The framing of decision situations : automatic goal selection and rational goal pursuit

Next to the theoretical foundation of Framing Theory in the psychological and cognitive sciences, a family of stochastic models is proposed that can directly express the core notions of the theory. By fitting these models to choice data, frames can be assessed quantitatively, and predictions of Framing Theory can be tested in a convenient way. The theory is exemplarily applied to the social dilemma domain. In an experimental public goods game, the effect of a sanctioning system on individual cooperation, and the mediating role of framing, are studied. Finally, in a series of three small experimental studies, the possibilities and limitations of Framing Theory as a descriptive model of human decision making are assessed. Christian Steglich studied mathematics and information science at the Technical University of Berlin. He conducted the present research at the Interuniversity Center for Social Science Theory and Methodology (ICS) in Groningen / The Netherlands, where he also taught courses in various statistical disciplines. His main research interests are the stochastic modelling of individual decision making, the evolution of social networks, social dilemmas, and normative behaviour.

THE FRAMING OF DECISION SITUATIONS | CHRISTIAN STEGLICH

Orthodox versions of Rational Action Theory postulate the maximization of a situation-invariant utility measure as the mechanism that underlies human behaviour. This postulate – as powerful as it is for predicting behaviour in a multitude of applications – limits the scope of Rational Action Theory. In this book, it is argued that several phenomena of natural interest to sociologists, like normative behaviour or problems of self-command, cannot be addressed adequately in the orthodox framework because they rely on cognitive automatisms that operate in a non-maximizing manner. As an alternative, a cognitive variant of Rational Action Theory is elaborated: Framing Theory. Here, maximizing behaviour – in the form of rational goal pursuit – occurs only locally, after the content of the goal is identified. This goal identification, also called the framing of the decision situation, is driven by mechanisms like mental inertia and situational triggering that are incompatible with globally maximizing behaviour.

INTERUNIVERSITY CENTER FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

CHRISTIAN STEGLICH

THE FRAMING OF DECISION SITUATIONS Automatic Goal Selection and Rational Goal Pursuit

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25

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246



Chapter 8

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254

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256

Chapter 8

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Conclusion

257

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260

Appendix A

 6HPDQWLFSULPLQJDOVRGHWHUPLQHGSDUWVRIWKHWH[WXDOSUHVHQWDWLRQLQWKHUHPDLQGHU RIWKHH[SHULPHQW,QWKHIROORZLQJWH[WVWKHVHSULPLQJGHSHQGHQWDOWHUQDWLYHVDUH UHQGHUHGLQEUDFHVZLWKDVODVKEHWZHHQWKHP^QRUPDWLYHWH[W JDLQWH[W ` 7KHWDVNLQWURGXFWLRQ 7KHLQWURGXFWRU\WH[WSUHVHQWHGRQDFRXSOHRIVFUHHQV ZDVWKHIROORZLQJRQH  {“Jij en enkele vrienden uit deze groep hebben besloten om eens een gezamenlijke” / “Stel je besluit om samen met een tiental bevriende hobby-brokers een”} vakantiereis te maken. Jullie kiezen voor een verrassend goedkoop pakket »avontuur in Indonesië« waar jullie drie weken op een schitterend klein eilandje door kunnen brengen. Als tegenprestatie voor de lage prijs wordt wel verwacht dat jullie bereid zijn om aan het plaatselijke beschermingsproject voor waterschildpadden mee te werken. Dat willen jullie wel doen. Het gaat erom, de eieren van de schildpadden op het strand te verzamelen en naar het centraal broedstation te brengen. De omstandigheden zijn daarbij als volgt:  Elke dag breng je 10 uur op het strand door met de bedoeling zoveel eieren mogelijk te verzamelen.  Hetzelfde doen ook professionele eieroogsters die de Chinese winkels in het hele land aan de lekkere waar helpen. Dat mag van de regering, en de enige kans om de schildpadden te beschermen is dan ook het opbrengen in het broedstation van zoveel mogelijk verzamelde eieren. Met deze informatie vooraf bereiken jullie het eiland. Het is lekker weer, en jullie zullen er zeker genieten van de drie aanstaande weken.

Stimulus material used in the experiments

261

Je krijgt onderdak vlakbij het broedstation, samengeteld zijn er zo'n vijftig mensen uit Europa en de VS die er samen zullen wonen en werken. De facility manager van het broedstation houdt een welkomstpraatje waarin hij het volgende toelicht:  "Waterschildpadden worden in Indonesië traditioneel als voedsel beschouwd. Door de regering worden er alleen op dit eiland per seizoen 100 licenties voor het verzamelen van schildpadden-eieren uitgereikt.  "Vroeger gingen die allemaal naar de professionele oogsters – maar door internationale contracten is men sinds een paar jaren gedwongen om de helft van de licenties, 50 stuks dus, aan vertegenwoordigers van ons beschermingsproject uit te reiken.  "Het strand is 10 uur per dag geopend. Iedereen met zo'n licentie mag er dan zoveel mogelijk eieren halen. In de overige tijd is er geen toegang naar het strand. Die regeling wordt door betrouwbare patrouilles van de marechaussee gecontroleerd.

 













"Jullie krijgen straks die licenties uitgedeeld, en vanaf morgenochtend kunnen jullie ermee langs de controleposten naar het strand. Jullie zullen zeker een paar keer per dag met volle tassen die posten moeten passeren. "Maar letten jullie op: wat er met die licenties gebeurd is uiteindelijk aan ieder{“ projectlid” / “e individuele gast”} zelf overgelaten. Er staan talloze oogsters erop te wachten dat er iemand even zijn licentie aan hun uitleend, al is het maar voor één uurtje. "Die oogsters betalen 2000 roepia's voor elk uur dat ze een licentie mogen gebruiken. Dat is veel, en wij hopen dat jullie daar niet gebruik van zullen maken. "Helaas mogen wij jullie niet direct uitbetalen, maar we omzeilen die verplichting door de kamerhuur te verlagen: Voor elk uur dat één {“projectlid” / “individuele gast”) op het strand meewerkt verlagen wij de huur voor iedereen om 250 roepia's. "Dat lijkt minder dan wat de oogsters betalen, maar bedenken jullie dat er bij 50 medewerkende (!!) {“projectleden” / “individuele gasten”) zo al 50× 50 = 12500 roepia's per uur door ons minder in rekening worden gebracht. "Door slechte ervaringen gaan wij ervan uit dat sommigen van jullie wel eens de licentie aan de oogsters uit zullen lenen, om aan wat privé-inkomsten te komen. Ieder uur dat jullie niet aan het project meedoen wordt daarom door ons als privé-inkomen beschouwd. "Wij passen dan ook een strafpercentage toe op deze privé-inkomsten van onze {“projectleden” / “individuele gasten”}. Dit percentage geeft aan hoeveel wij van de veronderstelde privé-inkomsten van een dag zullen intrekken. "De hoogte van die straf wordt door ons elke dag herzien en in de ochtend aan jullie bekend gemaakt.

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262

Appendix A



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Stimulus material used in the experiments

263



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 editie A

 editie B

264

Appendix A

)URP&KDSWHU6WXG\RQWKHEDFNJURXQGFRQWH[WHIIHFW  6WXG\LVUHSRUWHGLQ6HFWLRQRIWKLVERRN7KHVWXG\KDGWZRGRPDLQVFDUWLUHVDQG VZLPPLQJEDWKV DQGWKUHHW\SHVRIH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVUHSOLFDWLRQGHOD\DQGVSDUVH HDFK RIZKLFKFRQWDLQHGDEDFNJURXQGWDVNDQGDWDUJHWWDVN 7KHLQWURGXFWRU\WH[WV %HIRUHWKHGHFLVLRQWDVNVZHUHSUHVHQWHGDVPDOOVFHQDULRGHVFULSWLRQZDVJLYHQ7KH GHVFULSWLRQIRUWKHEDFNJURXQGWDVNLQWKHFDUWLUHVGRPDLQZDVWKHIROORZLQJRQO\ UHSOLFDWLRQDQGGHOD\FRQGLWLRQV   Stel je hebt een auto en je moet alle vier de banden vervangen, anders krijg je de auto niet door de APK. Omdat een nieuwe auto nog veel duurder zou zijn, beslis je dus om dat te doen. Je weet dat naast de prijs vooral de kwaliteit belangrijk is bij de keuze, en dat je de kwaliteit van een soort banden het best terugvindt in de garantie die de pruducent geeft.

 )RUWKHVZLPPLQJEDWKVGRPDLQWKHEDFNJURXQGWDVNVFHQDULRLQWURGXFWLRQZDV  Stel je gaat graag naar het zwembad om er even lekker een aantal banen te zwemmen. Om een zwembad te bereiken gebruik je meestal je fiets.

 7KHEDFNJURXQGWDVNV ,QWKHVSDUVHFRQGLWLRQVWKHEDFNJURXQGWDVNZDVQRDFWXDOWDVNEXWFRQVLVWHGRID VKRUWWH[WRQO\7KHIROORZLQJWH[WLVWKHRQHXVHGLQWKHFDUWLUHVGRPDLQUHQGHUHGIRU RSWLRQ%   Stel dat je voor je vorige auto eens vier autobanden hebt gekocht. Je herinnert je nog dat deze banden een garantie van 150.000 kilometers hadden en f 182 per stuk kostten.

 ,QWKHVZLPPLQJEDWKVGRPDLQWKHVSDUVHWH[WZDVDVIROORZVUHQGHUHGIRU$   Stel dat je in je vorige woonplaats meestal naar een zwembad bent gefietst dat op een fietsafstand van 40 minuten lag en waar de toegang fl 4,– kostte.

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Stimulus material used in the experiments

265

 soort A  soort B

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 7KHDWWLWXGHZDVPHDVXUHGRQDFRQWLQXRXVVFDOHDVIROORZV 

266

Appendix A

7KHVWLPXOXVREMHFWVWKDWZHUHXVHGDUHDVIROORZV yoghurt, zonnebaden, gemotoriseerd verkeer, het scheiden van afval, deelname aan regionale verkiezingen, belastingen, het wachten bij rode stoplichten, de donorpas, uitzendbureaus, mobiele telefoons

,QDGGLWLRQHLJKWQDPHVZHUHLQFOXGHGEHORQJLQJWRSHRSOHZKRKDGEHHQ QDPHGHDUOLHUE\UHVSRQGHQWVDVILJXULQJLQWKHLUSHUVRQDOVXSSRUWQHWZRUNV  7KHSUHSDUDWRU\WH[WVIRUWKHWDUJHWWDVN %HIRUHWKHWDUJHWWDVNZDVSUHVHQWHGDJDLQDVPDOOVFHQDULRGHVFULSWLRQZDVJLYHQ 7KHGHVFULSWLRQIRUWKHFDUWLUHVGRPDLQZDVWKLV  Stel je hebt je oude auto inmiddels verkocht. Sinds twee jaar heb je een wat nieuwere auto. Dit jaar ben je nu weer in de situatie dat je alle vier de banden moet vervangen.

 )RUWKHVZLPPLQJEDWKVGRPDLQWKHWDUJHWWDVNSUHSDUDWLRQWH[WZDV  Stel je bent inmiddels verhuist naar een andere woonplek. Nog steeds ga je graag naar het zwembad, maar de fietsafstanden en prijzen zijn in de nieuwe omgeving enigzins anders.

 7KHWDUJHWWDVNV 'HFLVLRQV LQ WKH WDUJHW WDVN ZHUH PHDVXUHG RQ WKH VDPH W\SH RI VFUHHQ DV WKH EDFNJURXQGGHFLVLRQVLQWKHUHSOLFDWLRQDQGGHOD\FRQGLWLRQVVHHDERYH  )URP&KDSWHU6WXG\RQGHFR\SODFHPHQW  6WXG\LVUHSRUWHGLQ6HFWLRQRIWKLVERRN,WFRQVLVWHGRIWZRSDLUVRIGRPDLQVLQHDFK RIZKLFKUHVSRQGHQWVKDGWRPDNHDGHFLVLRQ 7KHLQWURGXFWRU\WH[WV 7KHILUVWSDLURIGHFLVLRQVZDVLQWKHGRPDLQVFHOOWHOHSKRQHVDQGSKRQHFRQWUDFWV7KH LQWURGXFWRU\WH[WWRWKHVHGRPDLQVZDVDVIROORZV

Stimulus material used in the experiments



7KHWH[WFRQWLQXHGRQWZRIXUWKHUSDJHV Je wilt de mobiele telefoon vooral hebben om overdag bereikbaar te zijn, en om zelf een paar hele korte gesprekjes met collega's te voeren. Voor de gewone gesprekken heb je thuis een goedkope telefoon beschikbaar. Je schat je toekomstig gebruik op 3 minuut per werkdag in; dat is dan één uur per maand die je mobiel zal bellen. Je gaat naar een telefoonzaak waar je volgens de consumentenbond heel gemakkelijk en voordelig kan kiezen uit de verschillende aanbiedingen die op de markt verkrijgbaar zijn. Hier wordt je geconfronteerd met twee onafhankelijke beslissingen die je moet nemen: Je moet een telefoontoestel kiezen. De toestellen variëren in prijs en enkele kwaliteitsaspekten, waaronder vooral de handigheid van het toestel. Verder moet je of voor een abonnement of voor een beltegoed optie kiezen. Die opties verschillen in gesprekskosten en korting die je op het toestel krijgt. Je wordt nu gevraagd om aan te geven hoe jij dit soort beslissingen zou nemen.

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267

268

Appendix A



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Next to the theoretical foundation of Framing Theory in the psychological and cognitive sciences, a family of stochastic models is proposed that can directly express the core notions of the theory. By fitting these models to choice data, frames can be assessed quantitatively, and predictions of Framing Theory can be tested in a convenient way. The theory is exemplarily applied to the social dilemma domain. In an experimental public goods game, the effect of a sanctioning system on individual cooperation, and the mediating role of framing, are studied. Finally, in a series of three small experimental studies, the possibilities and limitations of Framing Theory as a descriptive model of human decision making are assessed. Christian Steglich studied mathematics and information science at the Technical University of Berlin. He conducted the present research at the Interuniversity Center for Social Science Theory and Methodology (ICS) in Groningen / The Netherlands, where he also taught courses in various statistical disciplines. His main research interests are the stochastic modelling of individual decision making, the evolution of social networks, social dilemmas, and normative behaviour.

THE FRAMING OF DECISION SITUATIONS | CHRISTIAN STEGLICH

Orthodox versions of Rational Action Theory postulate the maximization of a situation-invariant utility measure as the mechanism that underlies human behaviour. This postulate – as powerful as it is for predicting behaviour in a multitude of applications – limits the scope of Rational Action Theory. In this book, it is argued that several phenomena of natural interest to sociologists, like normative behaviour or problems of self-command, cannot be addressed adequately in the orthodox framework because they rely on cognitive automatisms that operate in a non-maximizing manner. As an alternative, a cognitive variant of Rational Action Theory is elaborated: Framing Theory. Here, maximizing behaviour – in the form of rational goal pursuit – occurs only locally, after the content of the goal is identified. This goal identification, also called the framing of the decision situation, is driven by mechanisms like mental inertia and situational triggering that are incompatible with globally maximizing behaviour.

INTERUNIVERSITY CENTER FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

CHRISTIAN STEGLICH

THE FRAMING OF DECISION SITUATIONS Automatic Goal Selection and Rational Goal Pursuit