Century B.C.],” 45–68, at 58–60 (“Life of the noble class,” hunting and war); and chap. 4, “The Formation of the Military States [From about 500 to 221 B.C.],” 89–110, at 96–101 (“Warfare”).
Gernet, Jacques. “Note sur le char en Chine.” In Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, edited by Jeanne-Pierre Vernant, 309–12. Civilisations et sociétés, vol. 11. Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968. On the military predominance of chariotry in China from 1500 to 500 B.C.
Goodrich, Chauncey S. “Riding Astride and the Saddle in Ancient Times.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 44 (1984): 279–306. Literary and graphic evidence has Chinese riding astride, and saddles, by 4th century B.C.; cavalry in use by 350 B.C. by end of Chou at earliest, but common in Han and of great military significance.
Hay, John. Ancient China. The Walck Archaeologies. New York: Henry Z. Walck, 1973. See chap. 6, “Cities and Warfare: Feudalism in the Chou Dynasty,” 68–78; see also index entries: warfare, weapons.
Ho, Ping-ti. The Cradle of the East: An Inquiry into the Indigenous Origins of Techniques and Ideas of Neolithic and Early Historic China, 5000–1000 B.C. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. The section on Shang social and political organization, 292–313, includes numerous remarks on military institutions and practices.
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Hsiao, Kung-chuan. A History of Chinese Political Thought, vol. 1, From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D. Translated by F. W. Mote. Princeton Library of Asian Translations. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1979. See index entries: military, war, warfare.
Hsu, Cho-yun. Bibliographic Notes on Studies of Early China. China Problems Series 2. [Hong Kong:?] Chinese Materials Center, 1982. Including numerous references to Shang and the origin of the state in China.
*Hsu, Cho-yun, and Katheryn M. Linduff. Western Chou Civilization. Early Chinese Civilization Series. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988. Ping-ti Ho review AHR 95 (1990): 1265–66. Hsu’s claims for “specialization and professionalization” in Western Chou government and army (249–257) extremely dubious. Ho cites “Recent in-depth studies [that] show that the rank and file of the fourteen divisions of the royal Chou army alternated between farming and military service, yielding no trace of ‘specialization and professionalization’ (Shen Ch’angyun, ‘Chou-tai ssu-t’u-chih chih pien-fei,’ Chung-kuo-shih yen-chiu, no. 3 [1985]: 12–17; Hsu Hsi-ch’en, ‘Chou-tai ping-chih ch’u-lun,’ ibid., no. 4 [1985]: 3–12).”
Keightley, David N. “The Late Shang State: When, Where, and What?” In The Origins of Chinese Civilization, edited by David N. Keightley, 523–64. Studies on China 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Military organization as major feature of state society.
Keightley, David N. “Shang China Is Coming of Age—A Review Article.” Journal of Asian Studies 41 (1982): 549–57. Discussing Chang, Shang China, questions Chang’s claim for widespread walling of towns (553–54).
Kierman, Frank A., Jr. “Phases and Modes of Combat in Early China.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 27–66. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. Conduct of war in late preimperial China, as revealed by the literary evidence.
Killigrew, John W. Review of Hung Yang, Chung-kuo Ku-ping-ch’i t’aolun [A discusssion of ancient Chinese military equipment] (Peking: Wen Wu Publishing Co., 1980)]. Military Affairs 46 (1982): 46–47. Includes some discussion of Shang and Chou military technology.
Killigrew, John W. “Sun Pin’s Art of War: A Summary.” Air University Review 31 ( July/August 1980): 50–58. Aspects of warfare in late preimperial China.
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Ko, Tun-hwa. “An Introduction to the Chinese Military Classics.” Military Review 52 (October 1972): 66–74. The literature of war in preimperial China.
Levenson, Joseph R., and Franz Schurmann. China: An Interpretive History, from the Beginnings to the Fall of Han. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Paperback edition, 1971. Lewin, Günter. “Zur Genese des Staates in China.” Dresden staatlichen Museums für Völkerkunde, Abhandlungen und Berichte 36 (1978): 91–103. Lewis, Mark Edward. Sanctioned Violence in Early China. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990. Chaps. 1, “The Warrior Aristocracy,” 15–52; 2, “The Warring State,” 53–96; and 3, “The Art of Command,” 97–135.
Maspero, Henri. China in Antiquity. Translated at Frank A. Kierman, Jr. London: Dawson, 1978. Military institutions in successive eras discussed.
*Meacham, William. “Stratification, Exploitation, Slavery and the Origins of Chinese Civilization.” Ching feng 21 no. 3 (1978): 152–161. Pearson, Richard. “Social Complexity in Chinese Coastal Neolithic Sites.” Science 213 (1981): 1078–86. Evidence, including weapons, for the evolution of ranked societies from 5000 to 2000 B.C.
Pearson, Richard, and Ann Underhill. “The Chinese Neolithic: Recent Trends in Research.” American Anthropologist 89 (1987): 807–22. 817: Evidence for increased intersocietal conflict during Longshan period: increased variety of weapons, fortification, rough graves of slain. Yan (1986) concludes war a key to making Xia dynasty. Evidence for conflict outside Central Plain—Shixia in Guandong and Quia in Gansu—yield weapons (stone battleaxes and spoked stone maceheads); Song et al. (1983).
Peers, C. J., and Angus McBride. Ancient Chinese Armies, 1500–200 B.C. Men-at-Arms Series 218. London: Osprey, 1990. Prestat, Maurice. “A propos de l’art de la guerre de Sun Zi: L’Autre approche de la stratégie.” Stratégique 8 (1980): 31–61. Rand, Christopher C. “Chinese Military Thought and Philosophical Taoism.” Monumenta Serica 34 (1979–1980): 171–218. How the two intellectual “matrices” intersect.
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Rand, Christopher C. “Li Ch’uan and Chinese Military Thought.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 39 (1979): 107–37. Rand, Christopher C. “The Role of Military Thought in Early Chinese Intellectual History.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Harvard University, 1977. In Dissertation Abstracts International (October 1978), 2468–A. Analysis based on pre-Han and early Han texts.
Schwartz, Benjamin I. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985. See index entries: military; war.
Shaughnessy, Edward L. “Historical Perspectives on the Introduction of the Chariot into China.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 48 (1988): 189–237. Chariot entered China from Central Asia ca. 1200 B.C.E., decisive in Chou conquest of Shang, dominant in eastern Chou warfare until displaced by cavalry, ca. 200 B.C.E.
Strätz, Volker. Luh-T’ao: Ein spätantiker Text zur Kriegskunst. Münsterische sinologische Mitteilungen Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kultur des altens China, vol. 1. Munster: Bock & Herchen, 1979. Late preimperial military treatise translated and discussed.
Ssu-ma. “The Methods of the Ssu-ma.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 107–43. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Compilation probably dating from the 4th century B.C.
Sun Pin. “A Chinese Military Strategist of the Warring States: Sun Pin.” Translated and analyzed by Edmund E. Balmforth. Ph.D. dissertation, History, Rutgers University, 1979. In Dissertation Abstracts International (1980), 4179–A. Translation and analysis of a newly recovered preimperial Chinese military treatise.
Sun Pin. Military Methods. Translated with introduction and commentary by Ralph D. Sawyer. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Sun Tzu. The Art of Strategy: A New Translation of Sun Tzu’s Classic “The Art of War,” edited and translated by R. L. Wing, New York: Dolphin Books (Doublday), 1988.
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Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Translated with introduction by Thomas Cleary. Boston, Massachusetts, and London: Shambhala, 1988. Sun Tzu. The Art of War, by Sun Tzu. Edited with a foreword by James Clavell from the 1910 translation by Lionel Giles. New York: Delacorte Press, 1983. Sun Tzu. “Sun-tzu’s Art of War.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 145–86. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Sun Tzu. Sun-Tzu The Art of War: The First English Translation Incorporating the Recently Discovered Yin-ch’üeh-shan Texts. Translated with introduction and commentary by Roger T. Ames. Classics of Ancient China. New York: Ballantine Books, 1993. Sun Tzu II [Sun Pin]. The Lost Art of War. Translated with commentary by Thomas Cleary. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996. T’ai Kung. “T’ai Kung’s Six Secret Teachings.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 19–105. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Traditionally assigned to the 11th century B.C., the existing work probably dates to the Warring States period.
Tao, Hanzhang. Sun Tzu’s Art of War: The Modern Chinese Interpretation. Translated by Shibing Yuan. New York: Sterling, 1990. Tien Chen-ya. Chinese Military Theory: Ancient and Modern. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press, 1992. See the scholarly, documented account in chap. 2, “Survey of Ancient Chinese Military Theories,” 21–66.
Treistman, Judith M. The Prehistory of China: An Archaeological Exploration. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1972. See especially chap. 5, “Styles,” 103–34, on the origins of Chinese civilization, including remarks on the role of war.
Underhill, Anne P. “Warfare during the Chinese Neolithic Period: A Review of the Evidence.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 229 –237. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989.
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Wagner, Donald B. Iron and Steel in Ancient China. Handbuch der Orientalistik, 4 Abteilung: China, Band 9. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993. Weaponry figures prominently.
Watson, William. “The City in Ancient China.” In The Origins of Civilization, edited by P. R. S. Moorey, 54–77. Wolfson College Lectures 1978. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Shang as typical early bronze-age civilization: walled cities, weapons, military power— city as stronghold and military camp.
Watson, William. Cultural Frontiers in Ancient East Asia. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971. Aspects of civilized origins in China, including weapons technology.
Wei, Chin. “Ch’in Shih-huang’s Book-burning as Seen from the Bamboo Slips Unearthed in Ying-ch’üeh-shan.” Translated from an article in Hung-ch’i [Red Flag] no. 7 (1 July 1974): 62–66. In The First Emperor of China: The Politics of Historiography, edited by Yu-ning Li, 145–53. White Plains, New Jersey: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1975. Most of the slips concern pre-Ch’in military affairs.
Wei, Liao-tzu. “Wei Liao-tzu.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 225–76. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Attributed, probably correctly, to a figure of the Warring States period.
Wheatley, Paul. The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient Chinese City. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971. Numerous remarks on military institutions and war in the origins and development of civilization in China, and elsewhere.
Wu, K. C. The Chinese Heritage. New York: Crown, 1982. See index entry: weapons.
Wu-tzu. “Wu-tzu.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 187–24. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Treatise from the Warring States period by a well-known and successful general.
*Yan, Wenming. “Unity and Diversity in Chinese Prehistoric Culture.” Paper presented at the Conference on Ancient China and Social Science Generalizations, Airlie House, Virginia, 21–27 June 1986. Presents evidence for intensified intersocietal conflict in Longshan times and argues that war was crucial to forming the Xia dynasty, according to Pearson & Underhill, 817, 821.
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Yates, Robin D. S. “The City under Siege: Technology and Organization as Seen in the Reconstructed Text of the Military Chapters of Mo-tzu.” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1980. Abstract in Early China 6 (1980–1981): 118–19. Identification and discussion of an important source of information about military technology and organization just prior to unification (221 B.C.)
*Yates, Robin D. S. “The Mohists on Warfare: Technology, Technique, and Justification.” In “Studies in Classical Chinese Thought,” edited by Henry Rosemont, Jr., and Benjamin I. Schwartz, 549–602. Journal of the American Academy of Religion (thematic issue) 47 (September 1979): 363–617.
EARLY IMPERIAL CHINA
Studies of the Qin and Han Dynasties Barnard, Noel. “Did the Swords Exist?” Early China 4 (1978–1979): 60–65. On bronze and iron swords, rejoinder to Keightley and Trousdale.
Bielenstein, Hans. The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge Studies in Chinese History, Literature and Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. See chap. 4, “The Army,” 114–24.
Bielenstein, Hans. “The Institutions of Later Han.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 B.C.–A.D. 220, edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe, 491–519. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. See especially “The Army,” 512–15.
Bielenstein, Hans. The Restoration of the Han Dynasty, vol. 4, The Government. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (Östasiatiska Museet), Bulletin 51. Stockholm, 1979. See “The Army,” 27–30, in chap. 1, “The Bureaucracy.”
Bishop, M. C. “The Articulated Cuirass in Qin Dynasty China.” Antiquity 63 (1989): 697–705. Technological sophistication suggests military sophistication and social organization.
Capon, Edmund. Qin Shihuang: Terracotta Warriors and Horses: Catalogue to the “Exhibition of the Terracotta Figures of Warriors and Horses of the Qin Dynasty of China.” 3d edition. Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales, n.d. Chang, Kuei-sheng. “An Early Han Map: New Light on Cartography in Classical China.” Paper presented at the American Association of Geography annual meeting, New York 1976. Abstract in Early China 2 (Fall 1976): 56. Compiled about 168 B.C. and found in a general’s tomb, the map covers much of a strategically important area of southern China in early Han times and appears to be based on actual survey.
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Ch’in Dynasty Pit Archaeological Team. “Excavation of the Ch’in Dynasty Pit Containing Pottery Figures of Warriors and Horses at Ling-T’ung, Shensi Province.” Translated by Albert E. Dien. Chinese Studies in Archaeology 1 (1979): 8–55. Ch’ü, T’ung-tsu. Han Social Structure. Edited by Jack L. Dull. Han Dynasty China, vol. 1. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972. Reprinted Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, n.d. See index entries under military.
Cotterell, Arthur. The First Emperor of China: The Greatest Archaeological Find of Our Time. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981. Chap. 1, “The Tomb of Ch’in Shih-huang-ti,” 16–53, describes the warrior and horse figures in some detail, with numerous drawings and photos.
Dien, Albert E., and Jeffrey K. Riegel. “Ch’in-Han.” Early China 3 (Fall 1977): 99–100.
Description of preliminary findings from recently discovered pottery army, based on Shih Huang-ling Ch’in yung-k’eng k’ao-ku fa-chüen tui, “Lin-t’ung hsien Ch’in yung-k’eng shih-chüeh ti yi-hao chien-pao,” Wen-wu 1975, 11:1–18.
Dien, Albert E. “The Qin Pottery Figure Pits: Bibliographic Survey.” Early China 7 (1981–1982): 74–78. “Female Platoon Found in China’s Warrior Statues.” San Francisco Chronicle, 23 July 1993, A11. Reuters dispatch, Beijing, reported official Chinese Xinhua news agency release announcing 1990 discovery of 50 terra cotta statues of women warriors in Shaanxi province near an imperial tomb dating to 206 B.C.–A.D. 24 Western Han dynasty. They wore wooden armor and carried sword in hand.
Fu, Tianchou, ed. The Underground Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Beijing: New World Press, 1985. Fu, Tianchou, ed. Wonders from the Earth: The First Emperor’s Underground Army. Revised edition. San Francisco: China Books & Periodicals, 1989. Fu, Zhengyuan. China’s Legalists: The Earliest Totalitarians and Their Art of Ruling. New Studies in Asian Culture. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996. Guisso, R. W. L., and Catherine Pagani, with David Miller. The First Emperor of China. New York: Birch Lane Press, 1989. Part 2, “The Land of Hungry Ghosts: Warfare in Ancient China,” 40–81.
*Hearn, Maxwell K. “An Ancient Chinese Army Rises from Underground Sentinel Duty.” Smithsonian 10 no. 8 (1979): 39–51.
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*Hearn, Maxwell K. “The Terracotta Army of the First Emperor of Qin (221–206 B.C.).” In The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People’s Republic of China, edited by Wen Fong, 351–73. New York, 1980. *Hotaling, Stephen James. “The City Walls of Han Ch’ang-an.” T’oung Pao 64 (1978): 1–46. Huang Shih-kung. “Three Strategies of Huang Shih-kung.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 277–306. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Although traditionally attributed to a third century B.C. source, more probably dates from the end of the first century B.C.
Hung, Shih-ti. Ch’in Shih-huang. Shanghai: People’s Press, 1972. Translated by K. C. Ma and Pao-min Chang. In The First Emperor of China: The Politics of Historiography, edited by Yu-ning Li, 3–16, 37–54, 74–131, 154–61. White Plains, New Jersey: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1975. Popular work based on Yang K’uan, Ch’in Shih-huang (Shanghai: People’s Press, 1956): Ch’in military organization, 11–12; military reforms, technological innovation, 40–41, 43–44; military administration, 93–94, 97–98+.
Keightley, David N. “Where Have All the Swords Gone? Reflections on the Unification of China.” Early China 2 (Fall 1976): 31–34. Iron swords probably do not explain the Ch’in triumph, since the evidence for their existence is scant and hardened bronze worked just as well. Cf. Trousdale; Barnard.
Leben, Carl. “Ts’ao Ts’ao and the Rise of Wei: The Early Years.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1971. Abstract in Early China 1 (Fall 1974): 23–24. Covering mainly the period 180–200 A.D., the early military career of Ts’ao Ts’ao and the establishment of a pattern of widespread peasant rebellion, weakening of Han central power, and rise of contesting separatists.
Loewe, Michael. “The Campaigns of Han Wu-ti.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 67–122. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. Loewe, Michael. Everyday Life in Early Imperial China: During the Han Period, 202 B.C.–A.D. 220. London: Batsford; New York: Putnam’s, 1968. Reprinted New York: Perennial Library, 1970. See chap. 6, “The Army,” 75–87.
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Loewe, Michael. Records of Han Administration. Vol. 1: Historical Assessment. Vol. 2: Documents. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 11. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967. The administration discussed largely concerns military organization; see especially chaps. 3, “The Expansion of Chinese Authority,” 48–73; 4, “The Organisation of the Han Service,” 74–98; and 5, “The Life and Work of the Han Servicemen,” 99–126.
Loewe, Michael. “The Structure and Practice of Government.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 B.C.–A.D. 220, edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe, 463–90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. See especially “The Armed Forces,” 479–82.
Mazzatenta, O. Louis. “China’s Warriors Rise from the Earth.” National Geographic 190 (October 1996): 68–85. Story and photographs of the First Emperor’s buried ceramic army.
Meistrich, Ira. “The Mortuary Army of Ch’in Shih Huang Ti.” Military History Quarterly 6 (Winter 1994): 50–57. The mortuary clay army reveals much about Chinese military organization and equipment in the 3rd century B.C.
Montanaro, John S. “Liu Pei and the Rise of the State of (Shu-) Han.” Ph.D. disseration, Columbia University, 1977. Abstract in Early China 5 (1979–1980): 84. The military career of Liu Pei, c. 180–220, based chiefly on San-kuo chih by Ch’en Shou.
Peers, Chris, and Michael Perry. Imperial Chinese Armies: (1) 200 B.C.– 589 A.D. Men-at-Arms Series 284. London: Osprey, 1995. Pirazzoli-t’Serstevens, Michèle. The Han Dynasty. Translated by Janet Seligman. New York: Rizzoli, 1982. Much on military organization, weaponry, and related matters throughout, but see especially “Civil and Military Service,” 27–28, and “The Army,” 28–31, in part 1, “China at the Accession of the Han: The Legacy of the Qin (206–141 B.C.),” chap. 3, “State Resources and the Distribution of Wealth”; part 2, “The Reign of Wudi (140–87 B.C.),” chap. 3, “Wars against the Xiongnu and Chinese Expansion,” 79–91, especially “Han Sucess: Reasons and Costs,” 90–91.
Qian, Sima. War-Lords. Translated by William Dolby and John Scott. Edinburgh: Southside, 1974. Selections from the history on the strategists Sun the Martial, Sun the Cripple. WuQi, and four warlords.
Sage, Steven F. Ancient Sichuan and the Unification of China. SUNY Series in Chinese Local Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
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Topping, Audrey. “Clay Soldiers: The Army of Emperor Ch’in.” Horizon 19 no. 1 (1977): 4–13. Illustrated survey, including note by Joseph Needham assessing the significance of the find, especially for military technology.
Trousdale, William. “Where All the Swords Have Gone: Reflections on Some Questions Raised by Professor Keightley.” Early China 3 (Fall 1977): 65–66. Iron swords were plebian tools and state property, not likely to be buried with commoners. Cf. Barnard.
*Young, Gregory. Three Generals of Later Han. Canberra, 1985. Zhuge Liang. “The Way of the General: Essays on Leadership and Crisis Management by Zhuge Liang.” In Mastering the Art of War: Zhuge Liang’s and Liu Ji’s Commentaries on the Classic by Sun Tzu. Translated and edited by Thomas Cleary, 33–63. Shambhala Dragon Editions. Boston, Massachusetts, and Shaftesbury: Shambhala, 1989. A treatise dating from the early third century A.D. (late Han).
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PART THREE
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN EURASIA SINCE ANTIQUITY
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EURASIAN MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies, or works about more than one region, from the fall of ancient empires to the early 20th century. Nonstate societies are included, but coverage of European wars and military institutions, particularly Western Europe, extends only through the 18th century and is mainly limited to works that have some bearing on the nonwestern world. Allsen, Thomas T. “The Yüan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan in the 13th Century.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 243–280. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Archibald, E. H. H. The Fighting Ship of the Royal Navy, A.D. 897–1984. Revised edition. Poole, England: Blandford Press, 1984. Reprinted New York: Military Press, 1987. Barfield, Thomas J. “Tribes and State Relations: The Inner Asian Perspective.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 153–182. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Distinguishing egalitarian Arab chieftaincies from hierarchal Turco-Mongolian tribal confederation, both organized for war but the former only able to resist incorporation in states, the latter well-suited to empire formation.
Blackmore, H. L. “Early Breech-loading Firearms.” In Pollard’s History of Firearms, edited by Claude Blair, 188–201. New York: Macmillan, 1983. Blair, Claude. “Early Firearms.” In Pollard’s History of Firearms, edited by Claude Blair, 25–32. New York: Macmillan, 1983. Blair, Claude. “The Sixteenth Century.” In Pollard’s History of Firearms, edited by Claude Blair, 33–61. New York: Macmillan, 1983. Boehm, Christopher. Montenegrin Social Organization and Values. AMS Studies in Anthropology 1. New York: AMS Press, 1983. Chap. 9, “Vendetta, Raiding and Warfare,” 65–72.
Chaudhuri, K. N. Asia before Europe: Economy and Civilization in the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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Donohue, John J. “Training Halls of the Japanese Martial Tradition: A Symbolic Analysis of budo dojo in New York.” Anthropos 85 (1990): 55–63. Voluntary institutions in the perpetuation of cultural values—rank and hierarchy, corporate social entity, primacy of physical exertion in development of human spirit.
Duffy, Christopher. Russia’s Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power, 1700–1800. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981. Ellis, John. Armies in Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. See especially chaps. 8, “The Russian Civil War 1917–20,” 163–99; and 9, “The Chinese Civil War 1926–49,” 200–37.
Endicott-West, Elizabeth. “Imperial Governance in Yüan Times.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986): 523–49. Mongol military institutions and the alteration of Chinese imperial power.
Finn, Michael. Martial Arts: A Complete Illustrated History. London: Stanley Paul, 1991. *Forey, Alan. The Military Orders from the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992. General history of all military orders to suppression of Templars.—JSCRS AHA Guide 20.327.
Forey, A. J. “The Military Order of St. Thomas of Acre.” English Historical Review 92 (1977): 481–503. Franke, Wolfgang. China and the West. Translated by R. A. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwood, 1967. Reprinted New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1967. Friel, Ian. “The Carrack: The Advent of the Full Rigged Ship.” In Cogs, Caravels and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 1000 –1650, edited by Martin Gardner and Richard W. Unger, 77–90. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994. See especially “Carracks at War,” 86–90.
Gale, Richard. Kings of Arms: The Use and Abuse of Power in the Great Kingdoms of the East. London: Hutchinson, 1971. Biographical and military sketches of Saladin, Jenghis Khan, Tamerlane, Qubili Khan, Babur, and Akbar.
Guilmartin, John F. “Tactical Exercises: The Galley in Combat.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Winter 1997): 20–21.
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Guilmartin, John Francis, Jr. “Guns and Gunnery.” In Cogs, Caravels and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 1000–1650, edited by Martin Gardner and Richard W. Unger, 139–50. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994. *Halperin, Charles J. Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. 1985 edition. London: I. B. Tauris, 1987. Mongol influence on Muscovite institutions across shared cultural frontier.—NSK/SCF AHA Guide 34.171.
Hardy, Robert. Longbow: A Social and Military History. New York: Arco, 1976. Hasluck, Margaret. “The Albanian Blood Feud.” In Law and Warfare: Studies in the Anthropology of Conflict, edited by Paul Bohannan, 381–408. American Museum Sourcebooks in Anthropology. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1967. Excerpted from Margaret Hasluck, The Unwritten Law in Albania, edited by J. H. Hutton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954), 219–60.
Heath, Ian. Armies of the Middle Ages: Organisation, Tactics, Dress and Weapons, vol. 2, The Ottoman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Near East, 1300–1500. Worthing, England: Flexiprint, for Wargames Research Group Publications, 1984. Discussion includes Albania, Bulgaria, the Byzantine Empire, the Catalan Company, Cilician Armenia, Cyprus, the Sultanate of Delhi, the Golden Horde, the Holy Roman Empire, the Hospitallers, Hunmgary, the Hussites, Lithuania, the Mamluks, Moldavia, Muscovite Russia, the Navarrese Company, the Ottoman Empire, Poland, the Principality of Achaea, Serbia, the Teutonic Knights, the Timurid Empire, Transylvania, the Empire of Trebizond, Venice, Vijayanagar, the White Sheep Turks, and Wallachia.
Holmes, Colin, and A. H. Ion. “Bushidò and the Samurai: Images in British Public Opinion, 1894–1914.” Modern Asian Studies 14 (1980): 309–29. Respect for Japan mounted sharply after industrialization and military success, leading to enthusiasm for bushidò and the samurai spirit as a possible answer to British internal problems.
Howard, Frank. Sailing Ships of War, 1400–1860. New York: Mayflower Books, 1979. Howard, Michael. “Afterword: Tools of War: Concepts and Technology.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 238–46. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990.
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Hughes, B. P. Firepower: Weapons Effectiveness on the Battlefield, 1630–1850. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974. *Jones, E. L. Growth Recurring: Economic Change in World History. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1988. William H. McNeill review AHR 95 (1990): 132. England’s 18th-century take-off exemplified a rare, not unique, phenomenon; it depended on public authority strong enough to restrict local plunder and rent, but with countervailing political-military force great enough to check confiscatory taxation. Sophisticated, thought-provoking.
*Kerst, Georg. Jacob Meckel: Sein Leben, sein Wirken in Deutschland und Japan. Göttingen: Musterschmidt-Verlag, 1970. AHR (Feb74): 212: Biography of the German major who shaped the basic organization of the Japanese army during his 1885–1889 tour.
*Lach, Donald F. Asia in the Making of Europe. 3 volumes in 9 books. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965–1993. Lane, Frederic C. Profits from Power: Readings in Protection Rent and Violence. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1979. Collection of several articles from the 1940s and 1950s developing Lane’s thesis relating government control of coercive force to early modern economic development.
Lane, Frederic C. “The Role of Governments in Economic Growth in Early Modern Times.” Journal of Economic History 35 (1975): 8–17. Government monopoly of coercive force abserved in economic terms.
LaRocca, Donald J. The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1996. Catalogue of an exhibition of Eurasian arms and armor decorated with sacred images.
Latham, J. D. “The Archers of the Middle East: The Turco-Iranian Background.” Iran 8 (1970): 97–103. *Lebra, Joyce C. “Japanese and Western Models for the Indian National Army.” Japan Interpreter (Summer/Autumn 1972). Lebra, Joyce C. Japanese-Trained Armies in Southeast Asia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. *Lebra, Joyce C. Jungle Alliance: Japan and the Indian National Army. Singapore: Asian Pacific Press, 1971. *Lebra, Joyce C. “The Significance of the Japanese Military Model for Southeast Asia.” Pacific Affairs 48 (1975): 215–29.
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Leonard, Jane Kate. “Chinese Overlordship and Western Penetration in Maritime Asia: A Late Ch’ing Reappraisal of Chinese Maritime Relations.” Modern Asian Studies 6 (1972): 151–74. *Lev, Yaacov, ed. War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th-15th Centuries. The Medieval Mediterranean 9. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997. Lewis, Archibald R., and Timothy J. Runyan. European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. Including chaps. 2, “Byzantine Naval Power and Shipping, 500–1291,” 16–40; and 3, “Muslim Naval and Maritime Power in the Mediterranean, 651–1498,” 41–61.
Lewis, Archibald, ed. The Islamic World and the West, 622–1492 A.D. Major Issues in History. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1970. Lewis, Archibald. Knights and Samurai: Feudalism in Northern France and Japan. London: Temple Smith, 1974. Lewis, Archibald. “Maritime Skills in the Indian Ocean, 1368–1500.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 16 (1973): 238–64. Luttwak, Edward N. “Logistics and the Aristocratic Idea of War.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 3–7. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Lynn, John A. “The History of Logistics and Supplying War.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 9–37. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. McNeill, William H. The Age of Gunpowder Empires, 1450–1800. Essays in Global and Comparative History. Washington: American Historical Association, 1989. McNeill, William H. “The Eccentricity of Wheels; or, Eurasian Transportation in Historical Perspective.” American Historical Review 92 (1987): 1111–26. Camel caravans as low-cost long-distance transport, even allowing for protection costs; including remarks on military uses.
Menning, Bruce W. “Russia and the West: The Problem of EighteenthCentury Military Models.” In Russia and the West in the Eighteenth Century: Proceedings of the Second International Conference Organized by the Study Group on Eighteenth-Century Russia and Held at the University of East
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Anglia, Norwich, England, 17–22 July, 1981, edited by A. C. Cross, 282–93. Newtonville, Massachusetts: Oriental Research Partners, 1983. In Panel V, “The Armed Forces, Government and Society,” with comments by H. Ragsdale.
Morgan, David O. “The Mongol Armies in Persia.” Der Islam 56 (1979): 81–96. Morillo, Stephen. “Guns and Government: A Comparative Study of Europe and Japan.” Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995): 75–106. Mousnier, Roland E. Peasant Uprisings in 17th-Century France, Russia and China. New York: Harper & Row, 1970. Paperback edition, 1972. Comparative study of peasant resistance to the increasing encroachment of the state, its compulsory military service, and direct taxation.
*Nicolle, David C. “Arms and Armor Illustrated in the Art of the Latin East.” In The Horns of Hattin, edited by B. Z. Kedar. Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and Latin East, 1987. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society; London: Variorum, 1992. Nicolle, David. Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050–1350. 2 vols. New York: Kraus International Publications, 1988. Although centered on Western Christendom and Islam, includes all Eurasia; the first volume is text, the second illustrations.
Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book, vol. 2, Christian Europe and Its Neighbours. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1996. Systematic review of Eurasian military institutions and warfare from from roughtly 400 to 1400 A.D.
Parker, Geoffrey. “What Is the Western Way of War?” Military History Quarterly 8 (Winter 1996): 86–95. Adapted from Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare.
Petech, Luciano. “Tibetan Relations with Sung China and with the Mongols.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 173–203. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. *Peterson, Claes. Peter the Great’s Administrative and Judicial Reforms: Swedish Antecedents and the Process of Reception. Skrifter utg. av Institutet for Rattshistorisk Forskning, Serien 1: Rattshistoriskt Bibliotek 29. Stockholm: Nord, 1979. Influence of Swedish models and role of Swedish prisoners of war in reorganization of armed forces and other reforms.—GJM AHA Guide 34.93.
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Peterson, H. L. “The Eighteenth Century and the End of the Flintlock.” In Pollard’s History of Firearms, edited by Claude Blair, 106–60. New York: Macmillan, 1983. Phillips, Carla Rahn. “The Caravel and the Galleon.” In Cogs, Caravels and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 1000–1650, edited by Martin Gardner and Richard W. Unger, 91–114. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994. Both types were primarily warships.
Pryor, John H. Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571. Past and Present Publications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Paperback edition, 1992. Rachewiltz, Igor de. “Turks in China under the Mongols: A Preliminary Investigation of Turco-Mongol Relations in the 13th and 14th Centuries.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 281–310. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. *Radeka, Milan. “Vojna Krajina (The Upper Military Border).” Florida State Slavic Papers 5 (1971): 90–99. *Raeff, Marc. The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600 –1800. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1983. Classic argument that governmental power expanded with rise of central bureaucracies.—GJM AHA Guide 34.96.
Richardson, Thom. “China and Central Asia.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 172–185. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview.
Roberts, Owain T. P. “Descendents of Viking Boats.” In Cogs, Caravels and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 1000–1650, edited by Martin Gardner and Richard W. Unger, 11–28. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994. *Robinson, H. Russell. Oriental Armour. New York: Walker, 1967. Rogers, R. Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century. Oxford Historical Monographs. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1992. Excellent in every way, on a crucially important and badly neglected topic, according to Kelly DeVries, American Historical Review 99 (1994): 881.
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Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber. “Presidential Address: State Formation in Asia—Prolegomenon to a Comparative Study.” Journal of Asian Studies 46 (1987): 731–46. Salewski, Michael. “Die preussische Expedition nach Japan (1859– 1861).” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 39–58. *Sareen, Tilak Raj. Japan and the Indian National Army. 1986 Saunders, Andrew. Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland. Liphook, England: Beaufort, 1989. Seward, Desmond. The Monks of War: The Military Religious Orders. New York: Penguin Books, 1972. Seward, Desmond. “The Teutonic Knights.” History Today 20 (December 1970): 859–66. *Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. Political-military narrative, stressing role of Arab federates in Roman service.
Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. 2 vols. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1995. *Shepard, Jonathan. “The English and Byzantium: A Study of Their Role in the Byzantine Army in the Later Eleventh Century.” Traditio 29 (1973): 53–92. Anglo-Saxons displaced by Norman conquest played important roles in Byzantine army.—APK AHA Guide 8.351.
Sharabi, Hisham. Arab Intellectuals and the West: The Formative Years, 1875–1914. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970. Showalter, Dennis. “Gunpowder and Regional Military Systems.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited James C. Bradford, 49–88. Texas A&M Military History Series 50. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Skiotis, Dennis N. “Mountain Warriors and the Greek Revolution.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 308–29. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. *Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Mongol Manpower and Persian Population.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (1975): 271–99. Ingenious but not entirely persuasive effort to relate size of Mongol army to population of provinces responsible for army units.—RWB AHA Guide 17.281.
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Smith, Thomas C. “Pre-Modern Economic Growth: Japan and the West.” Past & Present no. 60 (1973): 127–60. Snow, Philip. The Star Raft: China’s Encounter with Africa. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988. On the great Ming expeditions, see chap. 1, “Chinese Columbus,” 1–36.
Swamy, Subramanian. “The Response to Economic Challenge: A Comparative Economic History of China and India, 1870–1952.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 93 (1979): 25–46. Thompson, M. W. The Decline of the Castle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Towle, Philip. “The British Armed Forces and Japan before 1914.” Journal of the Royal United Service Institution 114 ( June 1974): 67–71. Trumpener, Ulrich. “German Officers in the Ottoman Empire— 1880–1918.” Jahrbüch Institut Deutsche Geschichte, supplement 1 (1975): 30–44. *Turner, Hilary L. Town Defences in England and Wales: An Architectural and Documentary Study, A.D. 900–1500. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon, 1971. Remains of urban ramparts, and discussion of political and economic contexts.— LCA AHA Guide 20.430.
Ungar, Catherine Anne. “The Archaeological Problem of Defense: Historic Settlement Patterns in the Var Valley System, Southeastern France.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona, 1978. In Dissertation Abstracts International A39 (August 1978): 956. Unger, Richard W. “Admiralties and Warships of Europe and the Mediterranean, 1000–1500.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 34–44. New York: Garland, 1980. Vryonis, Speros, Jr. “Byzantine and Turkish Societies and Their Manpower.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 125–52. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Watson, Adam. The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis. London and New York: Routledge, 1992. Analysis of selected state systems, with modest attention to military factors, in three parts: premodern and nonwestern systems (chaps. 2–12, pp. 21–132; medieval through
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19th-century European systems (chaps. 12–21, pp. 135–262); and the 20th-century global system (chaps. 22–25, pp. 265–318).
Wilcox, John. Masters of Battle: Selected Great Warrior Classes. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1996. See especially chapters 1, “The Marines: The Vikings of the North,” 12–45; 2, “The Artillerymen: The Longbowmen of England,” 46–78; and 4, “The Spearmen: The Zulus of Isandlwana,” 114–49.
Wilkinson, Frederick. “India and Southeast Asia.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 186–203. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview.
*Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, volume 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries. 3d edition. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996. Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, volume 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th Centuries. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997. Wolf, Eric R. Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Woodward, David. Armies of the World, 1854–1914. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1978. In addition to major Western armies, includes Russia (62–77); Turkey (78–89); India (118–27); Japan (152–61); and China (162–71).
Wren, Melvin C. The Western Impact upon Tsarist Russia. Berkshire Studies in History. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971. Yapp, M. E. “The Modernization of Middle Eastern Armies in the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative View.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 330–66. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
BYZANTIUM
Ahrweiler, Hélène. “L’Organisation des campagnes militaires à Byzance.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 89–96. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Austin, N. J. E. Ammianus on Warfare: An Investigation into Ammianus’ Military Knowledge. Brussels: Latomus, 1979. His viewpoint that of staff officer rather than commander, but knowledgeable of strategy, tactics, and especially intelligence.
*Bartusis, Mark C. “The Cost of Late Byzantine Warfare and Defense.” Byzantinische Forschungen 16 (1991): 75–89.
Military consumed 5 percent of empire’s total resources in first half of 14th century.—APK AHA Guide 8.315.
Bartusis, Mark C. The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society, 1204–1453. Middle Ages Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992. Bartusis, Mark C. “The Megala Allagia and the Tzaosios: Aspects of Provincial Military Organization in Late Byzantium.” Revue des Etudes Byzantines 47 (1989): 183–207. Blöndal, Sigfús. The Varangians of Byzantium: An Aspect of Byzantine Military History. Translated and edited by Benedikt S. Benedikz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. See chap. 2, “The Army and Navy of the High Byzantine Empire,” 15–31.
*Brown, Thomas S. Gentlemen and Officers: Imperial Administration and Aristocratic Power in Byzantine Italy, A.D. 554 –800. London: British School at Rome, 1984. Army commanders of imperial Italy developed into powerful aristocracy, while tradition of Roman gentleman remained alive among soldiers and clerics.—APK AHA Guide 8.325.
Bryer, Anthony. “The First Encounter with the West—A.D. 1050– 1204.” In Byzantium: An Antroduction, edited by Philip Whitting, 85–110. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1972. Paperback edition, New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973. Including discussion of a Byzantine version of land tenure for military service (89–92).
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Dennis, George T. Three Byazantine Military Treatises. Dumbarton Oaks Treatises 9. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 25. Series Washingtonensis. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1985. *Falkenhausen, Vera von. Untersuchungen über die byzantinische Herrschaft in Süditalien vom neunten bis ins elfte Jahrhundert. Schriften zur Geistesgeschichte des östlichen Europa 1. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1967. Byzantine administration in southern Italy, including army.—APK AHA Guide 8.330.
*Foss, Clive, and David Winfield. Byzantine Fortifications: An Introduction. Unisa 1986 22. Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1986. Excellent intro and interpretation.—APK AHA Guide 8.317.
*Guilland, Rodolphe. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. 2 vols. Berliner byzantinistische Arbeiten 35. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1967. Articles on Byzantine administration, including military.—APK AHA Guide 8.265.
*Haldon, John F. Byzantine Praetorians: An Administrative, Institutional, and Social Survey of the Opsikion and Tagmata, c. 580–900. Poikila Byzantina 3. Bonn: Habelt, 1984. Social vacuum following decline of provincial cities tended to strengthen local administrative units in which most senior military commanders expanded power by assuming responsibility for providing troops.—APK AHA Guide 8.318.
*Haldon, John F., ed. Constantine Porphyrogenitus: Three Treatises on Imperial Military Expeditions. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae, Series Vindobonensis 28. Vienna: Österreichishche Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990. *Haldon, John F. Recruitment and Conscription in the Byzantine Army, c. 550–950: A Study on the Origins of the Stratiotika Ktemata. Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Klasse 357. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1979. Drafted volunteers replaced in 7th century by hereditary system, soldiers being granted gradually holdings in various provinces; by 10th century, soldier’s duty transferred from person to holding.—APK AHA Guide 8.319.
Heath, Ian, and Angus McBride. Byzantine Armies, 886–1118. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 89. London: Osprey, 1979. Heath, Ian, and Angus McBride. Byzantine Armies, 1118–1461. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 287. London: Osprey, 1995. *Howard-Johnston, J. D. “Studies in the Organization of the Byzantine Army in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.” Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University, 1972.
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Jenkins, Romilly. “The Age of Conquest—A.D. 842–1050.” In Byzantium: An Antroduction, edited by Philip Whitting, 63–81. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1972. Paperback edition, New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973. An account of Byzantium’s second and last attempt to assert suzerainty over the former areas of the Roman Empire, with considerable attention to military organization, strategy, and tactics.
*Kaegi, Walter Emil. Army, Society and Religion in Byzantium. Collected Studies 162. London: Variorum Reprints, 1982. Kaegi, Walter Emil. “Byzantine Logistics: Problems and Perspectives.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 39–55. History and Warfare. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993. *Kaegi, Walter Emil. Byzantine Military Unrest, 471–843: An Interpretation. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert, 1981. Military revolts occurred at moments of crisis, when normal institutional safeguards relaxed.—APK AHA Guide 8.139. Reviewed by John Rosser, Armed Forces and Society 10 (1984): 629–32.
*Kaegi, Walter Emil. “Some Reconsiderations on the Themes (SeventhNinth Centuries).” Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinischen Gesellschaft 16 (1967): 39–53. Reevaluation of the system, its efficiency, the soldiers it produced.—APK AHR Guide 8.269.
*Kaegi, Walter Emil. Some Thoughts on Byzantine Military Strategy. Brookline, Massachusetts: Hellenic College Press, 1983. Introductory account attributes Byzantine survival to cautious military strategy: avoidance of decisive battles, attrition, passive resistance followed by envelopment.—APK AHA Guide 8.321.
*Klopf, M. “The Army in Constantinople at the Accession of Constantine XI.” Byzantion no. 3 (1971). *Kolias, Taxiarchis G. Byzantinische Waffen: Ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen Waffenkunde von den Anfängen bis zur lateinischen Eroberung. Byzantina Vindobonensia 17. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1988. Description of weapons, changing tactics and technology.—APK AHA Guide 8.322.
*Lawrence, A. W. “A Skeletal History of Byzantine Fortification.” Annals of the British School of Athens 78 (1983): 171–227.
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Mango, Cyril. “Heraclius, the Threats from the East and Iconoclasm— A.D. 610–843. In Byzantium: An Antroduction, edited by Philip Whitting, 41–59. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1972. Paperback edition, New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973. Including the rise of a military aristocracy (56–58).
Maurice. “Das elfte Buch der ‘Kriegskunst’ des Maurikios.” Translated and introduced by Matthias Springer. Dresden Staatliche Museum für Völkskunde 36 (1978): 73–89. Maurice. Maurice’s Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy. Translated by George T. Dennis. Middle Ages Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984. Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. Romano-Byzantine Armies, 4th–9th Centuries. Men-at-Arms Series 247. London: Osprey, 1992. Shahîd, Irfan. “Heraclius and the Theme System: New Light from the Arabic.” Byzantion 57 (1987): 391–406. *Shahîd, Irfan. “Heraclius and the Theme System: Further Observations.” Byzantion 59 (1989): 208–43. System created after the emperor’s victory over the Persians.—APK AHA Guide 8.280.
*Stratos, Andreas N. Byzantium in the Seventh Century. 5 vols. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1968–1980. Systematic survey of history, 602–711, stressing military and ecclesiastical policy.— APK AHA Guide 8.144.
Tomlin, Roger. “The Late-Roman Empire.” In Warfare in the Ancient World, ed. John Hackett, 222–249. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989. *Toynbee, Arnold. Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Bad book, but chapters on army and navy.—AHR 79 (1974): 503–4.
Treadgold, Warren T. The Byzantine Revival, 780 –842. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. See especially “The Army,” 26–36, in chap. 1, “The Empire in 780”; and “The Army,” 347–57, in “The Empire in 842.” See also index entry: “Army.”
Treadgold, Warren T. Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1995. Treadgold, Warren T. “The Revival of Byzantine Learning and the Revival of the Byzantine State.” American Historical Review 84 (1979): 1245–66. Revived learning improved administration and fostered military recuperation.
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*Whitby, Michael. The Emperor Maurice and His Historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan Warfare. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. Turning point in East Roman empire.—APK AHA Guide 8.147.
Zuckerman, Constantine. “The Military Compendium of Syrianus Magister.” Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik 40 (1990): 209–24.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
Abels, Richard P. Lordship and Military Obligation in Anglo-Saxon England. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. *Allmand, Christopher. The Hundred Years War: England and France at War, c. 1300–c. 1450. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Excellent summary of the campaigns, plus topical surveys of attitudes toward the war, conduct, institutions, socioeconomic effects, nationalism, and literature.—review by Richard W. Kaeuper, American Historical Review 94 (1989): 1078–79.
Ayton, Andrew. Knights and Warhorses: Military Service and the English Aristorcracy under Edward III. Woodbridge, England; and Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 1994. Ayton, Andrew, and J. L. Price, eds. The Medieval Military Revolution: State, Society, and Military Change in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1995. Bachrach, Bernard S. “The Angevin Strategy of Castle Building in the Reign of Fulk Nerra, 987–1040.” American Historical Review 88 (1983): 533–60. Bachrach, Bernard S. Fulk Nerra, the Neo-Roman Consul, 987–1040: A Political Biography of the Angevin Count. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Bachrach, Bernard S. “Logistics in Pre-Crusade Europe.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 57–78. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Bachrach, Bernard S. Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1972. Bailey, Anthony. “The Battle beside the Blackwater.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Spring 1992): 74–81. Danes vs. East Saxons at the battle of Maldon, A.D. 991.
Barber, Richard. The Reign of Chivalry. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980. See especially chap. 1, “The Knight and Warfare,” 9–54.
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*Bartha, Antal. Hungarian Society in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Translated by K. Balázs. Studia historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 85. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1975. Horse nomads in eastern Europe and their influence on the Magyar tribal federation.—SBV AHA Guide 33.320.
Bartlett, Robert. The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950–1350. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993. Important synthesis, addressing the medieval background, including military, of European expansion; see especially chap. 3, “Military Technology and Political Power,” 60–84.
Beeler, John. Warfare in Feudal Europe, 730–1200. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1971. Paperback edition, 1972. Bennett, Matthew. “Men of Iron.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 30–43. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. Boone, James L. “Noble Family Structure and Expansionist Warfare in the Late Middle Ages: A Socioecological Approach.” In Rethinking Human Adaptation: Biological and Cultural Models, edited by Rada DysonHudson and Michael A. Little, 79–96. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1983. How individual maximizing behavior (adaptive strategies a la Darwin) can account for warfare in complex societies.
Boswell, John. The Royal Treasure: Muslim Communities under the Crown of Aragon in the Fourteenth Century. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1977. Chap. 4, “Feudal Military Duties of the Madéjares,” 165–93.
Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval Archer. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval Siege. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 1992. Charles-Edwards, T. M. “Irish Warfare before 1100.” In A Military History of Ireland, edited by Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, 26–51. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Chaunu, Pierre. L’Expansion européenne du XIII e au XV e siècle. Collection Nouvelle Clio. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1969. Pp. 268–88 excerpted in Technology and European Overseas Enterprise: Diffusion, Adaption, and Adoption, edited by Michael Adas, 1–21. An Expanding
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World: The European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, vol. 7. Aldershot, England: Variorum, 1996. *Cheyette, Frederic L. The Sovereign and the Pirates, 1332.” Speculum 45 (1970): 40–68. Piracy, development of law of marque and reprisal, just war, and royal monopoly of violence.—FLC AHA Guide 20.488.
Christensen, Arne Emil. “Proto-Viking, Viking and Norse Craft.” In The Earliest Ships: The Evolution of Boats into Ships. Edited by Robert Gardiner and Basil Greenhill, 72–88. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1996. Contamine, Philippe. War in the Middle Ages. Translated by Michael Jones. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. Corfis, Ivy A., and Michael Wolfe, eds. The Medieval City under Siege. Woodbridge, England; and Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 1995. Curry, Anne, and Michael Hughes, eds. Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the Hundred Years War. Woodbridge, England; and Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 1994. Davidson, Hilda Ellis. The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature. Corrected reprint of 1962 edition. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 1994. *Davies, Wendy. Patterns of Power in Early Wales. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Growing chaos from Viking and English raids, 9th–11th century, promoted rulers who could raise troops to fight invaders.—FLC AHA Guide 20.207.
Davis, R. H. C. The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development and Redevelopment. London: Thames & Hudson, 1989. DeVries, Kelly. “Gunpowder and Early Gunpowder Weapons.” In Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology, edited by Brenda J. Buchanan, 121–36. Bath, England: Bath University Press, 1996. DeVries, Kelly. Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century: Discipline, Tactics, and Technology. Warfare in History 2. Woodbridge, England, and Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 1996. DeVries, Kelly. Medieval Military Technology. Peterborough, Ontario, and Orchard Park, New York: Broadview Press, 1992.
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*Ditcham, Brian G. H. “ ‘Mutton Guzzlers and Wine Bags’: Foreign Soldiers and Native Reactions in Fifteenth-Century France.” In Power, Culture, and Religion in France, c. 1350–c. 1550, edited by Christopher Allmand. Wolfeboro, New Hampshire: Boydell, 1989. Duby, Georges. The Chivalrous Society. Translated by Cynthia Postan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977. Duby, Georges. The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century. Translated by Howard B. Clarke. World Economic History. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1974. Paperback edition, 1978. Duby, Georges. The Legend of Bouvines: War, Religion and Culture in the Middle Ages. Translated by Catherine Tihanyi. London: Polity Press; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. *Eales, Richard. “Royal Power and Castles in Norman England.” In Ideals and Practice of Medieval Knighthood, vol. 3, edited by Christopher Harper-Bill and Ruth Harvey. Papers from the Fourth Strawberry Hill Conference, 1988. Rochester, New York: Boydell, 1990. Edge, David, and John Miles Paddock. Arms and Armor of the Medieval Knight: An Illustrated History of Weaponry in the Middle Ages. Greenwich, Connecticut: Bison Books, 1988. Flanagan, Marie Therese. “Irish and Anglo-Norman Warfare in Twelfth-Century Ireland.” In A Military History of Ireland, edited by Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, 52–75. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Foote, Peter, and David M. Wilson. The Viking Achievement: The Society and Culture of Early Medieval Scandinavia. Great Civilizations Series. Revised edition. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1980. See chap. 8, “Warfare,” 263–85.
Fowler, Kenneth. The Age of Plantagenet and Valois. London: Paul Elek, 1967. Reprinted New York: Exeter Books, 1980. See especially chaps. 3, “The Armies,” 93–139; and 4, “Chivalry, War and Society,” 140–81.
Frame, Robin. “Military Service in the Lordship of Ireland, 1290–1360: Insitutions and Society on the Anglo-Gaelic Frontier.” In Medieval Frontier Societies, edited by Robert Bartlett and Angus Mackay, 101–26. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.
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Friel, Ian. The Good Ship: Ships, Shipbuilding and Technology in England, 1200–1520. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. Especially chap. 8, “Ships for War,” 139–56.
*Fügedi, Erik. Castle and Society in Medieval Hungary (1000 –1437). Translated by János M. Bak. Studia Historica Academiae Scientarum Hungaricae 187. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986. Castle-building, especially after Mongol invasion, strengthened aristocracy at expense of royal power.—SBV AHA Guide 33.336.
*Ganshof, F. L. Frankish Institutions under Charlemagne. 1968 edition. Translated by Bryce Lyon and Mary Lyon. New York: W. W. Norton, 1970. Basic synthesis, including military institutions.—ACM AHA Guide 20.197.
*Gerevich, László. Towns in Medieval Hungary. Translated by T. Szendrei. Edited by P. C. McCulloch. East European Monographs 297. Boulder, Colorado: Social Science Monographs; Highland Lakes, New Jersey: Atlantic Research & Publications, 1990. Town development, including fortification.—SBV AHA Guide 33.339.
Gies, Frances. The Knight in History. New York: Harper & Row, 1984. Paperback edition, 1987. *Gillingham, John, and J. C. Holt, eds. War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of J. O. Prestwick. Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 1984. *Göbbels, Joachim. Das Militärwesen im Königreich Sizilien zur Zeit Karls I. von Anjou, 1265–1285. Monographien zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 29. Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1984. Reinhold Schumann review American Historical Review 90 (Dec. 85): 1176–77: Reconstruction of the Anjou military system—army, castles, navy—upon which was based the Hohenstaufen conquest of southern Italy and Sicily.
Goodman, Anthony. “Religion and Warfare in the Anglo-Scottish Marches.” In Medieval Frontier Societies, edited by Robert Bartlett and Angus Mackay, 245–66. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Graham-Campbell, James. The Viking World. New Haven, Connecticut: Ticknor & Fields, 1980. See chap. 2, “Viking Warriors,” 20–35.
Gravett, Christopher, and Graham Turner. German Medieval Armies, 1000–1300. Men-at-Arms Series 310. London: Osprey, 1997. Griffith, Paddy. The Viking Art of War. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1995.
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Griffiths, Ralph A. Conquerors and Conquered in Medieval Wales. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Hall, Bert S. The Technological Illustrations of the So-called “Anonymous of the Hussite Wars,” Codex Latinus Monacensis 197, Part 1. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1979. *Harriss, G. L. “War and the Emergence of the English Parliament, 1297–1360.” Journal of Medieval History 2 (1976): 35–57. Clear account of connection between growth of Parliament’s role in government and first phase of the Hundred Years’ War.—RWK AHA Guide 20.556.
Haywood, John. Dark Age Naval Power: A Reassessment of Frnakish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Henneman, John Bell. “The Military Class and the French Monarchy in the Late Middle Ages.” American Historical Review 83 (1978): 946–65. *Henneman, John Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France: The Development of War Financing, 1322–1356. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971. Taxation and expansion of central power.—RWK AHA Guide 20.603.
Hidán, Csaba. “The Military Tactics of the Ancient Hungarians.” In Between East and West/Über die Grenze zwischen Ost und West, edited by Csilla Siklódi, 39–67. Translated by Beatrix Romhányi. English translation edited by Mary Beth Davis. Budapest: Promptus, 1996. Hill, Douglas. “ ‘Kill Them All . . . God Will Recognize His Own.’ ” Military History Quarterly 9 (Winter 1997): 98–109. The Albigensian Crusade.
*Hoffman, Richard C. “Warfare, Weather, and a Rural Economy: The Duchy of Wroclaw in the Mid-Fifteenth Century.” Viator 4 (1973): 273–301. Hollister, C. Warren. “1066: The ‘Feudal Revolution.’ ” American Historical Review 73 (1968): 708–23. On the question of military service before and after the conquest.
Hooper, Nicholas, and Matthew Bennett. Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768–1487. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Hopkins, Andrea. Knights. London: Quantum Books, 1990. Reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1998. See especially chap. 5, “The Knight at War,” 124–53, a well-illustrated survey.
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Jesch, Judith. Women in the Viking Age. Woodbridge, England; Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 1991. See “Warrior Women,” 176–80, in chap. 6, “Warrior Woman to Nun—Looking Back at Viking Women.”
*Kaeuper, Richard W. War, Justice, and Public Order: England and France in the Later Middle Ages. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1988. Subtle and illuminating argument that intensified war after 1290 catalyzed growth of state power and transformed economic, political, and social life throughout northern Europe.—review by Roger Little, American Historical Review 94 (1989): 1079–80.
Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1984. Of relevance throughout, but see especially chap. 12, “Chivalry and War,” 219–37.
Kenyon, John R. Medieval Fortifications. The Archaeology of Medieval Britain. Leicester and London: Leicester University Press; New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. From the earth and timber structures of 1066 to stonebuilt castles of the 15th century, with attention to residence as well as defense.
Koch, H. W. Medieval Warfare. London: Bison Books; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1978. *Leyser, Karl. “Early Medieval Warfare.” In The Battle of Maldon: Fiction or Fact, edited by Janet Cooper. Rio Grande, Ohio: Hambledon Press, 1993. *Lund, Niels. “Danish Military Organization.” In The Battle of Maldon: Fiction or Fact, edited by Janet Cooper. Rio Grande, Ohio: Hambledon Press, 1993. Major, Albany. Early Wars of Wessex. Revised edition. Poole, England: Blandford Press, 1978. *Mesqui, Jean. Châteaux et enceintes de la France médiévale: De la défense à la résidence. 2 vols. Paris: Picard, 1991–. Architectural history, mainly from beginning of stone construction in 11th century.— FLC AHA Guide 20.462.
Morillo, Stephen, ed. The Battle of Hastings: Sources and Interpretations. War in History. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press; Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 1996. Morillo, Stephen. Warfare under the Anglo-Norman Kings, 1066–1135. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press; Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 1994. Major restatement of the nature of medieval warfare.
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Newark, Tim, and Angus McBride. The Barbarians: Warriors and Wars of the Dark Ages. London: Blandford, 1985. Paperback edition, 1988. Newark, Timothy. Medieval Warfare: An Illustrated Introduction. London: Jupiter Books, 1979. Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book, vol. 1, Warfare in Western Christendom. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1995. Nicolle, David, and Christopher Rothero. The Venetian Empire, 1200–1670. Men-at-Arms Series 210. London: Osprey, 1989. Norman, A. V. B. The Medieval Soldier. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1971. Oakeshott, Ewart. Records of the Medieval Sword. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 1991. O’Callaghan, Joseph F. “The Beginnings of the Cortes of LeónCastile.” American Historical Review 74 (1969): 1503–37. “The emergence of the municipalities as significant factors in the military and administrative structure of the realm was a major reason for summoning townsmen to the council.” (1503).
Pálsson, Hermann, and Paul Edwards, eds. Seven Viking Romances. New York: Viking Penguin, 1985. Peddie, John. Alfred the Good Soldier: His Life and Campaigns. Bath, England: Millstream Books, 1989. Paperback edition, 1992. *Peirce, Ian. “The Development of the Medieval Sword c. 850–1300.” In Ideals and Practice of Medieval Knighthood, vol. 3, edited by Christopher Harper-Bill and Ruth Harvey. Papers from the Fourth Strawberry Hill Conference, 1988. Rochester, New York: Boydell, 1990. Pelteret, David. “Slave Raiding and Slave Trading in Early England. Anglo-Saxon England 9 (1981): 99–114. Slaves primarily war captives.
Pounds, N. J. The Medieval Castle in England and Wales. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Powers, James F. A Society Organized for War: The Iberian Municipal Militias in the Central Middle Ages, 1000–1284. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
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Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1996. Prestwich, Michael. The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson; New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980. Rabb, Theodore K. “Artists on War: The Bayeux Tapestry.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Summer 1997): 80–85. *Reuter, Timothy. “Episcopi cum sua militia: The Prelate as Warrior in the Early Staufer Era.” In Warriors and Churchmen in the High Middle Ages: Essays Presented to Karl Leyser, edited by Timothy Reuter. Rio Grande, Ohio: Hambledon, 1992. Robards, Brooks. The Medieval Knight at War. Greenwich, Connecticut: Brompton Books, 1997. Rothero, Christopher. The Armies of Crécy and Poitiers. Men-at-Arms Series 111. London: Osprey, 1981. Rudorf, Raymond. Knights and the Age of Chivalry. New York: Viking Press, 1974. Runyan, Timothy J. “The Cog as Warship.” In Cogs, Caravels and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 1000–1650, edited by Martin Gardner and Richard W. Unger, 47–58. Conway’s History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994. Runyan, Timothy J. “Naval Logistics in the Late Middle Ages: The Example of the Hundred Years’ War.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 79–100. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Sawyer, P. H. Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, 700 –1100. London: Methuen, 1982. *Settia, Aldo A. Communi in guerra: Armi ed eserciti nell’Italia delle città. Biblioteca di storia urbana medievale 7. Bologna: Cooperativa Libraria Universitaria Editrice Bologna, 1993. Military affairs, especially training and innovation, in 12th–13th century Italy.— review by Michael Mallett, American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1298–99.
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Simms, Katharine. From Kings to Warlords: The Changing Political Structure of Gaelic Ireland in the Later Middle Ages. Studies in Celtic History 7. Wolfeboro, New Hampshire: Boydell, 1987. See especially chap. 8, “The King’s Army,” 116–28.
Simms, Katharine. “Gaelic Warfare in the Middle Ages.” In A Military History of Ireland, edited by Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, 99–115. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. *Speed, Peter, ed. An Anthology of Medieval Sources, vol. 1, Those Who Fought. New York: Italica Press, 1995. Texts on chivalry, feudalism, and war from chronicles, legal documents, treatises, and romances.
Strickland, Matthew, ed. Anglo-Norman Warfare: Studies in Late AngloSaxon and Anglo-Norman Military Organisation and Warfare. Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 1992. Reprinted articles, mostly from the 1980s.
Strickland, Matthew. War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and Normandy, 1066–1217. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. *Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years’ War: Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. Sprawling narrative to 1347, massive bibliography; will supersede all previous.— FLC AHA Guide 20.500.
*Suppe, Frederick C. Military Institutions on the Welsh Marches: Shropshire, A.D. 1066–1300. Studies in Celtic History 14. Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 1994. *Unger, Richard W. “Ships of the Late Middle Ages.” In Maritime History, volume 1, The Age of Discovery, edited by John B. Hattendorf, chap. 3. Melbourne, Florida: Krieger, 1995. *Vale, Malcolm. The Angevin Legacy and the Hundred Years’ War, 1250–1340. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990. Not nationalism but dispute over authority in Aquitaine.—FLC AHA Guide 20.501.
*Vale, Malcolm. War and Chivalry: Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in England, France, and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981. Practice of war and ideals of chivalry.—RWK AHA Guide 20. 479.
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*Vaughan, Richard. Valois Burgundy. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon, 1975. Topical chapters on administration and warfare.—RWK AHA Guide 20.608.
Verbruggen, J. F. The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340. Translated by Sumner Willard and S. C. M. Southern. Revised and enlarged 2d edition. Europe in the Middle Ages, Selected Studies, 1. Amsterdam and New York: North-Holland, 1977. Reprinted Woodbridge, England; and Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 1997. Wise, Terence, and Gerald Embleton. Medieval European Armies. Menat-Arms Series 50. London: Osprey, 1975.
EARLY MODERN EUROPEAN ARMED FORCES AND THE MILITARY REVOLUTION
From ca. 1450 to ca. 1800. Adams, Simon. “Tactics or Politics? ‘The Military Revolution’ and the Hapsburg Hegemony, 1525–1648.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 28–52. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Anderson, M. S. War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618–1789. Fontana History of European War and Society. London: Fontana, 1988. *Andrews, Kenneth R. Ships, Money, and Politics: Seafaring and Naval Enterprise in the Reign of Charles I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Collected essays, best study of period.—DAB AHA Guide 23.101.
Arnold, Thomas E. “Fortifications and the Military Revolution: The Gonzaga Experience, 1530–1630.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 201–26. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. *Åström, Sven-Erik. “The Role of Finland in the Swedish National and War Economies during Sweden’s Period as a Great Power.” Scandinavian Journal of History 11.2 (1986): 135–47.
Large manpower, small financial contribution.—MFM AHA Guide 32.155.
Batchelder, Ronald W., and Herman Freudenberger. “On the Rational Origins of the Modern Centralized State.” Explorations in Economic History 20 (1983): 1–13. Military institutions as the source of bureaucratization and rationalization.
Baxter, Douglas Clark. Servants of the Sword: French Intendants of the Army, 1630–70. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976. Bean, Richard. “War and the Birth of the Nation State.” Journal of Economic History 33 (1973): 203–21. With discussion by David Ringrose and Richard Roehl, 222–31. Lightweight attempt to relate political centralization to technological change via taxing power.
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*Bernard, G. W. War, Taxation, and Rebellion in Early Tudor England: Henry VIII, Wolsey, and the Amicable Grant of 1525. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986. Strains imposed by opportunistic war.—DMH AHA Guide 23.4
Black, Jeremy. Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Black, Jeremy. European Warfare, 1660–1815. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1994. Black, Jeremy. “A Military Revolution? A 1660–1792 Perspective.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 95–114. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Black, Jeremy. A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550–1800. Studies in European History. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press International, 1991. Black, Jeremy. “The Military Revolution II: Eighteenth-Century War.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War, edited by Charles Townshend, 35–47. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Translated by Siân Reynolds. 2 vols. New York: Harper & Row, 1972–1973. Much of relevance throughout, but see especially part 2, “Collective Destinies and General Trends,” chap. 7, “The Forms of War,” II:836–91.
Brewer, John. The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1788. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. Brzezinski, Richard, and Angus McBride. Polish Armies, 1569 –1696 (1). Men-at-Arms Series 184. London: Osprey, 1987. Brzezinski, Richard, and Angus McBride. Polish Armies, 1569 –1696 (2). Men-at-Arms Series 188. London: Osprey, 1987. Büsch, Otto. Military System and Social Life in Old Regime Prussia, 1713–1807: The Beginnings of the Social Militarization of Prusso-German Society. Translated by John G. Gagliando. Studies in Central European Histories. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1997.
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*Capp, Bernard. Cromwell’s Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution, 1648–1660. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Comprehensive study of organization, administration, etc.—DAB AHA Guide 23.108.
Chandler, David G. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1976. Childs, John. Armies and Warfare in Europe, 1648–1789. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982. Childs, John. The Army, James II and the Glorious Revolution. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980. Childs, John. The Army of Charles II. Studies in Social History. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976. *Childs, John. The British Army of William III, 1689–1702. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1987. Organization, conditions of service, performance against Louis XIV.—DAB AHA Guide 23.109.
Childs, John. “The Military Revolution I: The Transition to Modern Warfare.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War, edited by Charles Townshend, 19–34. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Chirot, Daniel. “The Rise of the West.” American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 181–95. Clark, Samuel. State and Status: The Rise of the State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe. Montreal and Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1995. See especially “Military Power,” 46–48, in chap. 1, “France”; “The Military,” 284–87, in chap. 7, “Political Power.”
Cobb, Richard. The People’s Armies: The “Armées révolutionnaires,” Instrument of the Terror in the Departments, April 1793 to Floréal Year II. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1987. Corvisier, André. Armies and Societies in Europe, 1494–1789. Translated by Abigail T. Siddall. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979. Cruickshank, C. G. Army Royal: Henry VIII’s Invasion of France, 1513. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.
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Downing, Biran M. The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Duffy, Christopher. The Army of Frederick the Great. Historic Armies and Navies. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1974. Duffy, Christopher. Fire and Stone: The Science of Fortress Warfare, 1660–1860. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1975. Duffy, Christopher. The Military Experience in the Age of Reason. New York: Atheneum, 1988. Duffy, Christopher. Siege Warfare, vol. 1, The Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494–1660; vol. 2, The Fortress in the Age of Vauban and Frederick the Great, 1660–1789. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979–1985. Duffy, Michael. “The Foundation of British Naval Power.” In The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800, edited by Michael Duffy, 49–85. Exeter Studies in History 1. Exeter, England: University of Exeter, 1980. Duffy, Michael. “The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800.” In The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800, edited by Michael Duffy, 1–9. Exeter Studies in History 1. Exeter, England: University of Exeter, 1980. Elting, John R. Swords around a Throne: Napoleon’s Grande Armée. New York: Free Press, 1988. Eltis, David. The Military Revolution in Sixteenth-Century Europe. New York and London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. *Esdaile, Charles J. The Spanish Army in the Peninsular War. New York: Manchester University Press, 1988. Origin of army’s interventionist attitude.—AS AHA Guide 29.218.
Forrest, Alan. “The Nation in Arms I: The French Wars.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War, edited by Charles Townshend, 48–63. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. *Forrest, Alan. The Soldiers of the French Revolution. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1990. Good synthesis of soldiers’ social circumstances.—JRC AHA Guide 26.52.
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*Francis, A. David. The First Peninsular War, 1702–1713. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975. Thorough military account.—SHB AHA Guide 29.175.
Gates, David. The British Light Infantry Arm, c. 1790–1815: Its Creation, Training and Operational Role. London: B. T. Batsford, 1987. *Gentles, Ian. The New Model Army in England, Ireland, and Scotland, 1645–1653. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992. Most thorough, reliable account.—DMH AHA Guide 23.114.
*Gillingham, John B. The Wars of the Roses: Peace and Conflict in FifteenthCentury England. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. Best available narrative.—DMH AHA Guide 23.23.
Glover, Michael. Wellington’s Army: In the Peninsula, 1808–1814. Historic Armies and Navies. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1977. Goodman, Anthony. The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society, 1452–97. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981. *Goodman, David C. Power and Penury: Government, Technology, and Science in Philip II’s Spain. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. David Buisseret review AHR 95 (1990): 521–22. Chap. 3, 129–41, discusses military technology: shipbuilding, gunfounding, munitions production, and “secret” weapons.
Gruber, Ira D. “British Strategy: The Theory and Practice of Eighteenth-Century Warfare.” In Reconsiderations on the Revolutionary War: Selected Essays, edited by Don Higginbotham, 14–31, 166–70. Contributions in Military History 14. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978. Guilmartin, John F., Jr. “The Logistics of Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century: The Spanish Perspective.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 109–36. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Guilmartin, John F., Jr. “The Military Revolution: Origins and First Tests Abroad.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 299–333. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Hacker, Barton C. “From Military Revolution to Industrial Revolution: Armies, Women and Political Economy in Early Modern Europe.”
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In Women and the Military System, edited by Eva Isaksson, 11–29. Proceedings of a symposium arranged by the International Peace Bureau and Peace Union of Finland. New York: Harvester/Wheatsheaf, 1988. Hacker, Barton C. “Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: A Reconnaissance.” Signs 6 (1981): 643–71. *Hale, John R. Renaissance War Studies. London: Hambledon, 1983. Collected articles on fortifications, recruitment, etc.—PFG AHA Guide 28.82.
Hale, John R. Renaissance Fortification: Art or Engineering? Walter Neurath Memorial Lecture. London: Thames & Hudson, 1977. Hale, John R. War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620. Fontana History of European War and Society. London: Fontana, 1985. Reprinted Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Hall, Bert S. “The Corning of Gunpowder and the Development of Firearms in the Renaissance.” In Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology, edited by Brenda J. Buchanan, 87–120. Bath, England: Bath University Press, 1996. Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics. Baltimore, Maryland, and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Hall, John A. “War and the Rise of the West.” In The Sociology of War and Peace, edited by Colin Creighton and Martin Shaw, 37–53. Dobbs Ferry, New York: Sheridan House, 1987. Holmes, Richard. “The Age of the Flintlock.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 80–95. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. Holmes, Richard. “ ‘Villainous Saltpetre.” In The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History, edited by Richard Holmes, 70–79. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1988. *Howarth, David. The Voyage of the Armada: The Spanish Story. 1981 edition. New York: Penguin, 1982. Fine popular history.—JB AHA Guide 29.91.
*Jespersen, Knud J. V. “Social Change and Military Revolution in Early Modern Europe: Some Danish Evidence.” Historical Journal 26.1 (1983): 1–13. Survival of knight service in Denmark until 1679, dictated primarily by nobility’s political need to justify its privileges.—MFM AHA Guide 32.139.
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*Jespersen, Leon. “The Machtstaat in Seventeenth-Century Denmark.” Scandinavian Journal of History 10.4 (1985): 271–304. Excellent on development of militarized tax state: military policy linked to tax practices required centralization of power and greatly expanded military capacity.— MFM AHA Guide 32.140.
Jones, Colin. “The Military Revolution and the Professionalization of the French Army under the Ancien Régime.” In The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800, edited by Michael Duffy, 29–48. Exeter Studies in History 1. Exeter, England: University of Exeter, 1980. *Jones, D. W. War and Economy in the Age of William III and Marlborough. Oxford: Blackwell, 1988. Crucial role of metallic money and balance of payments in Anglo-French wars.— DAB AHA Guide 23.120.
*Kamen, Henry. The War of Succession in Spain, 1700–1715. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969. Best comprehensive treatment of war.—SHB AHA Guide 29.184.
Kirby, David. Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World, 1492–1772. London: Longman, 1990. Chap. 6, “War and Society,” 136–63, includes “Warfare,” 136–48, on Swedish military organization, and “The Sinews of War,” 148–50, on military economy; chap. 8, “The Military State,” 196–228, covers Prussia.
Koch, H. W. The Rise of Modern Warfare, 1618–1815. London: Bison Books; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Koliopoulos, John S. Brigands with a Cause: Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece, 1821–1912. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. *Lind, Gunner. “Military and Absolutism: The Army Officers of Denmark-Norway as a Social Group and Political Factor, 1660–1848.” Scandinavian Journal of History 12.3 (1987): 221–43. Half the 17th-century officers were foreign, but Danes and Norwegians were a majority by 1710, only 20 percent of them noble.—MFM AHA Guide 32.143.
*Lindegren, Jan. “The Swedish ‘Military State,’ 1560–1720.” Scandinavian Journal of History 10.4 (1985): 305–66. Redistribution of social surplus through institutional changes in control and administration fostered absolutism and military state.—MFM AHA Guide 32.170.
Loewe, Karl von. “Military Service in Early Sixteenth-Century Lithuania: A New Interpretation and Its Implications.” Slavic Review 20 (1971): 249–56. Lynn, John A. “En avant! The Origins of the Revolutionary Attack.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871,
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edited by John A. Lynn, 154–76. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Lynn, John A. “Food, Funds, and Fortresses: Resource Mobilization and Positional Warfare in the Campaigns of Louis XIV.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present, edited by John A. Lynn, 137–59. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Lynn, John A. “The Growth of the French Army during the Seventeenth Century.” Armed Forces and Society 6 (1980): 568–85. Lynn, John A. “Nations in Arms, 1763–1815.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 186–213. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Lynn, John A. “The Pattern of Army Growth, 1445–1945.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 1–27. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Lynn, John A. “Recalculating French Army Growth during the Grand Siècle, 1610–1715.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 117–47. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Expanded version of article originally published in French Historical Studies 18 (1994): 881–906. Lynn, John A. “States in Conflict, 1661–1763.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 164–85. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Lynn, John A. “The Trace italienne and the Growth of Armies: The French Case.” Journal of Military History 55 (1991): 297–330. McNeill, William. “The Gunpowder Revolution.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Autumn 1990): 8–17. Majewski, Wies∑aw. “The Polish Art of War in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” In A Republic of Nobles: Studies in Polish History to 1864, edited and translated by J. K. Fedorowicz, 179–97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Mallett, Michael E. Mercenaries and Their Masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1974.
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Mallett, Michael E., and John R. Hale. The Military Organization of a Renaissance State: Venice, ca. 1400 –1617. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Maltby, William. “Politics, Professionalism, and the Evolution of Sailing-Ship Tactics.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 53–73. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Manicus, Peter T. “The Legitimation of the Modern State: A Historical and Structural Account.” In State Formation and Political Legitimacy, edited by Ronald Cohen and Judith D. Toland, 173–97. Political Anthropology, vol. 6. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988. The modern nation-state differs from other polities in its monopolization of social integration through its civil service and of social control through its armed forces.
*Martin, Colin, and Geoffrey Parker. The Spanish Armada. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988. The Armada campaigns, especially strong on archaeological evidence for capacities of rival ships and guns.—DAB AHA Guide 23.121; RLK, 29.114.
Miller, Douglas. and G. A. Embleton. The Landknechts. Men-at-Arms Series 58. London: Osprey, 1976. Millar, Gilbert John. “The Albanians: Sixteenth-Century Mercenaries.” History Today 26 (1976): 468–72. Nosworthy, Brent. The Anatomy of Victory: Battle Tactics, 1689–1763. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1990. Oakley, Stewart P. War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790. War in Context. Lodnon: Routledge, 1992. Paret, Peter. “The Relationship between the American Revolutionary War and European Military Thought and Practice in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century.” In Reconsiderations on the Revolutionary War: Selected Essays, edited by Don Higginbotham, 144–57, 200–208. Contributions in Military History 14. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978. Parker, Geoffrey. The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries’ Wars. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
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Parker, Geoffrey. “Dynastic War, 1494–1660.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 146–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Parker, Geoffrey. “The Gunpowder Revolution, 1300–1500.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 106–17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Parker, Geoffrey. “In Defense of The Military Revolution.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 337–65. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Parker, Geoffrey. The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800. The Lees Knowles Lectures, 1984, given at Cambridge University. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. 2d edition. 1996. Parker, Geoffrey. “The ‘Military Revolution, 1550–1650’–A Myth?” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 37–54. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Revision of article with same name originally published in Journal of Modern History 48 (1976): 86–103. Parker, Geoffrey. “Ships of the Line, 1500–1650.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 120–31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Parker, Geoffrey. The Thirty Years’ War. Revised edition. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987. Reprinted New York: Military Heritage Press, 1988. Parrott, David A. “Strategy and Tactics in the Thirty Years’ War: The ‘Military Revolution.’ ” Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen 18 no. 2 (1985). Reprinted in The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 227–51. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Pepper, Simon, and Nicholas Adams. Firearms and Fortifications: Military Architecture and Siege Warfare in Sixteenth-Century Siena. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
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*Petersen, E. Ladewig. “Defence, War, and Finance: Christian IV and the Council of the Realm, 1596–1629.” Scandinavian Journal of History 7.4 (1982): 277–313. Erosion of Danish constitutional constraints on royal power with war-caused growth of state.—MFM AHA Guide 32.146.
*Phillips, Carla Rahn. “Iberian Ships and Shipbuilding in the Age of Discovery.” In Maritime History, volume 1, The Age of Discovery, edited by John B. Hattendorf, chap. 13. Melbourne, Florida: Krieger, 1995. Phillips, Carla Rahn. Six Galleons for the King of Spain: Imperial Defense in the Early Seventeenth Century. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. *Pierson, Peter. Commander of the Armada: The Seventh Duke of Medina Sidonia. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1989. Focused on Armada campaign, positive assessment.—JB AHA Guide 29.133.
Pollak, Martha D. Military Architecture, Cartography and the Representation of the Early Modern European City: A Checklist of Treatises on Fortification in the Newberry Library. Chicago: Newberry Library, 1991. *Pollard, A. J. Northeastern England during the Wars of the Roses: Lay Society, War, and Politics, 1450–1500. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Political turmoil rooted in economic distress.—DMH AHA Guide 23.63.
Porter, Bruce D. War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics. New York: Free Press, 1994. Raeff, Marc. “The Well-ordered Police State and the Development of Modernity in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Europe: An Attempt at a Comparative Approach.” American Historical Review 80 (1975): 1221–43. *Ranum, Orest A. The Fronde: A French Revolution, 1648–1652. New York: W. W. Norton, 1993. Detailed narrative argues that Fronde left French society and institutions unchanged, but with a stronger monarchy and a standing army.—MPH AHA Guide 25.222.
Rasler, Karen A., and William R. Thompson. War and State Making: The Shaping of the Global Powers. International Conflict, vol. 2. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989. Theoretically oriented discussion of the role of war-making in creating and maintaining the European Great Powers, from the 16th century onwards.
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*Rian, Øystein. “State and Society in Seventeenth-Century Norway.” Scandinavian Journal of History 10.4 (1985): 337–63. Increasing social regulation through higher taxation generated by war.—MFM AHA Guide 32.148.
Rogers, Clifford J. “The Military Revolutions of the Hundred Years War.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 55–93. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. Revision of article originally published in Journal of Military History 57 (1993): 241–78. Rogers, H. C. B. Napoleon’s Army. New York: Hippocrene, 1974. Ross, Charles. The Wars of the Roses: A Concise History. London: Thames & Hudson, 1976. Ross, Steven. From Flintlock to Rifle: Infantry Tactics, 1740 –1866. Rutherford, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1979. *Schlögl, Rudolf. Bauern, Krieg, und Staat: Oberbayerische Bauernwirtschaft und frühmoderner Staat im siebzehnten Jahrhundert. Veröffentlichungen des Max-Plack-Institut für Geschichte 89. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988. Theoretically informed analysis of peasant economic crisis.—TR AHA Guide 30.219.
*Scribner, R. W. “Police and the Territorial State in SixteenthCentury Württemberg.” In Politics and Society in Reformation Europe: Essays for Sir Geoffrey Elton on His Sixty-fifth Birthday, edited by E. I. Kouri and Tom Scott, 102–20. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987. Law and order precariously balanced.—SKN AHA Guide 30.88.
Seward, Desmond. The Wars of the Roses: Through the Lives of Five Men and Women of the Fifteenth Century. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. Paperback edition, 1996. Showalter, Dennis E. The Wars of Frederick the Great. Modern Wars in Perspective. London and New York: Longman, 1996. Steensgaard, Niels. “Violence and the Rise of Capitalism: Frederic C. Lane’s Theory of Protection and Tribute.” Review 5 (Fall 1981): 247–73. Strong support for early modern Europe fitting Lane’s “Economic Consequences of Organized Violence.”
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Strachan, Hew. European Armies and the Conduct of War. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983. Sturgill, Claude C. “The French Army in Roussillon, 1715–1720.” In Adapting to Conditions: War and Society in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Maarten Ultee, 16–25. University: University of Alabama Press, 1986. Thompson, I. A. A. “ ‘Money, Money, and Yet More Money!’ Finance, the Fiscal-State, and the Military Revolution: Spain, 1500– 1650.” In The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, edited by Clifford J. Rogers, 273–98. History of Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995. *Thompson, I. A. A. War and Government in Habsburg Spain, 1560–1620. London: Athlone, 1976. Underappreciated study of organization and administration.—JB AHA Guide 29.151.
*Thomson, Janice E. Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe. Princeton Studies in International History and Politics. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994. Violence-monopolizing states are a recent development, evolving over the past six centuries.
Tilly, Charles. “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime.” In Bringing the State Back In, edited by Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschmeyer, and Theda Skocpol, 169–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Advancing the economic analysis of military institutions proposed by Lane and supplemented by Bean.
Townshend, Charles. “Introduction: The Shape of Modern War.” The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War, edited by Charles Townshend, 3–18. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Ultee, Maarten. “Adapting to Conditions.” In Adapting to Conditions: War and Society in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Maarten Ultee, 1–15. University: University of Alabama Press, 1986. Weigley, Russell F. The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. Wessely, Kurt. “The Development of the Hungarian Military Frontier until the Middle of the Eighteenth Century.” Austrian History Yearbook 9–10 (1973–1974): 55–110. With comments by Gunther E. Rothenberg and Wayne S. Vucinich, reply by Wessely, 111–20.
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*West. Jenny. Gunpowder, Government and War in the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Royal Historical Society Studies in History 63. Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 1994. Wilson, Peter H. War, State and Society in Württemberg, 1677–1793. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
RUSSIA
From the fall of Rome to the Revolution of 1917 *Abbott, Robert. “Police Reform in the Russian Province of Iaroslavl, 1856–1876.” Slavic Review 32 (1973): 292–302. *Alef, Gustave. The Origins of Muscovite Autocracy: The Age of Ivan III. Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1986. Military reforms contributed to centralization.—NSK AHA Guide 34.62.
Anisimov, Evgenii V. The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress through Coercion in Russia. Translated by John T. Alexander. The New Russian History. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1993. Outstanding synthesis, emphasizing revolutionary apsirations of Peter, notably military reforms that created a new kind of volunteer-conscript army trained for mobility (1362).—Robert O Crummy, American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1361–62.
*Baumann, Robert F. “Technology versus the Moral Element: Emerging Views in the Russian Officer Corps, 1870–1904.” In New Perspectives in Modern Russian History, edited by Robert B. McKean. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, 1990. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. Baumann, Robert F. “Universal Service Reform and Russia’s Imperial Dilemma.” War & Society 4 (September 1986): 31–49. Bellamy, Christopher. “The Firebird and the Bear: 600 Years of the Russian Artillery.” History Today 32 (September 1982): 16–20. Origins of artillery and its introduction to Russia, from the 1380s.
*Beyrau, Dietrich. Militär und Gesellschaft im vorrevolutionären Russland. Cologne, 1984. Blackwell, William L. The Beginnings of Russian Industrialization, 1800–1860. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968. Generally relevant, but see especially chap. 7, “State Industrial Policy and War,” 169–87.
*Bohac, Rodney D. “The Mir and the Military Draft.” Slavic Review 47 (1992): 691–704.
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Brennan, James F. Enlightened Despotism in Russia: The Reign of Elisabeth, 1741–1762. American University Studies, Series 9, History, vol. 14. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. Chap. 8, “War and the State,” 235–59, discusses the organization and operations of the Russian army and its impact on state organization.
Britkin, A. S. The Craftsmen of Tula: Pioneer Builders of Water-driven Machinery. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations, for the Smithsonian Institution and National Science Foundation, 1967. An important metal-working center from the early 16th century, Tula became the Russian ordnance center in the 17th.
*Brooks, E. Willis. “Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861.” Slavic Review 43 (1984): 63–82. *Bushnell, John S. Mutiny amid Repression: Russian Soldiers in the Revolution of 1905–1906. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. Soldiers’ revolution as special case of peasant rebellion.—JCB AHA Guide 34.193.
Bushnell, John. “The Tsarist Officer Corps, 1881–1914: Customs, Duties, Inefficiency.” American Historical Review 86 (1981): 753–80. Coopersmith, Jonathan. The Electrification of Russia, 1880–1926. Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell University Press, 1992. See especially “The Role of the Military,” 16–21, in chap. 1, “Introduction: The Shaping of Technology.”
Esper, Thomas. “Military Self-Sufficiency and Weapons Technology in Muscovite Russia.” Slavic Review 28 (1969): 185–208. Fuller, William C., Jr. Civil-Military Conflict in Imperial Russia, 1881–1914. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985. See especially chaps. 1, “Military Professionalism, the Imperial War Ministry, and the Officers,” 3–46; 2, “Financing the Russian Army, 1881–1903,” 47–74; 9, “The Significance of Civil-Military Conflict in Tsarist Russia,” 259–63.
Fuller, William C., Jr. Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600–1914. New York: Free Press, 1992. Gleason, Abbott. “Bibliography.” In Russia’s Great Reforms, 1855–1881, edited by Ben Eklof, John Bushnell, and Larissa Zakharova, 281–88. Indiana-Michigan Series in Russian and East European Studies. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Gordon, Linda. Cossack Rebellion: Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth-Century Ukraine. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983. Especially chap. 6, “Warriors: Military Organization and Technique,” 79–88.
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Groushko, M. A. Cossack: Warrior Riders of the Steppes. New York: Sterling, 1992. Hellie, Richard. Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971. Hellie, Richard. “Muscovite Military Slavery.” Paper presented at the American Historical Association annual meeting, Washington, 28–30 December 1980. Hellie, Richard. “The Structure of Modern Russian History: Toward a Dynamic Model.” Russian History 41 (1977): 1–22. With critiques by Ann Kleimola, “Muscovy Redux,” 23–30; James Cracraft, “Soft Spots in the Hard Line,” 31–38; and Richard Wortman, “Remarks on the Service State Interpretation,” 39–41.
Hellie, Richard. “Warfare, Changing Military Technology, and the Evolution of Muscovite Society.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 74–99. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. *Hirschbiel, Henry. “The District Captains of the Ministry of State Properties in the Reign of Nicholas I: A Case Study of Russian Officialdom, 1838–1856.” Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1978. Jenkins, Michael. Arakcheev: Grand Vizier of the Russian Empire. New York: Dial Press, 1969. See chap. 4, “The Minister of War,” 110–37.
Jenkins, Michael. “Arakcheev and the Military Colonies.” History Today 19 (1969): 600–607. Kahan, Arcadius. The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia. Edited by Richard Hellie. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. *Keep, John L. H. “Catherine’s Veterans.” Slavonic and East European Review 59 (1981): 385–96. Keep, John L. H. “The Military Style of the Romanov Rulers.” War & Society 1 (September 1983): 61–84. *Keep, John L. H. “Paul I and the Militarization of Government.” Canadian-American Slavic Studies 7 (Spring 1973): 1–14.
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*Keep, John L. H. Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462– 1874. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1985. Crammed with interesting subtopics and insights.—Richard Hellie, American Historical Review 92 (1987): 709–10.
Kipp, Jacob W. “Consequences of Defeat: Modernizing the Russian Navy, 1856–1863.” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 20 ( June 1972): 210–25. Kipp, Jacob W. “Russian Naval Reformers and Modernization: Naval Affairs and the Historiography of the Great Reforms.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 192–207. New York: Garland, 1980. Kipp, Jacob W. “The Russian Navy and Private Enterprise: A Peculiar MIC.” In War, Business and World Military-Industrial Complexes, edited by Benjamin Franklin Cooling, 84–106. National University Publications, Series in Political Science. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press, 1981. *LeDonne, J. P. “The Administration of Military Justice under Nicholas I.” Cah. Monde Russe Soviétique (April-June 1972). Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians. New York: Random House, 1994. Longworth, Philip. The Cossacks. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston, 1970. Rebellion and tsarist service, 16th to early 20th century.—NSK AHA Guide 34.315.
Longworth, Philip. “The Last Great Cossack-Peasant Uprising.” Journal of European Studies 3 (1973): 1–35. Longworth, Philip. “Tsar Alexis Goes to War.” History Today 31 (1981): 14–18. *McNeal, Robert H. “The Reform of Cossack Military Service in the Reign of Alexander II.” In War and Society in East Central Europe: Special Topics and Generalizations on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, edited by Bela Kiraly and Gunther Rothenberg, 409–11. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. *McNeal, Robert H. Tsar and Cossack, 1855–1914. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987. Military service, etc., political reasons for government support.—JCB AHA Guide 34.316.
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Massa, Isaac. A Short History of the Beginnings and Origins of These Present Wars in Moscow under the Reign of Various Sovereigns down to the Year 1610. Translated with an introduction by G. Edward Orchard. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982. Menning, Bruce W. Bayonets before Bullets: The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992. Menning, Bruce W. “Russian Military Innovation in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century.” War & Society 2 (May 1984): 23–39. Mijatovic, Walter. “The Role of the Russian Military in the Conquest of Central Asia.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Chicago, 1974. Mitchell, Donald W. A History of Russian and Soviet Sea Power. New York: Macmillan, 1974. Oliva, L. Jay. Russia in the Era of Peter the Great. New Insights in History Series. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Textbook treatment of the Petrine reforms; on the military reforms, see especially chap. 3, “The Great Northern War,” 54–77.
*Pintner, Walter M. “The Burden of Defense in Imperial Russia, 1725–1914.” Russian Review 43 (1984): 231–59. Pintner, Walter M. “Russia’s Military Style, Russian Society, and Russian Power in the Eighteenth Century.” In Russia and the West in the Eighteenth Century: Proceedings of the Second International Conference Organized by the Study Group on Eighteenth-Century Russia and Held at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, England, 17–22 July, 1981, edited by A. C. Cross, 262–70. Newtonville, Massachusetts: Oriental Research Partners, 1983. In Panel V, “The Armed Forces, Government and Society,” with comments by H. Ragsdale.
Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime. History of Civilisation. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974. See “The Military Reforms of Peter I,” 115–26, in chap. 5, “The Partial Dismantling of the Patrimonial State.”
Raeff, Marc. “Review Article: The Bureaucratic Phenomena of Imperial Russia, 1700–1905.” American Historical Review 84 (1979): 399–411. *Raeff, Marc. Understanding Imperial Russia: State and Society in the Old Regime. Translated by Arthur Goldhammer. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984. Transplantation and evolution of well-ordered police state.—GJM/NSK/SLH AHA Guide 34.95.
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Ramer, Samuel C. “The Transformation of the Russian Feldsher, 1864–1914.” In Imperial Russia, 1700–1917: State, Society, Opposition. Essays in Honor of Marc Raeff, edited by Ezra Mandelsohn and Marshall S. Shatz, 136–60. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1988. The German term for medical corpsman entered Russian under Peter the Great and retained its military connotation through most of the 18th century, but its usage broadened to include growing numbers of nonmilitary rural medical workers in the late 19th century.
Rutherford, Ward. The Russian Army in World War I. London: Gordon Cremonesi, 1975. Seaton, Albert. The Horsemen of the Steppes: The Story of the Cossacks. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1985. *Screen, J. E. O. The Helsinki Yunker School, 1846–1879: A Case Study of Officer Training in the Russian Army. Studia Historica 22. Helsinki: Suomen Historialinen Seura, 1986. John Bushnell review AHR 94 (1989): 489.
*Siegelbaum, Lewis H. The Politics of Industrial Mobilization in Russia, 1914–1917: A Study of the War Industries Committees. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. Attempts by industrialists to mobilize war production.—JCB AHA Guide 34.219.
Stevens, Carol Belkin. Soldiers on the Steppe: Army Reform and Social Change in Early Modern Russia. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995. *Violette, Aurele J. “Judicial Reforms in the Russian Navy during the ‘Era of Great Reforms’: The Reform Act of 1867 and the Abolition of Corporal Pnishment.” Slavonic and East European Review 56 (1978): 586–603. Violette, Aurele J. “The Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich and the Reform of Naval Administration, 1855–1870.” Slavonic and East European Review 52 (1974): 584–601. Walsh, Warren B. “The Petrograd Garrison and the February Revolution of 1917. In New Dimensions in Military History: An Anthology, edited by Russell F. Weigley, 256–73. San Rafael, California: Presidio Press, 1975. Waliszewski, Kazimierz. Peter the Great. Translated by Lady Mary Loyd. 2d edition. New York: Greenwood Press, 1968. Chap. 3.2.7, “The Army and the Navy,” 498–507.
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Weischadle, David E. “1917: The Third Revolution (The History of the Russian Military Forces in World War I).” International Review of History and Political Science 5 (August 1968): 128–44. Wildman, Allan K. The End of the Russian Imperial Army. 2 vols. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980–1987. Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. From Serf to Russian Soldier. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990. Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. “The Ideal of Paternalism in the Prereform Army.” In Imperial Russia, 1700–1917: State, Society, Opposition. Essays in Honor of Marc Raeff, edited by Ezra Mandelsohn and Marshall S. Shatz, 95–114. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1988. Responsibility for troops imposed on officers.
Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. “Social Misfits: Veterans and Soldiers’ Families in Servile Russia.” Journal of Military History 59 (1995): 215–35. Yaney, George L. The Systematization of Russian Government: Social Evolution in the Domestic Administration of Imperial Russia, 1711–1905. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973. See “The Army,” 51–63, in chap. 2, “The Structure of Senatorial Government: 1711–1796.”
Zolotarev, V. A. “Russian Military Historical Thought at the Turn of the Twentieth Century.” War & Society 9 (May 1991): 51–62.
WEST ASIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST
General, comprehensive, and comparative works about the Muslim world and its neighbors, from the rise of Islam to World War I, including nonstate societies. Abou El Fadl, Khaled. “Ahkam al-Bughat: Irregular Warfare and the Law of Rebellion in Islam.” In Cross, Crescent, and Sword: The Justification and Limitation of War in Western and Islamic Tradition, edited by James Turner Johnson and John Kelsay, 149–76. Contributions to the Study of Religion 27. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Asad, Talal. “The Beduin as a Military Force: Notes on Some Aspects of Power Relations between Nomads and Sedentaries in Historical Perspective.” In The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society, edited by Cynthia Nelson, 61–73. Institute of International Studies, University of California, Research Series 21. Berkeley: The Institute, 1973. Berkian, Ara J. Armenischer Wehrbau im Mittelalter. Darmstadt: Selbstverlag, 1976. Bosworth, Edmund. “Armies of the Prophet.” In Islam and the Arab World: Faith, People, Culture, edited by Bernard Lewis, 201–24. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, with American Heritage, 1976. *Bulliet, Richard W. “Aggression in Historical Perspective.” In The Iran-Iraq War: The Politics of Aggression, edited by Farhang Rajhee. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993. Chahin, M. The Kingdom of Armenia. London: Croom Helm, 1987. Political-military narrative.
Cole, Donald Powell. Nomads of the Nomads: The Àl Murrah Bedouin of the Empty Quarter. Worlds of Man: Studies in Cultural Ecology. Chicago: Aldine, 1975. Chap. 4, “Segmentation and the Lineage, Clan, and Tribe,” 82–104, discusses links between social organization and raiding (85–86) and the former nature of raiding and warfare (94–95).
*Dinteman, Walter. Forts of Oman. Dubai and London: Motivate Publishing, 1993. Photographic survey of forts, watchtowers, and aswar, with maps, floor plans, glossary, etc.
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Donner, Fred M. “The Sources of Islamic Conceptions of War.” In Just War and Jihad: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on War and Peace in Western and Islamic Traditions, edited by John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson, 31–69. Contributions to the Study of Religion 28. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Dresch, Paul. “The Several Peaces of Yemini Tribes.” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 13 (1981): 73–86. Armed men and the maintenance of social order.
*Elgood, Robert. The Arms and Armour of Arabia in the 18th, 19th, and 20th Centuries. Brookfield, Vermont: Scolar Press, 1994. Large format, pictorial examination of Islamic arms.
Elgood, Robert. Firearms of the Islamic World: In the Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. Gast, Marceau. “Pastoralisme nomade et pouvoir: la société traditionelle des Kel Ahaggar.” In Pastoral Production and Society, edited by L’Equipe Écologie et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales, 201–20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Warfare as a means of integrating a desert nomad society.
Gellner, Ernest. “Tribalism and the State in the Middle East.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 109–26. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Tribal warriors and slave bureaucracy (including military) central to Islamic state building.
Ginat, Joseph. “Blood Revenge in Bedouin Society.” In The Changing Bedouin, edited by Emanuel Marx and Avshalom Shmueli, 59–82. Shiloah Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, Tel Aviv University, Collected Papers Series. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1984. As distinguished from feud or raid and war.
Gordon, Murray. Slavery in the Arab World. New York: New Amsterdam, 1989. Chap. 3, “Occupation and Status of Slaves in the Islamic World,” 48–78, includes a section on slave soldiery (66–78); see also index entry: “Soldier slaves.”
al-Hassan, Ahmad Y., and Donald R. Hill. Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Unesco, 1986. Chaps. 4, “Military Technology,” 93–120; and 5, “Ships and Navigation,” 123–31.
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Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, vol. 1, The Classical Age of Islam; vol. 2, The Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods; vol. 3, The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974. See index entries: “Armies”; “Military”; “Military patronage state”; “Soldiers, soldiery.” The first volume also includes a general bibliography.
Hourani, Albert. “Conclusion: Tribes and States in Islamic History.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 303–11. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Transformation of tribal warriors into army soldiers as the main factor in state formation and maintenance (307–308).
Janowitz, Morris. “Some Observations on the Comparative Analysis of Middle Eastern Military Institutions.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 412–40. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Kalus, Ludvik. “Collection des armes et armures islamiques du Musée militaire d’Istanbul.” In Études médiévales et patrimoine Turc: Volume publié à l’occasion du centième anniversaire de la naissance de Kemal Atatürk, edited by Janine Sourdel-Thomine, 135–44. Cultures et civilisations médiévales 1. Paris: Éditions du Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, 1983. Kelsay, John. “Islam and the Distinction between Combatants and Noncombatants.” In Cross, Crescent, and Sword: The Justification and Limitation of War in Western and Islamic Tradition, edited by James Turner Johnson and John Kelsay, 197–220. Contributions to the Study of Religion 27. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Lapidus, Ira M. “The Evolution of Muslim Urban Society.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 15 (1973): 21–50. Includes detailed discussion of military influences.
Lapidus, Ira M. “Tribes and State Formation in Islamic History.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 25–47. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. See the sections on “Conquest Movements,” 28–34; and “From Conquest Movement to State Regimes,” 34–38.
Latham, J. Derek. “Arms, Armour and Armies.” In Middle East and Islam: A Bibliographical Introduction, edited by Diana Grimwood-Jones,
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101–104. Bibliotheca Asiatica 15. Revised edition. Zug, Switzerland: Inter Docuementation, 1979. Lawrence, Bruce. “Holy War ( Jihad ) in Islamic Religion and NationState Ideologies.” In Just War and Jihad: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on War and Peace in Western and Islamic Traditions, edited by John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson, 141–60. Contributions to the Study of Religion 28. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Lewis, Bernard, ed. Islam: From the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople, vol. 1, Politics and War. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Part 3, “War and Conquest,” 209–41.
Lewis, Bernard. “Politics and War.” In The Legacy of Islam, edited by Joseph Schacht with C. E. Bosworth, 156–209. 2d edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974. Political history with incorporated comments on military organization. Martin, Richard C. “The Religious Foundations of War, Peace, and Statecraft in Islam.” In Just War and Jihad: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on War and Peace in Western and Islamic Traditions, edited by John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson, 91–117. Contributions to the Study of Religion 28. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. “War and Peace in the Islamic Tradition and International Law.” In Just War and Jihad: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on War and Peace in Western and Islamic Traditions, edited by John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson, 195–226. Contributions to the Study of Religion 28. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Meeker, Michael E. Literature and Violence in North Arabia. Cambridge Studies in Cultural Systems 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. See Part 2, “The Narratives of Raiding and Warfare,” chap. 4, “Cautious and Sensible Chiefs and the Strategic Uses of Aggressive Resources,” 51–76; and part 3, “The Poems of Raiding and Warfare,” chap. 7, “Heroic Skills and Beastly Energies,” 111–50. Based on studies of oral transcripts from the turn of the century.
Nelson, Cynthia. “Women and Power in Nomadic Societies in the Middle East.” In The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society, edited by Cynthia Nelson, 43–59. Institute of International Studies, University of California, Research Series 21. Berkeley: The Institute, 1973. Includes remarks on military roles of women (49–50).
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Nicolle, David. “Shipping in Islamic Art: Seventh through Sixteenth Century A.D.” American Neptune 49 (Summer 1989): 168–97. Catalogue of illustrations, diagrammed and discussed.
North, Anthony. An Introduction to Islamic Arms. Victoria and Albert Museum Introductions to the Decorative Arts. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1985. North, Anthony. “Swords of Islam.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 136–147. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview.
Parry, V. J. “Warfare.” In The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2B, Islamic Society and Civilization, edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, 824–50. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Peters, Rudolph. Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam. Princeton Series on the Middle East. Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Wiener, 1996. Ryan, Patrick J. “Holy War: A Comparative Study of a Religious and Political Category.” Thought: A Review of Culture and Idea 58 (1983): 133–44. “Holy war” is a misnomer, but Islam did convert Bedouin razzia (relatively bloodless raiding) into instrument of conquest and political organization.
Sachedina, Abdulaziz A. “The Development of Jihad in Islamic Revelation and History.” In Cross, Crescent, and Sword: The Justification and Limitation of War in Western and Islamic Tradition, edited by James Turner Johnson and John Kelsay, 35–50. Contributions to the Study of Religion 27. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Sonn, Tamara. “Irregular Warfare and Terrorism in Islam: Asking the Right Questions.” In Cross, Crescent, and Sword: The Justification and Limitation of War in Western and Islamic Tradition, edited by James Turner Johnson and John Kelsay, 129–47. Contributions to the Study of Religion 27. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Spuler, Bertold, and others. History of the Muslim World, vol. 1, The Age of the Caliphs; vol. 2, The Mongol Period; vol. 3, The Great Muslim Empires. Translated and adapted by F. R. C. Bagley. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969. Reprinted with introductions by Jane Hathaway, Arthur Waldron, and Richard M. Eaton, respectively. Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Weiner, 1994–1996.
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Ware, Lewis B. “An Islamic Concept of Conflict in Its Historical Context.” In Conflict, Culture, and History: Regional Dimensions, by Stephen J. Blank et al., 57–116. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air University Press, January 1993. On the evolution of the concept of “jihad” and its current relevance.
Yapp, M. E. “Introduction.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 1–31. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
MEDIEVAL ISLAM
From Hegira to the Ottoman Conquest Ashtor, E. A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Military rule succeeded the caliphate, imposing a kind of feudalism.
*Athamina, K. “Aràb and muhùjiràn in the Environment of amtàr.” Studia Islamica 66 (1987): 5–26. On second-class treatment of Arabs who did not participate fully in early Islamic army and society.—RWB AHA Guide 17.108.
*Ben Abdallah, Habib. De l’iqta’ étatique a l’iqta’ militaire: Translation économique et changements sociaux à Baghdad, 247–447 de l’Hégire, 861–1055 ap. J. Studia Historica Uppsalensia 142. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, for Uppsala University, 1986. The shift from state to military feudalism, a “multifaceted, sober, and sensible treatment.”—Michael G. Moroney, American Historical Review 93 (1988): 744–45.
Bosworth, C. E. “Recruitment, Muster, and Review in Medieval Islamic Armies.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 59–77. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Butterworth, Charles E. “Al-Fârâbî’s Statecraft: War and the Wellordered Regime.” In Cross, Crescent, and Sword: The Justification and Limitation of War in Western and Islamic Tradition, edited by James Turner Johnson and John Kelsay, 79–100. Contributions to the Study of Religion 27. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Cahen, Claude. Pre-Ottoman Turkey: A General Survey of the Material and Spiritual Culture and History, c. 1071–1330. Translated by J. JonesWilliams. New York: Taplinger, 1968. See “The Army,” 230–41, in part 3, “Society and Institutions before the Mongols,” chap. 6, “Political Institutions.”
Crone, Patricia. Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Donner, Fred McGraw. The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. See especially “The Structure of the Armies of Conquest,” 221–26, in chap. 5, “Military Organization, Migration, and Settlement.”
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*Donner, Fred McGraw. “Muhammad’s Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca.” Muslim World 69.4 (1979): 229–47. How Muhammad extended his power from Medina.—RWB AHA Guide 17.80.
*Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Saladin. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1972. *Gabrieli, Francesco. Muhammad and the Conquest of Islam. Translated by Virginia Luling and Rosamund Linell. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968. Standard popular account, precisely the kind challenged by Donner.—RWB AHA Guide 17.116.
*Gibb, Sir Hamilton. The Life of Saladin: From the Works of ‘Imàd adDìn and Bahà’ ad-Dìn. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. *Gordon, Matthew Spalckhaver. “The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Community of Samarra (218–264 A.H./ 833–877 C.E.).” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Columbia University, 1993. *Hamblin, William J. “Saladin and Muslim Military Theory.” In The Horns of Hattin, edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar. Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and Latin East, 1987. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society; London: Variorum, 1992. Hitti, Philip K. History of the Arabs: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 10th edition. London: Macmillan, 1970. Chaps. 15, “The Administration of the New Possessions [of the early caliphate],” 169–77 (military organization, 169–74); 20, “Political Administration and Social Conditions under the Umayyads,” 224–39 (military organization, 226); 25, “The ‘Abb sid State,” 317–31 (military organization, 326–30).
Holt, P. M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. A History of the Near East. London and New York: Longman, 1986. Kafeso[lu, Ibrahim. A History of the Seljuks: Ibrahim Kafeso[lu’s Interpretation and the Resulting Controversy. Translated and edited by Gary Leiser. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988. Chap. 7, “Seljuk Institutions,” 103–108, centers on military institutions, even aside from the specific section on “The Military,” 106–107.
Klausner, Carla L. The Seljuk Vezirate: A Study of Civil Administration, 1055–1194. Harvard Middle East Mongraphs 22. Cambridge,
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Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, for the Center for Middle Eastern Studies of Harvard University, 1973. “The Military Establishment,” 14–15, in chap. 1, “Political Administration under the Seljuks; see also the discussion of the vezirate’s military functions (40–41) and “Military Interference in the Operation of Civil Administration,” 89–96.
Lassner, Jacob. The Shaping of ‘Abbàsid Rule. Princeton Studies on the Near East. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980. Chap. 5, “The Regiments of the Imperial Army: Notes on al-Jàhiz’s Epistle to alFath b. Khàqàn,” 116–36, on military organization; see also “The Pattern of Military Settlement,” 208–23, in chap. 8, “The Topography of Baghdad in Retrospect: The Government Sector and Urban Development,” on the shaping of urban growth by military demands.
Lyon, Malcolm Cameron, and D. E. P. Jackson. Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Paperback edition, 1984. *Morony, Michael G. Iraq after the Muslim Conquest. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984. Much deemed typically Islamic actually survived from Sasanian rule.—RWB AHA Guide 17.127.
Newby, P. H. Saladin. Harold Ober, 1983. Reprinted New York: Dorset Press, 1992. Nicolle, David C., and Angus McBride. The Armies of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries. Men-at-Arms Series 125. London: Osprey, 1982. Nicolle, David C., and Angus McBride. Armies of the Muslim Conquest. Men-at-Arms Series 255. London: Osprey, 1993. Nicolle, David C., and Angus McBride. Saladin and the Saracens. Menat-Arms Series 171. London: Osprey, 1986. *Patton, Douglas. Badr al-Din Lu’lu’: Atabeg of Mosul, 1211–1259. Occasional Papers 3. Seattle: Middle East Center, University of Washington, 1991. Rise of a talented slave-soldier and his military-political maneuverings.—review by Elton L. Daniel, AHR 98 (1993): 1650–51.
Pipes, Daniel. “Black Soldiers in Early Muslim Armies.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 13 (1980): 87–94. Black slave soldiers in the first two centuries.
Pipes, Daniel. Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981.
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*Sato, Tsugitaka. “The Iqtà System under the Buwayhids.” Orient (Tokyo) 18 (1982): 83–105. Land grant administration after Buyid takeover of Baghdad in 945.—RWB AHA Guide 17.346.
*Schatzmiller, Maya. “The Crusades and Islamic Warfare—A Reevaluation.” Der Islam 55.1 (1992): 247–88. Content and historical context of Islamic texts on military affairs, variously dated to Abbasid and crusading era.—RWB AHA Guide 17.252.
Shaban, M. A. The Abbàsid Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Paperback edition, 1979. See index entries: “armies”; and “Syrian army.”
Shaban, M. A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, vol. 1, A.D. 600–750 (A.H. 132). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Paperback edition, 1976. “The Structure of the Arab Army,” 24–25, in chap. 2, “The Arab Conquest of Khuràsàn”; “The Revolutionary Army,” 155–58, in chap. 9, “The Revolution.”
Shaban, M. A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation, vol. 2, A.D. 750–1055 (A.H. 132–448). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Chap. 4, “The Origins of the iqtà’,” 71–88.
Sharon, Moshe. “The Military Reforms of Abù Muslim, Their Background and Consequences.” In Studies of Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon, edited by Moshe Sharon, 105–43. Jerusalem: Cana; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986. How Arab raiders became conquering Muslim armies.
*Shoufani, Elias. Al-Riddah and the Muslim Conquest of Arabia. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973. Military conquest of Arabia foreshadowed subsequent conquests of Iraq and Syria.— RWB AHA Guide 17.130.
Sievers, Peter von. “Military, Merchants and Nomads: The Social Evolution of the Syrian Cities and Countryside during the Classical Period, 780–969/164–358.” Der Islam 56 (1979): 212–44.
IRAN
From the Islamic conquest through World War II Albrecht, Ulrich. “Militarized Sub-Imperialism: The Case of Iran.” In The World Military Order: The Impact of Military Technology on the Third World, edited by Mary Kaldor and Asbjørn Eide, 157–79. New York: Praeger, 1979. Great Power competition and arns transfers to Iranian from the early 19th century.
Avery, Peter, Gavin Hambly, and Charles Melville, eds. The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Military affairs figure throughout the volume; see index entry “Army.”
Beck, Lois. “Tribes and the State in Nineteenth- and Twentieth Century Iran.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 185–225. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Including military conflict.
*Bosworth, C. E. “The Armies of the Saffarids.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 31.3 (1968): 534–54. Size, recruitment, and activities of military forces in medieval Iran.—RWB AHA Guide 17.169.
Bosworth, C. E. “The Early Ghaznavids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, edited by Richard N. Frye, 162–97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. On the army and the military expansion characteristic of the Ghaznavid state, see especially 185–87.
*Bosworth, C. E. “Military Organisation under the Buyids of Persia and Iraq.” Oriens 18–19 (1967): 143–67. Size, recruitment, and activities of military forces in medieval Iran.—RWB AHA Guide 17.173.
Bosworth, C. E. “The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217).” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5, The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, edited by J. A. Boyle, 1–202. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. On the transition from a regime supported by tribal warriors to the establishment of a standing army under the Great Saljuq Empire (78–81, 197–99).
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Bosworth, C. E. “The Tàhirids and Saffàrids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, edited by Richard N. Frye, 90–135. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. On the essential military character of the Saffàrid empire and its army, see especially 125–28.
Bournoutian, George A. The Khanate of Erevan under Qajar Rule, 1795– 1828. Persian Studies Series 13. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda, with Bibliotheca Persica, New York, 1992. See especially chap. 4, “Men of the Sword and Men of the Pen: The Administrative Structure of the Khanate,” 93–123.
Busse, Heribert. “Iran under the Bùyids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, edited by Richard N. Frye, 250–304. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. The government established by the Bùyids was essemtially a military dictatorship.
Cronin, Stephanie M. The Army and the Creation of the Pahlavi State in Iran, 1910–1926. London and New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 1997. *Cronin, Stephanie M. “The Reconstruction of the Iranian Army, 1911–1926.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of London, 1992. Ferdowsi. The Epic of the Kings: “Shah-nama,” the National Epic of Persia by Ferdowsi. Translated by Reuben Levy. Revised by Amin Banani. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967. Reprinted London: Arkana, 1990. Eleventh-century Persian national epic, an episodic recounting of the great deeds, many martial, of the Iranian kings from the beginning of the world to the Moslem conquest.
Frye, Richard N. The Golden Age of Persia: The Arabs in the East. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975. Reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1996. Frye, R. N. “The Sàmànids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, edited by Richard N. Frye, 136–61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. On the army in the Sàmànid polity, see especially 144.
*Haneda, Masashi. Le chah et les qizilbas: Le systéme militaire safavide. 1986 edition. Islamkundliche Untersuchungen 119. Berlin: Schwarz, 1987. Internal struggle between centralizing administration and tribal military forces.— JW AHA Guide 18.226.
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Haneda, Masashi. “The Evolution of the Safavid Royal Guard.” Translated by Rudi Matthee. Iranian Studies 22 nos. 2–3 (1989): 57–85. Keddie, Nikki R. “Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective.” American Historical Review 88 (1983): 579–98. Of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Lambton, Ann K. S. Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia: Aspects of Administrative, Economic and Social History, 11th–14th Century. Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies 2. Albany: State University of New York Press, for Bibliotheca Persica, 1988. See chaps. 3, “The iqtà': State Land and Crown Land,” 97–129; and 7, “The Constitution of Society (1). Elements of Change: The Ruling Family and the ‘Men of the Sword,’ ” 221–57. See also index under “military forces.”
Lambton, Ann K. S. “The Evolution of the iqtà' in Medieval Iran.” Iran 5 (1967): 41–50. Although the term applied chiefly in the Great Saljùq Empire (1087–1157), the institution flourished through the 19th century; one major form was feudal-like system of land granted in return for military service.
Lambton, Ann K. S. “The Internal Structure of the Saljuq Empire.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5, The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, edited by J. A. Boyle, 203–82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. On army organization and military aspects of the iqtà' system, one of the central features of Seljuq administration, see especially 228–39.’
Lenczowski, George. “Foreign Powers’ Intervention in Iran during World War I.” In Qajar Iran: Political, Social, and Cultural Change, 1800–1925. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983. Reprinted Costa Mesa, California Mazda, 1992. Matthee, Rudi. “Unwalled Cities and Restless Nomads: Firearms and Artillery in Safavid Iran.” In Safavid Persia: The History and Politics of an Islamic Society, edited by Charles Melville, 389–416. Pembroke Persian Papers. London: I.B. Tauris, in association with the Centre of Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, 1996. Morgan, David. Medieval Persia, 1040–1797. A History of the Near East. London and New York: Longman, 1988. See index entry: “Military organization.”
Mottahedeh, Roy. “The 'Abbàsid Caliphate in Iran.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs,
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edited by Richard N. Frye, 57–89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Including discussion of army composition and political roles; see especially 59, 62–63, 68–69, 75, 86.
Roemer, H. R. “The Jalayirids, Muzaffarids and Sarbadàrs.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, edited by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, 1–41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. In this and the succeeding four articles, Roemer provides a narrative political-military history of Iran from the 8th to the 17th century, with periodic observations on military organization.
Roemer, H. R. “Tìmùr in Iran.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, edited by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, 42–97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Roemer, H. R. “The Successors of Tìmùr.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, edited by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, 98–146. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Roemer, H. R. “The Türkmen Dynasties.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, edited by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, 147–88. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Roemer, H. R. “The Safavid Period.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, edited by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, 189–350. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Savory, R. M. “The Safavid Administrative System.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, edited by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, 351–72. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Tapper, Richard, ed. The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan. London: Croom Helm; New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. How tribal societies have survived the coercive efforts of states and empires to incorporate them; military institutions and actions are the constant backdrop, but none of the articles address such issues directly.
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Van Bruinessen, Maarten Martinus. “Agha, Shaikh and State: On the Social and Political Organization of Kurdistan.” Ph.D. dissertation, Social Science, Rijkuniversiteit te Utrecht, 1978. Chap. 2, “Tribes, Chieftains and Non-Tribal Groups,” part C, “Blood Feuds and Other Conflicts,” 59–70.
*Zakert, Mohsen. “Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: A Discussion of Historical Continuities.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Utah, 1993. Zarrìnkùb, 'Abd al-Husain. “The Arab Conquest of Iran and Its Aftermath.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, edited by Richard N. Frye, 1–56. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
NORTH AFRICAN STATE SOCIETIES
From the Islamic conquests through World War II Anderson, Lisa. The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830 –1980. Princeton Studies on the Near East. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986. Chap. 3, “Military Reform: State Formation by Coercion,” 65–76, in part 2, “Precolonial Reform: State Formation in the Nineteenth Century.”
Ayalon, David. “The Auxiliary Forces of the Mamluk Sultanate.” Der Islam 65 (1988): 13–37. Ayalon, David. “Mamlùk Military Aristocracy during the First Years of the Ottoman Occupation of Egypt.” In The Islamic World: From Classical to Modern Times. Essays in Honor of Bernard Lewis, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Charles Issawi, Roger Savory, and A. L. Udovitch, 413–31. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989. Ayalon, David. Gunpowder and Firearms in the Mamluk Kingdom: A Challenge to a Mediaeval Society. 2d edition. Totowa, New Jersey: Cass, 1978. Ayalon, David. “Preliminary Remarks on the Mamlùk Military Institution in Islam.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 44–58. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Ayandele, E. A. “Northern Africa.” In The Making of Modern Africa, vol. 1, The Nineteenth Century, edited by A. E. Afigbo, E. A. Ayandele, R. J. Gavin, J. D. Omer-Cooper, and Robin Palmer, 129–210. 2nd edition. London: Longman, 1986. Beshir, B. J. “Fatimid Military Organization.” Der Islam 55 (1978): 37–56. Bookin-Weiner, Jerome B. “The ‘Sallee Rovers’: Morocco and Its Corsairs in the Seventeenth Century.” In The Middle East and North Africa: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, edited by Reeva S. Simon, 307–31. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. *Boube-Piccot, Christiane. Les bronzes antiques du Maroc. IV—L’Équipement militaire et l’armement. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1994.
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Brett, M. “The Military Interest of the Battle of Haydaràn. In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 78–88. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. The account of the battle in 1052 provides some basis for assessing the characteristics of armed forces in the Maghrib during an obscure period.
Brown, L. Carl. The Tunisia of Ahmad Bey, 1837–1855. Princeton Studies on the Near East. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974. See especially “The Military Establishment,” 138–45, in chap. 3, “The Web of Government”; and chap. 8, “Military Reforms,” 261–312.
Burke, Edmund, III. Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco: Precolonial Protest and Resistance, 1860–1912. Studies in Imperialism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976. Military reforms played a large part in attempted resistance, and their failure contributed to the loss of Moroccan independence.
Cahen, Claude. “L’Administration financière de l’armée fatimide d’après al-Makhzìm.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 15 (1972): 163–92. Translation and commentary.
Cherif, M. H. “Algeria, Tunisia and Libya: The Ottomans and Their Heirs.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 233–61. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. “The Ottomans’ Fight against the Spaniards,” 238–40; Turkish army as ruling elite, 244; “Maghreb Privateering in the Seventeenth Century,” 247–49.
Daumas, General E. The Ways of the Desert. 9th edition, revised and augmented with commentaries by Emir Abd-el-Kader. Translated by Sheila M. Ohlendorf. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971. Chaps. 3, “Razzias (Forays),” 10–18; 4, “Khriana (Robbery), 19–24”; 5, “War among the Tribes of the Desert,” 25–43; and 6, “Customs of War,” 44–49.
Dunn, Ross E. Resistance in the Desert: Moroccan Responses to French Imperialism, 1881–1912. London: Croom Helm; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. El Fasi, M. “Morocco.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 200–32. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. See especially the sections on “The Battle of the Three Kings,” 205–12; and “The Armies of Mawlay Isma"il,” 225–28.
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Fahnny, Khalid M. “All the Pasha’s Men: The Performance of the Egyptian Army during the Reign of Mehmed Ali Pasha.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Oxford University, 1993. Farhi, David. “Nizàm-I Cedid—Military Reform in Egypt under Mahmed 'Ali.” Asian and African Studies 8 (1972): 151–83. Garcin, J. C. “Egypt and the Muslim World.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 371–97. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. “The State and Its Organization: The Military Class in Power (The Successors of Salah al-Din),” 375–89, on Ayubbid Egypt.
*Garcin, J. C. “The Mamluk Military System and the Blocking of Medieval Moslem Society.” In Europe and the Rise of Capitalism, edited by Jean Baechler, John A. Hall, and Michael Mann, 114–35. New York: Blackwell, 1988. Possible relation between Mamluk military system and Islam’s failure to compete effectively economically.—RWB AHA Guide 17.290.
Hart, David Montgomery. The Aith Waryaghar of the Moroccan Rif: An Ethnography and History. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology 55. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, for the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1976. Chap. 12, “Alliance and the Bloodfeud as the Dominant Political Institutions,” 313–38.
Hart, David Montgomery. “Clan, Lineage, Local Community and the Feud in a Rifian Tribe [Aith Waryaghar, Morocco].” In Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East, vol. 2, Life in the Cities, Towns, and Countryside, edited by Louise B. Sweet, 3–75. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1970. Hathaway, Jane. “Years of Ocak Power: The Rise of the Qazdagli Household and the Transformation of Ottoman Egypt’s Military Society, 1670–1750.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Princeton University, 1992. *Humphreys, R. Stephen. “The Emergence of the Mamluk Army.” Studia Islamica 45–46 (1977): 67–100, 147–82. Development of Mamluk soldiery culminating in replacement of Ayyubid sultans by Mamluk commanders.—RWB AHA Guide 17.291.
Idris, R. “Society in the Maghrib after the Disappearance of the Almohads.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth
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to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 102–16. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Military organization of Marinids (108–109) and Hafsids (113).
Irwin, Robert. The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986. Political-military narrative.
Kropá‘ek, L. “Nubia from the Late 12th Century to the Funj Conquest in the Early 15th Century.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 398–422. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Black troops of Sudani origin in Fatimid service (401).
Lev, Yaacov. “Army, Regime, and Society in Fatimid Egypt, 358– 487/968–1094.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 19 (1987): 337–66. Lev, Yaacov. “The Fàtimid Army, A.H. 358–427/968–1036 C.E.: Military and Social Aspects.” Asian and African Studies 14 (1980): 165–92. Marsot, Afaf Lutfi al-Syyid. Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali. Cambridge Middle East Library. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Meyers, Allen R. “Slave Soldiers and State Politics in Early 'Alawi Morocco, 1668–1727.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 16 (1983): 39–48. Late manifestation of fundamental technique of Moslem statecraft, drawing on local slaves to support a strong state through the late 18th century.
Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. The Mamluks, 1250–1517. MenAt-Arms Series 259. London: Osprey, 1993. Nicolle, David. “Nizam—Egypt’s Army in the 19th Century.” Army Quarterly 108 ( January 1978): 69–78. Pennell, C. R. “Women and Resistance to Colonialism in Morocco: The Rif, 1916–1926.” Journal of African History 28 (1987): 107–18. Included military roles, the normal caring for the wounded, refilling cartridges, running messages, spying, smuggling, but now under orders from Abdelbrim’s centralizing government and augmented by actual fighting (though this may also have been a traditional activity in extremis)—and not limited to Morocco.
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Rabie, Hassanein. “The Training of the Mamlùk Fàris.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 153–63. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Rodríguez-Salgado, M. J. “Mediterranean Corsairs.” History Today 31 (April 1981): 36–41. Sáenz, Candelario. “Lords of the Waste: Predation, Pastoral Production, and the Process of Stratification among the Eastern Twaregs.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 100–18. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Stratification originating in division of labor between warrior aristocrats preying on the caravan trade and clients or serfs raising their camels.
Saidi, O. “The Unification of the Maghrib under the Almohads.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 15–56. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Almohad fortunes rose and fell with the success and failure of its armies.
*Sato, Tsugitaka. “The Evolution of the Iqtà System under the Mamluks: An Analysis of ‘al-Rawk al-Husami’ and ‘al-Rawk al-Nasiri.’ ” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 37 (1979): 99–131. Important study of evolution of Islamic fiscal administration, cadastral surveys of Mamluk Egypt.—RWB AHA Guide 17.345.
*Thorau, Peter. The Lion of Egypt: Sultan Baybars I and the Near East in the Thirteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. New York: Longman, 1992. Narrative of Sultan of Egypt/Syria, c. 1220–1277, triumphing in factional struggle among Mamluks after Ayyubid collapse.—reviewed by Elton L. Daniel, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1650–51.
Vinogradov, Amal Raissam. The Ait Ndhir of Morocco: A Study of the Social Transformation of a Berber Tribe. Anthropological Papers 55. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, 1974. On traditional warfare and violence, see chap. 4, “Sociopolitical Organization,” 51–78, especially the section on “The Dynamics of Intra-Tribal Relationships,” 68–72.
Wintern, Michael. “ 'Alì Effendi’s ‘Anatolian Campaign Book’: A Defence of the Egyptian Army in the Seventeenth Century.” Turcica 15 (1983): 267–93. Includes a translation of the edited 1647 text, 277–93.
Wintern, M. “Turks, Arabs, and Mamluks in the Army of Ottoman Egypt.” Wiener Zeitschrift 72 (1980): 97–122.
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Wolf, John B. The Barbary Coast: Algeria under the Turks, 1500–1830. New York: W. W. Norton, 1979. Woolman, David S. Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1968. Yacono, X. “La colonisation militaire par les smalas de spahis en Algérie.” Revues Historique no. 242 (October-December 1969): 347–94.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Islam and the Rise of the West, from the 14th century to World War I Abou-El-Haj, Rifa'at 'Ali. Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. SUNY Series in the Social and Economic History of the Middle East. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. Ágoston, Gábor. “Gunpowder for the Sultan’s Army: New Sources on the Supply of Gunpowder to the Ottoman Army in the Hungarian Campaigns of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” Turcica 25 (1993): 75–96. Ágoston, Gábor. “Ottoman Gunpowder Production in Hungary in the Sixteenth Century: The Baruthane of Buda.” In Hungarian-Ottoman Military and Diplomatic Relations in the Age of Süleyman the Magnificent, edited by Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor, 149–59. Budapest: Loránd Eötvös University, Department of Turkish Studies; Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History, 1994. Aksan, Virginia H. “Feeding the Ottoman Troops on the Danube, 1768–1774.” War & Society 13 (May 1995): 1–14. Babinger, Franz. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Translated by Ralph Manheim. Edited by William C. Hickman. Bollingen Series 96. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978. See especially the section on military organization, 444–50, in book 7, “The Personality and Empire of Mehmed the Conqueror,” chap. 2, “State and Society.”
Bakshian, Aram, Jr. “The Janissaries.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Spring 1992): 32–43. Barkey, Karen. Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1994. In the 16th–17th centuries, ex-mercenaries became bandits to seek a share of state resources.
Beldiceanu, Nicoara. “L’Organisation de L’Empire Ottoman (xive–xve siècles).” In Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman, edited by Robert Mantran, 117–38. Paris: Fayard, with the Centre National des Lettres, 1989. See “L’Armée,” 130–32.
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*Beldiceanu, Nicoara. Le timar dans l’état Ottoman (debut XIV e–debut XVI e siècle). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1980. On origins, evolution, and varieties of the landholding system used mainly to support cavalry officers.—CK AHA Guide 18.175.
Black, Cyril E., and L. Carl Brown, eds. Modernization in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire and Its Afro-Asian Successors. Studies on Modernization of the Center of International Studies at Princeton University. Princeton, New Jersey: Darwin Press, 1992. This book results from a group project, which included in addition to the editors Karl K. Barbir, Carter Vaughn Findley, Charles Issawi, Norman Itzkowitz, Samir Khalaf, Ergün Ozbudun, and Joseph S. Szyliowicz. Part 1, “The Heritage of the Past,” 17–164, covers the period of defensive modernization centered on military reforms from the late 18th century through the empire’s demise after World War I. Also included is an extensive “Bibliographical Essay,” 335–56; and “Bibliography,” 357–71.
Çadırcı, Musa. “Renovations in the Ottoman Army (1792–1869).” Translated by Seçil Akgün. Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 87–102. Dâver, Bülent. “Military’s Political Role during the War of Independence (1919–1922).” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 201–208. Davison, Roderic H. Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West. Modern Middle East Series 18. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. See index entries: Janissaries; military organization; military schools.
Dumont, Paul. “La période des Tanzîmât (1839–1878).” In Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman, edited by Robert Mantran, 459–522. Paris: Fayard, with the Centre National des Lettres, 1989. On mid-19th century military reform, see “La nouvelle armée,” 481–83.
Ergenç, Özer. “The Qualifications and Functions of Ottoman Central Soldiers.” Translated by Seçil Akgün. Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 45–56. Erdem, Y. Hakan. Slavery in the Ottoman Emprie and Its Demise, 1800–1909. London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin’s Press, with St Antony’s College, Oxford, 1996. On military slavery, see chap. 1, “Employment of Slaves in the Classical Ottoman Empire,” 1–17.
Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980. See index entries: military-administrative establishment (seyfiye); military establishment.
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*Finkel, Caroline. The Administration of Warfare: The Ottoman Military Campaigns in Hungary, 1593–1606. Beihefte zur Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 14. Vienna: Verband der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaften Österreichs (VWGÖ), 1988. *Finkel, Caroline. “The Provisioning of the Ottoman Army during the Campaigns of 1593–1606.” Habsburgisch-osmanische Beziehungen CIEPO Colloque (Vienna, 1983). Genç, Nevin. “The Administrative Functions of the Timarlı Sipahis during the Ottoman Classical Age.” Translated by Seçil Akgün. Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 29–44. Goodwin, Godfrey. The Janissaries. London: Saqi Books, 1994. See especially chap. 4, “The Ottoman Armed Forces,” 65–108.
*Griswold, William J. The Great Anatolian Rebellion, 1000 –1020/ 1591–1611. Berlin: Schwarz, 1983. On the cataclysmic Jelali revolts in the Anatolian and north Syrian countryside, emphasizing political, administrative, and military aspects.—CK AHA Guide 18.186.
Guilmartin, John Francis, Jr. “Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 (1988): 721–47. Gürkan, Celil. “The Army as a Significant Factor in the Period of 1919 to 1923, and the Interaction between Military and Political Developments.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 181–200. Hess, Andrew C. “The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453–1525.” American Historical Review 75 (1970): 1892–1919. Hess, Andrew C. “The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 4 (1973): 55–76. Hourani, Albert. “Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables.” In Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century, edited by William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, 41–68. University of Chicago, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Publication 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Hurewitz, Jacob C. “Military Politics in the Muslim Dynastic States, 1400–1750.” American Oriental Society Journal 88 ( January 1968): 96–104.
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*Inalcik, Halil. “Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire, 1600–1700.” Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980): 283–337. Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300 –1600. Translated by Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973. *Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: Conquest, Organization, and Economy. London: Variorum, 1978. Collected articles.—CK AHA Guide 18.195.
*Inalcik, Halil. Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic History. London: Variorum, 1985. Collected articles.—CK AHA Guide 18.196.
Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. Studies in World Civilization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972. See index entry: military establishment.
Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. See index entries: Armies; Gazis.
Khoury, Philip S. “Continuity and Change in Syrian Political Life: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.” American Historical Review 96 (1991): 1374–95. Aghas (commanders of local Janissaries) as local notables, i.e., members of urban elites (1379).
Kinross, Lord. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. London, 1977. Reprinted New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1979. See index entry: Army of the Sultan.
Köni, Hasan. “How the Empire Was Lost.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 141–52. The consequences of World War I.
Levy, Avigdor. “The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud II’s New Ottoman Army, 1826–39.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2 (1971): 21–39. Levy, Avigdor. “The Ottoman Ulema and the Military Reforms of Sultan Mahmud II.” Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 13–39.
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Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. 2d edition. London: Oxford University Press, for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1968. See index entries: Army; Army officers; Artillery; Conscription; Firearms; Gunnery; Janissaries; Military engineering; Military instructors; Military schools; Military science; Naval schools; Reforms: Military and naval.
Lindner, Rudi Paul. Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Indiana University Auralic and Altaic Series 144. Bloomington: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University, 1983. Ethnohistorical study of transformation of Ottomans from tribe to state, requiring restraint and control of nomads formerly a military bulwark.
Ma"oz, Moshe. “The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period.” In Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century, edited by William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, 333–49. University of Chicago, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Publication 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Ma"oz, Moshe. Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861: The Impact of the Tanzimat on Politics and Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968. See sections on “The Army,” 44–55, and “The Irregular Troops,” 55–60, in chap. 5, “Instruments of Government and Administration.”
Mihailovi‘, Konstantin. Memoirs of a Janissary. Translated by Benjamin Stolz. Commentary and notes by Svat Saucek. Michigan Slavic Publications. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1975. Murphey, Rhoads. “The Construction of a Fortress at Mosul in 1631: A Case Study of an Important Facet of Ottoman Military Expenditure.” In Social and Economic History of Turkey (1071–1920), edited by Osman Okyar and Halil Inalcik, 163–72. Papers Presented to the First International Congress on the Social and Economic History of Turkey, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 11–13 July 1977. Ankara: Meteksan, 1980. Murphey, Rhoads. “The Functioning of the Ottoman Army under Murad IV (1632–1639/1032–1049): Key to the Understanding of the Relationship between Center and Periphery in Seventeenth Century Turkey.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1979. Nicolle, David C., and Angus McBride Armies of the Ottoman Turks, 1300–1774. Men-at-Arms Series 140. London: Osprey, 1998.
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Nicolle, David C., and Christa Hook. The Janissaries. Elite Series 58. London: Osprey, 1995. Nicolle, David C., and Raffaele Ruggeri. The Ottoman Army, 1914–18. Men-at-Arms Series 269. London: Osprey, 1994. Özden, Gani. “War Industry Plants of the Ottoman Armed Forces.” Translated by Seçil Akgün. Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 67–76. Rafeq, Abdul Karim. “The Local Forces in Syria in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 277–307. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Reed, Howard A. “Ottoman Reform and the Janissaries: The E{kenci Làyìhası of 1826.” In Social and Economic History of Turkey (1071–1920), edited by Osman Okyar and Hal l Inalcik, 193–197. Papers Presented to the First International Congress on the Social and Economic History of Turkey, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 11–13 July 1977. Ankara: Meteksan, 1980. Rustow, Dankwart A. “Political Ends and Military Means in the Late Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Middle East.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 386–399. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Salibi, Kamal S. “The 1860 Upheaval in Damascus as Seen by alSayyid Muhammad Abu’l-Su"ud al-Hasibi, Notable and Later Naqib al-Ashraf of the City.” In Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century, edited by William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, 185–202. University of Chicago, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Publication 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Shaw, Stanford Jay. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. See “The Military Institution (Seyfiye),” 122–32, in chap. 5, “The Dynamics of Ottoman Society and Administration.”
Shaw, Stanford Jay. “Some Aspects of the Aims and Achievements of the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Reformers.” In Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century, edited by William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, 29–39. University of Chicago,
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Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Publication 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Turan, }erafettin. “Relations between the Ottoman Military and Administrative Units during the Second Constitutional Era.”1 Translated by Seçil Akgün. Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire no. 67 (1988): 153–66. Turner, Bryan S. Weber and Islam: A Critical Study. International Library of Sociology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. Paperback edition, 1978. Chap. 8, “Islam and Ottoman Decline,” 122–134, addresses Weber’s thesis about the role of military organization in social relations (contra Marx).
Veinstein, Gilles. “L’empire dans sa grandeur (xvie siècle).” In Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman, edited by Robert Mantran, 159–226. Paris: Fayard, with the Centre National des Lettres, 1989.
On the army, the fleet, and provincial forces, see “Les instruments du pouvoir,” 191–209.
Yùsuf, Khàss Hàjib. Wisdom of Royal Glory (Kutadgu Bilig): A TurkoIslamic Mirror for Princes. Translated with introduction and notes by Robert Dankoff. Publications of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies 16. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1983. A didactic poem of advice for a prince, including choosing a military commander; see chap. 30 (lines 2269–2430), “Highly Praised Explains the Qualifications of an Army Commander,” 114–19.
CENTRAL AND NORTHERN ASIA
Works on inner Asia from antiquity to the early 20th century, including studies of nomadic institutions in general. Anthony, David. “Bronze Age Chariot Burials in the Ural Steppes.” In Abstracts, American Anthropological Association, 92d annual meeting, Washington, 17–21 November 1993, 94–95. Fortified sites with adjoining cemeteries on the Russian/Kazakh steppes east of the Urals dated 2000–1600 B.C. reveal remains of horses and chariots with spoked wheels, the earliest known preserved anywhere and approximately contemporaneous with the earliest representations of chariots in the Near East.
Anthony, David W. “Horse, Wagon, and Chariot: Indo-European Languages and Transportation Systems in the Steppes.” In Abstracts, American Anthropological Association, 93d annual meeting, Atlanta, 30 November–4 December 1994, 65. Wheeled vehicles adopted in Europe c. 3500–3000 B.C., eastward expansion and formation of Indo-Iranian group documented by chariot burials, c. 2000 B.C.
Anthony, David W., Dimitri Y. Telegin, and Dorcas R. Brown. “The Origin of Horseback Riding.” Scientific American 265 (December 1991): 94–100. Evidence from the Ukraine c. 4000 B.C.
Anthony, David W., and Dorcas R. Brown. “The Origins of Horseback Riding.” Antiquity 65 (1991): 22–38. Microscopic wear on horse teeth caused by the bit locates beginning of riding in the Ukraine about 4000 B.C., several centuries before the wheel, thus making it the first major transport innovations with decisive military consequences.
*Adshead, S. A. M. Central Asia in World History. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. Splendid introduction, including the Mongol explosion.—David Christian, Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995): 127–29. Following the Mongol explosion, Tamerlane was the most successful statebuilder, in part by building a composite army of heavy and light cavalry with men no longer tied to tribal organization.—Jo-Ann Gross, AHR 99 (1994): 865–66.
Anderson, Perry. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism. London: NLB, 1974. On the persistent military superiority of nomadic over sedentary peoples and its historic consequences, see “The Nomadic Break,” 217–28.
Barfield, Thomas J. “The Devil’s Horsemen: Steppe Nomadic Warfare in Historical Perspective.” In Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives,
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edited by Stephen P. Reyna and R. E. Downs, 157–82. War and Society, vol. 2. Langhorne, Pennsylvania: Gordon & Breach, 1994. Barfield, Thomas J. “The Hsiung-nu Imperial Confederacy: Organization and Foreign Policy.” Journal of Asian Studies 41 (1981): 45–61. How a nomad military confederation arose in response to sedentary civilization (rather than as the result of internal dynamics), maintained a stable empire by exploiting China, and set the model for all later nomadic empires.
*Barfield, Thomas J. The Nomadic Alternative. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993. Chapter on horse nomads of the Eurasian steppes includes historical use of warfare to expropriate tribute from sedentary societies.—review Elliot Fratkin, American Anthropologist 96 (1994): 469–470.
Bonte, Pierre. “La guerre dans les sociétés d’eleveurs nomades.” Etudes sur les Sociétés de Pasteur Nomades no. 133 (Les cahiers d’êtudes et de recherches marxistes, 1977): 42–67. Cernenko, E. V., Angus McBride, and M. V. Gorelik. The Scythians, 700–300 B.C. Translated from the Russian. Men-at-Arms Series 137. London: Osprey, 1983. Chatwin, Bruce. “The Mechanics of Nomad Invasions.” History Today 22 (1972): 329–37. Military institutions shaped by lifestyle, not genes.
Chen, Ching-lung. “A Study of Turkic Weapons.” In Altaistic Studies: Papers at the 25th Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference at Uppsala June 7–11 1982, edited by Gunnar Jarring and Staffan Rosén, 29–35. Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, Konferenser 12. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1985. Medieval types, techniques, and development.
Christian, David. “Inner Eurasia as a Unit of World History.” Journal of World History 5 (Fall 1994): 173–211. How pastoralism prepared inner Asian communities for war, local by sedentary or seminomadic pastoralists from about 4000 B.C.E., then projected over wide areas by nomadic pastoralists from about 1000 B.C.E. (190–99).
Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. “Warrior Women of the Eurasian Steppes.” Archaeology 50 ( January-February 1997): 44–48; “Further Reading,” 86. de Hartog, Leo. Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989. Chap. 5, “The Mongol Army,” 42–54.
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Dyson-Hudson, Rada, and Neville Dyson-Hudson. “Nomadic Pastoralism.” Annual Review of Anthropology 9 (1980): 15–61. See “Pastoralism, Raiding, and Warfare,” 44–46.
Frye, Richard N. The Heritage of Central Asia: From Antiquity to the Turkish Expansion. Princeton Series on the Middle East. Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Wiener, 1996. *Gabain, Annemarie von. Das Leben im uigurischen Königreich von Qu‘o (850–1250). Societas Uralo-Altaica, Veröffentlichunagen 6. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1973. Topics discussed include weapons.—MRD AHA Guide 9.132.
*Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the Turkic Peoples. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992. Survey focused on state formation or lack thereof.—PBG AHA Guide 9.74.
Grousset, René. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Translated by Naomi Walford. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1970. Military organization and operations largely defined nomad history.
Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to 1700 A.D. New York: Sarpedon, 1997. Irons, William. “Political Stratification among Pastoral Nomads.” In Pastoral Production and Society, edited by L’Equipe Écologie et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales, 361–374. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Armed force as a major factor in stratification and state formation.
Irons, William. The Yomut Turkmen: A Study of Social Organization among a Central Asian Turkic Speaking Population. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers 58. Ann Arbor: The University, 1975. See the section on “Peace, War, and Feud,” 61–65, in chap. 3, “Political Structure.”
Jagchid, Sechin, and Paul Hyer. Mongolia’s Culture and Society. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press; Folkestone, England: Dawson, 1979. See the section on “Military Institutions: Structure and Function,” 364–74, in chap. 7, “Economy and Polity.”
Kahn, Paul. The Secret History of the Mongols: The Origins of Chinghis Khan. An Adaptation of “Yuan Ch’ao Pi Shih,” Based Primarily on the English Translation by Francis Woodman Cleaves. San Francisco: North Point Press, 1984.
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Kessler, Adam T. Empires beyond the Great Wall: The Heritage of Genghis Khan. Translated by Bettine Birge. Los Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 1993. See index entries, especially: Walls; Warfare; Weaponry.
Khazanov, Anatolii M. “The Early State among the Eurasian Nomads.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 221–34. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Discussion of conquest theories of the origin of the state: conflict with or expansion against sedentary states as basis for nomad state formation.
Kotker, Norman. “Genghis Khan.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Summer 1992): 104–11. Krader, Lawrence. “The Origin of the State among the Nomads of Asia.” In Pastoral Production and Society, edited by L’Equipe Écologie et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales, 221–34. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Remarks on war as an attribute of statehood.
Lattimore, Owen. “Herdsmen, Farmers, Urban Culture.” In Pastoral Production and Society, L’Equipe Écologie et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales, 479–90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Remarks on importance of military factors in defining societies.
Lindner, Rudi Paul. “Nomadism, Horses and Huns.” Past & Present no. 92 (August 1981): 3–19. Nomadism could not survive for lack of pasture beyond the Carpathians; when Huns lost their horses they lost the basis of their military power.
Lindner, Rudi Paul. “What Was a Nomadic Tribe?” Comparative Studies in Society and History 24 (1982): 689–711. Includes discussion of warfare as an aspect of the definition.
Lister, R. P. Genghis Khan. New York: Stein & Day, 1969. Reprinted New York: Dorset Press, 1989. *Maenchen-Helfen, Otto. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. Edited by M. Knight. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Authoritative study, including warfare.—US AHA Guide 9.175.
Manz, Beatrice Forbes. “Military Manpower in Late Mongol and Timurid Armies.” In L’Heritage timouride: Iran —Asie centrale —Inde,
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xv e–xviii e siècles, edited by Maria Szuppe. Cahiers d’Asie Centrale 3–4. Tashkent and Aix-en-Provence: Éditions Édisud, 1997. Manz, Beatrice Forbes. The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Marshall, Robert. Storm from the East: From Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Morgan, David O. The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986. See especially “The Mongol Army,” 84–96, in chap. 4, “Nature and Institutions of the Mongol Empire.”
Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. The Age of Tamerlane: Warfare in the Middle East, c. 1350 –1500. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 222. London: Osprey, 1990. Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. Attila and the Nomad Hordes. Elite Series 30. London: Osprey, 1990. Nicolle, David, and Richard Hook. The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hülegü, Tamerlane. Poole, England: Firebird Books, 1990. Nikonorov, Valerii P. The Armies of Bactria, 700 B.C.–450 A.D. 2 vols. Stockport, England: Montvert, 1997. Penick, Douglas J. The Warrior Song of King Gesar. Boston: Wisdom, 1996. English rendering of the Tibetan epic of the legendary warrior-king Gesar of Ling.
*Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. Translated and edited by Thomas Nivison Haining. Cambridge, Mass., and Oxford: Blackwell, 1992. Biography based on primary sources, reliable starting point for any study of early Mongol history.—TTA AHA Guide 9.235.
Rolle, Renate. The World of the Scythians. Translated from 1980 German edition. London: Batsford, 1989. See chap. 5, “Armed Warriors on Red Steeds,” 64–91.
Rossabi, Morris. “All the Khan’s Horses.” Natural History 103 (Oct. 1994): 48–57. Horses may have been the single most significant factor in Mongol conquest.
Rudenko, Sergei I. Die Kultur der Hsuing-nu und die Hügelgräber von Noin Ula. Translated by Helmut Pollems. Antiquitas, Reihe 3. Abhandlun-
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gen zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte, zur klassischen und provinzialrömischen Archäologie und zur Geschichte des Altertums, vol. 7. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1989. See Chap. 7, “Waffen und Kriegwesen,” 54–57.
Saray, Mehmet. “The Alamans or Raiding Parties of the Turkmens.” Asian and African Studies 16 (1982): 399–402. Sinor, Denis. “Horse and Pasture in Inner Asian History.” Oriens Extremis 19 (1972): 171–183. Sinor, Denis. “Inner Asian Warriors.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981): 133–44. On the origins of steppe military institutions, from the late 1st millennium B.C.
Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Mongol Campaign Rations: Milk, Marmots, and Blood?” In “Turks, Hungarians and Kipchaks: A Festschrift in Honor of Tibor Halasi-Kun,” edited by Pierre Oberling, 223–28. Journal of Turkish Studies 8 (1984): 1–303. Thompson, E. A. The Huns. Revised with afterword by Peter Heather. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996. Torday, Laszlo. Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: Durham Academic Press, 1997. Turnbull, S. R., and Angus McBride. The Mongols. Men-at-Arms Series 105. London: Osprey, 1980. Tryjarski, Edward. “Toward a Better Knowledge of Turkic Military Terminology. [Part 1.]” In Altaistic Studies: Papers at the 25th Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference at Uppsala June 7–11 1982, edited by Gunnar Jarring and Staffan Rosén, 173–84. Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, Konferenser 12. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1985. On terms for defensive technology: armor, helmets, shields.
Wiencek, Henry. “Genghis Khan and the Mongols.” In Storm across Asia, by Henry Wiencek, Glenn D. Lowry, and Amanda Heller, 9–88. Empires: Their Rise and Fall. Boston: Boston, 1986.
MEDIEVAL INDIA
From the Islamic invasions to the rise of British rule, ca. 1000–ca. 1800, including nonstate peoples. Ahmed, Akbar S. Pukhtun Economy and Society: Traditional Structure and Economic Development in a Tribal Society. International Library of Anthropology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. See chap. 5, “Lineage and Leadership Organization: Alliance and Conflict,” 126–59, especially section 3, “Tribal Conflict,” 150–59.
Alam Khan, Iqtidar. “Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India, A.D. 1442–1526.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24 (1981): 146–64. Alavi, Rafi Anhmed. “The Mughal Cavalry.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 5:364–81. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Ali, M. Athar. “Towards an Interpretation of the Mughal Empire.” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 263–77. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. *Apte, B. K. A History of the Maratha Navy and Merchantships. Bombay: State Board for Literature and Culture, 1973. *Aziz, Abdul. The Mansabdari System and the Mughal Army. Delhi: Chand, 1971; Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1972. Babur, Zahiruddin Muhammad. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Translated, edited, and annotated by Wheeler M. Thackston. Washington: Freer Gallery of Art/Arthur M. Sackler Gallery; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Bhatia, H. S. “Military Organisation of the Sultans.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 4:377–80. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Blake, Stephen P. “The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals.” In The State in India, 1000 –1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 278–303. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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Chandel, Lokender Singh. Early Medieval State (A Study of Delhi Sultanate). New Delhi: Commonwealth, 1989. Chap. 1, “Military Campaigns in Early Medieval State,” 1–12.
Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal. “Political Processes and the Structure of Polity in Early Medieval India.” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 195–232. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Deloche, Jean. Transport and Communications in India: Prior to Steam Locomotion. Translated by James Walker. 2 vols. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993–1994. Vol. 1, Land Transport; vol. 2, Water Transport. Much of military significance scattered throughout.
*Deopujari, M. B. Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War. Magpur: Vidarbha Samshadhan Mandal, 1973. Devi, E. H. “The Medieval Society of Kerala as Reflected in the Ballads of North Malabar.” Folklore 18/3 (March 1977): 73–82. In Abstracts in Anthropology 7 (1977–78), no. 1970. The Kalari military training system for youths also included extensive female education.
Dhillon, Dalbir Singh, and Shangana Singh Bhullar. Battles of Guru Gobind Singh. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1990. The career of the tenth and last Sikh guru (1666–1708), who put the army on a regular footing and completed the transformation of Sikhism from pacifism to militancy.
*Digby, Simon. War-Horse and Elephant in the Delhi Sultanate: A Study of Military Supplies. Oxford: Orient Monographs, 1971. Lucid monograph on trade and use of war materials in sultanate warfare, using wealth of Persian sources.—SS AHA Guide 15.277.
Dubois, A. “The Military System of Hindustan.” In Origin and Development of Legal and Political System in India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, vol. 1, 143–52. 3 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1976. Appears to be the observations of a contemporary observer, about the time European guns were being introduced.
Dupree, Louis. “Militant Islam and Traditional Warfare in Islamic South Asia.” American Universities Field Staff, Reports (Asia), No. 21. Hanover, New Hampshire: AUFS, 1980. 12p. Popular survey, focused on Afghanistan, including a section on “Women in Warfare (Zan),” 7.
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Dupree, Louis. “Tribal Warfare in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Reflection of the Segmentary Lineage System.” In Islam in Tribal Societies: From the Atlas to the Indus, edited by Akbar S. Ahmed and David M. Hart, 266–86. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984. Warfare as maintainer of society.
Elwin, Verrier, ed. The Nagas in the Nineteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press, 1969. Chap. 15, “Head-hunting and War,” 537–80, reprints 9 contemporary accounts, but numerous other references throughout the book.
Fritz, John M. “Vijayanagara: Authority and Meaning of a South Indian Imperial Capital.” American Anthropologist 88 (1986): 44–55. Material form of the city reflected medieval Hindu kingship, including the king as warrior (46–47).
*Gopal, M. H. Tipu Sultan’s Mysore: An Economic Study. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1971.
Including military organization, mercenaries, and fiscal charges.—SS AHA Guide 15.415.
Gommans, Jos J. L. The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, c. 1710–1780. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995. Gordon, Stewart. “Forts and Social Control in the Maratha State.” Modern Asian Studies 13 (1979): 1–17. Reprinted in Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-Century India, by Stewart Gordon, 82–98. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994. What the Ajnapatra (1715) and early 18th-century administrative documents reveal about the organization and uses of fortresses.
Gordon, Stewart. Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in EighteenthCentury India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994. In addition to the reprinted articles cited separately, see chap. 9, “Zones of Military Entrepreneurship in India, 1500–1700,” 182–211.
Gordon, Stewart. “Scarf and Sword: Thugs, Marauders, and Stateformation in 18th Century Malwa.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 6 (1969): 403–30. Reprinted in Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-Century India, by Stewart Gordon, 1–22. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994. Gordon, Stewart. “The Slow Conquest: Administrative Integration of Malwa into the Maratha Empire.” Modern Asian Studies 2 (1977). Reprinted in Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-Century India, by Stewart Gordon, 23–63. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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Gregorian, Vartan. The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reform and Modernization, 1880–1946. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1969.
Military institutions figured prominently in reform; see index entry: “army.”
Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. “Conquest and Resistance: Pre-State and State Expansionism in Early Sri Lankan History.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 61–82. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. “Social Function and Political Power: A Case Study of State Formation in Irrigation Society.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 133–54. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 35. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Military competition between chiefdoms as the basis of state formation in Ceylon.
Hallissey, Robert C. The Rajput Rebellion against Aurangzeb: A Study of the Mughal Empire in Seventeenth-Century India. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977. On the military system, see especially chaps. 3, “The Rajput Princes as Imperial Mansabdars,” 22–31; and 4, “The Mansabdari System under Aurangzeb (1658–1678),” 32–39.
Hamid, S. Shahid. Courage Is a Weapon. 2d edition. Rawalpindi: The Author, 1982. Islamic military history and traditions of the Pakistani army.
Heitzman, James. “State Formation in South India.” In The State in India, 1000 –1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 162–94. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. *Heitzman, James. “State Formation in South India, 850–1280.” Indian Econ.Soc.Hist.R 14 ( January-March 1987): 35–62. Irons, William. “Investment and Primary Social Dyads.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons, 181–212. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1979. A section on “The Nayar” of Central Kerala, 184–92, suggests how inclusive fitness theory may explain the maintenance of a military system in 17th-century southern India.
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*Jagjit, Singh. “The Jats and Sikh Militarization.” Journal of Sikh Studies 4 (1977): 36–54. *Jaipur, H. H. Maharajah of. A History of Indian State Forces. Bombay: Orient Longmans, 1967. Kakar, Hasan Kawun. Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd al-Rahman Khan. Modern Middle East Series 5. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. Chap. 5, “The Army,” 93–114, identifies it as the main instrument of state-building after its creation from feudal and tribal forces, 1880–1901.
Karashima, Noboru. Towards a New Formation: South Indian Society under Vijayanagar Rule. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Social change in Tamilnadu after conquest by Telugu warriors from the north and the establishment of rule by regional military commanders (nàyaka), 14th–16th centuries.
*Khan, Ahsan Raza. Chieftains in the Mughal Empire during the Reign of Akbar. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1977. Regional survey of chieftains and their military strength suggests that Mughal empire was not highly centralized.—SS AHA Guide 15.338.
*Kolff, Dirk H. A. Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market in Hindustan, 1450–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Military recruitment and migration in precolonial north India, arguing for soldiering as seasonal employment.—DEL AHA Guide 15.321.
*Kolff, Dirk H. A. “Sannyasi Trader-Soldiers.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 8 (1971): 213–20. Kulke, Hermann. “The Early and the Imperial Kingdom: A Processual Model of Integrative State Formation in Early Medieval India.” The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 233–62. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Kulke, Hermann. “Introduction: The Study of the State in PreModern India.” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 1–47. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Lal, Kishori Saran. History of the Khaljis: A.D. 1290–1320. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1967. On the reign of "Alàuddìn and his successors in a pre-Mogul sultanate, see especially chap. 11, “Revenue and Military Reforms,” 177–96.
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Lal, Kishori Saran. “The Striking Power of the Army of the Sultanate.” Journal of Indian History 55 (1977): 85–110. Lindholm, Charles, and Cherry Lindholm. “Marriage as Warfare.” Natural History (October 1979), as reprinted in Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by David E. K. Hunter and Phillip Whitten, 165–69. 3rd edition. Boston: Little, Brown, 1982. Among the Yusfzai Pakhtun of Swat, relations between husband and wife may be likened to continuous cold war.
Lindholm, Charles. “The Structure of Violence among the Swat Pukhtun.” Ethnology 20 (1981): 147–56. Violence structured through the institutions of feud and warfare in a northern Pakistan segmentary lineage society.
Lorenzen, David N. “Warrior Ascetics in Indian History.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 98 (1978): 61–75. Hindu and Moslem warrior sects from the 15th century to the 19th, sociologically analyzed and historically contextualized.
Lowry, Glenn D., with Amanda Heller. “The Mogul Expansion.” In Storm across Asia, by Henry Wiencek, Glenn D. Lowry, and Amanda Heller, 89 –168. Empires: Their Rise and Fall. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1986. Majumdar, R. C., J. N. Chaudhuri, and S. Chardhuri, eds. The Mughul Empire. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1974. Chaps. 2–16 comprise a detailed political-military history of the empire and its opponents, but see especially the Sharma’s article on politics and administration, separately listed.
Meeker, Michael E. “The Twilight of a South Asian Heroic Age: A Rereading of Barth’s Study of Swat.” Man new series 15 (1980): 682–701. Tribal peoples before being absorbed into states passed through an often extended period in which the heroic warrior became the central figure of political experience.
Misra, Ram Gopal. Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders up to 1206 A.D. 2d edition. Meerut City: Anu Books, 1992–1993. Misra, Satish Chandra. “Military Organization of the Surs (Sher Shah and His Successors).” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 5:343–56. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984.
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Mukhia, Harbans. “Was There Feudalism in Indian History?” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 86–133. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Nicolle, David, and Angus McBride. Mughul India, 1504–1761. Menat-Arms Series 263. London: Osprey, 1993. Palat, Ravi Arvind. “The Vijayanagara Empire: Re-Integration of the Agrarian Order of Medieval South India, 1336–1565.” In Early State Dynamics, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde, 170–86. Studies in Human Society, vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987. Founded on the iqtà" system (rights of tax collection in return for maintaining troops, 174–75) borrowed from enemy sultanates, the system plus increased centralization sustained incessant warfare against northern sultanates, along with fortified town and other pervasive effects of military concerns.
*Pant, G. N. Indian Arms and Armour. New Delhi: Army Educational Stores, 1978. *Pant, G. N. Studies in Indian Weapons and Warfare. New Delhi: Army Educational Stores, 1970. CBHT (April 1973): I.15: “An attempt to provide for the scholar and the layman a systematic study of the Indian arms and the system of warfare through the ages.” The author is a curator at the National Museum in New Delhi.
Patterson, Maureen L. P., with William J. Alspaugh. South Asian Civilizations: A Bibliographic Synthesis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Index entries under “Armed forces and military history.”
Paul, E. Jaiwant. “By My Sword and Shield”: Traditional Weapons of the Indian Warrior. New Delhi: Roli Books, 1995. *Phul, R. K. Armies of the Great Mughals, 1526–1707. New Delhi: Oriental, 1978. *Prasad, S. N. A Survey of Work Done on the Military History of India. Indian Council of Hist. Research, Survey Ser. 3. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi, 1976. *Rawson, P. S. The Indian Sword. London: Jenkins, 1968. Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. The New Cambridge History of India, part 1, vol. 5. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Military-political history, including military organization; see index entry: “army.”
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Rosen, Stephen Peter. Societies and Military Power: India and Its Armies. Cornell Studies in Security Affairs. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1996. Political science take on the entire range of Indian military history.
*Roy, A. C. A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares. Calcutta: World Press, 1972. Sakala, Carol. Women of South Asia: A Guide to Resources. Millwood, New York: Kraus International Publications, 1980. See the index under “Military and War,” which lists mostly biographical sketches of women warriors.
Saksena, Banarsi Prasad. “The Mansabdari (Army) System of Mughal Emperor.” In Political, Legal and Military History of India, edited by H. S. Bhatia, 5:357–63. 5 vols. New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 1984. Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan. The Art of War in Medieval India. New Delhi: Munshirum Manoharlal, 1984. *Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan. “Guerrilla Warfare in Medieval India.” Q.R. Hist. Stud. 13 (1973–1974): 29–36 *Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan. The Life of Mir Jumla, the General of Aurangzeb. 2d revised edition. New Delhi: Rajesh, 1979. Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan. “Some Aspects of Military Administration in Medieval India.” Journal of Indian History 51 (1973): 559–93. *Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan. Some Aspects of Military Thinking and Practice in Medieval India. Calcutta: Ratna Prakashan, 1974. *Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan. “Some Aspects of Warfare in Medieval India.” Bengal Past & Present 89 (1970): 153–71. Saxena, R. K. The Army of the Rajputs (A Study of 18th Century Rajputana). Udaipur: Saroj Prakashan, 1989. Schmidt, Karl J. An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Sources and Studies in World History. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1995. Sharma, Ram Sharan. “How Feudal was Indian Feudalism?” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 48–85. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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Sharma, Ravindra Kumar. “A Brief Study of Jaipur Artillery during Medieval India (1556 A.D. to 1850 A.D.).” International Review of History and Political Science 16 (November 1979): 71–74. Notes on manufacturing, nomenclature, and administration.
Sharma, Ravindra Kumar. “Military Study of the Rajput States during ‘Grand Anarchy’ (1707 A.D. to 1857 A.D.).” International Review of History and Political Science 17 (August 1980): 77–88. Military administration and organization based on archival research, with some account of wars with the Marathas.
Sharma, Ravindra Kumar. “Military System of the Kachwaha State of Amer ( Jaipur), c. 1500–1948.” Indica 22 (September 1985): 135–48. Sharma, Shri Ram. “Political Theory and Administrative Organisation.” In The Mughul Empire, edited by R. C. Majumdar, J. N. Chaudhuri, and S. Chardhuri, 522–36. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1974. Especially “The Mughul Army,” 534–36.
Sinha, Birendra Kumar. The Pindaris (1798–1818). Calcutta: Bookland Private, 1971. See chap. 3, “Military Organization and Social Life of the Pindaris,” 42–61.
Sinha, Surajit. “State Formation and Rajput Myth in Tribal Central India.” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 304–42. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Sinopoli, Carla M., and Kathleen D. Morrison. “Dimensions of Imperial Control: The Vijayanagara Capital.” American Anthropologist 97 (1995): 83–96. See especially “Militarism and Movement,” 89–90.
Spencer, George W. “The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in EleventhCentury Ceylon.” Journal of Asian Studies 35 (1976): 405–19. Raiding and predatory expansion as the basis for kingship among the Cholas of southern India.
Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. “India’s Resistance to Mediaeval Invaders: A Rejoinder.” Journal of Indian History 45 (1967): 181–86. Stein, Burton. “The Segmentary State: Interim Reflections.” In The State in India, 1000–1700, edited by Hermann Kulke, 134–61. Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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Streusand, Douglas E. The Formation of the Mughal Empire. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989. On Hindustan armed forces, see section 2.3.1., “The Armed Peasantry,” 41–43; on Mughal forces, chap. 3, “The Process of Expansion,” 51–81.
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, and David Shulman. “The Men Who Would Be King? The Politics of Expansion in Early Seventeenth-Century Northern Tamilnadu.” Modern Asian Studies 24 (1990): 225–48. Telugu warrior families and state formation in the dying Vijayanagara Empire.
Verma, S. P. “Fire-Arms in Sixteenth Century India (A Study Based on Mughal Paintings of Akbar’s Period).” Islamic Culture 57 (1983): 63–69. Pictorial evidence of arquebus and matchlock, plus much artillery, all making guns seem more common than literary evidence suggests.
Zaman, M. K. “The Use of Artillery in Mughal Warfare.” Islamic Culture 57 (1983): 297–304. Heavy guns became a feature of Mughal armies, but lighter artillery also supported traditional cavalry tactics.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
From the fall of early kingdoms through World War II, including nonstate societies. Andaya, Barbara Watson. “Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, volume 1, From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 402–59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Feuding, raiding, and slaving produced cycles of state-building and fragmentation, complicated by the lack of mechanisms for transferring power peacefully, but the general trend was toward centralization.
Andaya, Leonard Y. “Interactions with the Outside World and Adaptation in Southeast Asian Society, 1500–1800.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, volume 1, From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 345–401. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. See especially “Innovations in Firearms Technology and Land Warfare,” 379–94, and the associated bibliographical essay, “Firearms and Warfare,” 400–401.
Boxer, C. R. “Piracy in the South China Sea.” History Today 30 (December 1980): 40–44. Bumroongsook, Sukunya. “Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy: The Modernization of Military Education in Thailand (1887–1948).” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Northern Illinois University, 1991. Cawed, Carmencita. The Culture of the Bontoc Igorot. Manila: MCS Enterprises Incorporated, 1972. See chap. 5, “Head-hunting, Tribal Wars, and Peace Pacts,” 23–28.
Chaput, Donald. “The Miner Warriors of the Philippines.” Philippine Studies 35 (1987): 51–70. Deevey, Brian. “Gender, Pestilence, and War in Southeast Asia.” Paper presented at American Anthropological Association annual meeting, Washington, 1989. Downs, Richard Erskine. “Head-hunting in Indonesia.” In Structural Anthropology in the Netherlands, edited by Patrick Edward de Josselin de
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Jong, 116–49. Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Translation Series 17. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1977. Headhunting as a variety of ritual combat.
Dozier, Edward P. The Kalinga of Northern Luzon, Philippines. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967. See chap. 4, “Warfare and Headhunting,” 67–81.
*Draeger, Donn F. The Weapons and Fighting Arts of the Indonesian Archipelago. Rutland, Vermont, 1972. Drake, Richard Allen. “Construction Sacrifice and Kidnapping Rumor Panics in Borneo.” Oceania 59 (1989): 269–79. Traditional intertribal headhunting refracted through folklore as a kind of ideological warfare between tribe and state; cf. Forth 1991.
Ferrell, Raleigh. “Economic and Ritual Warfare in a Formosan Aboriginal Society.” In “Abstracts of Papers Presented at the TwentyEighth Annual Meeting of the Northwest Anthropological Conference, March 1972, Portland, Oregon,” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 7 (1973): 195–223, at 198. The Paiwan engaged in ritual warfare typical of Oceania and Island Southeast Asia, but also conducted wars of aggrandizement, though along traditionally prescribed lines.
Forth, Gregory. “Construction Sacrifice and Head-hunting Rumours in Central Flores (Eastern Indonesia): A Comparative Note.” Oceania 61 (1991): 257–66. Rumor of human heads sought for burial at new constructed bridges, etc., to ensure their intergrity may reflect older traditions of warfare; cf. Drake 1989.
Gibson, Thomas. “Raiding, Trading and Tribal Autonomy in Insular Southeast Asia.” In The Anthropology of War, edited by Jonathan Haas, 125–45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Historically conditioned practices among peoples broadly similar in culture, mainly the Buids, a highland group of Mindanoro in the Philippines.
*Guillon, Étienne. L’armée de Mara au pied de l’Ananda (Pagán-Birmanie). Paris: Éditions Recherche sur las Civilisations, 1986. Howe, L. E. A. “Peace and Violence in Bali: Culture and Social Organization.” In Societies at Peace: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Signe Howell and Roy Willis, 100–16. London and New York: Routledge, 1989. On the circumstances and conduct of 19th-century Balinese warfare, see “Some Social and Historical Conditions of Violence,” 107–12.
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Junker, Laura. “Raiding and Trading: Peer Polity Interaction and the Evolution of Philippine Complex Societies.” In Abstracts, American Anthropological Association, 92d annual meeting, Washington, 17–21 Nov. 1993, 326. Numerous chiefdoms and states emerged between the 10th and 16th centuries, strongly shaped by trade in prestige goods and interpolity conflict—focus on complex societies at Cebu, Tanjay, and Cotabato.
Kiefer, Thomas M. “Institutionalized Friendship and Warfare among the Tausug of Jolo.” Ethnology 7 (1968): 225–44. Forms of war in a protostate society.
Kiefer, Thomas M. “Modes of Social Action in Armed Combat: Affect, Tradition and Reason in Tausug Private Warfare.” Man new series 5 (1970): 586–96. Motivation of warfare and fighting in a segmentary state of the Sulu archipelago.
Kiefer, Thomas M. Tausug Armed Conflict: The Social Organization of Military Activity in a Philippine Moslem Society. Philippine Studies Program Research Series 7. Chicago: University of Chicago, Department of Anthropology, 1969. See especially chap. 7, “The Conduct of Armed Combat,” 159–87; and chap. 8, “Armed Conflict and the Structure of Tausug Society,” 188–94.
Kiefer, Thomas M. The Tausug: Violence and Law in a Philippine Moslem Society. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972. See chap. 3, “The Values of the Male: Bravery, Friendship, and Violence,” 52–85.
King, Victor T. “Migration, Warfare, and Culture Contact in Borneo: A Critique of Ecological Analysis.” Oceania 46 (1976): 306–27. On the importance of values and beliefs, as well as ecological factors, in motivating warfare.
Lawless, Robert. “Headhunting, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Luzon Highlands.” In “Culture and Diplomacy in the Third World,” edited by Mario D. Zamora, 25–50. Studies in Third World Societies 12 (1981): 1–124. Headhunting a limited elite activity best considered in the larger context of war and peace among the Kalinga.
Lieberman, Victor B. Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984. The military system played a central role; see index entries: “ahmú-dàns”; “service system.”
Lieberman, Victor B. “Was the Seventeenth Century a Watershed in Burmese History?” In Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade,
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Power, and Belief, edited by Anthony Reid, 214–49. Asia East by South. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993. Changing military technology and state centralization (especially 228–30).
McCloud, Donald G. System and Process in Southeast Asia: The Evolution of a Region. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press; London: Frances Pinter, 1986. “The Military Subsystem and War,” 101–105, in chap. 5, “The Traditional Interstate System of Southeast Asia.”
McKinley, Robert. “Human and Proud of It! A Structural Treatment of Headhunting Rites and the Social Definition of Enemies.” In Studies in Borneo Societies: Social Process and Anthropological Explanation, edited by G. N. Appell, 92–126. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Special Report 12. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University, 1976. Ritual and warfare.
Mabbett, Ian, and David Chandler. The Khmers. The Peoples of South-East Asia and the Pacific. Oxford and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1995. Paperback edition, 1996. On army organization, see especially chap. 12, “Ruler and State,” 156–69.
Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 11 (1980): 266–76. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries).” In Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief, edited Anthony Reid, 197–213. Asia East by South. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993. *Mashman, Valerie. “Warriors and Weavers: A Study of Gender Relations among the Iban of Sarawak.” In Female and Male in Borneo: Contributions and Challenges to Gender Studies, edited by Vinson Sutlive and George N. Appell. The Borneo Research Council, Monograph Series, vol. 1. Williamsburg, Virginia: Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, 1996. Metcalf, Peter. “Warfare and Community Size in Nineteenth Century Borneo.” Borneo Research Bulletin 15 (April 1983): 26–30.
The Berewan longhouse communities have fused and fissioned over the past century according to political alliances and warfare.
Moore, James A. “The Trouble with Know-It-Alls: Information as a Social and Ecological Resource.” In Archaeological Hammers and
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Theories, edited by James A. Moore and Arthur S. Keene, 173–91. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Shield designs as symbolic communication in Luzon, its subversion by mimicry, and its transfer to tattoos (165–66).
Morgan, Stephanie. “Iban Aggressive Expansion: Some Background Factors.” Sarawak Museum Journal 16 (1968): 141–85. Intertribal warfare in early 1800s.
Reid, Anthony. “Female Roles in Pre-Colonial Southeast Asia.” Modern Asian Studies 22 (1988): 629–45. “Warriors,” 637–38, notes such romanticized heroines as the Trung sisters of Vietnam, but focuses on the widespread use of armed women as palace guards (Angkor, Aceh, Mataram, Java), which led to exaggerated tales about Amazon armies.
Reid, Anthony. “Introduction: A Time and a Place.” In Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief, edited by Anthony Reid, 1–19. Asia East by South. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993. See “New Military Techniques,” 12–14.
Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680, vol. 1, The Lands below the Wind. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988. See chap. 4, “Social Organization,” 120–72, especially 121–29 (“Warfare”) and 167–68 (on women warriors).
Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680, vol. 2, Expansion and Crisis. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1993. See “The Military Revolution,” 219–33, in chap. 4, “Problems of the Absolutist State”; and “Critical Military Encounters with Europeans,” 270–81, in chap. 10, “Political Centres, c. 1600.”
Robarchek, Clayton A., and Carole J. Robarchek. “Cultures of War and Peace: A Comparative Study of Waorani and Semai.” In Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates, edited by James Silverberg and J. Patrick Gray, 189–213. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Robarchek, Clayton A. “Helplessness, Fearfulness, and Peacefulness: The Emotional and Motivational Contexts of Semai [Malaysia] Social Relations.” In “Culture and Aggression,” edited by Paula Brown and Ilsa Schuster, 177–83. Anthropological Quarterly 59 (1986): 155–204. Rosaldo, Michelle Z. Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life. Cambridge Studies in Social Systems 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. See chap. 5, “Headhunting: A Tale of ‘Fathers,’ ‘Brothers,’ and ‘Sons,’ ” 137–76.
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Rosaldo, Renato. Ilongot Headhunting, 1883–1974: A Study in Society and History. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1980. Patterns of feud and raiding in northern Luzon.
Sandin, Benedict. The Sea Dayaks of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule. London: Macmillan, 1967. See especially part 3, chaps. 2, “The Beginnings of Iban Intertribal Warfare,” 65–71; and 3, “Coastal Raiding,” 71–76.
Sculte Nordholt, H. G. The Political System of the Atoni of Timor. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 60. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1971. Chap. 10, “The Functioning of the Political Community in Timor,” includes a lengthy discussion of traditional “Warfare,” 326–57.
Tan, Armando L. “Shame Reciprocity, and Revenge: Some Reflections on the Ideological Basis of Tausug Conflict.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 9 (1981): 294–300. Blood revenge as basis of Tausug armed conflict.
Turton, Andrew. “Thai Institutions of Slavery.” In Asian and African Systems of Slavery, edited by James Watson, 251–92. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980. “War Slaves,” 254–57.
Vayda, Andrew P. “The Study of the Causes of War, with Special Reference to Head-hunting Raids in Borneo.” Ethnohistory 16 (1969): 211–24. The value of war to a people’s survival and reproduction as a cause of war.
Warren, Jim. “Who Were the Balangingi Samal? Slave Raiding and Ethnogenesis in Nineteenth-Century Sulu.” Journal of Asian Studies 37 (1978): 477–90. On a Philippine society organized for war, see especially “The Social Organization of Raiding,” 485–89; the group originated in response to the Sulu Sultanate’s insatiable demand for slaves.
Wolters, O. W. “Jayavarman II’s Military Power: The Territorial Foundations of the Angkor Empire.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1973): 21–30. Epigraphic and Chinese evidence that Jayavarman II was a successful warrior and powerful king.
Wright, Leigh R. “Piracy in the Southeast Asian Archipelago.” Journal of Oriental Studies 14 (1976): 23–33. Commerce raiding varied inversely with political centralization from very early times.
EAST ASIA
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of China, Japan, and Korea, from the fall of Han to the early Qing. Also included are intraregional conflicts. Adshead, S. A. M. China in World History. 2d edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. *Barnes, Gina Lee. “Early Korean States: A Review of Historical Interpretation.” In Bibliographic Reviews of Far Eastern Archaeology, edited by Oxbow Books and Gina Lee Barnes, 113–62. Cambridge: Oxbow Books, 1990. Critical survey of various interpretations of rise of states in Korea, arguing for relatively late state formation.—JBD AHA Guide 14.24.
Barnes, Gina Lee. China, Korea, and Japan: The Rise of Civilization in East Asia. London: Thames & Hudson, 1993. See index entries: “armour”; “warfare;” “weaponry.”
Bloodworth, Dennis, and Ching Ping Bloodworth. The Chinese Machiavelli: 3,000 Years of Chinese Statecraft. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1976. On war and the origins of empire, see part 2, “Fighting,” 101–96.
Bodde, Derk. Chinese Thought, Society, and Science: The Intellectual and Social Background of Science and Technology in Pre-modern China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991. Considers, among other topics, “Militarism and Expansionism,” 248–53, largely dismissing such values as having great significance in the Chinese moral universe.
Boylan, Edward S. “The Chinese Cultural Style in Warfare.” Comparative Strategy 3 (1983): 341–64. Traditional preference for strategem over force, military rather than economic targets, political rather than military goals, man rather than technology as measure of military strength—all distinct from normal Western modes of military thinking.
Chaikin, Nathan. The Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). The Noted Basil Hall Chamberlain Collection, and a Private Collection. Martigny: Imprimerie Pillet, 1983. Contemporary images of the war.
Chang, Chun-shu. Premodern China: A Bibliographical Introduction. Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies 11. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1971.
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China Science and Technology Museum and China Reconstructs. China’s Ancient Technology. China: 7000 Years of Discovery. Beijing: China Reconstructs Magazine, 1983. Illustrated compendium includes “Gunpowder,” 18–20; and “Qin Pottery Army,” 40–41.
*Chong, Key Rey. Cannibalism in China. Wakefield, New Hampshire: Longwood Academic, 1990. Based on traditonal Chinese sources, comparative perspective, large bibliography.
Chung, To-Woong. “The Opening of Korea and Her Military Reform in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire No. 70 (1988): 69–78. Cleary, Thomas. The Japanese Art of War: Understanding the Culture of Strategy. Boston, Massachusetts, and London: Shambhala, 1991. Cleary, Thomas. Mastering the Art of War: Zhuge Liang’s and Liu Ji’s Commentaries on the Classic by Sun Tzu. Shambhala Dragon Editions. Boston, Massachusetts, and Shaftesbury, England: Shambhala, 1989. Two commentaries on Sun Tzu, one from the early 3rd century A.D. (Han), the other from the 14th century (Yüan).
Cleary, Thomas. Thunder in the Sky: Secrets on the Acquisition and Exercise of Power. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala, 1993. Includes two military classics, the anonymous Master of Demon Valley, generally attributed to the Warring States period; and The Master of the Hidden Storehouse, attributed to Keng Sang-tzu, a disciple of Lao-tzu, but known only from the T’ang Dynasty.
Clyde, Paul H., and Burton F. Beers. The Far East: A History of the Western Impact and the Eastern Response (1830 –1970). 5th edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Dean, Genevieve C. Science and Technology in the Development of Modern China: An Annotated Bibliography. Research Aids of the East Asian Institute, Columbia University. London: Mansell, 1974. Appendixes 1, “Modern Science and Technology in China before 1949,” 188–200 (entries 766–833); and 2, “Traditional Chinese Science and Technology,” 201–224 (entries 834–944).
Drews, Robin A. “An Ecological Interpretation of the Differential Responses of China and Japan to Contact with the West since about A.D. 1600.” In For the Chief: Essays in Honor of Luther S. Cressman, by some of his students, 15–27. Anthropological Papers 4. Eugene: University of Oregon, 1972. Dreyer, Edward L. “Military Continuities: The PLA [Peoples Liberation Army] and Imperial China.” In The Military and Political Power in
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China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 3–24. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Eastman, Lloyd E. Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China’s Social and Economic History, 1550 –1949. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Chaps. 7, “Manufacturing in the Late Imperial Period: A Failed Industrial Revolution?” 136–57; 8, “Commerce and Manufacturing under the Impact of the West,” 158–91; and 10, “The Yin Side of Society: Secret Societies, Bandits, and Feuds,” 217–40.
Elvin, Mark. The Pattern of the Chinese Past: A Social and Economic Interpretation. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1973. See “Military Systems” in the topical index.
Fairbank, John King. The Great Chinese Revolution, 1800–1985. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. See index entries: “Bannermen”; “Military”; and “Technology.”
Fairbank, John King. “Introduction: Varieties of the Chinese Military Experience.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 1–26. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. Fairbank, John King. New Views of China’s Tradition and Modernization. Washington: American Historical Association, Service Center for Teachers of History, 1968. Bibliographical essay.
Fairbank, John King. The United States and China. 4th edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979. In addition to the relevant narrative, see “Chinese Militarism,” 68–70, in chap. 3, “The Confucian Pattern.”
Feuchtwang, Stephan. “Investigating Religion.” In Marxist Analyses and Social Anthropology, edited by Maurice Bloch, 61–82. Association of Social Anthropologists of the Commonwealth, ASA Studies 2. London: Malaby Press, 1975. On the origins and development of Chinese military organization, see “Forms and Points of View of a Social Formation,” 73–77.
Fryer, Jonathan. The Great Wall of China. South Brunswick, New Jersey, and New York: A. S. Barnes, 1977. History of China organized around northern frontier, popular but scholarly.
Grasso, June, Jay Corrin, and Michael Kort. Modernization and Revolution in China. Revised edition. Armonk, New York, and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997.
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Harrington, Peter. “Omen in the East.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Summer 1990): 24–37. On the Sino-Japanese War, 1894–1895.
Harrison, John A. The Chinese Empire. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972. From neolithic times to the end of the 18th century, with uncommon attention to military instiutions: see especially “Shang Political and Military Organization,” 26–28, in chap. 3, “The Matrix of Chinese Civilization—Shang”; “The Army Commanders,” 132–135, in chap. 14, “The Pattern of the [Han] Empire”; “The New [Sung] Army,” 258–261, in chap. 25, “The Diminished Empire,” among others.
Huang, Ray. China: A Macro History. Turn of the Century Edition. Armonk, New York: East Gate Books (M. E. Sharpe), 1997. Reprint of 1988 edition. See especially chaps. 4, “Behind the Terracotta Army,” 31–40; 6, “Literati Turned Warlords,” 55–68; among others.
Humphreys, Leonard A. “The Japanese Military Tradition.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 21–40. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Jeon, Sang-woon. Science and Technology in Korea: Traditional Instruments and Techniques. The M.I.T. East Asian Science Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1974. See “Modern Firearms,” 184–206, and “Shipbuilding Technology,” 207–21, in chap. 3, “Physics and Physical Technology”; and “Gunpowder,” 269–72, in chap. 4, “Chemistry, Chemical Technology, and Pharmaceutics.”
King, Winston L. Zen and the Way of the Sword: Arming the Samurai Psyche. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Large, David Clay. “The Great Wall of China.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Spring 1990): 20–29. What it really was.
Ledyard, Gari. “Yin and Yang in the China-Manchuria-Korea Triangle.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 313–53. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Lee, Kibaik. “Korea—The Military Tradition.” In The Traditional Culture and Society of Korea: Thought and Institutions. Papers of the International Conference on Traditional Korean Culture and Society, edited by Hugh H. W.
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Kang, 1–42. Papers of the Center for Korean Studies 5. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1975. Especially “Tribal Army System,” 3–6, on prestate institutions (8th century B.C. to 4th A.D.), and “Aristocratic Army System,” 6–14, on state military organization.
Lévy, Roger. “La Chine et l’art militaire pendant vingt-cinq siècles.” Politique Étrangère 34 (1969): 405–15. Liu, James J. Y. The Chinese Knight-Errant. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967. A tradition of noble warriors redressing social wrongs, from the Warring States period through the Ming Dynasty, and its reformulations in poetry, fiction, and drama.
Luo, Zewen, Wenkao Dai, Dick Wilson, Jean Pierre Drege, and Hubert Delahaye. The Great Wall. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Careful survey stressing military role and describing construction under the Ming.
“The Military.” In Modern Chinese Society: An Analytical Bibliography, vol. 1, Publications in Western Languages, 1644–1972, edited by G. William Skinner, with Deborah B. Honig and Edwin A. Winckler, 158–69. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1973. Mu, Ch’ien. Traditional Government in Imperial China: A Critical Analysis. Translated by Chün-tu Hsüeh and George O. Totten. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press; New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982. Each chapter discusses military institutions, from Han through Ch’ing.
Needham, Joseph, with Wang Ling and Lu Gwei-djen. Science and Civilization in China, vol. 4, part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Chap. 29, “Nautical Technology,” 379–699.
Needham, Joseph, and Robin D. S. Yates, with Krzysztof Gawlikowski, Edward McEwen, and Wang Ling. Science and Civilization in China, vol. 5, part 6, Military Technology: Missiles and Sieges. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Needham, Joseph, with Ho Ping-yü (Ho Peng Yoke), Lu Gwei-djen, and Wang Ling. Science and Civilization in China, vol. 5, part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Needham, Joseph. Science in Traditional China: A Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1981. Chap. 2, “The Epic of Gunpowder and Firearms, Developing from Alchemy,” 27–56.
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Needham, Joseph. Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969. O’Neill, Hugh B. Companion to Chinese History. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1987. Alphabetical listing of people, events, institutions, etc.
Pan, Jixing. “The Origin of Rockets in China.” In Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology, edited by Brenda J. Buchanan, 25–32. Bath, England: Bath University Press, 1996. *Pearson, Richard. “Lolang and the Rise of Korean States and Chiefdoms.” Journal of the Hong Kong Archaeological Society (1976–1978): 77–89. Qiu, Lianghui. “A Preliminary Study of the Characteristics of Metallurgical Technology in Ancient China.” In Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Fan Dainian and Robert S. Cohen, 345–68. Translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996. Weapons provide important evidence for techniques.
Roberts, John G. Mitsui: Three Centuries of Japanese Business. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1973. See index entries: “Army”; “Military extremists.”
Rogers, Michael C. “National Consciousness in Medieval Korea: The Impact of Liao and Chin on Koryò.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 151–72. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Sawyer, Ralph D., with Mei-chün Lee Sawyer. The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. Translation and commentary by Ralph D. Sawyer, with Mei-chün Sawyer. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Basically a translation of the Sung edition of the Seven Military Classics, suitably emended to reflect later discoveries and scholarship. Included are “T’ai Kung’s Six Secret Teachings”; “The Methods of the Ssu-ma”; “Sun-tzu’s Art of War”; “Wutzu”; “Wei Liao-tzu”; “Three Strategies of Huang Shih-kung”; “Questions and Replies between T’ang T’ai-tsung and Li Wei-kung,” separately listed Also included are appendixes on chariot (363–66), cavalry (367–68), armor (369–70), the sword (371–72), and military organization (373–76); and a substantial bibliography of general works and specialized studies of military technology and military thought.
*Shultz, Edward J. “Ch’oe Ch’ungho: His Rise to Power.” Korean Studies 8 (1984): 58–82. Including analysis seizure of power in 1196, power base of Ch’oe domination, Koryò military rule.—YC AHA Guide 14.35.
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*Shultz, Edward J. “Military Revolt in Koryò: The 1170 Coup d’état.” Korean Studies 3 (1979): 19–48. Important new interpretation.—YC AHA Guide 14.36.
Sivin, Nathan. “Imperial China: Has Its Present Past a Future?” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 38 (1978): 449–80. Essay review of Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past.
Spence, Jonathan D. The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution, 1895–1980. New York: Viking Press, 1981. Reprinted New York: Penguin Books, 1982. See index entry: “militarism.”
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. New York: W. W. Norton, 1990. See various military index entries.
Spence, Jonathan D. To Change China: Western Advisers in China 1620–1960. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1969. Chap. 3, “Ward and Gordon: Glorious Days of Looting,” 57–92; 9, “Chennault, Stilwell, Wedemeyer: A Compass for Shangri-La,” 228–78.
Swanson, Bruce. Eighth Voyage of the Dragon: A History of China’s Quest for Seapower. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1982. Temple, Robert. The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. Illustrated compendium includes part 11, “Warfare,” 215–48.
Waldron, Arthur N. The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth. Cambridge Studies in Chinese History, Literature and Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Waldron, Arthur N. “The Problem of the Great Wall of China.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 43 (1983): 643–63. Militarily significant walls, to say nothing of the legendary Great Wall, did not exist for most of Chinese history; the modern Wall dates only to late Ming and was never a unified project.
Wilkinson, Endymion. The History of Imperial China: A Research Guide. Harvard East Asian Monographs 49. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, East Asian Research Center, 1973. See chap. 21, “Army Administration and Warfare,” 139–40.
Wilson, Dick. When Tigers Fight: The Story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945. New York: Viking Press, 1982. Reprinted Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1983.
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Worcester, G. R. G. The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1971. “The War-Junk,” 334–47.
Yan, Dunjie. “The Technique of Maritime Navigation.” In Ancient China’s Technology and Science, compiled by the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 494–503. China Knowledge Series. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983. Zhang, Yuhuan. “The Great Wall.” In Ancient China’s Technology and Science, compiled by the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 436–44. China Knowledge Series. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983. Zhou, Jiahua. “Gunpowder and Firearms.” In Ancient China’s Technology and Science, compiled by the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 184–91. China Knowledge Series. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983. Zhou, Shide. “Shipbuilding.” In Ancient China’s Technology and Science, compiled by the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 479–93. China Knowledge Series. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983.
IMPERIAL CHINA
From the fall of Han to the Opium War Adshead, S. A. M. “Horse Administration under the Ch’ing: An Introduction.” Papers on Far Eastern History 17 (1978): 71–79. How the Ch’ing sought to solve a major military problem, lack of horses.
Buckley, Nora C. “The Extraordinary Voyages of Admiral Cheng Ho.” History Today 25 (1975): 462–71. Chan, Albert. The Glory and Fall of the Ming Dynasty. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982. Chap. 3, “The Ming Empire in Ascendancy: The Army,” 40–67, discusses its organization and role in the ascendent dynasty; chap. 8, “The Ming Empire in Decline: The Army,” 187–210, follows its decline; chap. 12, “End of a Great Empire,” 329–61, considers external military causes of the Ming failure.
Chang, Kuei-sheng. “The Maritime Scene in China at the Dawn of Great European Discoveries.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 94 (1974): 347–57. Ch’en, Wen-shih. “The Creation of the Manchu Niru.” In “The Early Ch’ing Dynasty: State and Society, 1601–1722,” edited by Pei Huang, 11–46. Translated by Pamela Crossley. Chinese Studies in History 14 (Summer 1981): 3–108. *Croizier, Ralph C. Koxinga and Chinese Nationalism: History, Myth, and the Hero. Harvard East Asian Monographs 67. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, East Asian Research Center, 1977. Ming loyalist’s heroic image and symbolism in contemporary and later historiography.—JHC AHA Guide 9.302.
Crossley, Pamela Kyle. The Manchus. The Peoples of Asia. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Oxford: Blackwell, 1997. *Dien, Albert E. “The Role of the Military in the Western Wei/ Northern Chou State.” In State and Society in Early Medieval China, edited by Albert E. Dien. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press; Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1990.
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Dreyer, Edward L. Early Ming China: A Political History, 1355–1435. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1982. Success of a politically strong and militarily effective army, modeled more on Mongol than Chinese precedent, allowed the neo-Confucian bureaucracy to flourish; see especially “The Transformation of the Military Establishment,” 76–87, in chap. 3, “Hung-won”; “The New Capital and the Military System,” 182–94, and “Eunuch Admirals and the Tributary Trade,” 194–206, in chap. 6, “Yung-lo, Emperor on Horseback.” Chap. 8, “Ming History: The Roads Not Taken,” 237–64, summarizes the conduct of war and military institutions as two of the five major concerns of the early Ming emperors; civil officials dominated the government from 1435 onward and institutions remained largely unchanged until the Manchu conquest.
Dreyer, Edward L. “Military Origins of Ming China.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 58–106. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Dreyer, Edward L. “The Poyang Campaign, 1363: Inland Naval Warfare in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 202–42. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. *Farmer, Edward L. Early Ming Government: The Evolution of Dual Capitals. Harvard East Asian Monographs 66. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. Pathbreaking insitutional study, stressing military and national defense.—WSA AHA Guide 10.357.
Feuerwerker, Albert. State and Society in Eighteenth-Century China: The Ch’ing Empre in Its Glory. Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies 27. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1976. “Military Organization,” 54–58, in chap. 3, “Emperor and Bureaucracy: The Political Order.”
Forage, Paul Christopher. “Science, Technology, and War in Song China: Reflections in the ‘Brush Talks from the Dream Creek’ by Shen Kuo (1031–1095).” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Toronto, 1991. Franke, Wolfgang. “Historical Writing during the Ming.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 726–82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. See “Works on Foreign Affairs and Military Organization,” 770–74.
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Franke, Herbert. “Siege and Defense of Towns in Medieval China.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 151–201. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. Franke, Herbert. “Sung Embassies: Some General Observations.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 116–48. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Including military representation.
Haeger, John Winthrop. “1126–27: Political Crisis and the Integrity of Culture.” In Crises and Prosperity in Sung China, edited by John Winthrop Haeger, 143–61. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1975. Sung military administration and its failures.
Hartwell, Robert. “A Cycle of Economic Change in Imperial China: Coal and Iron in Northeast China, 750–1350.” Journal of the Economic History of the Orient 10 (1967): 102–55. Comparable to the industrial revolution of the 18th–19th century in Europe, industry flourished under the Northern Sung, supported in significant measure by military demand for its products.
Hoshi, Ayao. “Transportation in the Ming Period.” Acta Asiatica 38 (1980): 1–30. Hsiao, Ch’i-ch’ing. The Military Establishment of the Yüan Dynasty. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, Council on East Asian Studies, 1978. *Hsing-ch’a Sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Star Raft. Translated by J. V. G. Mills. Edited, revised, and annotated by Rodrich Ptak. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1996. Most detailed bibliography available of Western texts on Chinese maritime foreign relations, 13th to 16th centuries.
Huang, Ray. 1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981. Chap. 6, “Ch’i Chi-kuang, the Lonely General,” 156–88, on the failure of Ming military reform.
Huang, Ray. “The Liao-tung Campaign of 1619.” Oriens Extremis 28 (1981): 30–54. Huang, Ray. “Military Expenditures in Sixteenth Century Ming China.” Oriens Extremis 17 (December 1970): 39–62. The decline of the Wei-so (military farming) system and the disorganization of taxation.
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*Huang, Ray. Taxation and Governmental Finance in Sixteenth-Century Ming China. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Size of military expenditures as a major cause of innovation.
Hucker, Charles O. “Hu Tsung-hsien’s Campaign against Hsü Hai, 1556.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 273–307. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. *Hucker, Charles O. Two Studies on Ming History. Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies 12. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1971. Government attempts to control piracy and study of urban uprising against eunuchs.— WSA AHA Guide 9.362.
*Johnston, Alastair Ian. “An Inquiry into Strategic Culture: Chinese Strategic Thought, the Parabellum Paradigm, and Grand Strategic Choice in Ming China.” Ph.D. dissertation, Political Science, University of Michigan, 1993. Jouary, Jean-Paul. “Contribution à une polémologie des guerres de Chine (1628–1831).” Guerres et paix (1968) 2, 33–43. Keng Sang-tzu. “Master of the Hidden Storehouse.” Translated by Thomas Cleary. In Thunder in the Sky: Secrets on the Acquisition and Exercise of Power. Boston: Shambhala, 1993. Treatise on strategy and the philosophy of power attributed to a disciple of Laotse but known only from an 8th cenury T’ang Dynasty text.
Kessler, Lawrence D. K’ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch’ing Rule, 1661–1684. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976. See especially chap. 4, “War and the Fruits of Victory,” 74–111.
Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. Reprinted New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Liu, Chia-chü. “The Creation of the Chinese Banners in the Early Ch’ing.” Translated by Pamela Crossley. In “The Early Ch’ing Dynasty: State and Society, 1601–1722,” edited by Pei Huang, 47–75. Chinese Studies in History 14 (Summer 1981): 3–108. Liu, Ji. “Lessons of War: Studies in Strategy by Liu Ji.” In Mastering the Art of War: Zhuge Liang’s and Liu Ji’s Commentaries on the Classic by Sun Tzu, translated and edited by Thomas Cleary, 65–134. Shambhala Dragon Editions. Boston and Shaftesbury: Shambhala, 1989. Commentary on Sun Tzu, dating from the 14th century (Yüan).
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*Lo, Jung-pang. “Maritime Commerce and Its Relation to the Sung Navy.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 12 (1969): 59–101. Lo, Jung-pang. “Missile Weapons in Pre-Modern China.” Presented at the Association for Asian Studies annual meeting, Chicago 1967. Ma, Huan. Ying-yai sheng-lan: “The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores” [1433]. Edited by Ch’eng-chün Feng. Translated by J. V. G. Mills. Hakluyt Society Extra Series 42. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. “Cheng Ho and His Expeditions,” 5–34, in “Introduction”; appendix 3, “Miscellaneous Notes on Ships, Seamanship, Navigation, and Cognate Matters,” 303–10.
Mangold, Gunter. Das Militärwesen in China unter der Mongolen-Herrschaft. Bamberg: Fotodruck, 1971. Millinger, James. “Ch’i Chi-kuang —A Ming Military Official as Viewed by His Contemporary Civil Officials.” Oriens Extremis 20 (1973): 103–17.
Content analysis of fitness reports (1550–1582) and other memorials, etc., contradicts notions of disdain for military: he is praised for specialized skills and training, without mention of moral qualities or general learning.
Mote, Frederick W. “The Ch’eng-hua and Hung-chih Reigns, 1465– 1505.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 343–402. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. “Military Problems,” 370–402, begins with “The Military Arm of Government,” 370–76, then continues with such problems as bandits, aborigines, rebellion, nomads, Mongols.
Mote, Frederick W. “The T’u-mu Incident of 1449.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 243–72. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. *Murray, Dian H. Pirates of the South China Coast, 1790–1810. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1987. Motivated by profit, not politics, pirates were something less than rebels; documents significant role of women, including leader Cheng I Sao.—JHC AHA Guide 9.206.
*Naquin, Susan. Millenarian Rebellion in China: The Eight Trigrams Uprising of 1813. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1976. Superb classic.—JHC AHA Guide 9.207.
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*Naquin, Susan. Shantung Rebellion: The Wang Lun Uprising of 1774. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981. Narrative account of White Lotus rising, most vivid on rebel community-in-arms on the road.—JHC AHA Guide 9.208.
Oxnam, Robert B. Ruling from Horseback: Manchu Politics in the Oboi Regency, 1661–1669. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. See chap. 6, “The Military Policies of the Oboi Regency,” 118–45.
Peers, Chris, and Michael Perry. Imperial Chinese Armies (2), 590–1260 A.D. Men-at-Arms Series 295. London: Osprey, 1996. Peers, Chris, and Christa Hook. Late Imperial Chinese Armies, 1520–1840. Men-at-Arms Series 307. London: Osprey, 1997. Peers, C. J., and David Sque. Medieval Chinese Armies, 1260–1520. Men-at-Arms Series 251. London: Osprey, 1992. Peterson, Charles A. “Old Illusions and New Realities: Sung Foreign Policy, 1217–1234.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 204–39. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Peterson, Charles A. “Regional Defense against the Central Power: The Huai-hsi Campaign, 815–817.” In Chinese Ways in Warfare, edited by Frank A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank, 123–50. Harvard East Asian Series 74. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. Pulleyblank, Edwin J. “The An Lu-shan Rebellion and the Origins of Chronic Militarism in Late T’ang China.” In Essays on T’ang Society: The Interplay of Social, Political and Economic Forces, edited by John Curtis Perry and Bardwell L. Smith, 33–60. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976. Ranitzsch, Karl Heinz, and Angus McBride. The Army of Tang China. Stockport, England: Montvert, 1995. Sivin, Nathan. “Eighty Years before Columbus a Chinese Armada with 37,000 Men Reached Africa.” Scientific American ( January 1972): 113–18. Essay review of Needham et al., Science and Civilization in China, vol. 4, part 3.
”koljar, Sergej Aleksandrovi. “L’Artillerie de jet à l’époque Sung.” In Études Song: In memoriam Étienne Balasz, edited Françoise Aubin, 119–42. Série 1. Histoire et institutions 2. Paris: Mouton, 1971.
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Song, Zhenghai, and Chuankang Chen. “Why Did Zheng He’s Sea Voyage Fail to Lead the Chinese to Make the ‘Great Geographical Discovery?’ ” In Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, edited by Fan Dainian and Robert S. Cohen, 345–68. Translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1996. Chiefly because the political motivation of Ming expeditions could not sustain the same kind of prolonged effort that economically motivated European exploration could.
Spence, Jonathan D. The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci. New York: Viking Penguin, 1984. See chap. 2, “The First Image: The Warriors,” 24–58.
Struve, Lynn A. The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1984. On the military causes of the final Ming debacle, after the fall of Peking.
T’ang T’ai-tsung and Li Wei-kung. “Questions and Replies between T’ang T’ai-tsung and Li Wei-kung.” In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China: Translation and Commentary, by Ralph D. Sawyer, 307–60. History and Warfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. Dating from the 7 century A.D. (Sui, Tang Dynasties).
Tao, Jing-shen. “Barbarians or Northerners: Northern Sung Images of the Khitans.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 66–86. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Taylor, Romeyn. “Yuan Origins of the Wei-so System.” In Chinese Government in Ming Times: Seven Studies, edited by Charles O. Hucker, 23–40. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969. Trauzettel, Rolf. “Sung Patriotism as a First Step toward Chinese Nationalism.” In Crises and Prosperity in Sung China, edited by John Winthrop Haeger, 199–213. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1975. Partly as manifested in formation of people’s armies, or militias (202, 204, 208).
Tsai, Shih-shan Henry. The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996. Chap. 4, “Eunuchs and the Ming Military System,” 59–96; chap. 7, “Eunuchs and Ming Maritime Activities,” 141–64 (“Zheng He’s Seven Navigations,” 153–64).
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Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China. 2 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Chap. 1, “The Northern Frontier,” 23–86, describes Ming and Manchu military institutions; the book offers a detailed and sophisticated analysis of the Manchu conquest, with numerous references to the military structure of the new order.
Wallacker, Benjamin E. “Studies in Medieval Chinese Siegecraft: The Siege of Chien-K’ang, A.D. 548–549.” Journal of Asian History 5 (1971): 35–54. Blow-by-blow account, based on the sources, including some details about siege machines.
Wallacker, Benjamin E. “Studies in Medieval Chinese Siegecraft: The Siege of Ying-ch’uan, A.D. 548–549.” Journal of Asian Studies 30 (1971): 611–22. Wallacker, Benjamin E. “Studies in Medieval Chinese Siegecraft: The Siege of Yü-pi, A.D. 546.” Journal of Asian Studies 28 (1969): 789–802. Wang, Gungwu. “The Rhetoric of a Lesser Empire: Early Sung Relations with Its Neighbors.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 47–65. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Worthy, Edmund H., Jr. “Diplomacy for Survival: Domestic and Foreign Relations of Wu Yüeh, 907–978.” In China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, edited by Morris Rossabi, 17–44. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Wright, Arthur E. The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China, A.D. 581–617. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978. Wu, Chi-hua. “The Contraction of Forward Defences on the North China Frontier during the Ming Dynasty.” Papers in Far Eastern History 17 (March 1978): 1–13. Wu, Wei-ping. “The Development and Decline of the Eight Banners.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Pennsylvania, 1969.
MODERN CHINA
From the Opium War through Republican China and the Chinese Civil War, 1840–1949 Adshead, S. A. M. Province and Politics in Late Imperial China: Viceregal Government in Szechwan, 1898–1911. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, Monograph Series 50. London and Malmö: Curzon Press, 1984.
Military affairs figured prominently in viceregal concerns.
Bedeski, Robert E. State-building in Modern China: The Kuomintang in the Prewar Period. China Research Monograph 18. Los Angeles: University of California Los Angeles, Institute of East Asia Studies, Center for Chinese Studies, 1981. Chaps. 1, “On the Evolution of the Modern State in China,” 1–21; and 2, “Military Unification of the KMT State,” 22–49.
*Benton, Gregor. “Communist Guerrilla Bases in Southeast Asia after the Start of the Long March.” In Single Sparks: China’s Rural Revolutions, edited by Kathleen Hartford and Steven M. Goldstein. Studies of the East Asian Institute, Columbia University. Armonk, New York: East Gate of M. E. Sharpe, 1989. Benton, Gregor. Mountain Fires: The Red Army’s Three-Year War in South China, 1934–1938. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Bianco, Lucien. Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 1915–1949. Translated by Muriel Bell. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1971. Billingsley, Phil. Bandits in Republican China. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. See especially chap. 5, “ ‘Fierce Democracy’: The Creation and Organization of a Bandit Gang,” 91–122.
Chan, Anthony B. “Social Change and Political Legitimacy in Warlord China.” Asian Studies 11 (1973): 151–64. *Ch’en, Jerome. The Military-Gentry Coalition: China under the Warlords. Publications series 1.4. Toronto: University of Toronto-York University, Joint Centre on Modern East Asia, 1979. Military-gentry alliance retarded Chinese modernization by a century.—JHC AHA Guide 9.377.
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Chesneaux, Jean, Marianne Bastid, and Marie-Claire Bergère. China: From the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution. Translated by Anne Destenay. The Pantheon Asia Library. New York: Pantheon Books, 1976. Chesneaux, Jean. Peasant Revolts in China, 1840–1949. Translated by C. A. Curwen. New York: W. W. Norton, 1973. *Ch’i, Hsi-sheng. “The Military Dimension, 1942–1945.” In China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945. Armonk, New Jersey: M. E. Sharpe, 1992. *Ch’i, Hsi-sheng. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–45. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982. Kuomintang militarization, alienation, demoralization, and fragmentation during war with Japan, fating it to lose civil war before it began.—JHC AHA Group 111.379.
*Ch’i, Hsi-sheng. Warlord Politics in China, 1916–1928. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976. Balance of power concerns dominant.—JHC AHA Guide 11.380.
Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Cole, James H. The People Versus the Taipings: Bao Lishang’s “Righteous Army of Dongan.” China Research Mongraphs 21. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asia Studies, 1981. On a peasant army organized against the Taipings.
Crossley, Pamela Kyle. Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990. Curwen, C. A. Taiping Rebel: The Deposition of Li Hsiu-cheng. Cambridge Studies in Chinese History, Literature and Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. *Donovan, Peter Williams. The Red Army in Kiangsi, 1931–1934. Cornell University East Asia Papers 10. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, China-Japan Program, 1976. Emphasized unity of military and political work.—JHC AHA Guide 11.388.
Dreyer, Edward L. China at War, 1901–1949. Modern Wars in Perspective. London and New York: Longman, 1995. Durch, William J. “The Navy of the Republic of China.” In Guide to Far Eastern Navies, edited by Barry M. Blechman and Robert P. Berman, 216–69. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978.
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*Eastman, Lloyd E. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937–1949. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1984. Details structural infirmities of military-authoritarian regime and enervating effects of anti-Japanese war.—JHC AHA Guide 11.391.
Feuerwerker, Albert. Rebellion in Nineteenth-Century China. Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies 21. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1975. *Fields, Lanny B. Tso Tsung-t’ang and the Muslims: Statecraft in Northwest China, 1868–1880. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone, 1978. Tso’s participation in Hunan Statecraft group, successful reconquest of northwest.— JHC AHA Guide 9.100.
*Forbes, Andrew D. W. Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang, 1911–1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Warlord venality and Muslim rebellions and invasions.—JHC AHA Guide 11.394.
Fung, Edmund S. K. The Military Dimension of the Chinese Revolution: The New Army and Its Role in the Revolution of 1911. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980. Fung, Edmund S. K. “Military Subversion in the Chinese Revolution of 1911.” Modern Asian Studies 9 (1975): 103–23. Fung, Edmund S. K. “Revolution and the Chinese Army, 1911–1913.” Papers on Far Eastern History 19 (1979): 13–53. Gillin, Donald G. Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province, 1911–1949. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967. Giquel, Prosper. A Journal of the Chinese Civil War, 1864. Edited with introduction and annotations by Steven A. Leibo. Translated by Steven A. Leibo and Debbie Weston. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985. *Goldstein, Jonathan, ed. “Fresh Perspectives on Qing Dynasty Maritime Relations.” American Neptune 48 (Fall 1988): 221–85. Special issue, comprising the editor’s introduction and seven articles.
Guillermaz, Jacques. A History of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921–1949. Translated by Anne Destenay. New York: Random House, 1972. Close attention to military activities.
*Hartford, Kathleen. “Repression and Communist Success: The Case of Jin-Cha-Ji, 1938–1943.” In Single Sparks: China’s Rural Revolutions,
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edited by Kathleen Hartford and Steven M. Goldstein. Studies of the East Asian Institute, Columbia University. Armonk, New York: East Gate of M. E. Sharpe, 1989. Hatano, Yoshihiro. “The New Armies.” In China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900–1913, edited by Mary Clabaugh Wright, 365–82. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1968. Hibbert, Christopher. The Dragon Wakes: China and the West, 1793–1911. New York: Harper & Row, 1970. Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Especially part 3, “Self-strengthening in an Age of Accelerated Foreign Imperialism, 1861–95,” 317–419.
Huang, Pei. “The Yangtze Navy: An Example of Ch’ing Innovations.” Journal of Asian History 6 (1972): 97–113. Organized by Tseng Kuo-fan in response to Taipings, characterized by standardized units, improved morale and training, better armaments, discipline, and organization; largely a native force, but inspired by Western models.
Ichiko, Chuzo. “Political and Institutional Reform, 1901–11.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, Late Ch’ing, 1800 –1911, Part 2, edited by John K. Fairbank and Kwang-ching Liu, 375–415. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. *Jen, Yu-wen, with Adrienne Suddard. The Taiping Revolutionary Movement. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1973. Detailed military narrative.—JHC AHA Guide 11.110.
*Jordan, Donald A. The Northern Expedition: China’s National Revolution of 1926–1928. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1976. How National Revolutionary Army of Kuomintang-communist First United Front marched north from Canton, defeated warlords, and militarily united—but did not politically centralize—China.—JHC AHA Guide 11.415.
Jowett, Philip, and Stephen Andrew. Chinese Civil War Armies, 1911–49. Men-at-Arms Series 306. London: Osprey, 1997. *Kapp, Robert A. Szechwan and the Chinese Republic: Provincial Militarism and Central Power, 1911–1938. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1973. Warlordism in the province.—JHC AHA Guide 11.416.
*Kataoka, Tetsuya. Resistance and Revolution in China: The Communists and the Second United Front. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Uniting against Japan as communist ploy to cover social revolution.—JHC AHA Guide 11.417.
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*Kirby, William C. “The Chinese War Economy.” In China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945. Armonk, New Jersey: M. E. Sharpe, 1992. Kuhn, Philip A. Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864. Harvard East Asian Series 49. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970. Kuhn, Philip A. “The Taiping Rebellion.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, Part 1, edited by John K. Fairbank, 264–317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Kuhn, Philip A. “The T’uan-lien Local Defence System at the Time of the Taiping Rebellion.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 27 (1967): 218–55. Laffey, Ella S. “In the Wake of the Taipings: Some Patterns of Local Revolt in Kwangsi Province, 1850–1875.” Modern Asian Studies 10 (1976): 65–81. Landis, Richard Brian. “Institutional Trends at the Whampoa Military School, 1924–26.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Washington, 1968. Lary, Diana. Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers, 1911–1937. Contemporary China Institute Publications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Lee, Nigel de. “The Far Eastern Experience.” In The Roots of CounterInsurgency: Armies and Guerrilla Warfare, 1900–1945, edited by Ian F. W. Beckett, 127–51. London: Blandford Press, 1988. Kuomintang and Japanese success against communist forces.
Lee, Nigel de. “History of the Chinese Armed Forces.” In The Chinese War Machine: A Technical Analysis of the Strategy and Weapons of the People’s Republic of China, edited by Ray Bond, 10–35. New York: Crescent Books, 1979. *Levine, Steven I. “Mobilizing for War: Rural Revolution in Manchuria as an Instrument for War.” In Single Sparks: China’s Rural Revolutions, edited by Kathleen Hartford and Steven M. Goldstein. Studies of the East Asian Institute, Columbia University. Armonk, New York: East Gate of M. E. Sharpe, 1989.
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Liu, Kwang-ching, and Richard J. Smith. “The Military Challenge: The North-West and the Coast.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, Part 2, edited by John K. Fairbank and Kwang-ching Liu, 202–73. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. *Loh, Pichon P. Y. The Early Chiang Kai-shek: A Study of His Peronality and Politics, 1887–1924. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. Concluding with Chiang’s appointment as commandant of Whampoa Military Academy.—JHC AHA Guide 9.332.
McAleavy, Henry. The Modern History of China. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967. *McCord, Edward A. In Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance, edited by Joseph W. Esherick and Mary Backus Rankin. Studies on China 11. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Describes late 19th and early 20th century military families and local militias in Guizhou, according to Susan Naquin in American Historical Review 98 (February 1993): 216–17.
McCord, Edward A. “Civil War and the Emergence of Warlordism in Early Twentieth Century China.” War & Society 10 (October 1992): 35–56. McCord, Edward A. “Militia and Local Militarization in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Case of Hunan.” Modern China 14 (1988): 156–87. McCord, Edward A. The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. MacKinnon, Stephen R. “The Paiyang Army, Yüan Shih-k’ai, and the Origins of Modern Chinese Warlordism.” Journal of Asian Studies 30 (1973): 405–23. MacKinnon, Stephen R. Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shi-kai in Beijing and Tianjin, 1901–1908. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Melby, John F. The Mandate of Heaven: Record of a Civil War, China 1945– 49. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968. Reprinted Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1971. Michael, Franz H., with Chung-li Chang. The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents. Far Eastern and Russian Institute Publications on Asia 14. 3 vols. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966–1971.
298
Nathan, Andrew J. Modern China, 1840–1972: An Introduction to Sources and Resource Aids. Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies 14. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1973. O’Brien, Anita M. “Military Academies in China, 1885–1915.” In Perspectives on a Changing China: Essays in Honor of Professor C. Martin Wilbur on the Occasion of His Retirement, edited by Joshua A. Fogel and William T. Rowe, 157–81. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press; Folkestone, England: Dawson, 1979. *Paulson, David M. “Nationalist Guerrillas in the Sino-Japanese War: The ‘Die-hards’ of Shandong Province.” In Single Sparks: China’s Rural Revolutions, edited by Kathleen Hartford and Steven M. Goldstein. Studies of the East Asian Institute, Columbia University. Armonk, New York: East Gate of M. E. Sharpe, 1989. Perry, Elizabeth J., ed. Chinese Perspectives on the Nien Rebellion. Translated by Sun-ming Wong and Elizabeth J. Perry. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1981. Incorporating “Approaches to the Nien Rebellion,” Chinese Studies in History 13 (Spring 1980): 1–80, renamed “Scholarly Debates on the Nien,” 23–98; and “Nien Rebellion Stories,” 101–38, selected from Nien-chün ku-shih-chi (Collected tales from the Nien army), edited by the Federation of Writers and Artists of Fu-yang District, Anhwei Province.
Perry, Elizabeth J. Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845–1945. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1980. *Porter, Jonathan. Tseng Kuo-fan’s Private Bureaucracy. China Research Monographs 4. Berkeley: University of California, Center for Chinese Studies, 1972. System of privately-hired specialist advisors spearheaded suppression of Taiping rebellion.—JHC AHA Guide 9.140.
*Preston, Adrian. “Chinese Military Policy in the Mid-19th Century.” Journal of the Royal United Service Institution of India (October-December 1968): 376–86. *Preston, Adrian. “Chinese Military Policy in the Mid-19th Century.” Army Quarterly 101 ( January 1971): 206–14. *Price, Jane L. Cadres, Commanders, and Commissars: The Training of the Chinese Communist Leadership, 1920–1945. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1976. Education and indoctrination, including Whampoa Military Academy and Kiangsi Soviet’s Red Army Academy.—JHC AHA Guide 11.435.
299
Pye, Lucian W. Warlord Politics: Conflict and Coalition in the Modernization of Republican China. Praeger Library of Chinese Affairs. New York: Praeger, 1971. Rawlinson, John L. “China’s Failure to Coordinate Her Modern Fleets in the Late Nineteenth Century.” In Approaches to Modern Chinese History, edited by Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright, 105–32. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. Rawlinson, John L. China’s Struggle for Naval Development, 1839–1895. Harvard East Asian Series 25. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967. Roberts, J. A. G. China through Western Eyes: The Nineteenth Century. A Reader in History. Wolfeboro Falls, New Hampshire: Alan Sutton, 1991. See “The Military,” 100–12.
Rozman, Gilbert, ed. The Modernization of China. New York: Free Press, 1981. Paperback edition, 1982. A collective work without individually credited chapters. See especially “Armed Forces: The Changing Place of the Military,” 67–72, in part 1, “The Legacy of the Past: The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” chap. 3, “Political Structure”; and “Armed Forces and Warlordism,” 276–85, in part 2, “The Transformation: The Twentieth Century,” chap. 9, “Political Structure.”
Selden, Mark. The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China. Harvard East Asian Series 62. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Shen, Han-yin Chen. “Tseng Kuo-fan in Peking, 1840–1852: His Ideas on Statecraft and Reform.” Journal of Asian Studies 27 (1967): 61–80. Philosophical and political only.
Sheridan, James E. China in Disintegration: The Republican Era in Chinese History. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1975. See chap. 5, “The Warlords,” 57–106.
Sheridan, James E. “The Warlord Era: Politics and Militarism under the Peking Government, 1916–28.” In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 12, Republican China, 1912–1949, edited by John K. Fairbank, 284–321. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Smith, Richard J. “Chinese Military Institutions in the Mid-Nineteenth Century, 1850–1860.” Journal of Asian History 8 (1974): 122–61. Chinese military reorganization began as response to Taipings, bypassing the old forces of Eight Banners and Green Flag in favor of “nonregular” armies of various types, especially yung-ying.
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Spence, Jonathan D. God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1996. Sutton, Edward S. Provincial Militarism and the Chinese Republic: The Yunnan Army, 1905–25. Michigan Studies on China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980. *Tai, Hsuan-chih. The Red Spears, 1916–1949. Translated by Ronald Suleski. Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies 54. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1985. Account of popular self-defense organization intended to protect peasant landowners against bandits, warlords, and Japanese invaders.—JHC AHA Guide 11.484.
Teng, Ssu-yü. The Taiping Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971. *U.S. Department of the Army, Office of Military History. Organizational Changes in the Chinese Army, 1895–1950. Taipei, 1968. Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. The Fall of Imperial China. The Transformation of Modern China Series. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1975. Paperback edition, 1977. See index entries: “Army”; “Military”; “Militia”; “Warlords”; “Weapons.”
Waldron, Arthur. “War and the Rise of Nationalism in TwentiethCentury China.” Journal of Military History 57 no. 5 (Special Issue, October 1993): 87–104. Waldron, Arthur. “The Warlord: Twentieth-Century Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism, and Imperialism.” American Historical Review 96 (1991): 1073–1100. How Western concepts of violence, militarism, and imperialism entered Chinese thought from the 1910s onward.
Wang, Jianhua. “Military Reforms, 1895–1908.” In China, 1895–1912: State-sponsored Reforms and China’s Late-Qing Revolution. Selected Essays from Zhongguo Jindai Shi (Modern Chinese History, 1840–1919), edited by Douglas R. Reynolds, 67–84. Special Studies in Chinese History, a special issue of Chinese Studies in History 28 nos. 3–4 (Spring-Summer 1995): 1–171. *Wei, William. “Law and Order: The Role of Guomindang Security Forces in the Suppression of the Communist Bases during the Soviet Period.” In Single Sparks: China’s Rural Revolutions, edited by Kathleen Hartford and Steven M. Goldstein. Studies of the East Asian Institute,
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Columbia University. Armonk, New York: East Gate of M. E. Sharpe, 1989. Wilbur, C. Martin. “Military Separatism and the Process of Reunification under the Nationalist Regime, 1922–1937.” In China in Crisis, vol. 1, China’s Heritage and the Communist Political System, edited by Pingti Ho and Tang Tsou, 203–63. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. *Williamson, Marvin. “The Military Dimension, 1937–1941.” In China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945. Armonk, New Jersey: M. E. Sharpe, 1992. *Wou, Odoric Y. K. Militarism in Modern China: The Career of Wu P’eifu, 1916–1939. Folkstone, England: Dawson, 1978. Biography of leading warlord, defeated by Chiang.—JHC AHA Guide 11.460.
Wright, Mary Clabaugh. “Introduction: The Rising Tide of Change.” In China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900–1913, edited by Mary Clabaugh Wright, 1–63. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1968. Stresses the critical role of the Boxer Rebellion in forcing home the choice between extinction and transformation, and the dramatic “New China” that erupted after 1900.
Yip, Ka-che. “Warlordism and Educational Finances, 1916–1927.” In Perspectives on a Changing China: Essays in Honor of Professor C. Martin Wilbur on the Occasion of His Retirement, edited by Joshua A. Fogel and William T. Rowe, 183–95. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press; Folkestone, England: Dawson, 1979.
PREMODERN JAPAN
From early times to the mid-19th century. *Arnesen, Peter Judd. The Medieval Japanese Daimyo: The Ouchi Family’s Rule of Suò and Nagato. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1979. Enduring type of local warrior family chieftaincy in late Muromachi period, 1333–1573.—MC AHA Guide 12.96.
*Arnesen, Peter Judd. “The Struggle for Lordship in Late Heian Japan: The Case of Aki.” Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Winter 1984): 101–41. *Asao, Naohiro. “The Sixteenth-Century Unification.” In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4, Early Modern Japan, edited by John Whitney Hall and James L. McClain, 40–95. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Including role of military force in the process.—HW AHA Guide 12.151.
Batten, Bruce L. “Foreign Threat and Domestic Reform: The Emergence of the Ritsuryò State.” Monumenta Nipponica 41 (1986): 199–219. Military factors in the centralization of the state in the 7th century.
*Berry, Mary Elizabeth. The Culture of Civil War in Kyoto. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Politics and culture during the age of wars, 1467–1568.—MC AHA Guide 12.97.
*Berry, Mary Elizabeth. Hideyoshi. Harvard East Asian Monographs 146. 1982 edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Council on East Asian Studies, 1989. Hideyoshi’s legacy included military monopolization of political power.—MC AHA Guide 12.152.
*Birt, Michael P. “Samurai in Passage: Transformation of the SixteenthCentury Kanto.” Journal of Japanese Studies 11 (1985): 369–89. Long before Hideyoshi, sengoku daimyo began process of withdrawing samurai from scattered fiefs in the countryside to centralized residence in or near daimyo’s garrison.—MC AHA Guide 12.153.
Blomberg, Catharina. The Heart of the Warrior: Origins and Religious Background of the Samurai System in Feudal Japan. Folkestone, England: Japan Library, 1994.
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Bolitho, Harold. “The Han.” In Warrior Rule in Japan, edited by Marius B. Jansen, 202–53. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Bolitho, Harold. Treasures among Men: The Fudai Daimyo in Tokugawa Japan. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Bottomley, I., and A. P. Hopson. Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan. New York: Crescent Books, 1988. Brownlee, John S. “The Shòkyù War and the Political Rise of the Warriors.” Monumenta Nipponica 24 (1969): 59–77. Final step in the transformation of Heian aristocratic society to bakufu rule was the 1221 war.
*Butler, Kenneth. “The Heike Monogatrari and the Japanese Warrior Ethic.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 29 (1969): 93–108. Cleary, Thomas. The Japanese Art of War: Understanding the Culture of Strategy. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala, 1991. *Collcutt, Martin. “Daimyo and Daimyo Culture.” In Japan: The Shaping of Daimyo Culture, 1185–1868, edited by Yoshiaki Shimizu, 1–46. 1988 edition. New York: Braziller, 1989. Japan’s warrior leaders pursued civil culture (bun) as well as military arts (bu).—MC AHA Guide 12.141.
Cook, Harry. Samurai: The Story of a Warrior Tradition. London: Blandford Press, 1993. Davis, David L. “Ikki in Late Medieval Japan.” In Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History, edited by John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, 221–47. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. Alternative military organization often in conflict with the dominant feudal system.
Dunn, Charles J. Everyday Life in Traditional Japan. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1969. See chap. 2, “The Samurai,” 13–49.
*Edwards, Walter. “Event and Process in the Founding of Japan.” Journal of Japanese Studies 9.2 (1983): 265–95. Tests and revises Egami’s 5th-century horserider invasion thesis.—MC AHA Guide 12.27.
Duus, Peter. Feudalism in Japan. Studies in World Civilization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969.
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*Elison, George. “The Cross and the Sword: Patterns of Momoyama History.” In Warlords, Artists, and Commoners: Japan in the Sixteenth Century, edited by George Elison and Bardwell L. Smith, 56–85. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1981. Including interesting vignettes of Hideyoshi and Nobunaga.—MC AHA Guide 12.155.
*Elison, George. “Hideyoshi, the Bountiful Minister.” In Warlords, Artists, and Commoners: Japan in the Sixteenth Century, edited by George Elison and Bardwell L. Smith, 223–44. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1981. Insightful essay on aristocratization of feudal lord Hideyoshi.—MC AHA Guide 12.156.
Farris, William Wayne. Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan’s Military, 500–1300. Harvard East Asian Monographs 157. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1992. Paperback edition, 1995, with new preface. Friday, Karl F. Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1992. Friday, Karl F. “Teeth and Claws: Provincial Warriors and the Heian Court.” Monumenta Nipponica 43 (1988): 153–85. Evolution of military and police organization from the 9th to the 15th century.
Gay, Suzanne. “The Kawashima Warrior-Peasants of Medieval Japan.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986): 81–119. Designated a Muromachi vassal in 1336, the Kawashima family flourished as warriors and wealthy peasants.
Gay, Suzanne. “Muromachi Bakufu Rule in Kyoto: Administrative and Judicial Aspects.” In The Bakufu in Japanese History, edited by Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser, 49–65. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1985. Introduction to Ashikaga shogunal administration.
Hall, John Whitney. “The Bakuhan System.” In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4, Early Modern Japan, edited by John Whitney Hall and James L. McClain, 128–82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Reprinted in Warrior Rule in Japan, edited by Marius B. Jansen, 147–201. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Tokugawa’s rise to power, the Edo bafuku, structure and organization of government.
Hall, John Whitney. “The Ikeda House and Its Retainers in Bizen.” In Studies in the Institutional History of Early Modern Japan, edited by John Whitney Hall and Marius B. Jansen, 79–88. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968. Paperback edition, 1970.
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Hall, John Whitney. “The Muromachi Bakufu.” In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, Medieval Japan, edited by Kòzò Yamamura, 175–230. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Reprinted in Warrior Rule in Japan, edited by Marius B. Jansen, 91–146. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Institutions and historiography.
*Harrington, Lorraine F. “Social Control and the Signficance of the Akutò.” In Court and Bakufu in Japan: Essays in Kamakura History, edited by Jeffrey P. Mass, 221–50. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1982. On regional bands that defied warrior government in late Kamakura period.—MC AHA Guide 12.72.
Harris, Victor. “Japanese Swords.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 148–71. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview.
Hauser, William B. “Osaka Castle and Tokugawa Authority in Western Japan.” In The Bakufu in Japanese History, edited by Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser, 153–72. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1985. The castle as outpost for surveillance and control.
*Imatani, Akira. “Muromachi Local Government: Shugo and Kokujin.” In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, Medieval Japan, edited by Kòzò Yamamura, 231–59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Shifting provincial power relations between bakufu-appointed military governors (shugo) and entrenched local warrior chiefs (kokujin).—MC AHA Guide 12.105.
Ishii, Ryòsuke. “Japanese Feudalism.” Acta Asiatica no. 35 (1978): 1–29. Jansen, Marius B. “Tosa in the Seventeenth Century: The Establishment of Yamauchi Rule.” In Studies in the Institutional History of Early Modern Japan, edited by John Whitney Hall and Marius B. Jansen, 115–29. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968. Paperback edition, 1970. *Kawaii, Masaharu. “Shogun and Shugo: The Provincial Aspects of Muromachi Politics.” In Japan in the Muromachi Age, edited by John Whitney Hall and Toyoda Takeshi, 65–88. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Often strained relations between the Ashikaga shoguns and their principal vassals, the military governors (shugo).—MC AHA Guide 12.107.
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*Keiji, Nagahara. “The Sengoku Daimyo and the Kandaka System.” In Japan before Tokugawa: Political Consolidation and Economic Growth, 1500– 1650, edited by John Whitney Hall, Nagahara Keiji, and Kòzò Yamamura, 27–63. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. Attempts by ‘feudal lords of the age of wars’ (sengoku daimyo) to register the income from their vassals’ lands.—MC AHA Guide 12.127.
*Kuwayama, Kònen. “The Bugyònin System: A Closer Look.” In Japan in the Muromachi Age, edited by John Whitney Hall and Toyoda Takeshi, 53–63. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Roles and power of warrior bureaucrats (bugyònin) who formed the personal government of the Ashikaga shoguns.—MC AHA Guide 12.109.
*Ledyard, Gari K. “Galloping along with the Horseriders: Looking for the Founders of Japan.” Journal of Japanese Studies 1.2 (1975): 217–54. Summarizing, amplifying, and qualifying Egami’s horserider thesis.—MC AHA Guide 12.29.
Leggett, Travor. The Warrior Koans: Early Zen in Japan. London and New York: Arkana (Routledge & Kegan Paul), 1985. Mass, Jeffrey P. “The Emergence of the Kamakura Bakufu.” In Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History, edited by John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, 127–56. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. On the establishment of military government in the late 12th century.
Mass, Jeffrey P. “Jitò Land Possession in the Thirteenth Century: The Case of Shitaji Chùbun.” In Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History, edited by John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, 157–83. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. Mass, Jeffrey P. “The Kamakura Bakufu.” In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, Medieval Japan, edited by Kòzò Yamamura, 46–88. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Reprinted in Warrior Rule in Japan, edited by Marius B. Jansen, 1–43. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Formation and development of Kamakura shogunate, 1100s to 1300s.
*Mass, Jeffrey P. The Kamakura Bakufu: A Study in Documents. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976. Document translations, annotated bibliography, and discussion.—MC AHA Guide 12.83.
307
*Mass, Jeffrey P. Lordship and Inheritance in Early Medieval Japan: A Study of the Kamakura Sòryò System. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1989. Social and economic milieu in which rank-and-file provincial warrior houses operated.—MC AHA Guide 12.84.
*Mass, Jeffrey P. Warrior Government in Early Medieval Japan: A Study of the Kamakura Bakufu, Shugo, and Jito. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Stressing novelty of Kamakura shogunate.—MC AHA Guide 12.85.
*McCullough, William. “The Azuma kagami Account of the Shòkyù War.” Monumenta Nipponica 32 (1968): 102–155. Brief but critical struggle between Kamakura bakufu and imperial court in 1221.— MC AHA Guide 12.88.
Morris, Ivan. The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1975. Musashi, Miyamoto. A Book of Five Rings. Translated by Victor Harris. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1974. Paperback edition, 1982. Newman, John. Bushido, The Way of the Warrior: A New Perspective on the Japanese Military Tradition. Wigston: Magna Books; London: Bison Books, 1989. Nitobe, Inazo. Bushido, the Soul of Japan: An Exposition of Japanese Thought. Revised edition. Rutland, Vermont, and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1969. Perrin, Noel. Giving Up the Gun: Japan’s Reversion to the Sword, 1545–1879. Boston, Massachusetts: David R. Godine, 1979. Ratti, Oscar, and Adele Westbrook. Secrets of the Samurai: A Survey of the Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. Rutland, Vermont, and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1973. Robinson, H. Russell. Japanese Arms and Armour. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1969. Reprinted New York: Crown, n.d. Rogers, John M. “Arts of War in Times of Peace: Archery in Honchò bugei shòden.” Mounumenta Nipponica 45 (1990): 253–84. Introduction (253–59) discusses the martial arts literature and this 1714 work, half of which addresses archery and swordsmanship; the article translates the chapter on archery.
308
Rogers, John M. “Arts of War in Times of Peace: Swordsmanship in Honchò bugei shòden, Chapter 5.” Mounumenta Nipponica 45 (1990): 413–48. This article translates the chapter on swordsmanship.
Sakai, Robert. “The Consolidation of Power in Satsuma Han.” In Studies in the Institutional History of Early Modern Japan, edited by John Whitney Hall and Marius B. Jansen, 131–39. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968. Paperback edition, 1970. *Sasaki, Ginya. “Sengoku Daimyò Rule and Commerce.” In Japan before Tokugawa: Political Consolidation and Economic Growth, 1500–1650, edited by John Whitney Hall, Nagahara Keiji, and Kòzò Yamamura, 125–48. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. Control of trade as economic and military necessity in time of wars.—MC AHA Guide 12.131.
Sat, Shin’ichi. “The Ashikaga Shogun and the Muromachi Bakufu Administration.” In Japan in the Muromachi Age, edited by John Whitney Hall and Toyoda Takeshi, 45–52. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Introduction to the shogunal bureaucracy.—MC AHA Guide 12.112.
Schmorleitz, Morton S. Castles in Japan. Rutland, Vermont, and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1974. Scott, David, and Mick Pappas. The Fighting Arts: Choosing the Way. London: Rider, 1985. Shackley, Myra. “Arms and the Men: 14th Century Japanese Swordsmanship Illustrated by Skeletons from Zaimokuga near Kamaduira, Japan.” In “Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, 247–254. World Archaeology 18 (1986): 153–290. Protracted feudal warfare was accompanied by shifts away from classical sword techniques of the 13th century.
Stevens, John. The Sword of No-Sword: Life of the Master Warrior Tesshu. Revised edition. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala, 1989. Storry, Richard. The Way of the Samurai. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons; London: Orbis, 1978. Illustrated history of the Japanese military class from the 10th–19th century.
*Susser, Bernard. “The Toyotomi Regime and the Daimyò.” In The Bakufu in Japanese History, edited by Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser, 129–52. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1985. Hideyoshi’s policies and military campaigns, including discussion of his armies.— MC AHA Guide 12.168.
309
Susumu, Ishii. “The Decline of the Kamakura Bakufu.” In Warrior Rule in Japan, edited by Marius B. Jansen, 44–90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. *Totman, Conrad. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Comprehensive survey, 1568–1868.—MC AHA Guide 12.205.
Totman, Conrad. Politics in the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1600–1843. Harvard East Asian Series 30. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967. Chap. 3, “Tokugawa Military Organization,” 43–63.
*Totman, Conrad. Tokugawa Ieyasu, Shogun: A Biography. San Francisco: Heian, 1983. Nicely written, for general readers.—MC AHA Guide 12.207.
Turnbull, Stephen R. The Samurai: A Military History. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Turnbull, Stephen R., and Richard Hook. Samurai Armies, 1550–1615. Men-at-Arms Series 86. London: Osprey, 1979. Turnbull, Stephen R. Samurai Warlords: The Book of the Daimyò. London: Blandford Press, 1989. Paperback edition, 1992. Turnbull, Stephen R. Samurai Warriors. London: Blandford Press, 1987. Varley, H. Paul. “The Age of the Military Houses.” In An Introduction to Japanese Civilization, edited by Arthur E. Tiedemann, 61–96. New York: Columbia University Press, 1974. *Varley, H. Paul. “The Hòjò Family and Succession to Power.” In Court and Bakufu in Japan: Essays in Kamakura History, edited by Jeffrey P. Mass, 143–67. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1982. Political maneuvering and military action established control over the Kamakura bakufu by 1247.—MC AHA Guide 12.94.
*Varley, H. Paul. The Ònin War: History of Its Origins and Background, with a Selective Translation of the “Chronicle of Ònin.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1967. The civil war of 1467–68.—MC AHA Guide 12.116.
Varley, H. Paul, with Ivan Nobuko Morris. Samurai. Delacorte Pageant of History Series. New York: Delacorte Press, 1970. Paperback edition, New York: Laurel, 1972.
310
Varley, H. Paul. Warriors of Japan: As Portrayed in the War Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994. The samurai of ancient and medieval Japan (mid-10th to late 14th centuries) as the appear in the gunki-mono (part history, part fiction).
*Wakita, Osamu. “The Emergence of the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan.” Journal of Japanese Studies 8 (1982): 343–67. Hideyoshi as state builder.—HW AHA Guide 12.169.
Wilson, William Ritchie. “The Way of the Bow and Arrow: The Japanese Warrior in Konjaku monogatari.” Monumenta Nipponica 28 (1973): 177–233. Introduction (177–90) and translation of warrior tales from the collection dating to late 11th century.
Wintersteen, Prescott B., Jr. “The Early Muromachi Bakufu in Kyoto.” In Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History, edited by John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, 201–209. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. Military government in the 14th century.
Wintersteen, Prescott B., Jr. “The Muromachi Shugo and Hanzei.” In Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History, edited by John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass, 210–20. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974. Reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988. Yagyù, Munennori. The Book of Family Traditions on the Art of War [1632]. Translated by Thomas Cleary. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala, 1993.
MODERN JAPAN
From the 1850s to World War II Agawa, Hiroyuki. The Reluctant Admiral: Yamamoto and the Imperial Navy. Translated by John Bester. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1982. Beasley, W. G. The Meiji Restoration. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1972. Narrative account of Japan’s late-19th transformation; see index entries: “military reform”; “science and technology.”
Bergamini, David. Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy. New York: William Morrow, 1971. Reprinted New York: Pocket Books, 1972. Bolitho, Harold. “The Echigo War, 1868.” Monumenta Nipponica 34 (1979): 259–77. The most bitter and prolonged of the civil war campaigns that established the Meiji regime.
Borton, Hugh. Japan’s Modern Century: From Perry to 1970. 2d edition. New York: Ronald Press, 1970. Bruce, James H. “The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877: From Kagoshima through the Siege of Kumamoto Castle.” Monumenta Nipponica 38 (1973): 427–46. Buck, James H. “The Emergence of Japanese Militarism.” Armed Forces and Society 3 (1977): 503–505. Essay review of the works by Smethurst and Peattie, cited separately.
Coox, Alvin D. “The Japanese Army Experience.” In New Dimensions in Military History: An Anthology, edited by Russell F. Weigley, 123–51. San Rafael, California: Presidio Press, 1975. National security and military command from the Meiji Restoration through World War II.
Cornwall, Peter G. “Manning and Training the Japanese Navy in the 19th Century.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 216–28. New York: Garland, 1980. *Cornwall, Peter G. “The Meiji Navy: Training in an Age of Change.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, University of Michigan, 1970.
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Deacon, Richard. Kempei Tai: The Japanese Secret Service, Then and Now. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1990. Reprint of 1982 edition. Dull, Paul S. A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy (1941–1945). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Evans, David C., and Mark R. Peattie. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1997. Evans, David C. “The Recruitment of Japanese Navy Officers in the Meiji Period.” In Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History: Papers from the Third United States Naval Academy History Symposium, edited by Robert William Love, Jr., 229–45. New York: Garland, 1980. Hackett, Roger F. Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise of Modern Japan, 1838–1922. Harvard East Asian Series 60. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. On the founder of the modern Japanese army.
Harries, Meirion, and Susie Harries. Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. New York: Random House, 1991. Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up. London: Routledge, 1994. Humphreys, Leonard A. “Crisis and Reaction: The Japanese Army in the ‘Liberal’ Twenties.” Armed Forces and Society 5 (1978): 73–92. Humphreys, Leonard A. “The Japanese Military Tradition.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 21–40. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. *Humphreys, Leonard A. The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1995. Excellent account of crucial period.—Reviewed by Stewart Lone, Journal of Military History 60 ( January 1996): 171–72.
Ike, Nobutaka. “War and Modernization.” In Political Development in Modern Japan, edited by Robert E. Ward, 189–211. Studies in the Modernization of Japan, vol. 4. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968. It, Mitsuharu. “Munitions Unlimited—The Controlled Economy.” Japan Interpreter 7 (1972): 353–63. Before and during World War II.
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*Die japanischen Kriegschiff, 1868–1945. Munich: J. F. Lehmann, 1970. Katsu, Kokichi. Musui’s Story: The Autobiography of a Tokugawa Samurai. Translated with introduction and notes by Teruko Craig. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. Kelley, Allen C., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. Lessons from Japanese Development: An Analytical Economic History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974. Chap. 7, “Investment Spurts, Military Expenditures, and Meiji Fiscal Policy,” 106–27.
*Kelley, Allen C., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. “Writing History Backwards: Meiji Japan Revisited.” Journal of Economic History (December 1971): Kitaoka, Shin’ichi. “The Army as a Bureaucracy: Japanese Militarism Revisited.” Journal of Military History 57 no. 5 (Special Issue, October 1993): 67–86. Bureaucratization in Japanese army, 1868–1937.
Kojima, Noboru. “Militarism and the Emperor System.” Japan Interpreter 8 (1973): 219–27. *Lebra, Joyce C. Òkuma Shigenobu: Statesman of Meiji Japan. Australian National University Press. Twice prime minister, Òkuma played important roles in economic and political reforms, and in Japanese modernization.
*Li, Lincoln. The Japanese Army in North China, 1937–1941: Problems of Political and Economic Control. Tokyo: Oxford University Press, 1975. Japanese efforts at administrative, ideological, and economic control hampered by manpower shortages and distrust of collaborators.—JHC AHA Guide 11.425.
*Lone, Stewart. Japan’s First Modern War: Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894 –1895. Studies in Military and Strategic History. London: St. Martin’s Press, with King’s College, London, 1994. Balanced, sensitive treatment of Japan in a major turning point of modern East Asian history.—reviewed by William R. Braisted, J.Mil.Hist. 60 ( Jan 96): 170–71.
Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. The Technological Transformation of Japan: From the Seventeenth to the Twenty-first Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Nakamura, Yochihisa, and Ryòichi Tobe. “The Imperial Japanese Army and Politics.” Armed Forces and Society 14 (1988): 511–25.
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Norman, E. Herbert. Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman, edited by John W. Dower. The Pantheon Asia Library: New Approaches to the New Asia. New York: Pantheon, 1975. Collects several of Norman’s key works from the 1940s and 1950s, which pay close attention to the sources of Japanese militarism since the Meiji Restoration.
*Okamotu, Tomotaka. Die Industrialisierung in Japan: Ein Beispiel für die Industrialisierung eines Entwicklungslandes. Kölner Vorträge zur Sozialund Wirtschaftsgeschichte 19. Cologne: Forschungsinstitut für Sozialund Wirtschaftsgeschichte an der Universität zu Köln, 1972. Peattie, Mark R. Ishiwara Kanji and Japan’s Confrontation with the West. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1975. Biography of a major strategic planner before World War II.
Pyle, Kenneth B. The New Generation in Meiji Japan: Problems of Cultural Identity, 1885–1895. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1969. Chap. 8, “War and Self-Discovery,” 163–87.
Sheldon, Charles D. “The Politics of the Civil War of 1868.” In Modern Japan: Aspects of History, Literature and Society, edited by W. G. Beasley, 27–51. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975. Reprinted Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1976. *Shillony, Ben-Ami. Revolt in Japan: The Young Officers and the February 26, 1936 Incident. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1973. Failed coup of radical young officers.—FGN AHA Guide 13.323.
*Smethurst, Richard J. A Social Basis for Prewar Japanese Militarism: The Army and the Rural Community. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Army’s penetration of the countryside through reserve system, rural roots of militarism.—FGN AHA Guide 13.325.
Smith, Thomas C. Native Sources of Japanese Industrialization, 1750–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Sunoo, Harold Hakwon. Japanese Militarism, Past and Present. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1975. Tiedemann, Arthur E. Review of Imitation and Innovation, by D. Eleanor Westney. American Historical Review 95 (1990): 563–64. The modernized Meiji army may not have been the only model for professionalized police forces; Tokugawa samurai were professionalized and special schools were commonly established for special purposes.
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*Tipton, Elise K. The Japanese Police State: The Tokko in Interwar Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990. Japan’s Special Higher Police, its role in controlling dissidence and setting political values.—FGN AHA Guide 13.173.
*Toland, John. The Rising Sun. 1970 edition. New York: Bantam Books, 1982. Balanced account, readable and instructive.—FGN AHA Guide 13.328.
Totman, Conrad. The Collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1862–1868. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1980. Westney, D. Eleanor. Imitation and Innovation: The Transfer of Western Organizational Patterns to Meiji Japan. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987. On the army as model, see chap. 2, “The Police,” 33–99. Cf. Tiedemann review.
Westney, D. Eleanor. “The Military.” In Japan in Transition: From Tokugawa to Meiji, edited by Marius B. Jensen and Gilbert Rozman, 168–94. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988. Yamamura, Koza. “Success Illgotten? The Role of Meiji Militarism in Japan’s Technological Progress.” Journal of Economic History 37 (1977): 113–38. Yoshida, Mitsukuni. “The Restoration and the History of Technology.” In Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution, edited by Michio Nagai and Miguel Urrutia, 192–204. UNU Series on Social Transformation 1. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1985. Zich, Arthur, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. The Rising Sun. World War II. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1977.
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PART FOUR
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA AND OCEANIA
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SUBSAHARAN AFRICA IN GENERAL
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of Africa south of the Sahara, from earliest times to World War II, including nonstate peoples Adamu, Mahdi. “The Delivery of Slaves from the Central Sudan to the Bight of Benin in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.” In The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, edited by Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, 163–180. New York: Academic Press, 1979. “Acquisition of slaves,” 166–72, especially by military means (166–67); Barehari warriors so detested cooking that they took their wives on campaign (177).
Afigbo, A. E. “West Africa: Revolutions and Wars.” In The Making of Modern Africa, vol. 1, The Nineteenth Century, by A. E. Afigbo, E. A. Ayandele, R. J. Gavin, J. D. Omer-Cooper, and Robin Palmer, 80–114. 2nd edition. London: Longman, 1986. From the jihads of the western Sudan to the defeat of Asante.
Ajayi, J. F. Ade. “West African States at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 253–266. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Military change and its political consequences (261–62).
Barnes, Sandra T., and Paula Girschick Ben-Ames. “Ogun, the Empire Builder.” In Africa’s Ogun: Old World and New, edited by Sandra T. Barnes, 39–64. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989. On the ancient West African god of iron, warfare, and hunting and his ideological role in state building.
Birmingham, David. Central Africa to 1870: Zambezia, Zaïre and the South Atlantic. Chapters from the “Cambridge History of Africa”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. See index entries: “Military force,” “War,” etc.
Bohannan, Paul, and Philip Curtin. Africa and Africans. Revised edition. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1971. Notes lack of information on traditional armies (141); see chap. 16, “The Secondary Empires of the Pre-Colonial Century,” 277–94, stressing role of military innovation in these developments (278–81).
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Connah, Graham. African Civilizations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa—An Archaeological Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine. “Research on an African Mode of Production.” Translated by Susan Sherwin. In Perspectives on the African Past, edited by Martin A. Klein and G. Wesley Johnson, 33–51. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1972. This mode—combining a patriarchal communal economy with one group’s control of long-distance trade—in many instances rested on the controlling group’s military ascendency.
Curtin, Philip D., Steven Feierman, Leonard Thompson, and Jan Vansina. African History. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1978. See index entry “Warfare.”
Curtin, Philip D. “The Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1800.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 302–30. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Slave taking as economic activity (314–16); special role of firearms (318).
Curtin, Philip D. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Studies in Comparative World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. See “Protection Costs, Coercion, and the State,” 41–45, in chap. 3, “Africa: Traders and Trade Communities.”
Datta, Ansu K., and R. Porter. “The Asafo System in Historical Perspective.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 279–97. How European influence may have altered an indigenous military system.
Davidson, Basil, with F. K. Buah. A History of West Africa, 1000–1800. The Growth of African Civilisation. Revised edition. London: Longman, 1967. See especially “Professional Armies,” 181–83, in chap. 13, “The Organisation of Society.”
Diagne, P. “African Political, Economic and Social Structures during This Period.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 23–45. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Metalworking and other manufacturing stimulated by war (32); “The Predatory Economy,” 34–36, stimulated by European competition and spreading from piratical North Africa to the Sudan.
Feeley-Harnik, Gillian. “Issues in Divine Kingship.” Annual Review of Anthropology 14 (1985): 273–313. Following Dumezil’s themes of administration of the sacred, force, and prosperity as the three centural Indo-European ideas about kingship, the author analyses primarily African materials. Militarization appears in the discussion of force, but the main focus is the legitimation of dissent and the links between regicide and revolution.
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Fisher, Humphrey J. “Prayer and Military Activity in the History of Muslim Africa South of the Sahara.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 391–406. Prayer as a model and source of military discipline.
Goody, Jack. “Economy and Feudalism in Africa.” Economic History Review 2d series, 22 (1969): 393–405. Including the role of military organization in social structure.
Goody, Jack. Technology, Tradition and the State in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. Reprinted Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Emphasizes control of the means of destruction (military institutions) as a significant factor in socioeconomic development; see especially chap. 2, “Polity and the Means of Destruction.”
Hallett, Robin. Africa to 1875: A Modern History. The University of Michigan History of the Modern World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970. On feud, raid, warfare, and revolt as factors in African history, see “The Violent Pursuit of Well-Being,” 56–58, in chap. 4, “Change in Africa”; see the index entry “Military organization” for various African polities in the mid-19th century.
Hanna, Judith Lynne. “African Dance and the Warrior Tradition.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 111–33. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Hay, Margaret Jean, and Joseph C. Miller. “Sub-Saharan Africa.” In The American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature, edited by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi, 560–616. 3d edition. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. The introductory essay (560–67) offers a very nice review of African historiography over the past three decades.
Holden, Jeffrey. “Empires and State Formation.” In The African Experience, vol. 1, Essays, edited by John N. Paden and Edward W. Soja, 177–94. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970. Discussion of West Africa, 3d–17th centuries, recognizes the role of coercive force at the disposal of state-makers but leaves it largely undiscussed.
Horton, Robin. “Stateless Societies in the History of West Africa.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 72–113. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Fortified village as response to hostile environment, leading to social change (97–99) and possible role of war in state formation (118); general problem of state formation discussed (109–19).
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Hull, Richard W. African Cities and Towns before the European Conquest. New York: W. W. Norton, 1976. On war and patterns of urbanization, see chap. 1, “Origins of Cities and Towns,” 1–29, especially 18–24.
Hunwick, John O. “Islam in West Africa, A.D. 1000–1800.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 113–131. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Inikori, J. E. “Introduction.” In Forced Migration: The Impact of the Export Slave Trade on African Societies, edited by J. E. Inikori, 13–60. New York: Africana, 1982. On war and the development of military institutions, see especially 25–29, 41–51.
*James, Wendy. “Perceptions from an African Slaving Frontier.” In Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labour, edited by Leonie J. Archer. History Workshop Series. New York: Routledge, 1988. July, Robert W. Precolonial Africa: An Economic and Social History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975. Numerous remarks on war and military organization, including a section on “The Weapons of War,” 266–70.
Klein, Martin A., and Paul E. Lovejoy. “Slavery in West Africa.” In The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, edited by Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, 181–212. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Slave soldiery (192–93); links between growing slave export and increasing militarism (201); interactions between military and economic elites (202–203).
Kopytoff, Igor. The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. Kopytoff, Igor, and Suzanne Miers. “African ‘Slavery’ as an Institution of Marginality.” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 3–85. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. War as major source of slaves, slave trade as major cause of raiding and warfare (13–14), but war not the only source of slaves (67).
Law, Robin. “Slaves, Trade, and Taxes: The Material Basis of Political Power in Precolonial West Africa.” Research in Economic Anthropology: An Annual Compilation 1 (1978): 37–52. Military organization requires revenue (38), war and raid as economic activity (42–44); support for military as major motive for trade expansion.
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Lemarchand, René. “African Armies in Historical and Contemporary Perspectives.” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 4 (1976): 261–75. Western concepts of army and polity may need rethinking in African context.
Lloyd, Peter C. “West African Kingdoms and the Early State: A Review of Some Recent Analyses.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 223–237. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Remarks on conquest and armies, but mainly review of Marxist approaches.
Lonsdale, John. “States and Social Processes in Africa: A Historiographical Survey.” African Studies Review 24 ( June-September 1981): 139–225. Interspersed with remarks on military institutions, war, and conquest; on precolonial developments, see especially “Kingdoms,” 170–80.
Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. African Studies Series 36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. On relationships between war and state formation, see chap. 4, “The Enslavement of Africans, 1600–1800,” 66–87.
Magyar, Karl P. “Culture and Conflict in Africa’s History: The Transition to the Modern Era.” In Conflict, Culture, and History: Regional Dimensions, by Stephen J. Blank et al., 229–293. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, January 1993. Adda Bozeman’s thesis about the cultural roots of conflict receives some support from an analysis of African circumstances.
Mair, Lucy Philip. African Kingdoms. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977. Military characteristics of several African kingdoms are discussed in chap. 5, “Army Organization,” 66–72.
Manning, Patrick. “Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa.” American Historical Review 88 (1983): 835–57. Including the problem of slavery and warfare (844, 845–46, 848–49).
Maquet, Jacques. Civilizations of Black Africa. Revised and translated by Joan Rayfield. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. On traditional African warfare, see “The Civilization of the Spear,” 114–32.
Mazrui, Ali A. “Armed Kinsmen and the Origin of the State.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 7–19. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Military factors in the origins of political society and the subordination of women.
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Mazrui, Ali A. “Gandhi, Marx and the Warrior Tradition: Towards Androgynous Liberation.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 12 (1977): 179–96. Remarks on women in 19th century Dahomean armies and in more recent revolutionary struggles such as FRELIMO.
Mazrui, Ali A. “Phallic Symbols in Politics and War: An African Perspective.” Journal of African Studies 1 (Spring 1974): 40–69. Juxtaposition of martial and sexual imagery as suggested by weapons, especially the spear.
Mazrui, Ali A. “The Warrior Traditiona and the Masculinity of War.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 69–81. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Social and political implications of the traditional concentration of weapons in male hands, women’s subordination in particular.
Meillassoux, Claude. “Introduction.” In The Development of Indigenous Trade and Markets in West Africa, edited by Claude Meillassoux, 49–86. Tenth International African Seminar, Fourah Bay College, Freetown, December 1969. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1971. Complementarity of trade and warfare (55, 58–59); commercial role of military classes in slaving (65–67).
Merriam, Alan P. An African World: The Basongye Village of Lupupa Ngye. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974. Chap. 7, “Human Surroundings III: Friends and Leaders,” 293–300, covers traditional warfare.
Morton-Williams, Peter. “The Influence of Habitat and Trade on the Polities of Oyo and Ashanti.” In Man in Africa, edited by Mary Douglas and Phyllis M. Kaberry, 79–98. London: Tavistock, 1969. Sudanese terrain and cavalry (81); Oyo military organization (91); Ashanti military organization (94–97); environmental constraints on cavalry did not affect musketeers (96).
Netting, Robert McC. “Sacred Power and Centralization: Aspects of Political Adaptation in Africa.” In Population Growth: Anthropological Implications. Proceedings of a Collquium on Population, Resources and Technology, University of Pennsylvania, 1970, edited by Brian Spooner, 219–44. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT Press, 1972. Religious voluntarism rather than military coercion as basis of state formation (232, 241–42).
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Ocaya-Likidi, Dent, and Ali A. Mazrui. “State Formation and Nation Building in Africa.” In Africa: Teaching Perspectives and Approaches, edited by John E. Willmer, 169–88. NCGE Pacesetters in Geography 1. Tualatin, Oregon: Geographic and Area Study Publications, for the National Council for Geographic Education, 1975. Military institutions in precolonial African states and in the colonial reorganization (but not very helpful).
Ogot, B. A. “The Historical Development of African Societies, 1500–1800: Conclusion.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 895–905. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Predatory economy, 896–97; military aristocracies, 899–900.
Oliver, Roland. The African Experience. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. Readable survey of African history, organized around major themes; military organization doesn’t rate a chapter of its own, but figures prominently in chaps. 8, “Cities of the Plain,” 90–101 (urbanization); 9, “Pastures Green,” 102–15 (pastoralism); 10, “Masters and Slaves,” 116–29; 12, “Pomp and Power,” 145–58 (state building); 13, “Strangers at the Gates,” 159–73 (Western arms).
Oliver, Roland. The African Middle Ages, 1400 –1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Political-military narrative stressing the changing character of military institutions.
Oliver, Roland, and Brian M. Fagan. Africa in the Iron Age, c. 500 B.C. to A.D. 1400. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Chaps. 6, “Sub-Saharan West Africa in the Early Iron Age, 500 B.C.–A.D. 1000,” 59–69, on pre-Islamic state formation by horse-borne conquerors; 13, “The Eastern Maghrib and the Central Sudan during the Early Muslim Period,” 144–56, on the Arab conquest of North Africa and the Sudanese states formed by warrior horsemen; 14, “The Western Maghrib and Sudan, c. 700–1250,” 157–68; 16, “West Africa south of Hausaland, c. 700–1400,” 180–90.
Oliver, Roland, and Anthony Atmore. The African Middle Ages, 1400–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Politico-military narrative with exceptional stress on the changing character of military institutions.
Roberts, Richard L. “Warfare, Technology, and the State.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 14 (1980): 334–40. Criticizing Goody, Technology, Tradition and the State in Africa; and Smaldone, Warfare in the Sokoto Caliphate, as too technologically deterministic.
Rowe, John A. “Major Themes in African History.” In The African Experience, vol. 1, Essays, edited by John N. Paden and Edward W. Soja, 154–76. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1970. Military organization and technology as significant subtheme of African state-building (172–73).
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Smith, Robert S. Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa. London: Methuen, 1976. 2d edition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. Comprehensive survey of war and military institutions in both state and stateless societies.
Solanke, Jolayemi. “Traditional Social and Political Institutions.” In African History and Culture, edited by Richard Olaniyan, 27–37. Lagos: Longman Nigeria, 1982. Notes the place of armies in the traditional political order, and their disbanding under colonialism (35).
Southall, Aidan. “The Bankruptcy of the Warrior Tradition.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 160–76. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Southall, Aidan. “State Formation in Africa.” Annual Review of Anthropology 3 (1974): 153–165. Includes both pre- and postcolonial state development, with full attention to military factors.
Spring, Christopher. African Arms and Armor. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. Stevenson, Robert F. Population and Political Systems in Tropical Africa. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968. Population density and state formation, including remarks on the part played by war and military organization.
Uzoigwe, G. N. “Pre-Colonial Military Studies in Africa.” Modern African Studies 13 (1975): 469–481. A review of the scanty literature.
Uzoigwe, G. N. “The Warrior and the State in Pre-Colonial Africa: Comparative Perspectives.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 20–47. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Black African 19th-century military institutions in social context.
Wachuku, Alozie N. “Law and Negative Sanctions in African Societies.” In Political Anthropology: The State of the Art, edited by S. Lee Seaton and Henri J. M. Claessen, 243–71. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1979. Including customary laws of war for several peoples (256, 257, 258, 260).
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Welch, Claude E., Jr. “Continuity and Discontinuity in African Military Organisation.” Journal of Modern African Studies 13 (1975): 229–248. See especially “Pre-Colonial Military Organisation,” 231–35; and “Unresolved Research Issues,” 235–38.
Wilks, Ivor. “The Mossi and Akan States to 1800.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 413–55. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Military foundations of the Akan states (344) and Mossi (345), Mossi kingdoms (349–50), and Asante (371–72).
Wrigley, C. C. “Historicism in Africa: Slavery and State Formation.” African Affairs 70 (April 1971): 113–24. Slave raiding in West Africa and state building in South should not be viewed positively as economic mobilization of political development.
WESTERN SUDAN
Agiri, Babatunde A. “Slavery in Yoruba Society in the 19th Century.” In The Ideology of Slavery in Africa, edited by Paul E. Lovejoy, 123–48. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1981. Military institutions, warfare, slavery, and state formation.
Aschwanden, Irene. Organisation und Strategie der Fulbe Armee von Macina im 19. Jahrhundert. European University Papers, series 19, vol. 5. Bern: Herbert Lang; Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 1972. Awe, Bolanle. “Empires of the Western Sudan: Ghana, Mali, Songhai.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 55–71. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Military basis of empire (58); army based states (70).
Bah, Thierno Mouctar. “Les armées peul de l’Adamawa au 19e siècle.” In Pastoralists of the African Savanna, edited by Mahdi Adamu and A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, 3–15. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1986. Organization, armaments, tactics.
Bah, Thierno Mouctar. “Samba Ndiaye, ingenieur des armées d’El Hadj Omar.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 8 ( June 1977): 161–68. Indigenous 19th-century military architecture: Toucouleur hegemony based on system of fortified towns constructed after conquest of Bambara, Malinké, etc.
Barry, B. “Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and ‘Tukuloor.’ ” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 262–99. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. “The Marabout Wars,” 273–78; centralization of Wolof and Sereer states based on military factors, 178–79.
Bazin, Jean. “War and Servitude in Segou [Mali].” Translated by Helen Lakner. Economy and Society 3 (1974): 107–144. Economic, political, and military relations of slavery.
Becker, Charles, and Victor Martin. “Kayor and Baol: Senegalese Kingdoms and the Slave Trade in the Eighteenth Century.” Translated by Linda Zuck. In Forced Migration: The Impact of the Export Slave Trade
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on African Societies, edited by J. E. Inikori, 100–125. New York: Africana, 1982. Slave trade, warfare, and political development in 18th-century West Africa.
Biobaku, Saburi, and Muhammad Al-Hajj. “The Sudanese Mahdiyya and the Niger-Chad Region.” In Islam in Tropical Africa, edited by I. M. Lewis, 226–39. 2nd edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, with the International African Institute, 1980. Mahdism in Nigeria.
*Brooks, George E. Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society, and Trade in Western Africa, 1000–1630. Boulder, Colorado, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1993. Including a chapter on climate change and Mande cavalry.—John Thornton, Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995): 132–35.
Chambonneau, Louis. “Impressions of Senegal in the Seventeenth Century: Excerpts from Louis Chambonneau’s ‘A Treatise on the Origin of the Negroes of Senegal, on the African Coast, about Their Country, Religion, Customs, and Habits.’ ” Edited and translated by C. I. A. Ritchie. African Studies 26 (1967): 59–93. See especially “Of Their Wars and Weapons,” 89–91.
Cissoko, S. M. “The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187–210. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Military organization under Sunni Ali, 1464–92 (191, 193); “The State Apparatus,” 200–201, focuses on the late 16th-century army.
Cohen, Ronald. “Legitimacy, Illegitimacy, and State Formation.” In State Formation and Political Legitimacy, edited by Ronald Cohen and Judith D. Toland, 69–83. Political Anthropology, vol. 6. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988. Military factors dominate state formation, but noncoercive factors shape legitimation, based on analysis of formation of the Pabir state (northeast Nigeria).
Cohen, Ronald. “The Natural History of Hierarchy: A Case Study.” In Power and Control: Social Structures and Their Transformation, edited by Tom R. Burns and Walter Buckley, 185–214. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1976. Population pressure accounts for development of political complexity among the Bura-speaking peoples of Nigeria (Borno), with the development of hierarchy and techniques of coercive force as the principal means of maintaining and expanding centralized control.
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*Cordell, Dennis D. Dar al-Kuti and the Last Years of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. Small 19th-century kingdom on the grasslands between Nile and Niger, importance of maintaining supply of guns and ammunition, al-Sanusi as first slaving warlord in the northern Ubangi-Shari, organization of extensive raiding, trading, and plantation economy.—Reviewed by Curtis A. Keim, American Historical Review 91 (1986): 1248–49.
Courlander, Harold, with Ousmane Sako. The Heart of the Ngoni: Heroes of the African Kingdom of Segu. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994. Reprint of 1992 edition. Curtin, Philip D. Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975. Warfare and development of European monopolies (102–103); European weakness vis-à-vis African neighbors (“Overseas Traders and the Politics of Neighborhood,” 121–27); effects of late 19th century military technological change (128–29); war captives as slaves (154–55); firearms and the slave trade (323–25).
Diop, Cheikh Anta. Pre-Colonial Black Africa: A Comparative Study of the Political and Social Systems of Europe and Black Africa, from Antiquity to the Formation of Modern States. Translated by Harold J. Salemson. Westport, Connecticut: Lawrence Hill, 1987. On armies and their uses in the West African states of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, see “Military Organization,” 115–24, in chap. 5, “Political Organization.”
Dunbar, Roberta Ann. “Slavery and the Evolution of NineteenthCentury Damagaram (Zinder, Niger).” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 155–177. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. Slave soldiery in the central Sudan generally, the Damagaram army particularly (170–71).
Echenberg, Myron J. “Jihad and State-building in Late 19th-Century Upper Volta: The Rise and Fall of the Marka State of Al-Kari of Boussé. Canadian Journal of African Studies 3 (1970): 531–61. Echenberg, Myron J. “Late Nineteenth-Century Military Technology in Upper Volta.” Journal of African History 12 (1971): 241–54. Changing military institutions and state formation.
Fardon, Richard. Raiders and Refugees: Trends in Chamba Political Development, 1750 to 1950. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988. A late-18th century transformation in the means of destruction (as suggested by Jack Goody [1971]) and its large social-political consequences; see especially chap. 4, “Historical Variations: The Chamba Raiders,” 75–101.
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Fisher, Humphrey J. “The Central Sahara and Sudan.” In Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 4, From c. 1600 to c. 1790, edited by Richard Gray, 58–141. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. On traditional warfare and state structure, see “Military Considerations,” 68–80.
Fisher, Humphrey J. “The Eastern Maghrib and the Central Sudan.” In Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 3, From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 232–330. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. On the impact of changing military technology, see “Iron, Horses and Guns,” 305–12.
Fortes, Meyer. The Dynamics of Clanship among the Tallensi: Being the First Part of an Analysis of the Social Structure of a Trans-Volta Tribe. Oosterbout N.B., the Netherlands; London: Oxford University Press, 1967. See “Re-examination of the Major Cleavage—Warfare,” 234–44, in chap. 13, “The Form of Tale Society.”
Goody, Jack. “The Over-Kingdom of Gonja.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 179–205. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “Military Organization,” 197–200.
Goody, Jack. “Population and Polity in the Voltaic Region.” In The Evolution of Social Systems, edited by J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, 535–45. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978. Increasing density of population in acephalous societies as defense mechanism against adjacent militaristic chiefdoms or states.
Griffeth, R. “Samori Toure.” In Leadership in 19th Century Africa: Essays from “Tarikh,” edited by Obaro Ikime, 45–61. London: Longman, 1974. Military state-building in the upper Niger region, 1852–1882; see especially “Samori’s Army,” 51–53.
Harris, Rosemary. “The Horse in West African History.” Africa 52 (1982): 81–85. A critical review of Law’s Horse in West African History, arguing that the real significance of horses lay not in fighting but in communication, perhaps the key factor in forming larger polities.
Hiskett, Mervyn. “The Nineteenth-Century Jihads in West Africa.” In Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5, From c. 1790 to c. 1870, edited by John E. Flint, 125–69. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Religion, war, and state-building in the Sudan.
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Hiskett, Mervyn. The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. On the organization of the opposing armies and the conduct of war, see chap. 4, “Holy War in the Way of God,” 81–104.
Hogendorn, Jan S. “Slave Acquisition and Delivery in Precolonial Hausaland.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 477–93. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Military organization for slaving in the Zaria Emirate of Hausaland.
Hunwick, John O. “The Nineteenth Century Jihads.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 267–83. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Religion, war, and military state building.
Hunwick, John O. “Songhay, Borno and Hausaland in the Sixteenth Century.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 264–301. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Military factors in the rise and fall of Sudanese states.
Ifemesia, C. C. “The Peoples of West Africa around A.D. 1000.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 39–54. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Horse as military instrument (45); military basis of state formation (48); Mossi military organization (49); Fulani military organization (53).
Ifemesia, C. C. “States of the Central Sudan: (i) Kanem-Bornu; (ii) the Hausa States.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 72–112. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. “Military Organisation and Warfare,” 86–87, among the Kanuri people, as the basis for state (89); political development shaped and reshaped by military innovation (97–99, 103); walled towns as basis of Hausa states (107–108).
Irwin, Paul. Liptako Speaks: History from Oral Tradition in Africa. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. For traditional stories of the war between the Fulbe and the Gourmantché in the early 19th century, see chap. 5, “The Jihad,” 90–132.
Izard, Michel, and J. Ki-Zerbo. “From the Niger to the Volta.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth
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Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 327–67. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. The age-system and the Segu army, 334–38; the Juula as traders, soldiers, and missionaries, 355–59.
Izard, Michel. Gens du pouvoir, gens de la terre: Les institutions politiques de l’ancien royaume du Yatenga (Bassin de la Volta blanche). New York: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1985. On the 18th–19th centuries Moogo kingdom of Yatenga, imposed by horsed warriors on nonstate agriculturalists; see “Maîtres de la guerre et serviteurs royaux,” 269–97, in chap. 3, “Le monde du pouvoir”; see also “La guerre et le pillage,” 542–52, in chap. 7, “La politique extérieure,” on foreign relations and the rise of an economy of pillage where Yatenga abutted stateless societies and its army had free reign.
Izard, Michel. “La lance et les guenilles.” L’Homme 13 (1973): 139–49. Abstracts in Anthropology 5 (1974), no. 5952. Mossi state formation based on shift in military focus from every man a spear to some men king’s agents.
*Johnson, Douglas H. “Sudanese Military Slavery from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century.” In Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labour, edited by Leonie J. Archer. History Workshop Series. New York: Routledge, 1988. Johnson, John William, and Fa Digi Sisòkò. The Epic of Son-Jara: A West African Tradition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. Jones, G. I. “Changing Leadership in Eastern Nigeria: Before, during, and after the Colonial Period.” In Politics in Leadership: A Comparative Perspective, edited by William A. Shack and Percy S. Cohen, 45–65. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Traditional warfare characterized as feuding and raiding, largely a young man’s game (53).
Kaba, Lansiné. “The Pen, the Sword, and the Crown: Islam and Revolution in Songhay Reconsidered, 1464–1493.” Journal of African History 25 (1984): 241–56. Collaboration of a military ulema and army officers ultimately transferred political power from a non-Muslim dynasty to one eager to promote Islamic values.
Kapteijns, Lidwien. “The Emergence of a Sudanic State: Dar Masalit, 1874–1905.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 16 (1983): 601–13. “The Formation of a Standing Slave Army,” 610–611, as a major element in state centralization.
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Klein, Martin A. “Servitude among the Wolof and Sereer of Senegambia.” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 335–63. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. War as major source of slaves, the chief reason it was conducted (343); slaves as economic support for warriors (350–51); weaponry as major acquisition from slave trade (359).
Klein, Martin A. “Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.” Journal of African History 13 (1972): 419–441. Slave trade and military reorganization into non-Muslim warrior elites and Muslim peasantry; peasantry growing more powerful when economy shifted from slavery.
Latour, Élaine de. “Maître de la terre, maître de la guerre.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 24 (1984): 273–97. The Mawri of Niger exemplify a class of African states which unite distinct agricultural and warrior groups under a sovereign.
Launay, Robert. “Sabati-Ba’s Coup d’Etat: Contexts of Legitimacy in a West African Chiefdom.” In State Formation and Political Legitimacy, edited by Ronald Cohen and Judith D. Toland, 45–67. Political Anthropology, vol. 6. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988. In the traditional order, kingship began with warrior status, but defeat-stimulated coup required alternative form of legitimacy.
Launay, Robert. Traders without Trade: Responses to Change in Two Dyala Communities. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology 42. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. See “Warfare and Politics,” 29–34, in chap. 3, “Warriors, Scholars and Traders.”
Launay, Robert. “Warriors and Traders: The Political Organization of a West African Chiefdom.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 28 (1988): 355–73. Collaboration normal, but the groups relied on radically different organization: traders formed small, independent, competing units; warriors favored large-scale cooperation and discipline.
Law, Robin. The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1980. Emphasizing the military significance; see especially chap. 5, “Cavalry Warfare,” 119–58; cf. Harris, “The Horse in West African History,” above.
Law, Robin. “Horses, Firearms, and Political Power in Pre-Colonial West Africa.” Past & Present, no. 72 (August 1976): 112–52. How differing systems of military technology relate to differing political organization.
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Law, Robin. “Wheeled Transport in Pre-Colonial West Africa.” Africa 50 (1980): 249–61. Laya, D. “The Hausa States.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 453–91. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. “Military Organization,” 469–72.
Levtzion, Nehemia. “The Early States of the Western Sudan to 1500.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 114–51. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Military organization (147).
Ly-Tall, M. “The Decline of the Mali Empire.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 172–86. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Military organization of Salum (north of river Gambia), 183.
McDougall, E. Ann. “The View from Awdaghust: War, Trade and Social Change in the Southwestern Sahara, from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Century.” Journal of African History 26 (1985): 1–31. On war and raiding as intrinsic features of nomad society, see especially “War and Trade in Society,” 13–23.
Meillassoux, Claude. The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold. Translated by Alide Dasnois. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. See especially part 2, “Iron: Aristocratic Slavery, B. The War Economy,” 201–35; on links between slaving, military organization, and state building.
Meillassoux, Claude. “The Role of Slavery in the Economic and Social History of Sahelo-Sudanic Africa.” Translated by R. J. Gavin. In Forced Migration: The Impact of the Export Slave Trade on African Societies, edited by J. E. Inikori, 74–99. New York: Africana, 1982. Raiding for slaves promoted development of military institutions, leading to creation of powerful military states.
Monteil, Vincent. “The Wolof Kingdom of Kayor.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 260–281. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. “Kayor Social Structure,” 265–71, includes military system (269–71).
Morton-Williams, Peter. “The Fulani Penetration into Nupe and Yoruba in the Nineteenth Century.” In History and Social Anthropology, edited by I. M. Lewis, 1–24. London: Tavistock, 1968. War and military institutions in shaping kingdom and empire.
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Munson, Patrick J. “Archaeological Data on the Origins of Cultivation in the Southwestern Sahara and Their Implications for West Africa.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 101–21. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Appearance of warfare in Chebka phase, c. 1000–900 B.C., evidenced by defensive placement of villages and defensive structures (thick masonry walls), linked to population growth and competition for limited arable land (107–108).
Netting, Robert McC. “Fighting, Forest, and the Fly: Some Demographic Regulators among the Kofyar.” Journal of Anthropological Research 29 (1973): 164–79. How Vayda’s functional hypothesis of war as population controller might apply to wars producing little death or new territory.
Netting, Robert McC. “Kofyar Armed Conflict: Social Causes and Consequences.” Journal of Anthropological Research 30 (1974): 139–63. Ethnohistoric account of the who, how, and why of warfare among a people of northern Nigeria.
Niane, D. T. “Mali and the Second Mandingo Expansion.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 117–71. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. See “The Army,” 164.
Niane, D. T. Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali. Translated by G. D. Pickett. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1979. Nzimiro, Ikenna. Studies in Ibo Political Systems: Chieftaincy and Politics in Four Niger States. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. See “War Organization,” 134–43, in chap. 6, “The Functions of Government II.”
Oloruntimehin, B. O. The Segu Tukulor Empire. Ibadan History Series. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. Chap. 2, “ 'Umar b. Sa"id Tall and the Beginnings of the Tukulor Revolution,” 36–60, discusses military organization, 55–59; for the army on campaign, see “Problems of Strategy,” 120–21, and “War against the Diawara,” 121–26, in chap. 5, “Consolidation of Tukulor Control over Ka"arta and the Overthrow of Bambara Segu and the Masina Caliphate.”
Otterbein, Keith F. “Higi Armed Combat.” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 24 (1968): 195–213. Types of fighting classified from internal duels to external battles, only the external forms being properly termed war among a tribal people of northern Nigeria.
Quinn, Charlotte. Mandingo Kingdoms of the Senegambia: Traditionalism, Islam, and European Expansion. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1972.
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Puritt, Paul. “The Meru of Northeastern Nigeria.” In The Chagga and Meru of Tanzania, edited by William M. O’Barr, 91–138. Ethnographic Survey of East Central Africa 18. London: International African Institute, 1977. “Warfare,” 117–18, in “Social Organisation and Political Structure.”
Reyna, Stephen P. Wars without End: The Political Economy of a Precolonial African State. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1990. On the Kingdom of Bagirmi (in modern Chad) and other east-central Sudanese states, c. 1870–1897, based on European documents and native oral traditions; like other Sudanese polities, a military state ruled by a warrior elite cavalry, supported by military predation for slaves and booty. See especially chaps. 1, “Introduction,” 1–11, on the paucity of anthropological analyses of war; 8, “Warfare,” 135–48; and 9, “Predatory Accumulation in Fields of Empire,” 151–64.
Roberts, Richard L. “Fishing for the State: The Political Economy of the Middle Niger.” In Modes of Production in Africa, edited by Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, 175–203. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1981. Military organization, slavery, and state formation (179–81); predation as economic system (186).
Roberts, Richard L. “Ideology, Slavery, and Social Formation: The Evolution of Maraka Slavery in the Middle Niger Valley.” In The Ideology of Slavery in Africa, edited by Paul Lovejoy, 171–99. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1981. “The Political Economy of the Middle Niger Valley,” 174–78, based on the interaction of military and economic institutions.
Roberts, Richard L. “Production and Reproduction of Warrior States: Segu Bambara and Segu Tokolor, c. 1712–1890.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 13 (1980): 389–419. Warfare as a form of production in precolonial West Africa.
Roberts, Richard L. Warriors, Merchants, and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700–1914. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1987. Robinson, David. The Holy War of Umar Tal: The Western Sudan in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. Substantial attention to military institutions; see index entries to military organization, soldiers, strategy, and warfare.
Rustad, John A. “The Emergence of Iron Technology in West Africa, with Special Emphasis on the Nok Culture of Nigeria.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited
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by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 227–45. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Remarks on consequences for military technology and soical organization (241–42); military factors in transmission and adoption (237–38).
Schaffer, Matt, and Christine Cooper. Mandinko: The Ethnography of a West African Holy Land. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1987. Corrected reprint of 1980 edition. “The Warfare Era,” 78–79, in chap. 4, “History.”
Siddle, D. J. “War-Towns in Sierra Leone: A Study in Social Change.” Africa 38 (1968): 46–56. Aspects of war between chiefdoms.
Skalník, Peter. “The Dynamics of Early State Development in the Voltaic Area.” In Political Anthropology: The State of the Art, edited by S. Lee Seaton and Henri J. M. Claessen, 197–213. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1979. Remarks on war as form of political competition (200); military organization as factor in state development (208, 209).
Smaldone, Joseph P. Warfare in the Sokoto Caliphate: Historical and Sociological Perspectives. African Study Series 19. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. On war and military institutions in the origin of Sudanese states, see especially chap. 1, “Introduction: Sudanic Warfare and Military Organization to c. 1800,” 3–18.
Smith, Abdullahi. “The Early States of the Central Sudan.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 152–195. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Military organization key to state formation (Kanuri empire, 166–67), then imperial expansion (175); fortified cities central to Hausa state formation (188).
Smith, M. G. The Affairs of Daura. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Numerous remarks on army, military organization, and warfare in 19th-century northern Nigeria, but see especially “Military organization,” 108–111, in chap. 3, “Daura before the Jihad.”
Smith, M. G. “A Hausa Kingdom: Maradi under Dan Baskore, 1854–75.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 93–122. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. “Military Organization,” 118–20.
Tymowski, Micha∑. L’Armée et la formation des etats en Afrique occidentale au xix e—Essai de comparaison: L’Etat de Samori et le Kanedougou. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersystetu Warszawskiego, 1987.
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Tymowski, Micha∑. “The Army and the Formation of the States of West Africa in the Nineteenth Century: The Cases of Kenedugu and Samori State.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 427–42. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. State formation became possible only with founding of regular army, which then became the state’s central institution.
Usman, Yusifu Bala. “Some Aspects of the External Relations of Katsina before 1804.” Savanna 1 (1972): 175–97. Relying largely on speculation and stereotypes of precolonial intergroup and interstate relations, role of war exaggerated to justify colonialism and tribalism.
Vaughan, James H. “Mafakur: A Limbic Institution of the Margi (Nigeria).” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 85–102. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. Settlement pattern determined by fear of attack (86–87); war as source of slaves, acquiring a major motive (89); decline of slavery with end of warfare (99).
Willis, John Randolph. “The Western Sudan from the Moroccan Invasion (1591) to the Death of al-Mukhtar al-Kunti (1811).” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 512–55. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Invading military institutions (445–46), military administration (449–50), mercenaries and decline (451–52); military basis of Bambara state (456–58), numerous other instances of states shaped by military organization.
Zahan, Dominique. “The Mossi Kingdoms.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 152–78. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “Military Organization,” 171–72.
GUINEA COAST
Adamu, Mahdi. The Hausa Factor in West African History. Zaria and Ibadan: Ahmadu Bello University Press and Oxford University Press Nigeria, 1978. On traditional military organization, see “Military campaigns,” 23–27, in chap. 2, “Hausaland and Kasahen Bauchi before the Sokoto Jihad of 1804.”
Adeleye, R. A. “Hausaland and Bornu, 1600–1800.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 556–601. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Military innovation and the formation of the Kano state (487) and empire (488).
Aderibigbe, A. A. B. “Peoples of Southern Nigeria.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 191–205. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Army as basis of long-lasting Oyo empire (194).
Afoke, J. N. “Ezza in an Age of Expansion.” In Igbo Worlds: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Descriptions, edited by Elizabeth Isichei, 119–27. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978. Traditional warfare.
Ajayi, J. F. Ade, and Robert S. Smith. Yoruba Warfare in the Nineteenth Century. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Akinjogbin, I. A. Dahomey and Its Neighbors, 1708–1818. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967. Chap. 3, “A New Political System, 1724–40,” 68–109, describes the process of state formation; the “Conclusion,” 202–12, considers the institutional basis, especially military.
Akinjogbin, I. A. “The Expansion of Oyo and the Rise of Dahomey, 1600–1800.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 374–412. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Military organization in the formation (311–13) and expansion (316–18) of the Oyo state and in Dahomey (324), including its female army (333).
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Akintoye, S. A. Revolution and Power Politics in Yorubaland, 1840–1893: Ibadan Expansion and the Rise of Ekitiparapo. New York: Humanities Press, 1971. Chap. 2, “Ibadan Conquests and Their Effects,” 33–75; and 5, “The Ekitiparapo: Organisation for War,” 132–51.
Akiwowo, Akinsola. “Varieties of Military Establishment in PreColonial West African States: An Essay.” Ghana Journal of Sociology 10 (1976): 5–31. Ashanti, Dahomey, and Yoruba demonstrate Simmel’s thesis (Conflict [Glencoe: Free Press, 1935]) that conflict contributes to formation and structure of state; centralized organization and military aggressiveness go together.
Alagoa, E. J. “Fon and Yoruba: The Niger Delta and the Cameroon.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 434–52. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Oyo military organization, 441–42.
Alagoa, E. J. “The Niger Delta States and Their Neighbours to 1800.” In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 331–72. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Military organization and war in state formation (281–82, 288–91).
*Apter, Andrew. Black Critics and Kings: The Hermaneutics of Power in Yoruba Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Ethnography of the former military kingdom of Ayede.—reviewed Sandra Barnes, American Anthropologist 95 (1993): 763–64.
Ardener, Shirley. “Sexual Insult and Female Militancy.” In Perceiving Women, edited by Shirley Ardener, 29–53. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. How tribal women in Cameroon defend their interests against males, sometimes physically. A Kom tradition: an act of treachery once killed all active males, so women took up their husbands’ weapons to defend the group while the old men who survived did the home work (36).
Arhin, Kwame. “Asante Military Institutions.” Journal of African Studies 7 (Spring 1980): 22–30. Especially “The Military Basis of the Asante Union,” 24–25; and “The Asante Army,” 27–28, on organization, values, and financing; includes 109 notes, mostly bibliographical.
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Arhin, Kwame. “The Political and Military Roles of Akan Women.” In Female and Male in West Africa, edited by Christine Oppong, 91–98. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983. The military role mainly logistical and moral.
Arhin, Kwame. “The Structure of Greater Ashante (1700–1824).” Journal of African History 8 (1967): 65–85. Contrary to accepted views that the Ashante state and empire were purely responses to opportunity for slave raiding, they are better characterized as political expansion—i.e., the underlying motives were more political than economic.
Armstrong, Robert G. “The Dynamics and Symbolism of Idoma Kingship.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 393–411. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Militia rather than army supported the state, denying Gumplowicz’s conquest theory (393–95).
Atkinson, Ronald R. “Old Akyem and the Origins of Akyems Abuakwa and Kotoku, 1675–1775.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 349–69. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Military factors in state formation (355–56); army organization (357–58).
Austen, Ralph A. “Slavery among Coastal Middlemen: The Duala of Cameroon.” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 305–33. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. Ritualized warfare involving the slaughter of slaves (315, 323); warfare and state building as source of slaves (319).
Awe, Bolanle. “Militarism and Economic Development in Nineteenth Century Yoruba Country: The Ibadan Example.” Journal of African History 14 (1973): 65–77. Interacting military and economic factors in a developing chiefdom.
Baldus, Bernd. “Responses to Dependence in a Servile Group: The Machube of Northern Benin.” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 435–58. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. Acquiring slaves as motive for raid and war (438, 439).
Barnes, Sandra T., and Paula Girschick Ben-Ames. “Benin, Oyo, and Dahomey: Warfare, State Building, and the Sacralization of Iron in West African History.” Expedition 25 (Winter 1983): 5–14. Explicitly linking warlike aggression and civilization in religious symbolism and the real world.
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Bascom, William. The Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969. Reprinted Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1984. Chap. 2, “Origins and History,” includes “The Yoruba-Dahomey Wars, 1698–1892,” 12; and “The Internal Wars, 1817–1893,” 13–15.
Boahen, A. Adu. “Asante and Fante, A.D. 1000–1800.” In A Thousand Years of West African History: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie, 165–90. 2nd edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969.
Political effects of introduction of firearms (172–73); military foundations of the Asante state (175–76).
Boahen, A. Adu. “The States and Cultures of the Lower Guinean Coast.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 399–433. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. War, firearms, captives, and the slave trade, 408–409; military organization of the Denkyira and Akwamu empires, 417, and Asante, 420–24.
Bradbury, R. E. “The Kingdom of Benin.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 1–35. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “The Uzama n’Ihinr6n,” 13–18, includes military organization (17–18).
Bradbury, R. E. “Patrimonialism and Gerontocracy in Benin Political Culture.” In Man in Africa, edited by Mary Douglas and Phyllis M. Kaberry, 17–37. London: Tavistock, 1969. Age-ranking and army recruitment (19); administrative expansion in response to demands of conquest (28–29).
Brown, David. “Warfare, Oracles and Iron: A Case Study of Production among the Pre-Colonial Klowe [Liberia], in the Light of Some Recent Marxist Analyses.” Africa 54 no. 2 (1984): 29–47. Related to patriarchy, external trade, slave raiding, and other factors, endemic warfare in an east Liberian stateless society is a more complex phenomenon than it appears in Meillassoux, Terray, or other marxist anthropologists—appealing to elders as means of maintaining privileged trading patterns and to channel youthful energy, but also threatening as possible challenge to authority.
Burnham, Philip. “Raiders and Traders in Adamawa: Slavery as a Regional System.” In Asian and African Systems of Slavery, edited by James Watson, 43–72. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980. Slave-taking as major factor in conquest and raiding in 19th-century West Africa.
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Chukwukere, I. “Perspectives on the Asafo Institution in Southern Ghana.” Journal of African Studies 7 (Spring 1980): 39–47. Literally “war people” or “warrior”—originally a military institution, later social.
Copet-Rougier, Elisabeth. “ ‘Le mal court’: Visible and Invisible Violence in an Acephalous Society—Mkako of Cameroon.” In The Anthropology of Violence, edited by David Riches, 50–69. London: Basil Blackwell, 1986. For local Mkako groups, physical violence was limited to war, which was encouraged but only against outsiders and subject to strict rules (58–60); internal violence took the form of invisible witchcraft.
Dillon, Richard G. “Violent Conflict in Meta’ Society [Cameroon].” American Ethnologist 7 (1980): 658–73. Questioning social structural views of violent conflict.
Divale, William T. “Ibo Warfare, Social Organization and Population Control: The Ecology of Warfare and Social Organization.” California Anthropologist 1 (1971): 10–24. Case study, showing how chronic war in primitive culture functioned to regulate population
Dumett, Raymond E. “Precolonial Gold Mining and the State in the Akan Region: With a Critique of the Terray Hypothesis.” Research in Economic Anthropology: A Research Annual 2 (1979): 37–68. On the interaction between military and economic institutions in the making and development of states (especially 54–61).
Edgerton, Robert B. The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred Year War for Africa’s Gold Coast. New York: Free Press, 1995. Fortes, Meyer. Kinship and the Social Order: The Legacy of Lewis Henry Morgan. The Lewis Henry Morgan Lectures/1963. Chicago: Aldine, 1969. Chap. 9, “The Ashanti: State and Citizenship,” 138–53, discusses the military foundations of the Ashanti state.
Fynn, J. K. Asante and Its Neighbours, 1700–1807. Legon [University of Ghana] History Series. London: Longman; Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1971. Gold Coast military and state reorganization with introduction of firearms, 17; Asante military system as basis of state, 32–33, 56; Asante army on campaign, 77–78.
Hagan, George P. “Bantu Bureaucracy: A Study of the Growth of Centralized Administration in Ashanti from the Time of Osei Tutu to the Time of Osei Tutu Kwamina Esibe Bonsu.” Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 12 (1971): 43–62. How a state structure originally institutionalized militarily ramified through a plethora of nonmilitary functions.
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Henderson, Richard N. The King in Every Man: Evolutionary Trends in Onitsha Ibo Society and Culture. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1972. On the military roles of king and chief, see chaps. 8, “Kingship: The Fusion of Onitsha Values,” 267–314; and 9, “The Institution of Chieftancy,” 315–44.
Horton, Robin. “From Fishing Village to City-State: A Social History of New Calabar.” In Man in Africa, edited by Mary Douglas and Phyllis M. Kaberry, 37–58. London: Tavistock, 1969. Military organization and head-hunting (43–46); merging of economic and military organization (47–48).
Katz, Naomi, and David Kemnitzer. “Mode of Production and the Process of Domination: The Classical Kingdom of Dahomey.” In New Directions in Political Economy: An Approach from Anthropology, edited by Madeline Barbara Léons and Frances Rothstein, 49–79. Contributions in Economics and Economic History 22. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1979. Military predation as main mode of production.
Kea, Ray A. “Administration and Trade in the Akwamu Empire, 1681–1730.” In West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, edited by B. K. Swartz, Jr., and Raymond E. Dummett, 371–92. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Remarks on military organization and state structure in a southern Akan empire.
Kea, Ray A. Settlements, Trade, and Polities in the Seventeenth-Century Gold Coast. Johns Hopkins Studies in Atlantic History and Culture. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Univesity Press, 1982. On traditional military institutions and the changes induced by firearms, see chap. 5, “Soldiers and Warfare: The Military Organization,” 130–68.
Kilkenny, Roberta Walker. “The Slave Mode of Production: Precolonial Dahomey.” In Modes of Production in Africa, edited by Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, 157–73. Sage Series on African Modernization and Development, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1981. Firearms monopoly and Dahomean expansion (164–65); economic role of army in slave raiding and securing palm oil lands (165); army for slaving, slaves support army (166–67).
Laburthe-Tolra, Philippe. Les seigneurs de la forêt: Essai sur la passé historique, l’organisation sociale et les normes éthiques des anciens Bëti du Cameroun. Publications de la Sorbonne, serie NS recherche 48. Paris, 1981. See “De la guerre chez des Bëti,” 318–51.
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Law, Robin. “Dahomey and the Slave Trade: Reflections on the Historiography of the Rise of Dahomey.” Journal of African History 27 (1986): 237–67. Dahomean militarism and state organization reflected the intensifying warfare associated with an expanding overseas market for war captives.
Law, Robin. “Human Sacrifice in Pre-Colonial West Africa.” African Affairs 84 (1985): 53–87. Predominantly funeral sacrifice, but where victims came chiefly from war captives (Dahomey, Asante) also part of apparatus of militarism; opposition centered on efforts to check autocracy or militarism.
Law, Robin. The Oyo Empire, c. 1600–c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977. History of state development, stressing military institutions; see especially chap. 9, “The Army,” 181–200.
Law, Robin. The Slave Coast of Africa, 1550–1750: The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on an African Society. New York: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1991. Dahomey created by state-building soldiers with Western arms seeking slaves, first disrupting the coast, then calming it as slave hunting moved inland.
Law, Robin. “Slave-raiders and Middlemen, Monopolists and Freetraders: The Supply of Slaves for the Atlantic Trade in Dahomey c. 1715–1850.” Journal of African History 30 (1989): 45–68. As a royal monopoly based entirely on raiding, slave-trading fostered Dahomean militarism; as Dahomey moved toward middlemen and merchants became involved, tensions grew.
Law, Robin. “Warfare on the West African Slave Coast, 1650–1850.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 103–26. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Law, Robin. “A West African Cavalry State: The Kingdom of Oyo.” Journal of African History 16 (1975): 1–15. On the military role of the horse, and its political and economic repercussions.
Little, Kenneth. “The Mende Chiefdom of Sierra Leone.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 239–59. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “Military Organization and Tactics,” 242–48.
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Little, Kenneth. The Mende of Sierra Leone: A West African People in Transition. International Library of Sociology and Social Reconstruction. Revised edition. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; New York: Humanities Press, 1967. Chap. 1, “Traditional Culture and Warfare,” 23–42.
Lloyd, Peter C. “Conflict Theory and Yoruba Kingdoms.” In History and Social Anthropology, edited by I. M. Lewis, 25–61. London: Tavistock, 1968. Mainly on internal conflict, but remarks on war and military institutions.
Lloyd, Peter C. The Political Development of Yoruba Kingdoms in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Occasional Paper 31. London, 1971. Warfare as the major source of new resources upon which state formation depended.
Lombard, Jacques. “The Kingdom of Dahomey.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 70–92. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “The Military Organization and External Relations,” 86–89, including the Amazon corps.
MacCormack, Carol P. “Wana: Institutionalized Dependency in Sherbra Descent Groups (Sierra Leone).” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 181–203. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. War and raiding for slaves (193); slave status perpetuated by denial of warlike skills (200).
Maier, Donna J. E. “Asante War Aims in the 1869 Invasion of Ewe.” In The Golden Stool: Studies of the Asante Center and Periphery, edited by Enid Schildkraut with Carol Gelber, 223–44. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 65, part 1 (1987): 1–331. War aims involved tactics, repression of rebellion, reinforcement of state prestige.
Maliphant, G. K., A. R. Rees, and P. M. Roese. “Defence Systems of the Benin Empire—Uwan.” West African Journal of Archaeology 6 (1976): 121–30. Description of the fortifications of a town north of Benin (Nigeria).
Maroukis, Thomas Constantine. “Warfare and Society in the Kingdom of Dahomey, 1818–1894.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Boston University, 1974. In Dissertation Abstracts International (1974), 1580-A. Interaction of military and state organization in a West African polity.
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Mason, Michael. “Production, Penetration, and Political Formation: The Bida State, 1857–1901.” In Modes of Production in Africa, edited by Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, 205–26. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1981. Military organization and the origin of the state (207–209).
Morton-Williams, Peter. “The Yoruba Kingdom of Oyo.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 36–69. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “The King and the Council of State,” 53–57, includes military organization (57).
Moseley, K. P. “The Political Economy of Dahomey.” Research in Economic Anthropology: A Research Annual 2 (1979): 69–90. On the central role of military organization in shaping political economy (especially 70–71, 78–79, 83, 85).
Njaka, Mazi Elechukwu Nnadibuagha. Igbo Political Culture. Studies in Political Culture and National Integration. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1974. Chap. 7, “State Political Organization,” 108–22, includes military organization.
Northrup, David. Trade without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria. Oxford Studies in African Affairs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978. See “Wars and Raids,” 65–69, in chap. 3, part 4, “The Slave Trade: Means of Enslavement.”
Nsugbe, Philip O. Ohaffia: A Matrilineal Ibo People. Oxford Monographs on Social Anthropology. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974. “Warfare,” 25–31, in chap. 2, “Farming, Slave-Trade, and Warfare.”
Nwachukwu-Ogedengbe, K. “Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Aboh (Nigeria).” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 133–54. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. The armed retinue of chiefs were slaves (142).
Nzewunwa, N. C. “Inter-Community Conflict in Owerri: The War of the Grains of Corn.” In Igbo Worlds: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Descriptions, edited by Elizabeth Isichei, 98–103. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978. Traditional description of causes, tactics, and strategy of mid-19th century.
Oji, O. K. “A Militarised Society: Ohafia.” In Igbo Worlds: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Descriptions, edited by Elizabeth Isichei,
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127–35. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978. Characteristics of traditional warfare.
Oriji, J. N. “Slave Trade, Warfare and Aro Expansion in the Igbo Hinterland.” Genève-Afrique 24 no. 2 (1986): 101–18. Oyemakinde, Wale. “The Impact of Nineteenth Century Warfare on Yoruba Traditional Chieftaincy.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 9 ( June 1978): 21–34. Endemic warfare from the 1820s onward revealed weaknesses of, and undermined, traditional chieftaincies.
Paulme, Denise. Un société de Côte d’Ivoire hier et aujourd’hui: Le Bété. Le monde d’outre-mer passé et présent, 2d series, Documents, 8. Paris/The Hague: Mouton, 1967. Chap. 7, “Chasseurs et guerriers,” 127–40.
Pollis, Edna. “An Analysis of the Pre-Colonial Polity of Dahomey, West Africa.” Papers in Anthropology 15 (Spring 1974): 1–22. Military institutions and female soldiers (10).
Reynolds, Edward. “Asante Wars of the 19th Century and Direct Access to the Coast.” In The Golden Stool: Studies of the Asante Center and Periphery, edited by Enid Schildkraut with Carol Gelber, 225–31. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 65, part 1 (1987): 1–331. Asante sought to maintain its empire, secure trading rights, punish foes.
Ronen, Dov. “On the African Role in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Dahomey.” Abstracts in Anthropology 2 (1971), no. 767. Original in French: Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 11 (1971): 5–13. Motives for war were primarily socio-religious, not economic, and Dahomey itself was less state than cult.
Siran, Jean-Louis. “Emergence et dissolution des principautés guerrières vouté.” Société des Africanistes, Journal 50 (1980): 25–57. Displaced southward by Fulani conquest, the Vuté reorganized their society along military lines to prosper as slavers and erect relatively powerful small states in Kamarun, all collapsing with the German-imposed peace.
Smith, Robert S. Kingdoms of the Yoruba. 3d edition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988. Chap. 9, “War,” 99–107, covers traditional warfare; chap. 11, “The Wars of the New States,” 125–40, follows changes after the collapse of Oyo in 1838 until British rule in 1893.
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Smith, Robert S. “Yoruba Armament.” Journal of African History 8 (1967): 87–106. Pregunpowder weaponry described.
Smith, Robert S. “Yoruba Warfare and Weapons.” In Sources of Yoruba History, edited by S. O. Biobaku, 224–49. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. “Role of Warfare in Yoruba History,” 224–27; “Warfare and Weapons before c. 1850,” 227–41; “Warfare and Weapons in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century,” 241–49 (mainly introduction of firearms).
Smith, Robert S. “The Yoruba Wars, c. 1820–93: A General Study.” In Yoruba Warfare in the Nineteenth Century, by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Robert S. Smith, 9–55. 2d edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, with the Institute of African Studies, Univesity of Ibadan, 1971. Precolonial military organization and techniques.
Suret-Canale, J., and Barry Boubacar. “The Western Atlantic Coast to 1800.” Translated by Joan White. In History of West Africa, vol. 1, edited by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, 456–511. 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Slave soldiers and military organization in state formation (396–98), as key factors (439).
Terray, Emmanuel. “Classes and Class Consciousness in the Abron Kingdom of Gyaman.” Translated by Anne Bailey. In Marxist Analyses and Social Anthropology, edited by Maurice Bloch, 85–135. Association of Social Anthropologists of the Commonwealth, ASA Studies 2. London: Malaby Press, 1975. Dominant military aristocracy (128–31).
Terray, Emmanuel. “Contribution à une étude de l’armée Asante.” Cahiers d’Étude Africaines 16 (1976): 297–356. All sources agree on very efficient army, overcome only by machineguns, etc. Firearms explain only Asante ascendancy over inland peoples, not coastal. Ideology the key, stressing courage and discipline to detriment of economic entrepreneurship; Asante economy geared to maintain and expand military power, leading to nearly self-defeating intellectual conservatism.
Terray, Emmanuel. “Event, Structure and History: The Formation of the Abron Kingdom of Gyaman (1700–1780).” Translated by Anne Bailey. In The Evolution of Social Systems, edited by J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, 279–301. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978.
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Terray, Emmanuel. “Historical Materialism and Segmentary Lineagebased Societies.” In Marxism and “Primitive” Societies: Two Studies, by Emmanuel Terray, 95–186. Translated by Mary Klopper. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972. War in Guro life (118–22); sexual division of labor, war for men (157).
Terray, Emmanuel. “Long-Distance Exchange and the Formation of the State: The Case of the Abron Kingdom of Gyaman.” Translated by John Downing. Economy and Society 3 (1974): 315–45. Long-distance trade as means of converting slave-produced surpluses into political power by warrior aristocrats.
Ukpabi, S. C. “The Asante Factor in the History of Ghana in the Nineteenth Century.” Pan-African Journal 5 (1972): 445–59. Innovative and much copied military changes as major factors in Asante growth.
Ukpabi, S. C. “The Changing Role of the Military in Nigeria, 1900–1970.” Afrika Spectrum, (1976), no. 1, 61–77. Ukpabi, S. C. “Igbo Warfare.” Bulletin de l’Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, series B, Sciences Humaine [Dakar] 40 (1978): 415–39. On the nature of Igbo warfare in relation to other social institutions and the political order.
Verdon, Michel. The Abutia Ewe of West Africa: A Chiefdom That Never Was. Studies in Social Sciences: Anthropology 38. Amsterdam: Mouton, 1983. Section 2.3, “Recontructing the Precolonial Polity: 1876–1890,” 74–82, discusses the asofo (80–81).
Wilks, Ivor. Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order. African Studies Series 13. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Chap. 2, “Spatial Aspects of Government: The Structure of Empire,” discusses military organization (74–75); “The Military Manpower Statistics,” 80–83, in chap. 3, “The Politics of Population: The Demography of Metropolitan Asante”; “The Programme of Military Reform,” 616–21, in chap. 14, “Modernization, Reform, and the Role of the Owusu Ansas in Politics”; “The Imperialist Ideology of the War Party, and the War Machine,” 674–79, and “The Changing Economics of Warfare,” 679–83, in chap. 15, “Politics and Policies in Nineteenth-Century Asante: The Ideological Variables.”
Wilks, Ivor. “Ashante Government.” In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry, 206–38. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1967. “The Accumulation of Power,” 223–28, includes military organization (226).
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Wilks, Ivor. “The Golden Stool and the Elephant Tail: An Essay on Wealth in Asante.” Research in Economic Anthropology: A Research Annual 2 (1979): 1–36. On the shift from military primacy in state formation to the pursuit of wealth as state develops (8–9); tension between warriors and merchants (23).
Wilks, Ivor. “The Position of Muslims in Metropolitan Ashanti in the Early Nineteenth Century.” In Islam in Tropical Africa, edited by I. M. Lewis, 144–65. 2d edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, with the International African Institute, 1980. Including military participation (151–62 passim).
Wylie, Kenneth C. The Political Kingdoms of the Temne: Temne Government in Sierra Leone, 1825–1910. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1977. On warfare in an evolving chiefdom, see chap. 4, “Temne Warfare,” 54–68.
ETHIOPIA, THE HORN OF AFRICA, AND THE EASTERN SUDAN
Abélès, Narc. “La guerre vue d’Ochollo.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 11 (1977): 455–70. How a Gamo population in southwest Ethiopia describes its conduct of war with neighboring (but differently organized) Guji and Wolamo.
Abélès, Narc. “In Search of the Monarch: Introduction of the State among the Gamo of Ethiopia.” Translated by Rene Dramé. In Modes of Production in Africa, edited by Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, 35–67. Sage Series on African Modernization and Development, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1981. War as basis for social stratification in traditional society (42–44); extortion as economic activity (46–47) in nonstate society.
Almagor, Uri. “Raiders and Elders: A Confrontation of Generations among the Dassanetch.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 119–45. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). How the cyclic intensity of war reflects shifting internal power relations between older and younger male age-groups.
Baxter, P. T. W. “Boran Age-Sets and Warfare. In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 69–95. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). On the relationships between age groupings, pastoralism, and raiding.
Baxter, P. T. W. “The Creation and Constitution of Oromo Nationality.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 167–86. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994. Beckerman, S. J. “Warfare among the Bari.” Paper presented in the Colloquium Series, Anthropology Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1987. Nilo-Hamitic people of Sudan.
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Bicknell, Peter. “Zande Savagery.” In Zande Themes: Essays Presented to Sir Edward Evans-Pritchard, edited by André Singer and Brian V. Street, 41–63. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1972. Characteristics of traditional Zande warfare, including technology (physical and magical).
Cassanelli, Lee V. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900. University of Pennsylvania Publications in Ethnohistory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982. Feud, raiding, and resistance figured more or less prominently in Somali culture.
Caulk, R. A. “Armies as Predators: Soldiers and Peasants in Ethiopia, c. 1850–1935.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 11 (1978): 457–93. Crummey, Donald. “The Violence of Tewodros.” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 65–84. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Darkwah, R. H. Kofi. Shewa, Menilek and the Ethiopian Empire, 1813–1889. London: Heinemann, 1975. Chap. 6, “The Army,” 180–209.
Deng, Francis Mading. The Dinka of the Sudan. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972. Chap. 6, “Youth,” includes “Military Role,” 73–80.
Dunn, John. “ ‘For God, Emperor, and Country!’ The Evolution of Ethiopia’s Nineteenth-Century Army.” War in History 1 (1994): 278–99. How Ethiopian military institutions, modified to meet needs of modern warfare, successfully opposed European imperialist pretensions, 1867–96, and maintained state independence.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. The Azande: History and Political Institutions. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Chap. 13, “Warfare,” 235–66.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. “The Zande State.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 93 (1963): 134–54. Reprinted in Peoples and Cultures of Africa: An Anthropological Reader, edited by Elliott P. Skinner, 437–64. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1973. War and conquest as basis of state, military organization key to maintenance.
Fukui, Katsuyoshi. “Cattle Colour Symbolism and Inter-Tribal Homicide among the Bodi.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,”
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edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 147–77. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). Cattle mortality as justification for raiding and killing.
Fukui, Katsuyoshi. “Conflict and Ethnic Interaction: The Mela and Their Neighbours.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 33–47. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994. Gamst, Frederick C. “Conflict in the Horn of Africa.” In Peace and War: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, edited by Mary LeCron Foster and Robert A. Rubinstein, 133–51. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1986.
War inseparable form state (134–35), current fighting the consequence of late-19th century Abyssinian expansionism via firearms to form the Ethiopian empire.
Haberland, E. “The Horn of Africa.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 703–49. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Christian military empire, 705; Islamic armies, 712; Portuguese defeat of arab armies, 715; Oromo military organization, 718; conquest of Wolayto, 740.
Hallpike, C. R. The Konso of Ethiopia: A Study of the Values of A Cushitic People. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. On traditional warfare, see “Political Relations between the Towns,” 52–60, in chap. 3, “Social Organization.”
Hasan, Yusuf Fadl. “The Penetration of Islam in the Eastern Sudan.” In Islam in Tropical Africa, edited by I. M. Lewis, 112–23. 2d edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, with the International African Institute, 1980. War between Islam and Nubia in the late 1st millennium.
Hasan, Yusuf Fadl, and Bothwell A. Ogot. “The Sudan, 1500–1800.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 170–99. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. The sultan of Dar Fur’s slave army in the late 18th century, 188–89.
James, Wendy. ‘Kwanim Pa: The Making of the Uduk People. An Ethnographic Study of Survival in the Sudan-Ethiopian Borderlands. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. “Territories and Their Defence,” 195–202, in chap. 6, “A Hold on Territory.”
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James, Wendy. “War and ‘Ethnic Visibility’: The Uduk of the SudanEthiopia Border.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 140–64. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994. Johnson, Douglas H. “The Fighting Nuer: Primary Sources and the Origin of a Stereotype.” Africa 51 (1981): 508–27. A figment of poor fieldwork.
Johnson, Douglas H. “The Structure of a Legacy: Military Slavery in Northeast Africa.” Ethnohistory 36 (Winter 1989): 72–88. Johnson, Douglas H. “Tribal Boundaries and Border Wars: NuerDinka Relations in the Sobat and Zaraf Valleys, c. 1860–1976.” Journal of African History 23 (1982): 183–203. Denying Evans-Pritchard’s claim that Nuer society defined itself by incessent conflict with Dinka.
Kelly, Raymond C. The Nuer Conquest: The Structure and Development of an Expansionist System. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985. *Mantel-Niecko, Joanna. The Role of Land Tenure in the System of Ethiopian Imperial Government in Modern Times. Warsaw: Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1980. Includes a detailed look at real estate as military pay.
*Merid Wolde Aregay. “Society and Technology in Ethiopia 1500– 1800.” Journal of Ethiopian Studies 17 (1984): 127–47. Nickel, Helmut. Arms and Armor in Africa. New York: Atheneum, 1971. O’Fahey, R. S. State and Society in Dàr Fùr. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980. “Warfare,” 93–100, in chap. 6, “ ‘Upon the Arrival of Our Horsemen’: Government and Community”; “Slave Raiding,” 135–39, in chap. 8, “Raiding and Trading.”
*Pankhurst, Richard. An Introduction to the History of the Ethiopian Army. Addis Ababa: Imperial Ethiopian Air Force, 101st Training Center, 1967. Pankhurst, Richard. “Menilek and the Utilisation of Foreign Skills in Ethiopia.” Journal of Ethiopian Studies 5 (1967): 29–86. Much of the expertise involved acquiring arms and training troops.
Pankhurst, Richard. A Social History of Ethiopia: The Northern and Central Highlands from Early Medieval Times to the Rise of Emperor Téwodros II.
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Addis Ababa: Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1990. Reprinted Trenton, New Jersey: Red Sea Press, 1992. Part 1, “The Middle Ages,” chap. 3, “The Soldiers,” 13–17; part 2, “The Gondär Period,” chap. 2, “The Soldiers,” 80–85; part 3, “The Early Nineteenth Century,” chap. 3, “The Soldiers,” 148–61; part 4, “Social Change and Attempted Reform,” chap. 1, “Changing Features of Social Life: The Coming and Increasing Diffusion of Fire-Arms,” 277–88; chap. 2, “Attempted Reforms of Emperor Téwodros II: Military Reorganisation,” 317–20.
Pastner, Stephen L. “Lords of the Desert Border: Frontier Feudalism in Southern Baluchistan and Eastern Ethiopia.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 93–106. Military service of tribesmen to state society and the conversion of tribal nomads to peasants.
Reyna, Stephen P. Wars without End: The Political Economy of a Precolonial African State. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, for University of New Hampshire, 1990. Why warfare prevailed in the east central Sudan, especially Bagirmi, 1870–1897.
Tamrat, T. “The Horn of Africa: The Solomonids in Ethiopia and the States of the Horn of Africa.” In General History of Africa, vol. 4, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 423–54. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. The army and the military organization of the Ethiopian polity (436–39).
Teklehaimanot, Teferi. “The Ethiopian Feudal Army and Its Wars.” Ph.D. dissertation, Kansas State University, 1971. Todd, Dave. “War and Peace between the Bodi and Dime of Southwestern Ethiopia.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 211–25. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). Description of unusually intense raiding, 1968–1971, its causes and results.
Tornay, Serge. “Armed Conflicts in the Lower Omo Valley, 1970– 1976: An Analysis from within Nyangatom Society.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 97–117. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). Ecological and short-term economic factors rather than history best explain conflict in southwestern Ethiopia.
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Tsehai, Berhane Selassie. “ ‘Centre’ and ‘Periphery’ in History: The Case of Warriors and Women in Traditional Ethiopia.” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 12 (1981): 37–45. Traditions and realities of women feudal warriros and fighting (38–39).
*Tsehai, Berhane Selassie. “The Political and Military Traditions of the Ethiopian Peasantry (1800–1941).” Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University, 1980. Tsehai, Berhane Selassie. “Women Guerrilla Fighters.” Northeast African Studies 1 no. 3 (1979–1980): 73–83. Traditional military participation of women; women as slaves and campfollowers in support of both male and female warriors; account of three woman leaders of guerrilla forces established by their husbands in the 1930s against Italian occupation.
Turton, David. “Mursi Political Identity and Warfare: The Survival of an Idea.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 15–31. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994. Turton, David. “Territorial Organisation and Age among the Mursi.” In Age, Generation and Time: Some Features of East African Age Organizations, edited by P. T. W. Baxter and Uri Almagor, 95–131. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1978. Persistent forms of primitive warfare (96–103).
Turton, David. “War, Peace and Mursi Identity.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 179–210. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). How warfare maintains the distinctive characters of adjacent societies.
EASTERN AFRICA
Allen, J. de Vere. “Witu, Swahili History and the Historians.” In State Formation in Eastern Africa, edited by Ahmed Idha Salim, 216–49. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Dynastic history of a Swahili sultanate shaped by war.
Allen, Tim. “Ethnicity and Tribalism on the Sudan-Uganda Border.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 112–39. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994. Bäck, Lucien R. “Traditional Rwanda: Deconsecrating a Sacred Kingdom.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 15–33. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 35. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Political organization based on social armies; see “The ‘Sacred Kingdom,’” 21–25.
Baxter, P. T. W., and Uri Almagor. “Introduction.” In Age, Generation and Time: Some Features of East African Age Organizations, edited by P. T. W. Baxter and Uri Almagor, 1–35. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1978. Notes the military function of age systems (16–17).
Bloch, Maurice. “The Disconnection between Power and Rank as a Process: An Outline of the Development of Kingdoms in Central Madagascar.” In The Evolution of Social Systems, edited by J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, 303–40. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978. See “The History of Power in Central Madagascar in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” 304–15, on the military bases of early states and development of kingdoms (308–15).
de Wolf, J. J. “The Diffusion of Age-Group Organization in East Africa: A Reconsideration.” Africa 50 (1980): 305–10. Contra LeVine and Sangree (1962), age-group organization not primarily military.
Dumas-Champion, Françoise. “Le rôle social et ritual du bétail chez les Massa du Tchad.” Africa 50 (1980): 161–81. English summary, 180–81. Intergroup conflict over cattle as political system.
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Edgerton, Robert B. “Violence in East African Tribal Societies.” In Collective Violence, edited by James F. Short, Jr., and Marvin E. Wolfgang, 160–70. Law in Action. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972. The gamut of behavior from domestic spats to full-scale warfare (= cattle-raiding attack and counterattack) during the 1960s—persistence of long-standing patterns, interpreted as expression of man’s violent nature.
Ekemode, G. O. “Kimweri the Great: Kilindi King of Vuga [Tanzania].” In Leadership in 19th Century Africa: Essays from “Tarikh,” edited by Obaro Ikime, 22–32. London: Longman, for the Historical Society of Nigeria, 1974. “The Military,” 31–32, during Kimweri’s reign in a multinational kingdom, 1803–1868.
Elam, Yizchak. The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women: A Study of Nomadic Cattle Breeders in Nyabushozi County, Ankole, Uganda. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1973. Chap. 6, “The Pear and the Milk-Jug as Symbols of the Male and Female Sex,” 222–33.
Fadiman, Jeffrey A. Mountain Warriors: The Pre-Colonial Meru of Mt. Kenya. Papers in International Studies, Africa Series 27. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, Africa Program, 1976. Based on the author’s Ph.D. diss., History, University of Wisconsin, 1973, “Traditional Warfare among the Meru of Mt. Kenya,” primarily cattle raiding.
Fadiman, Jeffrey A. An Oral History of Tribal Warfare: The Meru of Mt. Kenya. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1982. Traditional African warfare, based on 300 interviews: how war was fought in the decade before 1906, as recalled by aged warriors in 1969.
Feeley-Harnik, Gillian. “The King’s Men in Madagascar: Slavery, Citizenship and Sakalava Monarchy.” Africa 52 no. 2 (1982): 31–49. Monarchy supported chiefly by cattle and slaves from raid and warfare, sambarivo (kinless slaves) serving as royal instruments and as models for royal subjects; mainly late 18th, early 19th centuries but derived from institutions traceable to introduction of guns and slaving in the 16th century.
Feeley-Harnik, Gillian. “Sakalava Dancing Battles: Representations of Conflict in Sakalava Royal Service.” Anthropos 83 (1988): 65–85. The rebiky commemorates battles among rival branches of the western Madagascar dynasty of the 16th–19th centuries.
Feierman, Steven. The Shambaa Kingdom: A History. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1974. An east African kingdom [Tanzania] founded, in part, on military institutions reorganized for slaving.
Fratkin, Elliot. “A Comparison of the Role of Prophets in Samburu
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and Maasai Warfare.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 53–67. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). Sharply divergent roles in two closely related societies.
Galaty, John G. “Form and Intention in East African Strategies of Dominance and Aggression.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 223–249. An International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences Book. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Goldschmidt, Walter, with Gale Goldschmidt. Culture and Behavior of the Sebei: A Study in Continuity and Adaptation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Chap. 3, “The Sebei Polity,” included “Military Operations,” 66–70, by a Nilotic people of Uganda.
Gray, Robert F. The Sonjo of Tanganyika: An Anthropological Study of an Irrigation-based Society. London: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute, 1963. Reprinted Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1974. Chap. 6, “Age-Grades,” 83–96, stresses the system’s military organization; see also “Warfare,” 150, in chap. 8, “Political Constitution.”
Heald, Suzette. “The Ritual Use of Violence: Circumcision among the Gisu of Uganda.” In The Anthropology of Violence, edited by David Riches, 70–85. London: Basil Blackwell, 1986. Ordeals like this were formerly linked to warfare, but 70 years after pacification that pattern no longer relevant (80–82).
Jacobs, Alan H. “Maasai Inter-Tribal Relations: Belligerent Herdsmen or Peaceable Pastoralists?” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 33–52. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). Traditional views of the Maasai as warlike have been much exaggerated.
Kalter, Johannes. Die materielle Kulture der Massai und ihr Wandel. Veröffentlichung aus dem Ubersee-Museum Bremen, Reihe F, Bremer Afrika-Archiv, vol. 4. Bremen: The Museum, 1978. Chap. 3, “Die materielle Kultur und ihr Wandel,” includes “4. Waffen und ihre Hersteller,” 70–92.
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Karugire, Samwiri. “Succession Wars in the Pre-Colonial Kingdom of Nkore [Uganda].” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 9–34. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Kenny, Michael G. “The Wasaki War: An Oral Narrative of Southwestern Kenya.” Anthropos 74 (1979): 864–80. Synthesis of eight oral narratives by old men.
Kiwanuka, M. S. M. “The Empires of the Bunyoro Kitara: Myth or Reality?” Canadian Journal of African Studies 2 (1968): 27–48. The widely prevelent conquest theories of African state formation now giving way to more complex understanding.
Kottack, Conrad P. “A Cultural Adaptive Approach to Malagasy Political Organization.” In Social Exchange and Interaction, edited by Edwin N. Wilmsen, 107–28. University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Anthropology Papers 46. Ann Arbor: The Museum, 1972. Including military aspects of interactions between developing states and chiefdoms.
Kottack, Conrad P. “Ecological Variables in the Origin and Evolution of African States: The Buganda Example.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 14 (1972): 351–80. Defense requirements imposed by predatory expansion as a factor.
Kottack, Conrad P. The Past in the Present: History, Ecology, and Cultural Variation in Highland Madagascar. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980. On the key role of military institutions in the process, see chap. 3, “The Process of State Formation,” 58–87.
Kottack, Conrad P. “The Process of State Formation in Madagascar.” American Ethnologist 4 (1977): 136–55. Argument for considering state formation as process rather than series of stages, and against Fried’s distinction between pristine and secondary states.
Krapf-Askari, Eva. “Women, Spears and the Scarce Good: A Comparison of the Sociological Function of Warfare in Two Central African Societies.” In Zande Themes: Essays Presented to Sir Edward EvansPritchard, edited by André Singer and Brian V. Street, 19–40. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1972. Azande and Nzakara both “sustained by more or less continual warfare” (70), but serving different functions—Arongara (Azande) distributed spears to followers, some for bridewealth, some for war; Bandia distributed captured women to followers.
Lamphear, J. E., and J. B. Webster. “The Jie-Acholi War: Oral Evidence from Two Sides of the Battle Front.” Uganda Journal 35 (1971): 23–42.
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Cross-checking oral accounts collected in 1970 of a battle fought around 1900 shows considerable reliability.
Larick, Roy. “Age Grading and Ethnicity in the Style of Loikop (Samburu) Spears.” In “Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, 269–83. World Archaeology 18 (1986): 153–290. Specific spear styles linked to ethnicity and age grade.
Larick, Roy. “The Circulation of Spears among Loikop Cattle Pastoralists of Samburu District, Kenya.” Research in Economic Anthropology 9 (1987): 143–63. Colonial administrators attempted to eliminate warfare and raiding, but warriorhood survives as a means of integrating herders economically and politcally; spears have become less utilitarian and more symbolic, forging links between males.
Leakey, L. S. B. The Southern Kikuyu before 1903. Edited by G. S. B. Beecher and J. Ensminger. 3 vols. London: Academic Press, 1977. Chaps. 18, “Warriors and Maidens,” 2:707–46; and 24, “Warfare and Raiding,” 3:1035–73.
Lehmann, Arthur C., and Louis J. Mihalyi. “Aggression, Bravery, and Drugs: A Radical Re-examination and Analysis of the Masai Warrior Complex.” Ethnology 21 (1982): 335–47. Drugs used in developing and heightening warlike traits.
Lemarchand, René. “Power and Stratification in Rwanda: A Reconsideration.” Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 6 (1966): 592–610. Reprinted in Peoples and Cultures of Africa: An Anthropological Reader, edited by Elliott P. Skinner, 416–36. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1973. Military organization (feudalism) and tacit coercion as basis of state.
Lewis, B. A. The Murle: Red Chiefs and Black Commoners. Oxford Monographs on Social Anthropology. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. On traditional military organization, see chap. 5, “The Age-Set System,” 84–100.
Llewelyn-Davies, Melissa. “Women, Warriors, and Patriarchs.” In Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of General and Sexuality, edited by Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, 330–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Maasai myth locates women’s equality in a lost time when they, like men, were warriors; equality lost when women became sexual, fertile, and property.
Mazrui, Ali A. “The Resurrection of the Warrior Tradition in African Political Culture: From Shaka the Zulu to Amin the Kakwa.” Journal of Modern African Studies 13 (1975): 67–84. Also in Soldiers and Kinsmen
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in Uganda: The Making of a Military Ethnocracy, by Ali A. Mazrui, 195–212. Sage Series on Armed Forces and Society. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. On precolonial East African military traditions.
Moore, Sally Falk. “The Chagga of Kilimanjaro,” In The Chagga and Meru of Tanzania, edited by William M. O’Barr, 1–85. Ethnographic Survey of East Central Africa 18. London: International African Institute, 1977. See “External Relations of the Chiefdoms: Warfare, Alliance and Trade,” 27–32.
Moore, Sally Falk. Social Facts and Fabrications: “Customary” Law on Kilimanjaro, 1880–1980. Lewis Henry Morgan Lectures, 1981. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. On trade and interchiefdom war among the Chaggas, see chap. 1, “The Nineteenth Century on Kilimanjaro: Ivory, Slaves, Cattle, and Warfare,” 15–37.
Muriuki, Godfrey. A History of the Kikuyu, 1500–1900. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1974. Chap. 4, “The Kikuyu and Their Neighbours,” 83–109, discusses intertribal war at length (84–94); chap. 5, “The Social and Political Structure,” 110–35, considers military organization (124–26).
Ocaya-Likidi, Dent. “Manhood, Warriorhood and Sex in Eastern Africa: Perspectives from the 19th and 20th Centuries.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 134–65. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Traditional warlike techniques and values, and their social consequences.
Ochieng’, William R. “In Search of a State among the Kitutu [Kenya] in the Nineteenth Century.” In State Formation in Eastern Africa, edited by Ahmed Idha Salim, 207–15. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Development of standing army under pressure from surrounding Maasai, Kipsigis, and Luo was not enough to produce state formation.
Rennie, J. K. “Ideology and State Formation: Political and Communal Ideologies among the South-Eastern Shona, 1500–1890.” In State Formation in Eastern Africa, edited by Ahmed Idha Salim, 162–94. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Expansion of the Tsonga in 1720s, a decentralized military people who anticipated many Nguni cultural and military characteristics (168); mid-18th century Nguni invasions and establishment of the Gaza state (182–85).
Reyna, Stephen P. “Predatory Accumulation and Religious Conflict in the Early 19th Century Chad Basin.” In Studying War: Anthropological
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Perspectives, edited by Stephen P. Reyna and R. E. Downs, 127–155. War and Society, vol. 2. Langhorne, Pennsylvania: Gordon & Breach, 1994. Saitoti, Tepilit Ole. “Warriors of Maasailand.” Natural History 89 (August 1980): 42–55. Description of traditional warfare and warriorhood.
Saitoti, Tepilit Ole. The Worlds of a Maasai Warrior: An Autobiography. New York: Random House, 1986. Schneider, Harold K. Livestock and Equality in East Africa: The Economic Basis for Social Structure. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979. Remarks on organized warfare as uncommon in East Africa societies (45–46); raiding as economic activity (88–89); military organization in states (180); military aspects of egalitarian societies (186–87, 189). Chap. 6, “States,” 153–81, suggests that military force may be necessary but not sufficient to form states.
*Serra, Carlos. Para a história da arte military moçambicana, 1505–1920. Maputo: Cadernos Tempo, 1983. Detailed survey of native African military organization, tactics, weapons, etc.
Shiroya, O. J. E. “The Lugbara States in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.” In State Formation in Eastern Africa, edited by Ahmed Idha Salim, 195–206. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Lugbara military organization and wars with Alur (202–204).
Spencer, Paul. Nomads in Alliance: Symbiosis and Growth among the Rendille and Samburu of Kenya. London: Oxford University Press, 1973. “Warfare among the Rendille,” 51–52; and “Warfare among the Samburu,” 95–97.
Steinhart, Edward I. “Ankole: Pastoral Hegemony.” In The Early State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 131–50. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 32. The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Innovations in military organization as major factor in shaping the emergent state.
Steinhart, Edward I. Conflict and Collaboration: The Kingdoms of Western Uganda, 1890 –1907. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1977. Steinhart, Edward I. “The Destruction of the Nyoro State.” In Early State Dynamics, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde, 187–201. Studies in Human Society, vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987. The East African state built around a standing army; already shaky, it collapsed under British military pressure.
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Steinhart, Edward I. “The Emergence of Bunyoro: The Tributary Mode of Production and the Formation of the State, 1400–1900.” In State Formation in Eastern Africa, edited by Ahmed Idha Salim, 70–90. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. “In recent years, the once fashionable ‘conquest theory’ of state formation in this area which credited the origins of the state to a superior race of cattle-owning, light-skinned, state-building invaders has been laid in the dustbin of history.” (70)
Steinhart, Edward I. “From ‘Empire’ to State: The Emergence of the Kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara: c. 1350–1890.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 353–70. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 35. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Internal coercion and external defense by standing army as hallmark of state.
Steinhart, Edward I. “Herders and Farmers: The Tributary Mode of Production in Western Uganda.” In Modes of Production in Africa, edited by Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, 115–55. Sage Series on African Modernization and Development, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1981. Interaction of economic and military institutions in state formation.
Tignor, Robert L. “The Maasai Warriors: Pattern Maintenance and Violence in Colonial Kenya.” Journal of African History 13 (1972): 271–90. Maasai social organization, stressing the place of warriors.
Tomikawa, Morinichi. “The Migrations and Inter-Tribal Relations of the Pastoral Datoga.” In “Warfare among East African Herders,” edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and David Turton, 15–31. Papers presented at the First International Symposium, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, September 1977. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 3 (1979). On the relevance of warrior organization for coping with social change in a northern Tanzanian people.
Uzoigwe, G. N. “Kabalega and the Making of a New Kitara.” In Leadership in 19th Century Africa: Essays from “Tarikh,” edited by Obaro Ikime, 87–102. London: Longman, for the Historical Society of Nigeria, 1974. Attempted restoration, 1870–1899, of Bunyoro Kitara; see “Military Reform,” 93–95.
Weatherby, J. M. “Nineteenth Century Wars in Western Kenya.” Azania: Journal of the British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa 2 (1967): 133–44.
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Widespread raiding and warfare occasioned by large-scale migration of pastoralists and semipastoralists through most of the century.
Webster, J. B. “The Civil War in Usuku [Uganda].” In War and Society in Africa: Ten Studies, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 35–64. London: Frank Cass, 1972. Webster, J. B., B. A. Ogot, and J. P. Chretien. “The Great Lakes Region, 1500–1800.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 776–827. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Pastoralists’ military organization, 793; military organization of the acephalous Luo and Central-Eastern Nilotes, 796; Rwandan military organization, 825–26.
Weinstein, Warren. “Military Continuities in the Rwanda State.” In The Warrior Tradition in Modern Africa, edited by Ali A. Mazrui, 48–66. International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Ethnicity and military institutions, before and after colonization.
Willis, Roy. A State in the Making: Myth, History, and Social Transformation in Pre-Colonial Ufipa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981. On military organization, see chap. 20, “The State and Imbalanced Exchange,” 158–84.
Winter, Edward H. “Cattle-raiding in East Africa: The Case of the Iraqw.” Anthropology 2 (1978): 53–59. Because they do not demand much bridewealth, the Iraqw have not developed cattle-raiding practices to the same level as other East African cattle raisers.
SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA
Adam, Heribert. “Conquest and Conflict in South Africa.” Journal of Modern African Studies 13 (1975): 621–40. Alpers, Edward A. “The Nineteenth Century: Prelude to Colonialism.” In Zamani: A Survey of East African History, edited by B. A. Ogot and J. A. Kieran, 238–54. Corrected reprint edition. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Ngoni adoption of Zulu military organization as basis for conquest (240–41).
Alpert, Edward. “The Mutapa and Malawi Political Systems to the Time of the Ngoni Invasions.” In Aspects of Central African History, edited by Terence O. Ranger, 1–28. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1968. Remarks on the military basis (10–11, 16, 22–24).
Ashton, Hugh. “From Spears to Ploughshares: Changes in the Political Structure of the AmaNdebele.” In Politics in Leadership: A Comparative Perspective, edited by William A. Shack and Percy S. Cohen, 66–92. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Transformations of a warrior people under state impact; see especially “II. Politics of the Spear: 1822–1893,” 68–73, on Ndebele military structure and political organization.
*Beach, David N. “Ndebele Raiders and Shona Power.” Journal of African History 15.4 (1975): 633–51. Political and economic competition inspired Ndebele Kingdom raids against declining Changamire-Rozvi state of Shona-speaking peoples of Zimbabwe, 1830s to 1890s.—EAE AHA Guide 19.668.
Beinart, William. “Production and the Material Basis of Chieftainship: Pondoland c. 1830–80.” In Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa, edited by Shula Marks and Anthony Atmore, 120–47. New York: Longman, 1980. Military shaping of Mpondo state in response to Zulu military pressure (121–24).
Berghe, J. S., and A. P. Bergh. Tribes & Kingdoms. Heritage Series: 19th Century. 2d edition. Cape Town: Don Nelson, 1987. Illustrated history of the native peoples of South Africa during the 19th century.
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Bhila, H. H. K. “Southern Zambezia.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 640–82. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Mutapa military organization, 644; the prazo system, 651–53; Rozvi military organization, 660–61.
Biebuyck, Daniel. Hero and Chief: Epic Literature from the Benyanga (Zaire Republic). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Bisson, Michael S. “Trade and Tribute: Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of States in South Central Africa.” Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 22 (1982): 343–61. Contrary to widespread opinion, archaeological evidence tentatively suggests that long-distance trade appears less significant than tribute based on military coercion in state formation.
Bonner, Philip. “Classes, the Mode of Production and the State in Pre-Colonial Swaziland.” In Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa, edited by Shula Marks and Anthony Atmore, 80–101. New York: Longman, 1980. Age-regiment system as basis for all Nguni conquest societies (85–86); Swazi as army of occupation (88).
*Bontinck, François. “Un mausolée pour les Jaga.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 20.3 (1980): 387–89. Supports Miller in debate on Jaga, noting that new Kongo royal dynasty of dubious legitimacy might have sought Portuguese support by labeling domestic rebels as cannibal invaders.—JKT in AHA Guide 19.543.
Braroe, Niels Winther. “Continuity and Change in the Development of a Preliterate State.” Anthropologica new series 10 (1968): 3–27. Military organization and resistance in the rise and fall of the Zulu state.
Brown, Richard. “The External Relations of the Ndebele Kingdom in the Pre-Partition Era.” In African Societies in Southern Africa: Historical Studies, edited by Leonard Thompson, 259–81. Published under the auspices of the African Studies Center, UCLA. New York: Praeger, 1969. Expansion of techniques to supplement warfare in political relations between nascent states.
*Campbell, C. “Images of War: A Problem in San Rock Art Research.” World Archaeology 18 (1986): 255–68. Chanaiwa, David Shingirai. “The Army and Politics in Pre-Industrial Africa: The Ndebele Nation, 1822–1893.” African Studies Review 19 (September 1976): 49–67. Military organization and discipline as the foundation of the state from individuality and family to nation, reflecting deep culture as well as immediate circumstance.
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Chanaiwa, David Shingirai. “The Zulu Revolution: State Formation in a Pastoralist Society.” African Studies Review 23 (December 1980): 1–20. Military innovation as basis of state formation and expansion.
Cobbing, Julian. “The Evolution of Ndebele amabutho.” Journal of African History 15 (1974): 607–31. Detailed study of a Zulu-like, age-graded regimental system and its relation to the Nguni offshoot of the Zulu state.
*Cobbing, Julian. “The Mfecane as Alibi: Thoughts on Dithakong and Mbolompo.” Journal of African History 29.3 (1988): 487–519. Reinterpretation of two battles finds them caused by European slaving rather than Zulu aggression.—EAE AHA Guide 19.680.
Epstein, A. L. Ethos and Identity: Three Studies in Ethnicity. London: Tavistock; Chicago: Aldine, 1978. Chap. 2, “Military Ethos and Ethnic Ranking on the Copperbelt,” 113–38, discusses Bemba military history as background to study of persistent military values in present-day workers.
Epstein, A. L. “Military Organization and the Pre-Colonial Polity of the Bemba of Zambia.” Man new series 10 (1975): 199–217. Effects of changing military institutions on social organization.
*Giventher, Mathias G. “From Foragers to Miners and Bands to Bandits: On the Flexibility and Adaptability of Bushman Band Societies.” Sprache Geschichte Afrika 7 (1980): 133–60. Godelier, Maurice. “Anthropology and Economics.” In Perspectives in Marxist Anthropology, by Maurice Godelier, 15–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Remarks on the absence of war in Mbuti Pygmy society and explains why (56–57).
Godelier, Maurice. “Territory and Property in Primitive Society.” In Human Ethology: Claims and Limits of a New Discipline, edited by Mario von Cranach, Klaus Foppa, Solf Lepenies, and Detlev Ploog, 133–55. Werner-Reimers-Stiftung Conference on Human Ethology, Homburg von der Höbe, 1977. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Intraterritorial peace versus interterritorial warfare among Bushmen (147).
*Gordon, Robert J. The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass. Conflict and Social Change Series. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1992. Far from being primordial hunter-gatherers, Bushmen were active traders and raiders until colonial marginalization.—Reviewed by William Minter, AHR 98 (1993): 923–24.
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Guy, Jeff. “Ecological Factors in the Rise of Shaka and the Zulu Kingdom.” In Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa, edited by Shula Marks and Anthony Atmore, 102–19. New York: Longman, 1980. “Production, Reproduction and the Zulu Military System,” 112–17, on the ageregiment system as a means of extracting surplus labor.
Hall, Martin. Farmers, Kings, and Traders: The People of Southern Africa, 200–1860. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. See index entry: Military power.
Harms, Robert W. “The Wars of August: Diagonal Narrative in African History.” American Historical Review 88 (1983): 809–34. The war cult of the Nunu (Zaïre), analyzed functionally as means of reconstructing Nunu history (823–33).
Heinz, H. J. “Territoriality among the Bushmen in General and the !Ko in Particular.” Anthropos 67 (1972): 405–16. Territory defended with weapons, mentioned in passing.
Henderson, Ian. “Lobengula: Achievement and Tragedy.” In Leadership in 19th Century Africa: Essays from “Tarikh,” edited by Obaro Ikime, 138–53. London: Longman, for the Historical Society of Nigeria, 1974. On the military revolution of early 19th century among Bantu speakers of southern Africa and subsequent Nguni move north (140–42).
*Hilton, Anne. “The Jaga Reconsidered.” Journal of African History 22.2 (1981): 191–202. Palm-cloth trade and wars in eastern Kongo set off by Jaga invasion.—JKT in AHA Guide 19.555.
Knight, Ian J. The Anatomy of the Zulu Army: From Shaka to Cetshwayo, 1818–1879. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1995. Knight, Ian J. Warrior Chiefs of Southern Africa: Shaka of the Zulu, Moshoeshoe of the BaSotho, Mzilikazi of the Matabele, Maqoma of the Xhosa. Poole, England: Firebird Books, 1994. Knight, Ian, and Angus McBride. The Zulus. Elite Series 21. London: Osprey, 1989. Kuper, Hilda. “The Monarchy and the Military in Swaziland.” In Social System and Tradition in Southern Africa: Essays in Honour of Eileen Krige, edited by John Argyle and Eleanor Preston-Whyle, 222–39. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1978. On the pre-20th century development of the Swazi military system.
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Laband, J. P. C. “The Cohesion of the Zulu Polity under the Impact of the Anglo-Zulu War: A Reassessment.” Journal of Natal Zulu History 8 (1985): 33–62. Langworthy, Harry W. Zambia before 1890: Aspects of Pre-Colonial History. London: Longman, 1972. Chap. 15, “Slave Trade and Warfare in the Nineteenth Century,” 96–104.
Lee, Richard Borshay. The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. See especially chaps 11, “Production and Reproduction,” 309–32; and 13, “Conflict and Violence,” 370–400.
Lye, William. “The Distribution of the Sotho Peoples after the Difaqane.” In African Societies in Southern Africa: Historical Studies, edited by Leonard Thompson, 191–206. Published under the auspices of the African Studies Center, UCLA. New York: Praeger, 1969. Tactical, strategic, and social responses to widespread warfare over an extended period of time.
McCracken, John. “The Nineteenth Century in Malawi.” In Aspects of Central African History, edited by Terence O. Ranger, 97–111. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1968. The efficiency of Ngoni military organization as the basis for state formation and conquest (101–104).
MacGaffey, Wyatt. “Economy and Social Dimensions of Kongo Slavery (Zaïre).” In Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, 235–57. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. Ritualized warfare, for which slave acquisition was not the major motive.
Mainga, Mutumba. Buloza under the Luyana Kings: Political Evolution and State Formation in Pre-Colonial Zambia. London: Longman, 1973. Chap. 2, “The Founding of the Lozi State and the Emergence of a Luyana Central Kingship,” 22–46.
Marks, Shiela. “The Rise of the Zulu Kingdom.” In The Middle Age of African History, edited by Roland Oliver, 85–91. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Military foundations of state formation.
Marshall, Lorna. The !Kung of Nyae Nyae. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. Remarks on fighting as not honored, feared, averted, considered wrong.
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Miller, Joseph C. Kings and Kinsmen: Early Mbundu States in Angola. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976. On military organization as the basis for state formation, see chap. 6, “The Imbangala Kilombo—A Radical Solution,” 151–75, describing the fusion of a male initiation society (bilonko) with kin to form mobile warrior groups (imbangala); and “The Kilombo as a Military Machine,” 232–41, in chap. 7, “Institutionalizing Political Innovation.” Imbangala suppressed sex as means to eliminate the kinship (lineages) basis for social organization, but made much use of women for other purposes, such as campfollowers (227–28).
*Miller, Joseph C. “Requiem for the Jaga.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 13.1 (1973): 121–49. On the origin and impact of the Jaga, rootless warriors alleged to have invaded Kongo from the east, but actually a domestic rebellion used by the Portuguese as an excuse to intervene in dynastic politics.—JKT AHR Guide 19.561.
Mutunhu, Tendai. “The Matabele Nation: The Dynamic Sociopolitical and Military Development of an African State, 1840–1893.” Journal of African Studies 3 (1976): 165–82. “The Matabele Politico-Military Organization,” 174–78, on the adaptation of Zulu military practice to new setting.
Nziem, Ndaywel è. “The Political System of the Luba and Lunda: Its Emergence and Expansion.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 588–607. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Military organization and operations, 601–606.
Omer-Cooper, John D. “Aspects of Political Change in the NineteenthCentury Mfecane.” In African Societies in Southern Africa: Historical Studies, edited by Leonard Thompson, 207–29. Published under the auspices of the African Studies Center, UCLA. New York: Praeger, 1969. Military innovation as the chief factor in a far-reaching political reorganization of the Zulu and other Ndebele peoples.
Omer-Cooper, John D. “The Nguni Outburst.” In Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5, From c. 1790 to c. 1870, edited by John E. Flint, 319–52. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Military innovation and state formation.
Omer-Cooper, John D. “Southern and Central Africa: The Great Nineteenth-Century Migration.” In The Making of Modern Africa, vol. 1, The Nineteenth Century, by A. E. Afigbo, E. A. Ayandele, R. J. Gavin, J. D. Omer-Cooper, and Robin Palmer, 229–50. 2nd edition. London: Longman, 1986. On the Zulu aftermath.
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Packard, Randall M. Chiefship and Cosmology: An Historical Study of Political Competition. African Systems of Thought. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981. Transition from chiefship to state less a matter of military force and new weapons than of persistent ritual and symbolic resources redeployed to meet new demands; see especially chap. 6, “Trade, Firearms, and the Politics of Armed Confrontation in the Upper Semliki Valley Region [Zaïre],” 133–44.
Peires, J. B. The House of Phalo: A History of the Xhosa People in the Days of Their Independence. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. “Fighting Techniques of the Heroic Age,” 135–39, in chap. 9, “Fire and Sword.”
Phiri, Kings M., O. J. M. Kalinga, and H. H. K. Bhila. “The Northern Zambezia-Lake Malawi Region.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 608–39. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Lundu military organization, 619–20.
Phiri, Kings M. “Political Change among the Chewa and Yao of the Lake Malawi Region, c. 1750–1900.” In State Formation in Eastern Africa, edited by Ahmed Idha Salim, 53–69. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Slave raiding and state formation (59); Chewa and Yao military organization in the face of Ngoni and Swahili attacks in the mid-19th century (62–64).
Ranger, Terence O. “The Nineteenth Century in Southern Rhodesia.” In Aspects of Central African History, edited by Terence O. Ranger, 112–53. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1968. The military basis of the Shona Rozwi empire (113), of the Ndebele states and the spread of Zulu military organization (122–24).
Rasmussen, R. Kent. Migrant Kingdom: Mzilikazi’s Ndebele in South Africa. London: Rex Collings; Cape Town: David Philip, 1978. See index entries: Firearms; Horses, use in warfare; Military tactics
Redmond, Patrick M. “Some Results of Military Contacts between the Ngoni and Their Neighbours in 19th Century Southern East Africa.” Transafrican Journal of History 5 (1976): 75–97. From the 1860s to 1890s, Njelu and Mshope (Ngoni kingdoms) conquest and raiding differentially but substantially affected surrounding peoples.
Reefe, Thomas Q. The Rainbow and the Kings: A History of the Luba Empire to 1891. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. Numerous remarks on war and warfare, but for a description of Luba [Zaïre] military institutions see especially “Patterns of Conquest during the Age of Kings,” 107–10, in chap. 9, “Dynastic History in the Eighteenth Century.”
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Roberts, Andrew D. A History of the Bemba: Political Growth and Change in North-Eastern Zambia before 1900. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973.
See index entries: firearms; fortification; military organization; raiding; sieges; warfare; war-charm; war-leaders; weapons.
Sansom, Basil. “Traditional Rulers and Their Realms.” In The Bantuspeaking Peoples of Southern Africa, edited by W. D. Hammond-Tooke, 246–83. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. Including military organization.
Smith, Edwin W., and Andrew Murray Dale. The Ila-speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia. 2 vols. New Hyde Park: University Books, 1968. Chap. 8, “Warfare,” 1:170–79.
Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall. “Management of Violence among the Ju/wasi of Nyae Nyae: The Old Way and a New Way.” In Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Stephen P. Reyna and R. E. Downs, 69–84. War and Society, vol. 2. Langhorne, Pennsylvania: Gordon & Breach, 1994. Thompson, Leonard. “Co-operation and Conflict: The High Veld.” In The Oxford History of South Africa, vol. 1, South Africa to 1870, edited by Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, 391–446. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. On the military and other consequences of the rise of the Zulu kingdom, see part 1, “The Difaqane and Its Aftermath,” 391–405.
Thompson, Leonard. “Co-operation and Conflict: The Zulu Kingdom and Natal.” In The Oxford History of South Africa, vol. 1, South Africa to 1870, edited by Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, 334–90. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Part 1, “The Zulu Kingdom,” 336–64, discusses new military organization, stressing regimentation of women as well as men (344–45).
Thornton, John K. “The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 30 (1988): 360–78. Thornton, John K. The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641–1718. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983. *Thornton, John K. “A Resurrection for the Jaga.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 18.2 (1978): 223–28. Contra Miller, identifies Jaga with Yaka as real eastern invaders.—JKT AHR Guide 19.574.
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Vansina, Jan. The Children of Woot: A History of the Kuba Peoples. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press; Folkestone, England: Dawson, 1978. Chap. 8, “The Age of Kings: Administrative History,” 127–52, includes Kuba [Zaïre] military organization, 143–45.
Vansina, Jan. “The Kongo Kingdom and Its Neighbours.” In General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, edited by B. A. Ogot, 546–87. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Military organization, 553–54.
Vansina, Jan. Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990. Wilson, Monica. “The Nguni People.” In The Oxford History of South Africa, vol. 1, South Africa to 1870, edited by Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, 75–130. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Part 4, “The Structure of Nguni Society,” 116–30, discusses changes in military organization (134–35).
OCEANIA
Alkire, William H. Coral Islanders. Worlds of Man: Studies in Cultural Ecology. Arlington Heights, Illinois: AHM, 1978. Numerous remarks on the functions of warfare and raiding in South Pacific societies.
Allen, Michael. “Innovation, Inversion and Revolution in Political Tactics in West Aoba.” In Vanuatu: Politics, Economics and Ritual in Island Melanesia, edited by Michael Allen, 105–34. Studies in Anthropology. Sydney: Academic Press, 1981. Warfare as alternative path to ritual prowess in achieving male eminence and influence (113).
Allen, Michael. “Rethinking Old Problems: Matriliny, Secret Societies and Political Evolution.” In Vanuatu: Politics, Economics and Ritual in Island Melanesia, edited by Michael Allen, 9–34. Studies in Anthropology. Sydney: Academic Press, 1981. Agnatic rituals in Melanesia linked to male cults stressing lineage solidarity, male sexual and political power, and endemic warfare (13, 14, 23, 29–30).
Ballara, Angela. “The Role of Warfare in Maori Society in the Early Contact Period.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 85 (1976): 487–506.
Persistence of traditional causes and forms of war throught first half of 19th century.
Bellwood, Peter. “Fortifications and Economy in Prehistoric New Zealand.” Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 37, part 1 (1971): 56–95. Summaries of ethnographic and archaeological evidence, detailed accounts of two escavations, and extracts from 18th-century accounts showing their use as fighting platforms.
Berndt, Catherine H. “Digging Sticks and Spears; or, The Two-Sex Model.” In Woman’s Place in Aboriginal Society, edited by Fay Gale, 39–48. Australian Aboriginal Studies 36, Social Anthropology Series 6. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1970. Differentiation of tools and weapons symbolizing gender differentiation.
Blainey, Geoffrey. Triumph of the Nomads: A History of Aboriginal Australia. Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press, 1976.
Chap. 7, “Birth and Death,” includes an untitled section iv on fighting and warfare, 105–13.
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Borofsky, Robert, and Alan Howard. “The Early Contact Period.” In Developments in Polynesian Ethnology, edited by Alan Howard and Robert Barofsky, 241–75. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. “Toward a More Comparative Perspective: Patterns of Violence,” 260–68.
Bowden, Ross. “Maori Cannibalism: An Interpretation.” Oceania 55 (1984): 81–99. Enemies killed in battle eaten by victorious warriors to insult the vanquished.
Butlin, Noel G. Our Original Aggression: Aboriginal Populations of Southeastern Australia, 1788–1850. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1983. Population collapse.
Caughey, John L. F’a’nakkar: Cultural Values in a Micronesian Society [Truk]. University of Pennsylvania Publication in Anthropology 2. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Department of Anthropology, 1977. Chap. 3, “Dimensions of Character,” 25–40, discusses such martial virtues as “bravery” and “strong thought”; chap. 10, “Special Knowledge,” includes “The Master of Fighting,” 141–43; chap. 11, “Conclusion: Values and Social Organization,” 155–76, considers character values and warfare.
Chowning, Ann. “Leadership in Melanesia.” Journal of Pacific History 14 (1979): 66–84. Prowess in warfare as a major aspect of precolonial leadership (especially 73–74).
Cleave, Peter. “Tribal and State-Like Political Formations in New Zealand Maori Society, 1750–1900.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 92 (March 1983): 51–92. Political development built on post-contact war with British.
Clunie, Fergus. Fijian Weapons and Warfare. Bulletin 2. Suva: Fiji Museum, 1977. Cunningham, Lawrence J. Ancient Chamorro Society. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1992. See chap. 7, “Weapons,” 71–74.
Daws, Gavan. Shoals of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1968. “The Arts of War,” 31–34, in chap. 2, “Kamehameha, 1779–1819.”
Dening, Gregory M. “Institutions of Violence in the Marquesas.” In The Changing Pacific: Essays in Honour of H. E. Maude, edited by Neil Gunson, 134–41. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1978. Raiding and ritual cannibalism.
Earle, Timothy. Economic and Social Organization of a Complex Chiefdom: The Halelea District, Kawa’i, Hawaii. Anthropological Papers 63. Ann
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Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1978. On war considered as an aspect of political economy, see chap. 9, “A Reconsideration of Chiefdom Organization: Hawaii,” 167–92.
Ferdon, Edwin N. Early Observations of Marquesan Culture, 1595–1813. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993. On war as a way of life, see chap. 9, “Warfare,” 112–24.
Ferdon, Edwin N. Early Tahiti, as the Explorers Saw It, 1767–1797. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981. See the section on “Warfare,” 254–73.
Ferdon, Edwin N. Early Tonga, as the Explorers Saw It, 1616–1810. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1987. See chap. 10, “War and Peace,” 255–80.
Fox, Aileen. Maori Fortifications: In the North Island of New Zealand. New Zealand Archaeological Society, Monograph 6. Aukland, New Zealand: Longman Paul, 1976. Survey and discussion of archaeological findings.
Glass, Patrick. “The Trobriand Code: An Interpretation of Trobriand War Shield Design.” Anthropos 81 (1986): 47–63. War shield designs as experessions of Trobriand male totemism and sexuality.
Godelier, Maurice. “An Unfinished Attempt at Reconstructing the Social Processes Which May Have Prompted the Transformation of Great-Men Societies into Big-Men Societies.” Translated by Nora Scott. In Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, edited by Maurice Godelier and Marilyn Strathern, 275–304. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991. Working out relations between warfare and exchange.
Goldman, Irving. Ancient Polynesian Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. On warfare as the chief mechanism of protostate formation, see chap. 24, “Status and Evolution,” 541–70.
Gumerman, George J. “The Role of Competition and Cooperation in the Evolution of Island Societies.” In Island Societies: Archaeological Approaches to Evolution and Transformation, edited by Patrick Vinton Kirch, 42–49. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Circumscription (Carneiro) seems to fit, Palau in the western Carolines as an example of restricted resources, unstable chiefdoms, and incessant warfare.
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Hanson, F. Allan, and Louise Hanson. Counterpoint in Maori Culture. International Library of Anthropology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983. Chap. 6, “Conflict,” 122–46, includes warfare.
Harrison, Simon. The Mask of War: Violence, Ritual, and Self in Melanesia. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1993. Heuer, Berys. Maori Women. Wellington, New Zealand: A. H. & A. W. Reed, for the Polynesian Society, 1972. See chap. 7, “Warfare,” 48–54.
Jackson, K. B. “Head-hunting in the Christianization of Bugotu, 1861–1900.” Journal of Pacific History 10 (1975): 65–78. Origins of political power in warlike prowess displayed both offensively and protectively on Santa Isabel, the Solomons.
Keesing, Roger M., ed. 'Elota’s Story: The Life and Times of a Solomon Islands Big Man. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1983.
See “Introduction: 3, Feuding, Feasting, and Politics,” 28–39, on fighting as a former path to prominence (especially 35–39; and “ 'Elota’s Story: 6, Feuds and the Lamo,” 53–62.
Keesing, Roger M. “Killers, Big Men, and Priests on Malaita [Solomon Islands]: Reflections on a Melanesian Troika System.” Ethnology 24 (1985): 237–52. Reprinted in Anthropological Approaches to Political Behavior, edited by Frank McGlynn and Arthur Tuden, 83–105. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. The ethnographic prominence of Big Men (entrepreneurial leaders) reflects observations conducted after pacification forcibly removed from the stage the once at least equally powerful and prestigious leaders who achieved their prominence in fighting and warfare.
Kirch, Patrick V. “Chiefship and Competitive Involution: The Marquesas Islands of Eastern Polynesia.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 119–45. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Conflict culminating in war and cannibalism pervaded Marquesan society, headed by an elite triumvirate, on of whom was the war leader (toa).
Kirch, Patrick V. “Circumscription Theory and Sociopolitical Evolution in Polynesia.” In “Circumscription and the Evolution of Society,” edited by Paul B. Roscoe and Robert B. Graber, 416–27. American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1988): 403–511.
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Kirch, Patrick V. The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Chap. 8, “Competition and Conflict,” 195–216, deals specifically with military institutions, but many other references throughout.
Knauft, Bruce M. “Melanesian Warfare: A Theoretical History.” Oceania 60 (1990): 250–311. The values and validity of various explanations of Melanesian warfare assessed against the ethnographic data, and the historical influences on anthropological perspectives evaluated.
Kozyra, Anna. “Bro… wojenna ludów Oceanni.” [Weapons of the peoples of Oceania.] Lud 55 (1971): 129–52. Abstracts in Anthropology 4 (Spring 1973), no. 353. Warfare played significant role in social life until recently and still remains important in less well-controlled areas; formal and functional analysis of weapons as influenced by social relations, geography, etc.
Labby, David. The Demystification of Yap: Dialectics of Culture on a Micronesian Island. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976. Chap. 6, “ ‘The Side of the Chiefs’ versus ‘The Side of the Young Men,’ ” 94–113, describes traditional warfare and its functions (108–11).
Lepowsky, Maria. “Big Men, Big Women, and Cultural Autonomy.” Ethnology 29 (1990): 35–50. “Big Men, Big Women, and Social Change: The Precolonial Record,” 39–43, focuses on now-extinct male role of asiara (champion fighter); women also participated, mother and sisters accompanying warriors, carrying spears, retrieving wounded, but women achieved status through redistribution or religion (witchcraft), not war.
Limerick, Patricia Nelson. “Review Article: The Multicultural Islands [Hawaii].” American Historical Review 97 (1992): 121–35. Lingenfelter, Sherwood Galen. Yap: Political Leadership and Culture Change in an Island Society. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1975. Chap. 8, “Competition and Conflict in Traditional Leadership,” 160–82, discusses traditional warfare.
Maude, H. C., and H. E. Maude. “Tioba and the Tabiteuean Religious Wars.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 90 (1981): 307–36.
Traditional ritual and fighting altered by alien religion in late 19th century Gilbert Islands.
Metge, Joan. The Maori of New Zealand: Rautahi. Revised edition. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976. See the section on “War,” 26–27, in chap. 2, “The Maoris before 1800.”
Modjeska, Nicholas. “Post-Ipomoean Modernism: The Duna Example.” In Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, edited
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by Maurice Godelier and Marilyn Strathern, 234–55. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991. Relatively infrequent war and limited violence constrained opportunities for development of despotic rule.
Oliver, Douglas L. Ancient Tahitian Society, vol. 1, Ethnography. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1974. Chap. 12, “Warfare,” 375–408, reconstructed from historical sources.
Oliver, Douglas L. Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands. 2 vols. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1988. Chap. 11, “Warfare and Killing,” 1:423–500.
Orchiston, D. Wayne. “Settlement or Citadel? The Basic Function of the Maori Pa in East Coast South Island New Zealand Prehistory and Protohistory.” Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania 14 (1979): 168–83. They were citadels, but rare because war relatiely infrequent and highly mobile— normally taking the form of surprise, raids.
Orchiston, D. Wayne. Warfare in Melanesia: The Leonhard Adam Ethnological Collection, Part Two. Parkville, Australia: University of Melbourne, 1975. Part 1, “Warfare in Melanesia: An Introduction,” 5–39, surveys the subject; the rest is a catalogue of the exhibit of weapons and related material.
Ortner, Sherry B. “Gender and Sexuality in Hierarchical Societies: The Case of Polynesia and Some Comparative Implications.” In Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of General and Sexuality, edited by Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, 359–409. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Warfare as avenue of mobility supplement rather than alternate to descent-line building (366); marriage as source of military alliance (368); warfare, or war training, as means of controlling young males (402).
Pflanz-Cook, Susan, and Edwin Cook. “Manga Pacification.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 179–97. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. “Interpretations of Highland Warfare,” 180–84, prefers Koch’s thesis about lack of mediating institutions to functionalist land-shortage explanations.
Rennie, Sandra. “Missionaries and War Lords: A Study of Cultural Interaction on Abaiang and Tarawa.” Oceania 60 (1989): 125–38. Protestant missionary Hiram Bingham, Jr., landed in the Gilberts in 1857; he preached a message of Christian love and thought he was making converts. Although this view accorded with Gilbertese beliefs, two war chiefs perceived him as a potent sorcerer and incorporated him in their wars.
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Riesenberg, Saul H. The Native Polity of Ponape. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, vol. 10. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968. See the section on “Wars,” 60–62.
Sahlins, Marshall D. “Raw Women, Cooked Men, and Other ‘Great Things’ of the Fiji Islands.” In The Ethnography of Cannibalism, edited by Paula Brown and Donald Tuzin, 72–93. Washington: Society for Psychological Anthropology, 1983. Battle captives as usual victims (80); cannibalism as ritual reproduction, equivalent to life-giving by women, citing the Maori adage about the equivalence of war and childbirth (83).
Satterthwait, L. D. “Aboriginal Australia: The Simplest Technologies?” Archaeology and Physical Anthropology of Oceania 15 (1980): 153–56. Contra the common use of aborigines to contrast material poverty with cultural complexity, the technologies varied and were comparable to those elsewhere.
Taçon, Paul, and Christopher Chippindale. “Australia’s Ancient Warriors: Changing Depictions of Fighting in the Rock Art of Arnhem Land, N.T.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 4 (1994): 211–28; comments, 228–48. Oldest portions of the rock art date back 10,000 years, the oldest anywhere; change from skirmish to battle, ca. 6,000–4,000 B.P., may correspond to growing social complexity.
Tefft, Stanton K. “Structural Contradictions, War Traps, and Peace.” Journal of Peace Research 25 ( June 1988): 149–63. On war among the Enga of Papua New Guinea, the Maori of New Zealand.
Tippett, A. R. “Fijian War in the Missionary Journals.” Paper read before the Fiji Society, Sept. 1954. In Aspects of Pacific Ethnohistory, by A. R. Tippett, 39–80. South Pasadena, California: William Carey Library, 1973. Characteristics of traditional war in Fiji chiefdoms.
Tregaskis, Richard. The Warrior King: Hawaii’s Kamehameha the Great. New York: Macmillan, 1973. van Bakel, M. A. “Warfare in Aboriginal Polynesia.” In The Anthropology of Peace: Essays in Honor of E. Adamson Hoebel, edited by Vivian J. Rohrl, M. E. R. Nicholson, and Mario D. Zamora, 165–89. Studies in Third World Societies, Publication 47. Williamsburg, Virginia: Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, June 1992. In the absence of states (Hawaii possibly excepted), fighting seldom attained level of real warfare.
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Vayda, Andrew P. War In Ecological Perspective: Persistence, Change, and Adaptive Processes in Three Oceanian Societies. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1976. War as social process tending to maintan cultural or ecological equilibrium, using the Marings, Ibans, and Maoris as case studies.
White, Geoffrey M. “War, Peace, and Piety in Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 109–39. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. “Raiding and A’ara Culture,” 111–23, on raiding as central feature of precolonial life.
Young, Michael W. “Doctor Bromilow and the Bwaidoke Wars.” Journal of Pacific History 12 (1977): 130–53. Accounts of traditional warfare in the D’Entrecasteaux islands.
Zelenietz, Martin. “The End of Headhunting in New Georgia.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 91–108. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. Despite the title, on the practice and economic, political, and religious significance of headhunting before pacification; its cessation was the product of indigenous change as well as imperial suppression.
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Barth, Fredrik. Ritual and Knowledge among the Baktaman of New Guinea. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget; New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1975. Chap. 16, “Killing, Warfare and Cannibalism,” 144–54.
Bennett, John W. “Ecosystem Analogies in Cultural Ecology.” In Population, Ecology, and Social Evolution, edited by Steven Polgar, 273–303. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1975. On the problem of applying ecology to culture, with substantial discussion of Maring warfare in relation to environment.
Berndt, Ronald M. “Political Structure in the Eastern Central Highlands of New Guinea.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 381–423. Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. “The Political Unit and War,” 392–95.
Blackwood, Beatrice. The Kukukuku of the Upper Watut. Edited by C. R. Hallpike. Monograph Series 2. Oxford: Pitt Rivers Museum, 1978. Section 5, “Warfare and Fighting,” 117–22, in chap. 3, “Social Organization.”
Brandewie, Ernest. “The Place of the Big Man in Traditional Hagen Society in the Central Highlands of New Guinea.” Ethnology 10 (1971): 194–210. Reprinted in Anthropological Approaches to Political Behavior, edited by Frank McGlynn and Arthur Tuden, 62–82. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. See “The Big Man as Ritual and War Leader,” 79–80.
Brown, D. J. J. “The Structuring of Polopa Feasting and Warfare.” Man new series 14 (1979): 712–33. How cycles of raiding might maintain a social system in highland New Guinea.
Brown, Paula. “Change and the Boundaries of Systems in Highland New Guinea: The Chimbu.” In Social and Ecological Systems, edited by P. C. Burnham and R. F. Ellen, 235–51. Association of Social Anthropologists of the Commonwealth, Monograph 18. London: Academic Press, 1979. War and the shaping of Chimbu society.
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Brown, Paula. The Chimbu: A Study of Change in the New Guinea Highlands. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1972. See chap. 11, “Warfare,” 57–64.
Brown, Paula. Highland Peoples of New Guinea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Numerous remarks on war and its effects, but see especially the section on “War,” 207–10.
Brown, Paula. “New Guinea: Ecology, Society, and Culture.” Annual Review of Anthropology 7 (1978): 263–91. See the section on “Warfare,” 280–84.
Brown, Paula. “New Men and Big Men: Emerging Social Stratification in the Third World, a Case Study from the New Guinea Highlands.” Ethnology 26 (1987): 87–106. Brown, Paula. “Simbu Aggression and the Drive to Win.” In “Culture and Aggression,” edited by Paula Brown and Ilsa Schuster, 165–70. Anthropological Quarterly 59 (1986): 155–204. Brumbaugh, Robert C. “Economy, Violence, and the Ancestors.” Anthropology 5 (December 1981): 3–22. Equally necessary, economic and warlike organization are also contradictory for the Papuan Mountain Ok.
Chowning, Ann, and Ward H. Goddenough. “Lakalai Political Organization.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 113–74. Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. See the section on “War and Peace,” 150–55.
Donaldson, M. “Warfare, Production and Sexual Antagonism.” Paper presented at 5th National Political Economy Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 1980. Transition from hunting and gathering to horticulture required female subjugation and male inequalities: males become war specialists, females food, in Papua New Guinea.
Du Toit, Brian M. Akuna: A New Guinea Village Community. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1975. See the section on “Warfare,” 77–89, in chap. 4, “Coercive and Judiciary Forces.”
Eyde, David B. “Ecological Factors in the Variation in Intensity of Warfare in a New Guinea River System.” Paper presented at the American Anthropological Association annual meeting, Washington, November 1989.
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Feil, D. K. The Evolution of Highland Papua New Guinea Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Chap. 4, “Warfare,” 62–89, in the eastern highlands; see also “Renewed Warfare,” 273–76, in chap. 9, “The Legacy of the Past.”
Freedman, Michael P. “Social Organization of a Siassi Island Community.” In Cultures of the Pacific: Selected Readings, edited by Thomas G. Harding and Ben J. Wallace, 159–79. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1970. “Siassi Society: The Village,” 160–65, discribes warfare, actually raiding, as one of the only corporate activities, with qualifications (163–65).
Gardner, Robert, and Karl G. Heider. Gardens of War: Life and Death in the New Guinea Stone Age. New York: Random House, 1968. See chap. 6, “Violence,” 135–78.
Gelber, Marilyn G. Gender and Society in the New Guinea Highlands: An Anthropological Perspective on Antagonism toward Women. Women in CrossCultural Perspective. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1986. Numerous references to the place of endemic warfare.
Gewertz, Deborah B. “The Father Who Bore Me: The Role of Tsambunwuro during Chambri Initiation Ceremonies.” In Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, edited by Gilbert H. Herdt, 286–320. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. Mock warfare as part of initiation (293–96).
Gewertz, Deborah B. “The Myth of the Blood-Men: An Explanation of Chambri Warfare.” Journal of Anthropological Research 34 (1978): 577–88. Contra Durham, individual motives as well as biology must be invoked to explain war.
Glasse, Robert M. Huli of Papua: A Cognatic Descent System. Cahiers de l’Homme, new series 8. Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968. Chap. 6, “Conflict,” 87–110, discusses conduct and organization of war.
Glasse, Robert M., and Shirley Landenbaum. “South Fore Politics.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 362–80. Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. See the section on “External Relations,” 366–68.
Godelier, Maurice. The Making of Great Men: Male Domination and Power among the New Guinea Baruya. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1986.
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See “Warriors, Shamans, Cassowary Hunters: Status for the Taking,” 96–99, in chap. 4, “Male Hierarchies”; “The Aoulatta: The Great Warrior,” 103–12, in chap. 5, “The Discovery of Great Men.” See also index entries: “warfare” and “warriors.”
Godelier, Maurice. “Social Hierarchies among the Baruya of New Guinea.” In Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies, edited by Andrew Strathern, 3–34. Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology 11. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Before submitting to Australian control in 1960, Baruya self-government centered on the roles of great-men, especially warriors and shamans, based on male domination of women; see especially “The goulatta: The Great Warriors,” 18–21.
Gordon, Robert. “The Decline of the Kiapdom and the Resurgence of ‘Tribal Fighting’ in Enga.” Oceania 53 (1983): 205–23. Violence bred by dealing authority of local magistrates in highland New Guinea.
Gordon, Robert J., and Mervyn J. Meggitt. Law and Order in the New Guinea Highlands: Encounters with Enga. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, for the University of Vermont, 1985. Chap. 1, “Law, War, and Disorder,” 1–16, discusses traditional warfare; chap. 6, “The Politics of Spoils,” 145–89, considers contemporary manifestations.
Hallpike, C. R. Bloodshed and Vengeance in the Papuan Mountains: The Generation of Conflict in Tauade Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977. Ethnological survey emphasizing war, especially chap. 5, “Warfare,” 196–231.
Harrison, Simon. “The Symbolic Construction of Aggression and War in a Sepik River Society.” Man new series 24 (1989): 583–99. Among the Avatip, war is a deliberate construct set against normal peaceful sociability, partly to cope with enemies, partly to maintain internal hierarchy.
Hayano, David Mamoru. “Marriage Alliance and Warfare: The Tauna Awa of New Guinea.” Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1972. Dissertation Abstracts International 33 (1972): 990–B. Marriage alliance had little effect on frequency or intensity of warfare, the chief male path to status.
Hayano, David Mamoru. “Marriage Alliance and Warfare: A View from the New Guinea Highlands.” American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 281–93. Intravillage identity and loyalty tend to outweigh intervillage affinal obligations; marriage is a weak deterrent to warfare, especially since warfare rather than accumulation of goods is major source of male prestige among Tauna Awa.
Heider, Karl G. The Dugun Dani: A Papuan Culture in the Highlands of West New Guinea. Chicago: Aldine, 1970. A general ethnology stressing the role of war in Dani society; see especially chap. 3, “Conflict,” 99–133.
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Heider, Karl G. Grand Valley Dani: Peaceful Warriors. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1979. See the section on “War,” 88–112.
Herdt, Gilbert H. “Aspects of Socialization for Agression in Sambia Ritual and Warfare.” In “Culture and Aggression,” edited by Paula Brown and Ilsa Schuster, 160–64. Anthropological Quarterly 59 (1986): 155–204. Herdt, Gilbert H. “Fetish and Fantasy in Sambia Initiation.” In Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, edited by Gilbert H. Herdt, 44–98. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. Warfare, although now suppresed by Australian conquerors, remains the essential context of Sambian initiation (52).
Herdt, Gilbert H. Guardians of the Flutes: Idioms of Masculinity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. War as one shaper of masculine identity in the eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea.
Hogbin, Ian. The Leaders and the Led: Social Control in Wogeo, New Guinea. Carlton, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1978. Numerous references to fighting, raiding, and warfare.
Hojlund, F. “The Function of Prestige Weapons in the Reproduction of New Guinea Highlands Tribal Society.” Oral History 9 no. 3 (1981): 26–51. In Abstracts in Anthropology 11 (1984), no. 971. Warfare widespread when gold prospector Michael J. Leahy led an expedition through Central Highlands of New Guinea in 1933.
Huber, Peter Burkett. “Defending the Cosmos: Violence and Social Order among the Anggor of New Guinea.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 619–61. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. Why Western words like “war” may obscure non-Western realities.
Huyghe, Bernard. “Toward a Structural Model of Violence: Male Initiation Rituals and Tribal Warfare.” In Peace and War: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, edited by Mary LeCron Foster and Robert A. Rubinstein, 25–48. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1986. Secondary analysis of Herdt’s Guardians of the Flutes, offering a psychoanalytic interpretation of war and masculinity.
Kaberry, Phyllis M. “Political Organization among the Northern Abelam.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 35–73. Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. Including conflict and war.
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Kaspru, Aloys. The Tribes of the Middle Ramu and the Upper Karain Rivers (North-East New Guinea). Studia Instituti Anthropos, vol. 17. St. Augustin bei Bonn: Verlag des Anthropos-Instituts, 1973. See chap. 12, “Warfare,” 115–22.
Keesing, Roger M. “Introduction.” In Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, edited by Gilbert H. Herdt, 1–43. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. On the centrality of warfare to New Guinea cultures.
Kelly, Raymond C. Etoro Social Structure: A Study in Structural Contradiction. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977. See chap. 1, “The Ethnographic Setting,” 7–31, discusses war in the New Guinea highlands.
Knauft, Bruce M. “Reconsidering Violence in Simple Human Societies: Homicide among the Gebussi of New Guinea.” Current Anthropology 28 (1987): 457–82. Comments, 482–500. Including some effort to relate murder to other forms of violence.
Koch, Klaus-Friedrich. “Cannibalistic Revenge in Jalé Warfare.” Natural History 74 (February 1970): 40–51. Motives for war in western New Guinea.
Koch, Klaus-Friedrich. “Pigs and Politics in the New Guinea Highlands: Conflict Escalation among the Jalé.” In The Disputing Process: Law in Ten Societies, edited by Laura Nader and Harry F. Todd, 41–58. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978. Including warfare.
Koch, Klaus-Friedrich. War and Peace in Jalémó: The Management of Conflict in Highland New Guinea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1974. Primarily concerned with conflict management, but extensive discussion of war.
Koch, Klaus-Friedrich. “Warfare and Anthropophagy in Jalé Society.” Anthropologica no. 12 (1970): 37–58. Lacey Roderic. “The Challenge of Enga Violence.” Pacific Viewpoint 28 (October 1987): 145–50. Essay revew of Gordon and Meggitt, Law and Order in the New Guinea Highlands (1985), with some further observations.
Langness, L. L. “Bena Bena Political Organization.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 298–316.
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Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. Politics defined by warfare.
Langness, L. L. “Ritual, Power, and Male Dominance in the New Guinea Highlands.” In The Anthropology of Power: Ethnographic Studies from Asia, Oceania, and the New World, edited by Raymond D. Fogelson and Richard N. Adams, 3–22. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Academic Press, 1977. War and the organization of society among the Bena Bena.
Langness, L. L. “Sexual Antagonism in the New Guinea Highlands: A Bena Bena Example.” Oceania 37 (1967): 161–77. Reprinted in Women and Society: An Anthropological Reader, edited by Sharon W. Tiffany, 256–79. Montreal and St. Albans, Vermont: Eden Press Women’s Publications, 1979. Langness, L. L. “Traditional Political Organization.” In Anthropology in Papua New Guinea: Readings from the Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea, edited by Ian Hogbin, 142–73. Carlton, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1973. War as the means of defining political units.
Langness, L. L. “Violence in the New Guinea Highlands.” In Collective Violence, edited by James F. Short, Jr., and Marvin E. Wolfgang, 172–85. Law in Action. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972. Warfare and raiding as major aspects of violence.
Lemonnier, Pierre. “From Great Men to Big Men: Peace, Substitution and Competition in the Highlands of New Guinea.” In Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, edited by Maurice Godelier and Marilyn Strathern, 7–27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991. On the complementarity of war and competitive intergroup exchange as interchangeable forms of rivalry, see “Exchanges Born of War, Exchanges Born of Peace,” 8–13.
Lipset, David M. “Seafaring Sepiks: Ecology, Warfare, and Prestige in Murik Trade.” Research in Economic Anthropology 7 (1985): 67–94.
Local trade, chiefly fish for sago, continued despite violence, though Murik can no longer resort to violence (north coast of Papua New Guinea).
Lowman, Cherry. Displays of Power: Art and War among the Marings of New Guinea. With a design analysis of Maring shields by Alexander
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Alland, Jr. Museum of Primitive Art Studies 6. New York: The Museum, 1973. Maring shields and their symbolism.
Lowman-Vayda, Cherry. “Maring Big Men.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 317–61. Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. Much on the ritual and regulation of conflict and war.
McArthur, Margaret. “Pigs for the Ancestors: A Review Article.” Oceania 45 (December 1974): 87–123. Defects of Rappaport’s linking of ritual and warfare.
Macintyre, Martha. “Warfare and the Changing Context of ‘Kune’ on Tubetube.” Journal of Pacific History 18 (1983): 11–34. Precolonial trade alliance and warfare system in the Massim [eastern Papua New Guinea], ceremonial change replacing warfare after pacification.
Maher, Robert F. “From Cannibal Raid to Copra Kompani: Changing Patterns of Koriki Politics.” Ethnology 24 (1985): 309–31. Reprinted in Anthropological Approaches to Political Behavior, edited by Frank McGlynn and Arthur Tuden, 293–319. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. War and ceremony intertwined through cannibalism made warriors the most important leaders in this coastal New Guinea society before pacification; see especially “Traditional Koriki Political Leadership,” 294–304.
Meggitt, Mervyn. Blood Is Their Argument: Warfare among the Mae Enga of the New Guinea Highlands. Explorations in World Ethnology. Palo Alto, California: Mayfield, 1977. Detailed account of traditional warfare as practiced through the 1950s.
Meltzoff, Sara Keene. “Lethal Dance.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 201–15. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Mishler, Craig. “Narrativity and Metaphor in Ethnographic Film: A Critique of Robert Gardner’s Dead Birds.” American Anthropologist 87 (1985): 668–72. Modjeska, Nicholas. “Production and Inequality: Perspectives from Central New Guinea.” In Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies, edited by Andrew Strathern, 50–108. Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology 11. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. “Pre-Eminence, Pigs, and Power,” 86–102, considers the nature of Duna warfare as it affects male social position differentially.
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Morren, George E. B., Jr. The Miyanmin: Human Ecology of a Papua New Guinea Society. Studies in Cultural Anthropology 9. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1975. Reprinted Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1986. Chap. 10, “Expansion, Warfare, and Migration,” 263–88.
Morren, George E. B., Jr. “Warfare on the Highland Fringe of New Guinea: The Case of the Mountain Ok.” In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, 169 –207. Studies in Anthropology. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Environment, history, and the strategic and tactical conduct of warfare.
Mosko, Mark. “Great Men and Total Systems: North Mekeo Hereditary Authority and Social Reproduction.” In Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, edited by Maurice Godelier and Marilyn Strathern, 97–114. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991. Conceptualizing internal peace as reciprocal female blood exchange, external war as reciprocal male blood exchange, as the two major spheres of social life; see especially “Hereditary Leadership in War and Peace,” 101–104.
Newton, Janice. “Orokaiva Warfare and Production.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 92 (1983): 487–507. Functional and ecological explanations of warfare are faulty. In precontact Papua New Guinea, regular female labor allows males to engage in irregular feasting and warfare; the pattern persists, though new activities have replaced war. Women sometimes fought but usually participated in endemic warfare by inciting men; on long raids they carried food and armor (492).
Ongka. A Self-Account by a New Guinea Big-Man. Translated by Andrew Strathern. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979. Chaps. 6, “War,” 49–62; 9, “Driving out ‘Warfare,’ ” 80–84; “My Personal Enemies,” 85–96.
Peoples, James G. “Individual or Group Advantage? A Reinterpretation of the Maring Ritual Cycle.” Current Anthropology 23 (1982): 291–300. Comments, 300–309. References, 309–10. The cycle described by Rappaport explained as the means by which individuals reciprocate the military services of allies.
Ploeg, Anton. “The Establishment of the Pax Neerlandica in the Bokondini Area.” In The Pacification of Melanesia, edited by Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, 161–77. Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania, Monograph Series 7. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979. On precontact warfare, see “Violence,” 168–71.
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Ploeg, Anton. Government in Wanggulam. Verhandeling van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 57. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1969. Chap. 8, “Conflicts and Settlements,” 133–67, deals largely with raiding and warfare in the central highlands of West Irian.
Pospisil, Leopold. “I Am Very Sorry I Cannot Kill You Anymore: War and Peace among the Kapauku.” In Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Stephen P. Reyna and R. E. Downs, 113–126. War and Society, vol. 2. Langhorne, Pennsylvania: Gordon & Breach, 1994. Puma, Edward Li. “War in the New Guinea Highlands: Theory and Ethnography in Conflict.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 180–196. New York: Paragon House, 1987. *Radford, R. “Burning the Spears: A ‘Peace Movement’ in the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea.” Journal of Pacific Studies 12 (1977): 40–54. Rappaport, Roy A. Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1967. Despite the title, centrally concerned with warfare as an ecological function; see especially chap. 4, “Relations with Other Local Populations,” 99–152.
Rappaport, Roy A. “Ritual Regulation of Environmental Relations among a New Guinea People.” Ethnology 6 (1967): 17–30. Reprinted in Environment and Cultural Behavior: Ecological Studies in Cultural Anthropology, edited by Andrew P. Vayda, 181–201. American Museum Sourcebooks in Anthropology. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1969. Including war- and peace-making rituals.
*Read, Kenneth E. Return to the High Valley. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. The easy abandonment of the warrior role and its associated definition of masculinity in terms of ferocity, toughness, arrogance, etc.—E. L. Schieffelin, Natural History 95 ( June 1986): 24, 26–27.
Reay, Marie. “The Magico-Religious Foundations of New Guinea Highlands Warfare.” In Sorcerer and Witch in Melanesia, edited by Michele Stephen, 83–120. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1987. Robbins, Sterling. Auyana: Those Who Held onto Home. Anthropological Studies in the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea, vol. 6. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982. Chap. 5, “Warfare,” 182–220, discusses techniques and strategies (184–92), a 25year history (193–210), and the effects of war (210–20).
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Robbins, Sterling Gregg. “Warfare, Marriage, and the Distribution of Goods in Auyana.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1970. Intensive warfare among the highland New Guinea group is a major factor in group recruitment, distribution of goods (especially pigs), and distribution of marriages.
Rubel, Paula G., and Abraham Rosman. Your Own Pigs You May Not Eat: A Comparative Study of New Guinea Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. Warfare in the context of structuralism and exchange theory.
Shieffelin, Edward L. The Sorrow of the Lonely and the Burning of the Dancers. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976. Chap. 4, “Organizing Actions: Those at the House and Those Who Came,” 73–93, dicusses warfare, among the Kaluli of Papua New Guinea.
*Schiltz, M. “War, Peace and the Exercise of Power: Perspectives on Society, Gender and the State in the New Guinea Highlands.” Social Analysis 21 (1987): 3–19. Schwimmer, Eric. “La guerre aux femmes (Nouvelle-Guinée): Propos et discussions.” Anthropologie et Sociétés 7 (1983): 187–92. Shankman, Paul. “Ecology, Warfare, and Politics in the New Guinea Highlands.” Reviews in Anthropology 5 (1978): 381–88. Essay review of Meggitt, Blood Is Their Argument.
Sillitoe, Paul. “The Art of War: Wola Shield Designs.” Man new series 15 (1980): 483–501. Structuralist analysis shows apparently abstract symbolism is actually anthropomorphic and related to revenge obligations.
Sillitoe, Paul. “Big Men and War in New Guinea.” Man new series 14 (1978): 252–71. Political motivations of primitive warfare.
Sillitoe, Paul. Give and Take: Exchange in Wola Society. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979. On warfare among this highland New Guinea people, see chaps. 3, “Social Order,” 47–82; and 4, “Action-Sets and Networks,” 83–105.
Sillitoe, Paul. “Land Shortage and War in New Guinea.” Ethnology 16 (1977): 71–81. Ecological factors of some kind always underlie primitive warfare.
*Sillitoe, Paul. “Warfare in New Guinea: A Comparative Study.” M.A. thesis, Durham University, 1972. Tests a number of variable on 27 New Guinea societies: ecological, economic, or political factors may predominate in particular instances, the character of individual big men often decisive.
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Sorenson, E. Richard. “Cooperation and Freedom among the Fore of New Guinea.” In Learning Non-Aggression: The Experience of Non-Literate Societies, edited by Ashley Montagu, 12–30. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. War and political development promoted by limits on virgin land.
Sorenson, E. Richard. The Edge of the Forest: Land, Childhood and Change in a New Guinea Protoagricultural Society. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1976. See the section on “Warfare,” 40–41, in chap. 3, “Conditions of Existence.”
Strathern, Andrew. “Let the Bow Go Down.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 229–50. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Strathern, Andrew. One Father, One Blood: Descent and Group Structure among the Malpa People. London: Tavistock, 1972. Chap. 4, “Settlement and Warfare,” 73–90.
Strathern, Andrew. The Rope of Moka: Big-Men and Ceremonial Exchange in Mount Hagen New Guinea. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Chap. 4, “Warfare, Alliance, and Compensation,” 53–92.
Strathern, Marilyn. Women in Between: Female Roles in a Male World: Mount Hagen, New Guinea. Seminar Studies in Anthropology. London and New York: Seminar Press, 1972. Numerous remarks on the pace of war in Hagen society, and on women’s role in warfare, chiefly as go-betweens.
Tiffany, Sharon W. “Paradigms of Power: Feminist Reflections on the Anthropology of Women in Pacific Island Societies.” Women in International Development, Working Paper 79. East Lansing: Michigan State University, January 1985. Posopisil Kapauku Papuans claims women apolitical, concerned exclusively with domestic responsibility, but also shows them active on the battlefield (59), suggesting he’s wrong (15).
Tuzin, Donald F. The Ilahita Arapesh: Dimensions of Unity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. See especially chap. 3, “Reluctant Warriors,” 44–70, on traditional warfare.
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Vayda, Andrew P. “Explaining Why Marings Fought.” Journal of Anthropological Research 45 (1989): 159–77. Self-critique of his own 1970s writings, criticism of his critics, and appeal for attention to diversity.
Vayda, Andrew P. “Phases of the Process of War and Peace among the Marings of New Guinea.” Oceania 42 (September 1971): 1–24. Nonconquest warfare as transient stage in the cycle of war propelled by ecological factors.
Watson, James B. “Tairora: The Politics of Despotism in a Small Society.” In Politics in New Guinea: Traditional and in the Context of Change, Some Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 224–75. Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. The career of a near-legendary warrior who died ca. 1930.
Watson, James B. Tairora Culture: Contingency and Pragmatism. Anthropological Studies in the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea, vol. 5. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1983. War discussed throughout (see index), but see especially “The Political Turbulence of War,” 209–16, in chap. 6, “Social Process in an Open Society.”
Westermark, George D. “ ‘Ol I Skulim Mipela’: Contemporary Warfare in the Papua New Guinea Eastern Highlands.” Anthropological Quarterly 57 (1984): 114–24. Resurgence of intergroup fighting since the early 1970s.
Young, Michael W. Fighting with Food: Leadership, Values and Social Control in a Massim Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. The transmutation of traditional warfare, food exchange as war surrogate.
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PART FIVE
PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE
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PRECOLUMBIAN AMERICAN COMPLEX SOCIETIES
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of the development of chiefdoms and states in the Americas before the European conquests. Adams, Robert M. “Late Prehispanic Empires of the New World.” In Power and Propaganda: A Symposium on Ancient Empires, edited by Mogens Trolle Larsen, 59–73. Mesopotamia: Copenhagen Studies in Assyriology, vol. 7. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1979. The Aztec and Inca empires were fundamentally military.
*Brumfiel, Elizabeth M., and John W. Fox, eds. Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. How factional competition within kinship and political structures in ancient New World societies led to the development of chiefdoms, states, and empires.
Brundage, Burr Cartwright. Two Earths, Two Heavens: An Essay Contrasting the Aztecs and the Incas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. See especially chap. 3, “Wars and Premonitions of Empire,” 35–45.
Burland, C. A. Peoples of the Sun: The Civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. New York: Praeger, 1976. Scattered remarks on military institutions and warfare in Mesoamerican and Andean states.
Carneiro, Robert L. “The Chiefdom: Precursor of the State.” In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, 37–79. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Under the proper circumstances, warfare may create chiefdoms and may further convert them into states.
Carneiro, Robert L. “Point Counterpoint: Ecology and Ideology in the Development of New World Civilizations.” In Ideology and PreColumbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey Conrad, 175–203. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Archaeological evidence may be ambiguous, but coercion through warfare under conditions of circumscription remains the best explanation of state formation for Maya, Teotihuacan, and Inca.
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Carrasco, Pedro. “The Political Economy of the Aztec and Inca States.” In The Inca and Aztec States, 1400–1800: Anthropology and History, edited by George A. Collier, Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, 23–40. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Warfare as an aspect of political economy.
Coe, Michael D. “Pre-Conquest America.” In Swords and Hilt Weapons, compiled by Multimedia Books Limited, 8–19. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993. Illustrated overview.
Collier, George A., Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, eds. The Inca and Aztec States, 1400–1800: Anthropology and History. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Much of relevance to military institutions, but see especially the articles by Carrasco and Morris, individually annotated.
Conrad, Geoffrey W., and Arthur A. Demarest. Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. War as product of religious institutions.
Creamer, Winifred, and Jonathan Haas. “Tribe versus Chiefdom in Lower Central America.” American Antiquity 50 (1985): 738–54. How the distinction may be recognized archaeologically, including contrasts in methods of warmaking (743, 746, 748–49).
Demarest, Arthur A., and Geoffrey Conrad. “Ideological Adaptation and the Rise of the Aztec and Inca Empires.” In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata, 373–400. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. Ideology, perhaps even more than polity or economy, supported the military institutions of both states and their militaristic expansion.
Drennan, Robert D. “Pre-Hispanic Chiefdom Trajectories in Mesoamerica, Central America, and Northern South America.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 263–87. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Although war was endemic, it had little developmental significance; see especially “Warfare and Long-Distance Exchange,” 279–81.
Eddy, Frank W. Archaeology: A Cross-Evolutionary Approach. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984.
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On the rise of militarism in the New World, see especially the section on “Classic Stage,” 263–75, in chap. 10, “New World Civilizations.”
Fagan, Brian M. Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade: The Americas before Columbus. London: Thames & Hudson, 1991. Survey of precolumbian societies with due attention to warfare, warriors, and weapons, especially among state societies.
Fiedel, Stuart J. Prehistory of the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Chap. 6, “Chiefdoms and States: The Emergence of Complex Societies,” 223–339, discusses the roles of warfare and military institutions in the career of complex societies in the region from Mesoamerica to the Andes.
Feinman, Gary, and Jill Neitzel. “Too Many Types: An Overview of Sedentary Prestate Societies in the Americas.” Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 7 (1984): 39–102. The section of “Functions of Leaders,” 49–56, addresses geographical variations in war leadership.
Fowler, William R., Jr. The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations: The Pipil-Nicarao of Central America. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 194. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. See “Warfare,” 206–12, in chap. 12, “Warfare, Law, and Politics.”
Gledhill, John. “The Imperial Form and Universal History: Some Reflections on Relativism and Generalization.” In Domination and Resistance, edited by Daniel Miller, Michael Rowlands, and Christopher Tilly, 108–26. One World Archaeology 3. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989. What the Aztec and Inca empires tell us about hegemonic (rather than territorial) empire, and the vital role of military institutions in conquest and administration.
Haas, Jonathan. “Class Conflict and the State in the New World.” In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, 80–102. New Directions in Archaeology; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. How war or other coercive action may be studied archaeologically.
Hardoy, Jorge E. Pre-Columbian Cities. New York: Walker, 1973. Fortification and other military factors affect urban development.
Helms, Mary W. Ancient Panama: Chiefs in Search of Power. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. Remarks on the uses of war in chiefdoms.
Helms, Mary W. “Art Styles and Interaction Spheres in Central America and the Caribbean: Polished Black Wood in the Greater
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Antilles.” In Chiefdoms in the Americas, edited by Robert D. Drennan and Carlos A. Uribe, 67–83. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1987. Leadership in external war is an important function of elites in chiefdoms, and weapons may serve symbolic as well as practical purposes.
*Helms, Mary W. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. “Discusses the roles of trade, warfare, and public symbols in maintaining chiefdoms in historic Panama.”—review by Thomas A. Abler, “Division and Conflict in PreHispanic and Early Postcontact America,” Contemporary Anthropology 36 (1995): 532–33, at 532.
Johnson, Jay K. “From Chiefdom to Tribe in Northeast Mississippi: The Soto Expedtion as a Window on a Culture in Transition.” In The Hernando de Soto Expedition: History, Historiography, and “Discovery” in the Southeast, edited by Patricia Galloway, 295–312. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Katz, Friedrich. The Ancient American Civilizations. Translated by K. M. Lois Simpson. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972. Reprinted New York: Praeger, 1974. Substantial but scattered remarks on military institutions in pre-Columbian civilizations.
Keegan, William F., and Maclachlan, Morgan D. “The Evolution of Avunculocal Chiefdoms: A Reconstruction of Taino Kinship and Politics.” American Anthropologist 91 (1989): 613–30. Institutionalized postmarital settlement with wife’s uncle reflects a response to internal war in a Caribbean society formerly adopted for external war; see especially “The Political Economy of Matrilineal Society,” 618–22.
Lanning, Edward P. “The Transformation to Civilization.” In Prehispanic America, edited by Shirley Gorenstein, 110–23. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1974. Incidence of war increased with the appearance of states.
Lathrap, Donald W. The Upper Amazon. Ancient Peoples and Places, vol. 70. New York: Praeger, 1970. Archaeological survey, with numerous references to warfare.
Linares, Olga F. Ecology and the Arts in Ancient Panama: On the Development of Social Rank and Symbolism in the Central Provinces. Studies in PreColumbian Art and Archaeology 17. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University, 1977.
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See especially “Trade and Power in the Central Provinces: The Chronicles of the Sixteenth Century,” 70–77, on war as factor in stratification (72), and the nature of chiefdom warfare (74–75).
Patterson, Thomas C. America’s Past: A New World Archaeology. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1973. Chap. 5, “Native American States,” 91–117, links war and conquest to state formation.
Roosevelt, Anna Curtenius. “Chiefdoms in the Amazon and Orinoco.” In Chiefdoms in the Americas, edited by Robert D. Drennan and Carlos A. Uribe, 153–84. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1987. Early explorers found warlike and expansionist societies on the river floodplains (154), very likely chiefdoms or primitive states, probably formed along lines suggested by Carneiro’s circumscription and conflict theory; see especially “Resource Access and Exploitation,” 163–65.
Sanders, William T., and Joseph Marino. New World Prehistory: Archaeology of the American Indian. Foundations of Modern Anthropology Series. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970. On warfare in social evolution, see chaps. 5, “Tribes, Chiefdoms, and States in Mesoamerica,” 51–66; and 6, “Tribe to Empire in the Central Andes,” 67–82.
Snarskis, M. J. “Central America: The Lower Caribbean.” In The Archaeology of Lower Central America, edited by Frederick W. Lange and Doris Z. Stone, 195–232. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. Following Carneiro, endemic warfare in eastern Costa Rica led to fragmentation rather than state formation because defeated groups were not geographically or socially circumscribed; see especially “Warfare and Balkanization: Period VI (A.D. 1000–1550),” 224–30; and “Conclusions,” 230–32.
Spencer, Charles S. “Rethinking the Chiefdom.” In Chiefdoms in the Americas, edited by Robert D. Drennan and Carlos A. Uribe, 369–87. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1987. Interpolity warfare is one of the four distinguishing characteristics of chiefdoms.
Steward, Julian H. “Cultural Evolution in South America.” In The Social Anthropology of Latin America: Essays in Honor of Ralph Leon Beals, edited by Walter Goldschmidt and Harry Hoijer, 199–223. Los Angeles: Latin American Center, University of California Los Angeles, 1970. Remarks on warfare in social evolution, and in state formation.
Webb, Malcolm C. “Functional and Historical Parallelisms between Mesoamerican and Mississippian Cultures.” In The Southeastern Ceremonial
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Complex: Artifacts and Analysis, edited by Patricia Galloway, 279–93. The Cottonlandia Conference, 1984. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Both cultures became highly militaristic in their late phases, though for apparently quite divergent reasons.
THE AMERICAS GENERAL
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of military institutions and warfare among the native peoples of the Americas, from earliest times through World War II. Latin America is included, but the United States and Canada appear only with respect to their interactions with Native Americans. Alegría, Ricardo E. “The Use of Noxious Gas in Warfare by the Taino and Carib Indians of the Antilles.” Revista/Review Interamericana 8 (1978): 409–15. Pepper on burning coals as a mucous irritant and cough provoker by these and culturally related groups.
Altman, Ida, and Reginald D. Butler. “Review Article: The Contact of Cultures: Perspectives on the Quincentenary.” American Historical Review 99 (1994): 478–503. Averkieva, Julia P. “On the Forms of Disintegration of the Clan Society of North American Indians.” In Political Anthropology: The State of the Art, edited by S. Lee Seaton and Henri J. M. Claessen, 175–82. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1979. War, hypertrophy, and the fall of clan government, a la Engels (180–81).
Bancroft-Hunt, Norman. Warriors: Warfare and the Native American Indian. London: Salamander Books, 1995. Berkhofer, Robert E., Jr. “The North American Frontier as Process and Context.” In The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, edited by Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, 43–75. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981. Observes the divergent forms and aims of Indian and Euroamerican warfare and the more general problem of defining war in nonstate societies.
*Blakeslee, Donald J. “The Origin and Spread of the Calumet Ceremony.” American Antiquity 46 (1981): 759– Originating on the plains, the ceremony spread eastward in historic times, most likely linked to alliances for trade and warfare rather than to any nativistic revival as Turnbaugh suggests.
Brumble, H. David, III. An Annotated Bibliography of American Indian and Eskimo Autobiographies. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981.
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Butler, William B. “The Atlatl: The Physics of Function and Performance.” Plains Anthropologist 20 (May 1975): 105–10. Critique of Howard (1974), followed by physical analysis.
Butler, William B. “Atlatl Functions, Fancy, Flex, and Fun: A Reply to Howard.” Plains Anthropologist 21 (May 1977): 161–62. Butler’s response to Howard’s criticism of the preceding article.
Castile, George Pierre. North American Indians: An Introduction to the Chichimeca. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. Comments on absence of war among bands for lack of resource and motive (94), warfare among northwest chiefdoms (134–35), and plains cavalry warfare (212–14).
Clastres, Pierre. Society against the State: The Leader as Servant and the Humane Uses of Power among the Indians of the Americas. Translated by Robert Hurley with Abe Stein. New York: Urizen; Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977. Societies of considerable size and complexity may wield substantial armed force without adhering to the Western model coercive state with its politics of force (21–22, 56, 72–73, 176–80); see also chap. 5, “The Bow and the Basket,” 83–107, on the tool as sign of gender.
*Cox, Bruce Alden. “Debating the ‘Debatable Zone’: A Re-Examination of Explanations of Dakota-Algonquian Conflict.” Carleton University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Working Paper 86–7. Ottawa: The University, 1986. Crowe, Keith J. A History of the Original Peoples of Northern Canada. Montreal: Queen’s University Press, for Arctic Institute of North America, 1974. See “Fights and Feuds,” 26–28, in chap. 2, “Land and Life.”
Driver, Harold E. Indians of North America. 2nd edition Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. See chap. 18, “Violence, Feuds, Raids, and War,” 309–29.
Edmunds, R. David, ed. American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Offered as an expansion of Josephy, Patriot Chiefs, q.v., to emphasize leadership other than warlike (viii–ix), the book nonetheless includes several warriors; see the articles by Edmunds on Old Briton (Miami), O’Donnell on Joseph Brant (Mohawk), Zanger on Red Bird (Winnebago), Worcester on Satanta (Kiowa), and Hoover on Sitting Bull (Sioux), individually annotated.
Edmunds, R. David. “Native Americans, New Voices: American Indian History, 1895–1995.” American Historical Review 100 (1995): 717–40.
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Farb, Peter. Man’s Rise to Civilization: As Shown by the Indians of North America from Primeval Times to the Coming of the Industrial State. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1968. Reprinted New York: Avon Books, 1973.
Notes fighting and war at various levels of social evolution.
Faron, Louis C. “A Continent on the Move.” In America in 1492: The World of the Indian Peoples before the Arrival of Columbus, edited by Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., 177–213. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. General account of the peoples of lowland South America, with substantial attention to the role of warfare in their lives.
Fienup-Riordan, Ann. “Eskimo War and Peace.” In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim, edited by William W. Fitzhugh and Valérie Chaussonnet, 321–35. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Peaceful image versus warlike fact.
Fried, Morton H. “First Contact and Political Theory.” Colloquia in Anthropology 1 (1977): 17–33. Early contacts between Europeans and Indians tended to be nonviolent, warfare being a minor aspect of prestate societies; European violence and misunderstanding triggered most of the later trouble.
Hamilton, T. M. Native American Bows. 2nd edition. With appendix “On Making Horn Bows,” by Bill Holm. Special Publications 5. Columbia: Missouri Archaeological Society, 1982. Including their warlike use.
Hamm, Jim. Bows and Arrows of the Native Americans: A Complete Stepby-Step Guide to Wooden Bows, Sinew-backed Bows, Composite Bows, Strings, Arrows and Quivers. New York: Lyons & Burford, with Bois d’Arc Press, 1991. Reprint of 1989 edition. Mainly how-to manual for bow hunters, but interspersed with info on original weapons.
Hassig, Ross. “Aztec and Spanish Conquest in Mesoamerica.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 83–102. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Hirschfelder, Arlene B., Mary Gloyne Byler, and Michael A. Dorris. Guide to Research on North American Indians. Chicago: American Library Association, 1983. See chap. 16, “Warfare Patterns,” 215–21, listing a relatively small number of titles described at length.
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Hook, Jason. American Indian Warrior Chiefs: Tecumseh, Crazy Horse, Chief Joseph, Geronimo. Poole, England: Firebird Books, 1990. Biographical sketches with emphasis on warlike activities.
Howard, Calvin D. “The Atlatl: Function and Performance.” American Antiquity 39 (1974): 102–104. Experimental study of a weapon widely used in the Americas. Cf. Butler above, and Howard’s reply, below.
Howard, Calvin D. “Atlatl Function: A Reply to Butler.” Plains Anthropologist 21 (November 1976): 313–14. Jennings, Francis. The Founders of America: How Indians Discovered the Land, Pioneered in It, and Created Great Classical Civilizations; How They Were Plunged into a Dark Age by Invasion and Conquest; and How They Are Reviving. New York: W. W. Norton, 1993. Large-scale synthesis of Indian history, centered on the 400 year conflict between Indians and invading Europeans
Josephy, Alvin M., Jr., ed. America in 1492: The World of the Indian Peoples before the Arrival of Columbus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. As the index entry for it shows, “Warfare” does not figure prominently in this collection, with the exception of Faron’s article on lowland South America, listed separately.
Laubin, Reginald, and Gladys Laubin. American Indian Archery. Civilization of the American Indian, vol. 154. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980. Including warlike use.
Lucena Samoral, Manuel. America 1492: Portrait of a Continent 500 Years Ago. New York and Oxford: Facts On File, 1990.
On fighting and warfare in this illustrated survey, see especially “The Barbarian Invasions, 192–99; “The Fate of the Prisoner,” 200–203; and “Inca Warfare,” 204–207.
Mathes, Valerie Sherer. “Native American Women in Medicine and the Military.” Journal of the West 21 (April 1982): 41–48. Discusses women warriors in a number of tribes, east and west (44–47).
Mathes, Valerie Sherer. “A New Look at the Role of Women in Indian Society.” American Indian Quarterly 2 (Summer 1975): 131–39. Including military roles (135–36). Mathien, Frances Joan, and Randall H. McGuire, eds. Ripples in the Chichimec Sea: New Considerations of Southwestern-Mesoamerican Interactions. Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, Center for Archaeological
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Investigations, Publications in Archaeology. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986. Exclusively concerned with trade and exchange, but the role of the pochteca (or similar but non-Aztec organized long-distance traders) mentioned in several papers ought to raise questions about possible military interaction.
*Miller, Christopher L. “Indian Patriotism: Warriors vs. Negotiators.” American Indian Quarterly 17 (Summer 1993): 343–49. Morey, Robert V., Jr., and John P. Marwitt. “Ecology, Economy, and Warfare in Lowland South America.” In War, Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 439–50. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. Also in Advances in Andean Archaeology, edited by David L. Browman, 247–58. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1979. On war as a cultural mechanism structured by socio-environmental conditions.
Niethammer, Carolyn. Daughters of the Earth: The Lives and Legends of American Indian Women. New York: Macmillan, 1977. See chap. 7, “Women and War,” 165–85.
Peterson, Harold L., with Milford G. Chandler. American Indian Tomahawks. Contributions from the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. 19. Revised edition. New York: The Museum, 1971. Ray, Arthur J. Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Roles as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson Bay, 1660–1870. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974. See especially chap. 1, “Trade Rivalries, Inter-Tribal Warfare, and Migration,” 3–26.
Raymond, Anan. “Experiments in the Function and Performance of the Weighted Atlatl.” World Archaeology 18 (October 1986): 153–77. Weight improves accuracy, not force or range.
*Redmond, Elsa. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. “Warfare as recorded for the egalitarian Jivaro and Yanamamo and for historic Circum-Caribbean chiefdoms is considered.”—reviewed by Thomas A. Abler, “Division and Conflict in Pre-Hispanic and Early Postcontact America,” Contemporary Anthropology 36 (1995): 532–33, at 532.
*Redmond, Elsa, ed. Tribal and Chiefly Warfare in South America. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor: The Museum, 1994.
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Riches, David. “Violence, Peace and War in ‘Early’ Human Society: The Case of the Eskimo.” In The Sociology of War and Peace, edited by Colin Creighton and Martin Shaw. Dobbs Ferry, New York: Sheridan House, 1987. Eskimo society knew violence, but the absence of political organization precluded war.
Ritzenthaler, Robert E., and Pat Ritzenthaler. The Woodland Indians of the Western Great Lakes. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1970. Reprinted Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1991. See the section on “War,” 49–50, in chap. 4, “Social Organization.”
Sattler, Richard A. “The Comparative Analysis of Native American Political Organization.” Papers in Anthropology 21 (Fall 1980): 163–73. Including war and the control of force.
Smith, Dwight L., ed. Indians of the United States and Canada: A Bibliography. Clio Bibliography Series 3. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 1974. *Spittal, W. G. Scalping and Torture: Warfare Practices among the North American Indians. Ohsweken, Ontario: Iroqrafts Indian Reprints, 1985. Stedman, Raymond William. Shadows of the Indian: Stereotypes in American Culture. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982. Chap. 8, “The Enemy,” 134–54, underscores the often-overlooked truth that even first-hand accounts embody stereotypes as well as facts.
Time-Life Books, Editors of. The Way of the Warrior. The American Indians. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1993. *Vangen, Roland Dean. Indian Weapons. Palmer Lake, Colorado: Filter Press, 1972. Vanstone, James W. Athapaskan Adaptations: Hunters and Fishermen of the Subarctic Forests. Worlds of Man: Studies in Cultural Ecology. Chicago: Aldine, 1974. See the section on “Leadership and Warfare,” 47–51, in chap. 3, “Social Institutions.”
Vennum, Thomas, Jr. American Indian Lacrosse: Little Brother of War. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Chap. 13, “Little Brother of War,” 213–36: Lacrosse and war similarly integrated into belief systems.
Waldman, Carl. Atlas of the North American Indian. New York: Facts On File, 1985. See chap. 5, “Indian Wars,” 86–164, north of Mexico, 17th century through 19th.
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Weatherford, Jack. Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World. New York: Crown, 1988. Reprinted New York: Fawcett Columbine (Ballantine Books), 1990. See chap. 9, “Red Sticks and Revolution,” 151–73, on Indian resistance, guerrilla warfare, and revolutionary ideology.
Weatherford, Jack. Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America. New York: Crown, 1991. Chap. 12, “Guerrillas and Warriors,” 163–80, focuses on three main topics: Indian models for irregular warfare, headhunting and scalping, and horse nomadism.
White, Jon Manchip. Everyday Life of the North American Indian. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979. See chap. 4, “The Warrior,” 114–39.
White, Richard. The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. Traditional forms of warfare sustained society, but European-influenced changes undermined the social order.
Whitehead, Neil Lancelot. “The Snake Warriors—Sons of the Tiger’s Teeth: A Descriptive Analysis of Carib Warfare, ca. 1500–1820.” In The Anthropology of War, edited by Jonathan Haas, 146–70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Cultural and technological aspects of traditional warfare described, European impact traced.
Yerbury, J. C. The Subarctic Indians and the Fur Trade, 1680 –1860. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986. Dene economics and warfare.
MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATION
Adams, Richard E. W. Prehistoric Mesoamerica. Revised edition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. War treated among the processes of cultural evolution.
*Ball, Joseph W., and Jennifer T. Taschek. “Teotihuacán’s Fall and the Rise of the Itzá: Realignments and Role Changes in the Terminal Classic Mayal Lowlands.” In Mesoamerica after the Decline of Teotihuacán, A.D. 700–900, edited by Richard A. Diehl and Janet Catherine Berlo, 187–200. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. *Baudez, Charles F., and Pierre Becquelin. Archéologie de Los Naranjas, Honduras. Etudes Mésoaméricaines 2. Mexico City: Mission Archéologique et Ethnologique Française au Mexique, 1973. Major site report on southeast Mesoamerican periphery, monumental construction and major defensive ditches characterizing the site after Middle Preclassic.
Berdan, Frances Frei. “Ports of Trade in Mesoamerica: A Reappraisal.” In Cultural Continuity in Mesoamerica, edited by David L. Browman, 179–98. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Remarks on the military role of Aztec merchants and other aspects of nonindustrial international trade linked to military concerns.
*Berlo, Janet Catherine. “The Warrior and the Butterfly: Central Mexican Ideologies of Sacred Warfare and Teotihuacan Iconography.” In Text and Image in Pre-Columbian Art: Essays on the Interrelationship of the Verbal and Visual Arts, edited by Janet Catherine Berlo. BAR [British Archaeological Reports] International Series 180. Oxford: BAR, 1983. Blanton, Richard E., Stephen A. Kowalewski, Gary Feinman, and Jill Appel. Ancient Mesoamerica: A Comparison of Change in Three Regions. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. See especially chap. 5, “Comparison and Conclusions,” 222–51, on the problem of state origins in general, of military factors in particular.
*Boehm de Lameiras, Brigitte. “La estrategia geopolítica de los estados del altiplano mesoamericano: Teotihuacán, Tula, los Chichimecas y los Mexicas.” Revista de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid 117 (1980): 45–71.
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Bunson, Margaret R., and Stephen M. Bunson. Encyclopedia of Ancient Mesoamerica. New York: Facts On File, 1996. Carrasco, Davíd. Religions of Mesoamerica: Cosmovision and Ceremonial Centers. Religious Traditions of the World Series. San Francisco: HarperSan Francisco, 1990. Warfare played a central role in Mesoamerican religion; see especially chap. 3, “The Religion of the Aztecs: Ways of the Warrior, Words of the Sage,” 58–91.
Chase, Diane Z., and Arlen F. Chase, eds. Mesoamerican Elites: An Archaeological Assessment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. Paperback edition, 1994. Warfare figures throughout, but see especially Freidel’s article on Terminal Classic warfare.
Coe, Michael D. “Religion and the Rise of Mesoamerican States.” In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, 157–71. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Comments on links between religion and the nature of warfare.
Conrad, Geoffrey W. “Toward a Systematic View of Mesoamerican Prehistory: Inter-Site Sociopolitical Organization.” In The Rise and Fall of Civilizations: Modern Archaeological Approaches to Ancient Cultures. Selected Readings, edited by C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky and Jeremy A. Sabloff, 145–56. Menlo Park, California: Cummings, 1974. How military organization relates to economic and political systems.
Cowgill, George L. “Teotihuacan, Internal Militaristic Competition, and the Fall of the Classic Maya.” In Maya Archaeology and Ethnohistory, edited by Norman Hammond and Gordon R. Willey, 51–62. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. Military hypertrophy in an emergent Maya state as a major factor in the collapse of Maya civilization.
Culbert, T. Patrick. “Mesoamerica.” In Ancient Native Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, 403–53. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1978. Including the effects of war and military organization on development.
Davies, Nigel. The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. London: Allan Lane (Penguin Books), 1982. Narrative military-political history, with numerous remarks on militarism, military control, and military training; see index entries.
Demarest, Arthur A. “Overview: Mesoamerican Human Sacrifice in Evolutionary Perspective.” In Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica: A
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Conference at Dumbarton Oaks, October 13th and 14th, 1979, edited by Elizabeth H. Boone, 227–47. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1984. Human sacrifice as part of an expanding system of raiding and warfare that contributed to formation of chiefdoms and states, but shifted in later periods from legitimizing individual rulers to legitimizing the state itself.
Ferguson, William M., and Arthur H. Rohn. Mesoamerica’s Ancient Cities: Aerial Views of Precolumbian Ruins in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras. Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990. Includes interior views of the murals at Cataxtla and Bonampak.
*García Cook, Angel, and Raziel Mora López. “Tetepetla: Un sitio fortificado del ‘Clásico’ en Tlaxcala.” Comunicaciones Proyecto PueblaTlaxcala 10 (1974): 23–30. Gledhill, John, and Mogens Larsen. “The Polanyi Paradigm and a Dynamic Analysis of Archaic States.” In Theory and Explanation in Archaeology: The Southampton Conference, edited by Colin Renfrew, Michael J. Rowlands, and Barbaa Abbott Segraves, 197–229. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Militarism and trade in Mesoamerica (223–24).
González Torres, Yolotl. El sacrificio humano entre los Mexicas. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1985. See especially chap. 12, “El sacrificante,” 187–249, on war as a source of sacrifices, and the role of the warrior in particular.
Gorenstein, Shirley. Not Forever on Earth: Prehistory of Mexico. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975. Remarks on military systems and warfare.
*Gorenstein, Shirley. Tepexi el Viejo: A Postclassic Fortified Site in the Mixteca-Puebla Region of Mexico. Transaction of the American Philosophical Society 63, part 1 (1973). Gyles, Anna Benson, and Chloë Sayer. Of Gods and Men: The Heritage of Ancient Mexico. New York: Harper & Row, 1980. Based on 1979 BBC TV documentary series, heavily illustrated (including warrior murals, statuary, etc.) with numerous index references to warfare, warriors, and military organization.
Hassig, Ross. War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Helms, Mary W. Middle America: A Cultural History of Heartland and
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Frontiers. Prentice-Hall Series in Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1975. See especially part one, “The Evolution of Pre-Columbian Civilizations,” 3–123, with due attention to role of war; though intended as a textbook, it is heavily footnoted.
*Hirth, Kenneth G. “Epiclassic Militarism and Social Organization at Xochicalco, Morelos.” Paper presented at the 50th annual convention of the Society for American Archaeology, Denver, Colorado, 1–5 May 1985. *Hirth, Kenneth G. “Militarism and Social Organization at Xochicalco, Morelos.” In Mesoamerica after the Decline of Teotihuacán, A.D. 700–900, edited by Richard A. Diehl and Janet Catherine Berlo. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. MacNeish, Richard S. “The Transition to Statehood as Seen from the Mouth of a Cave.” In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, 123–54. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Developmental analysis of stages leading to centralized polities, with comments on the role of war in the final stages.
Marcus, Joyce. “Aztec Military Campaigns against the Zapotecs: The Documentary Evidence.” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 314–18. School of American Research seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Marcus, Joyce. Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and History in Four Ancient Civilizations. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. On the nature of Mesoamerican raiding and warfare and its depiction in Aztec, Mixtec, Zapotec, and Maya writing, see especially chap. 11, “Raiding and Warfare,” 353–434.
Marcus, Joyce. “On the Nature of the Mesoamerican City.” In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Egon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhal, 195–242. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. See especially “Fortifications and City Walls,” 233–39.
Moser, Christopher L. Human Decapitation in Ancient Mesoamerica. Studies
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in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology 11. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1973. Ritual decapitation became a major culture trait linked to warfare.
*Peterson, David A., and Thomas B. MacDougall. Guiengola: A Fortified Site in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Vanderbilt University Publications in Anthropology 10. Nashville, Tennessee, 1974. Phillips, David A. “The Growth and Decline of States in Mesoamerica.” Steward Anthropological Society Journal 10/2 (1979): 137–59. Military competition and conquest, as one form of energy exchange, may help explain cycles of state growth and decline.
Pijoan, Carmen Ma., and Josefina Mansilla Lory. “Evidence for Human Sacrifice, Bone Modification and Cannibalism in Ancient Mexico.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 217–39. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Piña Chán, Román, ed. Los señioríos y estados militaristas. México, panorama histórico y culturel 9. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1976. Classical horizon urban competition for trade routes and land resulted in the cultural supremacy of a military nobility.
Pohl, John M. D., and Angus McBride. Aztec, Mixtec and Zapotec Armies. Men-at-Arms Series 239. London: Osprey, 1991. Illustrated survey of Mexican military institutions, focused on the period just before the Spanish conquest.
Sabloff, Jeremy A. The Cities of Ancient Mexico: Reconstructing a Lost World. London: Thames & Hudson, 1989. Military institutions and warfare receive substantial but scattered attention; see index entries under military, war, warriors, and weapons.
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and David A. Freidel. “A Model of a PreColumbian Trading Center.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, 369–408. School of American Research Advanced Seminar. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. Importance of site defensibility, use of fortifications, evidence for garrisons (403–404).
Sanders, William T. “Formative Exchange Systems: Comments.” In Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth G. Hirth, 275–79. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. Because everyone wants it, the quest for coercive power over others may drive social evolution.
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Sanders, William T. “Hydraulic Agriculture, Economic Symbiosis and the Evolution of States in Central Mexico.” In Anthropological Archaeology in the Americas, by Anthropological Society of Washington, 88–107. Washington: The Society, 1968. Remarks on urbanization as military advantage (99–100).
Sanders, William T., and Barbara J. Price. Mesoamerica: The Evolution of a Civilization. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Random House, 1968. Theory of civilization as ecological system applied to a cultural evolutionary history of Mesoamerica, with warfare conceived as ecological competition.
Sanders, William T., and David Webster. “The Mesoamerican Urban Tradition.” American Anthropologist 90 (1988): 521–46. The tradition included regal-ritual cities like Copan, in essence the expanded household of the ruler (including warriors) ruling a decentralized, segmentary state; and administrative cities like Tenochtitlan, stratified, bureaucratic, and militarized, ruling complex centralized states. Mercantile cities did not exist.
Santley, Robert S. “Obsidian Exchange, Economic Stratification, and the Evolution of Complex Society in the Basin of Mexico.” In Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth G. Hirth, 43–86. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. As economic and social stratification made Mexican society more complex, the basis of political power shifted from military to economic.
*Schele, Linda. “The Tlaloc Complex in the Classic Period: War and the Interaction between Lowland Maya and Teotihuacan.” Paper presented at the symposium, Maya Art and Civilizaqtion: The New Dynamics. Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, May 1986. Sharer, Robert J. “Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Mesoamerican Highland-Lowland Interaction: A Summary View.” In Highland-Lowland Interaction in Mesoamerica: Interdisciplinary Approaches, edited by Arthur G. Miller, 241–63. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1983. See especially “Sociopolitical Interaction,” 252–56.
Stenzel, Werner. “The Military and Religious Orders of Ancient Mexico.” Actas del XLI Congreso internacional de americanistas, Mexico, 1974, vol. 2 (Mexico, 1976), 179–87. Comparing the Mesoamerican sacred war complex with Cheyenne contrary warriors and Pueblo war ritual.
Weaver, Muriel Porter. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica. Studies in Archeology. 2nd edition. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Numerous references to war, warriors, and weapons (see index).
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Webb, Malcolm C. “The Significance of the ‘Epiclassic’ Mesoamerican Prehistory.” In Cultural Continuity in Mesoamerica, edited by David L. Browman, 155–78. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Commercially inspired militarism in the origin, development, and collapse of Mesoamerican chiefdom and state.
Willey, Gordon R. “Mesoamerican Civilization and the Idea of Transcendence.” Antiquity 50 (1976): 205–15. Transcendent religious philosophy of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl mitigated postclassic strife by doctrines appealing to merchant class, and counter to cult theologies of war and human sacrifice favored by government establishment.
OLMEC AND MAYA
Abrams, Elliot M. How the Maya Built Their World: Energetics and Ancient Architecture. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Adams, Richard E. W. “The Collapse of Maya Civilization: A Review of Previous Theories.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 21–34. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Including war/militarism as cause, 30–33.
Adams, Richard E. W. “Maya Collapse: Transformation and Termination in the Ceramic Sequence at Altar de Sacrificios.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 133–61. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Archaeological evidence for militarism and invasion.
Adams, Richard E. W., and T. Patrick Culbert. “The Origins of Civilization in the Maya Lowlands.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 3–24. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974; Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Adams, Richard E. W., and Robert C. Aldrich. “A Reevaluation of the Bonampak Murals: A Preliminary Statement on the Paintings and Texts.” In Third Palenque Round Table, 1978, Part 2, vol. 5, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 45–59. Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. Adams, Richard E. W. “Rio Bec Archaeology and the Rise of Maya Civilization.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 77–99. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. The evidence interpreted after Webster to show war’s role in shaping Maya civilization.
Adams, Richard E. W. “Social Structural Consequences of Population Growth.” Journal of Biosocial Science 13 (1981): 107–22. Development of Mayan feudal social structure.
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Adams, Richard E. W., and Woodruff D. Smith, “Feudal Models for Classic Maya Civilization.” In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, 335–49. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1977. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1981. Since war was normal throughout Mayan history, late Mayan warfare need not mean social breakdown (340).
Andrews, George F. Maya Cities: Placemaking and Urbanization. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 131. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975. See “Bonampak,” 153–67, in chap. 7, “Descriptions of Individual Cities,” for the site of the famous battle murals.
Ball, Joseph W. “An Hypothetical Outline of Coastal Maya Prehistory, 300 B.C.–A.D. 1200.” In Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Honour of Sir Eric Thompson, edited by Norman Hammond, 167–96. London: Academic Press, 1977. Maya development interpreted after Carneiro’s circumscription theory of the origin of the state.
Ball, Joseph W. “The Rise of the Northern Maya Chiefdoms: A Socioprocessual Analysis.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 101–32. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974; Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Archaeological evidence, interpreted after Carneiro, to show incipient state formation founded on population growth, environmental constraints, and warfare.
Barrera Rubio, Alfredo. “Mural Paintings of the Puuc Region in Yucatán.” In Third Palenque Round Table, 1978, Part 2, vol. 5, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 173–82. Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. Baudez, Claude F., and Pierre Becquelin. Archéologie de los Naranjos, Honduras. Etudes Mésoaméricaines 2. México: Mission Archéologique et Ethnologique Française en Mexiique, 1973. Major report of a site on the southeast Mesoamerican periphery, characterized by monumental architecture and major defensive ditches after the Middle Preclassic— from Weeks (1993), no. 1010.
Baudez, Claude F., and Peter Mathews. “Capture and Sacrifice at Palenque.” In Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, vol. 4, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, Palenque: A
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Conference on the Art, Hieroglyphic, and Historic Approaches of the Late Classic Maya, edited by Merle Greene Robertson and Donnan Call Jeffers, 31–40. Palenque, Chiapas: Pre-Columbian Art Research Center; Monterey, California: Pre-Columbian Art Research, 1978. Iconographic evidence for warfare.
Becker, Marshall Joseph. “Kings and Classicism: Political Change in the Maya Lowlands during the Classic Period.” In Highland-Lowland Interaction in Mesoamerica: Interdisciplinary Approaches, edited by Arthur G. Miller, 159–200. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1983. Economic and political shifts enhanced role of war (external) chiefs against peace (internal) chiefs, leading from chiefdom through theocratic to secular, then militaristic, state.
Bernal, Ignacio. The Olmec World. Translated by Doris Heyden and Fernando Horcasitas. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. See the sections on “Trade and War,” 86–88, and “The State,” 89–92, in chap. 4, “Olmec Society.”
Bernal, Ignacio. “The Olmecs.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations, edited by Arthur Cotterell, 318–25. New York: Mayflower, 1980. Notes how little is known about Olmec war or weapons.
Calvani, Vittoria. The Maya. Geneva: Minerva, 1976. Heavily illustrated popular account, alert to warlike aspects of ancient society; see especially chaps. 17, “Bonampak,” 120–25 (warrior murals); and 19, “Chichen Itza,” 131–36 (Temple of the Warriors).
*Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase. “The Investigation of Classic Maya Warfare at Caracol, Belize.” Mayab 5 (1989). New evidence suggests that Maya warfare was not the matter of raiding and conflict limited to elites that some researchers have claimed.
Chase, Arlen F. “Maya Warfare and the Classic Period Site of Caracol, Belize.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Phoenix, November 1988. The effects of warfare pervaded Maya society.
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase. “The North and the South: Politics, Polities, and Maya Cultural Evolution.” English version of “El Norte y el Sur: Politica, Dominios y Evolucion Cultural Maya,” in Los Mayas del Norte de Yucatan, edited by E. Sanchez and F. Jimenez. Madrid: Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas y Instituto de Cooperation Iberoamerica, 1988. Maya warfare and Maya society underwent constant and correlated change.
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Chase, Arlen F., and Prudence M. Rice, eds. The Lowland Maya Postclassic. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985. Numerous references to such topics as militarism, warfare, and fortification, but no sustained discussion by any of the authors.
Chase, Diane Z. “The Cultural Dynamics of Prehistoric Maya Warfare.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Phoenix, Arizona, November 1988. Changes in the character of Maya warfare over time corresponded to changes in Maya society.
Chase, Diane Z. “Social and Political Organization in the Land of Cacao and Honey: Correlating the Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Postclassic Lowland Maya.” In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, 347–77. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. “Provincial Politics,” 367–69, addresses links between ethnohistorical evidence of incessant warfare with archaeological evidence of fortifications.
Clark, John E., and Michael Blake. “The Power of Prestige: Competitive Generosity and Emergence of Rank Socieities in Lowland Mesoamerica.” In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, 17–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Although coercion through armed force may play a role, theories that expain the appearance of institutionalized inequality solely on coercion are flawed.
Coe, Michael D. Breaking the Maya Code. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992. Deciphering Mayan script helped transform Mayan elites from peace-loving stargazers to war-making dynasty builders.
Coe, Michael D. The Maya. Ancient People and Places, vol. 52. Revised edition. London: Thames & Hudson, 1980. Archaeological survey arranged as narrative history, with noticeably greater emphasis than the first edition on the secular and warlike character of Maya polities.
Coe, Michael D. “Olmec and Maya: A Study in Relationships.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 183–95. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Among the striking common traits, art stressing individual personality and power, especially in warlike activities.
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*Coe, Michael D. “San Lorenzo and the Olmec Civilization.” In Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec, October 28th and 29th, 1967, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, 41–78. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1968. On militarism as key to Olmec polity and policy.
Cohodas, Marvin. “Mexican Warriors and Maya Victims: Warfare and Ethnic Opposition in the Classic Art of Mesoamerica.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 19–33. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Classic Mesoamerican art depicts conflict between warriors depicted as distinct in facial features and costume in changing circumstances, which may relate to changing relationships.
Craine, Eugene R., and Reginald C. Reindorp, Translators and Editors. The Codex Pérez and the Book of Chilam Balam of Maní. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 150. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979. Numerous references to war.
Culbert, T. Patrick. “The Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization.” In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, edited by Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, 69–101. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. How Mayan conquest states led to overexpansion and ecological collapse; on the role of warfare and military competition, see especially 78–79, 99–100.
Culbert, T. Patrick. The Lost Civilization: The Story of the Classic Maya. Harper’s Case Studies in Archaeology. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. On military matters, see chap. 6, “Social and Political Organization,” 58–74.
Culbert, T. Patrick. “Maya Development and Collapse: An Economic Perspective.” In Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Honour of Sir Eric Thompson, edited by Norman Hammond, 509–30. London: Academic Press, 1977. Favorable notice of views by Webster and Ball on interacting population pressure, war, and centralization of authority in the origins of Maya civilization.
Demarest, Arthur A. “The Collapse of Maya Civilization in the Petexbatun Region, Peten, Guatemala.” American Anthropological Society, 92d Annual Meeting, Washington, 17–21 November 1993, Abstracts, 196. In this region, the Classic Maya collapsed in “destructive and endemic siege warfare.” The paper speculates on underlying causes of Petexbatun warfare.
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Demarest, Arthur A. “Ideology in Ancient Maya Cultural Evolution: The Dynamics of Galactic Polities.” In Ideology and Pre-Columbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey Conrad, 135–57. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Endemic Maya warfare served primarily ideological functions in maintaining elites.
*Demarest, Arthur A. “Interregional Conflict and ‘Situational Ethics’ in Classic Maya Warfare.” In Codex Wauchope: Festschrift in Honor of Robert Wauchope, edited by M. Giardino, M. Edmonson, and W. Creamer. New Orleans, Louisiana: Tulane University, 1978. Demarest, Arthur A., and Juan Antonio Valdes. “Warfare, Political Devolution, and the Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization in the Petexbatun Region of Guatemala.” American Anthropological Association, 93d Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, 30 November– 4 December 1994, Abstracts, 121. After six years of study, the Petexbatun Regional Archaeological Project leaves “no doubt that the disruptive impact of intensified warfare is the proximate cause of the collapse of Petexbatun poliical order in the late 8th century.”
*Dillon, Brian D. “Bound Prisoners in Maya Art.” Journal of New World Archaeology 5 (1982): 24–50. In Abstracts in Anthropology 10 (1983), no. 2172. Growing evidence for chronic Mayan warfare should be seen to reflect normal behavior for most civilizations, not explained as militarism driving or shaping Maya civilization.
Drucker, Philip. “On the Nature of the Olmec Polity.” In The Olmec and Their Neighbors: Essays in Memory of Matthew W. Stirling, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, 29–47. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, 1981. The Olmec polity as a primitive state, much like the later Mexica military theocracy.
Fash, William L. Scribes, Warriors and Kings: The City of Copán and the Ancient Maya. New Aspects of Antiquity. London: Thames & Hudson, 1991. See especially “Copán Scribes and Warriors,” 135–37, in chap. 6, “The Copán Mosaic: Reconstructing Architecture, Religion, and History”; and “Perspectives from Copán and Quiriguá on Classic Maya Warfare,” 150–51, in chap. 7, “The Great Revival: The Hieroglyphic Stairway.”
Folan, William J. “Urban Organization and Social Structure of Coba.” In Coba: A Classic Maya Metropolis, edited by William J. Folan, Ellen R. Kintz, and Laraine A. Fletcher, 49–63. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Including discussion of officials with military responsibilities.
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Fox, John W. Maya Postclassic State Formation: Segmentary Lineage Migration in Advancing Frontiers. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Segmentary lineage and frontier theory provide suggestive model for segmentary state formation by warrior and aristocratic lineages; see especially chap. 4, “Warrior and Aristrocratic Lineages: Ecological Conditions and Leapfrog Migrations,” 71–105.
Freidel, David A. “Children of the First Father’s Skull: Terminal Classic Warfare in the Northern Maya Lowlands and the Transformation of Kingship and Elite Hierarchies.” In Mesoamerican Elites: An Archaeological Assessment, edited by Diane Z. Chase, and Arlen F. Chase, 118–34. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. Paperback edition, 1994. Freidel, David A. “Civilization as a State of Mind: The Cultural Evolution of the Lowland Maya.” In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, 188–227. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Ideology, social structure, and the predatory bases of state formation.
Freidel, David A. “Maya Warfare: An Example of Peer Polity Interaction.” In Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry, 93–108. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. War as a regularized and necessary component of interaction in the Mayan system of peer polities, as deduced from analysis of material symbols.
Freidel, David A., Charles Suhler. “The Northern Lowlands in the Terminal Classic.” American Anthropological Association, 93d Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, 30 November–4 December 1994, Abstracts, 148. The northern Maya shared the ideology of warfare that contributed to the southern Maya collapse.
Freidel, David A. “Political Systems in Lowland Yucatan: Dynamics and Structure of Maya Settlement.” In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Egon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhal, 375–86. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. See especially the section on “Maya Social Dynamics,” 376–78, stressing endemic warfare.
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Freidel, David A. “Terminal Classic Lowland Maya: Successes, Failures, and Aftermaths.” In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, 404–30. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. Militarism and the changing nature of warfare decisively influenced Late Classic and early Postclassic political development.
Furst, Jill Leslie, and Peter T. Furst. Pre-Columbian Art of Mexico. New York: Abbeville Press, 1980. See especially the full size colored reproduction of the battle scene from the Classic Maya temple at Bonampak, and the accompanying discussion, 70–75.
Gallenkamp, Charles. Maya: The Riddle and Rediscovery of a Lost Civilization. 2nd edition. New York: David McKay, 1976. Reprinted New York: Penguin, 1981. See chaps. 7, “Gods, Priests, and Rulers,” 116–31, including military organization; and 13, “Warriors and Merchants: A Prelude to Disaster,” 196–206, on military factors in Maya decline.
Graham, John A. “Aspects of Non-Classic Presences in the Inscriptions and Sculptural Art of Seibal.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 207–19. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Graphic evidence for militarism and invasion.
Greene Robertson, Merle. “The Giles G. Healey 1946 Bonampak Photographs.” In Third Palenque Round Table, 1978, Part 2, vol. 5, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 3–44. Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. Hammond, Norman. Ancient Maya Civilization. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1982. Remarks on warfare in Maya origins and development, 125–26, 132.
Healy, Paul F., and Nancy A. Prikker. “Ancient Maya Warfare: Chronicles of Manifest Superiority.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 44–60. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Ethnohistoric, architectural, hieroglyphic, and artistic evidence overwhelmingly shows the pervasiveness of warfare in Maya society.
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Henderson, John S. The World of the Ancient Maya. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981. On warfare, see especially chaps. 6, “Foundations of Maya Civilization,” 115–31; and 9, “Perspectives on the Maya,” 234–40.
Inomata, Takeshi, and Laura Stiver. “Floor Assemblages from Elite Households of Aguateca, Guatemala, and Their Socioeconomic Implications.” American Anthropological Association, 93d Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, 30 November–4 December 1994, Abstracts, 189. The heavily fortified site with extensive defensive walls was apparently abandoned after an enemy attack at the end of the 8th century, leaving unusually rich floor assemblages for archaeological analysis.
Joralemon, David. “Ritual Blood-Sacrifice among the Ancient Maya: Part I.” In Primera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, part 2, A Conference on the Art, Iconography, and Dynastic History of Palenque, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico, December 14–22, 1973, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 59–75. Pebble Beach, California: Robert Louis Stevenson School, Pre-Columbian Art Research, 1973. Sexual self-mutilation as fertility rite.
Kintz, Ellen R. “Class Structure in a Classic Maya City.” In Coba: A Classic Maya Metropolis, edited by William J. Folan, Ellen R. Kintz, and Laraine A. Fletcher, 161–77. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Discussing class positions of war leaders and soldiers, among others.
*Kurjack, Edward B., and E. W. Andrews V. “Early Boundary Maintenance in Northwest Yucatán, Mexico.” American Antiquity 41 (1976): 318–25. Aerial photos reveal defensive walls at Aké, Muna, and Cucá, which, like such walls at other sites, strongly imply warfare.—cited in Weeks (1993), no. 242.
Lowe, John W. G. The Dynamics of Apocalypse: A Systems Simulation of the Classic Maya Collapse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985. Internal and external warfare as major factors; see especially chaps. 1, 3, 6, and 8.
Marcus, Joyce. “Ancient Maya Political Organization.” In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D.: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 7th and 8th October 1989, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, 111–83. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1993. Major role of warfare.
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Marcus, Joyce. Emblem and State in the Classic Maya Lowlands: An Epigraphic Approach to Territorial Organization. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1976. What graphic evidence suggests about the nature of the Maya state, including its military component.
Marcus, Joyce. “The Iconography of Power among the Classic Maya.” World Archaeology 6 (1974): 83–94. Militarism, power, and hierarchy depicted in stone, distinguishing incipient state from chiefdoms wielding less power.
Marcus, Joyce. “Territorial Organization of the Lowland Classic Maya.” Science 180 (1973): 911–16. Military alliance perhaps a factor.
Mathews, Peter. “Notes on the Dynastic Sequence of Bonampak, Part 1.” In Third Palenque Round Table, 1978, Part 2, vol. 5, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 60–73. Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. Miller, Arthur G. “‘Captains of the Itza’: Unpublished Mural Evidence from Chichén Itza.” In Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Honour of Sir Eric Thompson, edited by Norman Hammond, 197–225. London: Academic Press, 1977. Evidence and hypotheses about late Maya military activity.
Miller, Arthur G. “From the Maya Margins: Images of Postclassic Politics.” In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, 199–222. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. Although warfare and trade existed before the collapse in the south, both changed sharply in character as aggressive entrepreneurs from the northern marches, still Maya but strongly influenced by foreign elements, seized control.
*Miller, Mary Ellen. The Murals of Bonampak. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986. Miller, Mary Ellen. “On the Eve of Collapse: Maya Art of the Eighth Century.” In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D.: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 7th and 8th October 1989, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, 355–413. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1993. Evidence of widespread, continuous warfare.
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Miller, Virginia E. “Star Warriors at Chichen Itza.” In Word and Image in Maya Culture: Explorations in Language, Writing, and Representation, edited by William F. Hanks and Don S. Rice, 287–305. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1989. On astrological influences in Maya war-fighting and evidence for Mexican-Mayan interconnections.
Moriarty, James R. “The Origin and Development of Maya Militarism.” In Colorado State College, Museum of Anthropology, Miscellaneous Series 9, 23–33. Greeley: The Museum, 1969. Changing military organization and Maya society.
Morley, Sylvanus G., and George W. Brainerd. The Ancient Maya. 4th edition, revised by Robert J. Sharer. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1983.
Warfare and warriors figure much more prominently in this revision, based on the much greater knowledge of the extent and character of Maya civilization acquired since the previous edition.
Orellana, Sandra L. The Tzutujil Mayas: Continuity and Change, 1250–1630. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 162. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984. See chap. 3, “Warfare and Tribute,” 57–67, in part 1, “Pre-Hispanic Tzutujil Society.”
Pendergast, David M. “The Products of Their Times: Iconography in Social Context.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 69–72. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Why archaeologists of an earlier generation had trouble seeing Maya warfare.
Pohl, Mary. “Maya Ritual Faunas: Vertebrate Remains from Burials, Caches, Caves, and Cenotes in the Maya Lowlands.” In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata, 55–103. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. The section on “The Meaning of Maya Ritual Faunas,” 98–100, considers military institutions and warfare (100).
*Pohl, Mary, and John Pohl. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. “Provide a lengthy discussion of evidece for Lowland Maya war and internal conflict with an emphasis on patron-client relationships between elites and commoners.”—
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review by Thomas A. Abler, “Division and Conflict in Pre-Hispanic and Early Postcontact America,” Contemporary Anthropology 36 (1995): 532–33, at 532.
Puleston, Dennis E. “Terracing, Raised Fields, and Tree Cropping in the Maya Lowlands.” In Pre-Hispanic Maya Agriculture, edited by Peter D. Harrison and B. L. Turner II, 225–45. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978. Economic foundations of military power at Tikal (243).
Puleston, Dennis E., and Donald W. Callender, Jr. “Defensive Earthworks at Tikal.” Expedition 9 (Spring 1967): 40–48. Fortifications at a Mayan site and what they suggest about Maya warfare.
*Puleston, Dennis E., and Olga Stavrakis Puleston. “An Ecological Approach to the Origins of Maya Civilization.” Archaeology 24 (1971): 330–37. In Abstracts in Anthropology 3 (1972), no. 942. The state as product of need to organize large public works, like construction of reservoirs.
Rands, Robert L. “The Classic Maya Collapse: Usumacinta Zone and the Northwestern Periphery.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 165–205. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Graphic and plastic evidence for “militarism” well before the collapse (174–75).
Rathje, William L. “The Tikal Connection.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 373–82. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Why caution in theorizing about population pressure and war in lowland Maya development may be well advised.
Reentz-Budet, Dorie. Painting the Maya Universe: Royal Ceramics of the Classic Period. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, with Duke University of Art, 1994. Includes numerous depictions of war and warriors.
Rice, Don S., and Prudence M. Rice. “Muralla de Leon: A Lowland Maya Fortification.” Journal of Field Archaeology 8 (1981): 271–88. Implications for a greater role of warfare in the evolution of Maya civilization than previously recognized; see especially “Processes and Events,” 283–87, on warlike relations between protoclassic communities.
Rice, Prudence M. “The Peten Postclassic: Perspectives from the Central Peten Lakes.” In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V,
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251–99. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. Early Postclassic in central Peten witnessed emergence of ranked societies and endemic warfare, strongly reminiscent of the Panama chiefdoms observed by Helms (1978) competing for control of access to scarce and exotic resources in longdistance exchange, 294–95.
Rivera Dorado, Miguel. “Demografía y conflito: Comentarios a la hipotesis de Webster sobre el origen de la civilización maya.” Revista Española de Antroplogía Americana 10 (1980): 77–92. See especially “Los efectos de la guerre,” 83–88.
Sabloff, Jeremy A. The New Archaeology and the Ancient Maya. New York: Scientific American Library, 1990. Among numerous comments on Mayan warfare, see especially “The Evidence of Warfare,” 84–91, in chap. 3, “New Views of the Classic Maya.”
Sabloff, Jeremy A. “Major Themes in the Past Hypotheses of the Maya Collapse.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 35–40. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Including political-military factors.
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and William L. Rathje. “The Rise of a Maya Merchant Class.” Scientific American (October 1975), as reprinted in Pre-Columbian Archaeology: Readings from “Scientific American”, edited by Gordon R. Willey and Jeremy A. Sabloff, 139–49. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1980. Sea-faring merchants, the Putun Maya, flourished as the Classic Maya period collapsed; Putun success was military as well as economic, perhaps aided by the previously unknown atlatl from highland Mexico.
Sanders, William T. “Classic Maya Settlement Patterns and Ethnographic Analogy.” In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, 351–69. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1977. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1981. Remarks on intensifying warfare as a factor (361–62).
Sanders, William T. “The Cultural Ecology of the Lowland Maya: A Reevaluation.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 325–65. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973) Development of chiefdoms, then states, accompanied by growing militarism and the rise of a warrior class.
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Sanders, William T. “Environmental Heterogeneity and the Evolution of Lowland Maya Civilization.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 287–97. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Data supporting Webster’s thesis relating war to the origins of Maya civilization.
Schele, Linda. “Human Sacrifice among the Classic Maya.” In Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica: A Conference at Dumbarton Oaks, October 13th and 14th, 1979, edited by Elizabeth H. Boone, 7–45. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1984. Concludes that “nonterritorial raiding for the taking of sacrificial victims was pervasive among the Maya, especially in the Late Classic period. War, human sacrifice, and personal blood-letting seem to have composed a major part of Classic life.” (45)
Schele, Linda. “The Owl, Shield, and Flint Blade.” Natural History (November 1991): 6, 8, 10–11. Mayan war served both practical (booty, conquest) and symbolic (ritual, astrology) purposes.
Schele, Linda, and David Freidel. A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York: William Morrow, 1990. The introduction of a new kind of warfare borrowed from Teotihuacán initiated the era of Maya empire-building.
Schele, Linda, and Mary Ellen Miller. The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art. New York: George Braziller; Forth Worth, Texas: Kimbell Art Museum, 1986. See especially chap. 5, “Warfare and Captive Sacrifice,” 209–40, for a detailed review of the evidence with numerous photos of sculpture and painting.
Shuman, Malcolm K. “Archaeology and Ethnohistory: The Case of the Lowland Maya.” Ethnohistory 24 (Winter 1977): 1–18. Pre- and postconquest Mayan warfare.
Soustelle, Jacques. The Olmecs: The Oldest Civilization in Mexico. Translated by Helen R. Lane. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1984.
See especially “An ‘Olmec Empire’?” 142–50, finding Olmec art notably less warlike than later Mesoamerican civilization, though showing some evidence of military activity (146–47).
Stuart, David. “Historical Inscriptions and the Maya Collapse.” In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D.: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 7th and 8th October 1989, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, and John S. Henderson, 321–54. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1993. Inscriptions take on a new explicitness in records of warfare.
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Stuart, George E., and Gene S. Stuart. The Mysterious Maya. Washington: National Geographic Society, 1977. Heavily illustrated, present-oriented popular account, but see index under “warfare” for text and relevant illustration.
*Vargas Pacheco, Ernesto. “Consideraciones generales sobre las fortificaciones militares en Tulúm, Quintana Roo, México.” Estudios de Cultura Maya 15 (1984): 29–54. Discussion of the walled site at Tulúm within the context of other walled or fortified Maya cities.—cited in Weeks (1993), no. 1287.
Webb, Malcolm C. “The Peten Maya Decline Viewed in the Perspective of State Formation.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 367–404. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. War and trade in the rise and fall of Maya civilization.
Webster, David. “Becan: An Early Lowland Maya Fortified Site.” In Miscellaneous Papers in Anthropology, edited by Richard A. Diehl, Robert B. Eckhart, Charles C. Kolb, William T. Sanders, and David Webster, 429–51. Occasional Papers in Anthropology 8. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, Department of Anthropology, 1973. More evidence to refute the shaky notion of the “peaceful Maya.”
*Webster, David L. Cuca, Chacchob, Dzonot Aké: Three Walled Northern Maya Centers. Occasional Papers in Anthropology 11. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, Department of Anthropology, 1979. *Webster, David L. Defensive Earthworks at Becan, Campeche, Mexico: Implications for Maya Warfare. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 41. New Orleans, Louisiana, 1976. *Webster, David L. “The Fortifications of Becan, Campeche, Mexico.” In Archaeological Investigations on the Yucatan Peninsula, edited by E. Wyllys Andrews IV et al. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 57. New Orleans, Louisiana, 1975. Webster, David. “Lowland Maya Fortifications.” American Philsophical Society Proceedings 120 (1976): 361–71. Military architecture as evidence for the prevalence of warfare during the development of Maya civilization.
Webster, David. “The Study of Maya Warfare: What It Tells Us about the Maya and What It Tells Us about Maya Archaeology.”
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In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D.: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 7th and 8th October 1989, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, and John S. Henderson, 415–44. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1993. Webster, David. “Three Walled Sites of the Northern Maya Lowlands.” Journal of Field Archaeology 5 (1978): 375–90. Fortifications suggest that Maya society was not the peaceful theocracy described in some earlier literature.
Webster, David. “Warfare and the Evolution of Maya Civilization.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 335–72. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. War as a major factor.
Webster, David. “Warfare and the Evolution of the State: A Perspective from the Maya Lowlands.” Katanob 9 (March 1976): 52–70. Also in University of Northern Colorado, Museum of Anthropology, Miscellaneous Series, No. 19 (Greeley: The Museum, 1976), unpaged. By creating centers of power outside existing kin systems, warfare fosters development of state institutions.
Weeks, John M. Maya Civilization. Research Guides to Ancient Civilizations 1. New York: Garland, 1993. Annotated bibliography.
Whitlock, Ralph. Everyday Life of the Maya. New York: Dorset Press, 1976. See “Warfare,” 82–85, in chap. 6, “Government and Politics.”
Willey, Gordon R. “Maya Archaeology.” Science 215 (15 January 1982): 260–67. Remarks on warfare and military institutions in Maya social evolution.
Willey, Gordon R. “The Rise of Maya Civilization: A Summary View.” In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, 383–423. School of American Research Advanced Study Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1974. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Warfare was a significant factor (413–14).
Willey, Gordon R. “Towards an Holistic View of Ancient Maya Civilization.” Man, new series 15 (1980): 249–66. On war and military institutions in Maya civilization, see especially “Socio-Political Organization,” 257–61.
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Willey, Gordon R., and Demitri B. Shimkin. “The Maya Collapse: A Summary Review.” In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, 457–501. School of American Research Advanced Seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1970. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Including remarks on the role of war and militarism.
ZAPOTEC/MIXTEC/TEOTIHUACAN
*Baird, Ellen T. “Stars and War at Cacaxtla.” In Mesoamerica after the Decline of Teotihuacán, A.D. 700–900, edited by Richard A. Diehl and Janet Catherine Berlo. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. *Baus de Czitrom, Carolyn. “Appendice 3. Armas el las pinturas.” In Cacaxtla: El lugar donde muere la lluvia en la tierra, edited by Sonia Lombardo de Ruiz, Diana López de Molina, Daniel Molina Feal, Carolyn Baus de Czitrom, and Oscar J. Polanco. México City: Instituto Tlaxcalteca de la Cultura, 1986. Blanton, Richard E. “The Ecological Perspective in Highland Mesoamerican Archaeology.” In Archaeological Hammers and Theories, edited by James A. Moore and Arthur S. Keene, 221–31. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Remarks on militarism in cultural evolution, 223–24, 227.
Blanton, Richard E. “The Founding of Monte Albán.” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 83–87. School of American Research seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. As capital of a military coalition.
Blanton, Richard E. Monte Albán: Settlement Patterns of the Ancient Zapotec Capital. Studies in Archeology. New York: Academic Press, 1978. On the city’s origin as center of a regional military alliance, see “The Origins of Monte Albán,” 35–37, 39–40; for its continuance in that role, “Periods Late I and II: Conclusions,” 54–56.
Blanton, Richard. “Urban Beginnings: A View from Anthropological Archaeology.” Journal of Urban History 8 (1982): 427–46. Settlement as cause of growing warfare, because it prevented just walking away from trouble (431); urban beginnings linked to states (434–35), and cities such as Monte Alban played key political-military roles.
Bray, Warwick. “From Village to City in Mesoamerica.” In The Origins of Civilization, edited by P. R. S. Moorey, 78–102. Wolfson College Lectures, 1978. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Remarks on Monte Albán as a walled city, center of a militaristic empire (92–93).
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Brown, Kenneth L. “Toward a Systematic Explanation of Culture Change within the Middle Classic Period of the Valley of Guatemala.” In Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: A Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, edited by William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels, 411–40. Pennsylvania State University Press Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977. Foreign influence in the valley seems better explained through economic penetration than military conquest, but see articles by Cheek and Sanders, separately listed.
Brown, Kenneth L. “The Valley of Guatemala: A Highland Port of Trade.” In Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: A Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, edited by William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels, 205–395. Pennsylvania State University Press Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977. “The Conquest Model: Definition and Test,” 286–304, reviews the evidence for Teotihuacan conquest and finds it inadequate; compared with evidence for a portof-trade model, the latter seems more persuasive in “Summary and Conclusions,” 353–65.
Byland, Bruce E., and John M. D. Pohl. In the Realm of 8 Deer: The Archaeology of the Mixtec Codices. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. *Carlson, John B. “Star Wars and Maya Merchants at Cacaxtla.” Occasional Publications of the Center for Archaeoastronomy 7. College Park, Maryland, 1989. Charton, Thomas A. “From Teotihuacán to Tenochtitlan: The Early Period Revisited.” American Antiquity 40 (1975): 231–35. Blanton’s thesis that warfare among Early Post-Teotihuacán sociocultural entities accounted for selective reoccupation following Teotihuacán’s end is defective; ultimately it rests on his conceptualization of a peaceful Classic period and a warlike Postclassic, for which there is no real evidence.
Cheek, Charles D. “Excavations at the Palangana and the Acropolis, Kaminaljuyu.” In Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: A Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, edited by William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels, 1–204. Pennsylvania State University Press Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977. “Explanations of Teotihuacan Influence at Kaminaljuyu,” 158–67, reviews the several theories and strongly argues for conquest (Teotihuacano militarism); cf. Brown.
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Cheek, Charles D. “Teotihuacan Influence at Kaminaljuyu.” In Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: A Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, edited by William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels, 441–52. Pennsylvania State University Press Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977. Coercive political control best explains at least part of the evidence, although a port-of-trade model may apply to the origins of the relationship; cf. Brown.
Coruña, Fr. Martín de Jesús de la. Relación de las ceremonias y ritos y popolación y governación de los indios de la provincia de Mechuacán (1539–41). Translated and edited by Eugene R. Craine and Reginald C. Reindorp as The Chronicles of Michoacán. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 98. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970. Chaps. 4–8 discuss Tarascan military institutions, techniques, and values (18–30); elsewhere in the text are a number of war stories, some quite extended.
Cowgill, George L. “State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico.” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 26 (1997): 129–61. See especially “War and the Military,” 143–45.
Drennan, Robert D., and J. A. Nowack. “Exchange and Sociopolitical Development in the Tehuacan Valley.” In Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth G. Hirth, 147–56. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. Interrelationships between growing complexity in the valley’s sociopolitical organization and its exchange systems are ambiguous; linkage cannot be taken for granted.
*Elam, J. Michael. “Defensible and Fortified Sites.” In Monte Albán’s Hinterland, part 2, Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacolula, Etla, and Ocotlan, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, edited by Stephen A. Kowalewski, Gary M. Feinman, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton, and Linda M. Nicholas. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 23. Ann Arbor: The Museum, 1989. Feinman, Gary, Richard Blanton, And Stephen Kowalewski. “Market System Development in the Prehispanic Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.” In Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth G. Hirth, 157–78. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. How changes in production and exchange may affect state formation (157–59), perhaps in the context of military-propelled political integration (176–77).
Flannery, Kent V. “Zapotec Warfare: Archaeological Evidence for the Battles of Huitzo and Guiengola.” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V.
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Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 318–22. School of American Research seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Foncerrada de Molina, Marta. “Mural Painting in Cacaxtla and Teotihuacán Cosmopolitinism.” In Third Palenque Round Table, 1978, Part 2, vol. 5, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 183–98. Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. Fox, John W. “The Late Postclassic Eastern Frontier of Mesoamerica: Cultural Innovation along the Periphery.” Current Anthropology 22 (1981): 321–46. A developing culture pattern shaped chiefly by militaristic expansion; cf. the article by Walters and Feldman, below.
*Fox, John W. “On the Rise and Fall of Tuláns and Maya Segmentary States.” American Anthropologist 91 (1989): 656–81. Fox, John W. Quiche Conquest: Centralism and Regionalism in Highland Guatemalan State Development. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978. A conquest state and its impact, mid-13th to early 16th century.
Furst, Jill Leslie. “Land Disputes and the Gods in Prehispanic Mixteca.” In Peace and War: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, edited by Mary LeCron Foster and Robert A. Rubinstein, 93–104. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1986. Land claims based on divine origin fueled war among the Mixteca Alta several centuries before Spanish conquest.
Gorenstein, Shirley. Tepexi el Viejo: A Postclassic Fortified Site in the Mixteca-Puebla Region of Mexico. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society, 1973. Development of military institutions and military-political systems form a major theme, especially in “Historical Background,” 13–16, and “Conclusion,” 59–69, military specialization serving as prelude to political centralization.
Gorenstein, Shirley, and Helen Perlstein Pollard. “Xanhari: Protohistoric Tarascan Routes.” In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Charles D. Trombold, 169–85. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Fortified military settlements line the Tarascan eastern frontier zone against a similar military frontier zone on the Aztec side; see “The Tarascan Eastern Frontier,” 181–84.
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Hirth, Kenneth, and Jorge Angulo Villaseñor. “Early State Expansion in Central Mexico: Teotihuacan in Morelos.” Journal of Field Archaeology 8 (1981): 135–50.
Social and military impact of the first Highland Mexico state-level society on ranked nonstate societies.
Hirth, Kenneth. “Roads, Thoroughfares, and Avenues of Power at Xochicalco, Mexico.” In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Charles D. Trombold, 211–21. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. As a fortified urban center, Xochicalco’s defensive perimeter required special accommodations for the road network (217–18).
Hirth, Kenneth. “Xochicalco: Urban Growth and State Formation in Central Mexico.” Science 225 (10 August 1984): 579–86. Evidence of fortification and militaristic themes in iconography suggest that the citystate grew by war and conquest; see “Era of Conquest,” 585–86.
Kubler, George. “Eclecticism at Cacaxtla.” In Third Palenque Round Table, 1978, Part 2, vol. 5, Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11–18, 1978, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, 163– 72. Texas Pan American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. *Lombardo de Ruiz, Sonia, Diana López de Molina, Daniel Molina Feal, Carolyn Baus de *López de Molina, Diana. “Los murales prehispánicos de Cacaxtla.” Antropología e Historia 20 (1977): 2–8. McCafferty, Sharisse D., and Geoffrey G. McCafferty. “The Conquered Women of Cacaxtla: Gender Identity or Gender Ideology.” Ancient Mesoamerica 5 (1994): 159–71. Two central figures in the battle mural at this site are depicted with female-identified clothing, and may represent biological females intended for noble marriage.
McCafferty, Geoffrey G., and Sharisse D. McCafferty. “Powerful Women of Pre-Columbian Oaxaca.” American Anthropological Association, 93d Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, 30 November– 4 December 1994, Abstracts, 242. Important women are portrayed in the Mixtec codices as warriors, among other roles.
Marcus, Joyce. “The Conquest Slabs of Building J, Monte Albán.” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 106–108. School of
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American Research seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Evidence for the subjugation of a neighboring polity in the process of state formation.
Marcus, Joyce. “The Iconography of Militarism at Monte Albán and Neighboring Sites in the Valley of Oaxaca.” In Origins of Religious Art and Iconography in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica, edited by Henry B. Nicholson, 123–39. Los Angeles: Latin American Center, University of California Los Angeles, 1976. Archaeological evidence for Zapotec primacy (100 B.C.–A.D. 100) in developing the pattern of urbanism and militarism often attributed to the Mayas 500 years later.
Michels, Joseph W. The Kaminaljuyu Chiefdom. Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979. On military organization and warfare in transition from chiefdom to state, see chaps. 10, “The Collapse of Kaminaljuyu as a Political Capital, Chiefdom Disintegration, and the Quest for Security (800 A.D.–1200 A.D.),” 233–43; and 11, “Nuclear Fortification, Chiefdom Resurgence, and the Eclipse of the Moiety Chief (1200 A.D.–1500 A.D.),” 244–58, especially 238, 240, 243, 252.
Michels, Joseph W. “Political Organization at Kaminaljuyu: Its Implications for Interpreting Teotihuacan Influence.” In Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: A Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, edited by William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels, 453–67. Pennsylvania State University Press Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977. Relationship best explained as a state’s noncoercive influence on a developing chiefdom.
*Millon, C. “Painting, Writing, and Polity in Teotihuacan, Mexico.” American Antiquities 38 (1973): 294–314. Millon, René. “The Last Years of Teotihuacan Dominance.” In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, edited by Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, 102–64. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. The archaeological record does not adequately reflect the significance of the military in Teotihuacan life (109–10, 147).
Millon, René. “Social Relations in Ancient Teotihuacán.” In The Valley of Mexico: Studies in Pre-Hispanic Ecology and Society, edited by Eric R. Wolf, 205–48. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1976. Military figurines and other evidence suggest growing militarization in the city’s last century; see especially “The Military in Teotihuacán Society,” 239–41.
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Millon, René. “Teotihuacán.” Scientific American ( June 1967). Reprinted in Civilization: Readings from “Scientific American”, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 41–51. San Franciso: W. H. Freeman, 1979. Report on Mesoamerica’s greatest city, including remarks on its military institutions.
Millon, René. “Teotihuacan: City, State, and Civilization.” In Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 1 supplement, Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff with Patricia A. Andrews, 198–243. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981.
Military institutions, as the coercive arm of the state, figured in several aspects of the city’s structure and function.
Pohl, John M. D. “The Four Priests: Political Stability.” In The Politics of Symbolism in the Mixtec Codices, by John M. D. Pohl, 19–41. Vanderbilt University Publications in Anthropology 46. Nashville, Tennessee: Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, 1994. Notes the intensive raiding patters that allowed Monte Alban to achieve military domination over its neighbors.
Pollard, Helen Perlstein. “Ecological Variation and Economic Exchange in the Tarascan State.” American Ethnologist 9 (May 1982): 250–68. Suggests military security conceived as exported state service paying for material imports (263), military expansion as elite adaptation to ecological change contributing to state formation (265).
Pollard, Helen Perlstein. Taríacuri’s Legacy: The Prehispanic Tarascan State. The Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 209. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. See “Tarascan Warfare,” 105–108, in chap. 4, “The Expansion of the Tributary State.”
Quirarte, Jacinto. “Outside Influence at Cacaxtla.” In Highland-Lowland Interaction in Mesoamerica: Interdisciplinary Approaches, edited by Arthur G. Miller, 201–21. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1983. Analysis of a highland war mural suggests Mayan influence, perhaps conquest.
Redmond, Elsa M. A Fuego y sangre: Early Zapotec Imperialism in the Cuicatlán Cañada, Oaxaca. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 16. Ann Arbor, 1983. Redmond, Elsa M., and Charles S. Spencer. “Chiefdom and State in Formative Oaxaca.” Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 13 (September 1982): 7–38. When a system of interregional exchange gave way to warfare, the Zapotec people began their march to statehood.
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Redmond, Elsa M., and Charles S. Spencer. “The Cuicatlán Cañada and the Period II Frontier of the Zapotec State.” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 117–20. School of American Research seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Evidence for Zapotec conquest of neighboring area.
Sanders, William T. “Chiefdom to State: Political Evolution of Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala.” In Reconstructing Complex Societies: An Archaeological Colloquium Held at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, April 29–30, 1972, edited by Charlotte B. Moore, 97–121. American Schools of Oriental Research, Bulletin, Supplementary Studies 20. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974. How archaeologically to spot a state—defined as a “political system involving adjudicative power and explicit manifestation of force” (98)—and to distinguish it from a chiefdom.
Sanders, William T. “Ethnographic Analogy and the Teotihuacan Horizon Style.” In Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: A Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact, edited by William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels, 397–410. Pennsylvania State University Press Monograph Series on Kaminaljuyu. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977. Preliminary evidence no suggests that trade rather than conquest most fully explains the relationship; cf. Brown, Cheek.
Spencer, Charles S. The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A Study of Primary State Formation. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Zapotec conquests beyond the Valley of Oaxaca demanded administrative facilities and complex organization, resulting in the transformation of paramount chiefdom into primary state; see especially “Growth of the Military,” 243–46, in chap. 6, “Conclusion: Interregional Conquest and the Rise of the Zapotec State.”
Spores, Ronald. The Mixtec Kings and Their People. Civilization of the American Indians Series, vol. 85. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967. See the discussion of warfare, 14–16, in chap. 1, “The Principal Features of Mixtec Culture on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest.”
Spores, Ronald. “The Origin and Evolution of the Mixtec System of Social Stratification.” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce
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Marcus, 227–38. School of American Research seminar, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. The religious basis of the Mixtec state facilitated military expansion.
Sugiyama, Saburo. “Rulership, Warfare, and Human Sacrifice at the Ciudadela: An Iconographic Study of Feathered Serpent Representations.” In Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan, edited by Janet Catherine Berlo. Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992. Depictions of warfare at Teotihuacan.
Trombold, Charles D. “Causeways in the Context of Strategic Planning in the La Quemada Region, Zacatecas, Mexico.” In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Charles D. Trombold, 145–68. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. The road network of an elaborately fortified and relatively isolated ceremonial site in northern Mexico.
Walters, Garry Rex, and Lawrence H. Feldman. “On Change and Stability in Eastern Mesoamerica.” Current Anthropology 23 (1982): 591–97. Challenging Fox’s postulated militaristic expansion, with Fox’s reply, 597–604.
Weigand, Phil C. “The Political Organization of the Trans-Tarascan Zone of Western Mesoamerica on the Eve of Spanish Conquest.” In Culture and Conquest: Charles C. Di Peso’s Gran Chichimeca, edited by Anne I. Woosley and John C. Ravesloot, 191–217. Amerind Foundation New World Studies Series 2. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993. Tarascan imperial pretensions and efforts at conquest promoted the consolidation of states in the border zone.
Weigand, Phil C. “Possible References to La Quemada in Huichol Mythology.” Ethnohistory 22 (1975): 15–20. Contemporary myths collected in Jalisco may refer to the destruction of the great fortified northern Mesoamerican city in Late Postclassic times.
Whitecotton, Joseph W. The Zapotecs: Prince, Priests, and Peasants. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 143. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977. See especially “Local Zapotec Polity and Warfare,” 139–42.
*Winning, Hasso von. “Ritual Cloth and Teotihuacan Warriors.” Masterkey 54/1 (1980): 17–23.
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Iconographic evidence from murals suggests shared rule between warrior elite and priestly hierarchy.—Abstracts in Anthropology 9 (1982), no. 178.
Zeitlin, Robert N. “The Isthmus and the Valley of Oaxaca: Questions about Zapotec Imperialism in Formative Period Mesoamerica.” American Antiquity 55 (1990): 250–61.
TOLTEC/AZTEC
Aho, James A. “Huitzilopochtli’s Feast: Sacramental Warfare in Ancient Mexico.” Sociological Forum 18 (1977): 84–107. Aztec “flowery war” as ritual.
Anawalt, Patricia Rieff, and Frances F. Berdan. “The Codex Mendoza.” Scientific American 266 ( June 1992): 70–79. Anawalt, Patricia Rieff. “Costume and Control: Aztec Sumptuary Laws.” Archaeology 35/5 (1980): 33–43. Success in war as male path to social mobility.
Anawalt, Patricia Rieff. Indian Clothing before Cortes: Mesoamerican Costume from the Codices. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 156. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981. See especially “Aztec Military Attire in the Conquest,” 216–18.
Anawalt, Patricia Rieff. “Understanding Aztec Human Sacrifice.” Archaeology 35 (September/October 1982): 38–45. Overwhelmingly war captives.
Anawalt, Patricia Rieff. “What Price Aztec Pageantry?” Archaeology 30 (1977): 226–34. Aztec martial attire as one aspect of a profoundly non-Western approach to the conduct of war.
Barbosa-Cano, Manlio. “Huaxyacac: Aztec Military Base on the Imperial Frontier.” In Economies and Polities in the Aztec Realm, edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, 377–404. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Interrelationships of military and economic factors in Aztec expansion.
Berdan, Frances Frei. The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1982. See the section on “Political, Military, and Religious Occupations,” 34, in chap. 2, “Economic Organization”; and chap. 5, “Imperial Politics and Warfare,” 99–118.
Berdan, Frances Frei. “Economic Alternatives under Imperial Rule: The Eastern Aztec Empire.” In Economics and Polities in the Aztec Realm,
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edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, 291–312. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Berdan, Frances Frei. “Enculturation in an Imperial Society: The Aztecs of Mexico.” In Enculturation in Latin America: An Anthology, edited by Johannes Wilbert, 237–64. UCLA Latin American Studies, vol. 37. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1976. Centrality of military values and institutions to Aztec society.
Berdan, Frances Frei. “Principles of Regional and Long-distance Trade in the Aztec Empire.” In Smoke and Mist: Mesoamerican Studies in Memory of Thelma D. Sullivan, edited by J. Kathryn Josserand and Karen Dakin, 639–56. BAR [British Archaeological Reports] International Series 402. Oxford: BAR, 1988. Discusses the ambiguous commerical-military roles of the pochteca.
Bittman, Bente, and Thelma D. Sullivan. “The Pochteca.” In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Thomas A. Lee, Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, 211–18. New World Archaeological Foundations Papers 40. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1978. On the role of Aztec merchants in imperial expansion, see especially “Conquest, Colonization, and the Merchants,” 215–17.
Blanton, Richard E. “The Aztec Garrison of ‘Acatepec.’” In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 318. School of American Research seminar, Santa Fe 1975. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Archaeological evidence for such a garrison lacking.
Bray, Warwick. “Civilizing the Aztecs.” In The Evolution of Social Systems, edited by J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, 373–98. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978. Military institutions and warfare as factors in the origins of state and empire.
Bray, Warwick. Everyday Life of the Aztecs. London B. T. Batsford; New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1968. See chap. 9, “War,” 186–95.
Broda, Johanna. “El tributo en trajes guerreros y la estruction del sistema tributario mexica.” In Economía política e ideologia en el México
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prehispánico, edited by Pedro Carrasco and Johanna Broda, 115–74. Mexico City: Editorial Nueva Imagen, 1978. Military aspects of the Aztec tributary system.
Brotherston, Gordon. “Huitzilopochtli and What Was Made of Him.” In Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches, edited by Norman Hammond, 155–66. Proceedings of a symposium on Mesoamerican archaeology, University of Cambridge Center of Latin American Studies, August 1972. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974. Evolution of Aztec war god.
Brown, Betty Ann. “Ochpaniztli in Historical Perspective.” In Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica: A Conference at Dumbarton Oaks, October 13th and 14th, 1979, edited by Elizabeth H. Boone, 195–210. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1984. War symbolism embodied in sacrificial ceremonies bolstered Aztec ideology and the constant warfare required to support the tribute economy of the expanding empire.
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. “Aztec State Making: Ecology, Structure, and the Origin of the State.” American Anthropologist 85 (1983): 261–84. Why social and political structure, including military institutions, are as important as ecological variables in the process of state formation.
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. “The Lip Plugs of Xaltocan: Function and Meaning in Aztec Archaeology.” In Economics and Polities in the Aztec Realm, edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, 113–32. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. “Three Incidents of Resistance and Class Warfare in Aztec Ethnohistory.” American Anthropological Association, 93d Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, 30 November–4 December 1994, Abstracts, 94. Organized elite coercion sustained class relations in three diverse episodes: The Chichimec revolt against Texcoco, the war against the Mexica settlers at Chapultepec, and the rebellion of the people of Matlalcinco.
Brundage, Burr Cartwright. The Fifth Sun: Aztec Gods, Aztec World. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. For the place of war in the Aztec world view, see especially chap. 9, “The Nuclear Cult: War, Sacrifice, and Cannibalism,” 195–219.
Brundage, Burr Cartwright. A Rain of Darts: The Mexica Aztecs. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972. Narrative political-military history of the Aztec state.
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Burland, C. A. Montezuma: Lord of the Aztecs. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1973. Popular biography of the next-to-last Aztec ruler; see especially chaps. 3, “The Temple and Military Schools,” 50–60; 4, “The Warrior-Priest,” 61–82; and 6, “The Leader of Warriors,” 101–16.
Calnek, Edward E. “The Calmecac and Telpochcalli in Pre-Conquest Tenochtitlan.” In The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Aztec Mexico, edited by J. Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson, and Eloise Quiñones Keber, 169–77. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York at Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 2. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988. The curriculum of both the school for priests (calmecac) and young men’s house (telpochcalli) centered on military training in the broadest sense.
Calnek, Edward E. “The Sahagún Texts as a Source of Sociological Information.” In Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún, edited by Munro S. Edmonson, 189–204. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974. Including discussion of the former military role of Aztec nobles.
Carrasco, Pedro. “Markets and Merchants in the Aztec Economy.” Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 11 (1980): 249–69. Observations on links between trade, tribute, and conquest.
Carrasco, Pedro. “Social Organization of Ancient Mexico.” In Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 10, Archae[o]logy of Northern Mesoamerica, part 1, edited by Gordon F. Ekholm and Ignacio Bernal, 349–75. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971. On the military-religious structure of precolumbian Mexican society.
Clendinnen, Inga. Aztecs: An Interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. War was central to Aztec society and all males were born to be warriors, but see especially chap. 4, “Warriors, Priests and Merchants,” 111–40.
Clendinnen, Inga. “The Cost of Courage in Aztec Society.” Past and Present, No. 107 (May 1985): 44–89. How Aztecs understood war and how their society sustained the action of warriors.
Davies, Nigel. The Aztec Empire: The Toltec Resurgence. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 187. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. See especially chaps. 6, “The Sinews of War: Trade and Tribute,” 133–58; and 7, “The Means to Conquer: The Military Machine,” 159–93.
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Davies, Nigel. The Aztecs: A History. London: Macmillan, 1973. Reprinted Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980. Narrative political-military history; on methods of warfare, see especially “The Lion of Anahuac,” 158–205.
Davies, Nigel. “The Mexica Military Hierarchy as Described by Sahagún.” In The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Aztec Mexico, edited by J. Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson, and Eloise Quiñones Keber, 161–68. State University of New York at Albany, Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 2. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988. On the social status of members of the military hierarchy at different levels of command.
Davies, Nigel. “The Military Organization of the Aztec Empire.” In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Thomas A. Lee, Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, 223–30. New World Archaeological Foundations Papers 40. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1978. Like the early Assyrian empire, the Aztec empire became a central tribute-gathering entity whose armies annually raided for booty but seldom maintained garrisons or strongholds.
Davies, Nigel. The Toltec Heritage: From the Fall of Tula to the Rise of Tenochtitlán. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 153. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980. Narrative political-military history of Mexico from the beginning of the 13th to early 15th century.
Davies, Nigel. The Toltecs: Until the Fall of Tula. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 144. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977. Problems in Mexican political-military history, 10th through 12th centuries.
Duverger, Christian. La fleur létale: Économie du sacrifice aztèque. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1979. On war as means of acquiring captives for sacrifice; see especially “La guerre,” 99–104, in part 3, chap. 1, “L’économie religieuse: Le pouvoir et le sacrifice.”
Fagan, Brian M. The Aztecs. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1984. See “Warriors and Warfare,” 125–33, in chap. 5, “Government and Empire.”
Gibson, Charles. “Structure of the Aztec Empire.” In Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, Archae[o]logy of Northern Mesoamerica, part 1, edited by Gordon F. Ekholm and Ignacio Bernal, 376–94. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971. Mainly geography and warfare, including militarism.
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Gledhill, John. “The Transformation of Asiatic Formations: The Case of Late Prehispanic Mesoamerica.” In Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology, edited by Matthew Spriggs, 135–48. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Marxist approaches to non-Western development surveyed, Aztec military state as case study (139ff ); stressing relation of economic orders to military-political hierarchy, in contrast to the centrality of militarily potent national state in distinctive Western development.
Harner, Michael. “The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice.” American Ethnologist 4 (1977): 117–35. Sacrificial victims provided protein otherwise lacking, and “flowery war” provided the victims.
Harner, Michael. “The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice.” Natural History 86 (April 1977): 46–51. Aztec cannibalism and warfare.
Hassig, Ross. “Aztec Flower Wars.” Military History Quarterly 9 (Autumn 1996): 8–20. Hassig, Ross. Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 188. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. See especially part 1, “War in Aztec Life,” 3–121; part 2 offers a narrative history of Aztec expansion.
Hassig, Ross. Trade, Tribute, and Transportation: The Sixteenth-Century Political Economy of the Valley of Mexico. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 171. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. Economic foundations of Aztec conquest and militarism.
Hicks, Frederic. “‘Flowery War’ in Aztec History.” American Ethnologist 6 (1979): 87–92. Contra Harner and Price, “flowery war” served as practical military training, not merely as device for obtaining sacrificial victims.
Holt, Homer Barry. “The Extent of the Dominance of Tenochtitlan during the Reign of Mocteuczoma Ilhuicamina.” In Studies in Middle American Anthropology, edited by George M. Foster, Homer Barry Holt, and Arthur Andrew Demarest. New Orleans, Louisiana: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, 1976. Population under Aztec control totaled 4.274 million.
Holt, Homer Barry. “Mexica-Aztec Warfare: A Developmental and Cultural Analysis.” Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology, University of
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Texas at Austin, 1979. In Dissertation Abstracts International 40A (September 1979): 1571–A. On the role of war in the development of the Aztec state.
Isaac, Barry L. “The Aztec ‘Flowery War’: A Geopolitical Explanation.” Journal of Anthropological Research 39 (1983): 415–32. Modern writers exaggerate the ritual aspects of protracted war between the Aztec empire and the Tlaxcala-Pueblan valley kingdoms; it was real war of conquest which the Aztecs simply were not able to win.
Isaac, Barry L. “Aztec Warfare: Goals and Battlefield Comportment.” Ethnology 22 (1983): 121–31. Contrary to widely repeated assertions, Aztecs practiced normal state-level warfare.
Keen, Benjamin. The Aztec Image in Western Thought. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1971. Numerous remarks on Aztec attitudes toward war and warriors throughout, but see especially chap. 2, “The Aztec World View,” 30–48; on changing scholarship, with due attention to war and military institutions, see especially chaps. 12–14.
Köhler, Ulrich. “Reflections on Zinacantan’s Role in Aztec Trade with Soconusco.” In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Thomas A. Lee, Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, 67–73. New World Archaeological Foundations Papers 40. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1978. Conquest and the establishment of strongholds as prerequisite for secure trade routes.
Kurtz, Donald V. “The Legitimation of the Aztec State.” In The Early State, edited by Henri Claessen and Peter Skalník, 169–89. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences, No. 32. The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Armed force as a factor in the survival of the state once formed.
Kurtz, Donald V. “Strategies of Legitimation and the Aztec State.” Ethnology 24 (1984): 301–14. One strategy is state terror, so human sacrifice may have political as well as religious and ecological significance (310–12).
Leacock, Eleanor Burke, and June Nash. “Ideologies of Sex: Archetypes and Stereotypes.” New York Academy of Sciences, Annals 285 (1977). Reprinted in Myths of Male Dominance: Collected Articles on Women CrossCulturally, by Eleanor Burke Leacock, 242–63. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1981. Impact of war on Aztec ideology and women’s status.
León-Portilla, Miguel. The Aztec Image of Self and Society: An Introduction
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to Nahua Culture. Edited by J. Jorge Klor de Alva. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1992. Numerous but scattered remarks on the Aztec ideology of war.
Lonergan, David. “Aztec Flowery War.” In “Abstracts of Papers Presented at the 33rd Annual Northwest Anthropological Conference, 27–29 March 1980, Bellingham, Washington,” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 15 (1981): 60–116, at 70. Traditional and recent theories compared.
McLachlan, Colin M. “The Eagle and the Serpent: Male over Female in Tenochtitlán.” Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies, Proceedings 5 (1976): 45–56. Military status as key to defining sex roles.
Monjarás-Ruiz, Jesús. “Panorama general de la guerra entre los Aztecas.” Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 12 (1976): 241–64. Military organization and the conduct of war.
Nash, June. “Aztec Women: The Transformation from Status to Class in Empire and Colony.” In Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Mona Etienne and Eleanor Leacock, 134–48. New York: Praeger, 1980. Linking women’s declining status to men’s specialization in warfare in the Aztec empire.
Nash, June. “The Aztecs and the Ideology of Male Dominance.” Signs 4 (1978): 349–62. Aztec history demonstrates relationships between male specialization in warfare, the structure of the state, and female subordination.
Padden, Robert Charles. The Hummingbird and the Hawk: Conquest and Sovereignty in the Valley of Mexico, 1503–1541. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967. The linked complex of empire and religion as the basis of Aztec sovereignty.
Piho, Virve. “La jerarguía militar azteca.” In Proceedings of the XLth Meeting, Rome-Genoa 1972, International Congress of Americanists, vol. 2, 273–88. Geneva: Tilgher, 1974. Aztec military ranks and hierarchy described from literary sources.
Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. “The Impact of the Xochiyaoyotl in Southwestern Puebla.” In Economics and Polities in the Aztec Realm, edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, 433–46. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York,
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Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Price, Barbara J. “Demystification, Enriddlement, and Aztec Cannibalism: A Materialist Rejoinder to Harner.” American Ethnologist 5 (February 1978): 98–115. State-level warfare and social structure better explain Aztec cannibalism than some imagined protein deficiency; cf. Harner, Hicks.
Rounds, J. “The Role of the Tecuhtli in Ancient Aztec Society.” Ethnohistory 24 (1977): 343–61. On Aztec bureaucratization, including military institutions.
Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. The Peoples of America. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1996. Smith, Michael E. “Economies and Polities in Aztec-Period Morelos: Ethnohistoric Overview.” In Economics and Polities in the Aztec Realm, edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, 313–48. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Smith, Michael E. “The Expansion of the Aztec Empire: A Case Study in the Correlation of Diachronic Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Data.” American Antiquity 52 (1987): 37–54. “The Ethnohistorical Record,” 39–44, sketches the sequences of wars from the late 12th century fall of the Toltec empire to the Battle of Cuauhnahuac in 1438.
Smith, Michael E., and Mary G. Hodge. “An Introduction to Late Postclassic Economies and Polities.” In Economics and Polities in the Aztec Realm, edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, 1–42. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany, Studies on Culture and Society, vol. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Smith, Michael E. “The Role of Social Stratification in the Aztec Empire: A View from the Provinces.” American Anthropologist 77 (1986): 70–91. The Aztec empire relied less on military coercion than on collusion between the aristocracies of the core state and the provinces.
Sullivan, Thema D. “The Rhetorical Orations, or Huehuetlatolli, Collected by Sahagún.” In Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún, edited by Munro S. Edmonson, 79–109. School of American Research
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Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974. The equivalence of death in childbirth and death in battle in Aztec thought, and other military matters.
Townsend, Richard F. The Aztecs. Ancient Peoples and Places. London: Thames & Hudson, 1992. The links between religion, war, and polity provide a central theme, but on Aztec military institutions see especially “The Warriors,” 195–200, in part 5, chap. 11, “The Aztec Way of Life: Priests, Warriors, and Kings.”
van Zantwijk, Rudolph. The Aztec Arrangement: The Social History of PreSpanish Mexico. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 167. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. How conquest sustained and altered the Aztec social system.
ANDEAN COMPLEX SOCIETIES
Alva, Walter, and Christopher B. Donnan. “Tales from a Peruvian Crypt.” Natural History 103 (May 1994): 26–35. Excavation of a site near Sipán, Peru, uncovered the burial of a Moche warrior, with discussion and illustrations of Moche warfare.
Ascher, Marcia, and Robert Ascher. Code of the Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics, and Culture. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981. A close study of the major Inca record-keeping method, with comments on its application to manpower, logistics, tribute, and other matters.
Bauer, Brian S. The Development of the Inca State. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. Chronic warfare characterized pre-Inca polities (105–108) as well as the Inca state itself.
Billman, Brian. “Coastal-Highland Interaction and the Evolution of Prehistoric Political Organizations in the Moche Valley, Peru.” American Anthropological Association, 92d Annual Meeting, Washington, 17–21 November 1993, Abstracts, 122. The highland conquest of the middle Moche Valley in the Early Intermediate period set in train responses from lower valley groups that led to the middle valley’s reconquest and played a crucial role in forming the Moche state.
Bouysse-Cassagne, Thérèse. “Urco and Uma: Aymara Concepts of Space.” In History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Wachtel, and Jacques Revel, 201–27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Museum des Sciences de l’Homme, 1986. “Urco” meant the highlands where the Aymara lived, but its wider semantic field was manliness associated with violence, aggression, and war; “uma” meant the valley and implied the feminine.
Browman, David L. “Demographic Correlations of the Wari Conquest of Junin.” American Antiquity 41 (1976): 465–75. Traditional explanation of shift from llama pastoralism to potato agriculture as result of Wari conquest countered by hypothesis based on population pressure.
Brundage, Burr Cartwright. Lords of Cuzco: A History and Description of the Inca People in Their Final Days. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 88. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967.
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On Inca military institutions and the place of war in Inca culture, see especially part 4, “War Enters the Great City,” section 4, “The Words of War,” 226–30.
Burger, Richard L. Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992. Up-to-date survey, including discussion of warlike activity (interpreted as evidence of small-scale raiding, not formal state war) depicted in the stone carvings of Cerro Sechín (“The north-central coast and the tradition of pyramids with circular courts, 75–90, at 78–79, in chap. 3, “The Initial Period Societies on the Coast”); and challenge to Carneiro’s thesis with respect to Andean state formation (“Some Concluding Thoughts on Chavín Civilization, 220–227, at 225, in chap. 7, “The Fluorescence and Collapse of Chavín Civilization”).
Burland, C. A. Peru under the Incas. Life in Ancient Lands. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1967. On army organization see chap. 2, “The Administration of the Incas,” 41–57, at 52–54; on military operations chap. 5, “The Expansion of the Four Quarters,” 96–114, at 106–11.
Busto Duthurburu, José Antonio del. Perú incaico. Lima: Libreria Studium, n.d. (c. 1977). See chap. 9, “La organizacion militar,” 209–33.
Conrad, Geoffrey W. “The Burial Platforms of Chan Chan: Some Social and Political Implications.” In Chan Chan: Andean Desert City, edited by Michael E. Moseley and Kent C. Day, 87–117. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982. Remarks on military expansion as economic activity (116–17).
Conrad, Geoffrey W. “Inca Imperialism: The Great Simplification and the Accident of Empire.” In Ideology and Pre-Columbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey Conrad, 159–74. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Although Inca military prowess may explain later success, ideology better explains the origins of Inca expansion.
Daggen, Richard. “Toward the Development of the State on the North Central Coast of Peru.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 70–82. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Carneiro’s circumscription and conflict theory of state origins appears to apply, although interregional conflict also seems relevant.
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D’Altroy, Terence N. Provincial Power in the Inka Empire. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. Diplomacy and economy mainly linked the disparate components of the 15th century Inka empire, but military force remained the ultimate arbitor; see especially chap. 5, “Inka Military Strategy and Logistics,” 71–93.
*Espinoza Soriano, Waldemar. “Acerca de la historia miltar inca.” Allpanchis: Revista Anual (Cuzco) 14, no. 16 (1980): 171–86. Feldman, Robert A., and Michael E. Moseley. “The Northern Andes.” In Ancient South Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, 139–77. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1983. Archaeological survey, briefly discussing the conquest by “The Inca,” 172–73.
Godelier, Maurice. Perspectives in Marxist Anthropology. Translated by Robert Brain. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology 18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. See “The Non-Correspondence between Form and Content in Social Relations,” 186–95, on how war and violence contributed to creating and maintaining the Inca mode of production (192–93).
Godelier, Maurice. “Territory and Property in Primitive Society.” In Human Ethology: Claims and Limits of a New Discipline, edited by Mario von Cranach, Klaus Foppa, Solf Lepenies, and Detlev Ploog, 133–55. Werner-Reimers-Stiftung Conference on Human Ethology, Homburg von der Höbe, 1977. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Conquest and land ownership among the Incas (149–50).
Gonzalez, Alberto Rex. “Inca Settlement Patterns in a Marginal Province of the Empire: Sociocultural Implications.” In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Egon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhal, 337–60. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 1983. See especially “Military Settlements,” 350–51.
Haas, Jonathan. “The Exercise of Power in Early Andean State Development.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 31–35. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. The power base upon which arose early coastal Peruvian states, like other prehistoric states, could be economic, ideological, and/or military.
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Hastorf, Christine A. Agriculture and the Onset of Political Inequality before the Inka. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Considerable discussion of warfare throughout (see index), but see especially “The Role of Warfare in Political Power,” 97–100, in chap. 5, “Regional Socio-Political Structures: Wanka II Hierarchical Developments.”
*Hocquenghem, Anne Marie. “Los combats mochicas: Essai d’interpretation d’un matérial archéologique a l’aide de l’iconologie, de l’ethno-histoire et de l’ethnologie.” Baessler-Archiv (Berlin), new series 26 (1978): 127–57. Hyslop, John. “Hilltop Cities in Peru.” Archaeology 30 (1977): 218–25. Extensive defensive fortifications from pre-Inca kingdom of Lupaca, southwest of Lake Titicaca, 1100–1450 A.D.
Hyslop, John. The Inka Road System. Studies in Archaeology. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Archaeological survey of several segments in part 1, then discussion of size of system, construction, siting, traffic, bridges, etc.; its purpose was primarily military.
Isbell, William H. “State Origins in the Ayachucho Valley, Central Highlands, Peru.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 83–90. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Initial conditions for state formation included the management of irrigation systems and economic expansion, but population pressure and a deteriorating environment promoted centralization and hierarchy, leading to state government quickly followed by imperial expansion.
Isbell, William H., and Katharina J. Schreiber. “Was Huari a State?” American Antiquity 43 (1978): 372–89. On archaeological criteria for recognizing states.
Keatinge, Richard W. “The Nature and Role of Religious Diffusion in the Early Stages of State Formation: An Example from Peruvian Prehistory.” In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, 172–87. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Comments on the links between religious and military authority.
Keatinge, Richard W., and Geoffrey W. Conrad. “Imperialist Expansion in Peruvian Prehistory: Chimu Administration of a Conquered Territory.” Journal of Field Archaeology 10 (1983): 255–83. Archaeological techniques for studying militaristic expansion, a significant characteristic of early state development if not formation.
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Kendall, Ann. Everyday Life of the Incas. London: B. T. Batsford; New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1973. See chap. 5, “Conquest and Integration,” 96–111.
Kolata, Alan L. “Chan Chan and Cuzco: On the Nature of the Ancient Andean City.” In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata, 345–71. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. Command economy and military expansion in shaping the Andean city.
Kolata, Alan L. “The South Andes.” In Ancient South Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, 241–85. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1983. Archaeological survey, briefly discussing the conquest by “The Inca: A.D. 1450–1532,” 282.
Kolata, Alan L. “Understanding Tiwanaku: Conquest, Colonization and Clientage in the South-Central Andes.” In Latin American Horizons, edited by Don S. Rice. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1992. La Lone, Darrell E. “The Inca as a Nonmarket Economy: Supply on Command versus Supply and Demand.” In Contexts for Prehistoric Exchange, edited by Jonathan E. Ericson and Timothy K. Earle, 291–316. Studies in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Territorial expansion and warfare as a form of capital investment (297).
Lanning, Edward P. Peru before the Incas. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967. Remarks on war and conquest in urbanization and empire-building.
Lechtman, Heather. “Andean Value Systems and the Development of Prehistoric Metallurgy.” Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 1–36. On the characteristics of Andean military technology and why metal played no significant role (1–6).
LeVine, Terry Y., ed. Inka Storage Systems. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. Several articles acknowledge military logistics as a central function of Inka storage systems, but none address this aspect directly.
Lumbreras, Luis G. The Peoples and Cultures of Ancient Peru. Translated by Betty J. Meggers. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974. Numerous but scattered remarks on war and military institutions in precolumbian Peruvian societies.
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Lyon, Patricia J. “Archaeology and Mythology II: Re-Consideration of the Animated Objects Theme in Moche Art.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 62–68. Calgary: The Society, 1989. The accessibility of Moche art with its naturalistic depictions of warriors masks subtle problems of interpretation.
McIntyre, Loren. The Incredible Incas and Their Timeless Land. Washington: National Geographic Society, 1975. Heavily illustrated, present-oriented popular account, but full coverage of Inca military history, especially chaps. 3, “Lord Inca Cataclysm,” 54–73; 4, “The Unforgettable One,” 74–97; and 5, “The War between the Brothers,” 98–119.
Mason, J. Alden. The Ancient Civilizations of Peru. 2nd edition New York: Penguin, 1968. Focused on the Inca, with substantial remarks on warfare.
Métraux, Alfred. The History of the Incas. Translated by George Ordish. New York: Pantheon Books, 1969. Reprinted New York: Schocken Books, 1970. See the discussion of military organization conquest, 56–60, in the chap. entitled “The Thirteen Emperors.”
Molinie Firoavanti, Antoinette. “Sanglantes et fertiles frontières: À propos des batailles rituelles andines.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 74 (1985): 49–70. Ritual battle helps define society, sacrifice to unify it.
Morris, Craig, and Donald E. Thompson. Huánuco Pampa: An Inca City and Its Hinterland. New Aspects of Antiquity. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1985. Military aspects of Inca rule figure prominently throughout, but see especially chap. 7, “Roads, Bridges and Waystations: The Infrastructure of Inca Rule in the Provinces,” 109–18, on troop movement and supply.
Morris, Craig, and Adriana von Hagen. The Inka Empire and Its Andean Origins. New York: Abbeville Press, 1993. Military intstitutions may not have been especially significant in Andean development before the Inka empire.
Morris, Craig. “The Infrastructure of Inka Control in the Peruvian Central Highlands.” In The Inca and Aztec States, 1400–1800: Anthropology and History, edited by George A. Collier, Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, 153–71. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Academic Press, 1982. On the logistics of conquest.
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Morris, Craig. “Storage, Supply, and Redistribution in the Economy of the Inka State.” In Anthropological History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Wachtel, and Jacques Revel, 59–68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Museum des Sciences de l’Homme, 1986. The system created to support armies had significant economic impacts.
Moseley, Michael F. “Central Andean Civilization.” In Ancient South Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, 179–239. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1983. Archaeological survey focused on the background and development of the Inca empire.
Moseley, Michael E. The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992. Including archaeological evidence for intensifying warfare with increasing social complexity.
Moseley, Michael E. “Introduction: Human Exploitation and Organization on the North Andean Coast.” In Chan Chan: Andean Desert City, edited by Michael E. Moseley and Kent C. Day, 1–24. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982. Remarks on conquest as economic strategy: investing corvée labor in securing new land by conquest (11, 15).
Murra, John Victor. The Economic Organization of the Inka State. Research in Economic Anthropology, supplement 1. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1980. Extensive but scattered discussion of military institutions and warfare.
Murra, John Victor. “The Expansion of the Inka State: Armies, War, and Rebellions.” In Anthropological History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Wachtel, and Jacques Revel, 49 –58. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Museum des Sciences de l’Homme, 1986. Inka state-building drew on long-established Andean military and political traditions.
Murra, John Victor. “La guerre et les rébellions dans l’expansion de l’état Inka.” Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations 33 (1978): 927–35. Recent research on recruitment of armed forces and the study of rebellion in the dynastic oral tradition help explain both rapid expansion in the 15th century and collapse in the 1530s.
Parsons, Jeffrey R., and Charles W. Hastings. “The Late Intermediate
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Period.” In Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of Pre-Inca and Inca Society, edited by Richard W. Keatinge, 190–229. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Archaeological evidence for increasing intensity of intergroup warfare in the trajectory toward increasingly complex polities.
Patterson, Thomas C. The Inca Empire: The Formation and Disintegration of a Pre-Capitalist State. Explorations in Anthropology: A University College London Series. New York and Oxford: Berg, 1991. Narrative and analytic history of the Inca polity, forged in war and conquest.
Pozorski, Shelia. “Theocracy vs. Militarism: The Significance of the Casma Valley in Understanding Early State Formation.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 15–30. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. In contrast to other valleys where warfare played a key role in state development, the Casma valley supported a type of state more theocratically based.
Proulx, Donald A. “Headhunting in Ancient Peru.” Archaeology 24 (1971): 16–21. Ritualistic warfare in Middle Horizon Huari.
Proulx, Donald A. “Nasca Trophy Heads: Victims of Warfare or Ritual Sacrifice?” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 73–85. Calgary: The Society, 1989. As war trophies heads were of minor significance; their primary function was ritualistic.
Rawls, Joseph Michael. “An Analysis of Prehispanic Andean Warfare.” Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles, 1979. How warfare may have influenced the development of Andean civilization.
Reichert, Raphael X. “A Moche Battle and the Question of Identity.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 86–89. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Despite its apparent clarity with respect to warfare, Moche art is tricky to interpret.
Salomon, Frank. Native Lords of Quito in the Age of the Incas: The Political Economy of North Andean Chiefdoms. Cambridge Studies in Social
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Anthropology 59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. See especially “The Apparatus of Coercion and Defense: Fortifications,” 148–51; and “The Apparatus of Transport and Communication: Roads and Way Stations,” 151–58, in chap. 6, “The Incaic Impact.”
Salomon, Frank. “Vertical Politics on the Inka Frontier.” In Anthropological History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Wachtel, and Jacques Revel, 89 –117. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Museum des Sciences de l’Homme, 1986. Including the role of the army.
Sanders, William T. “The Significance of Pikillakta in Andean Culture History.” In Miscellaneous Papers in Anthropology, by Richard A. Diehl, Robert B. Eckhart, Charles C. Kolb, William T. Sanders, and David Webster, 379–428. Occasional Papers in Anthropology 8. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, Department of Anthropology, 1973. Probably housing a frontier garrison against enemies from the south, the site offers data to support the view of Wari as a militaristic and expansionist pre-Inca empire.
Schaedel, Richard P. “Formation of the Inca State.” III Congreso Peruano del Hombre y la Cultura Andina, 31 January–5 February 1977, Actas y Trabajos, vol. 1, 112–56. See especially “The Military Cluster,” 139–40.
Schreiber, Katharina J. “The Association between Roads and Polities: Evidence for Wari roads in Peru.” In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Charles D. Trombold, 243–52. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Movement of military forces is one of the major political purposes for which states establish a formal road system.
Schreiber, Katharina J. “From State to Empire: The Expansion of Wari outside the Ayacucho Basin.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 91–96. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Archaeological evidence suggests that Wari state origins owed less to religion or commerce than to political expansion through conquest.
*Schreiber, Katharina J. Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers 87. Ann Arbor: The Museum, 1992.
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Middle Horizon Wari (A.D. 600–1000) displayed many of the traits usually assumed to be Inka, including military.—Reviewed by David J. Wilson, American Anthropologist 95 (1993): 755.
Schuler-Schömig, Immina von. “Die ‘Fremdkrieger’ in Darstellungen der Moche-Keramik: Eine ikonographische Studie.” Baessler-Archiv n.s. 27 (1979): 135–213. Iconographic study of foreign warriors depicted on Moche ceramics.
Sharon, Douglas. “The Inca Warachikuy Initiations.” In Enculturation in Latin America: An Anthology, edited by Johannes Wilbert, 213–36. UCLA Latin American Studies, vol. 37. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1976. Military values central to Inca male education.
Spalding, Karen. Huarochirí: An Andean Society under Inca and Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984. On the military basis of Inca polity, see especially chap. 3, “Tribes Become Peasants,” 72–105, at 80–88.
Toland, Judith Drick. “Inca Legitimation as a Communication Process.” In State Formation and Political Legitimacy, edited by Ronald Cohen and Judith D. Toland, 115–35. Political Anthropology, vol. 6. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988. Although war may be a significant factor in state formation, state survival depends on communicating rulers’ legitimacy to their subjects.
Toland, Judith Drick. “Discrepancies and Dissolution: Breakdown of the Early Inca State.” In Early State Dynamics, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde, 138–53. Studies in Human Society, vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987. Warfare was the most important way of diverting the hostility of subjects from the inequities of the Inca system.
Topic, John R. “The Ostra Site: The Earliest Fortified Site in the New World?” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 215–27. Calgary: The Society, 1989. The 5000-year-old site on the north-central coast of Peru points to an early appearance of warfare and suggests the need to search more thoroughly for other evidence.
Topic, John R., and Theresa Lange Topic. “The Archaeological Investigation of Andean Militarism: Some Cautionary Observations.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan
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Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 47–55. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. How to recognize military activity archaeologically requires more thought than it usually gets, and even the analysis of fortifications presents subtle problems.
Topic, John R., and Theresa Lange Topic. “Coast-Highland Relations in Northern Peru: Some Observations on Routes, Networks, and Scales of Interaction.” In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata, 237–59. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1983. Fortifications and roads as complementary bases for understanding interrelationships between prehistoric complex societies.
Topic, John R., and Theresa Lange Topic. “Prehistoric Fortification Systems of Northern Peru.” Current Anthropology 19 (1978): 618–19. Highland and coastal sequences can be distinguished, each growing more sophisticated over time; preliminary report of a survey intended to expand data for judging the significance of militarism in state development.
Topic, Theresa Lange. “The Early Intermediate Period and Its Legacy.” In Chan Chan: Andean Desert City, edited by Michael E. Moseley and Kent C. Day, 255–84. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982. Discusses fortifications in the Virú valley (257–58, 260); see especially “Moche as an Expansionist State,” 270–73.
Webb, Malcolm C. “Broader Perspectives on Andean State Origins.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 161–67. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. State formation tends to proceed from relatively more cooperative to relatively more coercive action; divergent theories may well spring from where in the process one chooses to see the state in existence.
Wilson, David J. “Modeling the Role of Ideology in Societal Adaptation: Examples from the South American Data.” In Ideology and Pre-Columbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey Conrad, 37–63. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Andean fortifications are evidence of intravalley cooperation and intervalley conflict, not of coerced polity formation as proposed by Carneiro.
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Wilson, David J. “The Origins and Development of Complex Prehispanic Society in the Lower Santa Valley, Peru: Its Implications for Theories of State Origins.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2 (1983): 209–76. Carneiro’s version of state formation in circumscribed areas through population pressure, local warfare, and incorporation of vanquished into expanding polities is incomplete; attack from outside must also be considered.
Wilson, David J. “Reconstructing Patterns of Early Warfare in the Lower Santa Valley: New Data on the Role of Conflict in the Origins of Complex North-Coast Society.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia Pozorski, and Thomas Pozorski, 56–69. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Archaeological survey finds ample evidence of warfare as a continuing factor in societal development, with interregional culminating in a peaceful period evidently the result of Moche conquest.
PRECONTACT NORTH AMERICA
Adams, E. Charles. “The Case for Conflict during the Late Prehistoric and Protohistoric Periods in the Western Pueblo Area of the American Southwest.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 103–11. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Between 1275 and 1600 changes in western Pueblo settlement patterns and defensive works some scholars have taken to indicate increased conflict actually represent successful attempts to reduce conflict.
*Anderson, David G. “Warfare and Mississippian Political Evolution in the Southeastern United States.” Paper presented at the Twentieth Annual Chacmool Conference, Calgary, 1987. *Anderson, David G. “Political Change in Chiefdom Societies: Cycling in the Late Prehistoric Southeastern United States.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. University Microfilms. *Anderson, David G. “Factional Competition and the Political Evolution of Mississippian Chiefdoms in the Southeastern United States.” Unpublished manuscript, 1992. Anderson, David G. The Savannah River Chiefdoms: Political Change in the Late Prehistoric Southeast. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994. Extensive but scattered discussion of southeastern warfare and of chiefdom-level warfare in general, including remarks on how to recognize war archaeologically.
Anderson, David G. “Stability and Change in Chiefdom-Level Societies: An Examination of Mississippian Political Evolution on the South Atlantic Slope.” In Lamar Archaeology: Mississippian Chiefdoms in the Deep South, edited by Mark Williams and Gary Shapiro, 187–213. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990. On the function of warfare in maintaining Mississippian chiefdoms, see especially “Ecological Factors and the Stability of Southeastern Chiefdoms,” 202–207.
*Bamforth, D. “Indigenous People, Indigenous Violence: Precontact Warfare on the North American Great Plains.” Man new series 29 (1994): 95–115.
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Barker, Alex W., and Timothy R. Pauketat, eds. Lords of the Southeast: Social Inequality and the Native Elites of Southeastern North America. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 3. American Anthropological Association, 1992. Elite males achieved status through warfare, though only one article (Scarry) address this aspect of affairs directly.
Bense, Judith A. Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: Paleoindian to World War I. San Diego, California: Academic Press, 1994. Chap. 7, “Mississippian Stage: A.D. 1000–1500,” includes sections on early Mississippian “Warfare,” 206–207; middle Mississippian “Warfare,” 229; and late Mississippian “Sociopolitical Events and Warfare,” 240–42.
Blitz, John H. Ancient Chiefdoms of the Tombigbee. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993. Farmsteads dispersed around a fortified center formed the area’s typical settlement pattern, a response to chronic warfare (100–101).
Bovee, Dana L., and Douglas W. Owsley. “Evidence of Warfare at the Heerwald Site.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 355–62. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. West-central Oklahoma late prehistoric site provides evidence of small-scale warfare.
Brooks, Robert L. “Warfare on the Southern Plains.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 317–23. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Archaeological evidence for warfare in the Plains Village period, A.D. 800–1500, suggests mostly small-scale raiding.
Brose, David S. “From the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex to the Southern Cult: ‘You Can’t Tell the Players without a Program.’” In The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis, edited by Patricia Galloway, 27–37. The Cottonlandia Conference [1984]. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. What may have originated as relatively straightforward pictorial symbols for political, military, and religious elites could have taken on a life of their own, as the development of heraldry in England suggests.
Brose, David S., James Allison Brown, David W. Penney, and Dirk Bakker. Ancient Art of the American Woodland Indians. New York: Henry N. Abrams, with the Detroit Museum of Art, 1985. For Mississippian warriors depicted and discussed, see index entries for military cults, and for warfare and warriors.
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Brown, Ian W. “The Calumet Ceremony in the Southeast and Its Archaeological Manifestations.” American Antiquity 54 (1989): 311–31. A meeting ritual intended to permit peaceful contact between strangers, the ceremony reached the southeast in the 16th century, but faded with European expansion.
Brown, Ian W. Natchez Indian Archaeology: Culture Change and Stability in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Archaeology Report 15. Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1985. Bullock, Peter. “Does the Reality of Anasazi Violence Prove the Myth of Anasazi Cannibalism?” American Anthropological Association, 92d Annual Meeting, 17–21 November 1993, Abstracts, 150. Most trauma once attributed to cannibalism are shown to be the result of violent death, perhaps war-related.
Chatters, James C. “Pacifism and the Organization of Conflict on the Plateau of Northwestern America.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 241–52. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Archaeological and ethnographic evidence tend to deny the supposed pacific character of plateau societies before the arrival of the horse.
Conrad, Lawrence A. “The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex on the Northern Middle Mississippian Frontier: Late Prehistoric PoliticoReligious Systems in the Central Illinois River Valley.” In The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis, edited by Patricia Galloway, 93–113. The Cottonlandia Conference [1984]. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. For a number of archaeological and ethnohistorical reasons, monopoly on the use of legitimate force prominent among them, Natchez and several other polities should be deemed primitive states, not merely chiefdoms; the earlier Mississippian polities further north clearly shared many of the same features and may deserve the same label.
Cordell, Linda S. Prehistory of the Southwest. New World Archaeological Record. San Diego, California: Academic Press, 1984. Anthropologists have regularly explained pueblo abandonment as the result of warfare, whether internecine or attacks by marauding Utes and Athapascans; see “Traditional Explanations for Abandonment,” 304–309.
Cordell, Linda S. “Warfare: Some Issues from the Prehistoric Southwest.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 173–78. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989.
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Archaeological evidence suggests that levels of warfare never rose much above personal fighting or raiding.
Coupland, Gary. “Warfare and Social Complexity on the Northwest Coast.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 205–14. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Marked regional variability characterized the origin and development of warfare in northwest societies.
DePratter, Chester B. Late Prehistoric and Early Historic Chiefdoms in the Southeastern United States. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1983. Published in The Evolution of North American Indians: A 31–Volume Series of Outstanding Dissertations, edited by David Hurst Thomas. New York: Garland, 1991. See chap. 3, “Warfare,” 39–56, emphasizing distinctions in the nature of warfare between chiefdoms and less highly integrated social formations.
Dickson, D. Bruce. “The Yanomamö of the Mississippi Valley? Some Reflections on Larson (1972), Gibson (1974), and Mississippian Period Warfare in the Southeastern United States.” American Antiquity 46 (1981): 909–16. What motivates or causes primitive warfare?
Dye, David H. “The Art of War in the Sixteenth-Century Central Mississippi Valley.” In Perspectives on the Southeast: Linguistics, Archaeology, and Ethnohistory, edited by Patricia B. Kwachka, 44–60. Southwestern Anthropological Society Proceedings 27. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. As observed by the de Soto entrada.
Dye, David H. “Warfare in the Sixteenth-Century Southeast: The de Soto Expedition in the Interior.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 2, Archaeological and Historical Perspectives in the Spanish Borderlands East, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 211–22. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. Emerson, Thomas E., and Lewis R. Berry. Cahokia and Its Neighbors. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988. Engelbrecht, William. “Factors Maintaining Low Population Density among the Prehistoric New York Iroquois.” American Antiquity 52 (1987): 13–27. Warfare and adoption contributed in both direct and indirect ways.
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Engelbrecht, William. “The Iroquois: Archaeological Patterning on the Tribal Level.” World Archaeology 6 (1974): 52–65. See “The Tribal Level and Warfare,” 59–61.
Fish, Paul R., and Suzanne K. Fish. “Hohokam Warfare from a Regional Perspective.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 112–29. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. The archaeological record suggests a largely nonbelligerent culture through most of its history, though it appears to have originated in conquest.
Frison, George C. Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. New York: Academic Press, 1978. See chap. 9, “Some Functional Aspects of the Weaponry of the Prehistoric Hunter,” 329–41.
Gibson, Jon L. “Aboriginal Warfare in the Protohistoric Southeast: An Alternative Hypothesis.” American Antiquity 39 (1974): 130–33. War as source of status, thus of social stability; cf. Dickson above, Larson below.
Greenleaf, J. Cameron. “The Fortified Hill Site near Gila Bend, Arizona.” The Kiva 40/4 (1975): 213–82. Dating from 1200–1300 A.D. and perhaps settled by migrants after its abandonment by Hohokam proper, the site may have been selected for its defensive qualities.
*Haas, Jonathan, and Winifred Creamer. Stress and Warfare among the Kayenta Anasazi of the Thirteenth Century A.D. Fieldiana Anthropology, new series, 21; Publication 1450. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1993. Strong evidence from settlement patterns for primary role of warfare in social reorganization of the 14th century—John W. Rick, American Anthropologist (December 1994): 1032–33:
Haas, Jonathan, “Warfare and the Evolution of Tribal Politics in the Prehistoric Southwest.” In The Anthropology of War, edited by Jonathan Haas, 171–89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Archaeological analysis of prestate warfare, more concerned with social impact than causes.
*Hasenstab, Robert John. “Agriculture, Warfare, and Tribalization in the Iroquois Homeland of New York: A G. I. S. Analysis of Late Woodland Settlement.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1990.
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Hollimon, Sandra E., and Douglas W. Owsley. “Osteology of the Fay Tolton Site: Implications for Warfare during the Initial Middle Missouri Variant.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 345–53. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Archaeological evidence for warfare as a regular feature of prehistoric northern plains life.
Justice, Noel D. Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of the Midcontinental and Eastern United States: A Modern Survey and Reference. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1987. Knight, Vernon James, Jr. “Social Organization and the Evolution of Hierarchy in Southeastern Chiefdoms.” Journal of Anthropological Research 46 (1990): 1–23. Technical analysis of kin, moiety, etc., with little attention to military organization.
Krause, Richard A. “Trends and Trajectories in American Archaeology: Some Questions about the Mississippean Period in Southeastern Prehistory.” In Alabama and the Borderlands: From Prehistory to Statehood, edited by R. Reid Badger and Lawrence A. Clayton, 17–39. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985. Fortifications may reflect patterns of raiding provoked by competition for scarce resources, or they may indicate an incipient conquest state, as suggested by Larson, below (30).
Krech, Shepard, III. “Genocide in Tribal Society.” Nature 371 (1 September 1994): 14–15. A 14th-century site called Crow Creek in South Dakota reveals the remains of 500 people, suggesting that prestate warfare may not have been the ritualized game so often depicted.
Kwachka, Patricia B., ed. Perspectives on the Southeast: Linguistics, Archaeology, and Ethnohistory. Southwestern Anthopological Society Proceedings 27. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. Includes, besides the directly relevant article by Dye, separately cited, an extensive bibliography.
*Lafferty, Robert H., III. “An Analysis of Prehistoric Southeastern Fortifications.” Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Illinois University, 1973. Lambert, Patricia M. “Patterns of Violence in Prehistoric HunterGatherer Societies of Coastal Southern California.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David
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W. Frayer, 77–109. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Skeletal evidence for violent conflict over 7,000 years of prehistory, mainly embedded projectile points and depressed skull fractures, is most common in periods of climate instability and areas of denser population.
Larson, Lewis H., Jr. “Functional Considerations of Warfare in the Southeast during the Mississippi Period.” American Antiquity 37 (1972): 382–92. Competition for arable land as main cause of warfare; cf. Dickson, Gibson above.
*McAllister, Evelyn M. “The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex— A War-Fertility Cult.” M.A. thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 1972. Marshall, Michael, Bill Kight, Charlotte Ann Hollis, John Stein, and Carol Cooperrider. “Fortified Pueblo Architecture in the Rio Abajo District, New Mexico.” In “Archaeological Essays in Honor of Mark Wimberly,” edited by Michael S. Foster, 101–32. The Artifact 19/3–4 (1981): 1–230. Descriptions of fortifications on elevated landforms that served defensive roles during a period of hostilities from ca. 1150–ca. 1400.
Martin, Debra L. “Violence against Women in the La Plata River Valley (A.D. 1000–1300).” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 45–75. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Maschner, Herbert D. G. “The Evolution of Northwest Coast Warfare.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 267–302. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Institutionalized warfare, including fortifications and sieges, usually attributed to contact, actually dates from 500 A.D. with the first appearance of the bow, large multilinear villages, and hilltop forts.
Mason, Ronald J. Great Lakes Archaeology. New World Archaeological Record. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Aboriginal warfare was small-scale and minimally destructive, but endemic (as shown by palisaded towns), its motives revenge, prestige, and for Iroquoians, religion, 22–24.
*Milner, George R., Eve Anderson, and Virginia G. Smith. “Warfare in Late Prehistoric West-Central Illinois.” American Antiquity 56 (1991): 581–603. Morse, Dan F., and Phyllis A. Morse. Archaeology of the Central Mississippi Valley. New York: Academic Press, 1983.
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Chap. 12, “Mississippean Nucleation (A.D. 1350–1650),” 270–303, notes the first evidence during this period of fortification, warfare, and population concentration, suggestive of chiefdom consolidation.
*Moss, M., and J. Erlandson. “Forts, Refuge Rocks, and Defensive Sties: The Antiquity of Warfare along the North Pacific Coast of North America. Arctic Anthropology 29 (1992): 73–90. Muller, Jon D. “The Southeast.” In Ancient Native Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, 280–324. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1978. Competition for scarce land in late prehistoric times led to warfare, as shown by fortifications, but state formation did not follow (308–309); discussion of war in the social evolution of Mississippian society modeled chiefly on Robert L. Carneiro, “A Theory of the Origin of the State,” Science 169 (1970): 733–38.
O’Brien, Patricia J. “Cahokia: The Political Capital of the ‘Ramey’ State.” North American Archaeologist 10 (1989): 275–92. Cahokia displays archaeological evidence for the four defining traits of a state, beginning with monopoly on use of legitimate force as indicated by mass human sacrifice.
Olsen, Sandra L., and Pat Shipman. “Cutmarks and Perimortem Treatment of Skeletal Remains on the Northern Plains.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 377–87. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Traumatic injury ranks with secondary burial as the major source of altered skeletal remains (383–86).
*Owsley, Douglas W. “Intertribal Warfare and Cannibalism in the Northern Plains.” Paper presented at the 9th Scientific Session of the Paleopathology Club, International Academy of Pathology, 1986. *Owsley, Douglas W., Hugh E. Berryman, and William M. Bass. “Demographic and Osteological Evidence for Warfare at the Larson Site, South Dakota.” Plains Anthropologist 22 (1977): 119–31. In Abstracts in Anthropology 7 (1977–78), no. 2869. Human bones at an Arikara village site, 1750–1785, strongly suggest intertribal warfare.
Owsley, Douglas W., and Richard L. Jantz, eds. Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Part 4, “Warfare on the Plains,” documents the increasingly violent nature of Indian society before the arrival of Europeans; relevant articles are cited separately.
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Owsley, Douglas W. “Warfare in Coalescent Tradition Populations of the Northern Plains.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 333–43. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Evidence of scalping indicates small-scale warfare during all variants of the Coalescent Tradition, from late prehistoric through protohistoric to early historic times.
*Pastron, A. G., C. W. Clewlow, Jr., and P. T. Atkinson. “Aboriginal Warfare in Northern California.” The Masterkey 47/4 (1973): 136–42. In Abstracts in Anthropology 5 (1974), no. 3806. Skeletal remains with embedded projectile points suggest link between tribal organization and increased warfare.
Pauketat, Timothy R. The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994. Chap. 2, “Chiefdoms in Theory and Practice,” 8–39, discusses the central role of warfare, 29–31.
Peebles, Christopher S. “Moundville: Late Prehistroic Sociopolitical Organization in the Southeastern United States.” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 183–98. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. Warfare was an important part in the growth of social complexity at Moundsville (194).
Peebles, Christopher S. “Paradise Lost, Strayed, and Stolen: Prehistoric Social Devolution in the Southeast.” In The Burden of Being Civilized: An Anthropological Perspective on the Discontents of Civilization, edited by Miles Richardson and Malcolm Webb, 24–40. Southern Anthropological Society Proceedings 18. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986. On the reasons, warfare among them, behind the decline and collapse of native American civilization in the southeast.
Peebles, Christopher S., and Susan M. Kus. “Some Archaeological Correlates of Ranked Societies.” American Antiquity 42 (1977): 421–48. Based on southeastern materials, ranked societies display archaeological evidence of distinctive mortuary ritual, settlement relationships and subsistence autonomy, and parttime craft specialization.
*Peregrine, Peter. “An Archaeological Correlate of War.” North American Archaeologist 14/2 (1993): 139–51. Abstracted in America: History and Life 31 (1994): 8355. Patterns of community organization as evidence for Mississipian warfare.
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Plog, Fred, and Steadman Upham. “The Analysis of Prehistoric Political Organization.” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 199–213. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. Evidence neither of warfare and raiding nor fortification unequivocally indicates territoriality in the archaeological record (203).
Powell, Mary Lucas. “In the Best of Health? Disease and Trauma among the Mississippian Elite.” In Lords of the Southeast: Social Inequality and the Native Elites of Southeastern North America, edited by Alex W. Barker and Timothy R. Pauketat, 81–98. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association Number 3. Washington: American Anthropological Association, 1992. The high rate of trauma—broken ribs, hands, feet, ulnae, and radii—among elite adult males from the Chucalissa site in Tennessee may reflect the role of warfare in advancing male status.
Riley, Carroll C. “Warfare in the Protohistoric Southwest: An Overview.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 138–46. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Warfare seems to have been pervasive; though its form varied greatly between groups, it usually involved some significant economic component, such as control of trade routes.
Rohn, Arthur H. “Warfare and Violence among the Southwestern Pueblos.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 147–52. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Considerable archaeological and ethnographic evidence point to a significant role for warfare in Anasazi/Pueblo society, though perhaps not so great as in some other societies.
Russell, Howard S. Indian New England before the Mayflower. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1980. See chap. 18, “Trade and Conflict,” 185–94, which includes war.
Scarry, John F. “Political Offices and Political Structure: Ethnohistoric and Archaeological Perpectives on the Native Lords of Apalachee.” In Lords of the Southeast: Social Inequality and the Native Elites of Southeastern North America, edited by Alex W. Barker and Timothy R. Pauketat, 163–83. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological
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Association Number 3. Washington: American Anthropological Association, 1992. The organizational structure of native polities in 17th-century Apalachee included “Military Positions,” 171–72, which were achieved rather than inherited.
Selman, Mark F. “Ohio Hopewell Trophy-Skull Artifacts as Evidence for Competition in Middle Woodland Societies circa 50 B.C.–A.D. 350.” American Antiquity 53 (1988): 565–77. Contrary to early views of the skulls as belonging to revered ancestors, they more likely came from enemies defeated in war.
Shaffer, Lynda Norene. Native Americans before 1492: The Moundbuilding Centers of the Eastern Woodlands. Sources and Studies in World History. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1992. “Military Capabilities,” 70–72, in chap. 5, “Cahokia and Other Mississippian Period Centers, the Third Moundbuilding Epoch.”
Sheridan, Thomas E. “Prelude to Conquest: Yaqui Population, Subsistence and Warfare during the Protohistoric Period.” In The Protohistoric Period in the North American Southwest, A.D. 1450–1700, edited by David R. Wilcox and W. Bruce Masse, 71–93. Anthropological Research Papers 24. Tucson: Arizona State University, 1981. Population pressure on scarce resources led to chronic warfare; see especially “Yaqui Warfare during the Protohistoric Period,” 83–85.
Smith, Bruce D. “Mississippean Expansion: Tracing the Historical Development of an Explanatory Model.” Southeastern Archaeology 3 (1984): 13–32. Assumption that Mississippean culture spread from a single site, perhaps by conquest, reviewed and criticized.
Smith, Bruce D. Mississippean Settlement Patterns. New York: Academic Press, 1978. Smith, Maria Ostendorf. “Osteological Indications of Warfare in the Archaic Period of the Western Tennessee Valley.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 241–65. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. Snarskis, Michael J. “The Archeological Evidence for Chiefdoms in Eastern and Central Costa Rica.” In Chiefdoms in the Americas, edited by Robert D. Drennan and Carlos A. Uribe, 105–16. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1987. Warfare derived from competition for resources serves as one of five criteria for recognizing chiefdoms archaeologically.
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Snow, Dean R. The Archaeology of New England. New World Archaeological Record. New York: Academic Press, 1980. Owasco, a late prehistoric New York series, includes skeletal evidence for warfare such as adult male remains riddled with arrows, cannibalism indicated by scattered human bones in refuse, and warfare and scalping present before Europeans, 314.
*Steinen, Karl T. “Ambushes, Raids and Palisades: Mississippian Warfare in the Interior Southeast.” Southeastern Archaeology 11 (1992): 132–39. Steponaitis, Vincas P. “Contrasting Patterns of Mississippian Development.” In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy Earle, 193–228. School of American Research, Advanced Seminar Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Persistent raiding characterized the period of uncentralized polity, but purposive organized war intensified significantly in the period before political centralization; see especially “Warfare,” 207–208.
Steponaitis, Vincas P. “Location Theory and Complex Chiefdoms: A Mississippean Example. In Mississippean Settlement Patterns, edited by Bruce D. Smith, 417–53. Studies in Archeology; New York: Academic Press, 1978. Unlike states, chiefdoms lack full control of the institutionalized monopoly of coercive force; see especially “Complex Chiefdoms: Organization, Tribute, Political Centers,” 419–21.
Steponaitis, Vincas P. “Prehistoric Archaeology in the Southeastern United States.” Annual Review of Anthropology 15 (1986): 363–404. On the rise and fall of complex chiefdoms, with a nod toward the disruptive effects of European arms and disease.
Stone, Connie L. “Economy and Warfare along the Lower Colorado River.” In The Protohistoric Period in the North American Southwest, A.D. 1450–1700, edited by David R. Wilcox and W. Bruce Masse, 183–97. Anthropological Research Papers 24. Tucson: Arizona State University, 1981. War served as a means of extending gathering area; since war produced results more reliably commensurate with effort than agriculture in a marginal environment, it was a more rational economic investment.
Todd-Bresnick, Lois. “The Prevalence of Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America during the Pre-Contact Period.” In Western Washington Indian Socio-Economics: Papers in Honor of Angelo Anastasio, edited by Herbert C. Taylor, Jr., and Garland F. Grabert, 81–93. Bellingham: Western Washington University, 1984. Enslavement of war captives was a universal characteristic of coast societies.
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Townsend, Joan B. “Pre-contact Political Organization and Slavery in Aleut Societies.” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 120–32. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. Complex society in the Fox Islands rested on slavery, and raiding for slaves was a major activity.
Tuck, James A. “The Iroquois Confederacy.” Scientific American (February 1971), as reprinted in Pre-Columbian Archaeology: Readings from “Scientific American,” edited by Gordon R. Willey and Jeremy A. Sabloff, 73–83. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1980. What archaeology suggests about the origins of peaceful relations between certain Iroquois-speaking tribes in New York, creating the league that conquered a vast area of the northeast.
Tuck, James A. Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory: A Study in Settlement Archaeology. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1971. See especially remarks on internecine warfare as stimulus to leaguing for mutual defense (213), and on intensified warfare as the product of a shifting sexual division of labor (223–24) in chap. 7, “Comparisons and Conclusions.”
Turner, E. Randolph. “Difficulties in the Archaeological Identification of Chiefdoms as Seen in the Virginia Coastal Plain during the Late Woodland and Early Historic Periods.” In Late Woodland Culture of the Middle Atlantic Region, edited by Jay F. Custer, 19–28. Newark: University of Delaware Press; London: Associated University Presses, 1986. Low-level chiefdoms and more complex but short-lived chiefdoms remain hard to spot archaeologically; without ethnohistorical data, Powhatan would be invisible despite its increasing power and military prowess.
Turner, E. Randolph. “Native American Protohistoric Interactions in the Powhatan Core Area.” In Powhatan Foreign Relations, 1500–1722, edited by Helen C. Rountree, 76–93. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. Archaeological evidence for endemic warfare prior to European contact derives almost entirely from data on defensive palisades (89–90).
Ubelaker, Douglas H. “An Overview of Great Plains Human Skeletal Biology.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 391–95. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Evidence for warfare abounds, even if all bone cuts do not indicate violence.
Upham, Steadman, and Paul F. Reed. “Inferring the Structure of Anasazi Warfare.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives,
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edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 153–62. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. What kinds of archaeological evidence must be sought to link warfare to other categories of social action.
Walker, Phillip L. “Cranial Injuries as Evidence of Violence in Prehistoric Southern California.” Journal of Physical Anthropology 80 (1989): 313–23. Increased frequency of injuries reflects changes in patterns of violence associated with population growth and environmental instability.
Walthall, John A. Prehistoric Indians of the Southeast: Archaeology of Alabama and the Middle South. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1980. Chap. 7, “The Mississippean Stage,” 185–245, surveys the period’s numerous palisaded towns and endorses Larson’s view of Mississippean warfare in the context of chiefdoms, 192–93.
Wedel, Waldo R. “A Shield and Spear Petroglyph from Central Kansas: Some Possible Implications.” Plains Anthropologist 14 (May 1969): 125–29. Possibly of 16th or 17th century provenance, the glyph may depict a pedestrian warrior covered from chin to shin by a large, round shield, from which projects a spear; despite its uniqueness and other possible interpretations, it has interesting implications for native warfare.
Whallon, Robert, Jr. “Investigations of Late Prehistoric Social Organization in New York State.” In New Perspectives in Archeology, edited by Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford, 223–44. Chicago: Aldine, 1968. Evidence of intensifying warfare possible caused by population growth (236), contributing to the development of centralizing social mechanisms (241–42).
Widmer, Randolph J. The Evolution of the Calusa: A Nonagricultural Chiefdom on the Southwest Florida Coast. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988. See “The Role of Warfare in the Chiefdom,” 273–74, in chap. 9, “The Sociopolitical Evolution of the Calusa Chiefdom.”
Widmer, Randolph J. “The Relationship of Ceremonial Artifacts from South Florida with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex.” In The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis, edited by Patricia Galloway, 166–80. The Cottonlandia Conference [1984]. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Similarities in motifs and elements are both common and clearly political and military in iconographic depiction.
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Wilcox, David R., and Jonathan Haas. “The Scream of the Butterfly: Competition and Conflict in the Prehistoric Southwest.” In Themes in Southwest Prehistory, edited by George J. Gumerman, 211–38. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1994. Reviews the architectural, skeletal, graphic, archaeological and other evidence for the reality of warfare in the prehistoric southwest.
Wilcox, David R. “Warfare Implications of Dry-Land Masonry Walls on Tumamoc Hill.” The Kiva 45 (1979): 15–38. Defense best explains the structure, suggesting a history of developing chiefdoms leading to increased warfare and social collapse, 1400–1450.
Wilkinson, Richard G. “Violence against Women in Prehistoric Michigan.” In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Debra L. Martin and David W. Frayer, 21–43. War and Society. Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach, 1997. The bulk of the evidence points to intergroup conflict as the source of cranial trauma in 19 individuals, 15 of them female.
Willey, Patrick S. Prehistoric Warfare on the Great Plains: Skeletal Analysis of the Crow Creek Massacre Victims. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1982, originally entitled “Osteology of the Crow Creek Massacre.” Published in The Evolution of North American Indians: A 31-Volume Series of Outstanding Dissertations, edited by David Hurst Thomas. New York: Garland, 1990. Analysis of the remains of 486 victims from a raid, c. 1325, on a palisaded village in what is now south central South Dakota.
*Williams, J. Raymond. “A Study of Fortified Indian Villages in Southeastern Missouri.” M.A. thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia, 1964. Williams, Mark, and Gary Shapiro. “Paired Towns.” In Lamar Archaeology: Mississippian Chiefdoms in the Deep South, edited by Mark Williams and Gary Shapiro, 187–213. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990. A pattern of alternately occupied paired sites in close proximity might be explained by “Military Conquest,” 171, but other reasons are more likely.
PART SIX
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN POST-CONTACT AMERICA
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EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
Abler, Thomas S. “Iroquois Cannibalism: Fact Not Fiction.” Ethnohistory 27 (1980): 309–16. Cannibalism as religious observance intended to insure success in war.
Aquila, Richard. “Down the Warrior’s Path: The Causes of the Southern Wars of the Iroquois.” American Indian Quarterly 4 (1978): 211–21. Although the commonly alleged motives of revenge and glory do apply, Iroquois wars against Choctaws, Cherokees, and others, also served diplomatic and economic ends.
Aquila, Richard. The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701–1754. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1983. Including narrative accounts of Iroquois wars against the French and northern Indians in the late 17th century (chap. 2, “The Twenty Years’ War,” 43–69), and against the Catawbas and other southern tribes in the early 18th century (chap. 7, “The Southern Wars,” 205–32).
Axtell, James. “Colonial America without the Indians: Counterfactual Reflections.” Journal of American History (1987): 981–96. Including transfer of military techniques from Indians to colonists, and the role of Indian threat in shaping colonial character and polity.
Axtell, James. The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. See especially chaps. 8, “Scalping: The Ethnohistory of a Moral Question,” 207–41; and 10, “The Indian Impact on English Colonial Culture,” 272–315, especially the indianization of warfare (299–303) and contrary perspectives on what could be deemed moral in war (311–14).
Axtell, James. The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Although warfare played a part, the contest for America between Indians, French, and English was predominantly cultural.
Boyce, Douglas W. “‘As the Wind Scatters the Smoke’: The Tuscaroras in the Eighteenth Century.” In Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, edited by Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, 151–63. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987. How war drove the Tuscaroras into the League of the Iroquois.
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Brown, Judith K. “Economic Organization and the Position of Women among the Iroquois.” Ethnohistory 17 (1970): 131–67. Earlier version of the following article.
Brown, Judith K. “Iroquois Women: An Ethnohistoric Note.” In Toward an Anthropology of Women, edited by Rayna Rapp Reiter, 235–51. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975. Among their other roles, women had a voice in war and peace decisions (240), held power of life and death over war prisoners (240), and exerted a degree of logistical control over the conduct of war because they supplied the necessary trail rations and moccasins (249).
Buffalohead, Priscilla K. “Farmers, Warriors, Traders: A Fresh Look at Ojibway Women.” Minnesota History 48 (1983): 236–44. Suggests an institutionalized role for women warriors, 243–44.
Calloway, Colin G. Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783–1815. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. Substantial discussion of Indian warfare as successfully modified by adoptions from European practice.
Calloway, Colin G., ed. The World Turned Upside Down: Indian Voices from Early America. The Bedord Series in History and Culture. Boston, Massachusetts, and New York: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Including numerous accounts of warfare and related activities.
*Cave, Alfred A. “The Pequot Invasion of Southern New England: A Reassessment of the Evidence.” New England Quarterly 62 (1989): 27–44. Clark, Wayne E., and Helen C. Rountree. “The Powhatans and the Maryland Mainland.” In Powhatan Foreign Relations, 1500–1722, edited by Helen C. Rountree, 112–135. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. Observations on the nature of warfare and weapons among the Piscataways and Patuxents (121).
Corkran, David H. The Carolina Indian Frontier. Tricentennial Booklet 6. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, for the South Carolina Tricentennial Commission, 1970. Trade, warfare, and diplomacy among Indians, English, Spanish, and French from the 16th through the 18th century.
Day, Gordon M. “The Ouragi War: A Case History in IroquoisNew England Indian Relations.” In Extending the Rafters: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Iroquoian Studies, edited by Michael K. Foster, Jack Campisi,
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and Marianne Mithun, 35–50. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984. Narrative of the far from one-sided war between Iroquois and Penacook in the 1660s.
*Dennis, Mathew. Cultivating a Land of Peace: Iroquois-European Encounters in Seventeenth-Century America. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press; Cooperstown, New York: State Historical Association, 1993. The first century of intensive contact.—JPG AHA Guide 39.544.
Eccles, W. J. “The Fur Trade and Eighteenth-Century Imperialism.” William and Mary Quarterly 40 (1983): 341–62. French use of the fur trade to further imperial pretensions met its match in Indian use of the trade to play off the colonial powers against each other—until the French were eliminated.
*Eid, Leroy V. “The Neglected Side of American Indian War in the Northeast.” Military Review 61 (1981): 9–21. Eid, Leroy V. “The Ojibwa-Iroquois War: The War the Five Nations Did Not Win.” Ethnohistory 26 (1979): 297–324. Intertribal warfare before 1700.
Engelbrecht, William. “New York Iroquois Political Development.” In Cultures in Contact: The Impact of European Contacts on Native American Cultural Institutions, A.D. 1000–1800, edited by William W. Fitzhugh, 163–83. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. Warfare and defensive needs promoted consolidation of tribes and then of confederacies, a process accelerated, if not initiated, by European contact and the fur trade.
Fenton, William N. “The Iroquois in History.” In North American Indians in Historical Perspective, edited by Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie. New York: Random House, 1971. Fenton, William N. “Leadership in the Northeastern Woodlands of North America.” American Indian Quarterly 10 (1986): 21–45. Including the role of war leader.
Fogelson, Raymond D. “Cherokee Notions of Power.” In The Anthropology of Power: Ethnographic Studies from Asia, Oceania, and the New World, edited by Raymond D. Fogelson and Richard N. Adams, 185–94. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Academic Press, 1977. War and political power in traditional Cherokee society.
Galloway, Patricia K. “Choctaw Factionalism and Civil War, 1746–1750.” In The Choctaw before Removal, edited by Carolyn Keller Reeves, 120–56. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985. Tensions generated by European contact generated civil war among the Choctaw.
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Goodwin, Gary C. Cherokees in Transition: A Study of Changing Culture and Environment Prior to 1775. University of Chicago, Department of Geography, Research Paper 181. Chicago, 1977. See the section on “Warfare,” 99–106, in chap. 6, “Postcontact Period: Changing Settlement Patterns.”
Gramly, Richard Michael. “Deerskins and Hunting Territories: Competition for a Scarce Resource of the Northeastern Woodlands.” American Antiquity 42 (1977): 601–605. Significance of access to a relatively scarce material vital for winter clothing may explain more about conflict and need for defense in Late Woodland State of Northeast and Ontario than traditional views about scarce land.
Grumet, Robert Steven. “Sunksquaws, Shamans, and Tradeswomen: Middle Atlantic Coastal Algonkian Women during the 17th and 18th Centuries.” In Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Mona Etienne and Eleanor Burke Leacock, 43–62. New York: Praeger, 1980. The section on “Sunksquaws,” 46–53, discusses warmaking and women’s political roles.
Hann, John H. Apalachee: The Land between the Rivers. Ripley P. Bullen Monographs in Anthropology and History 7. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1988. Chap. 4, “Apalachee Political Structure,” discusses the role of war chief (111–12); chap. 8, “Apalachee and Its Neighbors,” 181–93, covers traditional warfare; chap. 11, “Indian and Spanish Interaction and Acculturation,” addresses changes in war making (246–50).
Hantman, Jeffrey L. “Between Powhatan and Quirank: Reconstructing Monacan Culture and History in the Context of Jamestown.” American Anthropologist 92 (1990): 676–90. The enigmatically tolerant reception accorded the Jamestown colony owed something to emergent Powhatan confederacy’s preoccupation with its long-standing struggle against an inland foe, the Monacans.
Hantman, Jeffrey L. “Powhatan’s Relations with the Piedmont Monacans.” In Powhatan Foreign Relations, 1500–1722, edited by Helen C. Rountree, 94–111. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. On the evidence for persistent antagonism between Powhatans and Monacans (101–103).
*Hantman, Jeffrey L. “When a People Come from Under the World”: Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Virginia Monacan. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991. Hassig, Ross. “Internal Conflict in the Creek War of 1813–1814.” Ethnohistory 21 (1974): 251–71.
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Attitude toward war was determined chiefly by age and location, not membership in white (peace) or red (war) factions.
*Hatley, Tom. The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Warfare prominent among intercultural relations along the Carolina frontier.— Reviewed by Mary Young, Journal of American History 81 (1994): 647.
Haviland, William A., and Marjory W. Power. The Original Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, for the University of Vermont, 1981. See the section on Abenaki warfare, 176–78, in chap. 5, “Life in Vermont on the Eve of European Penetration”; and the sections on “The Abenaki-Iroquoian Wars,” 225–27, and “The Abenaki-British Wars,” 227–39, in chap. 6, “Europeans Come to Vermont: The Destruction of a Way of Life.”
Heidenreich, Conrad. Huronia: A History and Geography of the Huron Indians, 1600–1650. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1971. On the Iroquois-Huron wars, see the section on “The Interrelations of Trade, Peace and War to 1649,” 264–77, in chap. 7, “External Relations and Trade.”
Hickerson, Harold. The Chippewa and Their Neighbors: A Study in Ethnohistory. With a review essay and supplemental bibliography by Jennifer S. H. Brown and Laura L. Peers. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1988. How to do ethnohistory, focused on Chippewa (Ojibwa)-Dakota warfare and the maintenance of an intertribal buffer zone.
Howard, James H. Shawnee! The Ceremonialism of a Native American Indian Tribe and Its Cultural Background. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1981. See chap. 7, “Government, War, and Peace,” 106–28.
Hudson, Charles M., and Carmen Chaves Tesser, eds. The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521–1704. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. Several articles discuss the Spanish military expeditions which provide most of what is known about the warlike chiefdoms of the southeast, while several others discuss the chiefdoms themselves.
Hudson, Charles M. The Southeastern Indians. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976. See the section on “War,” 239–57, in chap. 4, “Social Organization,” 184–257, which also includes “The Chiefdom,” 202–22; “Politics and Law,” 223–34; and “Dual Organization,” 234–39 [peace and war chiefs]. “The Mississippian Tradition,” 77–97 (in chap. 2, “Prehistory and Early History,” 34–119) stresses the characteristic fortification of sites and advances Carneiro’s view of incipient state formation.
Hudson, Charles M., ed. Four Centuries of Southern Indians. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975.
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Most of the essays address warfare among Indians and between Indians and whites, but see especially Covington’s (under “Iberian Conquest,” below).
Jaenen, Cornelius J. Friend and Foe: Aspects of French-Amerindian Cultural Contact in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Chap. 4, “Barbarism and Cruelty,” 120–52, largely centers on warfare, noting native styles and European-influenced changes.
Jamieson, J. B. “Trade and Warfare: The Disappearance of the Saint Lawrence Iroquoians.” Man in the Northeast 39 (1990): 79–86. Contrary to the accepted view based on a misunderstanding of early trade and warfare patterns, the St. Lawrence Iroquoians were not conquered and absorbed by the Huron confederations but were rather dispersed by the Five Nations.
Jennings, Francis. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederations of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984. Narrative diplomatic history of relations between the League of the Iroquois and the Middle Atlantic colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries.
Jennings, Francis. “Glory, Death, and Transfiguration: The Susquehannock Indians in the Seventeenth Century.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 112 (1968): 15–53. Narrative history of politics and diplomacy, with war serving as the regular settler of accounts.
Johnson, Michael G., and Richard Hook. American Woodland Indians. Men-at-Arms Series 228. London: Osprey, 1990. Kniffen, Fred B., Hiram F. Gregory, and George A. Stokes. The Historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987. See chap. 17, “Tribal Warfare,” 291–98.
Konrad, Victor. “An Iroquois Frontier: The North Shore of Lake Ontario during the Late Seventeenth Century.” Journal of Historical Geography 7 (1981): 129–44. The Iroquois frontier did not correspond to any frontier perceived by Europeans.
*Kupperman, Karen Odahl. Settling with the Indians: The Meeting of the English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580–1640. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1980. McKee, Jesse O., and Jon A. Schlenker. The Choctaws: Cultural Evolution of a Native American Tribe. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1980.
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Mamak, Alexander. “The Traditional Authority System of the Sac and Fox Indians.” Mankind Quarterly 10 (1970): 135–47. Merrell, James H. The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1989. Chap. 1, “A People from under the World: Europeans and Other Intruders,” discusses precontact warfare (36–37), the gun trade and piedmont arms race (40–43); chap. 2, “The Power of the Steelyard: The Triumph of Trade,” covers the Yamassee and Tuscarora wars (66–78); chap. 3, “Many Nations under That Name: A New Society Takes Shape,” discusses the character of Iroquois-Catawba warfare and the reshaping of the Catawba nation (113–22).
Merrell, James H. “‘Our Bond of Peace’: Patterns of Intercultural Exchange in the Carolina Piedmont, 1650–1750.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, 196–222. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. War was a recurrent aspect of intercultural exchange.
Merrell, James H. “‘Their Very Bones Shall Fight’: The CatawbaIroquois Wars.” In Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600 –1800, edited by Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, 115–33. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987. On warfare as a necessary component of both Catawba and Iroquois culture.
Milner, Clyde A., II. “Indulgent Friends and Important Allies: Political Process on the Cis-Mississippi Frontier and Its Aftermath.” In The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, edited by Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, 123–48. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981. Two case studies examine the nature and purpose of indigenous warfare and its changes under Euroamerican influence: “Micro-Context: Survival and Separation on the Virginia Frontier,” 126–31; and “Macro-Context: Dependence and Imperialism on the Frontiers of New France,” 131–38.
Naroll, Raoul. “The Causes of the Fourth Iroquois War.” Ethnohistory 16 (Winter 1969): 51–81. Alternations in native warfare attendant upon civilized contact.
Noley, Grayson. “The Early 1700s: Education, Economics, and Politics.” In The Choctaw before Removal, edited by Carolyn Keller Reeves, 73–119. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985.
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European contact provoked intertribal warfare, notably the prolonged ChoctawChickasaw war (104–12).
Otterbein, Keith F. “Huron vs. Iroquois: A Case Study in InterTribal Warfare.” Ethnohistory 26 (Spring 1979): 141–52. The 1649 Iroquois campaign that devastated the Huron, analyzed according to 20th-century military science.
Pastore, Ralph. “The Sixteenth Century: Aboriginal Peoples and European Contact.” In The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History, edited by Phillip A. Buckner and John G. Reid, 22–39. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; Fredericton: Acadiensis Press, 1994. Perdue, Theda. “Cherokee Relations with the Iroquois in the Eighteenth Century.” In Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, edited by Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, 135–49. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987. Relations were largely warlike.
Perdue, Theda. Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979. See chaps. 1, “Aboriginal Cherokee Bondage,” 3–18; and 2, “Cherokees and the Indian Slave Trade,” 19–35.
Perdue, Theda. “The Trail of Tears: Removal of the Southern Indians.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 96–117. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Trade and warfare in the southeast from the earliest European settlements until the 19th-century removal of the Indians westward.
Persico, V. Richard, Jr. “Early Nineteenth-Century Cherokee Political Organization.” In The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, edited by Duane H. King, 92–109. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979. Military concerns shaped town governments and fostered centralization, 94–97.
*Pilette, Marie-Laure. “Un dilemme Iroquois: Combattre pour s’allier et s’allier pour combattre.” Recherches Amérindiennes au Québec 21/1–2 (1991): 71–78. Abstracted in America: History and Life 31 (1994): 8426. Ambiguous concept of peace embraced antagonism toward internal war, support for external warfare.
Potter, Stephen R. Commoners, Tribute, and Chiefs: The Development of Algonquian Culture in the Potomac Valley. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993.
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Evidence of warfare appears only in late prehistoric times with the expansion of Powhatan and Conoy chiefdoms, and becomes more widespread after the arrival of Euroamericans; see especially chap. 5, “The Clash of Cultures,” 174–223.
Reid, John Philip. A Better Kind of Hatchet: Law, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Cherokee Nation during the Early Years of European Contact. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1976. War also figured prominently in intercultural contact and the evolution of Cherokee law.
Reid, John Philip. A Law of Blood: The Primitive Law of the Cherokee Nation. New York: New York University Press, 1970. Chaps. 15 through 20 (153–228) deal with war-making, military organization, and peace-keeping.
Reid, John Philip. “A Perilous Rule: The Law of International Homicide.” In The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, edited by Duane H. King, 33–45. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979. Specifically, corporate responsibility for individual murder obtains only within the group; internal mechanisms for controlling vengeance do not apply outside.
Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, 1992. Richter, Daniel K. “Ordeals of the Longhouse: The Five Nations in Early American History.” In Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, edited by Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, 11–29. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987. Focuses on the role of “mourning war” in Iroquois society.
Richter, Daniel K. “War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience.” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 40 (1983): 528–59. Traditional warfare (“mourning war”) functioned to maintain Iroquois society, but white pressure disrupted the system.
Richter, Daniel K. “War, Peace, and Politics in Seventeenth Century Iroquoia.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 283–89. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Traditional Iroquois concepts of war and peace differed significantly from European, forcing the Iroquois to essay new cultural forms.
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Ronda, James P. “Black Robes and Boston Men: Indian-White Relations in New France and New England, 1524–1701.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 3–34. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Trade, disease, diplomacy, and war in the colonial northeast.
Rothenberg, Diane. “The Mothers of the Nation: Seneca Resistance to Quaker Intervention.” In Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Mona Etienne and Eleanor Burke Leacock, 63–87. New York: Praeger, 1980. See “The Effects of Trade and Warfare: Sedentary Women and Mobile Men,” 67–68, on the sources of women’s growing status.
Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas’s People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia through Four Centuries. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 196. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. Narrative history, warfare featured prominently in the first four chapters on precontact affairs and interaction with the colonies.
Rountree, Helen C. The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 193. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. See especially chap. 4, “Manliness,” 79–87; and chap. 7, “Law, Politics, and War.”
Rountree, Helen C. “The Powhatans and Other Woodland Indians as Travelers.” In Powhatan Foreign Relations, 1500 –1722, edited by Helen C. Rountree, 21–52. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. Discusses war parties as a form of travel (28–29) and “Warfare as a Communication Mechanism,” 49–50.
Rountree, Helen C. “The Powhatans and the English: A Case of Multiple Conflicting Agendas.” In Powhatan Foreign Relations, 1500–1722, edited by Helen C. Rountree, 173–205. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993.
On the series of Anglo-Powhatan wars during the first half of the 17th century that destroyed the Powhatan polity.
Salisbury, Neal. “Toward the Covenant Chain: Iroquois and Southern New England Algonquians, 1637–1684.” In Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600 –1800, edited by Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, 61–73. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987. The beaver wars as sources of both peace and war in mid-17th-century New England.
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Satz, Ronald N. Tennessee’s Indian Peoples: From White Contact to Removal, 1540–1840. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979. Sheehan, Bernard W. Savagism and Civility: Indians and Englishmen in Colonial Virginia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Chap. 2, “Ignoble Savagism,” discusses European perceptions of native warfare, violence, and cannibalism, 56–62; chap 6, “Massacre,” 144–82, addresses Indian-white warfare, focused on the massacre of 1622.
Smith, Dwight L. “Mutual Dependence and Mutual Distrust: IndianWhite Relations in British America, 1701–1763.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 49–65. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Trade and warfare along the 18th-century frontier.
Snow, Dean R. The Iroquois. The Peoples of America. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. Paperback edition, 1996. Snyderman, George S. Behind the Tree of Peace: A Sociological Analysis of Iroquois Warfare. New York: AMS Press, 1979. Detailed description and analysis of military organization, tactics, weapons, and practice.
Starna, William A., and Ralph Watkins. “Northern Iroquoian Slavery.” Ethnohistory 38 (Winter 1991): 34–57. The Iroquois enslaved as well as adopted war captives.
Tanner, Helen Hornbeck. “The Land and Water Communication Systems of the Southeastern Indians.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, 6–20. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Trails and canoe routes linked the entire southeast (and beyond), allowing war parties and diplomatic missions to undertake journeys of as much as 1500 miles.
Trigger, Bruce G. The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660. 2 vols. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1976. Much of the work centers on the great war between Huron and Iroquois, but see especially the section on “War,” 1:68–73, in chap. 2, “The Huron and Their Neighbours.”
Trigger, Bruce G. The Huron: Farmers of the North. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969. See chap. 4, “Warfare,” 42–53.
Trigger, Bruce G. “Iroquois Matriliny.” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 48 (1978): 55–65.
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When the Iroquois adopted horticulture, women working year-round became the fixed center of society, while men took off for hunting, fishing, trading, and war.
Trigger, Bruce G. “The Mohawk-Mohican War (1624–28): Establishment of a Pattern.” Canadian Historical Review 52 (1971): 276–86. Primarily a diplomatic pattern.
Wallace, Anthony F. C. The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. New York: Random House, 1970. Reprinted New York: Vintage Books, 1972. See especially “Iroquois Polity: The Philosophy of Peace,” 39–44, and “Iroquois Warfare: The Strategy of Threat and Retaliation,” 44–48, in chap. 3, “The Seneca Nation of Indians”; see also chap. 5, “The Last Wars in the Forest,” 111–48.
Wood, Peter H. “Indian Servitude in the Southeast.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 4, History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, 407–409. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. War captives sold into slavery.
Woods, Patricia Dillon. French-Indian Relations on the Southern Frontier, 1699–1762. Studies in American History and Culture, No. 18. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1980. Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Natchez as allies and enemies of France, in a narrative history of war and diplomacy.
Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. The Only Land They Knew: The Tragic Story of the American Indians in the Old South. New York: Free Press, 1981. Chap. 1, “The Original Southerners,” 1–26, portrays chiefs commanding aboriginal mass armies meeting in open field, with raiding playing a subordinate role (20–21); chap. 10, “This ‘New America,’” 217–47, notes changes in Indian practice to avoid pitched battle with Europeans (239).
WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Albers, Patricia C. “Symbiosis, Merger, and War: Contrasting Forms of Intertribal Relationships among Historic Plains Indians.” In The Political Economy of North American Indians, edited by John H. Moore, 94–132. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. Anastasio, Angelo. “The Southern Plateau: An Ecological Analysis of Intergroup Relations.” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 6 (1972): 109–229. Much on warfare throughout, but see especially “Pattern of Intergroup Hostilities,” 142–46, and appendix 2, “Plateau-Plains Relations from a Plateau Perspective,” 204–208.
Anderson, Gary Clayton. “Early Dakota Migration and Intertribal War: A Revision.” Western Historical Quarterly 11 ( January 1980): 17–36. On the 18th-century move to the plains and its consequences.
Anderson, Gary Clayton. Kinsmen of Another Kind: Dakota-White Relations in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1650 –1862. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. Warfare, especially Dakota against Chippewa, figures prominently; seen index entry for “War.”
Bailey, Garrick Alan. Changes in Osage Social Organization, 1673–1906. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers 5. Eugene: The University, 1973. On traditional warfare, see “The Non’-hon-zhin-ga and the War Organization,” 23–25.
Baldwin, Gordon C. The Apache Indians: Raiders of the Southwest. New York: Four Winds Press, 1978. See chap. 13, “Raiding and Warfare,” 173–81.
Bancroft-Hunt, Norman, and Werner Forman. The Indians of the Great Plains. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1989. Chap. 3, “The War Complex,” 55–77, offers a documented and illustrated survey of plains warfare as conceived and as practiced.
Bean, Lowell John. Mukat’s People: The Cahuilla Indians of Southern California. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. See the structural-functional analysis of “Warfare,” 129–32, in chap. 7, “Other Institutions.”
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Bee, Robert L. Crosscurrents along the Colorado: The Impact of Government Policy on the Quechan Indians. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981. See the section on “Warfare,” 10–12, in chap. 1, “Pre-Colonial Setting, 1540–1852.”
Berlandier, Jean Louis. The Indians of Texas in 1830. Edited and introduced by John C. Ewers. Translated by Patricia Reading Leclercq. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969. Numerous references to warfare are indexed, but see especially the discussion of Comanche warmaking, 66–84.
Biolsi, Thomas. “Ecological and Cultural Factors in Plains Indian Warfare.” In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, 141–68. Studies in Anthropology; Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Plains warfare requires consideration of both material and cultural factors.
Bittle, William E. “Kiowa Apache Raiding Behavior.” Papers in Anthropology 20 (Fall 1979): 33–47. What aged informants recall about the old days.
Blaine, Martha Royce. The Pawnees: A Critical Bibliography. Newberry Library Center for the History of the American Indian, Bibliographical Series. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980. See the section on “Pawnee Military Affairs: Depredations and Hostilities,” 18–24.
*Burch, Ernest S., Jr. “Eskimo Warfare in Northwest Alaska.” Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 16 (1974): 1–14. Calloway, Colin G. “The Inter-Tribal Balance of Power on the Great Plains, 1760–1850.” Journal of American Studies 16 (April 1982): 25–47. Mounted warfare on the plains and its consequences.
*Calloway, Donald G. “Raiding and Feuding among Western North American Indians.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1978. *Cannon, A. “Conflict and Salmon on the Interior British Columbia.” In A Complex Culture of the British Colubmia Plateau, edited by Brian Hayden, 506–24. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992. Capps, Benjamin, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. The Indians. The Old West. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1973. Raiding and warfare figure prominently in the text, but see especially the pictorial essay on “The Fierce Ritual of the Warpath,” 203–209.
Clifton, James A. The Prairie People: Continuity and Change in Potawatomi Indian Culture, 1665–1965. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1977.
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See chap. 7, “Persistence and Change in the Interregnum,” 157–78, especially the section on “Patterns of Feuding and Warfare, 173–78.
*Cook, Sherburne F. The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Dempsey, Hugh A. “The Blackfoot Indians.” In Native Peoples: The Canadian Experience, edited by R. Bruce Morrison and C. Roderick Wilson, 404–35. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986. See “Warfare,” 420–21.
Dempsey, Hugh A. Crowfoot: Chief of the Blackfeet. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 122. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972. Chap. 2, “The Young Warrior,” 3–12, pictures plains raiding and warfare in the mid-19th century.
Donald, Leland. “Slave Raiding on the North Pacific Coast.” In Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit and Metis, edited by Bruce Alden Cox, 161–72. Carleton Literary Series 142. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1987. Acquiring slaves as an important motive for making war.
Donald, Leland. “Was Nuu-chah-nulth-aht (Nootka) Society Based on Slave Labor?” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 108–19. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. Notes that most slaves were war captives (112–13).
Drucker, Philip. “Ecology and Political Organization on the Northwest Coast of America.” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 86–96. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. Among the major indicators that local groups were the only political units in Southern Kwakiutl society was their autonomy in decisions about peace and war.
Drucker, Philip, and Robert F. Heizer. To Make My Name Good: A Reexamination of the Southern Kwakiutl Potlatch. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. In part, theoretical critique of potlatch as outgrowth from, and substitute for, war (17–22); see also “The Verbalization of Conflict in the Potlatch,” 125–29.
Ewers, John C. “Intertribal Warfare as the Precursor of Indian-White Warfare on the Northern Great Plains.” Western Historical Quarterly 6 (1975): 397–410. Aboriginal warfare and its transformations.
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Ewers, John C. “Notes on the Weasel in Historic Plains Indian Culture.” Plains Anthropologist 22 (1977): 253–62. Associated with warriors’ clothing and weapons, derived from appreciation of weasel’s savagery.
Ewers, John C. “Women’s Roles in Plains Indian Warfare.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 325–32. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Survey of women as victims, captives, warriors, torturers, mutilators, and mourners.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “Warfare and Redistributive Exchange on the Northwest Coast.” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 133–47. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. Exchanging food and property served to curb attack and build alliance.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “A Reexamination of the Causes of Northwest Coast Warfare. In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, 267–328. Studies in Anthropology. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Warfare based on conflict over resources motivated by material interests; specifically contra Codere’s ceremonial thesis of Kwakiutl warfare, and Swadesh’s too narrowly economic interpretation.
Fields, Rick. The Code of the Warrior: In History, Myth, and Everyday Life. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. See chap. 10, “A Good Day to Die: Crazy Horse and the Sioux Warrior,” 207–31.
Forbes, Allan, Jr. “The Plains Agon—A Gross Typology.” Plains Anthropologist 17 (May 1972): 143–56. Contrary to common opinion, raiding for horses or scalps was not the only significant form of post-horse, post-gun warlike activity; it was but one of seven types.
Ford, Richard I. “Barter, Gift, or Violence: An Analysis of Tewa Intertribal Exchange.” In Social Exchange and Interaction, edited by Edwin N. Wilmsen, 21–45. University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Anthropology Papers 46. Ann Arbor: The Museum, 1972. What factors determined whether goods were exchanged by trade, theft, or war.
Goodwin, Grenville. Western Apache Raiding and Warfare. Edited by Keith H. Basso. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1971. Including several personal narratives, plus notes on various special aspects of Apache warfare.
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Graham, Edward E. “Yuman Warfare: An Analysis of Ecological Factors from Ethnohistorical Sources.” In War, Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 451–62. World Anthropology. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. On links between subsistence patterns, warfare, and environment among a people of the American southwest.
Guédon, Marie-Françoise. People of Tetlin, Why Are You Singing? Mercury Series, Ethnology Division, Paper 9. Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1974. See the section on “Wars and Feuds,” 149–59, among the Upper Tanana Indians of Canada, in chap. 5, “The Band.”
Haley, James L. Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1981. See “He Makes Weapons,” 109–15, on weaponry; and “They Scout Around,” 116–21, on raiding and warfare.
Heizer, Robert F. “Indian Servitude in California.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 4, History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, 414–16. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. Heizer, Robert F., and Albert B. Elsasser, with James C. Bard, Edward D. Castillo, and Karen M. Nissen. A Bibliography of California Indians: Archaeology, Ethnography, Indian History. Garland Reference Library of Social Science, vol. 48. New York: Garland, 1977. See part 2, “Indian History,” 1.D2, “Ethnography: Social-Political Organization; Native Warfare,” 166–68.
Hill, W. W. An Ethnography of Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico. Edited by Charles H. Lange. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982. See “Warfare” and “War Tales,” 68–72, in chap. 6, “Nonagricultural Economy”; and “Fighting Equipment,” 118–20, in chap. 7, “Material Culture.”
Hoebel, E. Adamson. “On Cheyenne Sociopolitical Organization.” Plains Anthropologist 25 (May 1980): 161–69. Movement onto the plains promoted the development of soldier societies.
*Hoig, Stan. Tribal Wars of the Southern Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. Hook, Jason. The American Plains Indians. Men-at-Arms Series 163. London: Osprey, 1985. See “War,” 17–33.
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Hoover, Herbert T. “Sitting Bull.” In American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity, edited by R. David Edmunds, 152–74. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Biographical sketch of the Hunkpapa Sioux leader and account of plains warfare in the mid-19th century.
Howard, James H. The Canadian Sioux. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. See chap. 5, “Warfare,” 51–58.
Hungry Wolf, Beverly. The Ways of My Grandmothers. New York: William Morrow, 1980. See especially “A Grandmother Who Went on War Raids,” 55–59, in which Mary One Spot talks about her grandfather’s oldest sister; “Running Eagle—Woman Warrior of the Blackfeet,” 62–68, in which the author retells the story of a legendary woman from the early 19th century; and “A Woman Who Followed the Ways of a Man,” 68–71, from the field notes of Claude Schaeffer about a Kootenay woman.
James, Steven R., and Suzanne Graziani. “California Indian Warfare.” University of California, Archaeological Research Facility, Contributions 23 (1975): 47–109. Low-level fighting was ubiquitous, but intense warfare was limited to the Colorado River area.
Jorgensen, Joseph G. Western Indians: Comparative Environments, Languages, and Cultures of 172 Western American Indian Tribes. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1980. See especially the section on “Warfare,” 240–47, in chap. 9, “Political Organization, Sodalities, and Warfare”; a series of maps, 503–15, show the distribution of certain war practices and organizations.
Kavanagh, Thomas W. Comanche Political History: An Ethnohistorical Perspective, 1706–1975. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, in cooperation with American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, 1996. Kehoe, Alice B. “The Shackles of Tradition.” In The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women, edited by Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, 53–73. Washington: University Press of America, 1983. Visibility of such roles as warrior distorted the classical anthropological paradigm, denigrating and obscuring women’s roles.
Kelly, William H. Cocopa Ethnography. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 29. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977. See chap. 10, “Warfare,” 129–36.
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Kent, Susan. “Pacifism—A Myth of the Plateau.” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 14 (1980): 125–31. Contrary to popular belief, raiding and feuding were major features of the Plateau culture area of northern California and the Great Basin, war being as prevalent there as anywhere else.
Keyser, James D. “The Plains Indian War Complex and the Rock Art of Writing-on-Stone, Alberta, Canada.” Journal of Field Archaeology 6 (1979): 41–48. Petroglyphs from A.D. 1000 to 1890 show change from heavily armed fighting on foot to lightly armed fighting on horseback.
Klein, Alan M. “The Political-Economy of Gender: A 19th Century Plains Indian Case Study.” In The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women, edited by Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, 143–73. Washington: University Press of America, 1983. How the shift from gathering and hunting to trading and raiding affected women’s roles negatively.
Kluckhohn, Clyde, W. W. Hill, and Lucy Wales Kluckhohn. Navaho Material Culture. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. See “Weapons,” 23–56, in chap. 1, “Subsistence.”
Kroeber, A. L., and Clifton B. Kroeber. A Mohave War Reminiscence, 1854–1880. University of California Publications in Anthropology, vol. 10. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. How an aging warrior at the turn of the century described his warring days.
Kroeber, Clifton B. “Lower Colorado River Peoples: Hostilities and Hunger, 1850–1857.” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 2 (1980): 187–98. War as product of traditional values and social acceptance more than subsistence pressures.
Kroeber, Clifton B., and Bernard L. Fontana. Massacre on the Gila: An Account of the Last Major Battle between American Indians, with Reflections on the Origin of War. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986. Detailed reconstruction of battle between Quechan and Mohave attackers, Pima and Maricopa defenders; plus a study of the regional pattern of armed conflict, and a discussion of the causes of war.
Kurtz, Ronald J. “Headmen and War Chanters: Role Theory and the Early Canyoncito Navaho.” Ethnohistory 16 (1969): 83–111. As religious practitioners, war chanters knew how to lead war parties in correct ceremonial fashion and tended to favor traditional raiding; headmen allied with Hispanos and Anglos in new forms of warfare when external environment changed.
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Laguna, Frederica de. “Aboriginal Tlingit Sociopolitical Organization.” In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America, edited by Elisabeth Tooker, 71–85. Washington: American Ethnological Society, 1983. The section on “War and Alliances,” 78–79, observes that this marks an increase over feuds in savagery and difficulty of settlement; the section on “Women,” 81–82, notes the traditional role of old women of rank at the helms of war canoes.
Laguna, Frederica de. Under Mount Saint-Elias: The History and Culture of the Yakutat Tlingit. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, vol. 7, part 2. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1972. See “War and Peace,” 579–604.
Lake, Robert G., Jr. Chilula: People from the Ancient Redwoods. Washington: University Press of America, 1982. See “War,” 94–96, in chap 4, “Religion and Philosophy,” 75–96.
Landes, Ruth. The Mystic Lake Sioux: Sociology of the Mdewakantonwan Santee. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968. See “War,” 204–14, including remarks on women braves (206–207, 212–13) in chap. 4, “Occupations.”
*LaVere, David L. “Comanche-Euroamerican Relations.” Chronicles of Oklahoma 71 (Fall 1993): 322–37. McCorkle, Thomas. “Intergroup Conflict.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 8, California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, 694–700. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. California data confirms view that primitive warfare is cultural rather than genetic, and rarely driven by economic motives.
*McCoy, Ronald. “Plains Indian Shields: A Kiowa Miscellany.” Heritage of the Great Plains 23 (Spring 1990): 2–8. McDonald, George. “Trade, Slavery, and Warfare on the Skeena River, British Columbia.” In “Abstracts of Papers Presented at the 33rd Annual Northwest Anthropological Conference, 27–29 March 1980, Bellingham, Washington,” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 15 (1981): 60–116, at 103. Excavation at Kitwanga Fort Site to test archaeologically legendary accounts of a warrior named Nekt who controlled the fort in the early 19th century.
MacEwan, J. W. Grant. Portraits from the Plains. Toronto: McGrawHill, 1971. See “A Lady Warrior: Nameless Heroine,” 45–50, story about an 1844 Cree or Assiniboine war party of 1000 men and 200 women, led by a woman.
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Mails, Thomas E. Dog Soldiers, Bear Men and Buffalo Woman: A Study of the Societies and Cults of the Plains Indians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. See especially chap. 2, “The Nature of Warrior Societies,” 41–55.
Mails, Thomas E. The Mystic Warriors of the Plains. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1972. Chaps. 19–21 (397–509) describe the weapons and accoutrements of plains warriors; chaps. 22 and 23 (510–78) the training and practice of a warrior.
Mails, Thomas E. The People Called Apache. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1974. See the part on “The Chiricahua Apache (Arizona),” chaps. 8, “Raiding and Warfare,” 252–63; 9, “Weapons,” 263–81; and 10, “Horses, Guns, and Horsemanship,” 281–82.
Mandelbaum, David G. The Plains Cree: An Ethnographic, Historical, and Comparative Study. Canadian Plains Studies, No. 9. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1979. See “Warfare,” 239–58.
Marken, Jack W., and Herbert T. Hoover. Bibliography of the Sioux. Native American Bibliography Series, No. 1. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1980. See the references in “Warfare among Tribes,” 283–87.
Medicine, Beatrice. “Warrior Women—Sex Role Alternatives for Plains Indian Women.” In The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women, edited by Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, 267–80. Washington: University Press of America, 1983. See especially “Women and Warfare,” 273–75.
Mitchell, Donald. “Predatory Warfare, Social Status, and the North Pacific Slave Trade.” Ethnology 23 (1984): 39–48. War to acquire slaves was closely linked to maintenance or enhancement of high social status.
Mitchell, Donald, and Leland Donald. “Some Economic Aspects of Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Slavery.” Research in Economic Anthropology: A Research Annual 7 (1985): 19–35. Primarily war captives, slaves actually served productive purposes, contrary to prevailing noneconomic interpretations of northwest slavery.
*Moore, John. The Cheyenne Nation: A Social and Demographic History. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987. Chiefly ethnology, but emphasizing importance of war in cultural dynamism.— Review by Roy W. Meyer, American Historical Review 94 (1989): 1163.
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Nabokov, Peter. Two Leggings: The Making of a Crow Warrior. Based on a field manuscript prepared by William Wildschut for the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. New York: Crowell, 1967. Reprinted Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. Reminiscences of an aged warrior collected between 1919 and 1923.
Noyes, Stanley. Los Comanches: The Horse People, 1751–1845. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994. Narrative history of the century during which the Comanches dominated the southern plains militarily.
Olson, Ronald L. The Quinault Indians. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, vol. 6, no. 1. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967. See “Warfare,” 117–20.
Ortiz, Alfonso. “Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View.” In New Perspectives on the Pueblos, edited by Alfonso Ortiz, 135–62. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972. Paperback edition, 1975. Ceremonial depictions of warfare.
Palmer, Gary. “Persecution, Alliance and Revenge in Shuswap Indian War Legends.” In Anthropological Papers in Memory of Earl H. Swanson, Jr., edited by Lucille B. Harten, Claude N. Warren, and Donald R. Tuohy, 1–7. Pocatello: Idaho Museum of Natural History, 1980. Transformation of historical experience into legend.
Quam, Alvina, Trans. The Zunis: Self-Portrayals. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972.
Chap. 6, “War and Defense,” 209–45, recounts five tales drawn from Zuni oral tradition.
Ravesloot, John C., and Patricia M. Spoerl. “The Role of Warfare in the Development of Status Hierarchies at Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 130–37. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Considerable direct and indirect evidence points to warfare as well as trade significantly involved in the process of sociopolitical change at Casas Grandes.
Riches, David. “Ecological Variation on the Northwest Coast: Models for the Generation of Cognatic and Matrilineal Descent.” In Social and Ecological Systems, edited by P. C. Burnham and R. F. Ellen,
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145–66. Association of Social Anthropologists of the Commonwealth, Monograph 18. London: Academic Press, 1979. Remarks on the significance of warfare and slavery, 152–53.
Robarchek, Clayton A. “Plains Warfare and the Anthropology of War.” In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, edited by Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, 307–16. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Evidence from Plains Indian warfare can provide historical depth otherwise lacking in mostly structural-functional anthropological theories of warfare.
Robinson, Gail T. “Warfare and Subsistence: Settlement Systems of Northwest Coast Indian Groups.” In “Abstracts of Papers Presented at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Northwest Anthropological Conference, March 1972, Portland, Oregon,” Northwestern Anthropological Research Notes 7 (1973): 195–223, at 204. Divergent physical environments, subsistence and settlement systems, and population pressures explain success or failure in predatory warfare aimed at seizing resources.
Schilz, Thomas F. “Robes, Rum, and Rifles: Indian Middlemen in the Northern Plains Fur Trade.” Montana 40 (Winter 1990): 2–13. On the split between advocates of armed resistance and proponents of goods accumulation.
Smith, Anne M. Ethnography of the Northern Utes. Papers in Anthropology, no. 17. Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1974. See especially the section on “War,” 237–253, transcribed stories told by aged informants who in their youth had heard them from aged relatives.
Stands in Timber, John, and Margot Liberty, with Robert M. Utley. Cheyenne Memories. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1967. Unofficial tribal historian recounting traditional stories, many of war during the early and middle 19th century.
Steward, Julian H. “The Foundations of Basin-Plateau Shoshonean Society.” In Languages and Cultures of Western North America: Essays in Honor of Sven S. Liljeblad, edited by E. Swanson, Jr., 113–51. Pocatello: Idaho State University Press, 1970. Shoshonean groups are better termed war parties than bands.
Sutton, Mark Q. “Warfare and Expansion: An Ethnohistoric Perspective on the Numic Spread.” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 8 (1986): 65–82. Territorial expansion of Numic-speaking peoples (Ute, Paiute, Comanche) rested on military superiority even before horses arrived.
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*Szabo, Joyce M. “Shields and Lodges, Warriors and Chiefs: Kiowa Drawings as Historical Records.” Ethnohistory 41 (Winter 1994): 1–24. Taylor, Colin F. The Plains Indians: A Cultural and Historical View of the North American Plains Tribes of the Pre-Reservation Period. New York and Avenel, New Jersey: Crescent Books, 1994. Chap. 6, “The Way to Status: Life of the Plains Warrior,” 150–77, offers a heavily illustrated survey focused on the 19th century.
Taylor, Colin. The Warriors of the Plains. New York: Arco, 1975. Illustrated survey of ceremonies, weapons, and forms of war on the 19th-century plains.
Tollesfson, Kenneth D. “The Snoqualmie: A Puget Sound Chiefdom.” Ethnology 26 (1987): 121–36. Population pressure and warfare were key elements in the chiefdom’s formation, its structure and leadership largely shaped by needs of self-defense against northern slave raiders.
Utley, Robert M. The Lance and the Shield: The Life and Times of Sitting Bull. New York: Henry Holt, 1993. Historical biography informed by ethnology; cf. Vestal’s literary biography.
Utley, Robert M. “Sitting Bull.” Military History Quarterly 5 (Summer 1993): 48–59. The greatest warchief of the Lakota Sioux, adapted from The Lance and the Shield.
White, Richard. “The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.” Journal of American History 65 (1978): 319–43. Why intertribal warfare must be considered real war.
Whitehead, Harriet. “The Bow and the Burden Strap: A New Look at Institutionalized Homosexuality in Native North America.” In Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality, edited by Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, 80–115. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Women in military roles as an unusual but accepted part of plains societies.
Whitewolf, Jim. The Life of a Kiowa Apache Indian. Edited with introduction and epilogue by Charles S. Brant. New York: Dover, 1969. Told in 1949–1950, the autobiography of an old man born too late to be a warrior himself, but hearing stories of raiding and warfare while he was growing up; see chap. 2, “Stories of Our People,” 65–82.
Wike, Joyce. “A Reevaluation of Northwest Coast Cannibalism.” In The Tsimshian and Their Neighbors of the North Pacific Coast, edited by
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Jay Miller and Carol M. Eastman, 239–54. Seattle: University of Washington, 1984.
Though largely fictive, some cannibalism was associated with warfare and slaving.
Wilcox, David R. “Hohokam Warfare.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 163–72. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Archaeological evidence for warfare, though ambiguous, suggests a way to explain significant aspects of Hohokam development.
Williams, Walter L. The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1986. Chap. 11, “Amazons of America: Female Gender Variance,” 233–51, refers to numerous women warriors, but see especially “Warrior Women of the Great Plains,” 243–46.
Worcester, Donald. “Satanta.” In American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity, edited by R. David Edmunds, 107–30. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Biographical sketch of the Kiowa war leader and account of mid-19th century warfare on the southern plains.
Wright, Barton. Pueblo Shields: From the Fred Harvey Fine Arts Collection. Flagstaff, Arizona: Northland Press, 1976. See especially the “Introduction,” 1–15.
TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA
Warfare among the nonstate peoples of tropical South American, from earliest times to the present. Balée, William. “The Ecology of Ancient Tupi Warfare.” In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, 241–65. Studies in Anthropology. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Contrary to traditional views of Brazilian coastal warfare as motivated by revenge, Tupi speakers fought to obtain desirable food-collecting lands—not raiding but conquest.
Berwick, Dennison. Savages: The Life and Killing of the Yanomami. Toronto: Macfarlane Walter & Ross, 1992. Booth, William. “Warfare over Yanomamö Indians.” Science 243 (3 March 1989): 1138–40. Controversy between Chagnon and Brazilian anthropologists over Chagnon’s characterization of the Yanomamö as “the fierce people.” Cf. Chagnon’s response, “Yanomamö Survival.”
Cariage, Pierre. “Guerre et guerre entre familles chez les Yuko.” Société Suisse des Americanistes (Geneva), Bulletin, No. 44 (1980): 13–26. War and feud as major shaper of social roles among a small population living at the tail end of the Andes in Colombia and Venezuela.
Carneiro de Cunha, Manuela, and Eduardo Viveiros de Castro. “Vingança e temporalidade: Os Tupinamba.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 191–208. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 71 (1985). Cannibalism as part of the logic of absolute revenge.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “The Culture-Ecology of Shifting (Pioneering) Cultivation among the Yanomamö Indians.” From the VIII International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Tokyo 1968, Proceedings, as reprinted in Peoples and Cultures of Native South America: An Anthropological Reader, edited by Daniel R. Gross, 126–42. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1973. Includes warfare as an ecological factor.
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Chagnon, Napoleon A. “The Feast.” Natural History, 77 (April 1968): 34–41. Formal patterns of intervillage feasting and trading elaborated as sometime alternative to war among the Yanomamö.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Fission in an Amazonian Tribe.” The Sciences ( January-February 1976), as reprinted in Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by David E. K. Hunter and Phillip Whitten, 161–64. 3rd edition. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1982. Military pressure as a major factor holding groups together.
Chagnon, Napoleon A., and Paul E. Burgos, Jr. “Kin Selection and Conflict: An Analysis of a Yanomamö Ax Fight.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons, 213–38. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1979.
Alliance formation in fight closely analyzed appears to be explained by inclusive fitness theory.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population.” Science 239 (26 February 1988): 985–92. On linkages between homicide, kinship obligations, revenge, and warfare among the Yanomamö, and the significance of reproductive variables for explaining tribal violence and warfare.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Mate Competition, Favoring Close Kin, and Village Fissioning among the Yanomamö Indians.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons, 86–132. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1979. Male competition for women explains patterns of alliance, intervillage warfare, and village fissioning.
Chagnon, Napoleon A., and Raymond B. Hames. “Protein Deficiency and Tribal Warfare in Amazonia: New Data.” Science 203 (2 March 1979): 910–13. Protein deficiency cannot explain Amazonian warfare, since no such deficiency exists.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Yanomamö.” In Primitive Worlds: People Lost in Time, by the National Geographic Society, 140–83. Washington: The Society, 1973. Amazonian warfare among the so-called fierce people.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. Yanomamö: The Fierce People. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. 2nd edition, 1977.
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See chap. 5, “Yanomamö Warfare,” 118–37; the 2nd edition adds “Balancing the Image of Fierceness,” 162–64, suggesting that the Yanomamö are probably typical of peoples at their level of social evolution who have not become acculturated to civilized society.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Yanomamö—The Fierce People.” Natural History 76 ( January 1967): 22–31. Chronic internecine warfare among an Amazonian people.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. Yanomamö: The Last Days of Eden. San Diego, California: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992. See chap. 6, “‘Yanomamö Täbä Waiteri’: Yanomamö Are Fierce,” 182–212.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Yanomamö Social Organization and Warfare.” In War: The Anthropology of Armed Conflict and Aggression, edited by Morton Fried, Marvin Harris, and Robert Murphy, 109–59. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1968. Stressing the nonterritorial bases of this form of primitive warfare.
Chagnon, Napoleon A. “Yanomamö Survival.” Science 244 (7 April 1989): 11. Reply to article by Booth, above.
Chaumeil, Jean-Pierre. “Éxchange d’énergie: Guerre, identité et reproduction sociale.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 143–57. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 71 (1985). The Yaqua understand war in the context of exchange relationships, with levels of aggression corresponding to group size and complexity.
Clastres, Hélene, and Jacques Lizot. “La muerte y la idea del canibalismo entre los Yanomami.” Translated by María C. de Lovison. Boletín Indigenista Venezolano (Caracas) 18 no. 14 (1978): 107–42. How Yanomami ritual handles death, and related matters.
Combès, Isabelle. “‘Dicen que por ser ligero’: Cannibales, guerriers et prophètes chez les anciens Tupi-Guarani.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 73 (1987): 93–106. On distinguishing cannibalism from war and sorcery in sacrificial procedures.
*Douglas, Wadsworth C. “Patterns of Indian Warfare in the Province of Santa Marta (Colombia).” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1974. Erikson, Philippe. “Altérité, tatouage et anthropophagie chez les Pano: La belliqueuse quéte du soi.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde
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dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 185–209. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 72 (1986). Otherness and violence help Panoans categorize other social groups, concepts of war and man-eating being closely correlated.
*Ferguson, R. Brian. “Do Yanomamö Killers Have More Kids?” American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 564–70. Ferguson, R. Brian. “Ecological Consequences of Amazonian Warfare.” Ethnology 28 (1989): 249–64. War may help fit population to resources, but not very well.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “Game Wars? Ecology and Conflict in Amazonia.” Journal of Anthropological Research 45 (1989): 179–206. Game scarcity sometimes causes hostility, but more often induces migration; protein deficiency cannot explain Amazonian warfare in general.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “The General Consequences of War: An Amazonian Perspective.” In Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Stephen P. Reyna and R. E. Downs, 85–111. War and Society, vol. 2. Langhorne, Pennsylvania: Gordon & Breach, 1994. Ferguson, R. Brian. “War and the Sexes in Amazonia.” In Dialectics and Gender: Anthropological Approaches, edited by Richard R. Randolph, David M. Schneider, and May N. Diaz, 136–54. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988. Residence patterns, kinship structures, the organization of work, and other social structural variables influence war for the purpose of capturing women.
Ferguson, R. Brian. Yanomami Warfare: A Political History. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1994. Forsyth, Donald W. “The Beginnings of Brazilian Anthropology: Jesuits and Tupinamba Cannibalism.” Journal of Anthropological Research 39 (1983): 147–78. Contrary to views advanced by W. Arens, The Man-eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), Tupinambas did use of war captives for food.
Forsyth, Donald W. “Three Cheers for Hans Staden: The Case for Brazilian Cannibalism.” Ethnohistory 32 (1985): 17–36. The 16th-century evidence for Tupinamba cannibalism is reliable, despite Arens’s claims.
Good, Kenneth, with David Chanoff. Into the Heart: One Man’s Pursuit of Love and Knowledge among the Yanomamö. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991. Observations by student of Chagnon, including violence and warfare.
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Gregor, Thomas. Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977. On war and cultural definition, see chap. 18, “Being a Mehinaku: Tribal Identity in the Xingu System,” 300–18.
Gregor, Thomas. “Uneasy Peace: Intertribal Relations in Brazil’s Upper Xingu.” In The Anthropology of War, edited by Jonathan Haas, 105–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. How fairly populous sedentary horticulturalists of diverse languages manage to avoid intergroup conflict.
Gross, Daniel R. “Protein Capture and Cultural Development in the Amazon Basin.” American Anthropologist 77 (1975): 526–49. Variability in availability of animal protein may partly account for varying warfare patterns in different ecological zones.
Harner, Michael. The Jívaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1972. See especially chap. 5, “Law, Feuding, and War,” 170–93.
Harris, Marvin. “Animal Capture and Yanomamö Warfare: Retrospect and New Evidence.” Journal of Anthropological Research 40 (1984): 183–201. Protein shortage still appears to be one factor in Yanomamo warfare.
Harris, Marvin. “A Cultural Materialist Theory of Band and Village Warfare: The Yonomamö Test.” In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, 111–40. Studies in Anthropology. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Contra Chagnon and other biodeterminists; warfare disperses groups and regulates population, thus regulating balance between population and resources, therefore being subject to cultural selection.
Harris, Marvin. “The Yanomamö and the Causes of War in Band and Village Societies.” In Brazil: Anthropological Perspectives. Essays in Honor of Charles Weigley, edited by Maxine L. Margolis and William E. Carter, 121–32. New York: Columbia University Press, 1974. Challenges Chagnon and Carneiro, reiterating his own theory of population pressure, female infanticide, and war complex.
Heath, E. G., and Vilma Chiara. Brazilian Indian Archery: A Preliminary Ethno-Toxological Study of the Brazilian Indians. Manchester, England: Simon Archery Foundation, Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, 1977. See especially the section on “War,” 114–17, in chap. 11, “Barter and War.”
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Hendricks, Janet Wall. To Drink of Death: The Narrative of a Shuar Warrior. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993. Stories from the life of Tukup’, a renowned warrior of a southeastern Equador tribe.
Hugh-Jones, Christine. From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology 26. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Numerous remarks on male aggression, raiding, and warfare among the Tukanoan Indians of Colombia.
Jackson, Jean. “Recent Ethnography of Indigenous Northern Lowland South America.” Annual Review of Anthropology 4 (1975): 307–40. See the section on “Warfare,” 315–16.
Johnson, Orna R., and Allen R. Johnson. “Oedipus in the Political Economy: Theme and Variations in Amazonia.” In Dialectics and Gender: Anthropological Approaches, edited by Richard R. Randolph, David M. Schneider, and May N. Diaz, 38–56. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988. See “Warfare and the Political Economy,” 52–53.
Kelekna, Pita. “Farming, Feuding, and Female Status: The Achuar Case.” In Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present, edited by Anna Roosevelt, 225–48. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994. On the place of war in tribal life (226–27) and warfare as male occupation (235–36).
Kracke, Waud H. Force and Persuasion: Leadership in an Amazonian Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. Numerous remarks on leadership and warfare among the Kagwahir of the Brazilian Amazon.
Lathrap, Donald W. “The ‘Hunting’ Economies of the Tropical Forest Zone of South America: An Attempt at Historical Perspective.” In Man the Hunter, edited by Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore, 23–29. Chicago: Aldine, 1968. Economic and demographic consequences of warfare noted, along lines suggested by Andrew P. Vayda, “Expansion and Warfare among Swidden Agriculturalists,” American Anthropologist 63 (1961): 346–58.
Lizot, Jacques. “Population, resources et guerre chez les Yanomami.” Libre Politique–Anthropologie–Philosophie, No. 2 (1977): 111–45. Translated by Suzanne Hoelgaard, in Man, new series 12 (1977): 497–517. Population pressure has nothing to do with Yanomami warfare, which is anyway far less pervasive than Harris and others suggest.
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Lizot, Jacques. “À propos de la guerre: Une résponse à N. A. Chagnon.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 75 (1989): 91–113. Critique of Chagnon’s sociobiological theses that Yanomami warfare springs from male competition for natural and reproductive resources; war has complex causes, and indigenous concepts of violence suggest a social matrix based on exchange and reciprocity.
Lizot, Jacques. “Poisons Yanomami de chasse, de guerre et de peche.” Antropologica 31 (1972): 3–10. Manufacture and use of curare.
Lizot, Jacques. Tales of the Yanomami: Daily Life in the Venezuelan Forest. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology 55. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1985.
War and related matters figure prominently throughout the book, but see especially part 3, “War and Alliance,” 139–85, focused on hunting, fighting, feasting, and war.
Losonczy, Anne-Marie. “Le destin des guerriers: Agression chamanique et agression guerrière chez les Emhera du Chocó.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 157–83. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 72 (1986). Ritualized shamanistic aggression and warlike aggression now survive only as myth, but they operated at different social levels.
Maybury-Lewis, David. Akwe-Shavante Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967. War is discussed in the section on “Inter-Community Relations,” 205–13, in chap. 5, “The Political System.”
Meggers, Betty J. Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. Worlds of Man: Studies in Cultural Ecology. New York: Aldine, 1971. War considered as a means of controlling population density.
Menget, Patrick. “Jalons pour une étude comparative.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 131–41. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 71 (1985). Analysis of Indian societies of the upper Xingu shows the futility of trying to distinguish warlike from peaceful; the proper study is warfare in the framework of social system.
Meunier, Jacques, and A. M. Savarin. The Amazonian Chronicles. Translated by Carol Christensen. San Francisco: Mercury House, 1994. See “The Chief in Peacetime,” 86–87; “When War Is a Ritual,” 87–88; “Anthropophagy,” 88–91.
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Morey, Robert V., Jr. “Warfare Patterns of the Colombian Guahibo.” Actas y Memorias del XXXIX Congress Internacional de Americanistas, vol. 4, Historia, etnohistoria y etnología de la selva sudamerika. Lima, 1972. Typical primitive warfare.
Murphy, Yolanda, and Robert F. Murphy. Women of the Forest. New York: Columbia University Press, 1974. See the discussion of war, 79–81, in chap. 3, “Mundurucú Culture.”
Overing, Joanna. “Images of Cannibalism, Death and Domination in a ‘Non Violent’ Society.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 133–56. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 72 (1986). The Piaroa of Venezuela avoid any kind of violence among themselves or with neighbors, but regularly use idioms of predation and cannibalism in the social domains of disease, natural death, and vengeance, and of human relations with animals and plants needed for subsistence.
*Renard-Casevitz, France-Marie. “Guerre, violence et identité: A partir des sociétés du piédmont amazonien des Andes centrales.” Cahiers ORSTROM, série Sciences humaines 21 (1985). Ross, Jane Bennett. “Effects of Contact on Revenge Hostilities among the Achuanä Jivaro.” In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, 83–109. Studies in Anthropology; Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1984. Warfare reshaped by access to firearms became dependent on the ebb and flow of commerce.
Seeger, Anthony. Nature and Society in Central Brazil: The Suya Indians of Mato Grosso. Harvard Studies in Cultural Anthropology 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981. Scattered remarks on warfare, but no sustained discussion.
Siskind, Janet. “Tropical Forest Hunters and the Economy of Sex.” In Peoples and Cultures of Native South America: An Anthropological Reader, edited by Daniel R. Gross, 226–40. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, for the American Museum of Natural History, 1973. Ecological explanation for raiding and warfare.
Siverts, Henning. “Jivaro Head Hunters in a Headless Time.” In War, Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 663–74. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. How headhunting differs from warfare.
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Taylor, Anne-Christine. “L’Art de la reduction: La guerre et les mécanismes de la différenciation tribale dans la culture Jivaro.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 159–73. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 71 (1985). On differentiating intratribal vendetta from intertribal headhunting.
Valero, Helena. Yanoáma: The Narrative of a White Girl Kidnapped by Amazonian Indians. As told to Ettore Biocca. Translated by Dennis Rhodes. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1970. Among numerous remarks about violence and warfare, see especially chaps. 3, “The Karawetari Attack,” 31–37; “The ‘Unucai’ Warriors,” 60–66; and 27, “Yanoáma Assault,” 189–99.
Vallée, L. and R. Crépeau. “La guerra entre los Shuar ( Jibaro): La busqueda del poder.” In Relaciones interétnicas y adaptación cultural, 171–90. Quito: Colección Mundo Shuar, 1984. *Verswijver, G. The Club-Fighters of the Amazon: Warfare among the Kaiapo Indians of Central Brazil. Ghent: Rijksuniversiteit, 1992.
IBERIAN CONQUEST AND INDIAN RESISTANCE
Iberian conflicts with Native Americans throughout Latin America, from the conquest through the 18th century. *Adams, David B. “Embattled Borderland: Northern Nuevo León and the Indios Bárbaros, 1686–1870.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 95 (October 1991): 205–20. *Arbelaez, Maria Soledad. “The Sonoran Missions and Indian Raids of the Eighteenth Century.” Journal of the Southwest 33 (Autumn 1991): 366–86. Archer, Christon I. “Pardos, Indians, and the Army of New Spain: Inter-Relationships and Conflicts.” Journal of Latin American Studies 7 (November 1974): 231–55. Beckerman, Stephen, and Roberto Lizarralde. “State-Tribal Warfare and Male-biased Casualties among the Barí.” Current Anthropology 36 (1995): 497–500. The same pattern of disproportionate deaths among young adult males applies whether combat occurs between evenly matched tribal groups or between tribal group and state.
Berdan, Frances F. “Trauma and Transition in Sixteenth Century Central Mexico.” In The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650, edited by Warwick Bray, 163–95. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1993. Blakely, Robert L., and David S. Mathews. “Bioarchaeological Evidence for a Spanish-Native American Conflict in the Sixteenth-Century Southeast.” American Antiquity 55 (1990): 718–44. The King site reveals an unusually high crude death rate; skeletal injuries attributable to steel weapons suggest an armed clash with the Spanish.
Boxer, Charles R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825. The History of Human Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975. Portugal’s American empire had a more military cast than did the Spanish empire after the conquest; see especially chap. 13, “Soldiers, Settlers, and Vagabonds,” 296–317.
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Brown, Michael F., and Eduardo Fernandez. “Tribe and State in a Frontier Mosaic: The Asháninka of Eastern Peru.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 175–198. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Campbell, Leon G. “The Army of Peru and the Túpac Amaru Revolt, 1780–1783.” Hispanic American Historical Review 56 (1976): 31–57. *Campbell, Leon G. “Recent Research on Andean Peasant Revolts, 1750–1820.” Latin American Historical Review 14.1 (1979): 3–49. Useful review.—MAB AHA Guide 37.30.
Campbell, Leon G. “Social Structure of the Túpac Amaru Army in Cuzco, 1780–81.” Hispanic American Historical Review 61 (1981): 675–93. Campbell, Leon G. “Women and the Great Rebellion in Peru, 1780–1783.” The Americas 42 (1985): 163–96. Mainly about Micaela, wife of Tupac Amaru, and other prominent women participants, sometimes as fighters—“responsibilities above and beyond those of the venerable rabona, or camp follower, who cooked and cared for male warriors.” (167)
Carmack, Robert M. “The Spanish Conquest of Central America: Comparative Cases from Guatemala and Costa Rica.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 389–409. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. *Chance, Jack K. Conquest of the Sierra: Spaniards and Indians in Colonial Oaxaca. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. Valuable ethnohistory, Zapotec resistance to Spanish trading based on force.—MAB AHA Guide 37.341.
Clendinnen, Inga. Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517–1570. Cambridge Latin American Studies 61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Narrative history of the conquest of Yucatan.
Clendinnen, Inga. “‘Fierce and Unnatural Cruelty’: Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico.” In New World Encounters, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 12–47. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Culturally divergent rules of war between Aztecs and Spaniards worked greatly to the advantage of the Europeans.
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*Coatsworth, John H. “Patterns of Rural Rebellion in Latin America: Mexico in Comparative Perspective.” In Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico, edited by Friedrich Katz, 21–62. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988. Impressive analysis, 1700–1899.—MAB AHA Guide 37.76.
Cook, Warren L. Flood Tide of Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543–1819. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1973. Cortés y de Olarte, José Maria. Memoria sobre las provincias del norte de Nueva España. Unpublished manuscript, 1799. Translated by John Wheat as Views from the Apache Frontier: Report on the Northern Provinces of New Spain. Edited by Elizabeth A. H. John. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. Covington, James W. “Relations between the Eastern Timucuan Indians and the French and Spanish, 1564–1567.” In Four Centuries of Southern Indians, edited by Charles M. Hudson, 11–27. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975. Chronicle of Timucuan warfare with European intruders.
Cutter, Donald, and Iris Engstrand. Quest for Empire: Spanish Settlement in the Southwest. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum, 1996. Narrative recounts the Spanish conquest and subsequent conflicts with Native Americans.
Damrosch, David. “The Aesthetics of Conquest: Aztec Poetry before and after Cortés.” In New World Encounters, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 139–58. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Warriors figure as prominently in Aztec poetry after the conquest as before, but their cultural meaning changes drastically, from imperial prop to tragic individual.
*Davidson, David M. “How the Brazilian West Was Won: Freelance and State on the Mato Grosso Frontier, 1737–1752. In Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil: Papers of the Newberry Library Conference, edited by David Alden. Berkeley: University of California, 1973. Dennis, Philip A. “Inter-Village Conflict and the Origin of the State.” In Social, Political, and Economic Life in Contemporary Oaxaca, edited by Aubrey Williams, 43–66. Vanderbilt University Publications in Anthropology, vol. 24. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University, 1979. Mediating inter-village conflict promoted growth of state power (mainly Colonial), as Carneiro suggests.
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Dobyns, Henry F. Spanish Colonial Tucson: A Demographic History. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1976. See especially part 2, “The Presidio,” 55–130: chaps. 7–9 focus on war against the Apaches and the militarization of the Northern Pimans.
Faron, Louis C. The Mapuche Indians of Chile. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. Chap. 2, “Warfare and Peace,” 9–14, describes Araucanian military resistance and pacification in “Military Resistance to Conquest,” 10–11.
Farriss, Nancy M. Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984. Much discussion of war throughout, but on the place of warfare in society see especially “Warfare and Divine Mediation,” 139–46.
*Faulk, Odie B. “The Comanche Invasion of Texas, 1743–1836.” Great Plains Journal 9 (1969): 10–50. Freehafer, Virginia. “Domingos Jorge Velho: Conqueror of Brazilian Backlands.” The Americas 27 (October 1970): 161–84. *Godoy, Scarlett O’Phelan. Rebellion and Revolts in Eighteenth-Century Peru and Upper Peru. Cologne: Böhlau, 1985. Best study of topic.—MAB AHA Guide 37.507.
*Gosner, Kevin. Soldiers of the Virgin: The Moral Economy of a Colonial Maya Rebellion. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992. Griffen, William B. Apaches at War and Peace: The Janos Presidio, 1750–1858. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988. Narrative history of relations, often warlike, between the Apaches and the Spaniards, then Mexicans, at a stronghold in northern Mexico.
*Guilmartin, John F., Jr. “The Cutting Edge: An Analysis of the Spanish Invasion and Overthrow of the Inca Empire, 1532–1539.” In Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century, edited by Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Gutiérrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500 –1846. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1991. The distinctive kinds of warfare integral to Pueblo and Spanish society strongly shaped the conquest and subsequent career of northern New Spain.
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*Hamnett, Brian R. Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Innovative study.—EH-D/MAB AHA Guide 38.231.
Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Modern Wars in Perspective. London and New York: Longman, 1994. *Hemming, John. Amazon Frontier: The Defeat of the Brazilian Indians. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987. From second half of 18th century to 1910.—MAB/DGS AHA Guide 37.460.
Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Incas. London: Macmillan, 1970. Narrative history of the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
Hemming, John. Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians, 1500– 1760. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978. Narrative history of the European defeat and decimation of the native population of Amazonia.
Hennessy, Alistair. “The Nature of the Conquest and the Conquistadors.” In The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650, edited by Warwick Bray, 5–36. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1993. Spanish organization and weapons contributed but disease was decisive in conquests of complex societies in Mexico and the Andes, but neither proved effective against border raiders.
Higginbotham, Jay. “The Battle of Mauvila: Causes and Consequences.” Gulf Coast Historical Review 6 (1991): 19–33. The first major battle in the southeast between Europeans and Indians probably took place in 1537 and resulted in a Pyrrhic Spanish victory.
Hodge, Frederick W., and Theodore H. Lewis, eds. Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528–1543: The Narrative of Alvar Nuñez Cabeça de Vaca; The Narrative of the Expedition of Hernando de Soto, By the Gentleman of Elvas; The Narrative of the Expedition of Coronado, By Pedro de Castañeda. Austin: Texas State Historical Association, with the Center for Studies in Texas History, University of Texas at Austin, 1990. Hotz, Gottfried. Indian Skin Paintings from the American Southwest: Two Representations of Border Conflicts between Mexico and the Missouri in the Early Eighteenth Century. Translated by Johannes Malthaner. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 94. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.
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*Hu-DeHart, Evelyn. Missionaries, Miners and Indians: Spanish Contact with the Yaqui Nation of Northwestern New Spain, 1533–1820. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981. Hudson, Charles M. “Conversations with the High Priest of Coosa.” In Lamar Archaeology: Mississippian Chiefdoms in the Deep South, edited by Mark Williams and Gary Shapiro, 214–30. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990. Warriors from Coosa may have participated in the battle of Mabila (216).
Hudson, Charles M. The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566–1568. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. Hudson, Charles M., Chester B. DePratter, and Marvin T. Smith. “Hernando de Soto’s Expedition through the Southern United States.” In First Encounters: Spanish Explorations in the Caribbean and United States, 1492–1570, edited by Jerold T. Milanich and Susan Milbrath, 77–98. Ripley P. Bullen Monographs in Anthropology and History 9. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1989. Latest reconstruction of de Soto’s route and the glimpses it afforded of native warfare and polity.
Hudson, Charles. Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South’s Ancient Chiefdoms. Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1997. Narrative traces de Soto’s route, including repeated clashes between Spaniards and Indians.
John, Elizabeth A. H. Storms Brewed in Other Men’s Worlds: The Confrontation of Indians, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540–1795. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1975. Warfare figured prominently in Indian attempts to cope with European intrusion.
*Jones, Grant D. Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989. The Mayan state of Itzá in the southeastern Yucatan peninsula survived until 1697, successfully resisting Spanish military incursions.—reviewed by Jan Rus, American Ethnologist 20 (May 1993): 433.
Kessell, John L. Kiva, Cross, and Crown: The Pecos Indians and New Mexico, 1540–1840. Washington: National Park Service, 1979. The Spanish conquest and the major eastern New Mexico frontier trading center of the Pueblo market.
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*Knaut, Andrew J. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680: Conquest and Resistance in Seventeenth-Century New Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995. Narrative of the only significant reversal of European expansion in American history.
Kuethe, Allan J. “The Pacification Campaign on the Riohacha Frontier, 1772–1779.” Hispanic American Historical Review 50 (1970): 467–81. *López, Adalberto. The Revolt of the Comuñeros, 1721–1735. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1976. Useful summary of Paraguayan revolt.—MAB AHA Guide 37.447.
Losada, Angel. “The Controversy between Sepúlveda and Las Casas in the Junta of Valladolid.” In Bartolomé de Las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and His Work, edited by Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen, 279–306. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971. See especially “The Problem of Just War,” 282–300.
*Lovell, W. George. Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821. Revised edition. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992. Excellent historical geography, including preconquest culture, conquest, demographic change, etc.—MAB/MWH AHA Guide 37.362.
*Loy, Jane M. “Forgotten comuneros: The 1781 Revolt in the llanos of Casanare.” Hispanic American Historical Review 61.2 (1981): 235–57. Valuable addition.—MAB AHA Guide 37.527.
*Lyon, Eugene. The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of Florida, 1565–1568. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1983. Reprint of the 1976 edition entitled The Adelantamiento of Florida, 1565–1568. Revisionist study.—DJW AHA Guide 37.590.
McAllister, Lyle N. Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700. Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion, vol. 3. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984. MacLeod, Murdo J. “Indian Riots and Rebellions in Colonial Central America.” In Columbian Consequences, vol. 3, The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspectives, edited by David Hurst Thomas, 375–87. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.
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McNitt, Frank. Navaho Wars: Military Campaigns, Slave Raids, and Reprisals. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972. Military history of the Navahos, c. 1750–1861.
Maura, Juan Francisco. Women in the Conquest of the Americas. Translated by John F. Deredita. New York: Peter Lang, 1997. See especially part 3, “Women-at-Arms in Literature and History,” 99–157.
Merrill, William L. “Cultural Creativity and Raiding Bands in Eighteenth-Century Northern New Spain.” In Violence, Resistance, and Survival in the Americas: Native Americans and the Legacy of Conquest, edited by William B. Taylor and Franklin Pease G.Y., 124–52. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. One form of violent resistance to imperial expansion took the form of small-scale raiding by nomadic Indians, then also by multiethnic bands drawn from the mixed frontier population of Indians, Africans, and Europeans, the largest of which in mid-18th century Nueva Vizcaya was led by the Indian Calaxtrin.
Milanich, Jerald T. Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995. Milanich, Jerald T., and Charles Hudson. Hernando de Soto and the Indians of Florida. The Ribley P. Bullen Series, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993. On the entrada of 1539–1540.
Mirafuentes Galván, José Luis. “Colonial Expansion and Indian Resistance in Sonora: The Seri Uprisings in 1748 and 1750.” In Violence, Resistance, and Survival in the Americas: Native Americans and the Legacy of Conquest, edited by William R. Taylor and Franklin Pease G.Y., 101–23. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Spanish attempts to missionize the nomadic Seri generated banditry and raiding, then full-scale uprisings.
*Moorhead, Max L. The Apache Frontier: Jacobo Ugarte and Spanish Indian Relations in Northern New Spain, 1769 –1791. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968. Spanish Indian policy.—DJW AHA Guide 37.593.
Newson, Linda A. Aboriginal and Spanish Colonial Trinidad: A Study in Culture Contact. London: Academic Press, 1976. See the discussion of native warfare (64–65) in chap. 3, “Trinidad on the Eve of Discovery”; and comments on the shift toward defensive unity (100–101) in chap. 5, “The Initial Impact of Discovery and Conquest: Demographic Disaster.”
Noley, Grayson. “1540: The First European Contact.” In The Choctaw
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before Removal, edited by Carolyn Keller Reeves, 55–72. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985. Toward the battle of Mabila.
Oviedo y Baños, Don José de. The Conquest and Settlement of Venezuela [1723]. Translated, introduced, and annotated by Jeannette Johnson Varner. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Narrative history of Spanish conquest, but including much detailed information on the nature of Indian fighting.
Parry, John H. “Early European Penetration of Eastern North America.” In Alabama and the Borderlands: From Prehistory to Statehood, edited by R. Reid Badger and Lawrence A. Clayton, 83–95. University: University of Alabama Press, 1985. Four major Spanish expeditions failed partly because North American archers were more effective against Spanish arms than the club- and spear-armed soldiers of Mexico and the Andes (93–94).
Parry, J. H. The Spanish Seaborne Empire. The History of Human Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972. *Phelan, John Leddy. The People and the King: The Comunero Revolution in Colombia, 1781. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978. Thoughtful, provocative.—MAB AHA Guide 37.539.
Phillips, George Harwood. Indians and Intruders in Central California, 1769–1849. Civilization of the American Indians Series, vol. 207. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. Miwok and Yokut in the San Joaquin Valley allied with refugees from the coast to offer violent resistance to European incursion.
Piel, Jean. “Les guerrillas indiennes dans les guerres d’indépendance du Péron (1819–1824).” International Congress of Americanists, Paris 1976, Actes du XLII e Congrès, vol. 3, 145–56. Paris: Société des Americanistes, 1977. *Powell, Philip Wayne. Mexico’s Miguel Caldera: The Taming of America’s First Frontier, 1548–1597. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977.
Life and times of mestizo frontiersman famous as soldier fighting Chichimecas.— MAB AHA Guide 37.126.
Rabasa, José. “The Representation of Violence in the Soto Narratives.” In The Hernando de Soto Expedition: History, Historiography, and “Discovery” in the Southeast, edited by Patricia Galloway, 380–409. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
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Raudzens, George. “So Why Were the Aztecs Conquered, and What Were the Wider Implications? Testing Military Superiority as a Cause of Europe’s Preindustrial Colonial Conquests.” War in History 2 (1995): 87–104. Riley, Carroll L. The Frontier People: The Greater Southwest in the Protohistoric Period. Revised and expanded from The Frontier People: The Protohistoric Period in the Greater Southwest (Occasional Paper 10. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, Center for Archaeological Investigations, 1982). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987. Each of the chapters from 4 through 10 addresses one of the provinces of the greater southwest and includes a section on warfare.
Riley, Carroll L., and Joni L. Manson. “The Sonoran Connection: Road Networks in the Protohistoric Period.” In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Charles D. Trombold, 132–44. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Fortresses, roads, and signal systems allowed large war parties to be assembled against the Spanish (135–36).
Roys, Ralph L. The Indian Background of Colonial Yucatan. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 118. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972. On what the Spanish found, see chap. 10, “Warfare,” 65–70; and “Tabasco: Warfare,” 108–109, in chap. 13, “Neighbors of the Yucatecan Mayas; on the later development of the cacique system, see chap. 22, “Indian Nobles and the Native Militia of Yucatan,” 167–68.
*Saignes, Thierry. “Guerres indiennes dans l’Amérique pionière: Le dilemme de la résistance Chiriguano à la colonisation européenne (16e–19e s.).” Histoire, Économie et Société 1 (1982). Saignes, Thierry. “La guerre contre l’histoire: Les Chiriguano du XVIe au XIXe siècle.” In “Guerre, sociétés et vision du monde dans les basses terres de l’Amérique du Sud,” edited by Patrick Menget, 175–90. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 71 (1985). The Chiriguano first fought the Incas, then the Spanish, revenge and cannibalism giving way to slave-raiding (some sold, some adopted as warriors), but internal vendetta always took precedence over union in face of the common enemy and they eventually succumbed to Spanish arms.
Salas, Elizabeth. Soldaderas in the Mexican Military: Myth and History. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. Chap. 1, “Mesoamerican Origins,” 1–10, discusses female war dieties and the military roles of women in preconquest Mesoamerica. Subsequent chapters follow the military history of Mexican women to the present.
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*Salmón, Roberto Mario. Indian Revolt in Northern New Spain: A Synthesis of Resistance (1680 –1786). Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991. Military confrontation generated by rapid social change.—Reviewed by Gilberto M. Hinojosa, Journal of American History 79 (1992): 238–39.
Schroeder, Albert H. “Shifting for Survival in the Spanish Southwest.” New Mexico Historical Review 43 (1968): 291–310. Intertribal hostilities rather than Spanish intrusion account for most shifts in Indian territories and pueblos from the 17th to the 19th century.
Schroeder, Albert H., and Omer C. Stewart. “Indian Servitude in the Southwest.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 4, History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, 410–13. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. Schroeder, Albert H. “Rio Grande Ethnohistory.” In New Perspectives on the Pueblos, edited by Alfonso Ortiz, 41–70. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972. Paperback edition, 1975. Pueblo revolt against Spanish rule compromised by internal disunion and external raids by Ute and Apache.
Seed, Patricia. “Conquest of the Americas, 1500–1650.” In The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, edited by Geoffrey Parker, 132–45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. *Slatta, Richard W. “‘Civilization,’ Battles ‘Barbarism’: Argentine Frontier Strategies, 1516–1880.” Inter-American Review of Bibliography 39.2 (1989): 177–94. Government military action against Indians on southern frontier, revising Walther.— KLJ AHA Guide 36.482.
Slatta, Richard W. “‘Civilization’ Battles ‘Barbarism’: The Limits of Argentine Indian Frontier Strategies.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited James C. Bradford, 130–59. Texas A&M Military History Series 50. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. *Sweet, David G. “Native Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Amazonia: The ‘Abominable Muras’ in War and Peace.” Radical History Review 53 (1992): 49–80. From initial isolation to decades of all-out war against the Portuguese to peaceful accommodation.—DGS AHA Guide 36.446.
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*Taylor, William B. “Banditry and Insurrection: Rural Unrest in Central Jalisco, 1790–1816.” In Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico, edited by Friedrich Katz, 205–46. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988. Keen analysis.—MAB AHA Guide 37.560.
Taylor, William B. “La Indiado: Peasant Uprisings in Mexico and Oaxaca, 1700–1810.” International Congress of Americanists, Paris 1976, Actes du XLII e Congrès, vol. 3, 189–96. Paris: Société des Americanistes, 1977. Taylor, William B. “Santiago’s Horse: Christianity and Colonial Indian Resistance in the Heartland.” In Violence, Resistance, and Survival in the Americas: Native Americans and the Legacy of Conquest, edited by William B. Taylor and Franklin Pease G.Y., 153–89. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994. Terán, Francisco. “The Conquistadors’ Ladies.” Américas 28 (February 1976): 12–18. On the role of Indian women in the conquest of Mexico, 1500–1635.
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico. London: Hutchinson, 1993. Reprinted New York: Touchstone Books, 1995. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other. Translated by Richard Howard. New York: Harper & Row, 1984. War as symbolic activity in the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica.
*Varner, John Grier, and Jeannette Johnson Varner. Dogs of the Conquest. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. Oft-mentioned but little-studied aspect of the conquest.—MAB AHA Guide 37.129.
Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, Juan de. History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza: Subjugation and Event of the Lacandon and Other Nations of Uncivilized Indians in the Lands from the Kingdom of Guatemala to the Province of Yucatan in North America. Translated from the 2d Spanish edition by Robert D. Wood. Edited by Frank E. Comparato. Culver City, California: Labyrinthos, 1983. Walsh, Jane Maclaren, and Yoko Sugiura. “The Demise of the Fifth Sun.” In Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration, edited by Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, 17–41. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. On the development of Mesoamerican militaristic states and their collapse under Spanish attack.
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*Warner, J. Benedict. The Conquest of Michoacán: The Spanish Domination of the Tarascan Kingdom in Western Mexico, 1521–1530. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. Valuable history.—MAB/SS AHA Guide 37.130.
*Wasserstrom, Robert. “Ethnic Violence and Indigenous Protest: The Tzeltal (Maya) of 1712.” Journal of Latin American Studies 12.1 (1980): 1–19. Anthropologist’s view of causes and consequences of major revolt in Chiapas.— MAB AHA Guide 37.455.
Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale Western American Series. New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1997. Much of relevance throughout, but see especially chaps. 5, “Exploitation, Contention, and Rebellion,” 122–46; and 8, “Indian Raiders and the Reorganization of Frontier Defenses,” 204–35.
White, Jon Manchip. Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire: A Study in Conflict of Cultures. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1971. On Aztec military institutions, see part 3, chap. 3, 113–39.
*Whitehead, Neil Lancelot. Lords of the Tiger Spirit: A History of the Caribs in Colonial Venezuela and Guyana, 1498–1820. Providence: Foris, 1988. Brilliant revisionist history of principal native protagonists in lower Orinoco basin, including military conquest, alliance with Dutch against Spaniards, and Carib image as warlike cannibals.—DGS AHA Guide 36.448.
Whitlam, Robert G. “Conflict on the Periphery: Spanish Settlement on the Northwest Coast.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 262–69. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. What archaeology can contribute to the understanding of historical situations involving warfare or peace making.
Williams, J. H. “The Deadly Selva: Paraguay’s Northern Indian Frontier.” The Americas 33 ( July 1976): 1–24. Hostile Indians as a problem for the state.
Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in North America. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1971. Broad sweep of Timucuon, Apalachee, and Seminole experience to 1821.
Young, Gloria A., and Michael P. Hoffman, eds. The Expedition of Hernando de Soto West of the Mississippi, 1541–1543: Proceedings of the de Soto Symposia, 1988 and 1990. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1993. A small Spanish army traversed large sections of present-day Arkansas and Texas, frequently clashing with the region’s natives.
COLONIAL WARS IN NORTH AMERICA
The European conquest of America and Indian resistance, wars between Euroamericans and Indians, the involvement of Indians in wars between the imperial powers, from earliest contact through the American Revolution. Studies of the Spanish conquests from southern North America southwards and conflicts in colonial Spanish America appear separately. Blick, Jeffrey P. “English Expansion and Militarism versus Indian Resistance: Genocide, Racial Separatism and the Reservation System in Virginia.” Archaeological Society of Virginia Quarterly Bulletin 42 (1987): 28–36. Bourne, Russell. The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England, 1676–1678. New York: Atheneum, 1990. Reprinted New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. King Philip’s War recounted as the collapse of a biracial community—English settlers and Algonquian natives— that had survived for two generations.
Brain, Jeffrey P. Tunica Treasure. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Papers 71. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Museum, 1980. Including an account of the French and their Tunica allies at war with Natchez and Chickasaw, and the subsequent destruction of the Tunica by vengeance-seeking Natchez.
Bray, Robert T. “Bourgmond’s Fort d’Orleans and the Missouri Indians.” Missouri Historical Review 75 (1980): 1–32. Brotherston, Gordon. Image of the New World: The American Continent Portrayed in Native Texts. Translations in collaboration with Ed Dorn. London: Thames & Hudson, 1979. For native American views of warfare with Europeans, see especially the texts from throughout the Americas (though mainly Mesoamerican) included in chaps. 1, “Invasion from the Old World,” 21–60; and 7, “Conquest,” 215–41.
Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Calloway, Colin G., ed. Dawnland Encounters: Indians and Europeans in
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Northern New England. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1991. Chap. 4, “War in the Dawnlands,” 133–76, excerpts numerous contemporary accounts of fighting between Indians and European from the early 17th century through the Revolution.
*Calloway, Colin G. “‘We Have Always Been the Frontier’: The American Revolution in Shawnee Country.” American Indian Quarterly 16 (Winter 1992): 39–52. *Calloway, Colin G. The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 197. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. How the Abenakis adapted themselves to the impact of war and migration.— Reviewed by Peter C. Mancall, Journal of American History 78 (1991): 632–33.
Cave, Alfred A. The Pequot War. Native Americans of the Northeast: Culture, History, and the Contemporary. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996. Cook, Sherburne F. “Interracial Warfare and Population Decline among the New England Indians.” Ethnohistory 20 (Winter 1973): 1–24. Roughly a quarter of New England’s aboriginal population died as direct or indirect result of war with 17th-century European settlers.
Corkran, David H. The Creek Frontier, 1540–1783. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 86. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967. Narrative history of Creek involvement in European wars; see especially the section on “Creek Warfare,” 27–30; and remarks on slaving as a late 17th century source of Creek prosperity (52–53).
Cutcliffe, Stephen H. “Colonial Indian Policy as a Measure of Rising Imperialism: New York and Pennsylvania, 1700–1755.” Western Pennsylvania History Magazine 64 (1981): 237–68. *Dickinson, John A. “La guerre iroquoise et la mortalité en NourvelleFrance, 1608–1666.” Revue d’Histoire de l’Amerique Française 36 (1982): 31–54. Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Ritual aspects of Indian warfare in the developing vision of unity among the Delaware, Shawnee, Cherokee, and Creek peoples, and its ultimate destruction by Euroamerican force of arms.
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Drinnon, Richard. Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-hating and Empire-building. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980. See especially chap. 4, “The Pequot War,” 34–35, on the distinction between “civilized” and primitive warfare.
Eckert, Allan W. The Wilderness War. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1978. Reprinted New York: Bantam Books, 1982. Slightly fictionalized historical account of the military destruction of the Iroquois in the American Revolution.
Edmunds, R. David, and Joseph L. Peyser. The Fox Wars: The Mesquakie Challenge to New France. The Civilization of the American Indian, vol. 211. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. Ethnohistorical account of the epic armed struggle in the late 17th/early 18th century Wisconsin country Mesquakies (Fox) and the minions of New France.
*Edmunds, R. David. “Indian-White Warfare: A Look at Both Sides.” Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 (Spring, Summer, Autumn 1989): 35–45. Edmunds, R. David. “Old Briton.” In American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity, edited by R. David Edmunds, 1–20. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Biographical sketch of mid-18th century Miami leader seeking to balance French and British pressure via trade and warfare.
Fausz, J. Frederick. “An ‘Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides’: England’s First Indian War, 1609–1614.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 98 ( January 1990): 3–55. Detailed narrative of hostilities, which established precedents for future frontier warfare and revealed both deliberate aggression by the English and Indian awareness of the English threat.
Fausz, J. Frederick. “The ‘Barbarous Massacre’ Reconsidered: The Powhatan Uprising of 1622 and the Historians.” Explorations in Ethnic Studies 1 (1978): 16–36. Fausz, J. Frederick. “Indians, Colonialism, and the Conquest of Cant: A Review Essay on Anglo-Indian Relations in the Chesapeake.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 95 (1987): 131–56. Militarily, as in other ways, Indians were integral to what happened and they must be understood for an adequate history.
Fausz, J. Frederick. “Opechancanough: Indian Resistance Leader.” In Struggle and Survival in Colonial America, edited by David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash, 21–37. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. Early 17th-century Powhatan military struggles against colonial encroachment.
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Fausz, J. Frederick. “Patterns of Anglo-Indian Aggression along the Mid-Atlantic Coast, 1584–1634.” In Cultures in Contact: The Impact of European Contacts on Native American Cultural Institutions, A.D. 1000–1800, edited by William W. Fitzhugh, 225–68. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. Initially, proximity bred hostility and settlers sought allies among more distant Indians; by 1634 the pattern was largely reversed.
Ferling, John E. A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America. Contributions in Military History 22. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1980. See especially chap. 2, “The Indian Wars,” 29–54.
Fleming, Thomas. “Braddock’s Defeat.” Military History Quarterly 3 (Autumn 1990): 84–95. The triumph of irregular warfare on 9 July 1755.
Forbes, Allan, Jr. “Two and a Half Centuries of Conflict: The Iroquois and the Laurentian Wars.” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 40 (December 1970): 1–20. Focused on war between England and France, in which the Iroquois allied with the English and played an ultimately decisive role in the two-and-a-half century struggle.
Foret, Michael J. “The Failure of Administration: The Chickasaw Campaign of 1739–1740.” Louisiana Review 11 (1982): 49–60. *Fregault, Guy. Canada: The War of the Conquest. Translated by Margaret M. Cameron. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1969. Seven Years War from French-Canadian perspective.—JR AHA Guide 45.75.
Ganyard, Robert L. “Threat from the West: North Carolina and the Cherokee, 1776–1778.” North Carolina Historical Review 45 ( Jan. 1968): 47–66. Goldstein, Robert A. French-Iroquois Diplomatic and Military Relations, 1609–1701. Studies in American History 9. The Hague: Mouton, 1969. Narrative history of war and diplomacy.
Graymont, Barbara. The Iroquois in the American Revolution. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1972. Traditional warfare is discussed, 17–23, in chap. 1, “The People of the Longhouse”; much of the book deals with Iroquois military involvement in the Revolutionary War.
*Green, Gretchen Lynn. “A New People in an Age of War: The Kahnawake Iroquois, 1667–1760.” Ph.D. dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1991.
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Grinde, Donald A., Jr. The Iroquois and the Founding of the American Nation. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press, 1977. Narrative history of the Iroquois role in the Revolutionary War.
*Higginbotham, Jay. “Origins of the French-Alabama Conflict, 1703–1704.” Alabama Review 31 (April 1978): 121–36. Horowitz, David. The First Frontier: The Indian Wars and America’s Origins, 1607–1776. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978. On the conquest of New England and Virginia from their native inhabitants and how it shaped the colonial character.
Jacobs, Wilbur R. Dispossessing the American Indian: Indians and Whites on the Colonial Frontier. 2d edition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. See especially part 2, “Indian-White Contact: Frontier Conflicts,” 59–103, on the mid-18th century wars; see also the discussion of the Indians’ military contribution, 165–66, in “Epilogue: What We Owe the Woodland Indians.”
Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988. Continuation of the diplomatic history in the preceding title.
Jennings, Francis. The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975. Reprinted New York: Norton Library, 1976. European settlement of North America construed as military invasion.
Keegan, John. Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. Klein, Kerwin Lee. Frontiers of Historical Imagination: Narrating the European Conquest of Native America, 1890–1990. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. *Koning, Hans. The Conquest of America: How the Indian Nations Lost Their Continent. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1993. Kopytoff, Barbara Klamon. “Guerrilla Warfare in Eighteenth Century Jamaica.” Expedition 19 (Winter 1977): 20–26. Leach, Douglas Edward. “Colonial Indian Wars.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 4, History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, 128–43. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. Lyden, James G. Struggle for Empire: A Bibliography of the French and
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Indian War. Wars of the United States 7. Garland Reference Library of Social Science 188. New York: Garland, 1986. McAleese, Kevin E. “European-Aboriginal Co-operation in Southern Labrador: George Cartwright’s Stage Cove Sealing Post.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 181–86. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. “European-Aboriginal Conflict in the Strait of Belle Isle,” 181–83, discusses weapon skills and warfare techniques of the Labrador Inuit.
MacLeod, D. Peter. The Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years’ War. Canadian Historical Museum Publication No. 29. Toronto and London: Dundurn Press, 1996. Monguia, Anna R. “The Pequot War Reexamined.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 1, no. 3 (1975): 13–21. Why natives fight and why they lose to soldiers.
Morrison, Kenneth M. “Native Americans and the American Revolution: Historic Stories and Shifting Frontier Conflict.” In Indians in American History: An Introduction, edited by Frederick D. Hoxie, 94–115. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1988. Historical sketch of the Revolutionary War period as it involved native Americans, including military participation.
O’Donnell, James. “Joseph Brant.” In American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity, edited by R. David Edmunds, 21–40. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Biographical sketch of the Mohawk warrior who fought for the British in the American Revolutionary War.
O’Donnell, James H., III. Southern Indians in the American Revolution. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973. Narrative history, including Indians in battle.
Patterson, Stephn E. “1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples.” In The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History, edited by Phillip A. Buckner and John G. Reid, 125–55. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; Fredericton: Acadiensis Press, 1994. Peyser, Joseph L. “The Chickasaw War of 1736 and 1740: French Military Drawings and Plans Document the Struggle for the Lower Mississippi.” Journal of Mississippi History 44 (1982): 1–25.
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*Puglisi, Michael J. Puritans Besieged: The Legacies of King Philip’s War in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991. Useful.—JPG AHA Guide 39.272.
Reid, John G. “1686–1720: Imperial Intrusions.” In The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History, edited by Phillip A. Buckner and John G. Reid, 78–103. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; Fredericton: Acadiensis Press, 1994. Sheehan, Bernard W. “Images: The Problem of the Indian in the Revolution.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 66–80. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Although their military role in the revolution was far from negligible, the Indians may have been even more significant in defining the emergent American character.
Silberman, Neil Asher. “The Pequot Massacre.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Spring 1989): 74–81. The so-called Pequot War of 1636–1637 set the pattern for two-and-a-half centuries of brutal Euroamerican assaults on Indians.
Sosin, Jack M. “The Use of Indians in the War of the American Revolution: A Reassessment of Responsibility.” Canadian Historical Review 46 (1965): 101–121. *Steele, Ian K. Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the Massacre. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Impressive analysis of important 1857 incident in Seven Years War, when Montcalm’s Indian allies attacked and killed many of the fort’s defenders after they had surrendered and were marching out.—JPG AHA Guide 39.277.
Steele, Ian K. Warpaths: Invasions of North America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. The history of the colonial wars in eastern North America, 1513–1765, informed by ethnohistorical perspectives.
Tanner, Helen Hornbeck. “Pipesmoke and Muskets: Florida Indian Intrigues of the Revolutionary Era.” In Eighteenth-Century Florida and Its Borderlands, edited by Samuel Proctor, 13–39. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1975. Narrative history of Creeks and others drawn into the war between the United States and England, 1774–1790.
Time-Life Books, Editors of. The European Challenge. The American Indians. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1992.
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Trent, Robert F. “Coastal Algonkian Culture, 1500–1680: Conquest and Resistance.” In New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century, vol. 1, Introduction/Migration and Settlement, by Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 66–94. Boston, Massachusetts: The Museum, 1982. Exhibit catalogue focused on Indian weapons and related artifacts.
Trexler, Richard C. Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1995. Especially chap. 4, “The Military and Diplomatic Berdache,” 64–81, suggesting ways military institutions and practices may shape domestic order.
Turner, E. Randolph. “Socio-Political Organization within the Powhatan Chiefdom and the Effects of European Contact, A.D. 1607– 1646.” In Cultures in Contact: The Impact of European Contacts on Native American Cultural Institutions, A.D. 1000–1800, edited by William W. Fitzhugh, 193–224. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. Forming when the English arrived, the Powhatan chiefdom had achieved a high but unstable level of complexity; the English war of extermination after 1622 sealed its fate.
Valliere, Kenneth L. “The Creek War of 1836: A Military History.” Chronicles of Oklahoma 57 (Winter 1979): 463–485. Washburn, Wilcomb E. “Seventeenth-Century Indian Wars.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, Northeast, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, 89–100. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. Conflict between European settlers and coastal tribes.
White, Richard. The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Iroquois attacks fragmented the Indian world around the Great Lakes, warfare reshaped the fragments, and the War of 1812 destroyed the emergent new society.
White, Richard. “Red Shoes: Warrior and Diplomat.” In Struggle and Survival in Colonial America, edited by David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash, 49–68. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. Early 18th-century Choctaw military and diplomatic attempts to cope with French and British incursions.
Wilkins, Joe. “Outpost of Empire: The Founding of Fort Tombecbé and de Bienville’s Chickasaw Expedition of 1736.” In Proceedings of the Twelfth Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society, Ste. Geneviève, May 1986, edited by Philip P. Boucher and Serge Courville, 133–53. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1987. Background of a significant French defeat.
COLONIAL ARMED FORCES
Studies of organization, practices, and policies of imperial and colonial armed forces, from the conquest to independence throughout the New World. *Andrews, Kenneth R. The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 1530–1630. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1978. Impressive overview.—MAB AHA Guide 37.322.
Archer, Christon I. The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Archer, Christon I. “The Army of New Spain and the Wars of Independence, 1790–1821.” Hispanic American Historical Review 61 (1981): 705–14. *Archer, Christon I. “Bourbon Finances and Military Policy in New Spain, 1759–1812.” The Americas 37.3 (1981): 315–50. On the expense of the army and its consequences for policy.—MAB AHA Guide 37.475.
Archer, Christon I. “The Royalist Army of New Spain, 1810–1821: Militarism, Praetorianism, or Protection of Interests.” Armed Forces and Society 17 (1990): 99–116. Archer, Christon I. “To Serve the King: Military Recruitment in Late Colonial Mexico.” Hispanic American Historical Review 55 (1975): 226–50. *Avellaneda, José Ignacio. “The Men of Nikolaus Federmann: Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada.” The Americas 43.4 (1987): 385–94. Prosopographical study of the conquerors, useful but incomplete.—MAB AHA Guide 37.132.
*Bradley, Peter T. “Maritime Defence of the Viceroyalty of Peru (1600–1700).” The Americas 36.2 (1979): 155–74. Informative analysis.—MAB AHA Guide 37.325.
*Bradley, Peter T. Society, Economy, and Defence in Seventeenth-Century Peru: The Administration of the Count of Alba de Liste (1655–1661).
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Monograph Series 15. Liverpool, England: University of Liverpool, Centre for Latin American Studies, 1992. Considers, among other matters, war in Chile and defense of Peru.—MAB AHA Guide 37.154.
Bushnell, Amy Turner. “Ruling ‘The Republic of Indians’ in Seventeenth-Century Florida.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, 134–50. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Indian chiefs held the status of nobles, including military roles, under Spanish rule, until the system collapsed in the late 17th century.
Campbell, Leon G. “The Changing Racial and Administrative Structure of the Peruvian Military under the Later Bourbons.” The Americas 32 ( July 1975): 117–33. Campbell, Leon G. “The Military and Society in Colonial Peru.” Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 123 ( January 1978): 1–255. Clayton, Lawrence A. “Local Initiative and Finance in Defense of the Viceroyalty of Peru: The Development of Self-Reliance.” Hispanic American Historical Review 54 (1974): 284–304. *Clissold, Stephen. Bernardo O’Higgins and the Independence of Chile. New York: Praeger, 1969. Straightforward account.—RJW AHA Guide 38.686.
Din, Gilbert C. “Protecting the ‘Barrera’: Spain’s Defenses in Louisiana, 1763–1779.” Louisiana History 10 (Spring 1978): 183–211. Dutra, Francis A. “Matias de Albuquerque and the Defense of Northwestern Brazil, 1620–1626.” Studia (Lisbon) 36 ( July 1973): 117–66. *Fireman, Janet R. The Spanish Royal Corps of Engineers in the Spanish Borderlands: Instruments of Bourbon Reform, 1764 to 1815. Glendale, California: Clark, 1977. Special military unit planned defenses, drew maps, surveyed roads, and gathered economic-demographic data.—DJW AHA Guide 37.575.
Fisher, John. “Soldiers, Society and Politics in Spanish America, 1750–1820.” Latin American Research Review 17 (1982): 217–22. Review essay.
*García Payón, José. “La huasteca: Los señioríos y estados militaristas.” Mexico: Panorama Historico y Cultural no. 9 (1976): 243–90.
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*Guarda, Gabriel. “Influencia militar en las ciudades del Reino de Chile.” XXXVII Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Buenos Aires 1966, Actas y Memorias, vol. 1 (1968): 261–302. *Guzmán, José R. “Aventureros, corsarios e insurgentes en el Golfo de México.” Bol. arch. gen. nación 12 ( January-June 1971): 175–236. Higginbotham, Don. “The Early American Way of War: Reconnaissance and Appraisal.” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d series, 44 (1987): 230–73. Review essay on recent works concerning the development of Anglo-American military institutions and practices.
Higginbotham, Don. “The Military Institutions of Colonial America: The Rhetoric and the Reality.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871, edited by John A. Lynn, 131–53. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. *Hoffman, Paul E. The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1535–1585: Precedent, Patrimonialism, and Royal Parsimony. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980. Important, detailed quantitative analysis and narrative concluding that Spain’s policy was sensible.—MAB AHA Guide 37.330.
Hooker, Terry, and Ron Poulter. The Armies of Bolivar and San Martin. Men-at-Arms Series 232. London: Osprey, 1991. Innes, Hammond. The Conquistadors. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969. *Jara, Alvaro. Guerra y sociedad en Chile: Y otras temas afines. 3d edition. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 1984. Classic study of war and society in Chile, linking forms of warfare to social forms.— KLJ AHA Guide 36.475.
Kentner, Janet R. “The Socio-Political Role of Women in the Mexican Wars of Independence.” Ph.D. dissertation, History, Loyola University of Chicago, 1975. *Kuethe, Allan J. Cuba, 1753–1815: Crown, Military, and Society. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986. Military reform and social implications.—MAB AHA Guide 37.519.
Kuethe, Allan J. “The Development of the Cuban Military as a Sociopolitical Elite, 1763–83.” Hispanic American Historical Review 61 (1981): 695–704.
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*Kuethe, Allan J. Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773–1808. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1978. Sophisticated and substantial.—MAB AHA Guide 37.520.
*Leach, Douglas Edward. Roots of Conflict: British Armed Forces and Colonial Americans, 1677–1763. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986. How experiences with metropolitan troops helped shape colonial fears of standing armies.—JPG AHA Guide 39.267.
Lockhart, James. The Men of Cajamarca: A Social and Biographical Study of the First Conquerors of Peru. Latin American Monographs 37. Austin: University of Texas Press, for the Institute of Latin American Studies, 1972. *Lynch, John. The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826. 2d edition. New York: W. W. Norton, 1986. Excellent synthesis, but little attention to military issues.—RJW AHA Guide 38.150.
*Marchena Fernández, Juan. Oficiales y soldados en el ejército de América. Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla 286. Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1983. Extremely informative study of officers and men.—MAB AHA Guide 37.529.
*Miller, Gary M. “Bourbon Social Engineering: Women and Conditions of Marriage in Eighteenth-Century Venezuela.” The Americas 46.3 (1990): 261–90. Crown influence on marriages of Spanish regular army officers, part of a prospographical study.—MAB AHA Guide 37.532.
*Miller, Gary M. “Status and Loyalty of Regular Army Officers in Late Colonial Venezuela.” Hispanic American Historical Review 66.4 (1986): 667–96. Valuable prosopographical study.—MAB AHA Guide 37.533.
*Moore, Christopher. Louisbourg Portraits: Life in an Eighteenth-Century Garrison Town. 1982 edition. Toronto: Macmillan, 1983. Prize-winning social history.—DJL AHA Guide 45.69.
Moorhead, Max L. The Presdio: Bastion of the Spanish Borderlands. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975. Morton, F. W. O. “The Military and Society in Bahia, 1800–1821.” Journal of Latin American Studies 7 (Nov. 1975): 249–69. *Muro Romero, Fernando. Las presidencias-gobernaciones en Indias (siglo 16). Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de
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Sevilla 229. Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 1975. Including military and administrative organization of different provinces.—MAB AHA Guide 37.166.
Naylor, Thomas H., and Charles W. Polzer, eds. Pedro de Rivera and the Military Regulations for Northern New Spain, 1724–1729: A Documentary History of His Frontier Inspection and the “Reglamento de 1729.” Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. Naylor, Thomas H., and Charles W. Polzer, eds. The Presidio and Militia on the Northern Frontier of New Spain: A Documentary History, vol. 1, 1570–1700. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986. Oglesby, J. C. M. “Soldiers and Power: The Hispanic Warrior Tradition.” International Journal 37 (Winter 1981–1982): 149–70. Soldiers and politics from Cortes onward.
Oglesby, J. C. M. “Spain’s Havana Squadron and the Preservation of the Balance of Power in the Caribbean, 1740–1748.” Hispanic American Historical Review 49.3 (1969): 473–88. Useful study of Admiral Rodrigo de Torres and his squadron.—MAB AHA Guide 37.452.
*Perez, Louis A., Jr. “Armies of the Caribbean: Historical Perspectives, Historiographical Trends.” Latin American Perspectives 14 (Fall 1987): 490–507. *Pike, Ruth. “Penal Servitude in the Spanish Empire: Presidio Labor in the Eighteenth Century.” Hispanic American Historical Review 58.1 (1978): 21–40. Civilian as well as military convicts were sentenced to labor in military garrisons, regarded as rehabilitative.—MAB AHA Guide 37.540.
*Rausch, Jane M. A Tropical Plains Frontier: The Llanos of Colombia, 1531–1831. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. Including wars of independence.—MAB AHA Guide 37.543.
*Saeger, James Schofield. “Institutional Rivalries, Jurisdictional Disputes, and Vested Interests in the Viceroyalty of Peru: José de Antequera and the Rebellion of Paraguay.” The Americas 32.1 (1975): 99–116. Solid analysis of 1721–1735 rebellion in Paraguay.—MAB AHA Guide 37.453.
*Saeger, James Schofield. “Origins of the Rebellion of Paraguay.” Hispanic American Historical Review 52.2 (1972): 215–29. Solid study places rebellion in historical context.
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Sánchez, Joseph P. Spanish Bluecoasts: The Catalonian Volunteers in Northwestern New Spain, 1767–1810. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990. *Seckinger, Ron. “The Colonial American Militaries: A Survey of the Literature.” Latin American Research Review 16 (1981): 246–58. Abstracts in Anthropology 10 (1983): 1906. Selesky, Harold E. War and Society in Colonial Connecticut. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1990. Evolution of military system in context of political and social life; chap. 1, “Apprenticeship at Arms,” 3–32, details Indian wars.
*Shea, William L. The Virginia Militia in the Seventeenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983. Function and effectiveness of militia in defense and internal affairs.—JPG AHA Guide 39.276.
*Stanley, George F. G. New France: The Last Phase, 1744 –1760. Canadian Centernary Series 5. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1968. Balanced overview, stressing military history and imperial policy.—JR AHA Guide 45.79.
Tengwall, David. “A Study in Military Leadership: The Sargento Mor in the Portuguese South Atlantic Empire.” The Americas 40 (1983): 73–94. *Titus, James. The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991. Virginia in the Seven Years War, especially mobilization problems.—JPG/DMS AHA Guide 39.279.
Trent, Robert F. “Arms and Armor.” In New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century, vol. 1, Introduction/Migration and Settlement, 53–65. Boston, Massachusetts: Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 1982. Exhibit catalogue detailing colonial English armament.
Usner, Daniel H., Jr. “American Indians in Colonial New Orleans.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, 104–27. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Indian allies, notably Tunicas, played important roles as scouts and soldiers in defending the colony, 110–11.
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Wise, Terence, and Angus McBride. The Conquistadores. Men-at-Arms Series 101. London: Osprey, 1980. Illustrated survey of the Spanish conquerors and, despite the title, of the Indian conquered.
Workmaster, Wallace F. “The Forts of Oswego: A Study in the Art of Defense.” Northeast Historical Archaeology 2 (1972): 9–20.
MILITARY ACCULTURATION IN THE AMERICAS
The exchange of military technology and techniques between Euroamericans and Indians, including Indian participation in the wars of the United States. Abler, Thomas S. “Beavers and Muskets: Iroquois Military Fortunes in the Face of European Colonization.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 151–74. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Abler, Thomas S. “European Technology and the Art of War in Iroquoia.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 273–82. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Iroquois warfare changed in the 17th century, but only partly in response to the adoption of European weapons.
Babits, L. E. “The Evolution and Adoption of Firearm Ignition Systems in Eastern North America: An Ethnohistorical Approach.” The Chesopiean 14 (1976): 40–82. Adoption choices by eastern Indians conformed to indigenous tactical habits and hunting techniques.
Beattie, Daniel J. “The Adaptation of the British Army to Wilderness Warfare, 1755–1763.” In Adapting to Conditions: War and Society in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Maarten Ultee, 56–83. University: University of Alabama Press, 1986. *Boucher, Philip P. Cannibal Encounters: Europeans and Island Caribs, 1492–1763. Johns Hopkins Studies in Atlantic History and Culture. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Emphasizing Carib agency, showing how Caribs adopted European military practices to achieve their own ends.—Reviewed by Amy G. Gordon, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1354.
Braund, Kathryn E. Holland. Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685–1815. Indians of the Southeast. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.
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Creek empire-building with traded guns later compromised when Creek enemies were armed.
Britten, Thomas A. American Indians in World War I: At War and at Home. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997. DeBoer, Warren R. “Pillage and Production in the Amazon: A View through the Conibo of the Ucayali Basin, Eastern Peru.” In “Weaponry and Warfare,” edited by Warwick Bray, 231–46. World Archaeology 18 (1986). Conibo raiding reflected internal needs for polygyny and competitive feasting, but its victims fought back, often successfully; devastated by European diseases, the Conibo turned to slaving, trading male captives to the Jesuits for metal tools.
Dobyns, Henry F. “Indians in the Colonial Spanish Borderlands.” In Indians in American History: An Introduction, edited by Frederick D. Hoxie, 66–93. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1988. Historical sketch of the interaction of Spanish and Indian populations all across southern North America from 1492 to 1821, including the development of new military organizations on both sides.
Dobyns, Henry F. “Military Transculturation of Northern Piman Indians, 1782–1821.” Ethnohistory 19 (1972): 323–43. How the imperial use of native troops transferred civilized military (and other social) institutions to a nonstate society.
Dunlay, Thomas W. Wolves for the Blue Soldiers: Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860–1890. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. A major theme is military acculturation; for some specifics, see chap. 5, “The Role of the Scouts in Indian Warfare,” 69–90.
Edmunds, David. “Blackfoot Military Ascendancy on the Northern Plains.” Papers in Anthropology 10/1 (Spring 1969): 1–22. Primitive war transformed by civilized contact and disease, treated as conventional military history.
Evans, William McKee. To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band, Indian Guerrillas of Reconstruction. The Iroquois and Their Neighbors. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1995. Ewers, John C. Indian Life on the Upper Missouri. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 89. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968. See chap. 3, “The North West Trade Gun,” 34–44, revised version of an article first published in Alberta Historical Review 4 (Spring 1956).
Farb, Peter. “Rise and Fall of the Indian of the Wild West.” Natural History 77 (October 1968): 32–41.
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Mid-18th century rise of the plains culture in response to introduction of first horses, then guns, with warfare at the center of development.
Fausz, J. Frederick. “Fighting ‘Fire’ with Firearms: The AngloPowhatan Arms Race in Early Virginia.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal (Los Angeles) 3/4 (1979): 33–50. On native acquisition of European military technology, focusing on the technology, its appeal to the natives, and its fit with native culture.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “Blood of the Leviathan: Western Contact and Warfare in Tribal Amazonia.” American Ethnologist 17 (1990): 237–57. Nonstate or tribal patterns of warfare cannot be assumed self-generated; most of what anthropologists know in fact reflects the long-term effects of Western contact.
Ferguson, R. Brian. “A Savage Encounter: Western Contact and the Yanomami War Complex.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 199–228. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Fisher, A. D. “Great Plains Ethnology.” In Native Peoples: The Canadian Experience, edited by R. Bruce Morrison, and C. Roderick Wilson, 358–75. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986. War and trade were inextricably linked in novel cultures that developed on the Great Plains in the 19th century.
Flowers, Nancy M. “Subsistence Strategy, Social Organization, and Warfare in Central Brazil in the Context of European Penetration.” In Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present, edited by Anna Roosevelt, 249–70. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994. *Gaines, W. Craig. The Confederate Cherokees: John Drew’s Regiment of Mounted Rifles. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989. Narrative history.—Reviewed by William L. Burton, Journal of American History 77 (September 1990): 677–78.
Given, Brian J. “The Iroquois Wars and Native Firearms.” Papers from the Sixth Annual Congress, 1979, Canadian Ethnology Society. Canadian Ethnology Service Paper 78. Toronto: National Museum of Man, 1979. Reprinted in Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit and Metis, edited by Bruce Alden Cox, 3–13. Carleton Literary Series 142. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1987. Given, Brian J. A Most Pernicious Thing: Gun Trading and Native Warfare in the Early Contact Period. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1994.
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*Given, Brian J. “A Study of European Weapons Technology as a Locus of Native Dependence Prior to the Iroquois Defeat of the Huron, 1648–52.” M.A. thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1979. *Gobold, E. Stanley, and Mattie U. Russell. Confederate Colonel and Cherokee Chief: The Life of William Holland Thomas. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990. Thomas raised and led a legion, including Indians, for the Confederacy.—Reviewed by Daniel H. Usner, Jr., Journal of American History 79 (1992): 261–62.
Gonzalez, Nancie L. “From Cannibals to Mercenaries: Carib Militarism, 1600–1840.” Journal of Anthropological Research 46 (1990): 25–39. Amalgamated with black adoptees, the Black Caribs of St. Vincent successfully adapted their warlike heritage to counter the European assault.
*Gray, John S. Custer’s Last Campaign: Mitch Boyer and the Little Bighorn Reconstructed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. Biography of the half-Sioux scout and reconstruction of the battle, making good use of Indian accounts.—Reviewed by Thomas W. Dunlay, Journal of American History 79 (1992): 289.
Gregson, Ronald E. “The Influence of the Horse on Indian Cultures of Lowland South America.” Ethnohistory 16 (1969): 33–50. Especially in promoting raiding and warfare on the pampas.
Hamon, Pete. “Inquiries into the Relationship of the Horse to the Warfare Complex of the North American Plains.” Papers in Anthropology 10 (Spring 1969): 22–40. Technology and tactics of plains warfare.
Hanson, James Austin. Metal Weapons, Tools, and Ornaments of the Teton Dakota Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975. See chap. 3, “Metal Weapons,” 14–48, including firearms.
Hanson, Jeffrey R. “Adjustment and Adaptation on the Northern Plains: The Case of Equestrianism among the Hidatsa.” Plains Anthropologist 31 (May 1986): 93–107. Horses transformed Hidatsa military patterns, as they did other aspects of Hidatsa life, 99–100.
Harper, Jared Vincent. “The Adoption and Use of the Horse among Southeastern Indians.” Tennessee Anthropologist 5 (1980): 26–33. Derived mainly from New Mexico via Indian middlemen, horses never assumed the central military and economic role in the southeast that they did in the west.
Hauptman, Laurence M. Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War. New York: Free Press, 1995.
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*Hauptman, Laurence M. The Iroquois in the Civil War: From Battlefield to Reservation. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1993. Part 1 describes Iroquois military participation.—Reviewed by Edmund J. Danziger, Jr., American Historical Review 99 (1994): 972–73.
Hirsch, Adam J. “The Collision of Military Cultures in SeventeenthCentury New England.” Journal of American History 74 (1988): 1187–1212. Military acculturation as interactive process, altering values and practices of both sides.
*Hudelson, J. E. “Comercio y guerra.” In Relaciones interétnicas y adatación cultural (Colección Mundo Shuar; Quito, 1984): 160–69. Judy, Mark A. “Powder Keg on the Upper Missouri: Sources of Blackfeet Hostility, 1730–1810.” American Indian Quarterly 11 (1987): 127–42. How horse and gun transformed Blackfeet society, further promoted by epidemic disease, ultimately contributing to implacable hostility toward Americans.
Kenner, Charles L. The Comanchero Frontier: A History of the New MexicanPlains Indian Relations. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969. Paperback ed., 1994. See especially chap. 2, “War, Trade, and Diplomacy, 1700–1786,” 23–52, which describes military acculturation; New Mexico thereafter remained tranquil, even when the Comanches harried other northern provinces of New Spain or Mexico.
Lawrence, Elizabeth Atwood. Hoofbeats and Society: Studies of HumanHorse Interactions. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. See chap. 1, “The Horse in Crow Indian Culture, Past and Present,” 1–56, especially “The Horse in Plains Indian History, with Special Reference to the Crows,” 2–24, on raiding and warfare.
Layton, Thomas N. “Traders and Raiders: Aspects of Trans-Basin and California-Plateau Commerce, 1800–1837.” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 3 (1981): 127–37. Emergence of horse-facilitated trading centers and predatory bands of horse nomads.
*Lee, Robert. “Warriors in Ranks: American Indian Units in the Regular Army, 1891–1897.” South Dakota History 21/3 (1991): 263–316. Abstracted in America: History & Life (1994): 31:8418. Experimental enlistment program.
Liberty, Margot. “Hell Came with Horses: Plains Indian Women in the Equestrian Era.” Montana 32 (Summer 1982): 10–19. The militarization of plains society had disastrous impact on women’s status, though some women did participate in warfare.
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Malone, Patrick M. “Changing Military Technology among the Indians of Southern New England, 1600–1677.” American Quarterly 25 (1973): 48–63. Selective adoption of European weapons and techniques altered forest warfare.
Malone, Patrick Mitchell. The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the Indians of New England. Lanham, Maryland: Madison Books, 1991. During the 17th century Indians of New England adopted European military technology and adapted it to their forms of warfare.
*Markham, George. Guns of the Wild West: Firearms of the American Frontier, 1849–1917. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1991. Milloy, John S. The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy and War, 1790 to 1870. Manitoba Studies in Native History 4. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1988. Intertribal warfare on the great plains, and its transformation by the horse; see especially chap. 4, “Military Patterns on the Southeastern [Canada] Plains, 1730 to 1805,” 41–46; parts 3, “The Horse Wars, 1810 to 1850,” 69–99; and 4, “The Buffalo Wars, 1850 to 1870,” 103–18.
Osborn, Alan J. “Ecological Aspects of Equestrian Adaptations in Aboriginal North America.” American Anthropologist 85 (1983): 563–91. Domesticated horses entailed increased labor costs in the form of territorial selfdefense, predation on other herds, and regular raiding (see especially 584–85).
Parker, Kay. “Equestrians: Parallel Processes of Adaptation.” Papers in Anthropology 17 (Spring 1976): 1–13. Military consequences of horses in the Americas.
Purdy, Barbara A. “Weapons, Strategies, and Tactics of the Europeans and the Indians in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Florida.” Florida Historical Quarterly 55 (1977): 259–76. Primitive warfare contrasted with civilized.
Salmón, Roberto Mario. “Frontier Warfare in the Hispanic Southwest: Tarahumara Resistance, 1649–1780.” Mid-America 58 (October 1976): 175–85. Systematic account of changes in warfare due to acculturation.
Schilz, Thomas Frank, and Donald E. Worcester. “The Spread of Firearms among the Indian Tribes on the Northern Frontier of New Spain.” American Indian Quarterly 11 (1987): 1–10. Firearms in Indian hands countered the Spanish technological edge that aided early conquests and created a rough military balance.
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Smith, Brian J. “How Great an Influence Was the Gun in Historic Northern Plains Ethnic Movements? An Ethnohistorical Assessment.” In Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Diana Claire Tkaczuk and Brian C. Vivian, 253–61. Proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Archaeological Society of Calgary. Calgary: The Society, 1989. Before 1850 the relatively inefficient smoothbore muskets available as trade guns could not substantially have affected success or failure in warfare.
*Smith, Ralph A. “The Comanches’ Foreign War: Fighting Head Hunters in the Tropics.” Great Plains Journal 24/25 (1985/86): 21–44. *Sugden, John. “The Southern Indians in the War of 1812: The Closing Phase.” Florida Historical Quarterly 60 ( January 1982): 273–312. *Tate, Michael L. “‘Pershing’s Pets’: Apache Scouts in the Mexican Punitive Expedition of 1916.” New Mexico Historical Review 66 ( Jan. 1990): 49–71. *Townsend, Joan B. “Firearms against Native Arms: A Study in Comparative Efficiencies with an Alaskan Example.” Arctic Anthropology 20/2 (1983): 1–34. Upton, Richard, ed. The Indian as a Soldier at Fort Custer, Montana, 1890–1895: Lieutenant Samuel C. Robertson’s First Cavalry Crow Indian Contingent. Montana and the West Series 1. El Segundo, California: Upton & Sons, 1983. How Indians functioned as members of the army.
Whitehead, Neil Lancelot. “Carib Ethnic Soldiering in Venezuela, the Guianas, and the Antilles, 1492–1820.” Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 357–85. Military acculturation as a means of conquest.
Whitehead, Neil L. “Native American Cultures along the Atlantic Littoral of South America, 1499–1650.” In The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650, edited by Warwick Bray, 197–231. Proceedings of the British Academy 81. Oxford: Oxford University Press, for the British Academy, 1993. Native American military organization and technology altered in response to European example and threat (216–18).
Whitehead, Neil L. “Tribes Make States and States Make Tribes: Warfare and the Creation of Colonial Tribes and States in Northeastern South America.” In War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous
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Warfare, edited by R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, 127–150. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, 1992. Wiegers, Robert P. “A Proposal for Indian Slave Trading in the Mississippi Valley and Its Impact on the Osage.” Plains Anthropologist 33 (1988): 187–202. Older patterns of intertribal warfare altered as Indians were drawn into Euroamerican trade networks; slaving was a major but often overlooked aspect of change.
Worcester, Donald E. “Spaniards, Frenchmen, and Indians: EuropeanIndian Relations in the Greater Southwest.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 35–48. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Transformative effects of horse and gun on southwestern Indian societies, and the consequences for Indian-European trade, diplomacy, and war.
Worcester, Donald E., and Thomas F. Schilz. “The Spread of Firearms among the Indians of the Anglo-French Frontiers.” American Indian Quarterly 8 (1984): 103–15. The rapid spread of firearms both north and south transformed the character of native warfare.
Yost, James A., and Patricia M. Kelley. “Shotguns, Blowguns, and Spears: The Analysis of Technological Efficiency.” In Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians, edited by Raymond B. Hames and William T. Vickers, 189–224. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Although shotguns are more efficient than traditional weapons in procuring protein, both technologies provide ample supplies, arguing against the validity of Harris’s thesis that protein shortage leads to female infanticide and war.
NATIONAL INDIAN WARS
Conflicts with Indians and Indian resistance to Euromerican encroachment during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including general and comprehensive studies. Ambrose, Stephen E. Crazy Horse and Custer: The Parallel Lives of Two American Warriors. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1975. Reprinted New York: Meridian Books, 1986. See especially chaps. 8, “War and Love among the Oglalas,” 129–44; and 9, “Guerrilla Warfare, Indian Style,” 145–66.
Anderson, Gary Clayton. Little Crow: Spokesman for the Sioux. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1986. Biography of the Sioux leader in the 1862 war; see especially chap. 8, “War,” 135–61.
Anderson, Gary Clayton, and Alan R. Woolworth, eds. Through Dakota Eyes: Narrative Accounts of the Minnesota Indian War of 1862. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1988. Eyewitness evidence of the Minnesota Dakota war and its aftermath.
Axelrod, Alan. Chronicle of the Indian Wars: From Colonial Times to Wounded Knee. New York: Prentice Hall General Reference, 1993. Primarily an account of warfare between Indians and Euroamericans in the area of the present continental United States.
Bailey, John W. “Civilization the Military Way: The Generals’ View of the Plains Indians, 1866–91.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited James C. Bradford, 109–29. Texas A&M Military History Series 50. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Balée, William. “The Ka’apor Indian Wars of Lower Amazonia, ca. 1825–1928.” In Dialectics and Gender: Anthropological Approaches, edited by Richard R. Randolph, David M. Schneider, and May N. Diaz, 155–69. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988. Mainly resistance to European encroachment, but based on long-standing patterns of external warfare and uxorilocal residence, directed toward defending cultural and territorial integrity.
Bird, Harrison. War for the West, 1790 –1813. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison.
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*Brown, Canter, Jr. Florida’s Peace River Frontier. Orlando: University of Central Florida Press, 1991.
The first two parts, covering the period 1800–1858, deal with the three Seminole wars.—Reviewed by Raymond Arsenault, Journal of American History 79 (1992): 254–55.
Calloway, Colin G., ed. Our Hearts Fell to the Ground: Plains Indian Views of How the West Was Lost. The Bedford Series in History and Culture. Boston, Massachusetts, and New York: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Including numerous accounts of warfare and related activities.
Calloway, Colin G. “Sword Bearer and the ‘Crow Outbreak,’ 1887.” Montana 36 (Autumn 1986): 38–51. In part, the last gasp resistance by young warriors to their elders’ accommodation to white rule.
Carley, Kenneth. The Sioux Uprising of 1862. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1976. Narrative history of the war, with some attention to Indian side.
*Chalfont, William Y. Cheyennes and Horse Soldiers: The 1857 Expedition and the Battle of Solomon’s Fork. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. Narrative history.—Reviewed by Marvin E. Kroeker, Journal of American History 77 (1990): 1025–26.
Chalfant, William Y. Cheyennes at Dark Water Creek: The Last Fight of the Red River War. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997. Chalfont, William Y. Dangerous Passage: The Santa Fe Trail and the Mexican War. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. Army efforts to deal with Indian raiding and warfare along the Santa Fe Trail, 1846–1848.
*Chalfont, William Y. Without Quarter: The Wichita Expedition and the Fight on Crooked Creek. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. The 1858–1859 campaign against the Comanche.—Reviewed by Marvin E. Kroeker, Journal of American History 79 (1992): 275–76.
Cole, D. C. The Chiricahua Apache, 1846–1876: From War to Reservation. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988. See “Raid and War,” 48–62, in chap. 3, “Adult Roles and Activities.”
Costo, Rupert. The American Indian Reader: History. Edited by Jeannette Henry. Book 4 of a series in educational perspectives. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press, 1974. Narrative history of North American Indians in conflict with invading Europeans from 1492 through the 19th century, “the 400 Years War.”
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Council on Interracial Books for Children. Chronicles of American Indian Protest. Greenwich, Connecticut: Fawcett, 1971. Compilation of documents, all from the Indian viewpoint, of resistance to European encroachment.
Dillon, Richard H. North American Indian Wars. New York: Facts-onFile, 1983. Heavily illustrated narrative history.
Dunlay, Thomas W. “Fire and Sword: Ambiguity and the Plains War.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 135–52. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Motives, technology, tactics, and other characteristics of Indian warfare contrasted with Anglo-American techniques.
Eckert, Allan W. A Sorrow in Our Heart: The Life of Tecumseh. New York: John Hawkins & Associates, 1992. Reprinted New York: Konecky & Konecky, n.d. *Edmunds, R. David. Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown; Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1984. Balanced, important.—DMS AHA Guide 41.311.
*Faraghet, John Mack. Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer. New York: Holt, 1992. Definitive biography, including his role as Indian fighter.—Reviewed by Martin Ridge, Journal of American History 89 (1993): 1060–61.
Faulk, Odie B. Crimson Desert: Indian Wars of the American Southwest. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Narrative history of the U.S. and Indians at war, from 1846 until the end of the century.
Faulk, Odie B. The Geronimo Campaign. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969. Fisher, Robin. Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890. Victoria: University of British Columbia Press, 1977. Numerous but scattered remarks about warfare among Indians, and between Indians and whites; see index entries for “Indians, warfare among,” and “Violence, interracial.”
Fisher, Robin. “Indian Warfare and Two Frontiers: A Comparison of British Columbia and Washington Territory during the Early Years of Settlement.” Pacific Historical Review 50 (1981): 31–51. Fox, Richard Allen, Jr. Archaeology, History, and Custer’s Last Battle: The
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Little Big Horn Reexamined. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. Archaeology, history, and Indian oral tradition provide the basis for a radically revised account of the battle.
*Freedom, Gary S. “The Role of the Military and the Spread of Settlement in the Northern Great Plains, 1866–1891.” Midwest Review 9 (Spring 1987): 1–11. Gilbert, Bil. God Gave Us This Country: Takamthi and the First American Civil War. New York: Atheneum, 1989. Narrative history of Indian resistance to Euroamerican encroachment in the Old Northwest, the region of the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes, focused on the leader more usually known as Tecumseh.
Greene, Jerome A., ed. Battles and Skirmishes of the Great Sioux War, 1876–1877. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. Reminiscences by U.S. soldiers.
Greene, Jerome A., ed. Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views of the Great Sioux War, 1876–1877. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. Firsthand Sioux and Cheyenne accounts of fighting against the U.S. Army.
*Griffen, William B. Utmost Good Faith: Patterns of Apache-Mexican Hostilities in Northern Chihuahua Border Warfare, 1821–1848. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988. Reviewed by Harwood Hinton, American Indian Culture and Research Journal 14/1 (1990): 135–38: the third part deals topically and analytically with the “System of Conflict.”
Hagan, William T. “How the West Was Lost.” In Indians in American History: An Introduction, edited by Frederick D. Hoxie, 178–202. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1988. Historical sketch of Indian attempts to thwart the westward expansion of the United States.
Hampton, Bruce. Children of Grace: The Nez Perce War of 1877. New York: Henry Holt, 1994. Battle as viewed from both sides.
*Hardorff, Richard G. Hokahey! A Good Day to Die! The Indian Casualties of the Custer Fight. Spokane, Washington: Arthur H. Clark, 1993. *Hardorff, Richard G., ed. Lakota Recollections of the Custer Fight: New Sources of Indian-Military History. Spokane, Washington: Arthur H. Clark, 1991. *Hays, Kelly R. “General Garland’s War: the Mescalero Apache Campaigns, 1854–1855.” New Mexico Historical Review 67 ( July 1992): 251–68.
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Hedren, Paul L., ed. The Great Sioux War, 1876–77: The Best from “Montana: The Magazine of Western History.” Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1991. The 14 articles cover the causes, conduct, and results of the war, only one from an Indian viewpoint; see Powell, separately listed.
Hu-DeHart, Evelyn. Yaqui Resistance and Survival: The Struggle for Land and Autonomy, 1821–1910. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Narrative history of the prolonged Yaqui guerrilla war against Mexican domination.
Hurt, R. Douglas. The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1721–1830. A History of the Trans-Appalachian Frontier. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. Hutton, Paul Andrew, ed. The Custer Reader. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1992. See especially the selection of articles and reminiscences in the sections on “The Indian Wars,” 93–225; and “The Little Big Horn,” 229–384.
Hutton, Paul Andrew. Phil Sheridan and His Army. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985. Military establishment and frontier campaigns after 1865.
*Jensen, Richard E., R. Eli Paul, and John E. Carter. Eyewitness at Wounded Knee. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. All surviving photos, carefully captioned, and scholarly essays on battlefield and military expedition.—CAM AHA Guide 42.452.
Jones, Robert H. “Industrial Society and the Opening of the West: The American Indian in the Trans-Mississippi West and the Impact of the American Civil War.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 121–34. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Indian-American warfare in the mid-19th century.
Katcher, Philip, and G. A. Embleton. The American Indian Wars, 1860–1890. Men-at-Arms Series 63. London: Osprey, 1977. Knepper, George W. “Breaching the Ohio Boundary: The Western Tribes in Retreat.” In The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, edited by Philip Weeks, 81–95. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Forum Press, 1988. Intertribal warfare and Indian-white conflict in the Old Northwest from the mid18th through the early 19th century.
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Lavender, David. Let Me Be Free: The Nez Perce Tragedy. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. Lawson, Don. The United States in the Indian Wars. New York: AbelardSchuman, 1975. *McChristian, Douglas C. The U.S. Army in the West, 1870 –1880: Uniforms, Weapons, and Equipment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995. *McCrady, David. “Stopping the Americans: A Comment on Indian Warfare in Western Canada, 1850 to 1885.” Journal of the West 32 (October 1993): 47–53. McDermott, Louis M. “The Primary Role of the Military on the Dakota Frontier.” South Dakota History 2 (1971): 1–22. Role of the Army in settlement, 1860–1890.
*McGinnis, Anthony. Counting Coup and Cutting Horses: Intertribal Warfare on the Northern Plains. Evergreen: Cordillera Press, 1990. Despite the title, focused on government concerns about stopping intertribal warfare, with a good bibliographical essay.—Reviewed by Leland Donald, Journal of American History 78 (1991): 1051–52.
McGinnis, Anthony. “Intertribal Conflict on the Northern Plains and Its Suppression, 1738–1889.” Journal of the West 18 (April 1979): 49–61. Characteristics of plains warfare, well annotated.
McGinnis, Anthony. “Strike and Retreat: Intertribal Warfare and the Powder River War, 1865–1868.” Montana 30 (Autumn 1980): 30–41. Traditional forms of warfare between tribes best explains how Indians fought the U.S. Army, at least initially.
McLoughlin, William G. Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986. Narrative history includes accounts of Cherokee raiding and guerrilla warfare during and after the Revolutionary War (18–25), and participation in “The Creek War, 1812–1814” (chap. 9, 186–205).
Mahon, John K. History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842. Revised edition. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1985. Primarily an account of United States military operations, but see the discussion of Seminole war-fighting methods and leaders (122–29) in chap. 7, “The Antagonists.”
Mahon, John K. “Indian-United States Military Situation, 1775–1848.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 4, History of Indian-White
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Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, 144–62. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. Martin, Joel W. Sacred Revolt: The Muskogee’s Struggle for a New World. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1991. The Redstick revolt of 1813–1814, its spiritual background, and military destruction, with considerable attention to ritual aspects of Muskogee (Creek) warfare.
*Michno, Gregory F. “Crazy Horse, Custer, and the Sweep to the North.” Montana 43 (Summer 1993): 42–53. *Monnett, John H. The Battle of Beecher Island and the Indian War of 1867–1869. Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1992. Cheyenne armed resistance to the loss of prime buffalo lands, led by the Dog Soldiers.—Review by Donald J. Berthong, Journal of American History 81 (1994): 287–88.
*Nelson, Larry L. “‘Never Have They Done So Little’: The Battle of Fort Recovery and the Collapse of the Miami Confederacy.” Northwest Ohio Quarterly 64 (Spring 1992): 43–55. Nichols, Roger L. Black Hawk and the Warrior’s Path. American Biographical History Series. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1992. Warfare in the Midwest during the early 19th century.
Nichols, Roger L. “The Blackhawk War in Retrospect.” Wisconsin Magazine of History 65 (Summer 1982): 239–46. Nye, Wilbur Sturtevant. Plains Indian Raiders: The Final Phases of Warfare from the Arkansas to the Red River. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968. Narrative history of the army’s final wars against the savages.
Owsley, Frank L., Jr. Struggle for the Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815. Gainesville: University of Florida Presses, 1981. Peters, Virginia Bergman. The Florida Wars. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon, 1979. Narrative history of the Seminole wars, 1810–1858.
Powell, Father Peter J. “High Bull’s Victory Roster.” In The Great Sioux War, 1876–77: The Best from “Montana The Magazine of Western History,” edited by Paul L. Hedren, 153–64. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1991. Army destruction of the Northern Cheyenne winter camp five months after the victory at the Little Big Horn.
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Prucha, Francis Paul. A Bibliographic Guide to the History of Indian-White Relations in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, for the Center for the History of the American Indian of the Newberry Library, 1974. See chap. 9, “Military Relations,” 130–90.
Prucha, Francis Paul. Indian-White Relations in the United States: A Bibliography of Works Published 1975–1980. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. See chap 7, “Military Relations,” 36–48.
Quinn, Arthur. Hell with the Fire Out: A History of the Modoc War. Boston, Massachusetts, and London: Faber & Faber, 1997. Reber, Bruce. The United States Army and the Indian Wars in the TransMississippi West, 1860 –1898. US Army Military History Institute, Special Bibliographic Series, No. 17. Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania: The Institute, October 1978. Annotated bibliography covers published and manuscript materials.
Reedstrom, E. Lisle. Apache Wars: An Illustrated Battle History. New York: Sterling, 1990. Paperback edition, 1992. Primarily U.S. Army campaigns against the Apache during the 1880s, but chaps. 1 and 2 (11–32) look at the Apache background and Geronimo’s career, while chap. 8 deals with “Apache Scouts,” 87–97.
Reedstrom, Ernest L. Bugles, Banners and War Bonnets. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1977. Reprinted New York: Bonanza Books, 1986. Battle of the Little Big Horn.
Reid, John Phillip. “Principles of Vengeance: Fur Trappers, Indians, and Retaliation for Homicide in the Transboundary North American West.” Western Historical Quarterly 24 (February 1993): 21–44. Roberts, David. Once They Moved Like the Wind: Cochise, Geronimo, and the Apache Wars. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Narrative history of the late 19th century Apache wars.
Robinson, Charles M., III. A Good Year to Die: The Story of the Great Sioux War. New York: Random House, 1995. Rosenberg, Bruce A. Custer and the Epic of Defeat. University Park and London: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1974. Schultz, Duane. Over the Earth I Come: The Great Sioux Uprising of 1862. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. Narrative history of the Minnesota Dakota war of 1862.
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*Schwartz, Earl Albert. The Rogue River Indian War and Its Aftermath, 1850–1980. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997. Shiley, Harry A. “A Select Bibliography of Articles on Military and Indian Conflicts on the American Frontier.” In Troopers West: Military and Indian Affairs on the American Frontier, edited by Ray Brandes, 189–206. San Diego, California: Frontier Heritage Press, 1970. Silberman, Neil Asher. “Custer’s Ghostherders.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Winter 1990): 84–93. Archaeological evidence and the revised history of the Custer battle.
*Simmons, Clyde R. “The Indian Wars and U.S. Military Thought, 1865–1890.” Parameters 22/1 (1992): 60–72. Abstracted in America: History & Life (1994) 31:5807. Contrary to reality, Indian wars were perceived as insignificant.
Smith, Sherry L. The View from Officers’ Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990. See especially chaps. 6, “Explanations of the Indian Wars,” 113–38; 7, “Indian Warfare,” 139–62; and 8, “The Indian Scout as Ally,” 163–81.
*Smith, Sherry L. “A Window on Themselves: Perceptions of Indians by Military Officers and Their Wives.” New Mexico Historical Quarterly 64 (October 1989): 447–61. *Sweeney, Edwin R. Cochise: Chiricahua Apache Chief. Civilization of the American Indian Series, vol. 204. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. History of the Chiricahua Apache and the 19th-century raiding and warfare wtih Mexicans and Americans.—Reviewed by Joe A. Stout, Jr., Journal of American History 79 (1992): 275.
Sword, Wiley. President Washington’s Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790–1795. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. British evacuation of Midwestern forts sealed fate of Indians.
Thomas, David Hurst. Exploring Ancient Native America: An Archaeological Guide. New York: Macmillan, 1994. See the section on “Military Encounters,” 220–30, discussing the Battle of the Little Bighorn mainly from Lakota and Crow perspectives.
Time-Life Books, Editors of. The War for the Plains. The American Indians. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1994. Utley, Robert M., and Wilcomb E. Washburn. The American Heritage
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History of the Indian Wars. New York: American Heritage/Bonanza Books, 1977. Illustrating the futility of primitive war against civilized.
Utley, Robert M. “Cultural Clash on the Western North American Frontier: Military Implications.” In The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, edited by James C. Bradford, 91–108. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997. Utley, Robert M. “Crook and Miles: Fighting and Feuding on the Indian Frontier.” Military History Quarterly 2 (Autumn 1989): 81–91. The Indian campaigns, 1865–1890, and the rivalry between Crook and Miles.
Utley, Robert M. Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866–1891. Macmillan Wars of the United States. New York: Macmillan, 1973. Utley, Robert M. Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States Army and the Indian, 1848–1865. Macmillan Wars of the United States. New York: Macmillan, 1967. Utley, Robert M. “Geronimo.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Winter 1992): 42–51. The end of the Apache wars.
Utley, Robert M. The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890. Histories of the American Frontier Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. Narrative history of the final wars in the Euroanerican conquest of the Indians.
Utley, Robert M. “Indian-United States Military Situation, 1848–1891.” In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 4, History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, 163–84. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. Utley, Robert M. “Last Stand.” Military History Quarterly 1 (Autumn 1988): 114–23. Custer’s defeat, adapted from Cavalier in Buckskin (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988).
Weeks, Philip. Farewell, My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820–1890. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1990. The plains wars from Indian perspectives.
Weems, John Edward. Death Song: The Last of the Indian Wars. New York: Indian Head Books, 1976. Narrative history of the Plains Indian wars, 1867–1890.
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*White, Lonnie J., with others. Hostiles and Horse Soldiers: Indian Battles and Campaigns in the West. Boulder, Colorado: Pruett, 1972. Wilkins, Thurman. Cherokee Tragedy: The Story of the Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People. New York: Macmillan, 1970. On early 19th-century Creek wars and warfare, see chaps. 1, “Border Warrior,” 1–24; and 3, “The Creek War,” 51–78.
*Winkler, Albert. “The Ute Mode of War in the Conflict of 1865–68.” Utah Historical Quarterly 60 (Fall 1992): 300–18. Wooster, Robert. The Military and United States Indian Policy, 1865–1903. Western Americana Series 34. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988. Reprinted Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995. Indian wars in U.S. Army eyes was predominantly a transitory interruption in preparation for conventional warfare. Paul Andrew Hutton review AHR 94 (1989): 1465, important, intelligent, provocative.
Zanger, Martin. “Red Bird.” In American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity, edited by R. David Edmunds, 64–87. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. On the background and course of the so-called Winnebago War (or Red Bird Uprising) of 1827.
LATIN AMERICA
From independence to World War II Atkins, George Pope, and Larry V. Thompson. “German Military Influence in Argentina, 1921–1940.” Journal of Latin American Studies 4 (November 1972): 257–74. *Bailey, David C. ¡Viva Cristo Rey! The Cristero Rebellion and the ChurchState Conflict in Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974. Warfare between Catholic peasants and peasants loyal to the revolution in the 1920s.—EH-D AHA Guide 38.193.
*Burggraaff, Winfield J. The Venezuelan Armed Forces in Politics, 1935–1959. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1972. Emphasized professionalization over military’s role in politics.—EDL AHA Guide 38.473.
Bushnell, David. “Politics and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Colombia.” In Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Perspective, edited by Charles Bergquist, Ricardo Peñaranda, and Gonzalo Sánchez, 11–30. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1992. Dudley, William S. “Institutional Sources of Officer Discontent in the Brazilian Army, 1870–1889.” Hispanic American Historical Review 55 (February 1975): 44–65. Dudley, William S. “Professionalization and Politicization as Motivational Factors in the Brazilian Army of 15 November, 1889.” Journal of Latin American Studies 8 (May 1976): 101–25. Dumond, Don E. “Independent Maya of the late Nineteenth Century: Chiefdoms and Power Politics.” In Anthropology and History in Yucatán, edited by Grant D. Jones, 103–38. Texas Pan-American Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977. Military institutions and emergent polity.
Flores Galindo, Alberto. “Guerra y nación en el Perú.” Allpanchis: Revista Anual (Cuzco) 14 no. 16 (1980): 167–70. War in 19th-century nation-making.
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*Gallo, Ezequiel. Farmers in Revolt: The Revolutions of 1893 in the Province of Santa Fe, Argentina. University of London, Institute of Latin American Studies Monographs 7. London: Athlone Press, 1976. Well researched.—RJW AHA Guide. 38.613.
*Goldwert, Marvin. Democracy, Militarism, and Nationalism in Argentina, 1930–1966: An Interpretation. University of Texas, Institute of Latin American Studies, Latin American Monographs 25. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972. According to a review in the American Historical Review (April 1973), 514–5, the book is challenging and interesting, but seriously flawed.
Goldwert, Marvin. “The Rise of Modern Militarism in Argentina.” Hispanic American Historical Review 48 (May 1968): 189–205. *Grieb, Kenneth J. Guatemalan Caudillo: The Regime of Jorge Ubico, Guatemala, 1931–1944. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1971. Well-researched.—RLM AHA Guide 38.315.
*Hahner, June E. Civilian-Military Relations in Brazil, 1889–1898. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1969. Detailed analysis of decade following monarchy’s overthrow.—RML AHA Guide 38.542.
Hilton, Stanley E. “Military Influence on Brazilian Economic Policy, 1930–1945: A Different View.” Hispanic American Historical Review 53 (February 1973): 71–94. Klein, Herbert S. “Germán Busch and the Era of ‘Military Socialism’ in Bolivia.” Hispanic American Historical Review 47 (May 1967): 166–84. Langley, Lester D., and Thomas Schoonover. The Banana Men: American Mercenaries and Entrepreneurs in Central America, 1880–1930. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995. *Lieuwen, Edwin. Mexican Militarism: The Political Rise and Fall of the Revolutionary Army, 1910–1940. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1968. Reprinted Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981. Transformation of revolutionary armies into a single state-controlled professional army, dated but still important.—EH-D AHA Guide 38.244.
Macaulay, Neill. The Prestes Column: Revolution in Brazil. New York: New Viewpoints (Franklin Watts), 1974.
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*Macaulay, Neill. The Sandino Affair. 1967 edition. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1985. General Augusto C. Sandino’s resistance to U.S. Nicaraguan incursion in the 1920s and 1930s.—RLM AHA Guide 38.330.
McCann, Frank D., Jr. “The Brazilian Army and the Pursuit of Arms Independence, 1899–1979.” In War, Business and World MilitaryIndustrial Complexes, edited by Benjamin Franklin Cooling, 171–93. National University Publications, Series in Political Science. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press, 1981. Macias, Anna. “Women and the Mexican Revolution.” The Americas 37 ( July 1980): 53–82. Martin, Dolores Moyano. “A Sanguinary Obsession.” Military History Quarterly 4 (Summer 1991): 90–103. The Paraguayan war (War of the Triple Alliance), 1864–1870, pitted Paraguay against Uruguay, Brazil, and Argentina.
*Masterson, Daniel M. Militarism and Politics in Latin America: Peru from Sanchéz Cerro to “Sendero Luminoso”. Contributions in Military Studies 111. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Comprehensive and detailed institutional study of Peruvian armed forces since 1930; transformation from traditional, personalistic protector of elites to modern, professional forces intent on nation building.
*Matthews, Robert Paul. Violencia rural en Venezuela, 1840–1858: Antecedentes socioeconómicos de la guerra federal. Translated by Marie Françoise de Petzoldt. Caracas: Monte Avila Editores, 1977. Antecedents of Venezuelan Federal War pitting Federalists against Centralists.— EDL AHA Guide 38.489.
Meddellín Zenil, Alfonso. “El centro de Veracruz: Los señoríos y estados militaristas.” Mexico: Panorama Historico y Cultural no. 9 (1976): 217–42. *Meyer, Jean A. The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State, 1926–1929. Translated by Richard Southern [from the 3-vol. work in Spanish]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. On the Catholic guerrilla movement (Cristeros), including military aspects.—EH-D AHA Guide 38.248.
*Morris, James A. Honduras, Caudillo Politics, and Military Rulers. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. Only available monograph on 20th-century Honduras.—RLM AHA Guide 38.320.
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Musicant, Ivan. The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish-American War to the Invasion of Panama. New York: Macmillan, 1990. *Nunn, Frederick M. Chilean Politics, 1920–1931: The Honorable Mission of the Armed Forces. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970. Clear, balanced view of military intervention, centered on Carlos Ibáñez, president 1927–1931.—RJW AHA Guide 38.705.
Nunn, Frederick M. “Emil Körner and the Prussianization of the Chilean Army: Origins, Process, and Consequences, 1885–1920.” Hispanic American Historical Review 50 (May 1970): 300–22. Nunn, Frederick M. “The Latin American Military Establishment: Some Thoughts on the Origins of Its Socio-Political Role and an Illustrative Bibliographical Essay.” The Americas 38 (October 1971): 135–51. Nunn, Frederick M. “Latin American Militarylore: An Introduction and a Case Study.” The Americas 35 (April 1979): 429–74. Nunn, Frederick M. “Military Professionalism and Professional Militarism in Brazil, 1870–1970: Historical Perspectives and Political Implications.” Journal of Latin American Studies 4 (May 1972): 39–54. Nunn, Frederick M. “Professional Militarism in Twentieth-Century Peru: Historical and Theoretical Background to the Golpe de Estado of 1968.” Hispanic American Historical Review 59 (1979): 391–417. Cf. José Z. García, “Critique of . . . Nunn’s [article],” ibid. 60 (1980): 303–307; and “Frederick M. Nunn’s Reply,” 308–12.
*Nunn, Frederick M. The Time of the Generals: Latin American Professional Militarism in World Perspective. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Reviewed by Warren Schiff, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1714.
Nunn, Frederick M. Yesterday’s Soldiers: European Military Professionalism in South America, 1890–1940. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. German and French advisors in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru, emphasizing ideas about civil-military relations.
Oszlak, Oscar. “The Historical Formation of the State in Latin America: Some Theoretical and Methodological Guidelines for Its Study.” Latin American Research Review 16 (1981): 3–32. Primarily concerned with postindependence developments and the nation-state, but some general remarks on origins.
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*Pérez, Louis A., Jr. Army Politics in Cuba, 1898–1958. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1976. Ground-breaking study of development and ultimate destruction of Cuban army.— RLM AHA Guide 38.357.
Platt, Tristan. “The Andean Soldiers of Christ: Confraternity Organization, the Mass of the Sun and Regenerative Warfare in Rural Potosi (18th–20th Centuries).” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 73 (1987): 139–92. The survival of ritual warfare with south Andean roots in the modified Christian liturgy.
Potash, Robert A. The Army and Politics in Argentina, 1928–1945: Yrigoyen to Perón. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1969. Excerpted as “The Argentinian Army in Power, 1943–1944,” in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 220–38. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Well researched, clearly presented, balanced account of major political actor.—RJW AHA Guide 38.636.
*Raat, W. Dirk. The Mexican Revolution: An Annotated Guide to Recent Scholarship. Boston, Massachusetts: Hall, 1983. Useful.—RJW AHA Guide 38.18.
Ropp, Steve C. “The Honduran Army in the Sociopolitical Evolution of the Honduran State.” The Americas 30 (1974): 504–28. *Ropp, Steve C. Panamanian Politics: From Guarded Nation to National Guard. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Development of Panama as a nation and how the National Guard came to dominate its politics.—RLM AHA Guide 38.337.
*Rouquié, Alain. The Military and the State in Latin America. Translated by Paul E. Sigmund. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Overview of 19th-20th century military (mainly officers) roles and civil-military relations.—RJW AHA Guide 38.167.
Schiff, Warren. “The Influence of the German Armed Forces and War Industry on Argentina, 1880–1914.” Hispanic American Historical Review 52 (1972): 436–55. *Schwartz, Rosalie. Lawless Liberators: Political Banditry and Cuban Independence. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1989. Provocative insights into roots of rural violence.—RLM AHA Guide 38.361.
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Soto, Shirlene Ann. The Mexican Woman: A Study of Her Participation in the Revolution, 1910–1940. Palo Alto, California: R&E Research Associates, 1979. Chap. 2, “Women in the Mexican Revolution: The Violent Phase, 1910–1920,” part 1, 21–30, includes “Soldaderas,” 27–28.
*Taylor, Lewis. Bandits and Politics in Peru: Landlord and Peasant Violence in Hualgayoc, 1900–30. Cambridge Latin American Miniatures 2. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, Centre of Latin American Studies, 1987. Stimulating and provocative analysis of endemic banditry.—EDL AHA Guide 38.468.
Vanderwood, Paul J. “Genesis of the Rurales: Mexico’s Early Struggle for Public Security.” Hispanic American Historical Review 50 (1970): 323–44. Vanderwood, Paul J. “Response to Revolt: The Counter-Guerrilla Strategy of Porfirio Díaz.” Hispanic American Historical Review 56 (1976): 551–79. Weathers, Bynum E. “Culture and Conflict in Latin America: Myth or Reality?” In Conflict, Culture, and History: Regional Dimensions, by Stephen J. Blank et al., 193–227. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, January 1993. Bozeman’s thesis about the cultural roots of conflict does not appear to applicable to postcolonial Latin America.
Womack, John, Jr. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968. Reprinted New York: Vintage Books, 1970.
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PART SEVEN
NON-WESTERN MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE AFTER WORLD WAR II
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NONWESTERN MILITARY AFFAIRS SINCE 1945
General, comprehensive, and comparative studies of nonwestern armed forces, military roles in modernization and economic development, civilmilitary relations, the international arms trade, Third World militarization, and other aspects of military affairs outside the First World. Adelman, Jonathan R. The Revolutionary Armies: The Historical Development of the Soviet and the Chinese People’s Liberation Armies. Contributions in Political Science 38. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1980. Ahmad, Eqbal. “Revolutionary War and Counter-Insurgency.” Journal of International Affairs 25 (1971): 1–47. Albrecht, Ulrich, Dieter Ernst, Peter Lock, and Herbert Wulf. “Arming the Developing Countries.” International Social Science Journal 28 (1976): 326–40. Anderson, Sally, et al. “The Arms Pushers: Booming World Arms Trade.” Sane World (August-September 1974): 2–45. Ball, Nicole. “The Arms Trade: A Selected Bibliography.” In Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 323–61. New York: Praeger, 1979. Ball, Nicole. The Military in the Development Process: A Guide to the Issues. Regina Guides to Contemporary Issues 2. Claremont, California: Regina Books, 1981. Ball, Nicole. Security and Economy in the Third World. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988. Barnaby, Frank. “Arms and the Third World.” New Scientist 74 (7 April 1977): 30–31. Barnaby, Frank. “Environmental Impact of Military Activities.” Ambio 9 (1972): 203–205. Barnaby, Frank. “Escalation in the Third World.” New Scientist 74 (21 April 1977): 137–39. Bell, J. Bowyer. The Myth of the Guerrilla: Revolutionary Theory and Malpractice. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971.
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Bienen, Henry. “The Background to Contemporary Study of Militaries and Modernization.” The Military and Modernization, edited by Henry Bienen, 1–33. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1971. Blackey, Robert. Modern Revolutions and Revolutionists: A Bibliography. War/Peace Bibliography Series. Santa Barbara, California: Clio Books, 1976. See 1.G. “War, the Military, and Guerrillas,” 36–38; 5, “Latin America,” 141–69; 6, “Asia,” 171–200; 7, “Africa,” 201–16; and 8, “Other Third World Countries,” 217–26.
Brzoska, Michael. “The Impact of Arms Production in the Third World.” Armed Forces and Society 15 (1989): 507–30. Carus, W. Seth. “Weapons Technology and Regional Stability.” In Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 9–16. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Casper, Gretchen. “Theories of Military Intervention in the Third World: Lessons from the Philippines.” Armed Forces and Society 17 (1991): 191–210. Based on a Brazilian model.
Clutterbuck, Richard. Guerrillas and Terrorists. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1980. Paperback edition, 1985. Collins, John M., and Anthony H. Cordesman. Imbalance of Power: An Analysis of Shifting U.S.-Soviet Military Strengths and Net Assessment Appraisal. San Rafael, California: Presidio Press, 1978. D’Amato, Charles R. “Civil-Military Relations in the People’s Republic of China and Indonesia.” In Civil-Military Relations: Changing Concepts in the Seventies, edited by Charles L. Cochran, 284–321. New York: Free Press, 1974. Deger, Saadet, and Robert West, eds. Defence, Security and Development. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987. Deger, Saadet. Military Expenditure in Third World Countries: The Economic Effects. International Library of Economics. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986. de Haan, Hendrik. “Military Expenditures and Economic Growth: Some Theoretical Remarks.” In The Economics of Military Expenditures:
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Military Expenditures, Economic Growth and Fluctuations. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic Association in Paris, France, edited by Christian Schmidt, 87–97. London: Macmillan, 1987. De Lee, Nigel. “Southeast Asia: The Impact of Mao Tse-tung.” In Guerrilla Warfare, edited by John Pimlott, 30–65. London: Bison Books, 1985. *Deshingkar, Giri. “Arms, Technology, Violence and the Global Military Order.” In The Quest for Peace: Transcending Collective Violence and War among Societies, Cultures, and States, edited by Raimo Väyrynen et al. International Social Science Council Issue Group on Peace. Newbury Park, California: Sage, 1987. Dolgopolov, Yevgeny. The Army and the Revolutionary Transformation of Society. Translated by Lilia Nakhapetyan. Moscow: Progress, 1981. Eide, Asbjørn. “The Transfer of Arms to the Third World Countries and Their Internal Uses.” International Social Science Review 28 (1976): 307–25. Enloe, Cynthia H. “Ethnicity and Militarization: Factors Shaping the Roles of Police in Third World Nations.” Studies in Comparative International Development 11 (Fall 1976): 25–38. Fei, Edward T. “Understanding Arms Transfers and Military Expenditures: Data Problems.” In Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 37–46. New York: Praeger, 1979. Feit, Edward. The Armed Bureaucrats: Military-Administrative Regimes and Political Development. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1973. Feit, Edward. “Pen, Sword, and People: Military Regimes in the Formation of Political Institutions.” World Politics 25 (1975): 251–73. How 20th-century military regimes seek to legitimize themselves by converting organization to institution (= valued organization).
Frank, Andre Gunder. “The Arms Economy and Warfare in the Third World.” Contemporary Crises 4 (1980): 161–93. Gabriel, Richard A. The Antagonists: A Comparative Combat Assessment of the Soviet and American Soldier. Contributions in Military History 34. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984. Garrett, Banning N., and Bonnie S. Glaser. War and Peace: The Views
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from Moscow and Beijing. Policy Papers in International Affairs 20. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1984. Gervasi, Tom. Soviet Military Power: The Pentagon’s Propaganda Document, Annotated and Corrected. New York: Vintage Books, 1987. Godfrey, F. A. “East and Southeast Asia.” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 94–117. London: Bison Books, 1985. Goose, Stephen D. “Low-Intensity Warfare: The Warriors and Their Weapons.” In Low-Intensity Warfare: Counterinsurgency, Proinsurgency, and Antiterrorism in the Eighties, edited by Michael T. Klare and Peter Kornbluh, 80–111. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988. Greenwood, David. “Note on the Impact of Military Expenditure on Economic Growth and Performance.” In The Economics of Military Expenditures: Military Expenditures, Economic Growth and Fluctuations. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic Association in Paris, France, edited by Christian Schmidt, 98–103. London: Macmillan, 1987. Guillén, Abraham. Philosophy of the Urban Guerrilla: The Revolutionary Writings of Abraham Guillén. Translated, edited and with an introduction by Donald C. Hodges. New York: William Morrow, 1973. Horowitz, Irving Louis. Beyond Empire and Revolution: Militarization and Consolidation in the Third World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. Horowitz, Irving Louis. “Militarization, Modernization and Mobilization.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt and Gerald A. Dorfman, 3–21. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974. Horowitz, Irving Louis. “The Military as a Subculture.” In Protagonists of Change: Subcultures in Development and Revolution, edited by Abdul A. Said, 41–51. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Iskenderov, A. “The Army, Politics, and the People.” Izvestia, 17 January 1967, as translated in The Current Digest of the Soviet Press. Reprinted in The Military and Modernization, edited by Henry Bienen, 149–56. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1971. Jamail, Milton, and Margo Gutierrez. It’s No Secret: Israel’s Military Involvement in Central America. AAUG Monograph Series 20. Belmont, Massachusetts: Association of Arab-American University Graduates, 1986.
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Joes, Anthony James. From the Barrel of a Gun: Armies and Revolution. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey’s, 1986. Johnson, Chalmers A. Autopsy on People’s War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Johnson, David. “Europe: The Use of Terror.” In Guerrilla Warfare, edited by John Pimlott, 158–83. London: Bison Books, 1985. Kaldor, Mary. “The Military in Third World Development.” In Disarmament and World Development, edited by Richard Jolly, 57–82. Pergamon International Library of Science, Technology, Engineering and Social Studies. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978. Katz, James Everett. “Factors Affecting Military Scientific Research in the Third World.” The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 293–304. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Katz, Mark N. The Third World in Soviet Military Thought. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982. Keegan, John. World Armies. New York: Facts On File, 1979. Kemp, Geoffrey. “Arms Traffic and Third World Conflicts.” International Conciliation no. 577 (March 1970): 3–80. Kemp, Geoffrey. “Arms Transfers and the ‘Back-End’ Problem in Developing Countries.” In Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 264–75. New York: Praeger, 1980. Kennedy, Gavin. The Military in the Third World. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974. Kennedy, Gavin. “War Economics.” In The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World, vol. 2, Comparative Dimensions, edited by Stephanie Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 91–113. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1987. Klare, Michael T. “The Interventionist Impulse: U.S. Military Doctrine for Low-Intensity Warfare.” In Low-Intensity Warfare: Counterinsurgency, Proinsurgency, and Antiterrorism in the Eighties, edited by Michael T. Klare and Peter Kornbluh, 49–79. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988.
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Klare, Michael T., and Peter Kornbluh. “The New Interventionism: Low-Intensity Warfare in the 1980s and Beyond.” In Low-Intensity Warfare: Counterinsurgency, Proinsurgency, and Antiterrorism in the Eighties, edited by Michael T. Klare and Peter Kornbluh, 3–20. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988. Klare, Michael T. “The Political Economy of Arms Sales: United States–Saudi Arabia.” Society 11 (September-October 1974): 41–49. Klonis, N. I. Guerrilla Warfare: Analysis and Projections. New York: Robert Speller & Sons, 1972. Kuhlman, Charles. The Military in the Developing Countries: A General Bibliography. Bloomington: Indiana University, Division of Continuing Education, Bureau of Public Discussion, 1971. Covers periodicals, monographs, special studies, mostly from the 1960s, almost exclusively English-language sources.
Laqueur, Walter. “The Origins of Guerrilla Doctrine.” Journal of Contemporary History 10 (1975): 341–82. Lefever, Ernest W. “Arms Transfers, Military Training, and Domestic Politics.” In Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 276–93. New York: Praeger, 1980. Leitenberg, Milton. “Notes on the Diversion of Resources for Military Purposes in Developing Countries.” Journal of Peace Research 13 no. 2 (1976): 111–16. Lissak, Moshe. “Center and Periphery in Developing Countries and Prototypes of Military Elites.” In Militarism in Developing Countries, edited by Kenneth Fidel, 33–57. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1975. Lissak, Moshe. Military Roles in Modernization. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1976. Excerpted as “Military Roles in Modernization: Thailand and Burma” in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 440–80. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Lock, Peter, and Lockwood, Jonathan Samuel. The Soviet View of U.S. Strategic Doctrine: Implications for Decision Making. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1983.
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Harbert Wulf. “The Economic Consequences of the Transfer of Military-oriented Technology.” In The World Military Order: The Impact of Military Technology on the Third World, edited by Mary Kaldor and Asbjørn Eide, 210–31. New York: Praeger, 1979. Looney, Robert E. “Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World.” Armed Forces and Society 17 (1990): 127–39. Lovell, John P., and C. I. Eugene Kim. “The Military and Political Change in Asia.” Pacific Affairs 40 (1967): 113–23. Reprinted in The Military and Modernization, edited by Henry Bienen, 102–16. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1971. Luckham, Robin. “Militarism: Force, Class and International Conflict.” The World Military Order: The Impact of Military Technology on the Third World, edited by Mary Kaldor and Asbjørn Eide, 232–56. New York: Praeger, 1979. Luckham, Robin. “Militarism and International Dependence.” In Disarmament and World Development, edited by Richard Jolly, 35–56. Pergamon International Library of Science, Technology, Engineering and Social Studies. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978. McKinlay, Robert. Third World Military Expenditure: Determinants and Implications. London: Pinter, 1988. McWilliams, Wilson C. “The Developing Nations and Intenational Order.” In Garrisons and Government: Politics and the Military in New States, edited by Wilson C. McWilliams, 303–27. San Francisco: Chandler, 1967. Maechling, Charles, Jr. “Counterinsurgency: The First Ordeal by Fire.” In Low-Intensity Warfare: Counterinsurgency, Proinsurgency, and Antiterrorism in the Eighties, edited by Michael T. Klare and Peter Kornbluh, 21–48. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988. Mirsky, Georgy A. “The Role of the Army in the Sociopolitical Development of Asian and African Countries.” International Political Science Journal no. 3 (1981): 327–40. Current problems.
Moodie, Michael. “Defense Industries in the Third World: Problems and Promises.” In Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by
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Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 294–312. New York: Praeger, 1980. Moss, Robert. The War for the Cities. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1972. Mullins, A. F., Jr. Born Arming: Development and Military Power in New States. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1987. Mumford, Sandra, and Sergius Lashutka. “The Military and Intercultural Communications: Impact on International Relations.” In The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 315–45. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Neuman, Stephanie G. “Arms Transfers and Economic Development: Some Research and Policy Issues.” In Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 219–35. New York: Praeger, 1980. Neuman, Stephanie G. “The Role of Military Assistance in Recent Wars.” In The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World, vol. 2, Comparative Dimensions, edited by Stephanie Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 115–55. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1987. Neuman, Stephanie G. “Third World Military Industries: Capabilities and Constraints in Recent Wars.” In The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World, vol. 2, Comparative Dimensions, edited by Stephanie Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 157–97. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1987. Nordinger, Eric A. Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments. Prentice-Hall Contemporary Comparative Politics Series. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977. O’Neill, Bard E. “Insurgency: A Framework for Analysis.” In Insurgency in the Modern World, edited by Bard E. O’Neill, William R. Heaton, and Donald J. Alberts, 1–42. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980. Oppenheimer, Martin. The Urban Guerrilla. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969. Paperback edition, 1970.
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Parodi, Pierre. The Use of Poor Means in Helping the Third World. Translated by Elizabeth Gravalos Marshall. South Acworth, New Hampshire: Greenleaf Books, 1970. Perkins, Dwight H. “Asia’s New Economic Environment.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 34 (October 1978): 11–18. On relations between economic and military development (15–18).
Perlmutter, Amos. The Military and Politics in Modern Times: On Professionals, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1977. Part 2, “The Praetorian Soldier,” includes chaps. 5, “The Military That Patrols Society: Evolution and Structural Cleavage in Arab and African Military Regimes,” 115–65; and 6, “The Latin American Army: From Libertadores to Role Expansion,” 166–201. Part 3, “The Professional Revolutionary Soldier,” includes chaps. 8, “China: Professionalism versus Guerrillaism,” 229–50; and 9, “Israel: The Routinized Revolutionary Army,” 251–80.
Pierre, Andrew J. The Global Politics of Arms Sales. Council on Foreign Relations Books. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982. Pimlott, John. “Toward the Future.” In Guerrilla Warfare, edited by John Pimlott, 184–90. London: Bison Books, 1985. Pinchukov, Yuri. “Arms Trade and the Proliferation of New Military Technologies.” In Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 17–26. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Rapoport, David C. “The Political Dimensions of Military Usurpation.” Political Science Quarterly 83 (1968): 551–72. Rivlin, Paul. “The Burden of Defence in Developing Countries.” In The Economics of Military Expenditures: Military Expenditures, Economic Growth and Fluctuations. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic Association in Paris, France, edited by Christian Schmidt, 104–12. London: Macmillan, 1987. Roads, C. H., with Ian Hogg. “General Survey of Firearms: 1918 to the Present Day.” In Pollard’s History of Firearms, edited by Claude Blair, 387–408. New York: Macmillan, 1983.
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Rosefilde, Steven. False Science: Underestimating the Soviet Arms Buildup: An Appraisal of the CIA’s Direct Costing Effort, 1960 –80. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1982. Ross, Andrew L. “Dimensions of Militarization in the Third World.” Armed Forces and Society 13 (1987): 561–78. Ross, Andrew L. “World Order and Third World Arms Production.” The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 277–92. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Sarkesian, Sam C. “A Political Perspective on Military Power in Developing Areas.” The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 3–13. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Schultz, Richard. “Coercive Force and Military Strategy: Deterrence Logic and the Cost-Benefit Model of Counterinsurgency Warfare.” Western Political Quarterly 32 (1979): 444–66. Sen, Gautam. The Military Origins of Industrialisation and International Trade Rivalry. London: Frances Pinter, 1984. Simon, Sheldon W. “China and Southeast Asia: Security in Transition.” In The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 263–86. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Snider, Lewis W. “Guns, Debt, and Politics: New Variations on an Old Theme.” Armed Forces and Society 17 (1991): 167–90. Stanley, John, and Maurice Pearton. The International Trade in Arms. Studies in International Security, vol. 17. New York: Praeger, for the Institute for Strategic Studies, 1972. Part 4 includes chapters on Portugal’s African territories, the attempted embargo of South Africa and Rhodesia, the Nigerian civil war, Israel and the Arab powers, and failed arms control in Latin America.
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. The Arms Trade with the Third World. London: Paul Elek, 1971. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. The Arms Trade with the Third World. Revised and abridged by J. Stares. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1975.
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Sully, François. Age of the Guerrilla: The New Warfare. New York: Parents’ Magazine Press, 1968. Taber, Robert. The War of the Flea: A Study of Guerrilla Warfare Theory and Practice. New York: Citadel Press, 1970. Thompson, Robert G. K. “Regular Armies and Insurgency.” In Regular Armies and Insurgency, edited by Ronald Haycock, 9–20. London: Croom Helm; Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1979. Tuomi, Helena, and Raimo Väyrynen, eds. Militarization and Arms Production. London: Croom Helm, 1983. van Creveld, Martin. “The Human Dimension of Modern War.” The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World, vol. 2, Comparative Dimensions, edited by Stephanie Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 73–89. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1987. Walker, Stephen G. “New Nations and an Old Model: The Applicability of the Garrison State Theory to the Third World.” In The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 157–206. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Walton, John. Reluctant Rebels: Comparative Studies of Revolution and Underdevelopment. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984. Welch, Claude E., Jr. “Civil-Military Relations: Perspectives from the Third World.” Armed Forces and Society 11 (1985): 183–97. Welch, Claude E., Jr., and Arthur K. Smith. Military Role and Rule: Perspectives on Civil-Military Relations. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1974. Weller, Jac. Fire and Movement: Bargain-Basement Warfare in the Far East. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967. Whynes, David K. The Economics of Third World Military Expenditure. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. Woddis, Jack. Armies and Politics. New York: International Publishers, 1978. Wolpin, Miles D. “External Political Socialization as a Source of Conservative Military Behavior in the Third World.” In Militarism
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in Developing Countries, edited by Kenneth Fidel, 259–81. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1975. Wolpin, Miles D. Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare in the Third World. London: Croom Helm, 1986. Wulf, Herbert. “Arms Production in Third World Countries: Effects on Industrialisation.” The Economics of Military Expenditures: Military Expenditures, Economic Growth and Fluctuations. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic Association in Paris, France, edited by Christian Schmidt, 357–83. London: Macmillan, 1987. Wulf, Herbert. “Dependent Militarism in the Periphery and Possible Alternative Concepts.” Arms Transfers in the Modern World, edited by Stephanie G. Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 246–63. New York: Praeger, 1980. Ziegler, David W. War, Peace, and International Politics. 3d edition. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1984. Chaps. 4, “Wars in the Middle East,” 65–82; 5, “War in the 1970’s,” 83–98; 7, “Causes of War,” 116–29.
WARS IN THE THIRD WORLD
Studies of wars between advanced and Third World nations since World War II, including wars of decolonization. Abbott, Peter, Philip Botham, and Mike Chappell. Modern African Wars (1): Rhodesia, 1965–80. Osprey Men-at-Arms Series 183. London: Osprey, 1986. Abbott, Peter, Manuel Ribeiro Rodrigues, and Ron Volstad. Modern African Wars (2): Angola and Moçambique, 1961–74. Osprey Men-atArms Series 202. London: Osprey, 1988. Alberts, Donald J. “Armed Struggle in Angola.” In Insurgency in the Modern World, edited by Bard E. O’Neill, William R. Heaton, and Donald J. Alberts, 235–67. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980. Alexievich, Svetlana. Zinky Boys: Soviet Voices from a Forgotten War. Translated by Julia and Robin Whitby. London: Chatto & Windus, 1992. Anderson, Hilary. Mozambique: A War against the People. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. *Anderson, Thomas P. The War of the Dispossessed: Honduras and El Salvador, 1969. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981. Adequate.—RLM AHA Guide 38.286.
Anwar, Raja. The Tragedy of Afghanistan: A First-Hand Account. Translated by Khalid Hasan. Revised edition. London: Verso, 1989. Arnold, Guy. Wars in the Third World since 1945. 2d edition. London: Cassell, 1995. Badri, Hassan el, Taha el Magdoub, and Mohammed Dia el Din Zohdy. The Ramadan War, 1973. Dunn Loring, Virginia: T. N. Dupuy Associates, 1978. Barker, A. J. Arab-Israeli Wars. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1980. Beattie, Hugh. “Effects of the Saur Revolution in the Nahrin Area of Northern Afghanistan.” In Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Robert L. Canfield, 184–208.
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Research Series 57. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1984. Beckett, Ian F. W. “The Portuguese Army: The Campaign in Mozambique, 1964–1974.” In Armed Forces and Modern Counter-Insurgency, edited by Ian F. W. Beckett and John Pimlott, 136–62. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Beckett, Ian F. W. “The Rhodesian Army: Counter-Insurgency, 1972–1979.” In Armed Forces and Modern Counter-Insurgency, edited by Ian F. W. Beckett and John Pimlott, 163–89. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Bello, Walden. “Counterinsurgency’s Proving Ground: Low-Intensity Warfare in the Philippines.” In Low-Intensity Warfare: Counterinsurgency, Proinsurgency, and Antiterrorism in the Eighties, edited by Michael T. Klare and Peter Kornbluh, 158–82. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988. Bercuson, David J. The Secret Army. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1983. Foreign volunteers in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.
Bergquist, Ronald E. The Role of Airpower in the Iran-Iraq War. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, December 1988. Bhinda, Nils. “The Kashmir Conflict (1990– ).” In The True Cost of Conflict, edited by Michael Cranna, 55–80. New York: New Press, 1994. Bocharov, Gennady. Russian Roulette: Afghanistan through Russian Eyes. Translated by Alyona Kojevnikov. New York: HarperCollins, 1990. *Bonachea, Ramón L., and Marta San Martín. The Cuban Insurrection, 1952–1959. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Press, 1974. Many groups beside Castro’s were involved in Fulgencia Batista’s overthrow.—RLM AHA Guide 38.352.
Borer, Douglas A. “The Afghan War: Communism’s First Domino.” War & Society 12 (October 1994): 127–44. Borovik, Artyom. The Hidden War: A Russian Journalist’s Account of the Soviet War in Afghanistan. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990. Bradsher, Henry S. Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. Revised edition. Duke Press Policy Studies. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1985.
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Brown, Ashley. Modern Warfare: From 1939 to the Present Day. London: Orbis, 1985. Reprinted New York: Crown, 1986. Budiardjo, Carmel, and Liem Soei Liong. The War against East Timor. London: Zed Books/Marram Books; Leichhardt: Pluto Press Australia, 1984. Burchett, Wilfred. Southern Africa Stands Up: The Revolutions in Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa. New York: Urizen Books, 1978. Carmack, Robert M., ed. Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. Guerrilla warfare and other violence in contemporary Guatemala.
*Carus, W. Seth. “Military Lessons of the 1982 Israel-Syria Conflict.” In The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World, vol. 1, Approaches and Case Studies, edited by Robert E. Harkavy and Stephanie Neuman. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1985. *Castro, Daniel. “‘War Is Our Daily Life’: Women’s Participation in Sendero Luminoso.” In Confronting Change, Challenging Tradition: Women in Latin American History, edited by Gertrude M. Yaeger. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1994. Chaliand, Gérard. Armed Struggle in Africa: With the Guerrillas in “Portuguese” Guinea. Translated by David Rattray and Robert Leonhardt. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1969. Chubin, Shahram, and Charles Tripp. Iran and Iraq at War. London: I. B. Tauris, 1988. Chubin, Shahram. “Iran and the Lessons of the War with Iraq: Implications for Future Defense Policies.” In Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 95–112. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Churchill, Randolph S., and Winston S. Churchill. The Six Day War. London: Heinemann, 1967. Cohen, Eliot A. “Distant Battles.” The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World, vol. 2, Comparative Dimensions, edited by Stephanie Neuman and Robert E. Harkavy, 7–32. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1987.
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Dalziel, Stephen. “The Soviet Union.” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 12–43. London: Bison Books, 1985. Dalziel, Stephen. “The Warsaw Pact and Eastern Europe.” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 44–65. London: Bison Books, 1985. Davies, Norman. White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20. Macdonald, 1972. Reprinted London: Orbis Books, 1983. Dziak, John J. Soviet Perceptions of Military Power: The Interaction of Theory and Practice. National Strategy Information Center, Strategy Paper 36. New York: Crane, Russak, 1981. *Erickson, John. The Road to Berlin: Continuing the History of Stalin’s War with Germany. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1983. Military history of Soviet-German war from Stalingrad to Berlin, focused on strategy, tactics, and weapons—MVH/HK AHA Guide 35.355.
*Erickson, John. The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany. 1975 edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. Military history of Soviet-German war from spring 1941 to Stalingrad—MVH AHA Guide 35.356.
*Fic, Victor M. The Bolsheviks and the Czechoslovak Legion: The Origin of Their Armed Conflict, March-May 1918. New Delhi: Abhinav, 1978. Detailed account.—DJR AHA Guide 35.59.
Forster, Thomas M. The East German Army: A Pattern of a Communist Military Establishment. South Brunswick, New Jersey, and New York: A. S. Barnes, 1968. Gilmore, Harry J. “Civil-Military Relations in the USSR.” In CivilMilitary Relations: Changing Concepts in the Seventies, edited by Charles L. Cochran, 322–48. New York: Free Press, 1974. Goldhamer, Herbert. The Soviet Soldier: Soviet Military Management at the Troop Level. New York: Crane, Russak; London: Leo Cooper, 1975.
608
*Hagen, Mark Von. Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship: The Red Army and the Soviet Socialist State, 1917–1930. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1990. Civil-military relations, Bolshevik role in military affairs, army in political socialization of peasant soldiers.—MVH AHA Guide 35.371.
*Hagen, Mark Von. “Soviet Soldiers and Officers on the Eve of the German Invasion: Towards a Description of Social Psychology and Political Attitudes.” Soviet Union/Union Sovietique 18.1–3 (1991): 79–101. Despite many negative attitudes, patriotism prevailed.—HK AHA Guide 35.138.
*Herspring, Dale R. The Soviet High Command, 1967–1989: Personalities and Politics. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990. Army-party struggles over doctrine and national security from Brezhnev through early Gorbachev years.—MVH AHA Guide 35.360.
Holden, Gerard. Soviet Military Reform: Conventional Disarmament and the Crisis of Militarised Socialism. Transnational Institute Series. London: Pluto Press, 1991. Isby, David C. Ten Million Bayonets: Inside the Armies of the Soviet Union. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1988. Jacobsen, C. G. “Russia’s Revolutionary Arbiter? Arms and Society, 1988–1994.” War & Society 13 (May 1985): 101–46. Jones, Ellen. Red Army and Society: A Sociology of the Soviet Military. Boston, Massachusetts: Allen & Unwin, 1985. *Kenez, Peter. Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Narrowly focused, judicious study of White failure.—DJR AHA Guide 35.68.
*Kenez, Peter. Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920: The Defeat of the Whites. Berkeley: University of California Press, for Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, 1977. Continuation of previous title.—DJR AHA Guide 35.69.
Knei-Paz, Baruch. The Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978. For Trotsky’s general ideas about military institutions and the militarization of the workers, see “Civil War and the Red Army,” 253–59, in chap. 6, “The Political Revolution”; and “The Period of War Communism,” 262–69, in chap. 7, “The Social Revolution.”
*Kolkowicz, Roman. The Soviet Military and the Communist Party. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967. Origins and evolution of relations between army and party.—MVH AHA Guide 35.364.
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*Lincoln, W. Bruce. Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989. Popular/scholarly history.—DJR AHA Guide 35.73.
*Luckett, Richard. The White Generals: An Account of the White Movement and the Russian Civil War. New York: Viking, 1971. Full-scale study of White military campaigns and leaders.—DJR AHA Guide 35.74; MVH 35.367.
Luttwak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Soviet Union. With appendices by Herbert Block and W. Seth Carus. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. McGranahan, William J. “The Fall and Rise of Marshal Tukhachevsky.” Parameters 8 (December 1978): 62–72. *Malle, Silvana. The Economic Organization of War Communism, 1918–1921. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Exhaustive study, excellent historiographical introduction.—DJR AHA Guide 35.76.
*Michta, Andrew A. Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944–1988. Hoover Press Publication 386. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1990. Civil-military relations under communism.—WLB AHA Guide 33.580.
Milovidov, A. S., and V. G. Kozlov, eds. The Philosophical Heritage of V. I. Lenin and Problems of Contemporary War (A Soviet View) [1972]. Translated from the Russian. United State Air Force, Soviet Military Thought 5. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975. Morozov, Kostiantyn, John S. Jaworsky, Zenon Kohut, Yuri Levchenko, Ivan Olenovych, Ihor Smeshko, and Mark von Hagen. The Military Tradition in Ukrainian History: Its Role in the Construction of Ukraine’s Armed Forces. Proceedings of a conference, Ukranian Research Institute, Harvard University, May 1994. Harvard Papers in Ukrainian Studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Institute, 1995. Moynahan, Biran. Claws of the Bear: The History of the Red Army from the Revolution to the Present. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1989. Odom, William E. “Bolshevik Ideas on the Military’s Role in Modernization.” Armed Forces and Society 3 (1976): 103–20. Prados, John. The Soviet Estimate: U.S. Intelligence Analysis and Russian Military Strength. New York: Dial Press, 1982.
610
Prifti, Peter R. “Armed Forces and Society in Albania.” In PoliticalMilitary Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 191–97. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Remington, Robin Alison. “Armed Forces and Society in Yugoslavia.” In Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 163–89. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Sapir, Jacques. The Soviet Military System. Translated by David Macey. London: Polity Press, 1991. Sarin, Oleg, and Lev Dvoretsky. Alien Wars: The Soviet Union’s Aggressions against the World, 1919 to 1989. Novato, California: Presidio Press, 1996. Scott, Harriet Fast, and William F. Scott. The Armed Forces of the USSR. 2d edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press; London: Arms & Armour Press/Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1981. Scott, William F. Soviet Sources of Military Doctrine and Strategy. National Strategy Information Center, Strategy Paper 26. New York: Crane, Russak, 1975. *Seaton, Albert. The Russo-German War, 1941–1945. 1971 edition. Novato, California: Presidio Press, 1990. Greater emphasis on German side.—MVH AHA Guide 35.369.
*Seaton, Albert, and Joan Seaton. The Soviet Army, 1918 to the Present. 1986 edition. New York: New American Library, 1987. Organizational and political history.—MVH AHA Guide 35.370.
Sorokin, Alexei. The People’s Army. Translated by William Biley. Moscow: Progress, 1985. Suvorov, Viktor. Inside the Soviet Army. New York: Macmillan, 1982. Tarasulo, Yitzhak. “A Profile of the Soviet Soldier.” Armed Forces and Society 11 (1985): 221–34. Tyushkevich, S. A. The Soviet Armed Forces: A History of Their Organizational Development, a Soviet View. Moscow, 1978. Translated by the CIS Multilingual Section, Translation Bureau, Secretary of State Department, Ottawa. Soviet Military Thought 19. Washington: United States Air Force, n.d.
611
U.S. Department of Defense. Soviet Military Power. 4th edition. Washington: Government Printing Office, April 1985. Wiatr, Jerzy J. “The Public Image of the Polish Military: Past and Present.” In Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 199–208. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. *Wiatr, Jerzy J. The Soldier and the Nation: The Role of the Military in Polish Politics, 1918–1985. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988. Accessible political sociology with historical emphasis.—WLB AHA Guide 33.619.
MIDDLE EAST
From the fall of the Ottoman Empire Abdel-Malek, Anouar. Egypt: Military Society. The Army Regime, the Left, and Social Change under Nasser. Translated by Carles Lam Markmann. New York: Vintage Books, 1968. Albrecht, Ulrich. “Militarized Sub-Imperialism: The Case of Iran.” In The World Military Order: The Impact of Military Technology on the Third World, edited by Mary Kaldor and Asbjørn Eide, 157–79. New York: Praeger, 1979. Allon, Yigal. The Making of Israel’s Army. London: Vallentine, Mitchell, 1970. Reprinted London: Sphere Books, 1971. Allon, Yigal. Shield of David: The Story of Israel’s Armed Forces. New York: Random House, 1970. Aly, Abdel Monem Said. “Quality vs. Quantity: The Arab Perspective of the Arms Race in the Middle East.” Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 27–44. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Amiel, Saadia, Uzi Eilam, Amnon Sella, Edward Luttwak, and Kenneth Hunt. “The Art of War—East and West.” In Military Aspects of the Israeli-Arab Conflict, edited by Louis Williams, 13–42. International Symposium, Jerusalem, 12–17 October 1975. Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects, 1975. Anderson, Lisa. “Tribe and State: Libyan Anomalies.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 288–302. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. “Armies were recruited—and it should be remembered that the modern standing army is the archetypical embodiment of the functionally differentiated, hierarchical, bureaucratic, impersonal mechanisms of the state.” (291) In Libya, as often elsewhere, the army was the only such institution in the country (297).
Aruri, Naseer H., ed. Middle East Crucible: Studies on the Arab-Israeli War of October 1973. AAUG [Arab-American University Graduates]
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Monograph Series 6. Wilmette, Illinois: Medina University Press International, 1975. Avneri, Uri, et al. Israel and the Palestinians: A Different Israeli View. New York: Briera, 1975. Barnett, Michael N. Confronting the Costs of War: Military Power, State, and Society in Egypt and Israel. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Becker, Abraham, Arnold Horelick, Geoffrey Kemp, and Nissan Oren. “Superpower Competition in the Middle East.” In Military Aspects of the Israeli-Arab Conflict, edited by Louis Williams, 97–136. International Symposium, Jerusalem, 12–17 October 1975. Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects, 1975. Be"eri, Eliezer. Army Officers in Arab Politics and Society. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970. Excerpted as “The Self-Image of the Arab Officer Politician” in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 299–306. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Bill, James A. “The Military and Modernization in the Middle East.” Comparative Politics 2 (October 1969): 41–62. Bill, James A., and Carl Leiden. Politics in the Middle East. 2d edition. Little, Brown Series in Comparative Politics. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1984. Chap. 6, “Violence and the Military,” 235–85.
Bowden, Tom. Army in the Service of the State. Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects, 1976. IDF nonmilitary services in education, etc.
Brown, James. “The Military and Politics in Turkey.” Armed Forces and Society 13 (1987): 235–53. Carus, W. Seth. “Israel: Some Economic and Social Considerations.” The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 135–50. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Dayan, Shmuel, Moshe Dayan, S. L. A. Marshall, and Curtis G. Pepper. “Moshe Dayan.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 212–40. New York: Signet Books, 1967.
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Dessouki, Ali E. Hillal. “Domestic Variables in Inter-State Conflict: A Case Study of the Sahara.” Armed Forces and Society 7 (1981): 409–22. Dunn, Michael Collins. “Egypt: From Domestic Needs to Export Market.” The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 119–34. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, and Gerd Nonneman, with Charles Tripp. War and Peace in the Gulf: Domestic Politics and Regional Relations into the 1990s. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1991. El-Rayyes, Riad, and Dunia Nahas. Guerrillas for Palestine. London: Croom Helm, 1976. Feldman, Shai. “Security and Arms Control in the Middle East.” In Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 75–91. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Fidel, Kenneth. “Military Organization and Conspiracy in Turkey.” In Militarism in Developing Countries, edited by Kenneth Fidel, 169–218. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1975. Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Atheneum, 1990. Gerber, Haim. Islam, Guerrilla War, and Revolution: A Study in Comparative Social History. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner, 1988. Goren, Dina, Michael Elkins, and Arnon Zuckerman. “Military Reporting in Closed and Open Societies.” In Military Aspects of the Israeli-Arab Conflict, edited by Louis Williams, 69–91. International Symposium, Jerusalem, 12–17 October 1975. Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects, 1975. Green, Stephen. Living by the Sword: America and Israel in the Middle East, 1968–1987. London: Faber & Faber, 1988. *Habib, John S. Ibn Sa'ud’s Warriors of Islam: The Ikhwan of Najd and Their Role in the Creation of the Sa'udi Kingdom, 1910 –1930. Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East, vol. 17. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978. See Chap. 6, “Military Characteristics of the Ikhwan,” 63–.
615
Haddad, George M. Revolutions and Military Rule in the Middle East, vol. 2, The Arab States, part 1, Iran, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan. New York: Robert Speller & Sons, 1971. Heller, Mark. “Politics and the Military in Iraq and Jordan, 1920– 1958.” Armed Forces and Society 4 (1977): 75–99. *Hinnebusch, Raymond A., Jr. Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Ba'thist Syria: Army, Party, and Peasant. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990. Rise and consolidation of military-party state after 1958.—PSK/MCW AHA Guide 18.400.
Hirst, David. The Gun and the Olive Branch: The Roots of Violence in the Middle East. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977. Hurewitz, J. C. Middle East Politics: The Military Dimension. New York: Praeger, for the Council on Foreign Relations, 1969. Hurewitz, J. C. “Soldiers and Social Change in Plural Societies: The Contemporary Middle East.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 400–11. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. Karpat, Kemal H. “The Military and Politics in Turkey, 1960–64: A Socio-Cultural Analysis of a Revolution.” American Historical Review 75 (1970): 1654–83. Khadduri, Majid. “Iraq, 1958 and 1963.” In The Politics of the “Coup d’etat”: Five Case Studies, edited by William G. Andrews and Uri Ra"anan, 65–88. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969. Khuri, Fuad I., and Gerald Obermeyer. “The Social Bases for Military Intervention in the Middle East.” In Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 55–85. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Kostiner, Joseph. The Making of Saudi Arabia, 1916–1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State. Studies in Middle Eastern History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Kostiner, Joseph. “Transforming Dualities: Tribe and State Formation in Saudi Arabia.” In Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, edited by Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, 226–51. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
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On military aspects, see especially “Expansion and Consolidation,” 229–39, following Lapidus’ model of conquest movements.
Landrum, Cecile S. “The Israeli Fighting Women: Myth and Facts.” Air University Review 30 (November-December 1978): 69–78. Mangano, Philip A. “The Politics of North African Armies.” In CivilMilitary Relations: Changing Concepts in the Seventies, edited by Charles L. Cochran, 246–83. New York: Free Press, 1974. Marshall, S. L. A. “Avraham Yoffe.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 188–202. New York: Signet Books, 1967. Mushtak, Hazim T. “Arms Control and the Proliferation of HighTechnology Weapons in South Asia and the Middle East: An Iraqi View.” Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 113–19. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Netanyahu, Jonathan. Self-Portrait of a Hero: The Letters of Jonathan Netanyahu (1963–1976). Notes and Afterword by Benjamin and Iddo Netanyahu. New York: Random House, 1980. Reprinted New York: Ballantine Books, 1982. Nyrop, Richard F., Beryl Lieff Benderly, Laraine Newhouse Carter, Darrel R. Eglin, and Robert A. Kirchner. Area Handbook for Saudi Arabia. DA Pam 550–51, prepared by Foreign Area Studies of American University. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1977. Chap. 14, “National Defense and Internal Security,” 311–46.
Odeh, B. J. Lebanon: Dynamics of Conflict. A Modern Political History. London: Zed Books, 1985. Peri, Yoram. Between Battles and Ballots: Israeli Military in Politics. Cambridge Middle East Library. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Paperback edition, 1985. Perkins, Charles B. Arms to the Arabs: The Arab Military Buildup since 1973. American Israel Public Affairs Committee, Papers on U.S.Israel Relations 16. Washington: AIPAC, 1989. Perlmutter, Amos. “The Arab Military Elite.” World Politics 22 (1970): 269–300. Review article.
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Perlmutter, Amos. Egypt—The Praetorian State. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974. Nasser’s regime interpreted as praetorian political system.
Perlmutter, Amos. “From Obscurity to Rule: The Syrian Army and the Ba’th Party.” Western Political Quarterly 22 (1969): 827–45. Excerpted in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 312–21. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Perlmutter, Amos. “The Israeli Army in Politics: The Persistence of the Civilian over the Military.” World Politics 20 (1968): 606–43. Picard, Elizabeth. “Arab Military in Politics: From Revolutionary Plot to Authoritarian State.” In Beyond Coercion: The Durability of the Arab State, edited by Adeed Dawisha and William I. Zartman, 116–46. Nation, State and Integration in the Arab World, vol. 3. London: Croom Helm, 1987. Pimlott, John. “The Middle East: Nationalism and Internationalism.” Guerrilla Warfare, edited by John Pimlott, 132–57. London: Bison Books, 1985. Pivka, Otto von. Armies of the Middle East. London: Book Club Associates, 1979. Preiss, Kenneth. “Some Aspects of Modern Technology and Regional Planning in the Defense of Israel.” Middle East Review 11 (1978): 31–41. Rolbant, Samuel. The Israeli Soldier: Profile of an Army. New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1970. Rosser-Owen, David. “The Muslim World—Aiming for the Gulf ?” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 118–39. London: Bison Books, 1985. Sachar, Howard Morley. “Yigal Allon.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 57–88. New York: Signet Books, 1967. Sachar, Howard Morley. “Yigal Yadin.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 154–84. New York: Signet Books, 1967. St. John, Robert. “David Ben-Gurion.” In Fighting Heroes of Israel, edited by Harold U. Ribalow, 92–110. New York: Signet Books, 1967.
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Schiff, Zeev. A History of the Israeli Army (1870–1974). Translated and edited by Raphael Rothstein. San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1974. Shamir, Shimon, David Kochav, and Shlomo Gazit. “Military Balance of Power in the Middle East.” In Military Aspects of the Israeli-Arab Conflict, edited by Louis Williams, 169–95. International Symposium, Jerusalem, 12–17 October 1975. Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects, 1975. Singer, Howard. Bring Forth the Mighty Men: On Violence and the Jewish Character. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969. Taheri, Amir. Holy Terror: Inside the World of Islamic Terrorism. Bethesda, Maryland: Adler & Adler, 1987. Tahtinen, Dale R. “The Evolution of the Military in Middle Eastern Societies.” In The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 207–21. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Tamkoç, Metin. The Warrior Diplomats: Guardians of the National Security and Modernization of Turkey. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1976. Military roots of modernization and the subsequent policy role of military men.
*Tarbush, Mohammad A. The Role of the Military in Politics: A Case Study of Iraq to 1941. London: Kegan Paul, 1982. Development of Iraqi military elite and its political participation World War I to Rashid Ali coup.—RSS AHA Guide 18.454.
Thomas, Martin. “Policing Algeria’s Borders, 1956–1960: Arms Supplies, Frontier Defences and the Sakiet Affair.” War & Society 13 (May 1995): 81–99. Vatikiotis, P. J. Politics and the Military in Jordan: A Study of the Arab Legion, 1921–1957. New York, 1967. Creation and development of the Arab Legion and its role in formation and consolidation of the state of Jordan.
Yalman, Nur. “Intervention and Extrication: The Officer Corps in the Turkish Crisis.” The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development, edited by Henry Bienen, 127–44. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. Zabih, Sepehr. The Iranian Military in Revolution and War. London: Routledge, 1988.
SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN MILITARY FORCES
Since 1945 Alagappa, Muthiah. “Malaysia: From the Commonwealth Umbrella to Self-Reliance.” In Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 165–93. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Ansari, Javed, and Mary Kaldor. “Military Technology and Conflict Dynamics: The Bangladesh Crisis of 1971.” In The World Military Order: The Impact of Military Technology on the Third World, edited by Mary Kaldor and Asbjørn Eide, 136–56. New York: Praeger, 1979. Banerjee, Utpal K. Operational Analysis and Indian Defence. New Delhi: Concept, 1980. Bienen, Henry, and David Morell. “Transition from Military Rule: Thailand’s Experience.” Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 3–26. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. *Bopegamage, A. “The Military as a Modernizing Agent in India.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 20 (1971): 71–79. *Bunbongkarn, Suchit. The Military in Thai Politics, 1981–1986. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987. Best intro to the Byzantine politics of Thai civil-military relations.—DKW AHA Guide 16.181.
Burki, Shahid Javed, and Craig Buxter, with Robert LaPorte, Jr., and Kamal Azfar. Pakistan under the Military: Eleven Years of Zia ul-Haq. Special Studies on South and Southeast Asia. Boulder: Westview Press; Lahore: Pak Book, 1991. Cady, John F. “Military Rule in Post-War Thailand, Burma, and Indonesia.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt and Gerald A. Dorfman, 113–27. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974.
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Chanoff, David, and Doan Van Toai. Portrait of the Enemy. London: I. B. Tauris, 1986. Interviews with North Vietnamese and Vietcong soldiers and leaders, and members of the South Vietnamese opposition.
Chari, P. R. “Civil-Military Relations in India.” Armed Forces and Society 4 (1977): 3–28. Cohen, Stephen P. The Pakistan Army. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Cohen, Stephen P. “U.S. Weapons and South Asia: A Policy Analysis.” Pacific Affairs 49 (1976): 49–69. Cohen, Stephen P. “The Untouchable Soldier: Caste, Politics, and the Indian Army.” Journal of Asian Studies 28 (1969): 453–68. Conboy, Kenneth, and Simon McCouaig. South-East Asian Special Forces. Elite Series 33. London: Osprey, 1991. *Crouch, Harold A. The Army and Politics in Indonesia. Revised edition. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1988. Incisive, critical analysis of the rise of military power since the Indonesian Revolution, 1945–1949.—DKW AHA Guide 16.286.
Currey, Cecil B. Victory at Any Cost: The Genius of Viet Nam’s Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap. Washington and London: Brassey’s, 1977. Denoon, David B. H. “Defence Spending in ASEAN: An Overview.” Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 48–71. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Elkin, Jerrold F., and W. Andrew Ritezel. “Military Role Expansion in India.” Armed Forces and Society 11 (1985): 489–504. Elliott, David. Thailand: Origins of Military Rule. London: Zed Press, 1978. Federspiel, Howard M. “The Military and Islam in Sukarno’s Indonesia.” Pacific Affairs 46 (1973): 406–20. Giap, Vo Nguyen. The Military Art of People’s War: Selected Writings of General Vo Nguyen Giap. Edited with an introduction by Russell Stetler. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1970. Guyot, James F. “Efficiency, Responsibility, and Equality in Military Staffing.” Armed Forces and Society 2 (1976): 291–304. Burma and Malaysia compared.
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Guyot, James F. “Ethnic Segmentation in Military Organizations: Burma and Malaysia.” Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 27–37. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Hoadley, J. Stephen. Soldiers and Politics in Southeast Asia: Civil-Military Relations in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1975. Horowitz, Donald L. Coup Theories and Officers’ Motives: Sri Lanka in Comparative Perspective. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980. Husain, Ross Masood. “Arms Control and the Proliferation of HighTechnology Weapons in South Asia and the Middle East: A View from Pakistan.” Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 135–41. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Huxley, Tim. “Brunei: Defending a Mini-State.” In Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 224–51. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Jenkins, David. Suharto and His Generals: Indonesian Military Politics, 1975–1983. Cornell Modern Indonesian Project, Monograph 64. Ithaca, New York: The Project, 1984. Dense but indispensable account.—review by J. D. Legge, American Historical Review 90 (1985): 1260–61.
Jeshurun, Chandran. “Threat Perception and Defence Spending in Southeast Asia: An Assessment.” Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 9–30. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Kadian, Rajesh. India and Its Army. New Delhi: Vision Books, 1990. *Kahane, Reuven. “Social Conditions Leading to Military Dominance: The Case of Indonesia.” Contrib. Asian Stud. 5 (1974): 50–77. Kukreja, Veena. Civil-Military Relations in South Asia: Pakistan, Bangladesh and India. New Delhi: Sage, 1991.
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Kuntjoro-Jakti, Dorodjatun, and T. A. M. Simatupang. “Indonesia: Defence Expenditures in the Period of the New Order, 1967–85.” Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 109–32. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Lanning, Michael Lee, and Dan Cragg. Inside the VC and the NVA: The Real Story of North Vietnam’s Armed Forces. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1992. Lyon, Peter. War and Peace in South-East Asia. London: Oxford University Press, for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1969. McCoy, J. W. Secrets of the Viet Cong. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1992. Maynard, Harold W. “A Comparison of Military Elite Role Perceptions in Indonesia and the Philippines.” Ph.D. dissertation, American University, 1976. Excerpted as “Indonesian Military Elite Role Perceptions” in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 426–31. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Maynard, Harold W. “Views of the Indonesian and Philippine Military Elites.” In The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 123–53. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Miranda, Felipe B., and Ruben F. Ciron. “The Philippines: Defence Expenditures, Threat Perception and the Role of the United States.” Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 133–64. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Mook, Byron T. “Getting out of Power: The Case of the Pakistani Military.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt and Gerald A. Dorfman, 99–112. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974. Moore, Raymond A. “Military Nation-building in Pakistan and India.” World Affairs 132 (1969): 219–34. Nair, A. Balakrishnan. Facets of Indian Defence. New Delhi: S. Chand, 1983. Nash, Manning. “Politics of Moderation and Military Aloofness in Malaysia.” Armed Forces and Society 10 (1983): 146–54.
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Notosusanto, Nugroho. “Indonesia: Armed Forces and Society into the 1980s.” Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 39–54. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. O’Neill, Robert J. General Giap: Politician and Strategist. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969. Paribatra, Sukhumbhand. “Thailand: Defence Spending and Threat Perception.” Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 75–108. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Pike, Douglas. PAVN: People’s Army of Vietnam. Novato, California: Presidio Press, 1986. Reprint New York: Da Capo Press, n.d. Porth, Jacquelyn S. “Singapore: A Little Dragon in Arms Production.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 225–40. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Ra"anan, Uri. “Indonesia, 1965.” The Politics of the “Coup d’etat”: Five Case Studies, edited by William G. Andrews and Uri Ra"anan, 43–64. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969. Record, Jeffrey. “The Navy of the Philippines.” In Guide to Far Eastern Navies, edited by Barry M. Blechman and Robert P. Berman, 334–53. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. *Reid, Anthony. The Blood of the People: Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979. Comparative study of social revolutions accompanying Indonesian Revolution (1945–1949) in North Sumatran provinces of Aceh and East Coast.—DKW AHA Guide 16.306.
Rikhye, Ravi. The Militarization of Mother India. Delhi: Chanakya, 1990. Samson, Allan A. “Army and Islam in Indonesia.” Pacific Affairs 44 (Winter 1971–1972): 545–65. Sauvageot, J. Andre. “Vietnam, Defence Expenditure and Threat Perception: Defending Communist Indochina.” In Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 281–304. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987.
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*Silverstein, Josef. Burma: Military Rule and the Politics of Stagnation. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977. Mainly since 1948.—DKW AHA Guide 16.153.
Simon, Sheldon W. “Indochina’s Security Situation.” In The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and International Impacts, edited by Sheldon W. Simon, 287–314. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978. Singh, Bilveer. Singapore’s Defence Industries. Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence 70. Canberra: Australian National University, Research School of Pacific Studies, Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 1990. Singh, Jasjit. “Arms Control and the Proliferation of High-Technology Weapons in South Asia and the Middle East: A View from India.” Arms Control and Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East and South Asia, edited by Shelley A. Stahl and Geoffrey Kemp, 123–34. New York: St. Martin’s Press, with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992. Soon, Lau Teik. “Defence Expenditures of ASEAN States: The Regional Strategic Context.” Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 31–47. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Sundhaussen, Ulf. “The Military in Research on Indonesian Politics.” Journal of Asian Studies 31 (1972): 355–65. Taylor, Robert H. “Burma: Defence Expenditure and Threat Perception.” In Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 252–80. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987. Thomas, Raju G. C. “India: The Politics of Weapons Procurement.” The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 151–63. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Wah, Chin Kin. “Singapore: Threat Perception and Defnece Spending in a City-State.” In Defence Spending in Southeast Asia, edited by Chin Kin Wah, 194–223. Issues in Southeast Asian Security. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Regional Strategic Studies Programme, 1987.
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Weatherbee, Donald E. “Indonesia: Its Defense-Industrial Complex.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 165–85. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Weinstein, Franklin B. “The Meaning of National Security in Southeast Asia.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 34 (November 1978): 20–28. Yong, Thepchai. “Thailand.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 267–73. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986.
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Military forces of China, Japan, Taiwan, and the Koreas since World War II Apalin, G., and U. Mityayev. Militarism in Peking Policies. Translated by Peter Doria. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980. Axelbank, Albert. Black Star over Japan: Rising Forces of Militarism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux; London: George Allen & Unwin, 1972. Reprinted Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1973. Bennett, Gordon A., and Ronald N. Montaperto. Red Guard: The Political Biography of Dai Hsiao-ai. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1971. Reprinted Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1980. Berman, Paul. Revolutionary Organization: Institution-building within the People’s Liberation Armed Forces. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1974. Berney, Karen. “Aspects of Modernization.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 133–48. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Blaker, James R. “The Production of Conventional Weapons.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 215–27. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Boorman, Scott A. “Deception in Chinese Strategy.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 313–37. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Boorman, Scott A. The Protracted Game: A Wei-ch’i Interpretation of Maoist Revolutionary Strategy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969. Brendle, Thomas M. “Recruitment and Training in the SDF.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 67–96. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975.
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Buck, James H. “The Japanese Military in the 1980s.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 219–231. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Chang, Parris H. “Changing Patterns of Military Roles in Chinese Politics.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 47–70. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Cheng, Hsiao-shih. Party-Military Relations in the PRC and Taiwan. Westview Special Studies on China and East Asia. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990. China Today Series, Editorial Board of. China Today: Aviation Industry. Beijing: China Aviation Industry Press, 1989. Primarily military, development of aircraft, missiles, and subsystems.
Colbert, Evelyn. “National Security Perspectives: Japan and Asia.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 199–218. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Corr, Gerard H. The Chinese Red Army: Campaigns and Politics since 1949. New York: Schocken Books, 1974. *Crowley, James B. “Japan’s Military Foreign Policies.” In Japan’s Foreign Policy, 1868–1941: A Research Guide, edited by James William Morley. New York: Columbia University Press, 1974. Dick, Glenn G. “The General Political Department.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 171–83. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Dreyer, June Teufel. “China’s Military Modernization.” Orbis 27 (1984): 1011–26. Dreyer, June Teufel. “The Chinese Militia: Citizen-Soldiers and CivilMilitary Relations in the People’s Republic of China.” Armed Forces and Society 9 (1982): 62–82. Dreyer, June Teufel. “Deng Xiaoping and Modernization of the Chinese Military.” Armed Forces and Society 14 (1988): 215–31.
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Gittings, John. The Role of the Chinese Army. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Godfrey, F. A. “China—New Ideas, New Threats.” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 66–93. London: Bison Books, 1985. Godwin, Paul H. B. “China’s Defense Modernization.” Air University Review 33 (November-December 1981): 2–19. Another analysis devoid of history.
Gregor, A. James. “The People’s Liberation Army and China’s Crisis.” Armed Forces and Society 18 (1991): 7–28. Gregor, A. James. “The Republic of China on Taiwan.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 203–23. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986.
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Griffith, Samuel B., II. The Chinese People’s Liberation Army. The United States and China in World Affairs. New York: McGraw-Hill, for the Council on Foreign Relations, 1967. Halliday, Jon, and Gavan McCormack. Japanese Imperialism Today: “Co-Prosperity in Greater East Asia”. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1973. See chap. 3, “The Military,” 77–118.
Harding, Harry, Jr. “The Making of Chinese Military Policy.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 361–85. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Harries, Meirion, and Susie Harries. Sheathing the Sword: The Demilitarisation of Japan. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1987. Heinlein, Joseph. “The Ground Forces.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 153–69. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Heng, Liang, and Judith Shapiro. Son of the Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983. Reprinted New York: Vintage Books, 1984. Hopper, David R. “Defense Policy and the Business Community: The Keidanren Defense Production Committee.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 113–47. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Horner, Charles. “The Production of Nuclear Weapons.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 229–52. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Hoyt, Edwin P. The Militarists: The Rise of Japanese Militarism since WWII. New York: Donald I. Fine, 1985. Hsieh, Alice Langley. Communist China’s Strategy in the Nuclear Era. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1962. Huer, Jon. Marching Orders: The Role of the Military in South Korea’s “Economic Miracle,” 1961–1971. Contributions in Economics and Economic History 92. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.
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Jammes, Sydney. “Military Industry.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 117–32. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Jencks, Harlan W. “The Chinese ‘Military-Industrial Complex’ and Defense Modernization.” Asian Survey 20 (1980): 965–89. Jencks, Harlan W. From Muskets to Missiles: Politics and Professionalism in the Chinese Army, 1945–1981. Westview Special Studies on China and East Asia. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1982. Jencks, Harlan W. “Ground Forces.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 53–70. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Joffe, Ellis. The Chinese Army after Mao. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987. Joffe, Ellis. “Civil-Military Relations.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 18–35. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Joffe, Ellis. Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949–1964. Harvard East Asian Monographs 19. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, East Asian Research Center, 1967. Chaps. 1, “Modernization and Professionalism,” 1–45; 2, “The Elements of Conflict,” 46–111; also “‘Officers to the Ranks,’” 133–38.
Jones, Christopher D. “The ‘Revolution in Military Affairs’ and Party-Military Relations, 1965–70.” Survey 20 (Winter 1974): 84–100. Jordan, James D. “The Maoist vs. the Professional Vision of a People’s Army.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 25–45. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Kennedy, William V. “The Defence of China’s Homeland.” In The Chinese War Machine: A Technical Analysis of the Strategy and Weapons of the People’s Republic of China, edited by Ray Bond, 92–113. New York: Crescent Books, 1979. Kim, C. I. Eugene. “Civil-Military Relations in the Two Koreas.” Armed Forces and Society 11 (1984): 9–31. Kim, Paul S. “The Soldier as Civil Bureaucrat in a Developing Country—Korea.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt
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and Gerald A. Dorfman, 128–42. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974. Kotani, Hidejir. “Views on the Resurgence of Militarism.” Japan Interpreter 8 (1973): 195–204. Latham, Richard J. “The People’s Republic of China: Profits, Consumerism, and Arms Sales.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 187–202. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Lindeke, William. “The Chinese People’s Militia and the Strategy of Revolutionary Mobilization.” Presented at the conference on “The Rhetoric of the Chinese Revolution,” Oregon State University, Corvallis, 28 February–3 March 1978. Lyon, Hugh. “China’s Navy—For Coastal Defence Only.” In The Chinese War Machine: A Technical Analysis of the Strategy and Weapons of the People’s Republic of China, edited by Ray Bond, 148–67. New York: Crescent Books, 1979. Macciocchi, Maria Antonietta. Daily Life in Revolutionary China. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972. Chap. 14, “The People’s Army: Political Power Grows out of the Barrel of a Gun,” 379–405.
McIntosh, Malcolm. Japan Re-Armed. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986. McNelly, Theodore. “The Constitutionality of Japan’s Defense Establishment.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 99–112. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. McNelly, Theodore. “The Renunciation of War in the Japanese Constitution.” Armed Forces and Society 13 (1986): 81–106. Maeda, Tetsuo. The Hidden Army: The Untold Story of Japan’s Military Forces. Edited and introduced by David J. Kenney. Translated by Steven Karpa. Chicago: edition q, 1995. Mao, Tse-tung. Mao Tse-tung on Revolution and War. Edited with an introduction by M. Rejai. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1969. Reprinted Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1970. Mendel, Douglas H., Jr. “Public Views of the Japanese Defense System.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H.
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Buck, 149–80. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Mogdis, Franz J. “The Role of the Chinese Communist Air Force in the 1970s.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 253–66. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Moon, Chung-in. “South Korea: Between Security and Vulnerability.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 241–66. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Nelsen, Harvey W. “The Organization of China’s Ground Forces.” In The Chinese War Machine: A Technical Analysis of the Strategy and Weapons of the People’s Republic of China, edited by Ray Bond, 64–91. New York: Crescent Books, 1979. Nelsen, Harvey. “Regional and Paramilitary Ground Forces.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 135–52. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Ng-Quinn, Michael. “The Chinese Military: Political Demands and Control.” Armed Forces and Society 12 (1986): 253–85. Nishikawa, Jun. “Note on the Impact of Military Expenditure on the Japanese Economy.” The Economics of Military Expenditures: Military Expenditures, Economic Growth and Fluctuations. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic Association in Paris, France, edited by Christian Schmidt, 135–37. London: Macmillan, 1987. Nolan, Janne E. Military Industry in Taiwan and South Korea. London: Macmillan, 1986. Pollack, Jonathan D. “The Logic of Chinese Military Strategy.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 35 ( Jan. 1979): 22–33. Pollack, Jonathan D. “The Modernization of National Defense.” In China’s Four Modernizations: The New Technological Revolution, edited by Richard Baum, 241–61. Westview Special Studies on China and East Asia. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980. Pollack, Jonathan D. “The Study of Chinese Military Politics: Towards a Framework for Analysis.” In Political-Military Systems: Comparative Per-
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spectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 239–70. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Polmar, Norman. “The Navy of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.” In Guide to Far Eastern Navies, edited by Barry M. Blechman and Robert P. Berman, 314–333. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Polmar, Norman. “The Navy of the Republic of Korea.” In Guide to Far Eastern Navies, edited by Barry M. Blechman and Robert P. Berman, 270–313. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Robinson, Thomas W. “Chinese Military Modernization in the 1980s.” China Quarterly 90 ( June 1982): 230–52. Robinson, Thomas W. “Lin Piao: A Chinese Military Politician.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 73–92. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Romance, Francis J. “Modernization of China’s Armed Forces.” Asian Survey 20 (1980): 298–310. Salmon, Jack D. “Japan as a Great Power: The Military Context and Policy Options.” Japan Interpreter 7 (1972): 396–408. Samuels, Richard J. “Rich Nation, Strong Army”: National Security and the Technological Transformation of Japan. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1994. Segal, Gerald. “Nuclear Forces.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 98–113. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Seno, Sadao, and James E. Auer. “The Navy of Japan.” In Guide to Far Eastern Navies, edited by Barry M. Blechman and Robert P. Berman, 168–215. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Shambaugh, David L. “China’s Quest for Military Modernization.” Asian Affairs 6 (1979): 295–309. Shimano, Takuji. “Economic Growth and the Rise of Militarism.” Japan Interpreter 8 (1973): 205–13. Sigur, Gaston J. “Power, Politics, and Defense.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 181–95. Sage Research
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Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Simmons, John D. “The New Gun-Barrel Elite.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 93–113. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Sims, John C., Jr. “The General Rear Services Department.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 185–213. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Sinha, Radha. Japan’s Options for the 1980s. London: Croom Helm, 1982. Reprinted Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1983. Chaps. 6, “The Military Situation in the Far East and the Threat to Japan,” 162–97; and 7, “The Strains on Japanese Pacifism,” 198–224.
Snow, Edgar. “Report from China—IV: The Army and the Party.” New Republic (22 May 1971): 9–12. Sohn, Jae Souk. “Political Dominance and Political Failure: The Role of the Military in the Republic of Korea.” In The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development, edited by Henry Bienen, 103–26. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. Sohn, Jae Souk. “The Role of the Military in the Republic of Korea.” In The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 431–40. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Stuart, Douglas T., and William T. Tow. “Chinese Military Modernization: The Western Arms Connection.” China Quarterly 90 ( June 1982): 253–70. Swaine, Michael. The Military and Political Succession in China: Leadership, Institutions, Beliefs. A Project AIR FORCE Report Prepared for the United States Air Force, R-4254-AF. Santa Monica, California: RAND, 1992. Swanson, Bruce L. “Naval Force.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 85–97. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Swanson, Bruce L. “The Navy of the People’s Republic of China.” In Guide to Far Eastern Navies, edited by Barry M. Blechman and
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Robert P. Berman, 64–167. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1978. Sweetman, Bill. “Air Forces.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 71–84. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Sweetman, Bill. “The Modernization of China’s Air Force.” In The Chinese War Machine: A Technical Analysis of the Strategy and Weapons of the People’s Republic of China, edited by Ray Bond, 122–47. New York: Crescent Books, 1979. Tow, William T. “Arms Sales to China.” In Chinese Defence Policy, edited by Gerald Segal and William T. Tow, 149–63. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Tow, William T., and Douglas T. Stuart. “China’s Military Turns to the West.” International Affairs (London) 57 (Spring 1981): 286–300. Since 1975 military modernization has been one of Beijing’s “Four Modernizations” (agriculture, industry, science, military) under the slogan “xi wei zhong yong” (making foreign things serve China).
U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency. Handbook on the Chinese Armed Forces. DD1–2680–32–76. Washington, 1976. Reprinted as The Chinese Armed Forces Today: The U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency Handbook of China’s Army, Navy and Air Force. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1979. Wang, Ting. “The Emergent Military Class.” In The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s, edited by William W. Whitson, 115–32. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1972. Weinstein, Martin E. “The Evolution of the Japan Self-Defense Forces.” In The Modern Japanese Military System, edited by James H. Buck, 41–63. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 5. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1975. Whitson, William W. “China’s Quest for Technology.” Problems of Communism ( July-August 1973): 16–30. Whitson, William W., Chen-hsia Huang. The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927–71. Praeger Library of Chinese Affairs. New York: Praeger, 1973. Young, John Robert. The Dragon’s Teeth: Inside China’s Armed Forces. New York: Orion Books, 1987.
POST WORLD WAR II SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
Military institutions and activities, civil-military relations in postcolonial Africa, including coups, mutinies, and civil war. Abate, Yohannis. “Civil-Military Relations in Ethiopia.” Armed Forces and Society 10 (1984): 380–400. Adekson, J. ‘Bayo. “Army in a Multi-Ethnic Society: The Case of Nkrumah’s Ghana, 1957–1966.” Armed Forces and Society 2 (1976): 251–72. Adekson, J. ‘Bayo. “The ‘Brawn’ versus ‘Brain’ Conflict in Contemporary African Civil-Military History and Thought.” Plural Societies 10 (Autumn/Winter 1979): 3–20. Fighting quality versus education as basis for military officers’ rank and promotion.
Adekson, J. ‘Bayo. Nigeria in Search of a Stable Civil-Military System. Aldershot, England: Gower; Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981. Agyeman-Duah, Baffour. “Military Coups, Reigme Change, and Interstate Conflicts in West Africa.” Armed Forces and Society 16 (1990): 547–70. Alibona, Roberto. “The Ethiopian Revolution: Stabilization.” Armed Forces and Society 7 (1981): 423–44. Arifalo, S. O. “The Military in Contemporary African Politics.” In African History and Culture, edited by Richard Olaniyan, 150–73. Lagos: Longman Nigeria, 1982. Arnold, Guy, and Ruth Weiss. Strategic Highways of Africa. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1977. Awogu, F. Olisa. Political Institutions and Thought in Africa: An Introduction. New York: Vantage Press, 1975. Chap. 12, “The Military in Modern African Politics,” 229–52, remarks on the traditional role of military in African politics and culture.
Barrows, Walter L. “Changing Military Capabilities in Black Africa.” In Arms and the African: Military Influences on Africa’s International Relations, edited by William J. Foltz and Henry S. Bienen, 99–120. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1985.
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Baynham, Simon J. “Soldier and State in Ghana.” Armed Forces and Society 5 (1978): 155–68. Review essay.
Bebler, Anton. Military Rule in Africa: Dahomey, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Mali. Praeger Special Studies in International Politics and Government. New York: Praeger, 1973. Beckett, Ian F. W. “Africa—Exploiting the Nationalists.” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 140–65. London: Bison Books, 1985. Bennett, Valerie Plave. “The Motivation for Military Intervention: The Case of Ghana.” Western Political Quarterly 27 (1974): 659–74. Excerpted in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 344–54. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Bienen, Henry. “African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors.” In Arms and the African: Military Influences on Africa’s International Relations, edited by William J. Foltz and Henry S. Bienen, 153–70. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1985. *Bienen, Henry. Armed Forces, Conflict, and Change in Africa. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1989. Collected essays, reviewed by Goodwin Cooke, Armed Forces & Society 16 (1990): 467–68.
Bienen, Henry. “Military and Society in East Africa: Thinking Again about Praetorianism.” Comparative Politics 6 (1974): 489–517. Bienen, Henry. “Populist Military Regimes in West Africa.” Armed Forces and Society 11 (1985): 357–77. Bienen, Henry. “Public Order and the Military in Africa: Mutinies in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika.” In The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development, edited by Henry Bienen, 35–69. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. Bienen, Henry. “The Sudan: Military Economic Corporations.” Armed Forces and Society 13 (1987): 489–516. Bozeman, Adda B. Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976. On the culture of warfare in sub-Saharan Africa, see part 5, “The Web of War and the Maintenance of Society,” 177–224.
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Bretton, Henry L. Power and Politics in Africa. Chicago: Aldine, 1973. On military factors in postcolonial Africa, see “Military Pressure,” 79–82, in chap. 5, “Applied Power”; “The Military-Police Elite,” 178–87, in chap. 13, “The High Command”; and “The Guards: Interests and Traditions,” 224–34, in chap. 16, “Bureaucrats and Guards.”
Carlston, Kenneth S. Social Theory and African Tribal Organization: The Development of Socio-Legal Theory. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1968. Chap. 1, “The Organization of Action,” includes a section on “War,” 39–44; see also paragraphs 105–107 on war in chap. 2, “Elements of a Theory of the Organization of Action”; and section 4.1.1–8 on war in chap. 17, “Statement of Findings: Principles and Propositions.”
Chick, John D., and Ali A. Mazrui. “The Nigerian Army and African Images of the Military.” Paper presented at the World Congress of Sociology, Varna, Bulgaria, 1970. Cock, Jacklyn, and Laurie Nathan, eds. Society at War: The Militarisation of South Africa. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989. Cox, Thomas S. Civil-Military Relations in Sierra Leone: A Case Study of African Soldiers in Politics. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. Crocker, Chester A. “Military Dependence: The Colonial Legacy in Africa.” Journal of Modern African Studies 12 (1974): 265–86. Decalo, Samuel. Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Motivations and Constraints. 2d edition. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1990. Decalo, Samuel. Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Studies in Military Style. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1976. Decalo, Samuel. “Military Coups and Military Régimes in Africa.” Journal of Modern African Studies 11 (1973): 105–27. Eide, Asbjørn. “South Africa: Repression and the Transfer of Arms and Arms Technology.” In The World Military Order: The Impact of Military Technology on the Third World, edited by Mary Kaldor and Asbjørn Eide, 180–209. New York: Praeger, 1979. Enloe, Cynthia H. “Ethnicity and the Myth of the Military in African Development.” Ufahamu 4 (Fall 1973): 35–56. Eweluka, D. I. O. “The Military System of Administration in Nigeria.” African Law Studies 10 ( June 1974): 67–126.
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First, Ruth. Power in Africa. New York: Pantheon, 1970. On military coups in post-independence Africa.
Foltz, William J. “The Militarization of Africa: Trends and Policy Problems.” In Arms and the African: Military Influences on Africa’s International Relations, edited by William J. Foltz and Henry S. Bienen, 171–93. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1985. *Grundy, Kenneth W. The Militarization of South African Politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. Growth of military influence during 1970s and 1980s and increasing black resistance threatened public order.—WHW AHA Guide 19.759.
Grundy, Kenneth W. “The Negative Image of Africa’s Military.” Review of Politics 30 (1968): 428–39. Grundy, Kenneth W. “The Social Costs of Armed Struggle in Southern Africa.” Armed Forces and Society 7 (1981): 445–66. Grundy, Kenneth W. Soldiers without Politics: Blacks in the South African Armed Forces. Perspectives on Southern Africa 33. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Gutteridge, William Frank. The Military in African Politics. London: Methuen, 1969. Jaster, Robert S. “South African Defense Strategy and the Growing Influence of the Military.” In Arms and the African: Military Influences on Africa’s International Relations, edited by William J. Foltz and Henry S. Bienen, 121–52. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1985. Kolata, Gina Bari. “!Kung Bushmen Join South African Army.” Science 211 (6 February 1981): 562–64. Kraus, Jon. “Ghana, 1966.” In The Politics of the “Coup d’etat”: Five Case Studies, edited by William G. Andrews and Uri Ra’anan, 89–131. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969. Kurimoto, Eisei. “Civil War and Regional Conflicts: The Pari and Their Neighbours in South-eastern Sudan.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 95–111. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994.
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Lefever, Ernest W. Spear and Scepter: Army, Police, and Politics in Tropical Africa. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1970. Lemarchand, René. “Civil-Military Relations in Former Belgian Africa.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt and Gerald A. Dorfman, 69–96. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974. Lemarchand, René. “The Military in Former Belgian Africa.” In Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 87–103. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Levine, Donald N. “The Military in Ethiopian Politics: Capabilities and Constraints.” In The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development, edited by Henry Bienen, 5–34. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. Lofchie, Michael F. “The Uganda Coup—Class Action by the Military.” Journal of Modern African Studies 10 (1972): 19–35. Excerpted in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 377–84. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980.
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*Martin, Michel L. “Les régimes militaries africains: Profil institutionel d’une beuracratic gouvernante.” R.Jour.Pol. 27 (1973): 489–512. *Martin, Michel L. “Les rôles extra-militaires des armées dans les sociétés africaines non-industrialisées.” Afrique et Asie 2 (1974): 21–34. Matuda, Hiroshi. “Annexation and Assimilation: Koegu and their Neighbours.” In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, edited by Katsuyoshi Fukui and John Markakis, 48–62. Eastern African Studies. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994. Mazrui, Ali A. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1986. On postcolonial military roles, see “Africa’s Civil-Military Pendulum,” 181–84, and “Ballots, Bullets and the Party System,” 195–97, both in chap. 9, “In Search of Stability.”
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Atkins, G. Pope. “The Armed Forces in Latin American Politics.” In Civil-Military Relations: Changing Concepts in the Seventies, edited by Charles L. Cochran, 228–55. New York: Free Press, 1974. *Atkins, G. Pope. Arms and Politics in the Dominican Republic. Westview Special Studies on Latin America and the Caribbean. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981. Dominican armed forces’ ties to U.S., especially post-1965.—RLM AHA Guide 38.367.
Baines, John M. “U.S. Military Assistance to Latin America: An Assessment.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 14 (1972): 469–87. Beckett, Ian. “Uncle Sam’s Backyard.” In Communist Military Machine, edited by Ian Beckett, 166–85. London: Bison Books, 1985.
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Fishlow, Albert. “Brazil’s Economic Miracle.” World Today 29 (1973): 474–79. Reprinted and edited in The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, edited by Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 251–56. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978. *Fitch, John Samuel. The Military Coup d’état as a Political Process: Ecuador, 1948–1966. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. Civil-military relations analyzed through successful and abortive coups, based on extensive interviews with officers.—EDL AHA Guide 38.432.
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Lartéguy, Jean. The Guerrillas. Translated by Stanley Hochman. New York: New American Library, 1970. Reprinted New York: Signet Books, 1972. LeGrande, William M., and Carla Anne Robbins. “Oligarchs and Officers: The Crisis in El Salvador.” Foreign Affairs 58 (1980): 1084– 1103. Reprinted, edited, and updated in The Politics of Antipolitics: The
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Lowenthal, Abraham F. “Peru’s ‘Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces’: Background and Context.” In Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Catherine McArdle Kelleher, 147–59. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1974. Lowenthal, Abraham F. The Peruvian Experiment: Continuity and Change under Military Rule. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1975. Excerpted as “Peru’s Ambiguous Revolution” in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 272–80. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980.
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McNall, Scott. Military and Paramilitary Forces in Latin America: An Analysis of the Socio-Economic Factors Contributing to Their Dominance. Arizona State University, Center for Latin American Studies, Special Study 11. Tempe: The Center, 1973. Mainwaring, Scott. “The Transition to Democracy in Brazil.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 28 (Spring 1986): 149–79. Reprinted and edited in The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, edited by Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 407–25. 2d edition. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Markoff, John, and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta. “What We Don’t Know about the Coups: Observations on Recent South American Politics.” Armed Forces and Society 12 (1986): 207–35. *Marz, John D. The Military in Ecuador: Policies and Politics of Authoritarian Rule. Occasional Paper Series 3. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988. Insightful study of military government, 1972–1988.—EDL AHA Guide 38.434.
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Needler, Martin C. “The Causality of the Latin American Coup d’Etat: Some Numbers, Some Speculations.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt and Gerald A. Dorfman, 145–59. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974. Needler, Martin C. “Ecuador, 1963.” In The Politics of the “Coup d’etat”: Five Case Studies, edited by William G. Andrews and Uri Ra"anan, 5–42. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969. Needler, Martin C. “El Salvador: The Military and Politics.” Armed Forces and Society 17 (1991): 569–88. Needler, Martin C. “The Latin American Military: Predatory Reactionaries or Modernizing Patriots?” Journal of Inter-American Studies 11 (1969): 237–44. Needler, Martin C. “Military Motivations in the Seizure of Power.” Latin American Research Review 10 (Fall 1975): 63–79. Needler, Martin C. “Problems Facing Military Governments in Latin America.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 197–209. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Nunn, Frederick M. “Notes on the ‘Junto Phenomenon’ and the ‘Military Regime’ in Latin America: With Special Reference to Peru, 1968–1972.” The Americas 31 ( January 1975): 237–51. Palmer, David Scott. “Reformist Military Rule in Peru, 1968–80.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 131–49. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Patterson, Franklin. “The Guatemalan Military and the Escuela Politécnica.” Armed Forces and Society 14 (1988): 359–90. Pecaut, Daniel. “Guerrillas and Violence.” In Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Perspective, edited by Charles Bergquist, Ricardo Peñaranda, and Gonzalo Sánchez, 217–40. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1992. Perry, William, and Juan Carlos Weiss. “Brazil.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 103–17. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986.
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Philip, George. “The Military Institution Revisited: Some Notes on Corporatism and Military Rule in Latin America.” Journal of Latin American Studies 12 (November 1986): 421–36. Pizarro, Eduardo. “Revolutionary Guerrilla Groups in Colombia.” In Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Perspective, edited by Charles Bergquist, Ricardo Peñaranda, and Gonzalo Sánchez, 169–94. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1992. *Potash, Robert A. The Army and Politics in Argentina, 1945–1962: Perón to Frondizi. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1980. Civilian weakness leading to propensity for military rule.—RJW AHA Guide 38.637.
Premo, Daniel L. “The Colombian Armed Forces in Search of a Mission.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 151–73. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Rankin, Richard C. “The Expanding Institutional Concepts of the Latin American Military Establishments: A Review Article.” Latin American Research Review 9 (Spring 1974): 81–108. Reed, Peter. “Latin America: The Move to the Cities.” In Guerrilla Warfare, edited by John Pimlott, 102–31. London: Bison Books, 1985. Reif, Linda L. “Seizing Control: Latin American Military Motives, Capabilities, and Risks.” Armed Forces and Society 10 (1984): 563–82. Remmer, Karen. “Evaluating the Policy Impact of Military Regimes in Latin America.” Latin American Research Review 13 no. 2 (1978): 39–54. Rock, David. Argentina, 1516–1982: From Spanish Colonization to the Falklands War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Excerpted as “The Military in Politics in Argentina, 1973–83,” in The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, edited by Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 321–34. 2d edition Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Rock, David. Argentina in the Twentieth Century. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1975. Excerpted as “Military Politics in Argentina, 1966–73,” in The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, edited by Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 315–20. 2d edition. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989.
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Roett, Riordan. Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society. 3d edition. New York: Praeger, 1984. Excerpted as “The Post-1964 Military Republic in Brazil” in The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, edited by Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 381–406. 2d edition. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Rouquié, Alain. The Military and the State in Latin America. Translated by Paul E. Sigmund. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Rouquié, Alain. “Military Revolutions and National Independence in Latin America, 1968–1971.” In Military Rule in Latin America: Function, Consequences and Perspectives, edited by Philippe C. Schmitter, 2–56. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 3. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1973. Rozman, Stephen L. “The Evolution of the Political Role of the Peruvian Military.” Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs 12 (1970): 539–64. Sanders, Thomas G. Military Government in Chile, Part II: The New Regime. Fieldstaff Reports, West Coast South American Series 22 no. 2 (1975), 1–12. Reprinted and edited as “Military Government in Chile” in The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, edited by Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 270–87. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978. Sandos, James A. “U.S. Military Policy toward Latin America.” World Affairs 135 (1973): 293–308. Schmidt, Steffen W. “Political Clientalism and Civil-Military Relations: The Colombian Case.” In Soldiers in Politics, edited by Steffen W. Schmidt and Gerald A. Dorfman, 176–85. Los Altos, California: Geron-X, 1974. Schmink, Marianne, and Charles H. Wood. Contested Frontiers in Amazonia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992. On the militarization of Amazonia from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s and its impact on the native population, focused on southern Pará.
Schmitter, Philippe C. “Foreign Military Assistance, National Military Spending and Military Rule in Latin America.” In Military Rule in Latin America: Function, Consequences and Perspectives, edited by Philippe C. Schmitter, 117–87. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 3. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1973.
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Schneider, Ronald M. “The Brazilian Military in Politics.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 51–77. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Sigmund, Paul E., ed. Models of Political Change in Latin America. New York: Praeger, 1970. Collected sources in part 2, “Military Rule,” includes chaps. 4, “Brazil: The Military vs. the Radical Left,” 121–56; 5, “Argentina: The Military vs. Peronism,” 157–79; 6, “Peru: The Military vs. Aprismo,” 180–220.
Sigmund, Paul E. “The Military in Chile.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 97–116. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Sinclair, Andrew. Che Guevara. Modern Masters. New York: Viking Press, 1970. *Skidmore, Thomas E. The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964–1985. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Best available overview.—RML AHA Guide 38.584.
Snow, Peter G. “Military Government in Argentina.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 35–50. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982. Springer, Philip B. “Disunity and Disorder: Factional Politics in the Argentine Military.” In The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development, edited by Henry Bienen, 145–68. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. Stepan, Alfred. The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971. Stepan, Alfred. “The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion.” In Authoritarian Brazil, edited by Alfred Stepan, 47–53. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1973. Excerpted in The Political Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader, edited by Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett, 280–84. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1980. Stepan, Alfred. Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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*Stoll, David. Between Two Armies in the Ixil Towns of Guatemala. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. *Taylor, Philip B., Jr. The Venezuelan Golpe de estado of 1958: The Fall of Marco Pérez Jiménez. Washington: Institute for the Comparative Study of Political Systems, 1968. Narrative account of unconstitutional military seizure of power.—EDL AHA Guide 38.494.
Waisman, Carolos H. “Argentina: Economic and Political Implications.” In The Implications of Third World Military Industrialization: Sowing the Serpents’ Teeth, edited by James Everett Katz, 93–102. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1986. Weaver, Jerry L. “Assessing the Impact of Military Rule: Alternative Approaches.” In Military Rule in Latin America: Function, Consequences and Perspectives, edited by Philippe C. Schmitter, 58–116. Sage Research Progress Series on War, Revolution, and Peacekeeping, vol. 3. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1973. Weaver, Jerry L. “Political Style of the Guatemalan Military Elite.” In Militarism in Developing Countries, edited by Kenneth Fidel, 59–98. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1975. Wesson, Robert. “Populism and Military Coups.” In New Military Politics in Latin America, edited by Robert Wesson, 17–34. Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger; Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1982.
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PART EIGHT
MILITARY INSTITUTIONS AND WARFARE IN WORKS NOT PRIMARILY HISTORICAL
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WAR IN SOCIAL THOUGHT
Military Institutions and Warfare in Social Thought. Scholarly and popular studies, commentaries, and polemics derived from philosophy, literature, history, and other humanities, and from sociology, political science and other social sciences on the place of military institutions and war in state and society. This section also includes works on the history of military thought. Adamson, Walter L. Hegemony and Revolution: A Study of Antonio Gramsci’s Political and Cultural Theory. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Gramsci’s use of military metaphor, 213–14.
Aho, James Alfred. German Realpolitik and American Sociology: An Inquiry into the Sources and Political Significance of the Sociology of Conflict. Lewisburg, Pennsylvania: Bucknell University Press; London: Associated University Presses, 1975. Especially chap. 2, “The German Historians and the Sociologists of Conflict,” 25–60, on Gumplowicz, Oppenheimer, and others.
Aho, James A. Religious Mythology and the Art of War: Comparative Religious Symbolisms of Military Violence. Contributions to the Study of Religion 3. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981. On links between military ethic and religious myth in certain premodern societies: Aztec Mexico, Vedic India, Tokugawa Japan, Confucian China, Islam and Medieval and early modern Europe.
Alcock, Norman Z. The War Disease. Oakville, Ontario: CPRI Press, 1972. On the cultural causes of war, see chap. 2, “Anthropological Evidence,” 17–31; for biological causes, see chap. 3, “Biological Evidence,” 17–31.
Alger, John I. The Quest for Victory: The History of the Principles of War. Contributions in Military History 10. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1982. Alland, Alexander, Jr. “Why Not Spencer?” Journal of Anthropological Research 30 (1974): 271–80. Darwin destroyed Spencer’s fundamentally teleological view.
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Anchor, Robert. “War and the Social Order.” In “Militarism and War,” edited by Katherine S. Kovács, 9–28. Humanities and War 5 (1982): 1–170. Development of ideas about war from the origin of civilization to the present.
Applebaum, Richard P. Theories of Social Change. Chicago: Markham, 1970. See chap. 3, “Conflict Theory: Change as Endemic to All Social Systems,” 81–98.
Aron, Raymond. Penser la guerre: Clausewitz. Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1976. Translated as Clausewitz: Philosopher of War, by Christine Booker and Norman Stone. London: Routlege & Kegan Paul; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1985. Paperback edition New York: Touchstone Books, 1986. Aron, Raymond. “Clausewitz’s Conceptual System.” Armed Forces and Society 1 (1974): 49–59. Avineri, Shlomo. Hegel’s Theory of the Modern State. Cambridge Studies in the History and Theory of Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Chap. 10, “War,” 194–207, on war as social cement and international decider of right.
Bannister, Robert C. Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in AngloAmerican Thought. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press, 1979. On war and social evolution, see chap. 12, “Imperialism and the Warrior Critique,” 226–42.
Bassford, Christopher. Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America, 1815–1945. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Berger, Martin. Engels, Armies, and Revolution: The Revolutionary Tactics of Classical Marxism. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1977. Berger, Martin. “Engels’ Theory of the Vanishing Army: A Key to the Development of Marxist Revolutionary Tactics.” Historian 37 (1975): 421–35. Berghahn, Volker R. Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861–1979. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982. How the concept has altered with events.
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Bierstedt, Robert. American Sociological Theory: A Critical History. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Discusses several theorists who stressed the role of conflict (including war) in social development; see chaps. 1, “William Graham Sumner,” 1–43; 2, “Lester Frank Ward,” 45–87; 4, “Edward Alsworth Ross,” 30–84; 6, “Robert Morrison MacIver,” 243–97; and 7, “Pitirim A. Sorokin,” 299–347.
Bierstedt, Robert. Power and Progress: Essays on Sociological Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. “The Social Darwinists,” 93–108.
*Blok, J. H. The Early Amazons: Modern and Ancient Perspectives on a Persistent Myth. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 120. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995. Boller, Paul F., Jr. American Thought in Transition: The Impact of Evolutionary Naturalism, 1865–1900. The History of American Thought and Culture. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969. Chap. 3, “An Evolutionary View of Society,” 47–69, on Spencer and his American followers; chap. 9, “The Day of the Saxon,” 199–226.
Bornemann, Alfred H. “Economists on War and Peace: A Historical Perspective.” International Review of History and Political Science 7 (August 1970): 103–17. From Adam Smith to Kenneth Boulding.
Bottomore, T. B. Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature. 2d edition. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971. See “War,” 219–22, in chap. 12, “Force in Social Life.”
Boulding, Kenneth E. Ecodynamics: A New Theory of Societal Evolution. Beverly Hills, California, and London: Sage Publications, 1978. On war and military institutions in social evolution, see especially chaps. 7, “The Threat System,” 141–62; and 12, “Dialectics and Evolution,” 253–68.
Bouthoul, Gaston. Traité de polémologie: Sociologie des guerres. 2d edition. Paris: Payot, 1970. See part 2, “Doctrines et opinions sur les guerres,” 38–109.
Bowler, Peter J. Evolution: The History of an Idea. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. See chap. 10, “The Social Implications of Darwinism,” 266–88.
Bozeman, Adda B. “War and the Clash of Ideas.” Orbis 20 (1976): 61–102. Current problems related to war cannot be analyzed solely in terms of Western concepts, because “war” and related terms are culturally limited concepts; crosscultural conflict may owe more to ethnicity and culture than to state politics.
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Bridgman, Jon M. “Thinking about War.” In War: A Historical, Political, and Social Study, edited by L. L. Farrar, Jr., 1–7. Studies in International and Comparative Politics 9. Santa Barbara, California, and Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1978. Approaches to defining the subject of war.
Brodie, Bernard. “Theories on the Causes of War.” In War and the Human Race, edited by Maurice N. Walsh, 12–23. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1971. From the Renaissance onwards.
Bucholz, Arden. Hans Delbrück and the German Military Establishment: War Images in Conflict. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1985. Carlier-Détienne, Jeannie. “Les Amazones font la guerre et l’amour.” L’Ethnographie 76 (1981): 11–33. Amazons are triply other: as women (and so to Greek thought barbarous; as females who fight like men; as women who deny their wombs to men’s heirs but rather steal men’s semen for their savage daughters.
Carneiro, Robert L. “Classical Evolution.” In Main Currents in Cultural Anthropology, edited by Raoul Naroll and Frada Naroll, 57–121. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. See especially “War as a Determinant,” 109–10; and “Natural Selection,” 110–14.
Carneiro, Robert L. “The Devolution of Evolution.” Social Biology 19 (1972): 248–58. Spencer’s original definition of evolution as change in the direction of complexity remains the best, simply weakened by later modifications.
Carneiro, Robert L. “The Four Faces of Evolution: Unilinear, Universal, Multilinear, and Differential.” In Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by John J. Honigmann, 89–110. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1973. Carnoy, Martin. The State and Political Theory. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984. Discussing Poulantzas on the state’s monopoly of legitimate physical violence: “the major instrument of legal violence—the army—serves as the model for the organization of schools and bureaucratic hierarchies both within the state and in the private corporations.” (117)
Carroll, Berenice A., and Clinton F. Fink. “Theories of War Causation: A Matrix for Analysis.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 55–71. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. How theories on the causes of war may be systematically evaluated.
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Carroll, Berenice A., Clinton F. Fink, and Jane E. Mohraz. Peace and War: A Guide to Bibliographies. Santa Barbara, California, and Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1983. How theories on the causes of war may be systematically evaluated.
Cartmill, Matt. A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature through History. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1993. For why mid-20th century scientists and public so readily accepted the idea of man as killer-ape on such scanty evidence, see chaps. 1, “The Killer Ape,” 1–14; and 2, “The Rich Smell of Meat and Wickedness,” 15–27.
Chanteur, Janine. From War to Peace. Translated by Shirley Ann Weisz. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1992. The place of war and peace in Western political philosophy from Machiavelli to Marx, with the hope of peace resting on restoring the female voice to humanity.
Clark, Linda L. Social Darwinism in France. University: University of Alabama Press, 1984. Chaps. 1, “Introduction: Darwinism and Social Darwinism,” 1–8; 10, “Social Darwinism and International Conflicts,” 159–75. See also discussion of Molinari (64–65); Novicow (123–24); and Letourneau (140–41).
Clarke, Robin. The Science of War and Peace. New York: McGrawHill, 1972. On innate aggression and biological approaches to the sources of warfare, see chap. 6, “The Psychology of Aggression,” 190–217; on social science approaches to the study of war, see chap. 7, “The Natural History of War,” 218–50.
Clausewitz, Carl von. Historical and Political Writings. Edited and translated by Peter Paret and Daniel Moran. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Peter Paret and Michael Howard. Introductory essays by Peter Paret, Michael Howard, and Bernard Brodie, with a commentary by Bernard Brodie. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976. Cohen, Ronald. “War and War Proneness in Pre- and Postindustrial States.” In Peace and War: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, edited by Mary LeCron Foster and Robert A. Rubinstein, 253–67. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1986. On 19th-century views about the relationship between industrialization and war, pessimists like Nietsche, Burckhart, and Spengler claiming an increase, optimists like Saint-Simon, Comte, and Aron a decrease.
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Collins, Randall. “The Empirical Validity of the Conflict Tradition.” Theory and Society 1 (1974): 147–78. Reprinted in Sociology since Midcentury: Essays in Theory Cumulation, by Randall Collins, 13–44. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Including remarks on Weber’s views about the administration of violence.
Collins, Randall. Weberian Sociological Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. “Political and Economic Determinants of Family Organization,” 277–85, in chap. 11, “Weber’s Theory of the Family,” discusses such factors as men’s houses.
Corning, Peter A. “Durkheim and Spencer.” British Journal of Sociology 33 (1982): 359–82. Strongly argued case for Spencer’s importance, both intrinsic and for his influence on Durkheim, though nothing specifically on war.
Crook, D. P. Benjamin Kidd: Portrait of a Social Darwinist. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Chaps. 1, “Social Evolution,” 10–80; and 6, “The Science of Power,” 324–76. See also index entries on war.
Crook, D. P. “Darwin on War and Aggression.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 29 (1983): 344–53. Darwin favored a notion of group competition in which more successfully organized people would out-compete and outfight others in a state of constant war (especially 349–50), citing Descent of Man, 196, 199, 200.
Crook, Paul. Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the “Origin of Species” to the First World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. On the contested implications of Darwinism for militarism or mutual cooperation.
Cross, J. E. “The Ethic of War in Old English.” In England before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy Whitelock, edited by Peter Clemoes and Kathleen Hughes, 269 –82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Christianity and the problem of justifying war.
Dalton, George. “Karl Polanyi’s Analysis of Long-Distance Trade and His Wider Paradigm.” In Ancient Civilization and Trade, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, 63–132. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975. Trade as alternative to forms of exchange—raiding, tribute, taxation—through military means or for military ends.
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Davis, Lance E. “It’s a Long, Long Road to Tipperary; or, Reflections on Organized Violence, Protection Rates, and Related Topics: The New Political History.” Journal of Economic History 40 (March 1980): 1–16. Endorsing Lane’s economic analysis of coercive government as protection racket.
Dole, Gertrude E. “Foundations of Contemporary Evolutionism.” In Main Currents in Cultural Anthropology, edited by Raoul Naroll and Frada Naroll, 247–79. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. Doig, Kathleen Hardesty. “War in the Reform Programme of the Encyclopédie.” War & Society 6 (May 1988): 1–10. Dougherty, James E., and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., eds. Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey. 2d edition. New York: Harper & Row, 1981. Chap. 5, “The Older Theories of Conflict,” 181–212; 6, “Economic Theories of Imperialism and War,” 213–50; 7, “Microcosmic Theories of Violent Conflict,” 251–300; 8, “Macrocosmic Theories of Violent Conflict: Revolution and War,” 301–67.
Draper, Hal. Karl Marx’s Theory of Revolution, vol. 1, State and Bureaucracy. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977. On military institutions and coercive force in the origin and development of the state, see especially chaps. 11, “The State and Society,” 237–62; and 12, “The State in Practice: Methods and Forms,” 263–81.
Driver, Harold E. “Cultural Diffusion.” In Main Currents in Cultural Anthropology, edited by Raoul Naroll and Frada Naroll, 157–83. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. duBois, Page. Centaurs and Amazons: Women and the Pre-History of the Great Chain of Being. Women and Culture Series. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982. War and marriage as the complementary institutions on which Greek society rested (especially 59–60, 79, 81, 110, 150).
Duke, James T. Conflict and Power in Public Life. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1976. On the development of conflict theory in sociology, with chapters on Marx, Weber, Sumner, Simmel, etc., but virtually no mention of war or military institutions.
Dumézil, Georges. The Destiny of the Warrior. Translated by Alf Hiltebeitel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. Physical force as one of three pillars of Indo-European ideology and mythology (the others being sovereignty and fecundity), illustrated in part by Vedic myths of the warrior god Indra.
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Dumézil, Georges. The Stakes of the Warrior. Translated by David Weeks. Edited by Jaan Puhvel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Indo-European mythology suggests certain tensions in the role of the warrior, at once defender-hero and menace-demon, illustrated in part by Sisupala from the Mahabharata.
Dunn, David. “War and Social Change.” In The Use of Force in International Relations, edited by F. S. Northedge, 220–47. New York: Free Press, 1974. Especially “War and Society in History,” 225–32, on Hegel, Mill, Comte and war considered in the abstract, Sombart and Nef on war as stimulant to capitalism.
Durkheim, Emile. Durkheim on Politics and the State. Edited by Anthony Giddens. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1986. Chap. 7, “Patriotism and Militarism,” 194–233, includes several excerpts from Durkheim’s writings.
Eisenstadt, S. N., ed. Political Sociology: A Reader. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Chap. 2, “The Embedment of the Political in Social Structures in Primitive Societies: Introduction,” 77–83, discusses conquest theory of state origins most fully expressed by Oppenheimer, but “also very widespread among many sociologists and anthropologists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.” (77)
Embree, Ainslie T. “Oriental Despotism: A Note on the History of the Idea.” Societas 1 (1971): 255–69. Engel, Josef. “Universalgeschichte und Kriegsgeschichte.” Saeculum 21 (1970): 312–24. Military organization, practice, and concepts can provide a useful framework for universal history, but they vary so greatly from one age or culture to another that the first step must be analysis and comparison between ages.
Feld, Maury D. “Machiavelli’s Militia and Machiavelli’s Mercenaries.” In The Military, Militarism, and the Polity: Essays in Honor of Morris Janowitz, edited by Michel Louis Martin and Ellen Stern McCrate, 79–92. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1984. Ferguson, John. War and Peace in the World’s Religions. London: Sheldon Press, 1977; New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. What each major religion prescribes.
Fernandez, José A. “Erasmus on the Just War.” Journal of the History of Ideas 34 (1971): 209–26. War conceived as curable political disease.
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Fernández-Santamaria, J. A. The State, War and Peace: Spanish Political Thought in the Renaissance, 1516–1559. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Chap. 5, “The Age of Erasmus on War and Peace,” 120–60. See also discussion of the origins of political power and related matters, 63–75.
Fields, Rick. The Code of the Warrior: In History, Myth, and Everyday Life. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. Military history as a guide to life.
Firestone, Shulamith. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. New York: William Morrow, 1970. Reprinted New York: Bantam Books, 1971. Flannery, Kent V. “Childe the Evolutionist: A Perspective from Nuclear America.” In The Archaeology of V. Gordon Childe: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by David R. Harris, 101–12 (Discussion, 112–19). Proceedings of the V. Gordon Childe Centennial Conference held at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 8–9 May 1992, under auspices of the Institute of Archaeology and the Prehistoric Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. “The ‘Rank Revolution,’” 104–105, notes Childe’s blind spot with regard to the role of war in rank societies (chiefdoms), which are much more evident in New World than Old World archaeology; “The Urban Revolution,” 105–106, notes that war continued to shape state societies; for neither chiefdom nor state was war simply an aberration and destroyer of surplus. These points were emphasized in the discussion, especially by Bruce Trigger (117).
Forget, Philippe. “Paix et guerre dans la philosophie classique.” Stratégique 8 (1980): 77–87. How war and peace figured in the philosophy of Hobbes, Machiavelli, Fichte, Proudhon, and Locke.
Fortes, Meyer. Kinship and the Social Order: The Legacy of Lewis Henry Morgan. The Lewis Henry Morgan Lectures/1963. Chicago: Aldine, 1969. Chap. 12, “Kinship and the Axiom of Amity,” 219–49, comments on war and the definition of social relations.
Frankel, Joseph. “War, Theory of.” In Encyclopedia Britannica: Macropaedia, vol. 19, 542–48. 15th edition. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1981. Reviews major approaches to understanding the causes and nature of war.
Friedrich, Carl J. “Erasmus and Kant on War and Peace.” World Affairs 133 ( June 1970): 1–12. Thinking about war at the beginning and end of the period that saw the major development of modern military institutions.
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Gallie, W. B. Philosophers of Peace and War: Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tolstoy. The Wiles Lectures, Queen’s University, Belfast, 1976. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Aspects of the Western intellectual tradition related to war and military institutions.
Gallie, W. B. Understanding War. Points of Conflict. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Gat, Azar. The Development of Military Thought: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. Gat, Azar. “Montecuccoli: Humanist Philosophy, Paracelsian Science and Military Theory.” War & Society 6 (September 1988): 21–31. Gat, Azar. The Origins of Military Thought: From the Enlightenment to Clausewitz. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Gellner, Ernest. “The Bourgeois Marx.” New Republic, 2 September 1985, 32–36. The epitome of the bourgeois spirit, Marx argues that despite appearances the swordsman does not control: coercion is the slave of production, not vice versa.
Gerhard, Dietrich. “Otto Hintze: His Work and His Significance in Historiography.” Central European History 3 (1970): 17–48. Ghougassian, Joseph P., ed. and trans. Toward Women: A Study of the Origins of Western Attitudes through Greco-Roman Philosophy. San Diego, California: Lukas & Sons, 1977. Comments on military participation as criterion of citizenship.
Gilbert, Felix. “Machiavelli.” In Renaissance Men and Ideas, edited by Robert Schwobel, 53–65. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1971. Stressing Machiavelli’s view that political power rested on military force.
Glossop, Ronald J. Confronting War: An Examination of Humanity’s Most Pressing Problem. Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland, 1982. On the definition of war and peace, individual aggression as a cause of war, the significance of intergroup competition, and the value of war; see especially chaps. 3, “The Conceptual Framework,” 7–18; and 4, “The Causes of War: Some General Considerations,” 36–46.
Goody, Jack. “British Functionalism.” In Main Currents in Cultural Anthropology, edited by Raoul Naroll and Frada Naroll, 185–215. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
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Gorz, André. “Farewell to the Proletariat.” Translated by Michael Lazarin. Semiotext(e) 4 no. 2 (1982): 260–70. Marx’s military terminology (263–64).
Gouldner, Alvin W. The Two Marxisms: Contradictions and Anomalies in the Development of Theory. New York: Seabury Press, 1980. On the problem of state origins and the role of coercive force in state development, see especially chap. 11, “State and Class in Marxism,” 324–54.
Green, Sally. Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe. Bradford-onAvon, England: Moonraker Press, 1981. Quote on war as stimulus to invention and agent of diffusion (99); quoted early views on nonmilitary nature of Indus civilization, then Wheeler’s discovery of fortifications and revised views (108).
Greenhouse, Carol J. “Fighting for Peace.” In Peace and War: CrossCultural Perspectives, edited by Mary LeCron Foster and Robert A. Rubinstein, 49–60. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1986. On the anthropologist’s bias toward war as pathology, while ignoring the greater problem of obedience (49–54).
Greenwood, Davydd J. The Taming of Evolution: The Persistence of Nonevolutionary Views in the Study of Humans. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984. Chap. 7, “Cultural Materialism,” 171–99, offers a critique of Harris’s view of the origins of war (186–88).
Gross, Michael, and Mary Beth Averill. “Evolution and Patriarchal Myths of Scarcity and Competition.” In Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science, edited by Sandra Harding and Merrill B. Hintikka, 71–95. Synthese Library: Studies in Epistemology, Logic, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1983. War as controlling metaphor in evolutionary and other social theories.
Haas, Michael. “Three Approaches to the Study of War.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology 11 (1970): 34–47. Psychological tensions in decision makers, social conflict, and defects in the international political system.
Hacker, Barton C. “Military Institutions and Social Order: Transformations of Western Thought since the Enlightenment.” War & Society 11 (October 1993): 1–23.
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Hale, J. R. “Sixteenth-Century Explanations of War and Violence.” Past & Present no. 51 (1971): 3–26. The replacement of religious by secular explanations for individual and group violence.
Hamilton, Scott. “Competition and Warfare: Functional versus Historical Explanations.” Canadian Journal of Native Studies 5 (1985): 93–113. Harrison, Jonathan. Hume’s Theory of Justice. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. On Hume’s view of military origins of government (183–84).
Hartsock, Nancy. “The Barracks Community in Western Political Thought: Prolegomena to a Feminist Critique of War and Politics.” In “Women and Men’s Wars,” edited by Judith Hicks Stiehm, 283–86. Women’s Studies International Forum 5 (1982): 245–391. The warrior hero and the definition of Western political life.
Hartsock, Nancy C. M. Money, Sex, and Power: Towards a Feminist Historical Materialism. Longman Series in Feminist Theory. New York: Longman, 1983. Chap. 8, “The Erotic Dimension and the Homeric Ideal,” 186–209, considers links between warlike values and women’s subordination.
Helmert, Heinz. “Friedrich Engels—Soldat der Revolution und Militärtheoretiker der Arbeiterklasse.” Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte 9 (1970): 389–405. Henderson, W. O. The Life of Friedrich Engels. 2 vols. London: Frank Cass, 1976. On Engels as a military thinker, see chap. 7, “The General,” 2:415–56.
Heraclitus fragments 53 and 80. In The Art and Thought of Heraclitus: An Edition of the Fragments with Translation and Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. F. 53: “War is father of all and king of all; and some he has shown as gods, others men; some he has made slaves, others free” (commentary, 207–10); F. 80: “One must realize that war is shared and Conflict is Justice, and that all things come to pass (and are ordained?) in accordance with conflict” (205–207).
Herrmann, Joachim. “Militärische Demokratie und die Übergangsperiode zur Klassengesellschaft.” Ethnographische-Archäologische Zeitschrift 23 (1982): 11–31. On the genesis, content, and range of application of the Marx-Engels term “military democracy,” concluding that it should be used only for the end of ancient society.
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Heyer, Paul. Nature, Human Nature, and Society: Marx, Darwin, Biology, and the Human Sciences. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1982. See especially chap. 9, “Engels and Evolutionary Theory,” 189–213.
Hiltebeitel, Alf. The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahàbhàrata. Symbol, Myth, and Ritual Series. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1976. On the religious uses of war symbolism.
Hintze, Otto. The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, edited by Felix Gilbert. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. Hoffman, Louise E. “War, Revolution, and Psychoanalysis: Freudian Thought Begins to Grapple with Social Reality.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17 (1981): 251–69. How Freud came to the problem of war and characterized it as regressive behavior.
Horowitz, Irving Louis. “The Treatment of Conflict in Sociological Literature.” International Journal of Group Tensions 1 (1971): 350–63. Reviews and discusses approaches to conflict and warfare in basic sociological literature since 1883.
Horowitz, Irving Louis. “The Sociology Textbook: The Treatment of Conflict in American Sociological Literature.” Social Science Information 11 (1972): 51–63. Characteristic treatment of conflict and war in sociological texts, 1920–70, shows swings more related to political and professional concerns than cumulative science; obsessed with structure and function, sociology ignores war because it avoids events.
Ibn Khaldûn. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated by Franz Rosenthal. Edited by N. J. Dawood. Bollingen Series 43. 3 vols. Revised edition. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967. See especially vol. 1 for the classic formulation of conquest theory of state origins, more specifically chap. 3, section 35, “Wars and the Methods of Waging War Practiced by the Various Nations,” 73–89.
Iversen, Claus. “Krieg und Zivilisation.” Gesellschaft, Staat, Erziehung: Blätter für politische Bildung and Erziehung 16 (1971): 340–46. Toynbee versus McClelland on the function of war in human society.
Janssen, Wilhelm. “Krieg und Frieden in der Geschichte des europäische Denkens.” In Kirche zwischen Krieg und Frieden: Studien zur Geschichte des deutschen Protestantismus, edited by Wolfgang Huber and Johannes Schwerdtfeger, 67–129. Forschungen und Berichte der evangelischen Studiengemeinschaft, vol. 31. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett, 1976. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century.
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Johnson, James Turner. The Holy War Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997. Jones, Greta. Social Darwinism and English Thought: The Interaction between Biological and Social Theory. Sussex, England: Harvester Press; Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1980. Latter-day social darwinism a la Lorenz, Ardrey “also shared with its predecessors the discovery of the essential unchanging character of the structure of human society showing how its natural basis reflected war, acquisitiveness, property, aggression and inferiority of the female.” (174); for a critique of these views see chaps. 9, “The Legacy of Social Darwinism,” 160–77, and 10, “Philosophy, Social Science and Darwin,” 178–95.
Kaegi, Walter Emil. “On War.” Armed Forces and Society 5 (1978): 123–31. Essay review of Aron on Clausewitz, Paret on Clausewitz and the state, HowardParet translation of Clausewitz.
Keightley, David N. “Clean Hands and Shining Elements: Heroic Action in Early Chinese and Greek Culture.” In Religion and Authority, edited by Toben Siebers, 13–51. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Khazanov, Anatolii M. “‘Military Democracy’ and the Epoch of Class Formation.” In Soviet Ethnology and Anthropology Today, edited by Yu. V. Bromley, 133–46. The Hague: Mouton, 1974. Commentary on Morgan’s formulation of a stage in social evolution.
Kiernan, V. G. “Marx, Engels and the Indian Mutiny.” In Homage to Karl Marx: A Symposium. Delhi, 1969. Reprinted in Marxism and Imperialism, by V. G. Kiernan, 203–37. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975. Including extensive discussion of Marx and Engels as military critics.
Kinloch, Graham C. Sociological Theory: Its Development and Major Paradigms. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977. Chaps. 7, “Traditional Sociological Theory II: The Conflict Paradigm,” 99–134; and 12, “Contemporary Sociological Theory II: The Conflict Paradigm Continued,” 229–48.
Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield. The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts. 2d edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Chap. 6, “Heraclitus,” 181–212, includes discussion of fragments 53 and 80 (193–94).
Kitchen, Martin. “Friedrich Engels’ Theory of War.” Military Affairs 41 (1977): 119–24. On Engels as a critic of current military problems.
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Klapp, Orrin E. Models of Social Order: An Introduction to Sociological Theory. Palo Alto, California: National Press Books, 1973. Chaps. 6, “Order from Power,” 105–29, on Machiavelli and later power theorists; and 9, “Order through Struggle,” 193–232, especially “Social Darwinism: Nature’s Pruning Hook,” 208–21, on Spencer, Gumplowicz, and others.
Kleinbaum, Abby Wettan. The War against the Amazons. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983. “As long as civilization continues to be gauged in terms of arms and rule, of political and military leadership, the Amazon image will remain critical for women, even if an Amazon state never receives the sanction and certification of being an indisputable historical fact. It is enough that the legends create a possibility, a foot in the door, a vantage point from which women can see themselves and be seen as movers and shapers of the historical process.” (223)
*Krader, Lawrence. “Theory of Evolution, Revolution and the State: The Critical Relation of Marx to his Contemporaries Darwin, Carlyle, Morgan, Maine and Kovalevsky.” In The History of Marxism, vol. 1, edited by Eric Hobsbawm, 192–226. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978. Kuklick, Henrika. “Tribal Exemplars: Images of Political Authority in British Anthropology, 1885–1945.” In Functionalism Historicized: Essays on British Social Anthropology, edited by George W. Stocking, Jr., 59–82. History of Anthropology 2. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Landau, Misia. “The Ambiguity of History.” American Anthropologist 96 (1994): 685–87. Cartmill’s thesis in A View to a Death in the Morning is persuasive, but slights the role of human hunting humans (primitive warfare) in social evolution, as Darwin argued in The Descent of Man.
Leacock, Eleanor Burke. “Introduction.” In The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State: In the Light of the Researches of Lewis H. Morgan, by Frederick Engels, 7–67. New York: International Publishers, 1972. Especially “The Emergence of the State,” 46–57, on the origin of slavery with war prisoners and the transition from communal to class society.
Lebrun, Richard A. “Joseph de Maistre’s ‘Philosophic’ View of War.” In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, Omaha 1979, edited by Joyce Duncan Falk, 43–52, with commentary by W. Jay Reedy, 53–56. Santa Barbara, California, 1981. On war as divine retribution.
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Legters, Lyman H. “Marxism and War.” In War: A Historical, Political, and Social Study, edited by L. L. Farrar, Jr., 71–75. Studies in International and Comparative Politics 9. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 1978. Lerner, Gerda. The Creation of Patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Incidental remarks on militarism and warfare in origin of the archaic state and subordination of women, especially in chaps. 3, “The Stand-in Wife and the Pawn,” 54–75; and 4, “The Woman Slave,” 76–100.
Lienhardt, Godfrey. “Edward Tyler.” The Founding Fathers of Social Science: A Series from “New Society,” edited by Timothy Raison, revised by Paul Barker, 100–107. London: Scolar Press, 1979. Lincoln, Bruce. Priests, Warriors, and Cattle: A Study in the Ecology of Religions. Hermaneutics: Studies in the History of Religions, 10. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. Common life-styles yield shared traits, including modes of war, for ancient IndoIranian and modern Nilotic peoples.
Loraux, Nicole. “Le lit, la guerre.” L’Homme 21 (1981): 37–67. Classical Greek views on the moral equation of female valor in childbirth, male valor in war.
Luxemburg, Rosa. Selected Political Writings of Rosa Luxemburg, edited by Dick Howard, 135–58. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1971. MacCary, W. Thomas. Childlike Achilles: Ontogeny and Phylogeny in the “Iliad.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. See especially part 2, chaps. 2, “Why Men Fight,” 109–18, on war as what defines man; and 17, “The Phenomenology of War,” 217–35, on male self-definition through combat.
MacRae, Donald G. “Adam Ferguson.” In The Founding Fathers of Social Science: A Series from “New Society,” edited by Timothy Raison, revised by Paul Barker, 26–35. London: Scolar Press, 1979. Malefijt, Annemarie de Waal. Images of Man: A History of Anthropological Thought. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974. On the problem of war in human society as product of culture or nature, see chap. 14, “The New Anthropology,” 335–47, at 344–46.
Mann, Michael. “War and Social Theory: Into Battle with Classes, Nations and States.” In The Sociology of War and Peace, edited by Colin
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Creighton and Martin Shaw, 54–72. Dobbs Ferry, New York: Sheridan House, 1987. On the concept of the state as nexus of war, its development in the 19th century and its application in the 20th.
Martin, Michel Louis. “Of Arms and the Man: A Short Intellectual History of Morris Janowitz’s Contribution to the Sociology of the Military.” In The Military, Militarism, and the Polity: Essays in Honor of Morris Janowitz, edited by Michel Louis Martin and Ellen Stern McCrate, 1–31. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1984. Marvin, F. S. Comte: The Founder of Sociology. Modern Sociologists. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1937. Chap. 8, “The Ideal of Peace,” 122–37, on Comte’s ideas about progress from militarism to industrialism.
Mendieta y Núñez, Lucio. “Sociología de la guerra.” Boletín Uruguayo de Sociología nos. 19–20 (1972): 61–75. Review of sociological theories of war, especially Sorokin.
Miller, Daniel, and Christopher Tilley. “Ideology, Power and Prehistory: An Introduction.” In Ideology, Power and Prehistory, edited by Daniel Miller and Christopher Tilley, 1–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Especially “Power,” 5–9, discussing applicability of Foucault’s Discipline and Punish to archaeological material.
Murrin, Michael. History and Warfare in Renaissance Epic. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1994. Paperback edition, 1997. Nagy, Gregory. The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979. Paperback edition, 1981. Military hero and epic poetry in the Greek tradition.
Nelson, Keith L., and Spencer C. Olin, Jr. Why War? Ideology, Theory, and History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. Heavily documented review of ideas about the causes of war, including its origins and institutions.
Nisbet, Robert. The Social Philosophers: Community and Conflict in Western Thought. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1973. On the centrality of military institutions to civilization, see chap. 1, “The Military Community,” 11–90.
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Nettleship, Martin A. “Definitions.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 73–91. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. On meanings of war, aggression, conflict, violence, and other terms.
Noland, Aaron. “Proudhon’s Sociology of War.” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 29 (1970): 289–304. War as the hallmark of civilization, central to the creation of the state.
North, Robert C. “Wright on War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 14 (1970): 487–98. Discusses Quincy Wright’s views, including problem of war in sociocultural evolution (495).
Novicow, Jacques. Peace and Civilization: Selections from the Writings of Jacques Novicow. Edited by Sandi E. Cooper. The Garland Library of War and Peace. New York: Garland, 1975. See especially part 2, “On Conflict, Violence and War,” 97–145.
Oestreich, Gerhard. Neostoicism and the Early Modern State. Edited by Brigitta Oestreich and H. G. Koenigsberger. Translated by David McLintock. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Especially chap. 5, “The Military Renascence,” 76–89.
Okin, Susan Moller. Women in Western Political Thought. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1979. For Plato on women’s military role, see chaps. 2, “Philosopher Queens and Private Wives,” 28–50, at 48–50; 3, “Female Nature and Social Structure,” 51–70, at 60–63.
Oldroyd, D. R. Darwinian Impacts: An Introduction to the Darwinian Revolution. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1980. Chaps. 16, “Social Darwinism,” 212–24; 17, “Darwinism and Politics,” 225–43.
Paret, Peter. Clausewitz and the State: The Man, His Theories, and His Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976. Reprinted Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985. Paret, Peter, with Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert, eds. Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986. Indispensable collection of 28 articles on the development of European military thought since the Renaissance.
Peel, J. D. Y. Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Numerous remarks on war and military institutions, especially in chaps. 6, “Evolution,” 131–65 (struggle for existence); and 8, “Militancy and Industrialism,” 192–223.
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Pelczynski, Z. A., ed. Hegel’s Political Philosophy, Problems and Perspectives: A Collection of New Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Perlmutter, Amos. “Carl von Clausewitz, Enlightenment Philosopher: A Comparative Analysis.” Journal of Strategic Studies 11 (1988): 7–19. Peterson, Steven A. “Biopolitics: Lessons from History.” Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences 12 (1976): 354–66. Biological metaphor in the work of Bagehot, Gumplowicz, and others, equating war and the struggle for existence.
Philonenko, Alexis. Essais sur la philosophie de la guerre. Problèmes et Controverses. Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1976. War and peace in the thought of Machiavelli, Kant, Hegel, Proudhon, and others.
Pomeroy, William J., ed. Guerrilla Warfare and Marxism: A Collection of Writings from Karl Marx to the Present on Armed Struggle for Liberation and for Socialism. New York: International Publishers, 1968. Pouncey, Peter R. The Necessities of War: A Study of Thucydides’ Pessimism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980. Rapoport, Anatol. “Changing Conceptions of War in the United States.” In American Thinking about Peace and War: New Essays on American Thought and Attitudes, edited by Ken Booth and Moorhead Wright, 59–82. Sussex, England: Harvester Press; New York: Barnes & Noble, 1978. Including the nature and causes of war.
Rapoport, Anatol. “War and Peace.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 412 (March 1974): 152–62. Mainly current problems.
Ray, James Lee. “Understanding Rummel.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 26 (1982): 161–87. Critical review of important work.
Rendall, Jane. The Origins of the Scottish Enlightenment. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1978. Chap. 5, “Social Institutions,” 148–61.
Ropp, Theodore. “War and Militarism.” In Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, edited by Philip P. Wiener, vol. 4, 500–509. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973. Including discussion of the origin of war.
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Rosenbloom, Nancy L. “Romantic Militarism.” Journal of the History of Ideas 43 (1982): 249–68. Attitudes toward war among the Romantics, from the French Revolution through the early 19th century.
Rummel, R. J. Conflict in Perspective (1977). Volume 3 of Understanding Conflict and War. 5 vols. Beverly Hills, Cal.: Sage, 1975–1981. Reviews the subject psychologically, socioculturally, and philosophically. Cf. Ray; Wiberg.
Russett, Cynthia Eagle. Darwin in America: The Intellectual Response, 1865–1912. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976. Chap. 4, “Taming the Tiger: Darwinism in Society and Social Thought,” 83–123.
Samuels, Warren J. “Adam Smith and the Economy as a System of Power.” Review of Social Economy 31 (Oct. 1973): 123–37. Mutual coercion as basis of economic activity.
Sariola, Sakari, Sandra Binns, and Caroline Karlin. “War and Peace: An Annotated Bibliography.” Kansas Journal of Sociology 7 (1971): 148–65. Paragraph descriptions of 102 items, no discernible focus.
Sagan, Eli. “The Failure of Eros: Classical Greece and the Questions of Cultural Evolution.” Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology 3 (1980): 379–401. The Homeric warrior ideal of physical prowess and courage in battle was antithetical to love.
Sagan, Eli. The Lust to Annihilate: A Psychoanalytic Study of Violence in Ancient Greek Culture. New York: Psychohistory Press, 1979. Violence and physical aggression derived from the shame-oriented ideal of Homeric warriorhood.
Satty, Glenn Jay. “Fichte on the State and War: A Metaphysical Justification.” Ph.D. dissertation, Religion, Boston College, 1983. In Dissertation Abstracts International (August 1983). Based on Natural Right (1796): When violation of ego protected by state justifies war.
Saxonhouse, Arlene W. “Men, Women, War, and Politics: Family and Polis in Aristophanes and Euripides.” Political Theory 8 (1980): 65–81. Lysistrata and Trojan Women in the context of the polis as military community. “In ancient Greece, the public world could only be defined in terms of war. Political leaders were military leaders.” (66)
Saxonhouse, Arlene W. “The Philosopher and the Female in the Political Thought of Plato.” Political Theory 4 (1976): 195–212. Women included as guardians (book 5) were de-sexed and sometimes ignored there-
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after: politics mainly war and Plato proposed women mainly to show why they make poor citizens; i.e., they can’t fight. They should be associated with life and generation, not death and war.
Schein, Seth L. The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer’s “Iliad.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. See especially chap. 3, “War, Death, and Heroism,” 67–88.
Schellenberg, James A. “Commentary: Sociological Analyses of Human Conflict.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 197–200. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Schneider, Louis. Classical Theories of Social Change. Morristown, New Jersey: General Learning Press, 1976. Overview of social revolutionary theory from late 18th to early 20th century.
Service, Elman R. A Century of Controversy: Ethnological Issues from 1860 to 1960. Studies in Anthropology. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1985. Part 4, “The Origins of Government,” 173–99, reviews the major theories of the origin of the state.
Sidebottom, Harry. “Philosophers’ Attitudes to Warfare under the Principate.” In War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 240–64. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 5. London: Routledge, 1993. Siegel, J. E. “Violence and Order in Machiavelli.” In Violence and Aggression in the History of Ideas, edited by Philip P. Wiener and John Fisher, 49–64. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1974. Remarks on military institutions and the ordering of civilized society.
Shields, Stephanie A. “Nineteenth-Century Evolutionary Theory and Male Scientific Bias.” In Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture? Reports, Definitions and Debate, edited by George W. Barlow and James Silverberg, 489–502. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Selected Symposium 35. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980. Simon, W. M. “Power and Responsibility: Otto Hintze’s Place in German Historiography.” In The Responsibility of Power: Historical Essays in Honor of Hajo Holborn, edited by Leonard Krieger and Fritz Stern, 215–37. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1968. Paperback edition, 1969.
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Skinner, Quentin. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol. 1, The Renaissance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Placing Machiavelli’s military concerns in fuller context (many others preferred militia to mercenaries). Preface includes interesting remarks on the origin of concept of state as distinct from the state itself.
Smith, Anthony D. “War and Ethnicity: The Role of Warfare in the Formation, Self-Images and Cohesion of Ethnic Communities.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 4 (1981): 375–97. On the revival of Spencer, Gumplowicz, and Sorokin on war as a factor in social order and social change since the 1950s by Andreski, Finer, Howard, Marwick.
Smith, Steve. “War and Human Nature.” In Politics and Human Nature, edited by Ian Forbes and Steve Smith, 164–79. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. Review of theories using Waltz typology of individual, state, or international system level of causation.
Smith, Steven B. “Hegel’s Views on War, the State, and International Relations.” American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 624–32. Somerville, John. “Marxism and War.” In The Critique of War: Contemporary Philosophical Explorations, edited by Robert Ginsberg, 138–51. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1969. Spencer, Herbert. The Evolution of Society: Selections from Herbert Spencer’s “Principles of Sociology.” Edited by Robert L. Carneiro. Classics in Anthropology. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1967. Spencer, Herbert. Principles of Sociology. Edited by Stanislav Andreski. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1969. Military institutions and warfare as central theme in social evolution.
Steensgaard, Niels. “Violence and the Rise of Capitalism: Frederic C. Lane’s Theory of Protection and Tribute.” Review 5 (1981): 247–73. Strongly supporting with evidence from early modern Europe Lane’s thesis in “Economic Consequences of Organized Violence.”
Steigleder, H. “Prinzipien der Kriegskunst in den militärischen Schriften von Friedrich Engels.” Militärgeschichte 19 (1980): 521–33. Stepansky, Paul E. “A History of Aggression in Freud.” Psychological Issues 10 no. 3: Monograph 39. New York: International Universities Press, 1977. See chap. 6, “The Impact of War: Aggression and the Metapsychology,” 143–69.
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Strasser, Hermann. The Normative Structure of Sociology: Conservative and Emancipatory Themes in Social Thought. International Library of Sociology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976. Chaps. 2, “Setting the Sociological Stage,” 31–43 (Hobbes, Rousseau, Montesquieu); 3, “The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment,” 44–63 (Smith, Ferguson, Millar); and 7, “The Conflict Theory of Society: A Theoretical Antithesis,” 149–209.
Stuart, Reginald C. The Half-Way Pacifist: Thomas Jefferson’s View of War. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978. War as pragmatic instrument of policy; Jefferson as proto-Clausewitzian because his thinking derived from same 18th-century roots.
Svalastoga, Kaare. On Deadly Violence. Norske Videnskaps-Akademi II. Hist. Filos. Klasse. Skrifter. N.s. 17. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1982. Chap. 8, “Territorial Violence,” 119–32, reviews major theories and findings in sociology of war.
Terray, Emmanuel. “Morgan and Contemporary Anthropology.” In Marxism and “Primitive” Societies: Two Societies, by Emmanuel Terray, 9–92. Translated by Mary Klopper. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972. Remarks on war and origin of chieftainship (49), on growth of property as cause of war (62–63), and military democracy and the war leader (72–73).
Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. “Failure: War,” 40–44, in chap. 1, “Hegelian Roots,” discusses Hegel’s views on the positive social role of war.
Thompson, William Irwin. The Time Falling Bodies Take to Light: Mythology, Sexuality, and the Origins of Culture. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981. See chap. 3, “Agriculturalization,” 118–56, on warfare, trade, and military institutions to protect growing wealth (133–35), and on war, masculine military power, and the passage of woman-centered Neolithic society (154–56); chap. 4, “Civilization and Alienation in Ancient Sumer,” 159–208, on fortification, weaponry, and origin of civilization (159–61), and on warfare, kingship, and the city against the barbarian (207–208).
Tilly, Charles. “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime.” In Bringing the State Back In, edited by Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschmeyer, and Theda Skocpol, 169–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Advancing the economic analysis of military institutions proposed by Lane and supplemented by Bean.
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Topoff, Howard. “Social Organization of Raiding and Emigrations in Army Ants.” Advances in the Study of Behavior 14 (1984): 81–126. Analogy to human military activity pervasive in 19th century briefly discussed and dismissed.
Truyol y Serra, Antonio. “La guerra y la paz en Rousseau y Kant.” Revista de Estudios Políticos new series 8 (1979): 47–62. On the problem of finding a locus for war causation in individual, group, or state.
Turner, Bryan S. For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981. Chap. 7, “Feudalism and Prebendalism,” 203–33, discusses Weber’s views on the nature of the ownership of the means of physical violence, among other matters.
Turner, Bryan S. Weber and Islam: A Critical Study. International Library of Sociology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978. See chaps. 6, “Islam and the City,” 93–106, on military institutions and urbanism (especially 95–99); and 8, “Islam and Ottoman Decline,” 122–34, on military organization in shaping social relationships.
Turner, Jonathan H., and Leonard Beighley. The Emergence of Sociological Theory. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1981. Chaps. 3, “Herbert Spencer I: The Intellectual Origins of His Thought,” 54–62; 9, “Max Weber I: The Intellectual Origins of His Thought,” 193–209.
Verene, D. P. “Hegel’s Account of War.” In Hegel’s Political Philosophy, Problems and Perspectives: A Collection of New Essays, edited by Z. A. Pelczynski, 168–80. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. War as necessary feature of human existence and normal aspect of interstate relations.
Vermeule, Emily. Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry. Sather Classical Lectures, vol. 46. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. On death in war, see chap. 3, “The Happy Hero,” 83–116; and “Bibliography: Early Warfare and Death in Battle,” 266.
Vitkin, Mikhail A. “Marx and Weber on the Primary State.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník, 443–54. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 35. The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Marx’s Eurocentric view, Weber’s bureaucratic.
Wallach, Jehuda L. “Engels’ Weg zur Kreigswissenschaft.” In Geschichte und Militärgeschichte: Wege der Forschung, edited by Ursula von Gersforff, 363–70. Frankfort/Main: Bernard & Graefe Verlag für Wehrwesen, 1974.
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Walt, Steven. “Hegel on War: Another Look.” History of Political Thought 10 (1989): 113–24. Walzer, Michael. Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. New York: Basic Books, 1977. See especially chap. 2, “The Crime of War,” 21–33, on the history of thinking about war.
Weissleder, Wolfgang. “Aristotle’s Concept of Political Structure and the State.” In Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution, edited by Ronald Cohen and Elman R. Service, 187–203. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978. Wiberg, Håkan. “Review Essay: Rudolf J. Rummel: Understanding Conflict and War, Vols. 1–5.” Journal of Peace Research 19 (1982): 369–86. Highly critical review, on grounds both philosophical and empirical.
Wilkinson, David. Deadly Quarrels: Lewis F. Richardson and the Statistical Study of War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Study of a pioneer in the systematic analysis of the causes of war.
Wilson, Stephen. “For a Socio-Historical Approach to the Study of Western Military Culture.” Armed Forces and Society 6 (1980): 527–52. Though focused on 19th-20th centuries, raises questions about military values as cultural and historical phenomena.
Wiltshire, David. The Social and Political Thought of Herbert Spencer. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. On military factors in social evolution, see chaps. 8, “Spencer’s Theory of Social Evolution,” 192–224; and 10, “‘Militant’ and ‘Industrial’ Society,” 243–56.
Winch, Donald. Adam Smith’s Politics: An Essay in Historiographic Revision. Cambridge Studies in the History and Theory of Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. See chap. 5, “Martial Spirit and Mental Mutilation,” 103–20.
Wolf, Eric R. “The Mills of Inequality: A Marxian Approach.” In Social Inequality: Comparative and Developmental Approaches, edited by Gerald D. Berreman and Kathleen M. Zaretsky, 41–57. Studies in Anthropology. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Careful discussion of how “mode of production” may apply to other than capitalist, specifically “tributary” (= Asiatic, African, feudal) and “kin-ordered” (= primitive), with some attention to the causes and significance of external conflict, including warfare.
Woolfson, Charles. The Labour Theory of Culture: A Re-Examination of Engels’s Theory of Human Origins. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982. Chap. 3, “Hunting and Gathering,” 23–33, considers Dart/Ardrey killer-ape thesis.
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Wright, Moorhead. “The Problem of Meaning in International Thought.” In The Reason of States: A Study in International Political Theory, edited by Michael Donelan, 92–101. London and Boston, Massachusetts: George Allen & Unwin, 1978. Three distinct conceptualizations of war—as individual pain, as collective suffering, as impersonal force.
Young, Dudley. Origins of the Sacred: The Ecstacies of Love and War. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991. Humanistic meditation on the evolution of the two basic primate traits of sex and violence, their transformation into human love and war by sacred cannibalism, and the their disastrous decoupling in the aftermath of the Neolithic revolution.
Zeitlin, Irving M. Ideology and the Development of Sociological Theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968. Chaps. 3, “Rousseau,” 23–32, discusses war as a social phenomenon, rather than the product of individual conflict, with the state established to control war (26, 28); 11, “Max Weber (1864–1920),” 111–58, on control of the means of violence (121), military factors in the failure of capitalism to develop in China (138, 141–42), personal attitude toward war (158); 13, “Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941),” 195–217, military force as one of the social bases of minority rule (199), the role of the standing army in maintaining a stable and progressive state (214–15).
WAR EXPLAINED BIOLOGICALLY
War as a product of innate human nature. Scholarly and popular studies, commentaries, and polemics on genetic, instinctual, or other biologically determined causes of war derived from evolutionary biology, sociobiology, primatology, ethology, and other biological sciences; and from biosociology, biopolitics, evolutionary psychology, physical anthropology, and other biologically oriented social sciences. Adams, Richard E. W. “Social Structural Consequences of Population Growth.” Journal of Biosocial Science 13 (1981): 107–22. Accelerated population growth as cause of society organized feudally.
Adcock, Cynthia. “Fear of ‘Other’: The Common Root of Sexism and Militarism.” In Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence, edited by Pam McAllister, 209–19. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: New Society Publishers, 1982. Both sexism and militarism originate in the infant experience of mother’s aggression and father’s suppression.
Alcock, John. Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach. 2d edition. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1979. See “The Evolution of Human Warfare,” 434–53, in chap. 13, “An Evolutionary Approach to Human Behavior.”
Alcock, John. “Evolution and Human Violence.” In War: A Historical, Political, and Social Study, edited by L. L. Farrar, Jr., 21–27. Studies in International and Comparative Politics 9. Santa Barbara, California, and Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1978. Warfare explained by innate human capacity for cooperation.
Alexander, Richard D. The Biology of Moral Systems. Hawthorne, New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987. See “Arms Races, Human and Otherwise,” in chap. 4, “Applying the Biological View of Morality.”
Alexander, Richard D., and Donald W. Trimble. “A Comparative Review.” Bioscience 18 (1968): 245–48. Warfare and brain development, in a review of Lorenz On Aggression, and Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative.
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Alexander, Richard D. Darwinism and Human Affairs. The Jessie and John Danz Lectures. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1979. The main cause of human grouping is self-defense against other groups, the maintenance of intergroup balance of power; see “Causes of Human Grouping,” 220–33, in chap. 4, “Evolution, Law, and Justice.”
Alexander, Richard D. “The Evolution of Social Behavior.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5 (1974): 325–83. Intergroup aggression (“warfare”) based on social organization provided adaptive background for growing groups and more complex organization; see “Predation, Group Sizes, and Breeding Systems,” 331–35.
Alexander, Richard D. “The Search for an Evolutionary Philosophy of Man.” Royal Society of Victoria, Proceedings 84 (1971): 99–119. Cannibalism and warfare (i.e., human intergroup predation), man’s chief mode of reproductive competition, best explain such evolutionary phenomena as rapid growth in brain size.
Alexander, Richard D. “The Search for a General Theory of Behavior.” Behavioral Science 20 (1975): 77–100. Humans evolved (or have maintained and modified) group living as defense against predation by other human groups (93–94).
Alexander, Richard D., John L. Hoagland, Richard D. Howard, Katharine M. Noonan, and Paul W. Sherman. “Sexual Dimorphisms and Breeding Systems in Pinnipeds, Ungulates, Primates, and Humans.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons, 402–35. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1979. Intergroup aggression as factor in human evolutionary divergence (433–35).
Angst, Walter. “Some Basic Biological Terms and Concepts of Primate Aggression, with a Focus on Aggressive Alliance.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 42–63. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Ardrey, Robert. The Hunting Hypothesis: A Personal Conclusion Concerning the Evolutionary Nature of Man. New York: Atheneum, 1976. Ardrey, Robert. The Social Contract: A Personal Inquiry into the Evolutionary Sources of Order and Disorder. New York: Atheneum, 1970. Arens, W. The Man-eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Widespread but rarely well-documented accounts of cannibalism offer poor support for innate human aggression.
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Bandura, Albert. Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. See “Subcultural Transmission of Aggression,” 97–101, on how military training works; and “Cross-Cultural Studies of Aggression,” 107–13, on the motivation of primitive warfare, both in chap. 2, “Origins of Aggression.”
Barash, David. The Hare and the Tortoise: Culture, Biology, and Human Nature. New York: Viking, 1986. See chap. 7, “Aggression, Killing, and War: The Arts of Death and the Hearts of Men,” 151–87.
Barash, David. The Whisperings Within. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. See chap. 6, “Competition: Fighting, Male Groups and War,” 170–98.
Bates, Daniel G., and Susan H. Lees. “The Myth of Population Regulation.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons, 273–89. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1979. Critique of war construed as population regulator.
Bates, Marston. Gluttons and Libertines: Human Problems of Being Natural. New York: Random House, 1968. Reprinted New York: Vintage Books, 1971. On aggression, killing, and war, see chap. 7, “On Being Mean,” 95–111.
Bercovitch, Fred B. “A Perspective on Human Aggression.” Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 7 (Fall 1975): 49–83. Human aggression is not unique: other mammals kill and eat conspecifics, other primates hunt.
Berkowitz, Leonard. “Simple Views of Aggression: An Essay Review.” American Scientist 57 (1969): 372–83. Technical critique of instinctive aggression theories in works by Ardrey, Morris, Storr, and especially Lorenz.
Bernstein, Irwin S., and Thomas P. Gordon. “The Functions of Aggression in Primate Societies.” American Scientist 62 (1974): 304–11. Vital to establishment and maintenance of primate societies, aggression uncontrolled can be disastrous.
Betzig, Laura L. “Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A CrossCultural Correlation of Conflict Asymmetry, Hierarchy, and Degree of Polygyny.” Ethology and Sociobiology 3 (1982): 209–21. Personal costs of hierarchy may be offset in part, by social organization for defense.
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Betzig, Laura L. Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History. Hawthorne, New York: Aldine, 1986. Sociopolitical power may be understood in biological terms by the reproductive advantage it gives its holders; despotic males may share their women with subjects, such as warriors, who contribute to their long-term reproductive success (102–105).
Bigelow, Robert. The Dawn Warriors: Man’s Evolution toward Peace. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1969. War as the product of selective pressure in human evolution toward ever greater capacity for cooperative behavior.
Bigelow, Robert. “The Evolution of Cooperation, Aggression, and Self-Control. In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1972, edited by James K. Cole and Donald D. Jensen, 1–57. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973. On war as joint product of biology and culture.
Bigelow, Robert. “Relevance of Ethology to Human Aggressiveness.” International Social Science Journal 23 (1971): 18–26. War selects for larger brains.
Bigelow, Robert. “The Role of Competition and Cooperation in Human Evolution.” In War, Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 235–61. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. The high selective value on intragroup cooperation resulting from intergroup competition and warfare.
Binford, Lewis R., with John F. Cherry and Robin Torrence. In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1983. On theories of human predation from Dart to Brain, see chap. 2, “Man the Mighty Hunter?” 33–59.
Binford, Lewis R., Irven DeVore, Leslie G. Freeman, Jr., Peter M. Gardner, David M. Hamburg, David M. Schneider, Colin W. Turnbull, Sherwood L. Washburn, B. J. Williams, and James Woodburn. “Primate Behavior and the Evolution of Aggression.” In Man the Hunter, edited by Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore, 338–44. Chicago: Aldine, 1968. Bleier, Ruth. Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women. The Athene Series. New York: Pergamon Press, 1984. Chap. 6, “The Subordinance of Women: A Problematic Universal,” 138–61, considers the effects of civilized warfare on the status of women.
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Boice, Robert. “In the Shadow of Darwin.” In Perspectives on Aggression, edited by Russell G. Green and Edgar C. O’Neal, 11–35. New York: Academic Press, 1976. Critique of American laboratory studies and European observations as a basis for any conclusions about instinctive aggression.
Borgia, Gerald. “Human Aggression as a Biological Adaptation.” In The Evolution of Human Social Behavior, edited by Joan S. Lockard, 165–91. New York: Elsevier, 1980. See especially “Warfare,” 181–86.
Bosch, James W., and Fred Jamison. “A Test of the Genetic and Frustration-Aggression Hypotheses on the Causes of War.” In “Abstracts of Papers Presented at the Twenty-First Annual Meeting of the Northwest Anthropological Conference, April 1968, Portland, Oregon,” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 2 (1968): 140–57, at 145–46. All Eskimo groups appear to engage in some form of war (= homicidal group conflict), although none involve territorial aggrandizement.
Brierley, J. K. A Natural History of Man: A Biologist’s View of: Birth and Death; Nature and Nurture; Man and Society; Health and Disease; Immigration and Emigration; History and Heredity; War and Peace. Rutherford, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1970. See part 6, “The Natural History of War,” 168–76.
Burke, Charles. Aggression in Man. Secaucus, New Jersey: Lyle Stuart, 1975. War as byproduct of culturally induced aggression, chiefly the result of child-rearing practices.
Burnet, Macfarlane. Dominant Mammal: The Biology of Human Destiny. Melbourne: Heinemann, 1970. See especially chap. 8, “Conflict, Crime and War,” 139–59.
Bygott, J. David. “Agonistic Behavior, Dominance, and Social Structure in Wild Chimpanzees of the Gombe National Park.” In The Great Apes, edited by David A. Hamburg and Elizabeth R. McCown, 405–27. Perspectives on Human Evolution, vol. 5. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin/Cummings, 1979. Observed types of behavior, how they describe relations between individuals (particularly males), and what functions these relations serve.
Caine, T. Allen, and Christy A. H. Caine. “The Evolution of Male Dominance.” Dialectical Anthropology 4 (1979): 21–31. Inherent aggressiveness of strength will not adequately explain male predominance in hunting and war.
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Callan, Hilary. Ethology and Society: Towards an Anthropological View. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. See chap. 6, “Aggression and Social Control,” 72–103.
Cancro, Robert. “Some Psychiatric Considerations on the Etiology of War.” In War, Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 163–70. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. How individual psychology may relate to war.
Carby-Samuels, Horace R. “War: Another Facet of Human Evolution.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 13–19. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. Highly abstract discussion of war as predatory interaction.
Carpenter, C. R. “The Contribution of Primate Studies to the Understanding of War.” In War: The Anthropology of Armed Conflict and Aggression, edited by Morton H. Fried, Marvin Harris, and Robert Murphy, 49–58. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1968. Cartmill, Matt. “‘Four Legs Good, Two Legs Bad’: Man’s Place (If Any) in Nature.” Natural History 92 (November 1983): 64–79. Discusses predation and the evolution of warfare (68–70), and the relationship between hunting and war (74–75).
Choucri, Nazli. “Perspectives on Population and Conflict.” In Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Population and Conflict, edited by Nazli Choucri, 1–25. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984. On population pressure and war.
Claiborne, Robert. God or Beast: Evolution and Human Nature. New York: W. W. Norton, 1974. See chaps. 7, “Evolution and Evil: Aggression and Its Mythology,” 94–112; and 12, “A Mirror to Man: The Politics of Evolution,” 201–15.
Cohen, Daniel. Human Nature, Animal Nature: The Biology of Human Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. See chap. 7, “Warfare,” 111–28.
Colinvaux, Paul. The Fate of Nations: A Biological Theory of History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980. War as product of ecological factors, mainly population pressure.
Colton, Timothy. “The ‘New Biology’ and the Causes of War.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 2 (1969): 434–47. Generally negative commentary on the views of Ardrey and Lorenz.
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Corning, Peter A. “The Biological Bases of Behavior and Some Implications for Political Science.” World Politics 23 (1971): 321–70. Sociobiology documented and discussed, with special attention to aggression.
Corning, Peter A. “An Evolutionary Paradigm for the Study of Human Aggression.” In War, Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 359–87. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. How gene-based individual aggression may be related to the cultural phenomenon of war.
Corning, Peter A. “Human Violence: Some Causes and Implications.” In Peace and War, edited by Charles R. Beitz and Theodore Herman, 118–43. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973. Biological roots of warfare evaluated.
Corning, Peter A. “Politics and the Evolutionary Process.” Evolutionary Biology 7 (1974): 253–94. Suggests the relevance of skills developed in herd animal hunting to war and conquest, as proposed by Carneiro (270).
Corning, Peter A., and Constance Hellyer Corning. “Toward a General Theory of Violent Aggression.” Social Science Information 11 ( June-August 1972): 7–35. War construed as one factor in natural selection of human populations (21–28).
Cox, Bruce A. “Conflict in the Conflict Theories: Ethological and Social Arguments.” Anthropologica new series 10 (1968): 179–91. Predation does not equal aggression, and aggression does not equal war.
Daniels, David N., and Marshall F. Gilula. “Violence and the Struggle for Existence.” In Violence and the Struggle for Existence, edited by David N. Daniels and Marshall F. Gilula, 405–43. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1970. See especially “War and Coping,” 428–32.
Davies, James C. “Violence and Aggression: Innate or Not?” Western Political Quarterly 23 (1970): 611–23. Neurology is unlikely adequately to explain human behavior in war.
Davies, Nigel. The Rampant God: Eros throughout the World. New York: William Morrow, 1984. On the merits of killer ape versus cooperation as explanation for human evolution, see “The Hunter Downgraded,” 22–25, in chap. 1, “The Birth of Sexuality.”
Desmond, Adrian. The Ape’s Reflexion. London: Blond & Briggs, 1979. For a popular account of murder and war among Gombe chimpanzees, see chap. 10, “The Gombe: From Hunting to Holocaust,” 206–27.
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de Waal, Frans. Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes. New York: Harper & Row, 1982. Paperback edition, 1984. Roots of war among the apes.
de Waal, Frans. Peacemaking among Primates. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1989. Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fate of Human Societies. London: Jonathan Cape, 1997. Diamond, Jared. The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. Paperback edition, 1993. See part 4, “World Conquerors,” 217–309, on biogeography, the horse-based conquests of Indo-Europeans, and genocide.
Dobzhansky, Theodosius. “On the Evolutionary Uniqueness of Man.” Evolutionary Biology 6 (1972): 415–30. The assumption of innate depravity by such as Ardrey and Lorenz ignores the unique human strategy of culture.
Drickhamer, Lee C., and Stephen H. Vessey. Animal Behavior: Concepts, Processes, and Methods. Boston, Massachusetts: Willard Grant Press, 1982. Chap. 12, “Aggression,” 274–300, specifically excludes human warfare from the topic.
Durham, William H. “The Adaptive Significance of Cultural Behavior.” Human Ecology 4 (1976): 89–121. Remarks on the links between biological and cultural aggression.
Durham, William H. Coevolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1991. Chap. 7, “Neutrality and Opposition: From Cultural Reason to Cannibalism,” 361–418, considers Mundurucu headhunting (375–84) and Fore cannibalism (393–414) as maladaptive traits that nonetheless succeed. Cf. Appendix. A.7.a., “A Model for the Evolution of Adaptive Intergroup Aggression,” 518–20.
Durham, William H. “Resource Competition and Human Aggression, Part I: A Review of Primitive War.” Quarterly Review of Biology 51 (1976): 385–415. War as an adaptive cultural trait subject to natural selection when groups must compete for scarce resources.
Durham, William H. “Toward a Coevolutionary Theory of Human Biology and Culture.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons, 77–94. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1979.
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Remarks on the special significance of intergroup aggression and warfare for human biological and cultural evolution.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. The Biology of Peace and War: Men, Animals, and Aggression. Translated by Eric Mosbacher. New York: Viking Press, 1979. Innate human aggression allows war to function as a selective factor in cultural evolution; see especially chap. 6, “Intergroup Aggression and War,” 122–87.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. “Evolution of Destructive Aggression.” Aggressive Behavior 3 (1977): 127–44. Cultural subspeciation and the innate bases of war.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. “The Fighting Behavior of Animals.” In Animal Behavior: Readings from “Scientific American”, edited by Thomas Eisner and Edward O. Wilson, 278–84. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975. Ritualization avoids death or injury, but human behavior became maladaptive when society expanded beyond small groups.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. Human Ethology. Hawthorne, New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987. See chap. 5, “Intraspecific Enemy Behavior—Aggression and War.”
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. “The Myth of the Aggression-Free Hunter and Gatherer Society.” In Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective, edited by Ralph L. Holloway, 435–57. New York: Academic Press, 1974. Despite claims to the contrary, aggressive behavior and territoriality are not products of civilization.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. “Ritual and Ritualization from a Biological Perspective.” In Human Ethology: Claims and Limits of a New Discipline, edited by Mario von Cranach, Klaus Foppa, Wolf Lepenies, and Detlev Ploog, 3–53. Werner-Reimers-Stiftung Conference on Human Ethology, Homburg von der Höbe, 1977. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. On war as culturally evolved mechanism for spacing groups, in stable circumstances tending toward ritualized territorial display, see “Spacing and Competing,” 40–44.
Eisenberg, Leon. “The Human Nature of Human Nature.” Science 176 (1972): 123–28. Sociocultural factors, far more than genetic, mold such behavior as aggression.
Elias, Norbert. “On Transformations of Aggressiveness.” Theory and Society 5 (March 1978): 229–42.
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Belligerence and other psychosocial traits related to warfare are not constants, epochs varying in their mix and expression.
Esser, Aristide H. “War as Part of Social Pollution.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 417–37. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. War as aberration of aggressive behavior promoted by culture and weapons.
Fisher, Helen E. The Sex Contract: The Evolution of Human Behavior. New York: William Morrow, 1982. On cooperation more characteristic of evolving hominids than deadly aggression, see “The Social Consequences,” 105–32; on fighting, territoriality, political development, etc., see “Our Gang,” 191–216.
Forman, James D. That Mad Game: War and the Chances for Peace. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980. On aggression and the psychology of war, see “Man, the Compassionate Killer Ape,” 112–30, in chap. 3, “The Action of the Tiger.”
Fornari, Franco. The Psychoanalysis of War. Translated by Alenka Pfeifer. Garden City, New York: Anchor, 1974. Fox, Robin. “The Inherent Rules of Violence.” In Social Rules and Social Behavior, edited by Peter Collet, 132–49. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1977. On ritualized human fighting and warfare.
Fox, Robin. “The Violent Imagination.” In Aggression and Violence, edited by Peter Marsh and Anne Campbell, 6–26. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982. Human capacity for violence merely makes war possible; armies rest on hierarchy and organization, not violence (14–18).
Franks, C. E. S. “Further Thoughts on The ‘New Biology’ and the Causes of War.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 3 (1970): 318–22. Stimulated by Colton, more reasons to doubt Lorenz and Ardrey.
Friedmann, Herbert. “Animal Aggression and Its Implications for Human Behavior.” In War and the Human Race, edited by Maurice N. Walsh, 24–39. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1971. They are related, but not in any simple or self-evident way.
Fromm, Erich. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1973. On the evidence for war as product of culture rather than instinct, see chap. 8, “Anthropology,” 129–81.
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Fuller, John L. “Genes, Brains, and Behavior.” In Sociobiology and Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Critique and Defense, edited by Michael S. Gregory, Anita Silvers, and Diane Sutch, 98–115. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978. Genes explain why people can fight, not why they do (112–14).
Gagnon, John H. “Physical Strength, Once of Significance.” Impact of Science on Society 21 (1971): 31–42. Male roles reflect one-time importance of strength, particularly in war.
Geist, Valerius. “On Weapons, Combat, and Ecology.” In Aggression, Dominance, and Individual Spacing, edited by Lester Krames, Patricia Pliner, and Thomas Alloway, 1–30. Sixth Symposium on Communication and Affect, Erindale College, University of Toronto, 1977. Advances in the Study of Communication and Affect, vol. 4. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1977. Ungulate aggression and fighting from the perspective of inclusive fitness.
Genovés, Santiago. Is Peace Inevitable? Aggression, Evolution, and Human Destiny. New York: Walker, 1970. War is cultural, not biological.
Gianutsos, John. “Brain Triggers toward War?” In The Four Horsemen: Racism, Sexism, Militarism and Social Darwinism, by Ethel Tobach, John Gianutsos, Howard R. Topoff, and Charles G. Gross, 83–96. New York: Behavioral Publications, 1974. Why physiology and biochemistry cannot explain war.
Gini, A. R. “Aggressivity: A Critical Overview.” International Philosophical Quarterly 18 (1978): 201–14. Distinguishing aggression from violence.
Goldberg, Steven. The Inevitability of Patriarchy. New York: William Morrow, 1973. Paperback edition, 1974. See especially chaps. 4, “Male Aggression and the Attainment of Power, Authority, and Status,” 103–14; and 5, “The Social Manifestations of Male Aggression,” 115–28.
Goodall, Jane. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1986. Chap. 17, “Territoriality,” 488–534, describes lethal encounters between gangs and individuals of separate groups, considered as possibly “The Precursors of Warfare,” 530–33.
Goodall, Jane, Adriano Bandora, Emilie Boergmann, Curt Busse, Hilali Matama, Esilom Mpongo, Ann Pierce, and David Riss. “Intercommunity Interactions in the Chimpanzee Population of the Gombe
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National Park.” In The Great Apes, edited by David A. Hamburg and Elizabeth R. McCown, 13–53. Perspectives on Human Evolution, vol. 5. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin/Cummings, 1979. Including border patrols and fighting.
Greene, Thomas H. “Is International War Inevitable?” Main Currents in Modern Thought 15 (1968): 31–37. If Lorenz is right, sport might substitute for war.
Gribbin, John, and Mary Gribbin. The One Per Cent Advantage: The Sociobiology of Being Human. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988. See chap. 8, “War Games,” 175–87, on aggression and human warfare.
Grumbel, Erich. “Notes on Some Psychic Motives for War.” In Psychological Bases of War, edited by Heinrich Z. Winnik, Rafael Moses, and Mortimer Ostrow, 173–82. New York: Quadrangle Books; Jerusalem: Jerusalem Academic Press, 1973. On the instinctual bases of war.
Gunn, John. Violence. New York and Washington: Praeger, 1973. “War,” 100–106, as an aspect of chap. 6, “Group Violence.”
Guthrie, R. D. “Evolution of Human Threat Display Organs.” Evolutionary Biology 4 (1970): 257–302. Male beard and other features as biologically evolved traits related to agonistic behavior.
Hamilton, William D. “Innate Social Aptitudes of Man: An Approach from Evolutionary Genetics.” In Biosocial Anthropology, edited by Robin Fox, 133–55. New York: Wiley, 1975. Remarks on the genetic bases of war, 147–49.
Hamilton, William D. “Selection of Selfish and Altruistic Behavior in Some Extreme Models.” In Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior, edited by John Frederick Eisenberg and Wilton S. Dillon, 59–91. Smithsonian Annual 3. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971. On “Intergroup Hostility, Wars, and Cruelty,” 77–81, among nonhuman mammals, birds, and insects as basic for speculating about human instincts.
Harding, Robert S. O., and Geza Teleki. “Introduction.” In Omnivorous Primates: Gathering and Hunting in Human Evolution, edited by Robert S. O. Harding and Geza Teleki, 1–9. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981. The presumed uniqueness among primates of human meat diet as explanation for human aggression (a la Dart, Ardrey) fails when examined from the vantage points of primatology, archaeology, and anthropology.
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Harva, Urpo. “War and Human Nature.” In The Critique of War: Contemporary Philosophical Explorations, edited by Robert Ginsberg, 45–55. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1969. Ubiquity of war argues for its instinctual basis.
Hermens, Ferdinand A. “Aggression, Society, and Political Organization.” Societas 1 (1971): 1–22. In stressing innate aggression, popular ethology and psychoanalysis reflect philosophical bias more than scientific judgment.
*Hinde, Robert A. “Aggression and War: Individuals, Groups, and States.” In Behavior, Society, and International Conflict, vol. 3, edited by Philip E. Tetlock et al. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Hinde, Robert A. Biological Bases of Human Social Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. Chap. 16, “Aggressive Behaviour,” 249–79, notes irrelevance of its subject to explaining war (250, 278–79).
Hinde, Robert A. “Aggression and the Institution of War.” In The Institution of War, edited by Robert A. Hinde, 1–8. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. A trait of individual behavior like aggression cannot explain a social phenomenon like war.
Holliday, Laurel. The Violent Sex: Male Psychobiology and the Evolution of Consciousness. Guerreville, California: Bluestocking Books, 1978. On sex-linked aggression and violence, see “The Beginnings of War,” 118–21, in chap. 3, “The Evolution of the Sexes.”
Holloway, Ralph E., Jr. “Human Aggressiveness: The Need for a Species-Specific Framework.” In War: The Anthropology of Armed Conflict and Aggression, edited by Morton H. Fried, Marvin Harris, and Robert Murphy, 29–48. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1968. No behavioral basis, including instinctive aggression, can explain war.
Hutschnecker, Arnold A. The Drive for Power. New York: M. Evans, 1974. Reprinted New York: Bantam Books, 1976. On war viewed psychoanalytically, see especially chap. 9, “Sex and Power,” 184–206.
Iberall, A. S. “On the Neurophysiological Basis of War.” General Systems: Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research 18 (1973): 161–66. Language allows the abstraction of killing, making concept of war possible through the combination of ideational abstraction, social disturbance, and social cooperation.
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Irons, William. “Why Lineage Exogamy?” In Natural Selection and Social Behavior: Recent Research and New Theory, edited by Richard D. Alexander and Donald W. Tinkle, 476–89. New York and Concord, Massachusetts: Chiron Press, 1981. In part, to promote alliances between males who may use violence in support of each other, increasing the number of individuals united in mutual defense.
Irwin, Colin. “The Inuit and the Evolution of Limited Group Conflict.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 189–226. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Itani, Junichiro. “Inequality versus Equality for Coexistence in Primate Societies.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 75–104. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Itani, Junichiro. “Intraspecific Killing among Non-Human Primates.” In Law, Biology and Culture: The Evolution of Law, edited by Margaret Gruter and Paul Bohannan, 62–74. Santa Barbara, California: RossErikson, 1983. Reported incidents summarized and analyzed, concluding that it occurs but has no obvious theoretical explanation.
Joffe, Julian A. Studies in the History of Civilization. New York: Philosophical Library, 1970. Weapon-making and warfare as distinctive species-specific trait.
Johnson, Roger N. Aggression in Man and Animals. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: W. B. Saunders, 1972. On war as more a matter of institutional momentum than individual motive, see “War,” 197–208, in chap. 6, “Violence and Society.”
Johnston, Francis E., and Henry Selby. Anthropology: The Biocultural View. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1978. See “Population Pressure and Warfare,” 503–505, in chap. 20, “Anthropological Demography.”
Jolly, Alison. The Evolution of Primate Behavior. New York: Macmillan; London: Collier Macmillan, 1972. On warfare as uniquely human, see chap. 14, “Violence and Warfare,” 268–72.
Kaufmann, Harry. Aggression and Altruism: A Psychological Analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970. War cannot be fully explained in psychological terms; see especially chap. 8, “Aggression in International Relations,” 91–97.
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Kim, Samuel S. “The Lorenzian Theory of Aggression and Peace Research: A Critique.” Journal of Peace Research 13 (1976): 253–76. Systematic and extensively documented refutation on conceptual, methodological, and substantive grounds.
Kitcher, Philip. Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT Press, 1985. On the problems of defining war biologically (203, 204, 211–12), of interpreting fighting in terms of kin selection (307–15).
Koenig, Otto. “Behaviour, Study and Civilization.” In The Human Creature, edited by Günter Altner, 153–210. Translated from the German. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1974. Male role in fighting and group defense, emulation of stronger by weaker evident in military uniform (174–88).
Konner, Melvin. The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1982. Reprinted New York: Harper Colophon, 1983. On innate human violence, aggression, and cultural constraints, with some notice of warlike behavior, see chap. 9, “Rage,” 175–207.
Kunnes, Richard. “Political Determinants of Violence.” In Biology as a Social Weapon, edited by Ann Arbor Science for the People Editorial Collective, 101–105. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess, 1977. Including warfare.
Lackner, Stephan. Peaceable Nature: An Optimistic View of Life on Earth. Translated and revised from Die friedfertige Natur (Munich: KöselVerlag, 1982). New York: Harper & Row, 1984. Human violence is not to be explained by nature.
La Fontaine, Jean S. “The Domestication of the Savage Male.” Man new series 16 (1981): 333–49. Contra Ortner, how human anatomy furnished material for social construction, including warfare.
Lancaster, Chet S. “Commentary: The Evolution of Violence and Aggression.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 216–22. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Lancaster, Jane B., and Phillip Whitten. “Sharing in Human Evolution.” In Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by David E. K. Hunter and Phillip Whitten, 51–55. 3d edition. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1982. Contrary to killer-ape theories, cooperation is most likely distinctive trait of primeval human groups.
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Larsen, Knud S. Aggression: Myths and Models. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1976. Including international hostility and war.
Leakey, Louis S. B., and Robert Ardrey. “Man the Killer: A Dialogue.” Psychology Today 6 (Sept. 1972): 73ff. Leakey, Richard E., and Roger Lewin. “Is It Our Culture, Not Our Genes, That Makes Us Killers?” Smithsonian (November 1977). Reprinted in Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by David E. K. Hunter and Phillip Whitten, 43–46. 3d edition. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1982. Culture is the culprit.
Leakey, Richard E. The Making of Mankind. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1981. On war derived from state and civilization rather than predatory ape, see chap. 13, “The Making of Human Aggression,” 219–37.
Leibowitz, Lila. “Origins of the Sexual Division of Labor.” In Women’s Nature: Rationalizations of Inequality, edited by Marian Lowe and Ruth Hubbard, 123–147. The Athene Series. New York: Pergamon Press, 1983. Social and technical innovations associated with the development of missile weapons by Homo erectus became the bases for the sexual division of labor.
Lewin, Richard. “The Origins of the Modern Human Mind.” Science 236 (8 May 1987): 668–70.
Reports some findings from a conference, “The Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans,” Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 22–26 March 1987; “The Human Psyche Was Forged by Competition,” 668–69, summarizes a paper by Richard Alexander, arguing that group-against-group, within-species competition was the key to human evolution.
Lewis, John, and Bernard Towers. Naked Ape or Homo Sapiens? London: Garnstone Press, 1972. Reprinted New York: Mentor, 1973. Chap. 3, “Is Man a Beast of Prey?” 29–44, rejects biology or instinct as cause of human aggression.
Lewontin, Richard C. “Biological Determinism as a Social Weapon.” In Biology as a Social Weapon, edited by Ann Arbor Science for the People Editorial Collective, 6–18. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess, 1977. Why war, among a host of other cultural traits, cannot properly be explained genetically.
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Lewontin, Richard C. “Sociobiology as an Adaptationist Program.” In Biology and the Social Sciences: An Emerging Revolution, edited by Thomas C. Wiegele, 335–48. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1982. Notes the distinction between individual and group aggression (339–40).
Linn, Louis. “Another View.” In Psychological Bases of War, edited by Heinrich Z. Winnik, Rafael Moses, and Mortimer Ostrow, 183–91. New York: Quadrangle Books; Jerusalem: Jerusalem Academic Press, 1973. Comment on Grumbel and the importance of clearly distinguishing between aggression, violence, fighting, and war.
Livingston, Frank B. “The Effects of Warfare on the Biology of the Human Species.” In War: The Anthropology of Armed Conflict and Aggression, edited by Morton H. Fried, Marvin Harris, and Robert Murphy, 3–15. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1968. On the ecological functions of war, and how war might have effected the human gene pool.
Lopreato, Joseph, and Penny Anthon Green. “The Evolutionary Foundations of Revolution.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 107–22. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Lopreato, Joseph. Human Nature and Biocultural Evolution. Boston, Massachusetts: Allen & Unwin, 1984. On war and related activities, see the sections “Territoriality,” 120–29; “The Urge to Victimize,” 129–41; and “The Need for Vengeance,” 141–46, in chap. 4, “Predispositions of Self-Enhancement.”
Lumsden, Charles J., and Edward O. Wilson. Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983. On the genetic bases of warlike behavior, see “Promethean Fire,” 117–66, especially at 139–46, 149–50, 160–61.
Macdonald, Norman. “The Biological Factor in the Etiology of War.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 209–34. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. War as disease of body politic.
McGregor, Alan. “Group Conflict: An Evolutionary Residual?” Mankind Quarterly 9 (1982): 43–48. Group hostility may be a residual of evolutionary development.
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McGrew, William C. “Evolutionary Implications of Sex Differences in Chimpanzee Predation and Tool Use.” In The Great Apes, edited by David A. Hamburg and Elizabeth R. McCown, 441–63. Perspectives on Human Evolution, vol. 5. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin/ Cummings, 1979. Male group hunting of mammalian prey and female group gathering of submammalian foods among chimpanzees parallels evolutionary explanations for human sexual division of labor.
McGuinness, Diane. “Conclusion.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 302–13. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Mackal, Paul Karl. Psychological Theories of Aggression: A Social Psychologist’s Reflections about Aggression. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1979. Idiosyncratic remarks on civilization and warfare in chap. 3, “Sociology of Aggression,” 31–73, at 31–38; on fighting instincts in chap. 5, “The Ethology of Aggression,” 99–173.
Malmberg, Torsten. Human Territoriality: Survey of Behavioural Territories in Man with Preliminary Analysis and Discussion of Meaning. New Babylon: Studies in the Social Sciences 33. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Including relation to war.
Marquit, Doris Grieser, and Erwin Marquit. “Gender Differentiation, Genetic Determinism, and the Struggle for Peace.” In Genes and Gender VI. On Peace, War, and Gender: A Challenge to Genetic Explanations, edited by Anne E. Hunter, with Catherine M. Flamenbaum and Suzanne R. Sunday, 151–62. New York: Feminist Press, 1991. Martin, M. Kay, and Barbara Voorhies. Female of the Species. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1975. On links between aggression and warfare, see “Aggression,” 43–53, in chap. 3, “Origins of Some Sex-linked Traits.”
Masters, Roger D. “Beyond Reductionism: Five Basic Concepts in Human Ethology.” In Human Ethology: Claims and Limits of a New Discipline, edited by Mario von Cranach, Klaus Foppa, Wolf Lepenies, and Detlev Ploog, 265–84. Werner-Reimers-Stiftung Conference on Human Ethology, Homburg von der Höbe, 1977. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. Aggressive emotion may be innate, but aggressive behavior like war is not; see 1.2, “Emotion and Behavior,” 269–70.
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Masters, Roger D. “Evolutionary Biology, Political Theory and the State.” In Law, Biology and Culture: The Evolution of Law, edited by Margaret Gruter and Paul Bohannan, 171–89. Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1983. On the links between war and cooperation, see “Inclusive Fitness Theory and Political Philosophy,” 184–87.
Masters, Roger D. “Political Science.” In The Sociobiological Imagination, edited by Mary Maxwell, 141–56. SUNY Series in Philosophy and Biology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. See especially “War and International Relations,” 148.
Maynard Smith, John. “Gene Theory and the Evolution of Fighting.” In On Evolution, by John Maynard Smith, 8–28. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1972. Evolutionary models of conflict and cooperation.
Melotti, Umberto. “War and Peace in Primitive Human Societies: A Sociobiological View.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 241–45. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Meyer, Peter. “Human Nature and the Function of War in Social Evolution: A Critical Review of a Recent Form of the Naturalistic Fallacy.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 227–40. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Midgley, Mary. Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1978. Weaponry without instinctive restraint made war possible (28–29), but human attitudes toward killing and war remain ambivalent (40–42), despite the apparent links between innate aggression and warfare (59–63).
Milburn, Michael A. “Theories of Aggression: A Critique and Possible Reformation.” Human Relations 33 (1980): 353–68. Distinguishing between individual behavior (like fighting) explained motivationally and systemic behavior (like war) explained politically or structurally.
Mitchell, G. Human Sex Differences: A Primatologist’s Perspective. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981. See chaps. 17, “Extragroup Behaviors: Protection and Predation,” 123–30; and 19, “Aggression,” 146–53.
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Mitscherlich, Alexander. “Psychoanalysis and Aggression in Large Groups.” (In German). Psyche 25 (1971): 463–75. In Psychological Abstracts 49 (1973), no. 2274. Psychoanalytic, sociological, or other narrowly disciplinary approaches to a complex phenomenon like war must always produce pseudo-explanations.
Montagu, M. F. Ashley. “‘Original Sin’ Redivivus.” Journal of Historical Studies 2 (1969): 132–55. Critical attack on instinctive aggression as purveyed by Lorenz and Ardrey.
Morris, Desmond. The Human Zoo. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. On aggression and war, see chap. 4, “In-Groups and Out-Groups,” 124–55.
Morris, Richard. Evolution and Human Nature. New York: Seaview/ Putnam, 1983. On why aggression and warfare have little connection, see chap. 7, “Human Aggression,” 109–27, at 123–26.
Moyer, Kenneth E. “The Biological Basis of Dominance and Aggression.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 1–34. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Murphy, Gardner. “A Note on the Locus of Aggression.” International Journal of Group Tensions 1 (1971): 55–58. Despite Lorenz’s current reformulations, innate aggression has no more to do with war now than it did fifty years ago.
Nelson, Stephen D. “Nature/Nurture Revisited I: A Review of the Biological Bases of Conflict.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 18 (1974): 235–335. Why animal studies are poor guides to complex social conflicts, especially war.
Nelson, Stephen D. “Nature/Nurture Revisited II: Social, Political, and Technological Implications of Biological Approaches to Human Conflict.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 19 (1975): 734–61. Extrascientific issues in the controversy.
Nettleship, Anderson. “A Description of Certain Features of Prodromal War.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 401–15. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. War as cyclical natural phenomenon of growing populations.
Nisbett, Alec. Konrad Lorenz. New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. See chap. 11, “Aggression,” 146–67.
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Noy, Pinchas. “Cultural Patterns of Aggression.” In Psychological Bases of War, edited by Heinrich Z. Winnik, Rafael Moses, and Mortimer Ostrow, 111–24. New York: Quadrangle Books; Jerusalem: Jerusalem Academic Press, 1973. How human drives may be harnessed to group ends.
O’Connell, Robert L. “The Warriors under Our Feet.” MHQ 8 (Autumn 1995): 48–55. Parallels in ant and human warfare suggest that humans may also be hardwired for killing.
Oyama, Susan. “Essentialism, Women, and War: Protesting Too Much, Protesting Too Little.” In Genes and Gender VI. On Peace, War, and Gender: A Challenge to Genetic Explanations, edited by Anne E. Hunter, with Catherine M. Flamenbaum and Suzanne R. Sunday, 64–76. New York: Feminist Press, 1991. Parker, G. A. “Assessment Strategy and the Evolution of Fighting Behavior.” Journal of Theoretical Biology 47 (1974): 223–43. Mathematical modeling of factors significant in choices between alternatives to fighting, escalation, or withdrawal.
Parsons, Howard L. “Some Human Roots of Inhuman War.” In The Critique of War: Contemporary Philosophical Explorations, edited by Robert Ginsberg, 56–76. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1969. Biological and psychological sources of warlike behavior.
Paul, Robert A. “Instinctive Aggression in Man: The Semai Case.” Journal of Psychological Anthropology 1 (1978): 65–79. Contra Alland and cultural relativism, the evidence for innate aggression seems persuasive.
Peres, Yochanan, and Michael Hopp. “Loyalty and Aggression in Human Groups.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 123–30. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Peterson, Steven A. “Biopolitics: A Bibliographical Essay.” In Biology and Politics: Recent Explorations, edited by Albert Somit, 279–91. Publications of the International Social Science Council 19. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1976. Including aggression and warfare.
Pettman, Ralph. Human Behavior and World Politics. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975.
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On aggression and war, see chap. 8, “Biopolitics: Ethology,” 176–99; see also chap. 10, “Conflict,” 231–71.
Pilbeam, David. “The Naked Ape: An Idea We Could Live Without.” Discovery 7 no. 2 (1972): 63–70. Reprinted in Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by David E. K. Hunter and Phillip Whitten, 47– 50. 3d edition. Boston, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1982. Animal evidence of innate aggression is suspect, human even less plausible.
Pitt, Roger R. “Warfare and Hominid Brain Evolution.” Journal of Theoretical Biology 72 (1978): 551–75. Increasing brain size as product of warfare.
Popp, Joseph L., and Irven DeVore. “Aggressive Competition and Social Dominance Theory: Synopsis.” In The Great Apes, edited by David A. Hamburg and Elizabeth R. McCown, 317–38. Perspectives on Human Evolution, vol. 5. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin Cummings, 1979. Darwinian selection for fighting behavior and ritualized aggression.
*Power, M. “Gombe Revisited: Are Chimpanzees Violent and Hierarchical in the ‘Free State.’” General Anthropology 2.1 (1995): 5–9. Prioreschi, Plinio. Man and War. New York: Philosophical Library, 1987. On war as product of human biological heritage.
Prosterman, Roy L. “The Study of Lethal Human Conflict.” In War: A Historical, Political, and Social Study, edited by L. L. Farrar, Jr., 13–20. Studies in International and Comparative Politics 9. Santa Barbara, California, and Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1978. Review of primarily psychological explanations.
Prosterman, Roy L. Surviving to 3000: An Introduction to the Study of Lethal Conflict. Belmont, California: Duxbury Press, 1972. See chap. 2, “Views on Causation: Biology and Psychology,” 45–83.
Quadagno, Jill S. “Paradigms in Evolutionary Theory: The Sociobiological Model of Natural Selection.” American Sociological Review 44 (1979): 100–109. Close examination of two sociobiological explanation of altruism shows them to be tautological and suggests that sociobiology cannot explain complex human behavior.
Reed, Evelyn. “Is Man an Aggressive Ape?” International Socialist Review (November 1970). Reprinted as “An Answer to ‘The Naked Ape’
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and Other Books on Aggression.” In Sexism and Science, by Evelyn Reed, 54–72. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1978. On Ardrey, Lorenz, and Morris as apologists for capitalist imperialism.
Reynolds, Peter C. “Animal Intelligence and Human Instinct: Reflections on Psychology of Rank.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 119–30. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Richards, Cara E. “The Concept and Forms of Competition.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 95–108. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. War conceived as a form of predatory competition.
Richards, Graham. Human Evolution: An Introduction for the Behavioural Sciences. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987. Review of data and theories of human behavioral evolution.
Rochlin, Gregory. Man’s Aggression: The Defense of the Self. Boston, Massachusetts: Gambit, 1973. Primarily psychoanalytic, but see chap. 9, “The Eternal Yahoo,” 249–68, discussing war as a group function distinct from individual psychology.
Rose, Michael R. “The Mental Arms Race Amplifier.” Human Ecology 8 (1980): 285–93. Rapid increase in human brain size explained by combined hypotheses of ecological adaptation and intraspecific competition.
Rosoff, Betty. “Genes, Hormones, and War.” In Genes and Gender VI. On Peace, War, and Gender: A Challenge to Genetic Explanations, edited by Anne E. Hunter, with Catherine M. Flamenbaum and Suzanne R. Sunday, 39–49. New York: Feminist Press, 1991. Ruse, Michael. Sociobiology: Sense or Nonsense? Episteme, vol. 8. Dordrecht and Boston, Massachusetts: D. Reidel, 1979. Including critical discussions of the evidence for animal and human aggression, and of Durham’s explanation for primitive warfare (172–76).
Russell, Claire, and W. M. S. Russell. “The Natural History of Violence.” In Aggression and Evolution, edited by Charlotte Otten, 240–73. Lexington, Massachusetts: Xerox College Publishing, 1973. Savin-Williams, Ritch. “Dominance Systems among Primate Adolescents.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 131–73. New York: Paragon House, 1987.
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Sayers, Janet. Biological Politics: Feminist and Anti-Feminist Perspectives. London and New York: Tavistock, 1982. See especially chap. 5, “Physical Strength, Aggression, and Male Dominance,” 65–83, arguing that biology cannot explain such social behavior.
Scheibe, Karl E. “Legitimized Aggression and the Assignment of Evil.” American Scholar 43 (1974): 576–92. War explained psychologically.
Schellenberg, James A. “On Human Dominance Systems.” In Dominance, Aggression and War, edited by Diane McGuinness, 289–301. New York: Paragon House, 1987. Schubert, Glendon. “Biopolitical Behavior: The Nature of the Political Animal.” Polity 6 (1973): 240–75. Critical review of Morris, Ardrey, and Tiger and Fox.
Schubert, Glendon. “Politics as a Life Science: How and Why the Impact of Modern Biology Will Revolutionize the Study of Political Behavior.” In Biology and Politics: Recent Explorations, edited by Albert Somit, 155–95. Publications of the International Social Science Council 19. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1976. Remarks on individual aggression and warfare (174–75).
Schubert, Glendon. “The Sociobiology of Political Behavior.” In Sociobiology and Human Politics, edited by Elliott White, 193–238. Lexington, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Lexington Books, 1981. On the problem of distinguishing between genetic and cultural roots of war (220–23).
Scott, John Paul. Aggression. 2d edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. On war-caused aggression and the distinction between individual aggression and war, see “Warfare,” 101–105, in chap. 5, “Social Causes of Aggression”; on the evolutionary significance of war, see “War,” 155–57, and “Human Destructiveness,” 157–58, in chap. 9, “Progress and Problems”; see also “The Control of Warfare,” 124–25, in chap. 7, “The Social Control of Aggression.”
Scott, John Paul. “Agonistic Behavior: Function and Dysfunction in Social Conflict.” Journal of Social Issues 33 (1977): 9–21. Agonistic behavior is widespread among nonhuman species, but social systems organized for violence, such as armies, are uniquely human; see especially “The Causes of Violence,” 14–15).
Scott, John Paul. “Agonistic Behavior of Primates: A Comparative Perspective.” In Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Com-
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parative Perspective, edited by Ralph L. Holloway, 417–34. New York: Academic Press, 1974. See “Aggression in Primates: The Place of Man,” 428–33.
Scott, John Paul. “Biological Basis of Human Warfare: An Interdisciplinary Problem.” In Interdisciplinary Relationships in the Social Sciences, edited by Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn W. Sherif, 121–37. Chicago: Aldine, 1969. Agonistic behavior in animals offers no clue to human warfare; war better considered a human tool based more on allelomimetic (mutually stimulated common) behavior rather than agonistic.
Scott, John Paul. “Biology and Human Aggression.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 40 (1970): 568–76.
Agonistic behavior probably has biological bases, but human fighting and warfare are quite distinct in motivation and result from other animals; see especially 570–71.
Scott, John Paul. “The Control of Violence: Human and Nonhuman Societies Compared.” In Violence in Animal and Human Societies, edited by Arthur G. Neal, 13–33. Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1976. On the development and functions of agonistic behaviors, see “The Biological Origins of Human Violence,” 20–23.
Scott, John Paul. “Personal, Social, and International Violence.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 173–82. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. On distinguishing human warfare from forms of nonhuman animal behavior, see “Warfare,” 180–81.
Segall, Marshall H. “Aggression in Global Perspective: A Research Strategy.” In Aggression in Global Perspective, edited by Arnold P. Goldstein and Marshall H. Segall, 1–43. Pergamon General Psychology Series, vol. 115. New York: Pergamon, 1983. See especially “Organized Violent Conflict,” 14–18.
Shaw, R. Paul, and Yuwa Wong. Genetic Seeds of Warfare: Evolution, Nationalism, and Patriotism. Boston, Massachusetts: Unwin Hyman, 1989. Evolutionary biology as explanation of human propensity for warfare.
Shaw, R. Paul. “Humanity’s Propensity for Warfare: A Sociobiological Perspective.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 22 (1985): 158–83. Can a sociobiological theory of propensity for warfare subsume or cut through other approaches?
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Shaw, R. Paul. “Merging Ultimate and Proximate Causes in Sociobiology and Studies of Warfare.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 22 (1985): 192–201. The real question is why war exists at all, not how it evolved.
Siann, Gerda. Accounting for Aggression: Perspectives on Aggression and Violence. Boston, Massachusetts: Allen & Unwin, 1985. Chap. 3, “Ethological and Sociobiological Approaches to Aggression,” 52–92, contests Lorenz, Ardrey, Fox, and Wilson on the genetic origins of war.
Smith, Joan. “Feminist Analysis of Gender: A Mystique.” In Women’s Nature: Rationalizations of Inequality, edited by Marian Lowe and Ruth Hubbard, 89–109. The Athene Series. New York: Pergamon Press, 1983. Sociobiology’s biggest fault is abstraction from history, but much writing on male domination and female subordination likewise abstracts from historical reality, as the vain attempt to avoid economism leads to biologism.
Sociobiology Study Group. “Sociobiology—A New Biological Determinism.” In Biology as a Social Weapon, Ann Arbor Science for the People Editorial Collective, 133–49. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess, 1977. Why “human nature” cannot explain “war.”
Somit, Albert. “Review Article: Biopolitics.” British Journal of Political Science 2 (1972): 209–38. Including aggression and war.
Spriggs, Matthew. “Another Way of Telling: Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology.” In Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology, edited by Matthew Spriggs, 1–10. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Survey with bibliography.
Stegenga, James A. “Personal Aggressiveness and War.” International Journal of Group Tensions 2 no. 4 (1972): 22–36. Freudian instinct theory and the frustration-aggression hypothesis improve conventional political science explanations for war.
Stanford, Craig B. “The Hunting Ecology of Wild Chimpanzees: Implications for the Evolutionary Ecology of Pliocene Hominids.” American Anthropologist 98 (1996): 96–113. Hunting probably more important than scavenging, meat small but significant part of diet, perhaps especially important seasonally.
Stevens, Anthony. The Roots of War: A Jungian Perspective. New York: Paragon House, 1989.
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Human warlike behavior based on neuropsychic substrate systems implicated in enmity, aggression, and defense.
Storr, Anthony. Human Aggression. New York: Atheneum, 1968. Remarks on aggression in the establishment of military hierarchy.
Storr, Anthony. Human Destructiveness. New York: William Morrow, 1972. Psychoanalytic discussion with some interesting remarks on the nonsexual uses of genitals and sexual behavior patterns; “After all, the penis is only a phallic symbol” [attrib. Jung] (57–58). Penis (or phallic) envy is pseudosexual: girls early recognize that boys are better off socially (68–69).
Strackbein, Oscar Robert. Anatomy of Civilization. New York: Frederick Fell, 1969. See chap. 12, “Man’s Predatory Instinct–Aggressiveness and Belligerency,” 252–99.
Strasser, Stephan. “Animal Aggression and Technical Aggression: A Critique of Recent Theories.” International Philosophical Quarterly 14 (1974): 223–28. Precisely as man is technological, animal studies a la Lorenz are inadequate.
Sunday, Suzanne R. “Biological Theories of Animal Aggression.” In Genes and Gender VI. On Peace, War, and Gender: A Challenge to Genetic Explanations, edited by Anne E. Hunter, with Catherine M. Flamenbaum and Suzanne R. Sunday, 50–63. New York: Feminist Press, 1991. Symons, Donald. The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. See chap. 5, “Reproductive Competition,” 142–65, identified as ultimate cause of fighting and warfare.
Tajfel, Henri. “Human Intergroup Conflict: Useful and Less Useful Forms of Analysis.” In Human Ethology: Claims and Limits of a New Discipline, edited by Mario von Cranach, Klaus Foppa, Wolf Lepenies, and Detlev Ploog, 396–422. Werner-Reimers-Stiftung Conference on Human Ethology, Homburg von der Höbe, 1977. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1979. History, economics, and other social structural factors are more relevant to understanding group conflict than individual psychology; the proper question is how and when group determinants are incorporated by individuals.
Tanner, Nancy Makepeace. On Becoming Human. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
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On sloganeering by Ardrey and others regarding innate human aggression, see “Why a New Model Is Needed: Early Human Social Life—Science and Myth,” 22–28, in chap. 1, “Models in Evolution”; chap. 9, “Gathering and the Australopithecine Way of Life,” 191–223, denies war an ancient history rooted in male weapons (195–97) and considers “Predation and Defense,” 217–18, against carnivores.
Thorpe, W. H. Animal Nature and Human Nature. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1974. See “From Aggression to War,” 263–66, in chap. 7, “Aggressive Behavior.”
Tiger, Lionel. “Biological Antecedents of Human Aggression.” In Primate Social Conflict, edited by William A. Mason and Sally P. Mendoza, 373–86. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. Tiger, Lionel. “The Cerebral Bridge from Family to Foe.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 99–106. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Tiger, Lionel. Men in Groups. New York: Random House, 1969. On male bonding as explanation for war, see chap. 7, “Man, Aggression, and Men,” 199–244.
Tiger, Lionel. The Imperial Animal. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971. On war, see especially chap. 8, “The Noble Savage,” 204–31.
Tinbergen, N. “Ethology in a Changing World.” In Growing Points in Ethology: Based on a Conference Sponsored by St John’s College and King’s College, Cambridge, edited by P. P. G. Bateson and R. A. Hinde, 507–27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. On war as a cultural phenomenon with biological roots, see “Man’s Antagonism to Man,” 516–18.
Tinbergen, N. “On War and Peace in Animals and Man: An Ethologist’s Approach to the Biology of Aggression.” Science 160 (1968): 1411–18. Biological roots of aggression, territoriality, and war. Tinbergen, N. “Über Krieg und Frieden bei Tieren und Menschen.” Das Tier 2 (1971): 19–27. van den Berghe, Pierre L. Age and Sex in Human Societies: A Biosocial Perspective. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1973. On the male monopolization of war, hunting, and public affairs, see chap. 4, “Sex Differentiation in Human Societies,” 52–73, at 53–54.
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van den Berghe, Pierre L. “Bridging the Paradigms: Biology and the Social Sciences.” In Sociobiology and Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Critique and Defense, edited by Michael S. Gregory, Anita Silvers, and Diane Sutch, 33–52. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978. Remarks on the role of intergroup aggression in human evolution (43–44) and its extraordinary expansion with civilization (49–50).
van den Berghe, Pierre L. “Bringing Beasts Back In: Toward A Biosocial Theory of Aggression.” American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 777–88. War explained by human predisposition toward hierarchy, territoriality, and aggression.
van den Berghe, Pierre L. Man in Society: A Biosocial View. 2d edition. New York and Oxford: Elsevier, 1978. Sociology founded on biology, with a large dose of innate aggression; see especially part 1, “Gonads, Guts, and Grub,” 28–83.
van der Dennan, Johan M. G., and Vincent S. E. Falger. “Introduction.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 1–19. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. van der Dennan, Johan M. G. “Studies of Conflict.” In The Sociobiological Imagination, edited by Mary Maxwell, 223–41. SUNY Series in Philosophy and Biology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. On sociobiological explanations for human and chimpanzee warfare.
van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. “Intergroup Competition and Conflict in Animals and Man.” In Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, edited by Johan M. G. van der Dennan and Vincent S. E. Falger, 23–54. London: Chapman & Hall, 1990. Vessey, Stephen H., and William B. Jackson. “Animal Behavior and Violence.” In Violence in Animal and Human Societies, edited by Arthur G. Neal, 35–47. Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1976. On agonistic behavior and social organization, see especially “Intraspecific Violence,” 35–41.
Vining, Daniel R., Jr. “Group Selection via Genocide.” Mankind Quarterly 22 (1981): 27–41. How genocide might have fixed cooperative traits in surviving human groups.
Wahlke, John C. “Overcoming Pre-Behavioralism in Political Science.” In Biology and the Social Sciences: An Emerging Revolution, edited by Thomas C. Wiegele, 191–201. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1982.
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Remarks on the differential evolutionary significance of individual and group fighting (194–95).
Walsh, Maurice N., and Barbara G. Scandalis. “Institutionalized Forms of Intergenerational Male Aggression.” In War: Its Causes and Correlates, edited by Martin A. Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship, 135–55. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. The oedipal bases of initiation rites and warfare.
Walsh, Maurice N. “Psychic Factors in the Causation of Recurrent Mass Homicide.” In War and the Human Race, edited by Maurice N. Walsh, 70–82. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1971. Washburn, Sherwood L., and D. A. Hamburg. “Aggressive Behavior in Old World Monkeys and Apes.” In Primates: Studies in Adaptation and Variability, edited by Phyllis C. Jay, 458–78. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. War as product of human nature formed by evolution of hunting (476–78).
Washburn, Sherwood L. “Animal Behavior and Social Anthropology.” In Sociobiology and Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Critique and Defense, edited by Michael S. Gregory, Anita Silvers, and Diane Sutch, 53–74. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978. Why casual comparisons of insects, birds, and peoples to reach conclusions about human behavior by such as Lorenz (1963), Alexander (1975), and Wilson (1975) will not do; see especially “Serious Comparisons,” 60–65.
Wedge, Bryant. “The Individual, the Group and War.” In Psychological Bases of War, edited by Heinrich Z. Winnik, Rafael Moses, and Mortimer Ostrow, 65–82. New York: Quadrangle Books; Jerusalem: Jerusalem Academic Press, 1973. How individual psychology might explain a social phenomenon like war.
Weiss, Kenneth M. “Demographic Theory and Anthropological Inference.” Annual Review of Anthropology 5 (1976): 351–81. Cites number of works arguing that warfare has played central role in shaping human biological evolution (367).
Wiegele, Thomas C. Biopolitics: Search for a More Human Political Science. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1979. See chap. 6, “The Biopolitics of Human Conflict,” 123–44.
Willhoite, Fred H., Jr. “Evolution and Collective Intolerance.” Journal of Politics 39 (1977): 667–85. Biological bases for internal conformity, external hostility and war in human groups.
Willhoite, Fred H., Jr. “Rank and Reciprocity: Speculations on Human Emotions and Political Life.” In Sociobiology and Human Politics,
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edited by Elliott White, 239–58. Lexington, Massachusetts, and Toronto: Lexington Books, 1981. Remarks on the selective force of intergroup combat in human evolution (251–52).
Wilson, Edward O. “Competitive and Aggressive Behavior.” In Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior, edited by John Frederick Eisenberg and Wilton S. Dillon, 183–217. Smithsonian Annual 3. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971. Human aggression is probably adaptive and may have developed very recently, even in historic times.
Wilson, Edward O. On Human Nature. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978. Reprinted New York: Bantam Books, 1979. Much of chap. 5, “Aggression,” 101–24, focuses on warfare.
Wilson, Edward O. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975. See especially chap. 11, “Aggression,” 242–55; and “Warfare,” 572–74, in chap. 27, “Man: From Sociobiology to Sociology.”
Wolman, Benjamin B. “Human Belligerence.” International Journal of Group Tensions 2 (1972): 48–66. Explanations of war and aggressive behavior from Freud to Lorenz, though more psychologizing and philosophizing on why men fight with each other than why war.
*Wrangham, Richard W., and Dale Peterson. Demonic Males: Apes and the Origin of Human Violence. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. Reviewed by Steven Austad, “Blood Brothers,” Natural History 105 (November 1996): 12–13.
Wrangham, Richard W. “Mutualism, Kinship and Social Evolution.” In Current Problems in Sociobiology, edited by King’s College Sociobiology Group, Cambridge, 269–89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. How the evolution of war might be explained biologically (285–86).
Zihlman, Adrienne L. “Women as Shapers of the Human Adaptation.” In Woman the Gatherer, edited by Frances Dahlberg, 75–120. New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1981. Problems with evolution explained through male dominance and aggression.
Zillmann, Dolf. Hostility and Aggression. Hillsdale, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1979. On the origin of war and the relation between institutions and behavior, see chap. 3, section III, “Hostility and Aggression in Man,” 95–113.
WAR EXPLAINED CULTURALLY
War as a Product of Culture. Scholarly and popular studies, commentaries, and polemics on war as learned human activity derived from anthropology, history, psychology, sociology, political science, and related fields. Aberle, Kathleen Gough. “Anthropology and Imperialism: New Proposals for Anthropologists.” Paper presented at Southwestern Branch, American Anthropological Association, March 1967. Printed as pamphlet Boston, Massachusetts: New England Free Press, n.d. Adams, Richard Newbold. Energy and Structure: A Theory of Social Power. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975. Chap. 10, “A Model of the Evolution of Power: Levels of Integration,” 217–78, discusses military aspects of evolving chiefdoms and states.
Alland, Alexander, Jr. The Human Imperative. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972. On the failure of genetics or instincts to explain war, see chap. 6, “On War,” 126–48.
Alland, Alexander, Jr. To Be Human: An Introduction to Anthropology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980. See “War,” 442–47, in chap. 19, “Social Control: Consequences, Politics, Law.”
Ås, Berit. “A Materialistic View of Men’s and Women’s Attitudes towards War.” In “Women and Men’s Wars,” edited by Judith Hicks Stiehm, 355–64. Women’s Studies International Forum 5 (1982): 245–391. How the differential relationship of male and female to warmaking, armies, and territories account for their distinctive perspectives.
Atkin, Samuel. “Notes on Motivations for War: Toward a Psychoanalytic Social Psychology.” Psychoanalytic Quarterly 40 (1971): 549–83. The need for a sociological-psychoanalytic study of the interface between individuals and social institutions to understand the psychological factors that may affect the social behavior of war.
Balandier, Georges. “An Anthropology of Violence and War.” International Social Science Journal 38 (1986): 499–511. Baldwin, Gordon C. Strange People and Stranger Customs. New York: W. W. Norton, 1967. See chap. 9, “Weapons and Warfare,” 119–38.
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Barash, David P. Introduction to Peace Studies. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1991. Primarily modern and Western in orientation, but see chaps. 2, “The Meaning of War,” 31–53; 6, “The Causes of War: The Personal Level,” 137–58; and 7, “The Causes of War: ‘Primitive’ Wars,” 159–73.
Barnouw, Victor. Anthropology: A General Introduction. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1979. See chap. 17, “Political Organization, Law, and Warfare,” 299–315.
Barringer, Richard E., with Robert K. Ramers. War: Patterns of Conflict. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1972. Barroll, Martin A. “Toward a General Theory of Imperialism.” Journal of Anthropological Research 36 (1980): 174–195. Empire as alternative to domestic redistribution of wealth.
Beals, Ralph L., and Harry Hoijer. An Introduction to Anthropology. 4th edition. New York: Macmillan, 1971. On war related to level of political development, see chap. 13, “Law, Order, and Political Systems,” 406–33.
