Social Aspects of Early Buddhism

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF

EARLY BUDDHISM

DEVANANDA

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

DR. BOKANORUWE DEVANANDA THERA

First published in 2000 Copyright 1999 All Rights Reserved ISBN : 981-04-2641-0

Published and Distributed by the Author

Sri Lankaramaya Theravada Buddhist Temple (SSBA) 30-C St. Michael’s Road Singapore 328002 Tel : 0065-3910031 Fax : 0065-2965282

Printed in Singapore

DEDICATED TO THE LOVING MEMORY OF MY BELOVED PRECEPTOR THE LATE VEN B. GHANANANDA THERA AND MY DEPARTED BELOVED PARENTS

FORWORD Almost everyday a new book is out on many aspects of Buddhism. But most of them concentrate on either the life of the Buddha or doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. Very seldom we find a work on social aspects of Buddhist teachings. Ven. B. Devananda’s book on Social Aspects of Buddhism, therefore, is definitely a welcome addition to the ever increasing literature on this religion, which Albert Einstein, thought of as the religion recommendable to the people or the 21st Century. Buddhists, however, in spite of all glorifications by western admirers, are frequently initiated by the charge that their religion is renunciation oriented and lacks social message. Attempt of Ven. Devananda to present a comprehensive and academic treatment of some social aspects of Buddhism, therefore, will be an eye-opener for many readers. In fact, the writer will eloquently convince the reader with sufficient authority, that Buddhism not only presents a social philosophy but even surpasses social thoughts of many religions with its modernity and rationality. The facts brought here into limelight from the Discourses show that social concern in Buddhism is very much up front. Though, at times, a little apologetic, Ven. Devananda’s treatment of the subject is reasonably scientific. He has chosen some anthropological and sociological themes to organise his material and observations around. His arguments lead to conclusions like, 1. The Buddhist view on the origin of the world and the development of the being is scientific; 2. Buddhist teachings are impregnate with the hope of creating a new society based on equality, righteousness and non-violence; 3. Buddhist social thought is based on non-theistic, humanistic, pragmatic and practical concepts; 4. Buddhist economic philosophy recognises the dignity of labour and humanity; 5. The Buddhist community should uphold values and ideals like simplicity, frugality, equality, unity, sanctity, spirituality, utility and universal love. Throughout the six chapters, the author has adduced enough material to convince the reader that the Buddha was not just a teacher for those who were willing to renounce the world. Every chapter is well documented and kindles an interest in the mind of reader to pursue more research into the subject.

Prof. Chandima Wijebandara Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Sri Jayewardenepura Nagegoda, Sri Lanka

PREFACE Over two thousand five hundred years ago, immediately after the Great Enlightenment, the Buddha became reluctant to preach Dhamma to people because they lacked maturity. But, since an invitation was made by the Sahampati Maha Brahma, the Buddha decided to deliver His Noble Teaching firstly to five ascetic groups. They were His first and foremost listeners. After that, many thousands of people embraced Buddhism. Today, there are over 550 million Buddhists throughout the world. As a result of the spread of Buddhism worldwide, people are keenly interested to know its various aspects. To assist such readers, I decided to present my research to them under the title of “Social Aspects of Early Buddhism”. I was deeply interested to investigate the many aspects of Buddhism during my primary and secondary studies. I selected the above mentioned topic because I thought that research done in that aspect was not sufficient. In this research, the materials were obtained mainly from the original Pali Text and used as primary sources. The secondary sources were also used from Sanskrit and Sinhala literature sometimes in English translations and sometimes in original languages. My subject area is very vast. Source materials were scattered everywhere in the teachings of the Buddha. Therefore, I had selected very few discourses that were very relevant for the subject matter of my research. There are six chapters in this book. Apart from that, I have added a conclusion as well. The first chapter is devoted to make an introduction to my work. Hence, I have given relevant details in Tipitaka, primary and secondary sources, research methodology, and social background in India prior to the Buddha. The second chapter is fully devoted to describe the origin and evolution of human beings, human society, and the human world. Buddhist concepts or unity and equality has been discussed in the third chapter. In the fourth chapter, I have dealt with the social dimension (philosophy) of Buddhism in a descriptive way. The Teachings of Buddha about Buddhist economy has been explained in the fifth chapter. In the last chapter, I have made a long discussion on the Buddhist community of monks as an ideal society. This first very humble effort of mine is both for educated people and ordinary readers and I very warmly and humbly their comments and welcome suggestions that would greatly influence my career in the academic field in future. I avail myself of this golden opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to all those who enabled me through their generous assistance and co-operation in the accomplishment of my work. I gratefully thank my esteemed, beloved supervisor, Prof. Sanghasen Singh for his gracious, noble, enlightened guidance which he magnanimously bestowed on me, during the pursuit of my research. His brilliant supervision and tremendous encouragement stood me in good stead.

I owe a debt o f gratitude to Prof. K.T.S. Sarao who is head of the Department of Buddhist studies, for his encouragement during my research. Similarly, my thanks are due to all my esteemed teachers who led me on the right path, during my period o f study. I am most beholden to Ven.K.Wajira Thero, Who was Professor at the University o f Kelaniya in Sri Lanka. Ven.Vijitha Dhamma Thera, Ven. Dr.K.Gunaratana Thera, Maha Krruna Buddhist Society Singapore, Ven.Dr.U.Devananda In Australia, Ven.B.Chandananda and Mr.U.G.K.Poddalgoda, The senior Assistant Registrar, University o f Kelaniya Sri-Lanka,for their generous support and best wishes during rfty research pursuit. I cannot adequately express my gratitude to my brother Ven.G.Palitha and Ven.B/Athula, as well as all my close friends, for their assistance and best wishes and also express my very special thanks to Dr.senerath Vijesundara. a lecturer o f Pali and Buddhist Collage in penang, Malaysia, who assisted me in many ways. Furthemore, I would like to say thanks to all My Singaporean friends, Madam Amara Goh, Hwee Koon, Bee Neo and Kelly who rendered priceless service in my work. It is my great responsibility to radiate my heartfelt gratitude and compassinate thoughts towards Mrs Tan Lee Lee and Mr Daniel Tan Kolc Hong who did tremendous service for computerising and make outer page cover. It is my very great duty to be grateful to Ken and yeo families and Mr Bruce A.Robin who sponsored to print my boo in their own wish. Let me thank Mr Chong Yew Weng owner o f Plyrich Printing Service and his all staff for their assistance . I am glad to avail myself of the opportunity to thank I.C.C.R. for giving me the most generous aid during my research. I wholeheartedly thank the staff of the Department o f Buddhist studies as well as the staff to the libarary. University of Delhi, for their friendly help during my reseach work. I Heartily thank Ven. Mrs.Dipamwita Chatterjee, Samir Chatterjee, And Anupam Chatterjee for thier kind assistance.. It is my another great pleasure to convey my heartfelt gratitude and thanks Professor, Kapila Abhayavansa and Chandima Vijebandara who assist me in proof reading and in many ways. At least not last, I would like to thank all management committee members in SriLankaramaya (SSBA)for their well co-operetion with me when I putsued my work. Bokan-oruwe Devananda Sri-Lankaramaya 30-C -St.M ichael’s Road Singapore 328002

ABBREVIATION

A.

:

Anguttara niknya

B.C.

:

Before Christ

C.V.

:

Cula vagga

Chap.

:

Chapter

D.

:

Digha nikaya

Dh.

:

Dhammapada

FF.

:

And the following

It.

:

Itivuttaka

J.

:

Jataka

Khu.

:

Khuddaka nikaya

M.

:

Majjhima nikaya

Manu.

:

Manusmrti

Mhv.

:

Maha vagga

N.

:

Nipata

No.

:

Number

P.

:

Page

PP.

:

Pages

p.T.S.

:

Pali Text Society

Pe.

:

(Peyyala) do

S.

:

Samyutta nikaya

S.B.E.

:

Sacred Books of the East

S.

:

Stanza

Sn.

:

Sutta nipata

V.

:

Vagga

Vs.

:

Verses

Vism.

:

Visuddhimagga

Vol.

:

Volume

CONTENTS Page No. Acknowledgement

Abbreviations

Chapter I

Introduction

1

Chapter II

The Buddhist View on the Origin and Evolution of Human Society

14-31

Buddhist Interpretation of Unity and Equality in Human Society

32-50

An Inquiry into the Social Philosophy of Early Buddhism

51

Socialised Economic Philosophy and Buddhist Interpretation

73-99

Ideal Bhikkhu Society and its Justification

99-131

Chapter III

Chapter IV

Chapter V

Chapter VI

13

-

72

-

Conclusion

132

Bibliography

134-139

Index

140-151

-

133

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION SOURCES The present work is based on a study of Pali Canonical texts with a view of crystallizing social thought of Buddhism. They are together known as the Tipitaka in Pali. It comprises three “baskets”, such as: I II III

Sutta Pitaka Vinaya Pitaka Abhidhamma Pitaka

The present Tipitaka was rehearsed and unanimously accepted at the First Council held at Rajagaha after three months of the passing away of the Buddha. The word Pitaka is a later collective appellation of the Buddhist scriptures. An early classification of the Canon was undertaken in terms of Dhamma and Vinaya. Dhamma was applied to the doctrinal portions and out of this developed the Third Pitaka, the Abhidhamma pitaka. It is true that the Pali Canon was not committed to writing for a long time. It remained as an unwritten compilation for nearly two hundred years, even after Buddhism had been introduced into Sri Lanka (Ceylon). The writing down of the Canon took place at about 80 B.C. Buddhaghosa has classified the Tipitaka as follows: Sutta Pitaka

The Sutta pitaka consists of five nikayas, such as: I. II. III. IV. V.

Digha nikaya Majjhima nikaya Samj'utta nikaya Anguttara nikaya Khuddaka nikaya1

According to the Mahavamsa the entire words of the Buddha were divided into two broad divisions i.e. Dhamma and Vinaya. Mahakassapa being the head of the Council asked Upali to explain the Vinaya. Upali the well known master of the subject seated in the preacher’s chair, expounded it and in turn all the bhikkhus repeated after him. “Then the thera Mahakassapa taking the task upon himself questioned concerning the Dhamma, Ananda, the chief of those who had most often heard the word, him the treasure keeper (kosarakkha) of the Great Seer (the Buddha), and the thera Ananda, taking the task upon himself, taking his seat in the preacher’s 1 Atthasaiini (pts) p. 18 Buddhaghosa

1

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

chair, expounded the whole of Dhamma. And all the theras knowing all that was contained in the Doctrine repeated the Dhamma in turn after the sage of the Vedeha country."2 Furthermore, as it has been pointed out above, the Sutta pitaka was divided into five Nikayas. The term Nikaya is a group, class or collection, domain, especially the collection of Buddhist suttas, as the five sections of the Suttanta pitaka.3 All these five sections are divided in accordance with different criteria. Thus, Text that consists of the long discourses of the Buddha is called Digha nikaya. This Text is divided into three group such as: i. ii. iii.

Sllakkhandha Vagga Pali Maha V agga Pali Patika Vagga Pali

The Text again is divided into sixty four sections or Bhanavaras. Bhanavaras contains eight thousand letters.

Each

The SilakkhandhaVagga Pali contains thirteen Suttas. It begins with the Brahmajala sutta and ends with the Tevijja sutta. The second section Maha Vagga Pali comprises ten suttas. It starts with the Mahapadana sutta and ends with the Payasi sutta. The third section named Pathika Vagga Pali contains eleven suttas. It begins with the Pathika sutta and ends with the Dasuttara sutta. The Digha nikaya has altogether thirty four suttas.4 The Majjhima nikaya consists of the middle length sayings of the Buddha, therefore, it is designated as the Majjhima nikaya. It is divided into three sections, named Pannasas. It contains eighty Bhanavaras. It has fifteen vaggas (sections). Its three main sections are: i. ii. iii.

Mulapannasa Pali Majjhima Pannasa Pali Uparipannasa Pali

Mulapannasa Pali contains five vaggas (sections) such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mulapariyaya vagga SIhanada vagga Opamma vagga Mahayamaka vagga Culayamaka vagga

2 The Mahavasma, chap. Ill vs 31-36 pp 17-18. ’ Pali-English Dictionary, p. 352 4 The M ahavagga Pali, Introduction (Sinhala edition) p. 42

2

In t r o d u c t i o n

Mulapariyaya vagga consists of the ten suttas, and begins with Mulapariyaya sutta and ends with Mahasatipatthana sutta. The SIhanada section contains the ten suttas. It starts with Culasihanada sutta and ends with Vitakkasanthana sutta. The Opamma section contains ten suttas. It begins with the Kakacupama sutta and ends, with the Culasaropama sutta. The Mahayamaka section contains ten suttas. It begins with the Culagosinga sutta and ends with Cula-assapura sutta. The Ctilayamaka section consists of ten suttas. It begins with the Saleyyaka sutta and ends with the Maratajjanlya sutta. The Majjhima Pannasa Pali consists of five vaggas (sections). They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Gahapati vagga Bhikkhu vagga Paribbajaka vagga -Raja vagga Brahmana vagga

The Gahapati vagga consists of ten suttas. It begins with the Kandaraka sutta and ends with the Apannaka sutta. The Bhikkhu vagga comprises the ten suttas. It begins with the Ambalatthikarahulovada sutta and ends with the KItagiri sutta. The Paribbajaka vagga contains the ten suttas. It begins with the Tevijjavacchagotta sutta and ends with the Vekhanassa sutta. The Raja vagga contains the ten suttas. It begins with the Gatlkara sutta and ends with Kannakatthala sutta. The Brahmana vagga contains of ten suttas. It begins with the Brahmayu sutta and ends with the Sangarava sutta. Uparipannasa Pali consists of the five vaggas (sections); they are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Devadaha vagga Anupada vagga Sunnata vagga Vibhanga vagga Salayatana vagga

The Devadaha vagga consists of the ten suttas. It begins with the Devadaha sutta and ends with Culapunnama sutta. The Anupada vagga contains the ten suttas. It begins with Anupada sutta and ends with the Sankharupapatti sutta. The Sunnata vagga comprises the ten suttas. It begins with the Culasunnata sutta and ends with the Devaduta sutta. The Vibhariga vagga consists of the twelve suttas. It begins with the Bhaddekaratta sutta and ends with the Dakkhina vibhanga sutta. The Salayatana vagga consists of the ten suttas. It begins with the Anathapindikovada sutta and ends with Indriyabhavana sutta. The total number of the suttas of the Majjhima nikaya amounts to one hundred and fifty two suttas. The collection of discourses in the Suttanta pitaka known as Samyutta nikaya has 7762 suttas of varied length, generally short, arranged in a special order, according to subject matter, into five major divisions:

3

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

1.. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Sagatha vagga Nidana vagga Khandha vagga Salayatana vagga Maha vagga

Each major vagga is divided into fifty-six groups known as Samyutta related subjects grouped together. The Samyuttas are named after the subjects they deal with, for example, Bojjhariga Samyutta on the Seven Factors of Enlightenment or after some principal personalities such as the Ven. Sariputta, King Pasenadi of Kosala or Sakka. Kosala Samyutta is a group of discourses concerning King Pasenadi of Kosala, and Devata Samyutta deals with Devas like Sakka, Indra, Brahma, etc. Each Samyutta is further divided into sections which are made up of individual suttas. Thus, the well-known Dhammacakkappavattana sutta is the first discourse (sutta) in the second section of Sacca-Samyutta which comes under the Maha vagga division of Samyutta nikaya.5 The whole of the Samyutta nikaya has one hundred Bhanavaras (sections). The collection of Discourses of Anguttara nikaya, containing 9557 short suttas is divided into eleven divisions, known as nipatas. Each nipata is divided again into groups called vaggas, which usually contain ten suttas. The discourses are arranged in progressive numerical order, each nipata contains suttas with items of Dhamma, beginning with one item and moving up by units of one till there are eleven items of Dhamma in each sutta of the last nipata. Hence, the name Anguttara means increasing by one item. The first nipata, Ekaka nipata, provides in each sutta single items of Dhamma, called the Ones, the second nipata, Duka nipata, consists in each nipata, two items of Dhamma called the Two, and the last nipata, Ekadasaka nipata is made up of suttas with eleven items of Dhamma, in each, all the Eleven.6 It has one hundred and twenty Bhanavaras (sections). O f the five nikayas, Khuddaka nikaya contains the largest number of treatises, and the most numerous categories of Dhamma. Although the word “khuddaka”, literally means minor or small, the actual contents of this collection can by no means, be regarded as minor including as it does the two major divisions of the Pitaka namely the Vinaya pitaka; and the Abhidharhma pitaka according to one system of classification. The miscellaneous nature of this collection is obvious. Compilations of brief doctrinal notes mostly in views, accounts of personal struggles and achievements by theras and theris also in verse, the birth stories, the history of the Buddha etc. may explain for its chapter. The following is the list of treatises7: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Khuddakapatha Dhammapada Udana Itivuttaka

5 Guide to Tripitaka. p. 82. 6 Ibid. p. 107 7 The M ahavagga Pali - Introduction (Sinhala edition) p. 42

4

In t r o d u c t i o n

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Sutta nipata Vimanavatthu Petavatthu Theragatha Therigatha Jataka Niddesa (Maha and Cula) Patisambhida magga Apadana Buddhavamsa Cariyapitaka

Vinaya Pitaka

It consists of two Patimokkhas, two Vibharigas, twenty two Khandhakas, and sixteen parivaras. Later Vinaya pitaka was classified into five Texts such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mahavagga Pali Culavagga Pali Pacittiya Pali Parajika Pali Parivara Pali

Abhidhamma Pitaka

It consists of seven Texts. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Dhammasangan! Yamaka Dhatukatha Patthana Puggalapannatti Vibhanga Kathavatthu pakarana

The Kathavatthu pakarana was compiled by Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa Thera at the Third Council that was held at Pataliputta under the aegis of Emperor Ashoka.

Methodology

Apart from the use of original sources other methods such as comparative, historical, textual and scientific have been utilised for the present research, rational

5

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

thinking has been applied to clarify facts. In order to establish the facts, all the collected data have been compared and justified. Historical data have been gleaned from encyclopaedias and articles. Texts composed in Sanskrit and Sinhalese have also been consulted.

Social Background

The 6th Century B. C. witnessed a rapid socio-economic and political upheavals in India. According to available sources, society was divided into castes. The caste system was already rooted in the Indian soil. The lowest stratum of the society is reported to have suffered at the hands of both the rich and the kings. The society is said to have undergone two extremes. One being the extreme poverty and other one was extreme opulence. According to available sources, this situation was caused by the irresponsible kings. It is obvious that king had no specific programmes for socio-economic development of the country. Society was dominated by the priestly class. They were the royal chaplains. They enjoyed special privileges that were bestowed on them by the king. Certain chaplains were entitled to enjoy the income of the whole area. Thus, the economy of that area was not made available for other people. As a result, they suffered from poverty. Economy is meant by earning of wealth and consumption of wealth. Economic activities are recognised as the production of goods and sources for society and human beings. The combination of these things is called the economic system. Indian society believed in the concepts of soul and God, and their view of economy was also metaphysical. It was the Buddha who challenged the prevalent wrong views and tried to give a broad utilitarian outlook of the economy. This fact has been clearly pointed out in the suttas like Agganna, Kutadanta and Cakkavattisihanada. India in the time of the Buddha had a sort of semi-urban civilization. Economy was based on agriculture, caste system as a social institution has been an integral element of Hindu life. It has endured for many centuries. Castes are small and complete social worlds in themselves, marked off definitely from one another, though subsisting within the larger society. The caste system split the society into mutually exclusive social groups, prohibited inter-marriages, interdining, drinking and even smoking together. It prevented the social fusion, more than any other institution in the world. Hence, it has been rightly termed as the steel frame of Hinduism, a divinely ordained theory, connected with the law of karma. It has also been described as the keystone to the arch of Hinduism, and the foundation of Indian social edifice as every Hindu necessarily belongs to the caste of his parents. It has been the strongest barrier against social progress and national unity.8 The above mentioned conditions were prevalent at the time of the Buddha. Old beliefs, traditions and practices were replaced by new Humanitarian thoughts of Buddhism. Buddhism upheld social harmony, concord, brotherhood, co-existence and a just society devoid of caste system. The following verse of the Yajurveda is of importance, as far as the socio-religious beliefs are concerned.

8 Education and Social Change in South India, p. 165

6

In t r o d u c t i o n

Om visvani deva savitarduritani parasuva Yad bhadrantanna asuva.9 “O’ Creator of the whole world, you are graciously immaculate. O’ Lord, thou art a giver of all happiness. Please remove our bad qualities, bad habits and suffering and make available for us the good qualities, nature and things.” The above verse clearly shows that men in ancient India were made helpless. They were misguided by the thinkers, instead of asking people to be self-reliant and active, the Vedic teachings made people just to pray to an unseen God and expect glory and prosperity from him. When the Buddha noticed this, he said that “Attanava katam papam attana samkilissati, attana akatam papam attanava visujjati. Suddhi asuddhi paccattam n'anno-annam visodhaye".10 Self­ committed sin defiles the self. If the sin is not committed by the self, then the self is purified, purity and impurity depend upon oneself, no person can purify another person. He further said, "Atta hi attano natho - ko hi natho parosiya” 11 self is the master of self. How could another person be the master of self? This grand saying of the Buddha, shows that no God can bestow any boon or prosperity on mankind. Man has to strive himself and work out his own destiny, so, it may He said that man is the master of his own destiny. When the Buddha visited Kapilavatthu for the first time and came across i.e. His father, the King Suddhodana, He did not advise him to pray to the Almighty God to seek his blessings to prosper in this world. On the other hand, He instructed him to practise righteousness (dhammam care sucaritam)'2 and not be negligent in his day to day activities and advised him to lead a normal life, for the moral people live happily here, in this world and hereafter. The Vedic teaching tempts people to pray, worship Gods, so that they could not be redeemed from all sins. The Buddha did not approve of such fanatism. He emphasized on non committal of sin. Nobody can escape the consequences of one's deeds. It is said “Na antalikkhe na samuddamajjhe na pabbatanam vivaram pavissa, na vijjati so jagatippadeso yatthatthito munceyyapapakamma"P The intelligence of Indian people seems to have been stunned by dogmatism, fanatism, narrow mindedness and superstitious beliefs. The lowest stratum is reported to have been denied the human rights and equal opportunities in almost all fields. The cunning and crafty composers and compilers of those imaginary Texts so called Holy Texts put some social injunctions into the mouth of the Almighty God. For example, the Manusmrti states that he who is devoid of learning, who does not learn, after trying to learn, who is bodily robust, and good at service, for such a low person only one duty to 9 Yajurveda10 Dh. p. 149 11 Dh. p. 145 12 Dh. p. 153 13 Dh. p. 121

Samhita, Bhasa-Bhaya. Part II, Chap. 30, p. 430 v.3 Attavagga Attavagga Lokavagga Papavagga

7

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

be performed is that he should serve the other three strata of the society, i.e. Brahmana, Satriya, and Vaisya. Ekameva tu sudrasya Prabhuh karma samadisat Eteshameva varnanam Sushrsamanasuyaya 14 The Buddha is said to have raised His clarion call against this kind of corrupt practices and gave equal opportunities to all strata of the society. He said "Daso hutva ayyo hoti ayyo hutva Daso hoti” 15 - one being a slave, can become a master and the vice versa. The Buddha straightway rejected the current stereotyped social stratification and proclaimed that one does not become a Brahmana by birth or merely because he is bom out of the womb of the Brahmana lady. But one becomes a Brahmana by one’s wholesome deeds and one becomes lowly by one’s unwholesome deeds. It is said, “Na jacca Brahmano hoti na jacca hoti Abrahmano ’ kammana Brahmano hoti kammana hoti Abrahmano It was the Vedic literature that ignored good qualities such as goodness and kindness which have universal appeal. The following verses of the Atharvaveda will clarify the fact. The verse runs as follows: Aradaratim niitim parograhim Kravyadah pNaachana rakshoyat Sarvarh durbhutam tat tama Ivapahnmasi. 16 It means that an enemy and bad destiny, disease cruel animals that feed on raw flesh, non-vegetarians, demons and all the conditions that are harmful, should be destroyed from just like dispelling darkness. On the close examination of the above saying of the Atharvaveda we can say that it has no universal appeal. We have different inclinations, tendencies, likes and dislikes. Therefore, it is not advisable and appropriate to impose one’s ideals on others, if they do not suit others. Therefore, the Buddha is reported to have advised His disciples so as not to accept or practise Atharvaveda.17 The Teaching of the Buddha has a universal appeal and social concord, amity and brotherhood can be established through it; for example the Buddha says, “Let a person conquer anger by love, conquer evil by good. Conquer the miserly 14 Manu. Chap. 1 pp. 42, 43. 15 Vasettha sutta 16 Attarvaveda, A. 1 ,2 , Chap. 8, p. 477 17 Atthabbanam supinam lakkhanam Na vidahe atho p i nakkhattam irutam ca gabbhakaranam Tikiccham mamako na seveyya

12.

In t r o d u c t i o n

by generosity and the liar by truthfulness (akkodhena jine kodham asadhum sadhuna jine)”'s. His social ethic did not teach hatred towards any one. For instance, He says, “Hatred is never appeased by hatred, it is appeased by loving kindness, this is the Eternal Law”. Na hi verena verani - Sammantidha kudacancim Averana ca sammanti - Esa dhammo sanantano 19 The socio-economic conditions in the time of the Buddha were based on the Holy Brahmanical Texts and all these Texts had Vedas as their sources. The tenets that are found in the Vedas and Brahmanical Texts are not conducive to establish a free, just and democratic society. Therefore, Nagasena, a well known teacher who had defeated the King Menander in his arguments in the 2nd B. C. said “Tucha vata bho ime Veda palapa nissara". That is to say these Vedas are meaningless. They are just chaff, they are spiritless and essenceless. Rural area had cottage industry, such as weaving and spinning, handicrafts etc. Urban economy was much more advanced, various industries are reported to have been in vogue. Besides, the trade was handled by urban merchants. According to the Dhammapadatthakatha, this trade was controlled by the king. On the other hand, it was handled by individuals like Anathapindika, Migara, Mahadhana and Adinnapubbaka. The king protected the people and the country from foreign invasion, but harassed them by charging too much of taxes. The industry was controlled by such people. The poor people had no chance to improve their economic conditions. Slavery was widely practised. Poor people were hired for less wages. Sometime, they were bought and made slaves. These slaves had no freedom. Even their progeny were destined to be slaves. Women also had been subjected to slavery. The Buddha raised His humanitarian voice against this social evil. He said, “One can change one’s social status by one’s own good or bad actions” . According to Him, the status of slaves and master is interchangeable. One being a slave can become a master and vice-versa (daso hutva ayyo hoti ayyo hutva daso hoti). The Buddha was the first great Indian thinker who allowed both slaves and women to practise spiritual life. The economy that was restricted to the rich people was decentralized by the Teaching of the Buddha. This fact has been clarified in the subject matter of the work. Moreover, Buddhist Texts throw light on the careful utility of resources. They bring to our notice that the Buddha gave tremendous value to human dignity and human beings rather than to resources. Social evil like dowry, animal sacrifice, which needed wealth were denounced by the Buddha. The fact that dowry caused heavy loss of economic growth of a country, is proved by historical records.

,8 Dh. K odhvagga V.03 p. 190 ' Dh. Y am akavagga V.05 p. 8

9

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

According to the historical records of Buddhism, King Pasenadi of Kosala Kingdom had given Kasi Kingdom to his sister who was married to King Bimbisara. As a result, the income of Kasi Kingdom was enjoyed by the royal family. It was not used for the development of the country. Nobody opposed the prevalent social evils as the society was dominated by all powerful kings. The Buddha is said to have tried to wipe out this social evil by righteousness. As far as the religious conditions are concerned, the 6th Century B. C. witnessed a lot of religious changes. In the time of the Buddha we are told Indian society was in the grip of priestly class and the people observed superstitious rites and rituals. They performed sacrifices in which innocent animals were killed. In order to get salvation, people resorted to various places of worship because they were taught that they could redeem themselves from all evils if they worshipped the natural forces and man made Gods and shrines. The Buddha raised His voice against these evil practices and taught the people to lead a moral life, so that they could achieve themselves the highest goal of their life. We are informed that the society was divided into two broad streams of thinking that was imposed by Sramanas and Brahmanas. Both Sramanas and Brahmanas followed two extremes, such as self-mortification and self-indulgence. The Buddha rejected these two extremes and followed the Middle Path that could lead to the realization of Nibbana. It is obvious that there were different types of religion. There was not a single religion that was practised by all. The Buddha was bom under such circumstances and taught His new Doctrine that gave social justice to all. This Doctrine was not other worldly as it has been misunderstood by some scholars but on the other hand, it was inclined to this life itself. Prior to the explanation of Buddhist social philosophy, it would be advisable to define social philosophy. The social philosophy is made up of two terms such as social and philosophy. The Oxford English Dictionary throws light on these terms. It is as follows: Marked or characterised by mutual intercourse, friendliness, or geniality, enjoyed, taken, spent, etc. in company with others, especially, with those of a similar class or kindred interests. Consisting or composed of person associated together in or for the purpose of friendly intercourse.20 According to the above definition, social means all the activities carried out by any society. Although we find various kinds of societies yet human society differs from other societies, especially in the field of spiritualism and intellectual development.

20 Oxford English Dictionary p. 905

10

In t r o d u c t i o n

Philosophy is generally defined as all definite knowledge, love of knowledge.21 The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term philosophy as follows: “Sometime used especially, of knowledge obtained by natural reason, in contrast with revealed knowledge.” The study of the general principles of some particular branch of knowledge, experience, or activity, also less property, of those of any subject or phenomenon.22 The prima facie meaning of philosophy is a vision of anything. But if we consider its intrinsic, we get profound meaning of it. It enables us. to see the things as they truly are. When we combine these two terms, we get the word social philosophy. “According to A. C. Das, social philosophy is different from sociology. Social philosophy as the term indicates, is the philosophy of society, i.e. an interpretation of society. Social philosophy deals with analysis, criticism of concepts and categories with the problems of values.”23 Though we get some glimpses of Buddhist social philosophy in the Tipitaka yet we don’t find a separate section on this particular subject. All the Teachings of the Buddha are connected with men in society and their problems. I have made an attempt to explain the Buddhist social philosophy. The present work throws light on the Buddhist social philosophy. All the chapters are centred round the Buddha’s Teaching about it. Here, I wish to define it briefly. According to Buddhist Teaching, Buddhist social philosophy also sees things as they truly are (yatha bhuta nana dassana). The Buddha taught His philosophy to people of two categories Agarika (householders) (ii) Anagarika (leading a homeless life). The Buddha gave freedom of thought to His followers who were at liberty to follow either path. The basic principle of the Buddhist social philosophy is the same whether one follows the Agarika or Anagarika path. It may be taken for granted that the Buddhist social philosophy is found in the Agarika path. There is no obstacle to aim at the highest goal i.e. Nibbana while following the Agarika path. The present treatise consists of five chapters. It also consists of an Introduction, Preface, Conclusion, Abbreviation and Bibliography. In the second chapter, an attempt has been made to elaborate the facts about the Buddhist analysis of the origin and evolution of human society. 21 A H istory o f W estern Philosophy, p. 13 22 O xford English D ictionary p. 688 2:5 An introduction to the Study o f Society, p. 17 A. C. Das

11

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Different views about the origin and evolution of the world and man, have been compared and proved in the light of scientific investigation. It has been tried to explain the origin of beings by means of biological investigation, based on Darwin’s theory of evolution. Modem views of astronomy have been analysed, in comparison with Buddhist concept of the origin and development of man and of the world. It has been shown that the above concept of Buddhism is in keeping with other concepts found in Buddhism. It has been pointed out that Buddhist concept is much more advanced and is wholly scientific. A fresh light has been thrown on the third chapter which deals with the unity and equality of human society. It has been shown that how Buddhism treats all human being equally inspite of the fact that the human being differs as far as their respective deeds are concerned. An attempt has been made to glean all the relevant facts from various sources and comparing them a justification about the unity and equality of human beings has been made. The society in the time of the Buddha was based on inequality, social injustice and caste system. It has been shown that how the Buddha challenged those social evils and tried His level best to establish a society on the moral basis. It has also been explained that the Buddha founded a new social organization that was free from the social evils like caste, creed, or colour. The fourth chapter is devoted to the social conditions that were prevalent in the time of the Buddha. While interpreting the social conditions an attempt has been made to point out the different social organisations, such as family and its functions. The society has been defined in the light of Buddhist interpretations. An attention has been paid to the social ethics. Duties of social institutions have been explained. In addition to these facts, other important facts of social relations have been brought to light. A fresh light is thrown on the new social practices. An attempt has been made to disprove the age old social practices of contemporary people. Depending on the suttas like Sigalovada, superstitious practices have been condemned and in their places good and rational moral practices have been introduced, so that an agreeable social relationship can be founded. The fifth chapter is devoted to the subject matter of Buddhist economic conditions. In order to explain economy various Buddhist Texts have been referred to. An attempt has been made to define the Buddhist economy and the modem economy. It has been shown that the modem economy is based on materialism. It does not guide the man to lead a moral life. It is confined only to the material growth, and as such it is not concerned with spiritual development whereas, Buddhist economy emphasizes the material, moral and spiritual development of a person, nation and the world. Other economic aspects like production, consumption, distribution, investment, saving and banking, have also been discussed in the light of the Buddhist interpretation. The Buddha’s ministry lasted for about forty five years. During this period, the Buddha was in constant touch with the Community of Monks. So an

12

In t r o d u c t i o n

effort in the sixth chapter, has been made, to elaborate the facts about the Community of Monks, its aims and administration. Enough light has been thrown on the origin and development of the Community of Monks. A special care has been taken to explain the gradual development of the Buddhist Community.

13

CHAPTER II THE BUDDHIST VIEW ON THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SOCIETY The question as to how the earth and the living things came into being, has been the subject of human inquiry from the very beginning of human civilization. Even today such a question has been a gordian knot. Before the emergence of Buddhism there had appeared a number of religious sectarian views regarding the above mentioned problem and they seem to have made effort to solve it in the light of their own wisdom. Thus, while those thinkers were speculating over the origin and development of the world, the Prince Siddhartha (Pali Siddhattha) was bom in the 6th Century B. C.24 and after becoming Enlightened put forth His own views. The Buddha while delivering His sermon to His five disciples at Varanasi, explained that He had accumulated investigative knowledge of the origin of the world and the human nature through a number of lives25. The Buddha put forward His views on the world and the human beings in various ways. The Acinteyya sutta of the Anguttara nikaya explains the four domains as unthinkable. They are the domain of the world (loka visaya), the domain of the Buddha (Buddha visaya), the domain of the dhamma (dhammas visaya) and the domain of the deeds (kamma visaya)26. However, with the help of the Pali Texts, the Buddhist views about the origin and evolution of the world can be built up. According to the Manusmrti, the Great Brahma first created the mass of water and put an egg into it. The egg was as radiant as the sun. He then lived in that egg for a year. Then it was spilt into two parts. The upper part of the egg was formed into heaven and lower part was formed into the earth. The middle part of it was transformed into the firmament. And then he made eight directions with ocean and places. This specified in the following verses of the Manusmrti: 1. 2. 3. 4.

So-Sbhiddhyaya sariratSvatsiriKushuvrividhan Prajah Apa eva sasarjassdau tasu bijamavasrijat TadandaMabhavaddhainam Sahasramsusamaprabhama Tasminjagne svayam Brahma Sarvaloka Pitamahah Tasminhande Sabhagavanusitva Parivatsaram Svaymevasst manodhyanattadandamkaroddvidha Tabhyamsa sakalabhyamca Divan bhumimca nirmame Madhye vyoma disachastavapam sthanamivha sasvatam.27

24 What the Buddha Taught p. xv 25 Mhv Vol. (PTS) Dhammacakkappavattana sutta, pp. 94, 95 ff 26 A. Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Appannaka vagga, p. 80 27Manu. pp. 4, 5 vs 118, 119, 120, 12.

14

T h e B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O

r ig in a n d

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

The English rendering of the above verses is as follow: "He desiring to produce beings of many kinds from his own body, first with a thought created the waters and placed his seed in them / That (seed) became a golden egg, in brilliancy equal to the sun, in that (egg) he himself was bom as Brahman the progenitor of the whole world. The divine one resided in that egg during a whole year, then he himself by his thought (alone) divided it into two halves. And out of those two halves he formed heaven and earth between them the middle sphere the eight points of the horizon, and the eternal abode of the waters.”28 The main aim of this Chapter is to discuss the origin of the world, in the light of the Buddhist views. It can be thought that man embraced the forest life so as to get rid of the internal and social problems that were full of suffering. While living in a solitary place he began to speculate on the origin of the world, its evolution, dissolution and also the question like man’s future life etc. Thus, he began to think deeply about his environment. He pondered over the phenomenal existence of cosmos. He saw then sun, the moon, the stars, the air etc, and ascribed divinity to them. While speculating more on this problem, he presented his views as a theory of divine creation. These ideas are found in the Vedas, Upanishads and other literary works. Some of the concepts of them are as below: 1.

Sahasrsirsha purushah, Sahasraksah, saharapai Sa bhumim visvato vritva atyatishthad dasangulam

2.

Purusahah evadam sarvam yad bhutam yahcha bhavyam utamritatvasyesano yad annenatirohati

3.

Etavan asya mahima ato jyayamscha purusah pado sya visva bhutani tripad asyamritam divi

4.

Tripad urdhvaudait purushah pado syehabhavat punah tato vishvan vi akramai

23 The Law s o f M anu pp. 5, 6 vs 8. 9, 12, 13.

15

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Sasananasne abhi. 29 Translation of the above stanzas is as follows: 1.

Purusha has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, on every side enveloping the earth he overpassed (it) by a space of ten fingers.

2.

Purusha himself is this whole (universe) whatever has been and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immoratality, since by food he expands.

3.

Such is his greatness and purusha is superior to this. All existences are a quarter of him, and three fourths of him are that which is immortal in the sky.

4.

With three quarters purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced here. He was then differed everywhere over things which eat and things which do not eat.30

The Brahadaranyaka Upanishad explains the origin of the world. It is as follows: Apa evedam agru asuh, ta apah satyam asrjanta 31 The English rendering of the above Sanskrit quotation is as follow: “In the beginning, this universe was just water. That water produced the true (or the real) Brahman. Brahman (produced) Prajapati and Prajapati (Produced) the goods. Those gods meditated on the real.”32 The Katha Upanishad states that the soul and world were made out of water. It is clarified further as follows: Hamsas sucisat uarsu antariksasat hota Vedisat, atithir duronasat nrsat, uarasat rtasat, uyomasat abja, goja, rtaja adviya rtam brhat,33 The English translation o f above mentioned statement is as follows: “He is a swan (sun) in the sky, the pervader in the space (between earth and heaven), the priest at the altar, the guest in the sacrificial jar (house). He dwells in

29 Hymns from Rgveda (x 90, I) pp. 41, 42. 30 Original Sanskrit Texts p. 9 31 Quoted at the Principal Upanishads p. 292 ff 32 Ibid. p. 292 5: Quoted at Ibid p. 636

16

T

he

B u d d h is t V

ie w o n t h e

O r ig in

and

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

men, in gods, in the right and in the sky. He is (all that is) bom of water, sprung from the earth, bom of right, bom of mountain. He is the true and the great.”34 According to the Aitareya Upanishad the soul created water, and a man was made from the water. The different parts of the world such as the heaven, the earth were made of different limbs of the purusha. It clarifies the process in the following statements. Atma va idam eka evagra asit nanyat kincana misat sa aiksata lokan nusrja iti. Sa imam Lokan asrjata, ambho maricir maram apodombhah parena divam, dyauh pratistha antariksam maricayah prithivimaro ya adhastat ta aphah,35 The following is the English translation o f the above-mentioned quotations: “The self, verily, was (all) this one only, in the beginning. Nothing else whatsoever linked. He thought let me now create the worlds. He created the worlds, light rays, death and the waters. This water is above the heaven. The heaven is its support. The light rays are the atmosphere. Death is the earth. What are beneath, they are the waters.”36 The Chandyogya Upanishad reveals the fact that everything in the world was bom from the sky-elements. At the time of dissolution of the world, everything is merged in the sky-element. Furthermore it defines that existence as an egg. After a year, it was cloven into two. One portion of it became golden and the other portion became silver. The golden portion was transformed into the sky and the silver portion was transformed into the earth. The outer shell turned into mountains, and the white substance of the egg turned into the clouds and mist. Adityo brahmely adesah tasyopavyakhyanam asad samvatsaraya matram asayata tan nirabhidyata, te andakapale rajatam ca suvarnm cabhavatam tad yad rajatam seyam prythivi, yat suvarnam sadyauh, yajjarayu, te parvatah yad uldam sa megho niharah, ya dhamanayas ta nadyah yad vasteyam udakam sa samudrah,37 The English translation is as follows: “The sun is Brahman: this is the teaching. An explanation thereof (is this). In the beginning this (world) was non-existent. It became existent. It grew. It turned into an egg. It lay for the period of a year. It burst open. Then came out of the egg shell, two parts, one of silver, the other o f gold.

34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid.

pp. 636, 637. p. 515 p. 515 p. 399

17

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

That which was of silver is this earth, that which was of gold is the sky. What was the outer membrane is the mountains, that which was the inner membrance is the midst with the clouds. What were the veins the rivers. What was the fluid within the ocean38 the rivers. And the yolk and other liquid portion of the egg became the ocean.” It is stated in the second part of the sixth chapter of the Chandyogya Upanishad that in the beginning there was a being who had thought in many forms. Having thought he ejected the heat from his body. Because of the heat, the water came into being and the water gave rise to food. With the combination of these three factors everything that is material and a being possessed of senses, came into existence. The eighth and nineth paragraphs of the third chapter of the Brahadaranyaka Upanishad throw light on that Gargya asked Yajnvalkya as to how the part that is above the earth and below the sky is formed. His reply was the air element. Then she asked as to how the air-element was formed. He replied that it was formed by the invariable and indestructible nature. It is not a mundane thing. Therefore, he did not make an effort to elaborate it. However, he has pointed out that because of the everlasting person's order, the earth and the sky exist separately. The sun and the moon exist separately. All the things like seconds, hours, days, nights, seasons and years, continue because of his order.40 The fourth Brahmana of the first chapter of the Brahadaranyaka brings to our notice how this world came into being. Atma eva idam agre asit purusha-vidhah sa ’nuvikshya na any ad atma-no’ pasyat "so ham asm i” ............. Aja itara abhavad vastah itarah aviritara meshah tarn sam eva abhava tato ‘javayo ’jayanta evam eva yad idam kincha mithunam a pippilikabhyas tat sarvam asrijata.41 “This universe was formerly soul only, in the form of purusha. Looking closely he saw nothing but himself (on soul). He first said, ‘This is I ’. Then he became one having the name of I. Hence even now a man when called, first says, ‘This is I’, and then declares the other name which he has. Inasmuch as he, before (purusha) all this, burnt up (aushat) all sins, he is called purusha. The man who knows this bums up the person who wishes to be before him. He is afraid. Hence a man when alone is afraid. This (being) considered that there is no other thing but myself; of what am I afraid? Then his fear departed. For why should he have feared? It is of a second person when alone does not enjoy happiness. He desired a second. He was so much as a man and a woman when looked in embrace. He 38 Ibid. p. 399 39 Ibid. p. 449 f f Tad aiksata, bahu syam prajayeyeti, tat, teiosrjata, ta t terja, aiksata, bahu syam prajayeyeti, ta d aposrjata, ta sm a d ya tra K va ca so ca ti svedate va pursuah, tejasa eva ta d adhy apo ja ya n te. 40 Ibid. p. 2 3 1 ,2 3 2 . S a hovaca, y a d urdhvam, Yajnavalkya, divah, y a d avak prithivyah, y a d antara dyavaprthivi ime y a d bhutam ca bhavacca bhavisyac c e ti acaksate, ksmims ta d atam ca p r o ta m c e ti............ 41 Brahadaranyaka kavartikasarah p. 262

18

T h e B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O r ig in

and

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

caused this same self to fall asunder into two parts. Thence arose a husband and a wife. Hence, Yajnavalkya has said that this one's self is like the half of a split pea. Hence, the void is filled up by woman. He cohabited with her. From them men were bom. She reflected, “How does he after having produced me from himself cohabit with me. Ah! let me disappear.” She became a cow, and the other a bull, and he cohabited with her. From them kine were produced. The one became a mare the other a stallion, the one a she-ass the other male-ass. He cohabited with her. From them the class of animals with undivided hoofs was produced. The one became a she-goat, the other a he-goat, the one ewe, the other a ram. In this manner pairs of all creatures whatsoever, down to ants, were created.”42 The theory of incarnations of Visnu reveals the fact that God manifested in the world in ten manifestations. The first incarnation of God Visnu was a fish. It shows that in the beginning there was water. Fishes are bom in the water. Later, this water was turned into land. This was the incarnation of Visnu as a tortoise (Kurma). The term kurma lives in both water and on land. The land became stable and this was called the Varahavatara, i.e. an incarnation of Visnu as a boar. The term Varaha is used for the boar. The boar lives in water as well as on the land. In the evolution of the land beings, the highest point is shown in the incarnation of Visnu as Narasinha. This shows two forms of a being. That is to say, one half is a lion and other half is a man. This shows the transformation of a beast into a human being. The beast is transformed into an undeveloped human form. This is shown by the incarnation of Visnu as Vamanavatara-Vamana means a dwarf. He is represented as an undeveloped person. Having developed himself into the man got divinity. This is revealed by the incarnation of the Visnu as Parasurama, Sri Rama, Sri-Krisna. And the highest intelligence is shown by the incarnation of Visnu as the Buddha.43 This can be somewhat similar to the evolutionary theory of Darwin. The Taitiriya Brahmana sheds light on the origin of the universe. According to it, this entire universe has been created by Brahma. “Sarvam hedam Brahmana haiva srishtam.” 44 The Satapatha Brahmana ascribes the creation of the world to Prajapati. It is as follows: “Bhur" iti vai prajapatir imam ajanayata “bhurvah” ity antariksham “suar” iti divam/etavad vai idam sarvam yavad ime lokah sarvena eva adhiyat ............ “bhur ” iti vai prajapatir atmanam ajanayata “bhuvah ” iti prajam ‘suar ’ iti pasun etavad vai idam sarvam yavad atma prajah pasavah sarvena eva adhiyate.45

42 Quoted at, Original Sanskrit Texts pp. 2 7 ,2 8 . 43 Hindu Dharmakosha, p. 54

Paramatma ya vishnu ke mukhya Avatara dasa he. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nursingha, Vamana, Parashurama. Rama, Krshna, Buddhaevam Kalki 44 Taitt, Br. Ill 1 2 ,9 , Quoted at Original Sanskrit Text p. 17 45 S.P. Br. II 1 4, 11 f f quoted at Ibid p. 17

19

SOCIAL ASPECTS O F EARLY BUDDHISM

The translation of the above Sanskrit paragraph is given below: “(Uttering) ‘bhuh’, Prajapati generated this earth. (Uttering) ‘bhuvah,’ he generated the air, and (uttering) ‘svah’ he generated the sky. This universe is co­ extensive with these worlds. (The fire) is placed with the whole. (Saying) bhuh, Prajapati generated the Brahman; (saying) ‘bhuh.” he generated the ksattra, (and saying) ‘svah’, he generated the vis. All this world is so much as the Brahman, ksattra and vis. The fire is placed with the whole, (saying) ‘bhuh’, Prajapati generated himself (saying), ‘bhuvah’ he generated offspring (saying) ‘svah’ he generated animals. This world is so much as self, offspring and animals, (the fire) is placed with the whole.” 46 According to Charles Darwin, evolution provided the first unifying general principle applicable to all living beings, who are as they now are because they have become what they are, having undergone modification during descent from other species.47 The Holy Bible also contains a theory of origin and development of man. According to it, the Almighty God created the earth and the sky. The soul of the Almighty God was moving on the water. There arose light according to His wish, the light was separated from the darkness. The light was named as the day and the darkness was named as night. Day and night were regarded as one day. Water was separated from water and the space was created. This space was named as the sky. The water that was under the sky was put aside and the land was created. This land was named as the earth. The water that was stored up in a place named as the ocean. The seed and plants that were sprung from them were created by the God. He created the seasons, day and night, year, then He created the sun and the moon. Then He created the living things in the water. Then He created birds in the sky. He blessed them for their development. It took only five days to accomplish this task and on the sixth day He created living things on the earth. The living things comprised of various kinds of animals, reptiles, beasts and then He created a name who was empowered with sovereignty over all living things. This entire task of creation was completed on the sixth day. He took leave on the seventh day and having blessed declared it to be a Holy Day. Then having made the earth wet, He blessed the nostrils of the man who was made of dust. As a result of it, the man became enlivened. Then He made a garden and named it the Garden of Eden and created lovely trees laden with fruits that were edible. Then He created a life giving tree in the middle of the garden and created another tree which could tell good and terrible things. Then He created a river by the name Pishon, and divided it into four directions. Then He named the first man Adam and created a woman from His ribs and named her Eve. One day they tasted the fruit of that tree which could tell good and terrible things. No sooner had they tasted it, they opened their eyes and found themselves to be naked. Seeing themselves in that position they covered their bare bodies with the covering made of leaves of the banyan tree. Then the Almighty God put on them a skin dress.

46 Ibid. p. 17. 47 The N ew Encyclopaedia Britannica p. 7

20

T h e B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O r ig in

and

E v o l u t io n

of

H

uman

S o c ie t y

From the union of Adam and Eve, two children were bom. They were named as Kayin and Abel. Kayin became a farmer and Abel became a shepherd. Kayin killed Abel. Adam had another son named Set. The future generation began from Set.48 Now the Buddhist theory of the origin of man and the world may be considered. It is based on exposition found in the Pali Discourses like the Brahmajala sutta and the Agganna sutta of the Digha nikaya.49 The origin and development of man and the world as depicted in the Agganna sutta, is as follows: The beings who die in the age of involution, are reborn in the radiant world of Brahma (Abhassara Brahmaloka). They are spontaneously bom in it by the power of their mind. They feed themselves on the diet of rapture. They get light from their bodies that radiate. They move in the sky. They are of long lifespan. After a long time of this involution the world starts developing again. This is called the age of evolution. The beings who were bom in the radiant world of Brahmas are reborn in this world of mortals during the age of evolution. These beings are spontaneously bom in this world by the power of their minds feeding on rapture, and being self-luminous, lived for a long time moving in the sky. The entire world was covered with thick darkness. And it was a mass of water. The sun, the moon, the stars, the day and night were not visible. The month, the half month, season, years, man and woman were visible. Beings were classified simply as Beings.50 After the lapse of a considerable period of time, the surface of the mass of water that was sweet turned into a solid crust, i.e. solid. (Literally earth in the sense of element.) It was like the skim of hot milk. The solid earth was juicy, fragrant and colourful. One of the greedy men tasted it with his finger. Thereupon there arose craving in him. Seeing him other beings did the same. After tasting the juicy skim, their luminosity disappeared. After the disappearance, they desired for light. Then there arose bravery in them and there manifested the light, they called it the sun, there arose in them a strange desire for light during the night. As a result of their strong desire the light appeared at night. They called it the moon.31 Thus, the moon and the sun appeared when their self­ luminosity disappeared. At the time of appearance of the moon and the sun, there arose the stars, in this way, there appeared month, day and night, half-month, year. The world originated in this way. Thus, those beings subsisted on the juicy earth for a long time. As a result of it their bodies became coarse. The complexion of their bodies changed in different ways. Therefore they became full of grief. Afterwards, fungus appeared on the ground like mushroom (Bhumipappataka). In course of time their bodies became coarser than the earlier forms. Their complexion changed to a greater extent. Their conceit increased and as a result of it, the fungus disappeared. Afterwards, a creeper appeared, (badalata) while feeding themselves on it for a

ff

48 The Holy Bible, pp. 1 ,2 49 D. V ol. I (PTS) p. 12 ff D. Vol. II (PTS) pp. 80, 81 ff 50 Ibid. p. 85 “Satta S attatveva Sankhyarit." Ibid. p. 86

21

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

long time, their bodies became coarser, their complexion changed considerably, their conceit increased. As a result, the creeper disappeared and afterwards rice (sali) plant appeared for those beings. It ripened without cultivation. The people could collect enough rice. When the rice plants were removed the other rice plants came up automatically. While feeding themselves on this rice, their bodies became coarser, their complexion was changed considerably. Moreover, they got masculinity and femininity. Thereafter, lust and passion arose in them. Consequently, they had sexual intercourse. Others who saw them wenching threw cowdung and ash at them. In order to have their privacy they built up huts. Meanwhile, a lazy person collected more rice, others followed him. Thus hoarding took place. Thereafter the rice grew with husk. After cutting the rice plant it did not grow again. Thus they were filled with grief. Thereafter, they demarcated their land. This gave rise to personal property. As a result of personal property, theft took place. Those who were stealing rice, were caught red handed and were punished. Thus, theft, disparagement, lying, punishment and violence took place. As a result, inequality and unrighteousness became rampant. In order to bring this situation under control, they assembled and unanimously selected a handsome strong man. He came to be known as Mahasammata. (Mahajana sarhmatoti kho Vasettha Mahasammato, Mahasammatotveva pathmam akkharam upanibbattarh)52. In return for his service, the people provided him with some measures of rice. With the appointment of the king, taxation was introduced. As king, Mahasammata was the owner of the land, he was called Khattiya (Khettanam adhipatiti kho vasetfaa khatthiyo, khattiyotveva dutiyam akkharam upanibbattarh).53 As he ruled his subjects righteously, therefore he was called the king (Dhammena parehi ranjetiti kho Vasettha raja rajatveva tatiyarh akkharam upanibbattarh).54 The name brahmana came into vogue as some of them refrained from committing evil-things (Papake akusale dharrime bahentiti kho vasettha brahmana. Brahmana tveva pathamam akkharam upanibbattarhi).7’5 Those who practised meditation were called meditators (jhayantiti jhayaka).36 Some of them lived in the village and taught scriptures. They were called ajjhayaka (Na dhamme jhayantiti ajjhayaka) 51 These were considered to be low as they neglected meditation. The names such as brahmana, jhayaka and ajjhayaka, were used according to their behaviour. The name vessa came into vogue as some people were engaged in sexual intercourse and different kinds of occupations. (Methuna dhammam samadaya vissutakammante payojentiti kho vasetfiw vessa).58 The people who were rough, harsh in their behaviour, they were called Suddas. (Luddacara, khuddacarati kho vasettha sudda).59

57 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid.

p. p. p. p. p. p. p. p.

93 93 93 94 94 94 95 95

22

the

B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O r ig in

and

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

The Brahmajala sutta of the Digha nikaya throws light on the origin and development of the world as follows : One of the divine beings of the Khiddapadusika divine abode, (one of the six divine abodes) came down to the earth and renounced the household life and practised meditation. After that he gained the knowledge of the memory of the past lives. Through such a knowledge he could see only his past life. He sees the divine abode of the Khiddapadusika divine abode. He gets an idea about the Khiddapadusika divine world as an eternal abode. Thus there arose a view of Khiddapadusika. Similarly, there is a Manopadusika divine abode which belongs to the Caturmaharajika divine abodes. One of the inhabitants of the heavenly abode was bom in this world, as a result of his getting angry with another divine being. He too, renounces the worldly life and practises meditation and comes to know that the Manopadusika abode is an eternal abode. It is obvious from the above statement that the Manopadusika heavenly abode is an eternal place. Thus, there arose a view of Manopadusika. Thus, the Brahmajala sutta of the Digha nikaya brings to our notice that there was a view among the beings about divine creation.60 After the involution, a considerable time passed and at the time of the origin of the world there appeared a Brahmakayika mansion which was empty. A certain being had fallen from the Radiant Brahma world and fed himself on the joy and moved in the sky. He was self-luminous. Having reborn in that Brahmakayika world, lived there for a long time. While living there alone he felt lonely and lazy and wished a company of another being. Then another being was bom. He too fed on the joy and moved in the sky, for a long time. He was also self-luminous. There arose in them an idea of a creator. The first being who was bom in that mansion thought that other beings were bom after him. Similarly, the other beings who were bom after him thought that he was the creator. After the lapse of time, a being from that divine Brahmaloka was bom into this world. That being too renounced the worldly life and practised meditation and developed the reminiscence of the former births. However, he could see only one former birth. He could not go beyond it. He could not see the birth and death of the first Great being in the Brahmaloka. He admits that the great being was their creator as he could not see beyond the Brahmaloka.61 It is exceedingly difficult to see the beginning and the end of the world. Nevertheless, it was the primary duty of those persons to find out the creator of the world, the origin of beings. There were different persons who had different views, as there was unanimity of their knowledge. Therefore, some of them based their views on religious beliefs. In the beginning there arose theories like Brahmanirmana vada and Devanirmana vada. These views are found in the Vedas, the Upanishadas and in the Law Books like Manusmrti.

60 D. V ol. I (PTS) pp. 17, 18, 19 f f 61 Ibid. pp. 1 7 ,1 8

ff

23

SOCIAL ASPECTS O F EARLY BUDDHISM

The Satapatha Brahmana and some Upanishads like Chandyogya, Katha, Aitareya and Taittiariya are inclined to a theory of origin; and development of the world, either by the Brahma or some other divine being. It is clear that the devotees of the Brahma thought that the world was created by him. However, when we examine the view, we find that in the beginning they had based their views on the basis of the mass of water, the aerial elements, from this world came into existence. According to the Brahmajala sutta, there arose the concept of Brahmanirmana and Devanirmana,62 about the origin and development of the world, as they could go beyond one birth and their knowledge was limited to only one rebirth. This concept is not a scientific one. The Agganfia sutta of Digha nikaya, says that when there was the mass of water that was filled with the obscurity of darkness, a certain being belonging to the Brahma world was bom in this world.63 According to Buddhist Philosophy, the world gets dissolved and reappears.64 At the time of dissolution, all the worlds, except the Abhassara Brahma world, get dissolved. But virtuous beings, in this world after their death are bom again in the radiant Brahma Loka.65 According to the Satta suriyuggamana sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, the world is burnt by the heat of the seven suns, and it cools down again.66 Then the firmament between the nadir and the zenith is filled with darkness. After the lapse of a considerable time, there falls a torrential rain. It washes away all the things that were burnt. Then the Brahma world appears. The earth appears in its former place. Then it becomes solid. Its skin becomes savoury. A being of the Abhassara world after the exhaustion of his merit, falls from the Brahma world and is reborn in this world. Thus the Satta suriyuggamana sutta shows the origin and development of the world. Thus, as pointed out in the Agganna and the Satta suriyuggamana suttas, the Buddhist view is that the world which had a previous existence is dissolved again and originated again. It further clarifies the fact that at the time of evolution, the beings who get protection in the world of Abhassara, are reborn in the world. The above view has been stated by Ven. Dharhmananda in his “The Cultural Traits in the Tripitaka. He comments that according to the facts that are found in the Tipitaka, it is a mistake to find out the origin of the world and man. It is stated in 62 Ibid. p. 18 A ham asm i Brahma M aha-brahma abhidha anabhibhuto annad-atthu-daso vasavatti, Issaro katta nimmita m ay a ime sa tta nimmita. 63 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 85 E kodaki-bhutam kho p a n a vasettha tena sam ayena hoti andha-karo andhakara-timisa. 64 D. Vol. I (PTS) p. 17 Hoti kho so, bhikkh ave...... a y am loko sam vattati H oti kho so b h ikkh ave...... ayaiii loka Vivattati 65 Ibid. p. 17 Sam vattam ano loka yebhuyyena satta abhassara-sam vattanika honti. 66 A V ol. IV (PTS) Mahavagga. p. 102 H oti kho so bhikkhave sam ayo; y a m kadaci karahaci dighassa addhuno accayena sattam o suriyo patubhavanti.

24

T

he

B u d d h is t V

ie w o n t h e

O

r ig in a n d

E v o l u t io n

of

H

uman

S o c ie t y

the Tipitaka that the world that was formerly in existence, undergoes changes like dissolution and reappearance. And at the end of the aeon, beings after their death are reborn in the world of Brahma, and after a long time are reborn again in this world. Therefore, this episode which is mentioned in the Tipitaka cannot be considered as a theory about the origin and development of the world and men.67 Buddhist view about the origin of the world and man shows that the man had come from the Radiant world. The being who came into existence had no other specialities. In course of the gradual development of beings they got their masculinity and femininity. It can be seen that they already had their existence. Afterwards, they began to live as husbands and wives. Because of their union the future generation came into being. Their genesis was the direct cause of craving. (Tanhajaneti purisam, i.e. craving begets man.)68 Similarly, when the following three factors like the union of parents and appearance of the interim being (Gandhabba) and mother’s menstrual purity are present, a foetus is bom. “Yato ca kho bhikkave matapitaro ca sannipatita honti, mata ca utuni hoti gandhabbo ca paccupatthito hoti evam tinnam sannipata honti gabbhassavakkanti.69 According to the theistic ideas, the genesis is entrusted with an invisible power. Therefore, it is said in the Rgveda, th a t: Brahman 'sya mukhamasit, Bahu rajanya Krtah, Uru tadasaya Yad vaisyah, padhyam sudro Ajayata.10 Those who respected the Varna dharma (caste system) regarded the generation and form as the soul or spirit. Buddhism did not consider it as essential. When the Yaksha Indaka put a question to the Buddha as to how could a being take new birth if the form is not considered as a soul. The Buddha responded that: Pathaman Kalalam hoti kalala hoti abbudam abbuda jayate pesi, pesi nibbattati ghano, ghana pasakha jayanti, kesa loma nakhapi ca yanca bhunjate mata annarii panam ca bhojanam

67 The Cultural Traits in Tripitaka p. 14. (S inhala edition) 68 S. Vol. I (PTS) Jara V agga, Tanha Janeti Sutta p. 37 69 M. V ol. I (PTS) M abayam aka vagga M ahatanhasankhaya sutta p. 266, kinh pali, BB. II. 70 R gveda (10) 90. Purusha Sukta p. 201, v. 12

25

SOCIAL A SPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

tena so tattha yapeti matukucchigato naroti.7I The English translation of the above mentioned quotation is as follows: “At first the kalala takes birth and thence the abbuda. Therefrom the pesi grows, developing as ghana in its turn. Now in the ghana both appear the hair, the down the nails. And what’soever food and drink the mother of him takes thereby the man in mother’s womb both live and grow.72 Thus, the genesis of the person takes place. Then the person sets into society. According to the Brahmanical opinion he gets social status, social duties, mainly on the basis of his birth. Nevertheless, Buddhism presents a socioscientific basis, on which depends the social development of the person. There, the spiritual aspect of the person is more important than his outer aspect. According to the Brahmanical opinion, the men are divided according to their birth. They were allotted their social duties on the basis of their respective birth. The Manusmrti clarifies the above statement as belows: A dhyapanamadhyanam Yajanam yajam yatha Danam pratigrahanchaiva Brahmanana makalpayat Prajanam raksanam Danamijjhadhyana meva ca Visayasca prasastisca Kshatriyasya Samadishat Pasunam rakshanam dana Mijjhaddhyana meva ca Vanikpatham Kusidanca Vaisya krisi meva ca Ekamevatu sudrasca Prahbukarma samadisai Etesam meva vananam Susramana suyayaP To the Brahmanas, he assigned teaching and studying (the Vedas), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms).

71 S. Vol. 1 (PTS) Y akkha Sarhyutta Indika vagga, Indika sutta. p. 206 77 S. Vol. 1 (PTS) Ibid. p. 263 73 M anu p. 12 Vs. 8 7 ,8 8 , 9 0 ,9 1 .

26

T h e B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O r ig in

and

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

He, the Ksatriyas commanded to protect the people to bestow gifts to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures. The Vaisyas to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money and to cultivate land. One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Sudra i.e. to serve meekly these three castes.74 But the Agganfia sutta presents the social duties of the four Varnas in a different way. According to it, the status of the four Varnas depends on their personal and spiritual development. The first being that is mentioned in the Agganfia sutta, was recognized as a special kind of being, such a being, while making development in society acquired different virtues. These virtues give rise to social stratification. As it is explained in the sutta, in the beginning man was endowed with pure thoughts, virtues etc. But later on, he was influenced by other unwholesome qualities such as tanha (craving), violence, falsehood, hoarding, theft, etc. As a result, he lost those good qualities and deteriorated. Because of the spiritual deterioration, cultural development took place. This has been pointed out by Ven. Dhammananda in his book mentioned earlier. The spiritual deterioration was the main reason for the external cultural development. The early man who had no permanent abode did not need agriculture. He was not aw'are of crime, did not need any law or jurisdiction. When the evil deeds of the man increased his virtues disappeared. As a result of it, he had to produce fire, improve architecture and had to develop medication to maintain good health. He had to make some arrangements for the educational progress of those who were intellectually backward. Furthermore, he had engaged himself in different occupations such as agriculture and trade. He did it so that he could easily get food and drink etc. Thus, he had to engage in many a cultural activity. If the early man, because of his merit, could get light from his own body, and could move in the sky, if his diet was the joy, he had no need of architecture, the method of producing fire and means of livelihood like agriculture.75 Mahinda Ranaweera is of the opinion that the statements about the early man’s development and good behaviour mentioned in the Agganfia sutta cannot be scientifically substantiated. His views are as follows : “In the beginning, the being was pure in his thoughts and virtues. He developed such things. Owing to the lack of scientific evidence, this cannot be proved. There is evidence about man who started as a single being and led a simple life, and was subject to evolution and had common tendencies of animals.”

” The Laws o fM an u , p. 24. vs, 88, 89, 90, 91. 75 The C ultural Traits in the Tripitaka p. 9 (Sinhala edition)

27

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

I would like to point out that the ideas about the origin of the world that was stated in the Agganna sutta, are contrary to the finding of Physics. According to Physics, the sun and the planets, when they were appeared because of natural causes, there was no living thing yet. The Sutta mentions that the sun and the moon appeared after the formation of the earth. But on the available evidence, it can be said that either the sun or planets appeared. The earth and other planets appeared simultaneously after the sun appeared. It is considered that when earth was formed, there was intense heat and was just like a ball of iron. If so, it cannot be proved that the earth was the enjoyment skin.76 Ven. P. Buddhadatta does not accept the Agganna sutta as the word of the Buddha.77 He says that the Agganna sutta puts forth the following view. According to this concept, the inhabitants of the radiant Brahma world having been bom in this world, created man. The beings who dwell in the Brahma world are reckoned as the Brahmas. They cannot be called human beings.78 In the same way, it has been pointed out in the Agganna sutta that the sun and the moon appeared while the world was undergoing evolution. Ven. Buddhadatta who sheds further light on this matter says that the meaning of the appearance of the sun and the moon is that the vapour covering vanished and there emerged the sun and the stars. Although it has been mentioned in the sutta that the moon appeared along with the sun, the commentators point out that the sun was appeared first and the moon appeared after the sun emerged.79 He further clarifies the fact that the above named sutta brings to our notice that when the early men started wenching because of their mutual affection, others began to throw cow-dung and ash at them, to express their objection to such an action. But it has not been mentioned that how the cow-dung and ashes came into being in the absence of cows and fire.80 According to the theistic concept, the world is said to have been created by god. The Agganna sutta informs us that this world has been considered by the Buddha as one in the cosmos. According to Buddhist view, it cannot be said as to how big the cosmos is. In the Culanika sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, the Buddha explains to one of his disciples named Ven. Ananda about the cosmos as follows: “O’ Ananda, as far as the light of the sun and the moon is permeated, it is called one world. The similar thousand worlds make the sahassadha lokadhatu......... ”81 According to this, one world system is as far as the light of the sun and the moon is permeated. There are similar hundred thousand world systems.

76 Ibid. p. 9 77 The Buddhist Philosophy o f Theravada p. 61 (Sinhala edition) 7‘ Ibid. p. 58 79 Ibid. p. 59 “ Ibid. p. 60 81 A. Vol. I (PTS) Ananda vagg p. 228 Yavata Ananda candim asuriya parih aran ti disa bhanti virocona tava sahassadha loko ... ayam uccati Ananda sahassi culanika Lokadhatu.

28

T h e B u d d h is t V ie w

o n the

O

r ig in a n d

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

The Sarhkharuppatti sutta of the Majjhima nikaya Part III states about this world system. The quotation runs as follows: Sahasso, bhikkhave adhimuccitva viharati. 82

brahma,

satasahassi

lokadhaturh

pharitva

“O’ monks, there are hundred thousand Brahmas, having completely released themselves, they live.” Even the post-canonical Buddhist commentaries like Vissuddhimagga by Ven. Buddhaghosa, furnishes us with the hundred thousand world systems. This was seen by the Buddha himself, on the second day of His Enlightenment.83 The Buddha who realized the existence of hundred thousand world systems and expressed His ideas in the following way: Anamataggoyam bhikkave samsaro, pubba koti na patina yati.u The Buddha is reported to have said that in the beginning the world is inconceivable. This view of the Buddha is also found in the Rgveda. Considering these facts it becomes quite clear that the world becomes as it was in its early nature state. This view can be scientifically proved, but the description of the Agganfia sutta cannot be accepted. The Buddhist view presents the evolution of man.83 “O’ Vasettha after the lapse of a considerable period of time for those beings, the enjoyment skin appears on the surface of water.” 86 Considering this explanation, the earth, the trees, and plants as well as living things are evolved. From the explanation of the Aggafina sutta the question arises whether the description is applicable to man or the animal. It is the crux of the matter. As this description deals with the wenching and throwing of cow-dung and ashes at them, collecting of food and drink, constructing houses so it appears that the episode was meant for men. As mentioned in the sutta, it does throw light on the development of beings after the lapse of a considerable period of time. Accordingly, the world comes into being from time to time and is dissolved from time to time. It is stated in the sutta that in the beginning there were beings devoid of any complexity but later they were subjected to complexity. This is what the evolution points out. During this period, man developed both in masculinity, femininity and mentality. The first beings who were fallen from the Brahmaloka, led an immaculate life. But when evolutionary change occurred in them, they

82 M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Uparipannasam. p. 101 83 The Path o f Purification p. 429. English edition Nanamoli. 84 V ol. I-II (PTS) Anamatagga Samyutta, Pathavi sutta p. 179 85 Quoted at p. 13. The Cultural Traits in the Tripitaka. 86 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) Agganfia Sutta p. 85 A llha kho tesam vasettha sattan am K adaci Karahaci dighassa addhuno accayena ra ssa p a th a vi udakasmim samatan

29

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

suffered spiritual loss, therefore, there occurred change of masculinity and femininity, roughness in their bodies conceit, passion, lust etc. Ignoring public property they accepted the individual property. The public utility was replaced by individual unity. Common property was replaced by individual hoarding. In early period, the land was not demarcated but later on it was subjected to the demarcation. The truth was replaced by falsehood. Non-violence was replaced by violence. Non-killing of animals was replaced by the slaughter of animals. Honesty was replaced by stealing. Self-governance was replaced by the state administration and non-punishment was replaced by punishment. This was the evolution of society. Thus, the evolution led to the downfall of man. It can be said that in order to redeem man from his deterioration, institutions like, state administration, education and religion were established. Through these institutions, man was enriched with civilization and culture. The Agganna sutta states that the early beings were reckoned to be mere beings. Therefore, it seems that there were in the beginning only beings. But those beings radiated light from their bodies.87 So it seems that they were possessed of human bodies. However, the Buddhist concept of the evolution of beings does not tally with Darwin’s theory of evolution. But it does tally with the theory of evolution that was put forth by Pansparmia. According to this view, the being came to this world from the other worlds. This has been pointed out by astronomers like Hoyle Fred and N. C. Chandrawickramasinghe in the book, ‘Evolution from Space. ”88 The advantage of looking into the whole universe for the creation of life is that it offers a staggering range of possibilities which are not available here on earth. For one thing it offers the possibility of high intelligence within the universe that is not God. It offers many levels of intelligence rising upwards from ourselves. (“........ Genes are to be regarded as cosmic. They arrive at the earth as DNA or RNA, either fully fledged cells, viruses, viroids or simply as separated fragments of genetic material. The genes are ready to function when they arrive.” “........ Large stores of genetic material became frozen and so preserved indefinitely in the outer regions of the solar system during the early days when our system was formed about 4.6 billions years ago.” “........ The genes ride around the galaxy on their pressure of light waves from the sta rs......... (Genetic material is exactly the right size to ride on the light waves of stars.)”

87 Ibid. p.85 "Te ca honti m an om ayapiti bhakkha s a y a m p a b h a . 88 Evolution from space pp. 31, 32.

30

T h e B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O

r ig in a n d

E v o l u t io n

of

H u m a n S o c ie t y

According to the Acinteyya sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, the subject of the world is beyond the power of human mind.89 Therefore, it is difficult to give a definite view regarding the origin and development of the world and man. At present some scholars are engaged in this complicated field.

89 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Appannakavagga p. 80 Cattarim ani bhikkhave acinteyyani na cintetabbani ya n i cintento ummadassa vighatassa bhagi ossa. B uddhanaw bhikkhave Buddha visayo acinteyyo na cintetabbo, y a m cintento um m adassa vighatassa b h a g ia ssa ...... Jhayissa~pe-vipako-pe-lokocinta-pe.

31

CHAPTER III BUDDHIST INTERPRETATION OF UNITY AND EQUALITY IN HUMAN SOCIETY Before the advent of the Buddha, Indian society was organised under the Brahmanical influence. It was based on caste system. The Buddha through His Doctrine tried to refute the Brahmanical thoughts and establish the unity of mankind and equality. Therefore, the present Chapter throws light on human unity and equality. In so far as culture and biology are concerned, no distinction can be made between man and man. The distinction between man and man does not biologically or culturally affect human mental development. Human beings as far as biological facts are concerned are bom alike. There may be a distinction between man and man through climatical as well as environmental changes. Nevertheless, mankind all over the world, undergoes almost the same psychological experience. The feelings, sensations, tendencies, temperaments and desires, impulses are shared equally everywhere without any difference. Knowing the above facts well, the Brahmanical intellectuals divided society mainly to satisfy their selfishness. All men are bom alike and possess similar mind but their mental states are different. This becomes quite clear from the following stanzas of the Dhammapada: Duramgamam ekacaram Asariram guhasayam Ye cittam sannamessanti Mokkhanti Marabandhana 90 The mind wanders forth far off places, it wanders alone; it has not physical body, it dwells in the cave of heart. Those who realise and control this mind are free from the bonds of the Evil One (i.e. Mara). According to the analysis of Abhidharhma Compendium, the mind is associated with fifty two mental states and the thought moment is divided into seventeen categories. When the thought moment does not get any object, then it is dissolved. We call it death. Therefore, the mind is always in motion. Whether we sleep or awake, these things are common to all. The mind of man at the moment of birth is absolutely pure. This fact is substantiated by the Pali Text. The quotation runs as follows:

90 Dh. Citta Vagga p. 38, v. 5

32

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H u m a n S o c ie t y

Pabhassaramidaw Bhikkhave cittam Tanca kho agantukhehi upakilesehi Upakilittharh 91 “O’ Monks! This mind is fundamentally radiant, but it is defiled by extraneous defilements.” In the beginning, the current of the river is pure, but while passing through mountains, hills and plains, it becomes dirty. This current of river becomes impure by environmental effects, in the same way, the mind of a person is perfectly pure at the time of his birth, but as he grows up, unwholesome things are entered into his mind and as a result of it, his originally immaculate mind becomes impure. As this man moves in society, he is subject to low things, then his mind becomes impure, but when he commits wholesome deeds, his mind becomes pure. Accordingly, man is differentiated or distinguished as good or bad, but we don’t find other additional things in man. Hence, man can be categorized on the principles of his deeds. Dr. G. P. Malalasekera and Dr. K. N. Jayatilleke have pointed out that as society is divided on the basis of caste, its lower strata is deprived of special privileges. The privileges that are not given to the lower strata of the society are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Not Not Not Not Not

granting equal political rights. giving equal economic benefits and opportunities. granting equal social rights. giving equal religious rights. giving equal opportunities in the matter of jurisdiction.92

The problems mentioned above, were in vogue in India, in the 6th Century B. C. At this juncture, the Brahmins had formed unjustifiable social stratification into four categories. These four categories of the social stratification were assigned certain duties respectively. Excepting three upper castes, the fourth caste, i.e. the Sudras were deprived of their religious rights. They were separated from the other castes just and to serve upper classes. As mentioned in Brahmanical Texts, the Sudras were punished by pouring melted lead into their ears, if they heard the Vedic hymns.93 Aryans had two types of social stratifications, which were based on colour. Aryans were of fair complexion and the natures were of dark colour. Therefore, the Aryans looked down upon the natives as dark complexion and low people.94

91 A. Vol. I (PTS) I N ipata A cchara vagga p. 10 92 B uddhism and the Race Q uestion pp. 14, 15. G.P. M alalasekera and K.N. Jayatilleke (Sinhala edition) 93 Q uoted at H inda Jatika utthan aur Patan. p. 311

Athahasya Vedamupa Srnvatastrapu Jatubhyam Srautraparip aranam Uddaharane juhachedah Dharane Sarirabhedah 94 B uddhist India C hap IV pp. 53, 54. T. W. Rhys Davids

33

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Thus, the caste division in ancient India seems to have been based on the theory of colour. Here colour is related to the body. The words “Kanha and Sukka” are mentioned in the Pali Canonical. Their literal meaning is given as wholesome and unwholesome deeds. For instance: Kanham dhamam vippahaya Sukkam bhavetha pandito.93 Having given up the unwholesome deeds, let the wise man develop and improve wholesome deeds. According to the code of Manu, man was created by the Brahma. Lokanantu Vivrddhyartham Mukha bahurupadatah Brahmanam, Ksatriyam Vaisyam Sudram ca nirvartayat.96 According to the above mentioned stanzas, the Brahmins were bom out of the mouth of Mahabrahma, Ksatriyas from his arms, Vaisyas w'ere bom from the thighs and Sudras were bom from the feet of the Mahabrahma. According to their theory of creation, four persons were created from the Mahabrahma showing different qualities of a person and thus different duties were assigned to them.97 Because of this social stratification, the Sudras became victims of oppression. Traditionally rich families had Sudras as their servants hired for them. Thus, Sudras were deprived of their freedom by those rich people. These Sudras were liable to get disposed of by their masters. They could be bought by any master. The final decisions about the-Sudras were in the hands of the masters. In addition to their service, they could do the sweeping. The Brahmanas believed 95 Dh. P andita V agga. p. 81 v. 12 96 M anu. p. 24 s. 30 97 M anu pp. 42, 43. S 86, 87, 88, 89. Pratham a A dhyaya. A dhayapanam adhyyanam Yajanam yajanarii tatha D anam p ratigrah am chaiva Brahmananamakalpayatat. Prajanam rakshanam dan a M jyadhyanam eva ca Vishayeshvapusaktish ca K shtrisya samadishath. Pash unam rakshanam dana M ijyadhyanam eva ca Vanikpatham K u sidan ca Vaishasasya Krushim eva ca Ekamevatu shudrasya Prabhuh Karm a samadishath Eteshame ca varnanaiii Susrus am anas uyay a.

34

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H u m a n S o c ie t y

that the Sudras were incapable of spiritual improvement. Therefore, reading and listening to the Vedas by them were deemed to be a grave offence. The teaching of the Vedic hymns to Sudras, was subjected to a severe punishment. Even in the matters of jurisdiction, Sudras were not given their basic human rights. Therefore, as Dr. G. P. Malalasekera and Dr. K. N. Jayatilleke point out in their book, Buddhism and The Race Question, the Sudras were deprived of such privileges. The Buddha has drawn attention to some facts in the Vasettha sutta. He did so, mainly to destroy the age-old social structure that was based on narrow principle of caste, creed, clan and injustice. He wanted to establish a new society that was based on equality, brotherhood and social justice. The following reasons have been given to show the unreasonability of the caste system: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Biological reason Historical reason Sociological reason Economical reason Psychological reason Ethical reason 98

While clarifying the biological reason, he told Vasettha and young brahmanas that there is a specific distinguishing mark among the trees, grass and plants, insects, quadruped reptiles, fishes, birds, but there are no such distinguishing characteristics among human beings. There are no distinguishing characteristics in the hair, head, ears, eyes, mouth, nose, lips, eye brows. Even in the privy parts of man and women, no distinguishing marks are found. There is no biological distinction among men but they are conventionally reckoned to be different from each other. The differences of men are based on their professions. For instance, one who lives by animal husbandry, is to be reckoned as a farmer and not as a Brahman, so on and so forth. Tinarukkhepi janatha - na capi patijanare Lingam jatimayarh tesam annamannam jatiya Tato kite patange ca yava kuttha kipillike Catuppade pi j anatha khuddake ca mahallake Paduderepi j anatha urage dfgha pitthike Tato macchapi j anatha udakevari gocare Tato pakkhipi j anatha pattayane vihangame Yatha etesu jatisu lingam jatimayarh puttu

98 Buddhism and the Race Question pp. 53, 54. G. P. Malaiasekara and K. N. Jayatilleke. (Sinhala edition)

35

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Evam natthi manussesu lingarhjatimayamputhu Ne kesehi na stsehi na kannehi na akkhihi Na mukhe na nasaya na otthehi bhamuhi va Paccattani ca sariresu manusseseva tam na vijjati Okaranca manussesu samannaya pavuccati Yohi koci manussesu gorakkharh upa jivati Evam Vasettha janahi kassako so na Brahmano 99 It is obvious from the above mentioned sutta that the difference is to be found in the vegetation and animal kingdom, but no difference is to be found between man and man. Human beings are the same in all respects. They differ only in their intellectual and karmic achievements. The Buddha did not recognize a Brahman on the basis of birth, womb, nor he approved of a Brahmanical claim of birth from the mouth of the Great Brahman. One becomes a Brahman or a Sudra by one’s own deeds. One becomes Brahman not by birth but by one’s own good deeds. In the same manner one becomes a low caste person by one’s own unwholesome deeds. Na Jacca Brahmano hoti Na Jacca hoti abrahmano Kammana Brahmano hoti Kammana hoti Abrahmano 100 If the above analysis of the Buddha, put into practice, then human equality and unity can be expected. The Buddha rejected the Brahmanical claims of superiority, on the historical background and tried to establish human equality and unity. The Agganna sutta of the Digha nikaya furnishes most authentic scientific description about the historical development of man and society. Two young men, named Vasettha and Bharadvaja approached the Buddha so as to remove their doubts about the claims of Brahmanas that were based on colour, clan, family and birth. As they belonged to the brahman’s family, the following statements were presented to the Buddha by them. Brahmano va settho vanno, hino anno vanno Brahmano va sukko vanno, kanho anno vanno brahmana va Brahmuno putta, Orasa, mukhato Jata, Brahmaja, Brahmanimmita, Brahmadayada, settharh hitva hinamattha vannam ajjhupaga........................ eva Kho no Bhante Brahmana akkosanti, paribhasanti attarupaya. Paribhasaya paripunnaya no aparipunnayati.101 According to the above description, Brahmins were regarded as superior to all other classes of the society, but Buddha refuted and rejected the false superiority complex of Brahmanas. The Agganna sutta, brings out that the society underwent stratification due to the social requirements. It may be accepted as a historical event. 59 Sn. (PTS) M aha V agga V asettha sutta. pp. 117, 1 1 8 ff 100 Ibid. p. 122 101 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 81

36

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H

uman

S o c ie t y

As far as cosmology is concerned. Buddhism divided the world into two ages, one is Samvattamana and the other is Vivattamana. Samvattamana signifies the period of the dissolution of the world and Vivattamana shows the emergence of the world. At the period of dissolution, the world is completely vanished and it appears again. Even at this juncture, no difference can be found among living things. All of them lead a peaceful life. They share the property equally. There arises with the passage of time, a concept of individuality, and they become subject to committing evil things. When these things become rampant, they need a well organised society. In order to accomplish this objective, they form social grades, such as Khattiyas, Brahmanas, Vessas and Sudras which are accepted as the pivot of social stratification. This stratification was based on their respective kamma (deed) and not on the birth, as Brahmanical or Function texts reveal. The Pali quotation from the Agganfia sutta elucidates this fact. It is as follows: Atha kho te Vasettha satta sannipatimsu, sannipatitva anuthutimsu sampatinsu papaka vata bho dhamma sattesu patubhuta, yatrahi nama adinnadanam paimayissati, garaha pannayisatti, ..................... Yannuna mayam ekam sattam sammanneyyama so no sammakhiyitabbam, pabbajetabbam ....................... mayam panassa salina bhagarh anuppadassamati. Athako te Vasettha satta yo nesam satto abhirupataro ca dassaniya taro ca, pasadika taro ca mahesakkha taro ca tam sattam upasankamitva etadavocum .................. mahajana sammato kho Vasettha maha sammato, maha sammatotiveva pathama akkharam upanibbattam akkharam upanibbattam.................... Ete kho Vasettha evametassa khattiya mandalassa poranena aggannena akkharena abhinibbatti ahosi................... Atha kho tesam Vasettha satta agganna va ekaccanam eta da hosi .................. Ete kho Vasettha evametassa Brahmana mandalassa poranena aggannena akkharena abhinibbatti ahosi. Vasettha tesanca kho sattanam sattanam ekacce satta methunan dhammam samadaya visutham kammatepayo je su m ...................ete kho Vasettha evametassa Vessamandalassa poraneha aggannena akkharena upanibbatti ahosi. 102 Basing our investigation on the Agganfia sutta, it may be said that the society, in each period, was peaceful and enjoyed common property equally, but later on, evil things such as theft, censure, falsehood etc., came into being. To bring this situation under control, they wanted an administration. So, they gathered together and elected a handsome, smart and strong person as their leader who could censure and punish. They supported him with a portion of their harvest. Thus, an administrator was elected by the people. That administrator after being elected belongs to the circle of Ksatriyas. This administrator who was elected by the people, was not a creation of the Almighty God. Taking the above statement as an example, it may be ascertained that other groups of the society, were also man made and were not a creation of God. Thus, all Brahmanical theories, concepts and claims based on divine sanctions become null and void. It lo: D. Vol. Ill (PTS) Pathika V agga pp. 92, 93.

37

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

is stated that Brahmins, in order to fulfil their selfishness, gave sanction to social stratification and made it a part and parcel of their religious practice. Taking the economic and social facts into consideration, caste, clan, colour become meaningless. The following Pali quotation from the Madhura sutta clarifies the above facts. Tam kirn mannasi Maha Raja Sudassa cepi ijjheyya dhanena va rajatena va, jatarupena va, Suddopissasa, pubbuttayi pacchanipati kimkara patissavi manapacari piyavadi, Khattiyopi-Pe-Brahmano pissa ................. Pe ................. Vessopissaya pubbutthayi pacchanipati kimkarapatissavi manapacari piyavaditi.103 The Madhura sutta brings out that a person belonging to any caste can be respected, honoured and attended to by the so called upper classes, provided that he accumulates wealth. In such a case, the caste does not hinder a person getting service from his superior caste. Even in modem society, it becomes quite clear that the rich people belonging to any lower class get respect from other people. Thus, economic development decides the social status of any person, in a country. As such social status, caste, clan or colour do not help man. The above mentioned sutta adds that Ven. Mahakaccayana instructs King Madhura that there can be no difference among men on the basis of caste, clan or colour. People belonging to four castes can accumulate wealth, nonetheless caste, clan and colour do not stop them. The Pali quotation clarifies that fact, it is as follows: Tam kim mannasi maharaja yadi evam sante ime cattaro vannasamasama honti no va katham va te ettha honti? no va addha kho bho kaccayana, evam sante ime cattaro vanna samasama honti, nasarh etthakinci nanakaranam • • 104 samanupassamiti. According to the Assalayana sutta of Majjhima nikaya, we get a social tradition of slave and master and not the caste system. In the adjacent countries Yona and Kamboja, only two groups of the society are found. They are the master and slave, the Pali quotation explains them as follows: Evam bho sutam me yonakambojesu annesu ca paccantimesu janapadesu dveva vanna, ayyo ceva daso ca, ayyo hutva daso hoti daso hutva oyyo hotiti. Ettha Assalayana, Brahmananam kim balarh ko assaso yadettha Brahmana evamahamsu Brahmanava Settho vanno, hino annovanno......... Brahmadayati.105 It shows that people jjet social status through wealth. This social status was reversible. A master becomes a slave and a slave becomes a master.

I0, M. V ol. II (PTS) Majjhimapannasam p. 85 104 Ibid. pp. 85. 86. 105 Ibid. p. 149

38

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H

uman

S o c ie t y

This analysis of social stratification is more scientific than that of Brahmanical concept of casteism. According to the Brahmanical concept, the four castes were created by Brahma. The other three classes could not transgress their social status which was based on caste, and it was not subject to any change. This concept contained hard and fast rules. It was codified for all the time and occasions. But the above sutta explains that the social status of master and slave was liable to change. This was a wholly dynamic position. Therefore, it is purely scientific and reasonable. Thus, it may be concluded that the four castes are the same without any difference. According to biological facts, man’s birth depends upon parents. A man who is bom out of the womb of mother, is possessed of a brilliant mind. We have already dealt with this fact, nevertheless, it is worthwhile to go into more details as it is related to man’s psychological thinking. This sort of mind is common to all. It has no caste, colour or clan. It is not affected by any worldly external objects for spiritual development or deterioration. In the same way, it is not affected by any external hindrances for worldly progress or downfall. The mentality of man is reliant on the environmental conditions and mutual relationship. It is developed on reciprocal understanding. Buddhism believes in man’s potentialities which help him to attain the Buddhahood. All people are endowed with the same capabilities, whereby they can get transcendental powers. To achieve it or not, it depends on man’s choice. Brahmanical thinkers consider it to be the union with the Supreme Being i.e. Brahmasahavyata. Brahmanical thinkers have propounded a theory that only the Brahmanas have the sole monopoly or authority to attain that union with the Supreme Being. This is a sort of depriving a man of his freedom of thought. The Buddha, for the first time, drew His attention to this problem. He maintained that any man irrespective of his caste, creed or colour, could get emancipation. No one can enable another person to get purity. While clarifying this fact, the Buddha said, “By oneself indeed, is evil done and by oneself is one defiled; but oneself is evil not done and by oneself is one purified, purity and impurity depend entirely on oneself, no one can purify another”. The Pali verse that throws light on this matter runs as follows: Attanava katampapam Attana samkilissati Attana akatampapam Attanava visujjhati Suddhi asuddhi paccatam Nanno annam visodhaye 106

106 Dh. Attavagga p. 146 v. 5

39

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

From the following quotation, it becomes evident that the Buddha bestowed complete freedom on man. He admonished His disciples that they should make efforts and the Tathagathas can only show the way: Tumhehi kiccam atappam Akkhataro Tathagata 107 Whereas the Bhagavad Gita states that he who wants to get liberation, should give up all other beliefs and seek refuge in Krishna alone.108 On the other land, the Buddha says, “Self is the Lord of self. How can others be Lord of self. By subduing oneself, one can obtain a Refuge (i.e. Arahattaphala) which is so difficult to attain.” The Pali verse about it runs as follows: A ttahi attano natho Kohi natho parosiya Attana hi sudantena Natham labhati dullabham 109 After a careful comparison of both Buddhist ideals and those of Bhagavad Gita, one is tempted to arrive at the conclusion that Buddhism is more liberal, democratic and humanitarian than other philosophical thoughts of India. The human society is the creation of man. Man who lives in such a society has certain primary or basic as well as secondary requirements. Although these requirements which are same for all, yet the ways and means to fulfil them are wholly different. As far as the needs are concerned, man is the same. Man is the same in so far as the four types of conditions are concerned. The four postures are described as sitting, walking, lying and sleeping. These are common to all, so the mankind is the same. In the same manner, there is the same path to be trodden on to get the highest goal i.e. emancipation. As the Buddha pointed out that the emancipation can be attained by anybody, by following the path which He showed. There is no difference in it. It is common to all. Some people in His time, could not get this emancipation, as they followed different paths that were put forth by Brahmanical thinkers. These thinkers claimed that the path to purity was restricted to only a particular society. This is quite clear from the questions that were put to the Buddha by King Pasenadi of Kosala Kingdom.

aha.

Heturupam Bhante Bhagava aha. Saheturupam pana Bhante, Bhagava Cattaro me, Bhante vanna Khattiya, Brahmana, Vessa, Sudda, te cassu

107 Dh. M aggavagga p. 220 v. 4 108 Bhagavad Gita Chap. 18, S. N o. 66, p. 329 Sarvadharm an parityajya M Jmekam saranarii vraja A ham tv a sarupapebhyo M okshayisyami ma suchah 109 Dh. Attavagga p. 145 v. 4.

40

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H

uman

S o c ie t y

imehi pancahi padhaniyanhgehi samannagato, te cassu sarhmappahana, ettha, pana tesam Bhante, siya viseso siya, nanakaranti. “Ettha, kho nesaham, Maharaja, na kind nanakaranam vadami. Yadidam vimuttiya vimuttirh. Seyyathapi Maharaja, puriso sukkham sakattham adaya aggim abhinibbatteeyya, tejo patukareyya .................... Tejo patukareyya, atha aparo puriso sukkham udumbarkattharh adaya aggim abhinnibbatteyya ..................... Tejo patukareyya, tam kim mannasi Maharaja? Siya nukho tesam agginam nanadaruto abhinibbattanam kind nanakaranam, acciya va, accim vannena va vannam abhaya va abhanti. 110 The king asked the Buddha whether there is any difference in emancipation attained by the four castes. The Buddha explained that people of four castes, may get different kinds of firewood, such as mango sticks, sala sticks, etc. and bum it. The fire that is created from the different kinds of firewood does not differ at all. In the same manner, people aspiring for emancipation can get the same spiritual flame in the hearts. Although a number of embryos are generated in mother’s womb, yet, a few are bom. Therefore, it is difficult to get a human birth in this world. The following Dhammapada verse clarifies the fact: Kiccho manussapatilabho Kiccham maccana jivitam Kiccham saddhammassavanam Kiccho Buddhanuppado 111 Wholesome and unwholesome deeds accompany any man as long as he exists. According to moral code, these wholesome and unwholesome deeds are significant, as they give rise to happiness and unhappiness in this world. According to Buddhist Philosophy, man reaps consequences of his good and bad actions. It is clearly stated in the Dhammapada that Mano pubbam gam a dhamma Mano settha manomaya Manasa ce padutthena Bhasati va karoti va Tato nam dukkhamanveti Cakkamva vahato padam Mano pubbam garna dhamma Mano settha manomaya Manasa ce pasannena Bhasati va karoti va 110 M. Vol. II (PTS) M ajjhim apannasam K annakatthala Sutta pp. 129, 130. 111 Dh. B uddha V agga p. 164 v. 4.

41

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Tato nam sukhamanveti Chayava anapayini 112 It is obvious from the Madhura sutta of the Majjhima nikaya that there is no difference in getting result too for a man for his committing good and bad deeds with good intention and bad intention, the consequence of such actions are enjoyed by all without any difference of caste, colour or clan. The Pali quotation about this fact is as follows: Sadhu, sadhu, maharaja, sadhu kho re etam, Maharaja, evam hoti, sadhu ca pana te etam arahatam sutarh. Tam kimmannasi, Maharaja? Idhassa Brahmano, idhassa Vesso Idhassa Suddo, panatipati, adhinnadayi, -pe-kayassa bheda paraihmarana apayam duggatim, vinipatam nirayam uppajjeyya? no va? Kathamva te ettha hotiti?....................suddho panatipata, adinnadayi-pe-kayassa bheda parammarana, duggatim vinipatam uppajjeyya?.............. 113 The Buddha never attached any importance to caste, creed, colour or clan. On the other hand, He emphasized the good behaviour of a man. In the first phase of the development and expansion of Buddhist Order, men from every walk of life, joined the Buddhist Order. It is said that the Sakyas were very proud of their clan. Some of the Sakyan princes namely, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila and Devadatta wanted to enter the Buddhist Order of Monks. A barber named Upali also joined them. The Buddha, in order to shatter the pride of those Sakyan princes initiated Upali first and others after him.114 According to the disciplinary code of the Buddha, those Sakyan Princes after their initiation had to respect Ven. Upali though he had hailed from a low family. Another instance may be given of a female member the lowest caste that was admitted to the Buddhist Order of Nuns and was respected by all. Among nuns, a nun named Punna hailed from a slave family. She too, after her entry into the Buddhist Order, was respected and honoured by all other nuns. For these noble men and women, caste and clans were not a bar, they enjoyed alike, the Supreme Bliss of Emancipation. The Buddha has elucidated the above fact in the Uposatha sutta of the Udana Pali, a Buddhist text of the Khuddaka nikaya. According to it, various rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna, Aciravati, Sarabhu and Mahi, after that flowing into the sea, it becomes impossible to differentiate the waters of the rivers from the water of the sea. In the same manner, the people belonging to the four castes, lose 112 Dh. Y am aka V agga p. 14 v. 2 llj M. Vol. Ill (PTS) M ajjhim pannasam p. 86 1,4 M hv. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 77, 78. Atha Kho tesarii Darakanam M atapitara Sabbepi Pirne Daraka Sam anacchanda KalyanadhiP a y a ’ti, Anujanirnsu te Bhikkhu Upasaiiikamitva Pabbajjaih Yaciriisu-te Bhikkha pabbajesum , Upasariipadesurii

42

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H u m a n S o c ie t y

their different castes in the Buddhist Order of Monks and Nuns and are reckoned to be the sons of Sakya.115 The Brahmanical thinkers have made a social classification, according to the birth of a man, but the Buddhist classification is made on the basis of spiritual development. While rejecting the Brahmanical claims to superiority, the Buddha pointed out that one does not become a Brahmana or Sudra by birth, but one becomes so due to one’s deeds. Buddhism gives priority to one’s deeds and not one’s caste or clan. Na jacca vasalo hoti Na jacca hoti brahmano Kammanna vasalo hoti Kammam a hoti brahmano 116 Kassako kammana hoti Sippiko hoti kammana Vanijo kammana hoti Pessiko hoti kammana Coropi kammana hoti Yodhjivopi kammana Yajako kammana hoti Rajapi hoti kammana 117 The Buddha seems to have attached a new definition to man’s superiority. He did not accept Brahmanical concept of superiority based on birth, but on the spiritual development. The Vasettha sutta of the Majjhima nikaya, provides a welcome light in this regard and this bears a spiritual importance. Na caham Brahmanam Brumi Yonijam mattisambhavam, Bhovadi nama so hoti Sace hoti Sakincano Akificanam anadanam Tamaham Brumi Brahmanam. 118 The Ambattha sutta of the Digha Nikaya brings out that the Buddha refuted the false claims of Brahmanas. The young Ambattha who was a Brahmin by birth, disparaged the Buddha by stating that social classification of four castes and the 115 A . V ol. IV (PTS) VIII Nipata Mahavagga Paharada sutta p. 202 Seyyathapi bhikkhave, y a kaci mahanadiyo, seyyath idam ganga, yam una acivavati, sarabhu, mahi, ta m ah asam u ddam patvajah an ti purim ani nama gottani, mahasamuddo, tacca sabbam gacchanti, evam eva kho bhikkhave cattavo me vanna Khattiya, brahmana, vessa suddha, Te tatagatappavedino dhaihmvinaye agarasam a anagariyam pabbajitva ja h a n ti purim ani noma gottani, sabb.am Sabbam sakyaputtiyam eva sabbam gacchanti. 116 Sn. (PTS) Uragavagga, Vasala sutta, M ahavagga p. 23 117 Sn. (PTS) Mahavagga, Vasettha sutta, p. 122 118 Ibid. p. 119

43

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

three classes such as Ksatriyas, Vaisya and Sudra are the servants of the Brahmans. But the Buddha while tracing the origin of Ambattha’s Brahmanical ancestry, pointed out that they originated from a female servant or housemaid of the Sakyas. Poanam khopana te Ambattha Mattipettikam nama gottam anussarato ayyaputta sakya bhavanti, dasiputto tvamasi Sakyanam sakiya kho pana ambatta Rajanam okkakam pitamaham dahanti119 The woman who was Sudra gave birth to a son and if so how7could a son who was bom from the womb of Sudra woman calls himself a Brahman and claim to such ancestry as Brahmanical ancestry? According to Buddhist Philosophy, man has to face three phases, such as uppada, i.e. arising, birth, thiti i.e. duration and bhanga, destruction, dissolution. While he undergoes these phases, his own kamma, action, stands him in good stead. Nevertheless, we cannot identify the above phases, such as. uppada, thiti and bhanga. These three phases may occur at any moment. As it is pointed out that the “Gati visayo is unthinkable”. It means, the sphere of movement of thoughts, is beyond one’s own thinking. So, the rebirth linking consciousness, “patisandhi vinnana" cannot be traced. We cannot know where it passes or leaves a person when he or she is at his or her eleventh hour. When we consider the cosmological order, it is not possible to know how many parents we have had. Even the Brahmanas could be bom in different species of animals such as goats, hens, cows, etc. If so, how can Brahmanas claim to be superior to others. Makkhali Gosala one of the six teachers during the time of the Buddha opined that people could get emancipation without any cause and effect. He further declares that six types of qualities lie in man. They are not subject to any change. Man behaves according to these six qualities. The innate qualities in man, such as blackness, blueness, redness, whiteness, yellowness are connoted by these six qualities. Mankind is divided in accordance with these colours. According to this classification, people who are engaged in selling meat, fish, game hunting and pig killing, are reckoned to be of black colour, i.e. Kanhavanna, that is to say, people of low caste. Others are divided, according to the colours. Even the saints are classified, in accordance with this classification.120 The people who are born in this way. are heir and successor to such classes. This is also the opinion of the Brahmanas.121 But the Buddha, according to the Chalabhijati sutta of Anguttara nikaya has refuted the above views of the Brahmanas.122 " " D . Vol. 120 A. Vol. 121 M. Vol. 122 A. Vol.

Ill (PTS) p. 92 Ill (PTS) V. N. pp. 383. 384. II (PTS) p. 222 11 (PTS) VI N ipata. M ahavagga pp. 64. 68.

44

B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n o f U n it y a n d E q u a l it y in H u m a n S o c ie t y

Ven. Asvaghosa has further elaborated the Buddhist attitude to caste. According to him, as far as the feelings, likes and dislikes, expectations and physical limbs are concerned they are common to all the castes. The whole mankind belongs to one caste and that caste is human race. If the four castes were created by the Brahma, then how could a difference between castes could be established? Just as the children of parents are regarded to be same, so the four castes that are supposed to be the creation of the Brahma are same. There can be no difference among men, like that of vegetation and living things. There is a fundamental difference amidst the animal kingdom. We find radical diversity among animals such as tigers, deer, elephants, lions and horses, yet there is no such difference between Ksatriyas and Brahmanas. The feet and hands of all men and women are the same. There are distinguishing marks between quadrupeds, birds, insects, reptiles, fishes, etc. But we don’t find such distinguishing marks among men. Furthermore, he contends that the trees such as jack tree bears fruits in different part of the trees. There are certain other trees which bear fruits on the tip of the branches and some trees bear fruits in the middle of trunk. The argument of Asvaghosa is that the trees on the top of it, in the middle part of it, cannot be called as the fruits of Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra respectively. The fruits generated by the tree are possessed of the same qualities and the tree is recognised as a jack tree. Just so, how could the caste system be established, if all the castes are created by one great being that is Mahabrahma.123 If we take the sociological facts into consideration, the ideas that are found in the Sigalovada sutta of the DIgha nikaya, seem to be important. There the human relations are delineated, one the basis of sociological and ethical basis. According to it, the human relationship is indicated in the light of six directions. These directions are set apart as parents, wife and husband, children, teachers, disciples, masters, servants, friends and well wishers, monks and laity.124 In order to establish their welfare and well-being, they were required to follow four requisites such as generosity, commitment to the welfare of the people co-operation, using of pleasant words and equality. All these requisites lead a person towards development and happiness. Danam ca peyya vajjarh ca attha cariya c a y a idha Samanattata ca dhammesu-tattha tathatayatharaham Ete kho sangaha loke rathassani va yayato Ete kho sangahanasu na mataputta karana Labhetha manam pujam va pitava puttakarana 123

123 Buddhist and Social Philosophy Quoted at pp. 1 4 4 ,145 (Sinhala edition) 124 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) pp. 188-189. K athanca gahapati-putta ariya-savako ch addisa paticch adi hoti? Chayim a gahapati-putta disa veditabba dakkina disa acariya veditabba pacchim a d isa p u tta d a ra veditabba, uttara disa m ittam acca veditabba, hetthima disa dasakam m akaraporisa veditabba, uparima disa sam ana B rahm ana veditabba 123 Ibid. P. Sigalovada sutta p. 192

45

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

According to this, the caste system is detrimental to social development. The four requisites pave the way for social prosperity and social equality. Human equality can be established through economical ways and means. Both the Brahmanas and non-Brahmanas are bom without any economic ways and means. Their economic condition is gradually developed. From time to time, the Brahmanas too, like other poor classes, undergo economic shortcomings. Therefore, even the Brahmanas have to engage themselves in different occupations. \ As far as the society is concerned all men are endowed with the same physical limbs, their necessary things are almost the same, but the way to fulfil all these requirements is fundamentally different. The difference lies in the distribution of the wealth. Such differences are found in the capitalist countries, whereas socialist countries do not have so much of economical differences. Therefore, the society is divided into two groups, such as, rich and poor classes, but their necessities are almost the same. Basic requirements are common not only to human beings but also to the animal kingdom. Human beings and animal kingdom differ in their thinking power. Therefore, it is said: Aharanidra bhaya maithunam ca Samana yametodpasubhir naranam Dharmo hi tesam adhiko visesah Dharmena vihinanpasubhir samanah 126 The Cakkavattisihanada sutta of the DIgha nikaya, brings out that the difference among the people is found mainly because of the unequal distribution o f wealth, because of this unequal distribution of wealth, poverty is to be seen and as poverty exists, theft is committed by people, and because of theft, people use weapons. This shows, how violence and unrest take place in society. The Pali quotation that explains that fact is given below: Adhananam dhane anuppadiyamane daliddiyath vepullamagamasi. Daliddiye vepullam gate adinnadanam vepullamagamasi, adinnadane vepullam gate satta vepulla magamasi satte vepullamagate Panatipato vepullamagamasi 127

Thus, the evolution of mankind took place in society. It was not a creation of an Almighty God. The Agganna sutta brings to our notice that caste system can disappear as a result of economical development. In this way, if we consider economic facts, we may prove the social equality and unity. Buddhism points out that political thoughts are necessary to each and everybody in society. Buddhist political philosophy is based on ethical principles. The Vedic people believed that the Ksatriya class was created by the Brahma and that was for the good administration of the country. The concept is not based on

126 Hitopodesha p. 6, v. 25 127 D. Vol. II (PTS) p. 116

46

B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n

of

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H u m a n S o c ie t y

rational foundation. The Agganfia sutta shows that the government was established with the consent of the people. As it was elected by the people, it came to be known as Mahasarhmata (elected by the people) (Mahajana Sammato Mahasammatoteva pathamam akkharam upanibbattam) Khattiya is he who is the master of the fields (khettanam adhipati ti khattiyo). He who governs the country righteously “Ranjetiti R aja’, therefore he is called the king.128 In electing the king, no caste, clan, colour or any social position of a person was taken into consideration. The general method of electing a king were to elect the king without considering any special (specific) characteristics of a person. The qualities which were taken into account were good looking personality that is, a person who was to be elected, should have been handsome and endowed with manliness, etc. He who was popular among the people was elected by the people. His caste, creed, colour, clan, etc did not matter or influence in getting elected by the people. Thus, while administering his country, all castes, including Brahmanas were under his command. Herein, only the humanity was considered to be a common law and not caste or colour. The Canonical Texts mention the Buddhist administrative policy. When we consider the Buddhist administrative policy, in terms of comparison, we come to know how it upholds unity and equality of mankind. Buddhism instructs the administrators to govern the people like their own children.129 If the king governs his country, unrighteously, it affects not only the people but also the natural resources of the country.130 The king should manage the affairs of the state in the light of four ways of showing favour and tenfold royal duties.131 The Jataka Literature throws light on the impartial administration of the king. While dispensing his duties, he should not consider the social classification which is based on caste, creed, colour or clan.132 As a matter of fact, the king should govern the country without resorting to the severe corporeal punishment and force devote and dedicate himself to the happiness of his subjects.133 Paying attention to these facts, the Buddha wished to establish the government policy on the democratic principles. Thus, human rights are secured and well-protected. The law is considered to be common to all. Through this policy, human beings with the feeling of unity and equality are expected to progress. Therefore, the Buddha points out that there should not be different policies for different castes.

128 Ibid. Ill p. 93 129 A V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 149 130 A. Vol. II (PTS) pp. 74, 76. 131 J. V ol. I (PTS) p. 471 132 Ibid. Ill p. 273 133 S. V ol. I (PTS) p. 166

47

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Psychological facts in this regard, may be discussed here. Man commits some mental, physical and verbal deeds. These deeds are based on four ways such as chanda, dosa, moha and bhaya i.e. means or actions based on strong desire, hatred, illusion (delusion) and fear. These four qualities are common to all mankind. It is human nature to commit deeds without due deliberation. This is a common to all. These ways are detrimental to both spiritual as well as material development of a person. The Buddha advised that a person should be attentive and do all his work without resorting to the four agatis i.e. four harmful ways. Thus, considering the mentality of a person all persons appear to be the same. The Brahmanas in order to show their superiority to all other classes called themselves Aryans and others non-Aryans. But the texts show a different connotation of these words. The Pali suttas explain that a person who is spiritually and ethically far advanced, is called an Aryan (P. Ariya). Those who were not spiritually and ethically elevated, were called Anaryan (Non-Aryan). The whole of mankind is subject to birth, old age, death, sorrow, grief and lamentation. Only the Buddha and Arahant who were freed from birth, old age, death, sorrow', grief, etc. and had attained the Supreme Bliss of Nibbana. were called Aryans.134 From the spiritual point of view, even the Brahmans who were handsome, and were bom out of the mouth of the Mahabrahma, were not reckoned as Aryans.133 Thus, taking literary sources of the Tipitaka into account, that Buddhism being based on the Universal Common Law, has divided mankind especially on the basis of kamma (action). The difference between man and man does not lie in caste, creed or colour but in spiritual development and enthusiasm towards it.136 The specific feature of the leader of the religious order is that he does not think himself to be inferior, superior or equal to any one and advises others to practise the same principle. These ideal characteristics are not to be found among the Brahmanas. It is quite obvious from the Sangiti sutta that man’s progress is based on his spiritual achievement. According to this sutta, there are certain people who go from darkness to darkness, while some other people from darkness to light. There are also certain people who go from light to darkness while some other people who go from light to light.137 The above classification indicates the fact that man’s self-respect and free will are preserved through it. Both darkness and light connote ethical meaning. The darkness connotes material and spiritual deterioration. On the contrary, the light connotes material as well as spiritual development. A question may be asked whether those who go from darkness to darkness and from light to darkness, are to be seen or not? Through this classification men are to be seen through their modes m M. Vol. II (PTS) p. 196 ff 155 D. Vol. I (PTS) p. 123 l5'’ Ibid. p. 99 1,7 Ibid. Ill (PTS) Paticcavagga p. 283

48

B u d d h is t

in t e r p r e t a t io n o f

U n it y

and

E q u a l it y

in

H u m a n S o c ie t y

of behaviour. The truth is that men cannot be differentiated in so far as their spiritual development is concerned. The theory of kamma (Sk. karma) action has been elucidated in the Culakamma vibhanga sutta of the Majjhima nikaya. It states that man gets inferior or superior status according to his actions. It means, beings are divided as low and high, excellent, superior, in accordance with their actions.138 Some scholars have misunderstood the above statement and have advocated that Buddhism is determinism and believes in karmic efficacy of previous births. If all happens according to the karmic efficacy of previous births, then it will become determinism. Nevertheless, Buddhism does not believe in karmic efficacy of previous births. The Buddhist karmic theory is based on cause and effect (paticca samuppada) which shows the volitional and dynamic movement of a man.139 Man’s development and deterioration depend upon his actions which he commits through the three doors, such as, mind (vinnana, citta) body (kaya, sarira), speech (vaca). For instance, the Vasettha sutta of Majjhima nikaya states that one does not become Brahman or non-Brahman by one’s birth. But one becomes Brahmana or non-Brahmana by one’s deeds. The Pali quotation clarifies it well. It runs as follows: Na jacca Brahmano hoti Na jacca hoti abrahmano Kammana Brahmano hoti Kammanna hoti abrahmano 140 The counterpart of four castes of Brahmanism is found in Buddhism in a totally different way. In Buddhism, the society has been divided into four classes, such as Bhikkhu, BhikkhunI, Upasaka and Upasika.141 This stratification is based on the ethical code of conduct. These four classes of Buddhism are not endowed with birth privileges. They have to make their human lives meaningful and fruitful by means of cultivating moral qualities. The culmination of spiritual life is Nibbana. There is no difference such as, caste, clan or sex. Buddhist ideas can be used to reject the view that everything is due to past kamma. The research in this respect was carried out by Prof. G. P. Malalasekera and Prof. K. N. Jayatilleke.142 They are of opinion that Buddhism while looking into this problem, found a solution to it and its cause lies in the individual as well as in society. What are the 138 M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Uparipannasam p. 203 K am m assaka manava, satta kam m adayada kammayoni kaihmabandhu K am m apatisa ra n a K am m am sa tte vibhajati Yadidam hmappanitatati. 139 M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Yadidam avijjapaccaya samkhara, sam khara paccaya vinnanam, vinnanapaccaya namarupam nam arupapaccaya salayatanam salayatanapaccaya ph asso ph assapaccaya vedana 140 Sn. (PTS) Vasettha sutta p. 122 141 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Bhayavaggo, Cakkavatti accariya sutta pp. 132, 133. S ace Bhikkhave Bhikkhu parisa-pe-sace Bhikkhave Bhikkuni p arisa-pe-sace Bhikkhave Upasaka p a ris a-pe-sace Bhikkhave upasika p a ris a. 142 The Buddhism and Race Question, p. 65

49

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

reasons for a person and society, as an individual and institution, to consider someone as of high or low caste. These are twofold. Firstly, when they function volitionally, we call it conceit. Buddhism has presented a philosophy of equality for such people who are possessed of conceit. The famous Sigalovada sutta furnishes four ways of showing favour (sangaha). The fourth way is equality. According to Buddhist Doctrine, all living beings are inter-related, as mother, father, brother, etc. According to this, man is also related to animal kingdom. All living things are subject to decay and death. Therefore, all are equal. It is a pity to say that one is superior to another, in spite of one’s being prey to a common phenomenon. If this is to be expressed in the words of the Buddha, it may be said that an insect that is bom and brought up in the filth, and nourished in it, thinks of other insects who have not been facilitated by such filth, as inferior to him.143 The Buddha has pointed out in the Karaniya Metta sutta, that one should cultivate a mind of boundless love towards all beings just as a mother loves her only son. The Pali verse which mentions the above attitude runs as follows: Mata yatha niyamputtarii Ayusa eka puttamanurakkhe Evarhplsabba bhutesu Manasam bhavave aparimanam 144 Thus, Buddhism has treated all beings alike. A person of noble character thinks of the whole world as his home. At the social level the ultimate aim of Buddhism is to remove all kind of barriers and build one human family.145 Taking above facts into consideration, it may be assumed that Buddhism advocates human equality and unity.

143 Ibid. pp. 65, 66 f f 144 Sn. (PTS) Uragavagga p. 26 145 The Social Philosophy at Buddhism p. 34

50

CHAPTER IV AN INQUIRY INTO THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF EARLY BUDDHISM To begin with, it is important to deal with society. Both the Oriental and Occidental scholars have differently defined society. The word society can be defined as follows: R. M. Macivew, in his Community - a Sociological Study, states that a society is built up when a group of people on a certain occasion, create willed relationship among themselves.146 Alan Mcclave and others, in their book, named Understanding Society an Introduction to Sociology, have defined society as below: A society, then, is a group of people with a shared and somewhat distinct culture, who live in a definite territory, feel some unity as a group, and see themselves as distinct from other people. A society needs to be large enough to avoid being swallowed up by other societies, one test of a society is whether it could survive in a form close to its present one if other societies in the world disappeared. A society, in short, is an independent collection of people who share a common heritage, common ways of interacting, and a set of institutions such as the family and religion.147 Regarding the term society, A Dictionary o f Marxist Thought throws light in the following words: Marx used the term society (as do most Sociologists) in three senses which are contextually distinguished to refer to distinct but related phenomena (i) human society or ‘socialized humanity, as such (ii) historical types of society (e.g feudal or capitalist society) and (iii) any particular society (e.g. ancient Rome or modem France). What is distinctive in Marx’s conception is that it begins with the idea of human beings, living in society, and does not involve an antithesis supporting some kind social contract, or alternatively, by regarding society as a super individual phenomenon.148 Anthony Giddens, in his book named The Constitution o f Society has defined society, as a unity. It is given below:

146 Community a Sociology Study by R. M. M acivew p. 5 147 Understanding Society, An Introduction to Sociology pp. 58, 59. 148 A Dictionary o f Marxist Thought p. 448

51

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

"It is easy to see that in ordinary usage the term, society has two main senses (among others, such as society in the sense of ‘high society'). One is the generalized connotation of ‘social association or interaction’, the other is the sense in which ‘a society is a unity, having boundaries which mark it off from other surrounding societies........................,149 According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a society is the state or condition of living, in association, company, or intercourse with others of the same species; the system or mode of life adopted by a body of individual for the purpose of harmonious co-existence or mutual benefit, defence, etc.150 Then again for a society the condition of having enacted or related is also stressed.131 The word society can be used to refer to a number of persons associated together by some common interest or purpose, enacted by a common law holding the same trade or profession etc.132 A society is a group of human beings sharing a self-sufficient system of action which is capable of existing longer than the life span of an individual, the group being recruited at least in the past by the sexual reproduction of the members.133 The word society is used by sociologists in two different ways, when they speak of a society, they usually have in mind, a social unit, such as, a TRIBE a NATION or a STATE, which has its own political, economic, familial, and other institutions relatively independent of those neighbouring societies. This usage has been strongly influenced by the old nation, as sovereignty in political theory. It can be misleading. The ties of social interdependence spread across political boundaries in much closer and complex ways which sociologists cannot ignore. It is also used in more general sense to designate the object of sociological investigation, in this sense, it is more or less, synonymous with social structure.154 Prof. O. H. De. A Wijesekera states in his book named Buddhism and Society that Buddhist society is more, merely limited to human beings but it includes all sentient beings as a whole and identifies a unity of all beings.155 According to Buddhism, society is not merely an aggregate of human beings, it teaches that all living things comprise society. This shows that society as a whole is a unity of all living things.156 When the primitive civilization is considered in accordance with historical facts the origin of the first the society becomes clear. An individual has an important place in society. According to this, society is not expected to have a group of individuals. If we define the 14<) The Constitution o f Society, p. 163 1,0 Oxford English Dictionary p. 913 151 Ibid. p. 910 152 Ibid. p. 913 ,n Ibid. p. 913 154 Student Encyclopedia o f Sociology p. 369 153 Buddhist and Society p. 19 (Sinhala edition) b6 Buddhist Social Norm p. 12 (Sinhala edition)

52

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

S o c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

society as a group of individuals, it becomes totally incorrect. If an individual has some relationship with society, then it becomes a true fact.137 Words like society, group, crowd, association, institution people, community, clan, tribe, are important as far as society is concerned. If we understand these words, we can understand the meaning of society. According to this, society is a system of accepted social relationship of human organization. Although Pali Texts do not shed light on a definite definition of society, yet some ideas about society may be raised through the study of the social philosophy o f Buddhism. Pali Texts furnish us with some terms such as paja, loka, manussa andjanata. These terms are used as synonyms for society. The Agganna sutta of the Digha nikaya has used the word janata.1’8 The Buddha is said to have taught His moral Doctrine aiming at an individual, but it does not mean that His Teaching ignored the relationship between individuals o f society. The basic concept of Buddhist moral teaching is based on the clarification of the application of the word. Atta as found in different contexts like the following:

Attabyabadhaya, parabyabadhaya, attadhipateyya, lokadhipateyya and dharimadhipateyya. 159 The above applications show that the Buddha pointed out the relationship between a person and society. Therefore it may be maintained that an individual is an integrated part o f the society. Scholars who have not studied Buddhism deeply, expressed their diverse views on Buddhism. A German, sociologist named Max Weber, has said that Buddhism is devoid o f social relationship, and is totally against political ideas. It is merely a religion o f wandering ascetics.160 This description o f Max Weber seems to be antipathetic to Prof. D. D. Kosambi who has carried out his research in the field o f Indian Culture and various religions. While rejecting Prof. Weber’s statement, he opines that Buddhism sheds much light on society.161 While explaining the Teaching o f the Buddha, we may affirm that it is based on individual development and points out the drawbacks o f the society. This fact becomes obvious from various suttas. Buddhism is neither a revelation nor a message o f an Almighty God. It may be recognized as a human message given to society. It cannot be said that the doctrine as such is devoid o f social factors.

157 Buddhist Philosophy and Social Philosophy p. 126 151D . V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 93 Mahajana Sariimalo 159 M. V ol. 11 (PTS) p. 415 Majjhima pannasam The Sociology o f R eligion p. 267 161 Quoted at p. 7 Buddhist Econom ics Philosophy (Sinhala edition)

53

SOCIAL ASPECTS OK EARLY BUDDHISM

Though many a social philosopher has put forth various definitions of society, yet only some of them have been widely accepted. Some sociologists are inclined to the psychological factors rather than material factors, for example, Max Weber, a German sociologist, has laid a great emphasis on mental factors rather than material sides. Considering this, it may be said that the sociologist has either been inclined towards material factors or psychological factors. Therefore, most of the world philosophies are inclined either towards materialism or idealism. The social philosophy according to Buddhism is based on Kama, sensuality. This is shown as the craving i.e. tanha. Man becomes active on the basis of Kama i.e. sensuality. A person who is bom of craving lives so long as the craving exists. Once, a God asked the Buddha as to who creates a person. The Buddha replied that the craving generates a person. The Pali quotations runs as follows: Kiriisu janeti purisam Tanhajaneti purisam 62 The ascetic Siddhatta on His attainment of Supreme Enlightenment said, ‘He has achieved an elimination of craving’ (tanhanam khayamajjhaga).163 The above statement that craving plays a predominant role in shaping a person. The Kama sutta of the Mahaniddesa Pali, divides craving into two parts. They are Vatthu Kama and Kilesa Kama ie. strong desire for material things and worldly pleasures.164 This concept becomes clearer from the explanation of the Four Noble Truths.165 The Agganfia sutta of the DIgha nikaya pays attention the concept of Kama and elucidates the growth of society that sprang out of Kama.166 Furthermore, the Kama sutta of the Sutta nipata elaborates that man’s social behaviour is based on Kama i.e. Kamam kamaya manassa tassa cetam samijjhati addha pitimano hoti laddha macco yadicchati.161 One who desires sexual pleasures gets them, then he certainly becomes rapturous joyous. Considering the above explanation, those scholars have defined society in accordance with their own views. In the society there are two concepts, one related to society and other to its members. Some scholars in their explanations have regarded man as the basic concept and the society as a secondary concept. Other scholars have considered the man as a secondary and the society as the basic concept. However, the geographical environment is not meaningful without people. On the other hand, it becomes meaningful because of man, so man is the basic concept in the society. There is a mutual relationship l6' S. Vol. I (PTS) S. Jaravagga pathama janeti sutta p. 37 l6j The Great Book o f Protections p. 38 164 Kamasutta niddesa vannana p. 7 Kam am kamayam anassati evam adi uddeso K am ati u d d a m to dve kama vatthu Kamo, kilesa,

Kamo 'ti 165 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 19, 11 ff 166 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) pp. 85, 85 ff 167 Sn (PTS) Atthakavagga, p. 151

54

A n In q u ir y

in t o t h e

S o c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

between man and society. Though a person is a basic concept in society, yet his activities of a person play an important role in the development and degradation of society. Therefore, a person’s activities are more important in Buddhist social philosophy. Even the highest aim of Buddhism which is Nibbana, can be obtained if a specific system of moral code is followed: Eva meva kho Paharada imasmim dhamma vinaye anuphbba sikkia, amipubba kiriva anupubba patipada na ayalakeneva anna pativedho.168 When considered minutely, society is nothing but mutual social relationship. The mutual social relationship has been developing since the beginning up to now. It is in keeping with the Buddhist philosophical teaching that everything is transitory. The mutual social relationship is pointed out as an institute. The Sigalovada sutta of the DIgha nikaya points out that the sixfold worship has some social relevance. I. II. III IV V VI

Parents and children are regarded to be the east. Teachers and pupils are regarded to be the south Friends and relatives are regarded to be the north. Wives and husbands are regarded to be the west. Masters and servants are regarded to be the nadir. Sramanas and Brahmanas are regarded to be the Zenith.169

The social relationship that has been pointed out here is meaningful. In order to grasp its meaning one should approach it in terms of institutions in society. For instance, the relationship between the teacher and the pupil, is such as educational relationship. When we generally talk on human relationship we come across the word society. However, the statement by R. M. Mace Iror and Charles Page about society is that where there is life there is society. It is just in keeping with their explanation. According to their explanation, it is not worthwhile to connect the world society in so far as the human relations are concerned. The Cakkavattisihanada sutta of the DIgha nikaya points out that the word society should not be confined to human relationship alone, but even the animal kingdom should be included in it. The king should protect not only his people but also extend his protection to animals and birds.170 It appears that the word society has a comprehensive meaning.

168 A . V ol. VIII (PTS) Paharada Sutta p. 169 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) pp. 188, 189. K a th a n ca gahapati-putta ariya-savako ch addisa paticch adi hoti. Chayim a gahapati-putta disa veditabba, puratthim a disa m a ta p ita ro veditabba. D akkina disa acariya veditabba, pacchim a disa puttadara, hetthima disa kamm akara p o risa veditabba, uparima disa sam ana brahmafia veditabba 170 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 72 D a sa vassayukesu bhikkhave manussesu na bh avissati m atativa matuccha tiv a .... sam bh edaw loko ga m issa tiya th rajelaka, kukkuta, sukara so n a -sig a la ....

55

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The person who lives in society with other men, has a basic nature of that craving (tanha).171 However, according to Buddhist philosophy, a person who develops his mind, is not hampered by it, while he makes efforts to improve his life. This fact has been clearly pointed out in the Jata sutta of the Sarhyutta nikaya. In Pali it runs as follows: SHe patitthaya naro sapanno cittam pannanca bhavayam atapi nipako bhikkhu so imam vijataye jatam 172 A wise person, having firmly established himself in moral conduct, and cultivates his mind, such an ardent and zealous monk would disentangle this entanglement. This clearly shows that this human nature will not affect society. The craving (tanha) is the basic factor for man’s birth.173 The nature of craving is clinging (upadana). It leads to deterioration, downfall of everybody, nevertheless, man has a bright intelligence. Ettha manassa ussannataya manussa.174 He is endowed with such an elevated mind. It can be overcome both in this world and in the next. This has been clearly elucidated in Buddhist social philosophy. According to Buddhist social philosophy, there are no obstacles for householder to get spiritual emancipation but the Jain and Ajivaka sects considered it as an obstacle. Dr. M. M. J. Marasinghain his Gods in Early Buddhism affirms the fact that householder, like a monk, can attain emancipation, if he or she treads the path of righteousness and leads a virtuous life.175 Suttas like Sigalovada, Vyagghapajja, Parabhava, Mangala, Vasala and Dhammika clearly point out the right path for householders. The Buddha drew His attention to the social relation and advised the laity that they should lead a righteous life without harming others. He admonished His disciples as follows: Sabbe tasanti dandassa Sabbe bhayanti maccuno Attanarh upamam katva

171 S. Vol. 1 (PTS) Tanhasuttanta p. 39 Tanhaya niyati loko Tanhaya p a rikissati Tanhaya ekadhamm assa S abbeva vasam anvaguti 172 S. V ol. I (PTS) p. 165 l7j S. V ol. I (PTS) Jaravagga, Pathama Janeti Sutta p. 37 174 Vimana vatthu atthakatha Vol. XIII, p. 4 175 Gods in Early Buddhism p. 19 In short, the highest goal which w as to be attained by living an anagarika life was shown to be possible by a process o f purification o f the ordinary life itself. The attainment o f Nirvana was shown to be possible even for the laymen w hile still being lay, in this every life itself.

56

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

So c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

Na haneyya na ghataye 176 “All tremble at punishment, all fear death, comparing oneself to others, one should not kill or cause to kill.” A social system can be built up if the members of the society lead a virtuous life, such a social system is well portrayed in the Buddhist social philosophy. Family is the main factor of society. Society is made of a group o f families. Therefore, internal and external structures of the family affect society. When we consider family as an institute, persons are its factors. If the persons are well behaved, then the society will be of that nature. Buddha pointed out that if a person is sunk in mud, He cannot take out others from the mud. So vata cunda attana palipapalipanno param uddharissatiti netam thanam vijjati.177

palipapalipannaiii

While being oneself sunk in mud, taking others out of it, such a thing does not exist. Here, it becomes obvious that the behaviour of man is considered as the most important factor of Buddhist social philosophy. Here it is indicated that the main concept is not society but man. The Buddha has not emphasized on self centeredness. Buddhist social philosophy has pointed out, man as central, but it is not against the social welfare. According to Buddhism, one should before committing an action, consider that whether that action leads to one’s disadvantage or to the disadvantage of others or to that of both. If it leads to an unpleasant consequence, such an act should not be committed. This is the most important foundation of the Buddhist social philosophy. The Pali quotation runs as follows: Yam nukho aham idam kayena kammam kattukamo - idamme kaya kammam attabyabadhayapi samvatteyya parabyabadhayapi samvatteyya, ubhayabya- dhaya pi samvatteyya.178 Here it seems to be important to elucidate the Buddhist social philosophy. The term Buddhist social philosophy consists of words such as Buddhist, social and philosophy. The main word is philosophy and other two words are its adjectives. The word philosophy has been defined in different ways by both oriental and occidental scholars. Its explanations are as follows: Philosophy is the search for knowledge and understanding of the nature and meaning of the universe and of human life.179 Philosophy, for Plato, is a kind of vision, the vision of truth, it is not purely intellectual, it is not merely wisdom, but love of wisdom.180 176 Dh. Danda Vagga p. 127 ve. 01 177 M. Vol. I (PTS) Sallekha Sutta Mulapannasa p. 45 178 M. Vol. I (PTS) Ambalatthika Rahulovada Sutta p. 415 179 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary p. 928 180 A History o f Western Philosophy p. 138

57

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

We can through their definitions, understand the meaning of philosophy. Furthermore, it may be elucidated as an observation of both animate and inanimate things. The Western scholars have studied both animate and inanimate things through inductive and deductive methods. The Buddha explained the three conditions of beings such as uppada (arising), thiti (existence) and bhanga (dissolution) and taught the Four Noble Truths. When Buddhist social philosophy is examined, it points out two main concepts, such as Buddhist Philosophy and social philosophy. When these two concepts are combined, we get Buddhist social philosophy. Here Buddhist social philosophy is what is meant by the definition given by the social philosophers. The following clarification is relevant to us. Social philosophy, in particular concentrates its attention on the social unity of mankind, and seeks to interpret the significance of the special aspects of human life with reference to that unit. It thus means mainly the effort to study values, ends, ideas not primarily what exists or has existed or may be expected to exist, but rather the meaning and worth of these modes of existence.181 Study of the social sciences is considered as a part of philosophy; that is as contributing data to the synthesis of knowledge which philosophy attempts to unravel from various aspects of nature.182 We can through this clarification understand the meaning of Buddhist social philosophy without separating it from Western and Eastern philosophy. Thus, philosophy may be defined as a minute investigation into phenomenal things. Through Buddhist social philosophy, we study social beings dealing with persons and society. This study belongs to social philosophers. The relationship between man and society is a phenomenal thing. When we understand these two aspects in their true nature, we get proper understanding of life. This is the basis of Buddhist social philosophy. Buddhist Texts bring to our notice that the Buddha in His previous lives was bom into a number of species and lastly into the family of Sakyans, at Kapilavatthu. After getting a bitter experience of the current society, He renounced the world and practised austerity for six years. But all His efforts were in vain. At last He followed the Middle Path and became an Enlightened One. After that, He taught His new discovered Truth to His five disciples.183 The following quotation may be regarded as an important aspect of His social philosophy. Buddho so bhagava bodhaya dhammam deseti, santo so bhagava samthaya dhammam desiti, tinno so bhagava taranaya dammam deseti184

181 Outlines o f Social Philosophy p. 14 182 Dictionary o f Philosophy and Psychology p. 538 183 Mhv. V o U (PTS) p. 10 ff 184 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) Mulapannasani Culasaccaka Sutta, p. 235

58

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

So c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

It means as “I am enlightened so I’ll enlighten others, as I am liberated, so I'll liberate others, as I have crossed over, so I’ll help others to cross over, because the world of flood is full of great fear.” Having established the social institute of Buddhist Order, He said that the monk should go forth for welfare and well being of the suffering mankind.185 Considering these factors, the man, first, should develop both spiritual and material things and then should join society. This fact is strengthened in the Dhammapada. It is said: Attanameva pathamam patirupe nivesaye 186 One should first set right oneself and then only should instruct others. Prof. W. S. Karunaratne in his Buddhist Philosophy and Conduct has explained the thoughts of Buddhist social philosophy as follows: "In order to develop life in all respects, personal and social developments are important.” Personal development means internal purification of a person. The development of mind and mental states are included in it. Social development means the justice that should be practised in outside. Social development cannot be brought about without a person’s development. It is difficult to bring about a personal development if we give up social development. Therefore these two factors are important as far as life is concerned. The Dhamma i.e. norm that draws attention to this is the Buddhist social philosophy. There are two basic aspects of Buddhist social philosophy. That is to say, Prajna (P. Panna) Wisdom, and Karuna i.e Kindness. Prajna means intellectual development in this world. Karuna means kindness and compassion. These two factors are necessary for the development of both man and society. Because of Wisdom, man can get personal purity and can attain emancipation. Because of Karuna, compassion, man tries to alleviate other’s suffering and keeps him engaged in welfare of other people. The flower-like man blossoms in the pond like society. He in order to get emancipation should not get out of society. Society enables man to get emancipation. Just as the flower cannot be blossomed outside of the pond, just so, man cannot be prosperous and emancipated outside society. Therefore, there exists an inseparable relationship between man and society. The Buddhist social philosophy is the way to arrange a virtuous relationship between man and society.187

185 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 21 C aratha bhikkhave carikam bahujana hitaya Bahujana sukhaya lokanukampaya athaya H itaya sukhaya devamanussanam 186 Dh. Attavaga p. 144 ve. 02 187 Buddhist Philosophy and Conduct p. 32

59

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

According to Prof. W. S. Karunaratne, two aspects of the Buddhist social philosophy may be shown. One being the development of a person (addhyatmika vikasa i.e. spiritual development) and other is social development (bhautika vikasa, i.e. material development). These two aspects are very important to make life perfect in all respects. They are mutually interrelated. The Buddha demonstrated two ways for the development of both man and society. For the spiritual development, He demonstrated the supramundane path, and for the individual and social development, He demonstrated the mundane path. This is the Buddhist social philosophy. There is a way for a person who follows the transcendental path. The society is not a hindrance for spiritual development. Nevertheless, it is full of impediments, therefore, homeless life for a monk is said to be not congenial. Therefore, there are two ways, household life and the other homeless life. Those who are disgusted with the household life can embrace a homeless life of a monk and can practise the Threefold Path known as Sila (Morality), Samadhi (Concentration), Parma (Wisdom) and Noble Eightfold Path which is the only way towards purification. The Path is as follows: I) II) III) IV) V) VI) VII) VIII)

Sarhma Ditthi Samma Sarhkappa Samma Vaca Samma Kammanta Sarhma Ajiva Samma Vayama Samma Sati Samma Samadhi

-

Right View. Right Aspiration. Right Speech. Right Action Right Livelihood Right Effort. Right Mindfulness Right Concentration

According to Buddhist philosophy, a person has to establish himself in morality. This morality is applied to a person through self-control. He can imbibe the profound Doctrine of the Buddha, which he had not heard before. The morality contains in Sarhma Vaca i.e. Right Speech, Sarhma Kammanta, i.e. Right Action, Sarhma Ajiva i.e. Right Livelihood and Sarhma Vayama, Right Effort. Thus, the mind of a person which is set right in the light of morality, inclines to concentration. Thereafter, he gets right memory and one-pointedness of the mind. Thus, a person who is endowed with right memory and right concentration, gets right view and right aspiration. Then, such a person becomes able to comprehend the three characteristics i.e impermanence, suffering, soullessness. Such a person, gets rid of craving (tanha) and gets wisdom, knowledge, spiritual light, learning, etc. This is the highest stage in the transcendental path. The Pali quotation from the Dharhmacakkappavattana sutta runs as follows:

188 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 10 K atam a ca sa bhikkhave majjhima pa tlp a d a Tathagatena abhisaiiibuddha ayaih eva ariyo atthangiko maggo, seyya th ' idam, sam m aditthi sam m asam kappo, sam m avaca, saihihakarhmanto. sarhmaajivo, sarhmavayamo, sarhmasati, sarhmasamadhi

60

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

S o c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

Cakkhum udapadi, nanarh udapadi, panna udapadi, vijja udapadi, aloko udapadi. 189 This Noble Eightfold Path has been demonstrated as an ethical code for a person’s spiritual, transcendental development. It has been arranged in a systematic way. It begins with morality and ends in wisdom. If a person’s mind is not well controlled, he cannot expect any development. This is pointed out that through the mutual relationship between Slla, Samadhi and Panna. The meditation which is developed on the basis of morality, is greatly fruitful, and the wisdom which is developed on the basis of meditation is also greatly fruitful, and the wisdom which is developed on the basis of meditation, is also greatly fruitful, and the Mind that is cultivated on the basis of wisdom is also greatly fruitful.190 Many a way has been pointed out for the spiritual attainment of a person. However, the Noble Eightfold Path will be discussed in brief in order to avoid repetition and yet throw light on Buddhist social philosophy. There are no separate discourses preached by the Buddha especially for Buddhist social philosophy. I think that the profound Doctrine of the Buddha is the result of a long research into the field of human life. The personal and social realities are inherent in the Doctrine of the Buddha. The understanding was put forward before the world by the Buddha for the benefit of gods, monks, Brahmans and others. Some thinkers hold the opinion that the Teaching of the Buddha is pessimistic. They did so without applying their discursive ideas. They thought it is only a metaphysical doctrine and it has not any relevance to this world. But considering His Doctrine that preached on many occasions, we may think that it can lead to progress and happiness in this world as well as the next world. It is said that some thinkers without knowing Buddhism properly find fault with the Buddha that He preached only for the transcendental development of a person but not preach for His material development. It should be pointed out for such thinkers who raise such questions that they should know that there had been no thinkers except the Buddha, who taught economic, social, political, religious and philosophical tenets for the welfare and well being of the entire humanity. The Buddha being, a human understood the actuality of the world and became a Super Human Teacher. Therefore, His Teaching is realistic. He taught both spiritual and material development.191

189 Ibid. p. 11 190 D. Vol. II (PTS) p. 123 Iti sila ih iti sam adhi iti panna, sTla-paribhavito sam adhi mahapphalo hoti mahanisanso, samadhip aribh avita pan na mahapphala h oti mahanisamsa, panna-paribhavitaiii cittarii sam m adeva asavehi vim uccati seyyathidam kam asava bhavasava ditthibasava, avijjasavati 191 Buddhist Philosophy and Social Philosophy, pp. 209, 210.

61

SOCIAL ASPKCTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The spiritual and transcendental life can be successful only in a righteous society. Therefore, the Buddha discussed matters that were related to the personal and social development while He was residing in the province of Koliya, at the village of Kakkharapatta, Dighajanu Koliyaputta approached the Buddha and requested Him thus. Mayam bhante gihikamabhogl, putta sambadhasayannam ajjhavasama. Kasikacandanam paccanubhoma trialagandhavilempanani dharayama. Jatar uparajatam sadiyama tesam no bhante bhagava tatha dhammam. Desetn ye amhakam assadhamma ditthadhammahitaya sukhaya samparaya. Sukhaya samparayahitaya samparayasukayati.192 The translation of the above passage is as follows: “O ’ Lord, we are worldly minded, enjoying sensual pleasures, we are living surrounded by our children, we wear clothes made in Kasi, we adorn ourselves with garlands and perfumes, and use gold and silver, O’ Lord, please teach us a doctrine that it would lead us to gain and happiness in this world and the next.” Dighajanu Koliypputta wanted to learn a Doctrine from the Buddha, so that he could lead a happy life in this world. So the Buddha preached him four conditions which are mentioned in the sutta. They are as follows: Cattaro me byagghapajja dhamma kulputtassa dittha dhamma hitaya Samvattati dittha dhamma sukhaya. Katame cattaro utthanasampada, arakkhasampada, kalyanamittata, samajivikata,193 The translations of the passage is as follows: “Vyagghapajja, these are the four conditions which accrue happiness for a person in this very life. What are these four? These include making an effort to earn, protection of what one earns and association with good friends, leading a life of equality.” “The Buddha futhermore explained such conditions. What’s the meaning of the Utthana sarhpada? “Vyagghapajja,” said the Buddha, “here, a clansman lives by husbandry, trade, animal husbandry, archery royal service and by other crafts, by whatever crafts he lives, he should do everything diligently and with device and investigations, and planning Vyagghapajja, this is called the Utthana sampada.”194 It has been pointed out that a householder who enjoys worldly pleasures in such a way he does not become a burden on himself, neighbours and the society. This has been explained under Utthana sarhpada, Arakkha sampada and Kalyana mittata, such a person, who leads his household life in accordance with the four 193 A. Vol. IV (PTS) VIII, Nipata, Sadhana Vagga Vyagghapajja Sutta p. 281 193 Ibid. p. 281 194 Ibid. p. 281

62

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

S o c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

Early B

u d d h is m

conditions, gets happiness. This fact has been clearly stated in the Anana sutta of the Anguttara nikaya. It is said: Cattarimani gahapati sukhani adhigamaniyani samayena. Samayam itpadaya katamani cataari, atthi sukkham, bhoga sukham anana. Sukharh, anavajja sukham.193 The translations is a follows: “O’ householder, there are four kinds of happiness which are to be acquired by a householder, who enjoys worldly pleasure at the thought that he has wealth, which has been acquired by means of righteousness.” Atthi sukha has been furthermore defined as follows: “O ’ householder, what is meant by Atthi sukha. O’ householder, the wealth that is earned by his own efforts, by the sweat of his own brow, by righteousness etc. and he begins thinking that he has earned his wealth by righteousness by the sweat of his own brow. This is called ‘atthi sukha.’196 He enjoys the pleasures out of his wealth which he acquired by means of diligence, by righteousness and by the sweat of his own brow. This is called the Bhoga sukha. Without being indebted to anyone, he enjoys himself. This is called Anana sukha. The fourth happiness is called Anavajja sukha which means being faultless in mind, body and speech.” According to this, a person if he earns by righteousness, by the sweat of his own brow and diligence without being anti-social and enjoys himself this kind of happiness. This is in keeping with the Buddhist social philosophy which enables a person to make his social life meaningful and prosperous. If such happiness exists in society, then there can be mutual harmony, co-existence, mutual protection. If these noble qualities are preserved, then deceit, fraud, robbery, falsehood, corruption, will be vanished from the society. When this kind of social philosophy is followed, all are protected, they live happily, they work hard together. They are not shaken by eight worldly conditions and live happily, this is the basis of the Buddhist social philosophy. The Sangaha vatthu sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, reveals the fact that people live happily, fulfilling mutual responsibilities, putting four Sangaha vatthus into practice. They are as follows: Danam. peyyavajjam atthacariya samanattata imani kho bhikkhave cattari sangahavattmiti.197

193 A. V ol II (PTS) IV Nipata, Pattakamma Vagga p. 69 196 Ibid. pp. 69, 70 ff 197 A. V ol. II (PTS) in Nipata, cakkavagga, p.32

63

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

It means liberality, pleasant speech, economical life and equality. If these four conditions are well applied in life, they become just like a nail that controls the Wheel of the Chariot. These conditions are shown for the development of society. They are generosity, pleasant speech, economic life and equality. Although people are by birth equal yet they differ in society in so far as their personal deeds are concerned, it is said: Kammam satte vibhajati yadidam hinappanitatayatl. 198 Beings are divided by their deeds, as noble and ignoble. Some people are rich and some are poor. This kind of distinction is made by Kamma. Nevertheless, the Buddha has pointed out that it is not determinism. Everything is not inherited. Man inherits some powerful wholesome nature. He develops it and acquires something noble in the social context. It becomes meaningful and purposeful in society which is transitory. So these four acquisitions are very important in the social context. They are useful for the socially mutual co-existence. Generosity (Dana) means giving something in charity. The society in which everything cannot be equally distributed becomes meaningful and important, in so far as generosity is concerned. Generosity is not limited only to monks or clergy but on the other hand, it contains some social aspects such as bringing about equality, giving alms to the poor and the needy for their existence. Through such a meritorious deed, amity and pleasant speech can be brought about. Social harmony, social co-existence and social development should be based on these four conditions. In such a society this cannot be shaken by eight kinds of worldly things, such as Labha (Gain), Alabha (Loss), Yasa (Honour), Ayasa (Dishonour), Ninda (Blame), Pasansa (Praise), Sukha (Happiness) and Dukkha (Misery).199 In the foregoing passages, we have discussed about society, as a system centred round the person. This type of system becomes active on the basis of the culture and civilization. This system has been elaborated in the Sigalovada sutta of the Digha nikaya. According to it, the above system is related to the six directions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Parents and children are regarded to be the eastern directions. Teacher and disciple (pupil) are regarded to be the southern direction. Wife and husband are regarded to be the western direction. Friends are regarded to be the northern direction. Slaves and servants are regarded to be the nadir.

M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Uparipannasam, Culakammavibhanga-Suttam. p. 203 199 A. V ol. II (PTS) N ipata M ahavagga, Atthalokadharhma Sutta p. 188 A ttha lokadham m a lokam an uparivattanti lokocattha lokadhamm e anuparivattanti tabho alabho ayaso c a y a s o ninda pasan isa sukhan ca dukkhafi ca.

64

A n In q u i r y

6.

in t o t h e

So c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

The Sramanas (samana) and Brahmanas are regarded to be the zenith.200

In the Buddhist social philosophy parents are highly regarded. They have got the exalted status. The Buddhist social philosophy advocates the biological concept that man is originated from parents. The Majjhima Nikaya furnishes us with the biological fact about a person’s birth. It is said: Yato ca kho bhikkhave, mata pitaro ca sannipatita honti, mata ca utuni hoti, gandhabbo ca paccupatthito hoti, evam tinnam sannipata gabbhassavakkanti hoti20' “O’ Monks, when parents come together, mother in the proper season and the embryo is present with the combination of these three factors, there takes place the foetus.” Whereas the Brahmanical concept of birth is totally different from that of the Buddhist. The Brahmanical tradition attributes the birth of a person to an unknown, unseen power. It can be the power of the Almighty One (Rgveda). The concept of birth which has been put forth by the Brahmanical tradition is not scientific. The important social philosophy has been introduced through the environmental and geographical facts, that is to say, by worshipping six quarters. When we analyse it in the light of geographical facts, we see that the sun rises in the east. As soon as it appears, the darkness of the world is vanished. It is a scientific fact that no sooner the sun rises than all the animate and inanimate things start developing. Here, the sunlight influences all things in the world. Similarly, parents stand in good stead for the development of their children. Therefore, while giving important status to the parents, the eastern direction has been indicated to represent the parents. The Brahmanical society has attributed the birth of man to Brahma. Whereas the Buddha has given the status of the Brahma to parents, saying ‘Brahmati matapitaro,202 i.e. parents are the Brahma. This shows the importance of parents in society. The main relationship in the society is that of parents in the family. Family is considered to be an organisation, if this organisation is well set up, then the organisation of the society can be well established. When in the family, all duties, obligations are fulfilled, in such a society there cannot be strife, frustration, restlessness, dissatisfaction, unpleasantness, immodesty and disagreements. Therefore, Sigala is advised that when the parents fulfill their duties towards their children, then in return, the children also carry out their obligations towards their parents. If these things are not found in a family, there will be confusion in such a family, it will be deranged then the whole society becomes deranged. Similarly, all the members of society such as parents, pupils and teachers, wife and children, masters and slaves, householders, Samanas and Brahmanas, develop if the

200 D . Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 91 201 A . Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Pattakarhma vagga, p. 70 202 A. Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Pattakaihma vagga, p. 70

65

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

institution of the family is well set up. They deteriorate if the family system is not well set up. These facts are shown in the Sigalovada sutta of the Digha nikaya. According to the Buddhist social philosophy, the family responsibility cannot be transferred even to another person in the family. So, good or bad things of an individual in a family depends upon his responsibility. It is said in the Dhammapada “Suddhi asuddhi paccattam nanno annam visodhaye ”.203 Purity and impurity depend upon oneself. No one can purify another. It may be ascertained that an individual and his individual activity have got the first place in society. Although the Buddha gave the first place to an individual, yet it does not lead to the extreme self-centeredness. The Buddhist philosophy emphasizes on the self-development. For instance, the first disciples of the Buddha i.e. Pancavaggiya Bhikkhus first realized the truth, after that they made others to realise it. This fact is made clear in the Dharhmacakkappavattana sutta. Accordingly, the Buddha admonished His sixty disciples to wander forth for the welfare and well-being of many, for the gain and welfare of both gods and men. Caratha bhikkhave carikam atthaya hitaya devamanussanam?w

bahujana

hitaya,

bahujana,

sukhaya

The Sigalovada sutta throws light on the relationship between the teacher and the pupil. A person who comes from the organisation of parents ie. family, is well set up by his teacher. This has been pointed out in the sutta as the second step. There are five obligations to be fulfilled by teacher. The pupil is to be supported by his teacher. The member of a family who inherits ethico-cultural things from the family, enters into the organisation of teacher. After entering into the organisation of the teacher, he can develop his knowledge. In such a task, the teacher fulfils his obligations in the following way: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The teacher treats his pupil with kindness. He trains him well. He teaches him well. He teaches him all the arts. He does not hide anything from him. The teacher introduces him to his friends.

The pupil who gets such a treatment from his teacher becomes helpful to society. The pupil, in return, renders the following service to their teacher: 1. 2. 3. 4.

He gets up from his seat when the teacher approaches him. He attends on his teacher. He fulfils his daily activities. He learns well.205

203 Dh. Attavagga p. 149 v. 9 2tM Mhv. Vol. T(PTS) p. 21 205 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 189 Pancahi kho gahapati pu tta thanehi antevasina dakkhina disa acariya paccupattatabbha

66

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

S o c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

E a r l y B u d d h is m

There will be mutual understanding when the above mutual obligations are fulfilled by both the teacher and the pupil. The organisation of wife and children are shownas the western direction. This signifies the social institute of marriage. In society, first a person is set up in the family and then he learns and gets experiences in the institute. After acquiring enough knowledge in various arts, he gets married. The Sigalovada sutta brings to our notice as to how a married person should behave in the family. His duties towards his wife and children are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

He respects his wife. He does not disrespect her. He does not transgress the rule of married life. He hands over his earning to his wife. He furnishes his wife with ornaments.

The wife who gets treatment in the above five ways, in return, should treat her husband in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

She arranges the household work well. She treats her husband, servants, friends and guests well. She does not transgress her morality. She protects her husband’s property. She dexterously carries out all her household activities.206

The Buddhist social philosophy has demonstrated the mutual responsibility and points out that if these obligations are fulfilled, then their family strife is settled. The mutual relationship between husband and wife has a psychological bearing. Generally, a person has conceit. It differs from person to person. It is human nature. Therefore, everybody in the world expects some sort of acceptance, regard from other people. If it is applied to the institution of family, we get the same attitude from both husband and wife. Both the husband and wife expect same respect and regard from each other. When such things do not take place, then there occurs mutual misunderstanding, disagreement etc. When a person fulfills his duties, then the psychological and socio-economic requirements are fulfilled. On the other hand, when a woman does her duties, then her husband’s psychological socio-economic needs are fulfilled. In order to make the institution of family more meaningful, the characteristics of the worthy women in the Buddhist social philosophy have been pointed out in the Sattabhariya sutta of the Anguttara nikaya as follows: Satta kho ima sujate purisassa bhariya katama satta vadhakasama corisama ayyasama matusama, bhaginisama, sakhisama, dasisama ima kho sujate satta purisassa bhariyayo 201

206 Ibid. p. 190 Pancahi kho gahapati p u tta thanehi sam ikena pacchim a disa bhariya paccupatthatabbha 207 A. V ol. IV (PTS) VII Nipata Abyakata Vagga p. 92

67

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

There are seven kinds of wives. What are they? They are executioner-like, thief-like, mistress-like, mother-like, sister-like, friend-like, housemaid-like. These are O ’ Sujata the seven kinds of wives, how is a woman an executioner­ like. She is corrupt-minded. She is pitiless. She goes after other men. She is not faithful to her husband. She squanders her husband’s wealth. She is a spendthrift. This is an executioner-like wife. A woman who grabs her husband’s wealth is thief-like wife. A wife who is indolent, greedy for wealth, hard-hearted, such a woman is mistress-like. If a woman is full of kindness, she protects her husband, just as mother protects her son, she protects the wealth that is earned by her husband such a wife is mother-like. Just like younger sister regards her elder brother, a wife who regards her husband with respects and treats him with fear and shyness such a one is sister-like wife. Just like woman who pleases herself at the sight of her friend, just so, a wife is pleased when she sees her husband if she is virtuous, devoted, then she is called friend-like wife. A wife who does not get angry with her husband, she is not wicked minded, she is ready to forgive her husband, such a wife is called maid-like wife.208 Thus, the Buddha divided women into seven types in accordance with their mental qualities and characteristics. If in the family an executioner-like, thief-like, mistress-like, wives-like, then restlessness, deterioration, disagreement, etc. take place, such families’ wives are prone to decline. Therefore, they are not regarded to be worthy for the institution of marriage. Wives such as mother-like, sister-like, friend-like and maid-like are inclined towards good things. Therefore, they are worthy for the institution of marriage. The Pathama samvasa sutta of the Anguttara nikaya points out four kinds of family associations among people. The institute of marriage is one of them. In the sutta, it is stated as follows: Cattaro me ghapatayo samvasa katame cattaro chavo chavaya saddhirh sarhvasati chavo deviya saddhirh sarhvasati, devo chavaya saddhirh saihvasati devo deviya saddhirh samvasati.209 If wife and husband do not observe morality, are immoral, miserly, disregard the family gods, get angry, such an institute of marriage is called “chavo chavaya saddhirh sarhvasati”. Under this institution of “where a corpse-like man lives with a corpse-like wife” both husband and wife become prone to spiritual and material deterioration. Therefore, Buddhist philosophy does not regard it as good for the institution of marriage. If a person does not observe five precepts, is niggardly, blames family gods i.e. Samanas and Brahmanas. May that as it be, the wife does not do such things as her husband does, such an institution of marriage is called a corpse-like man lives with a goddess-life wife. This also is not a good institution of marriage. If a husband on the contrary to the above behaviour, observes five precepts, is virtuous and generous does not blame the Samanas and Brahmanas, but on the other hand, his wife acts contrary to his behaviour, such an

-08 Ibid, pp. 92, 93 vs i-8 2119 A. Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata Punnabhisanda Vagga p. 57

A n In q u i r y

in t o t h e

S o c ia l P h il o s o p h y

of

Early B

u d d h is m

institution of marriage is called a god-like man lives with a corpse-like wife. This institution of marriage is also not worthy. If both husband and wife observe five precepts, are virtuous, generous praise the Samanas and Brahmanas then they become worthy of being called a god-like man lives with a goddess-like wife. Such an institution is good for marriage life.210 The Buddha explained the family association in terms of the concept of Deva and Chava. The term “Deva” means god and the term “Chava” corpse. In this definition a person’s nature was taken to be the basis. The primary set up of person is based on the five precepts. This brings to our notice that Buddhist social philosophy is based on the five precepts. According to the Sigalovada sutta, the worship of the six quarters i.e. East (Parents and children), West (Wives and husband), North (Friends), South (Teachers and pupil), Zenith (Samanas and Brahmanas) and Nadir (Employers and employees) are important in so far as Buddhist social philosophy is concerned. Prior to the emergence of Buddhism, there existed Brahmanical social philosophy. The Vedic Texts and Upanishads bring out the fact that before 6th Century B. C. i.e. before the birth of the Buddha, there was Brahmanical social philosophy in India. When we consider the early period of Vedic society, we come to know that Aryan people were mingled with the indigenous people and the society was divided on the basis of complexion. Prof. Rhys Davids in his wellknown Book named Buddhist India, states, that was the basis of the social distinction. As the Aryans were proud of their lighter colour, considered the colour as the most important factor in their society and divided whole world as they knew it into four social grades called colours (varna).211 Thus, according to Brahmanical social philosophy, society is based on casteism and it was applied to society as Varna Dharma. Sufficient light has been thrown on these facts in the foregoing chapters. Although Brahmanical social philosophy divided society on the basis of castes, Buddhist social philosophy used the spiritual and moral tendencies of the people and not the caste. Buddhist social philosophy takes into account man’s free will and rights. Such considerations are not to be found in Brahmanical social philosophy. Buddhist social philosophy has rejected caste distinctions among people. This becomes quite evident from the descriptions of society elucidated in the Agganfia sutta of DIgha nikaya. According to this explanation, we find only one society of human beings. There beings are considered as beings.212

210 Ibid. pp. 57, 58 211 Buddhist India p. 53 212 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 85 S atta sattatvea sankhyam gacchati

69

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The division of people according to Buddhist social philosophy is made on the basis of a person’s nature which is conducive to this welfare and salvation. This can be established by various Pali suttas. The basic of social stratification, according to Buddhist social philosophy, is fourfold i.e. Bhikkhu, BhikkhunI, Upasaka and Upasika.213 Here, Bhikkhu and BhikkhunI are included in the Buddhist Monastic Order and Upasaka and Upasika in the society of lay followers. The suttas bring out several occasions on which the Buddha explained how the person works on the basis of his mental tendencies, such instances are given below: In the Tamo Tama Parayana sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, persons are divided into four: Cattaro me bhikkhave puggala santo samvijjamana lokasmirh katame cattaro tamo tama parayano, tamojoti parayano, joti tama parayano, joti joti parayano.214 “O ’ Monks, there exist four kinds of persons in the world. What are they? A person who goes from darkness to darkness, a person who goes from darkness to light, a person who goes from light to darkness and a person who goes from light to light. There are four kinds of persons. In this context, the Buddha used two important concepts Tamo i.e. Darkness and Joti (Light).” Tamo connotes the downfall of a person whereas Joti the development of a person. These two concepts are very useful and practical. According to His definition, the first person goes from darkness into darkness (tamotamaparayana). He is of the nature that he commits evil things through body, speech and mind. Doing such immoral things, he becomes subject to his own deterioration. The second person is known as one who goes from darkness into light (tamo joti parayana). Such a person refrains himself from bodily, verbal and mental unwholesome deeds and consequently makes progress in this life and the next. The third person is known as one who goes from light into darkness (joti tamaparayana). He commits evil things through his body, speech and mind. He is deteriorated both in this and the next world. The fourth person is known as one who goes from light to light (joti joti parana). Such a person makes his life prosperous both in this world and the next world. This sutta signifies ‘tama’ as ignorance which causes deterioration both in this world and the next. When the person belonging to the first category is 21j A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata Bhaya Vagga. Cakkavatti Accariya Sutta p. 132 Sace bhikkhave bhikkhu parisa Sace bhikkhave bhikhuni parisa 214 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata Macala Vagga, p. 85

70

A n In q u i r y in t o t h e S o c i a l P h i l o s o p h y o f E a r l y B u d d h is m

considered, he being weak in important respects, commits evil things no matter to what caste, he belongs. Such a person goes from darkness to darkness. Meanwhile the person of the second category in spite of his being poor does commit good deeds. Such a person goes from darkness to light irrespective of his caste. Here light (joti) connotes prosperity and progress in this life and spiritual development in so far as his next life is concerned. Taking the light as the main thing, the third and the fourth type of persons make progress. Here a person being prosperous has enough wealth, is of high birth and enjoys all facilities such as food, drink, cloth, ornaments, flowers and perfumes. While enjoying such things, he commits evil deeds through his body, speech and mind, goes from light to darkness. The fourth type of person goes from light to light. Furthermore, the Sikkhapada sutta of the Anguttara nikaya mentions four types of persons. Cattaro me bhikkhave puggala santo samvijjamana lokasmim katame cattaro? Attahitaya patipanno hoti no parahitaya, arahitaya patipanno hoti, no attahitaya, neva attahitaya patipanno hoti no parahitaya, attahitaya ca patipanno hoti pahitaya c a 2[s “O’ Monks, there are four types of persons in the world, what are they? A person is bent on his own welfare, he is not interested in other’s welfare. The second type of person is bent on other’s happiness and welfare, but he is not interested in his own well-being. The third type of person is he who is neither interested in his own welfare nor other’s welfare. The fourth type of person is bent on his own welfare as well as the welfare of other people.” The first type of person refrains himself from transgressing five precepts. He makes an attempt to develop his own life but he does not care others. He is naturally selfish. The second type of person does not refrain himself from transgressing five precepts and does all kinds of evil things. But he tries to make others virtuous and prosperous. He is naturally altruistic and is not selfish. The third type of person neither refrains himself from doing evil things nor makes other to refrain from doing evil things. He is neither careful about his own life nor useful to other people in the society. The fourth type of person tries to abstain from committing evil things and makes attempts to improve his economic conditions. He does the same thing for others. He brings about happiness for him and other people. Such relationship of people can be found in society. However, the basic expectation of the Buddhist social philosophy is avoidance of all evil things and keeping oneself engaged in one’s welfare of society and developing one’s mind. This is the Teaching of the Buddha. It is stated in the Dharhmapada:

215 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata Asura Vagga p. 97

71

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Sabbapapassa akaranam Kusalassa upasamapada Sacitta pariyodapanam Etam buddhana sasanam. 216 Avoiding all kinds of evil things acquiring all good things, purifying one’s mind, this is the Teaching of the Buddha. Considering thus, it becomes clear that the basis of Buddhist social philosophy is five precepts. Having developed concentration and wisdom, through it and realising everything in the world as impermanent, sorrowful, and devoid of any substance and knowing things in their true nature, by means of uppada (arising), thiti (existence) and bhanga (dissolution) a life of co-existence can be led without harming other people while self-progress can be brought about on the basis of right livelihood. Furthermore, a good, harmonious social life that is full of simplicity, peace and prosperity, can be led; such ideas are highlighted in Buddhist social philosophy.

216 Dh. Buddhavagga . p. 165 v. 5

72

CHAPTER V SOCIALISED ECONOMIC PHILOSOPHY AND BUDDHIST INTERPRETATION Buddhism maintains that the world is based on suffering and comprehends everything as truly as it is. It advocates a path for beings to redeem themselves from suffering. Nibbana has been taken as the highest ideal. But the material development is not neglected. The Veludvara sutta presents a good example for a such view.217 It elucidates the matters pertaining to this world and the next. Suttas like Dhammika, Sigalovada, Mangala, Parabhava, Vasala and Vyagghapajja,218 point out the way for the development of beings, both in this world and the next. Ven. Anuruddha’s Buddhist Attitude to Poverty explains this point as follows: “Buddhism was not taught only for the other world, but it was meant for this world too. It does not instruct to forget the well-being in this world (dittha dhamma sukha) and seek only the happiness of the other world (samparayika sukha). In Buddhism no effort has been made to encourage the people to run away from this world, but it teaches people to achieve development in this world and the next (ubhayattha). The Buddha has never taught to sacrifice the present development for the sake of the development of the other world.”219 Buddhism comprehends the nature of man and world in its true nature, discusses the welfare and well-being of both worlds i.e. this world and the next. Man who is a slave to craving (Uno loko, atitto, tanha daso)220 has poverty as his basic suffering (Daliddiyam bhikkhave dukkham lokasmirh gihina Kamabhogino).221 He suffers from the disease of hunger (Jigaccha parama roga)222 All beings are dependent on nutriment (Sabbe satta aharatthitika)223 Thus, Buddhism understands the being and explains suffering, the cause of suffering and path that leads to the cessation of suffering.224 This was presented not by ignoring the welfare and well-being of this world and the next. It is clear from the following statements like “Nibbanam paramam sukham i.e. Nibbana is the highest happiness225 and (Avijja paccaya sankhara samkhara paccaya 217 S. V ol V (PTS) Veludvara vagga. Sotapatti samyutta. Veludvara Sutta p. 352 ff. 218 A. V ol. I (PTS) III N ipata p. 366 ff D. V ol. Ill (PTS) pp. 180-193. Sn. (PTS) p. 46 ff Sn. (PTS) p. 18 ff Sn. (PTS) p. 21 f f A . V ol. IV (PTS) VII Nipata pp. 558, 778. 219 Buddhist Attitude to Poverty, D ialogue N ew Series, V ol. VII N o. 3, p. 100 220 M. V ol. II (PTS) Majjhimaparmasarii, Ratthapala sutta p. 68 221 A. V ol. Ill (PTS) VI Nipata, Dhammika vagga D aliddiya Sutta, p. 351 222 Dh. Sukhavaggo, p. 176 V. 7 223 P. Khu, Dh. U , 1 Pali p. 2 224 Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 10 ff. Dhammacakkappavattana sutta 225 Dh. Sukha vaggo. p. 176 V. 8

73

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

vinnanam; ....... tanha ......... paccaya jati) (Depending on Ignorance Mental Formations appear, ....... Depending on Mental Formations Consciousness arises ....... Depending on Craving birth appears).226 Man is bom of tanha (craving) is subject to cause and effect and suffering. Buddhism points out the arising of suffering in man, the cessation of suffering through threefold training i.e. morality, concentration and wisdom. This has been mentioned not without any concern about man’s development in this world. It does not advocate the use of extreme methods for attaining economic development. It expects the economic development through Middle Path i.e. Golden Mean. Different explanations have been put forth about solving the problems that afflict modem economics. Lionel Robinson while throwing light on some of them argues as to how to satisfy boundless desires through the limited resources.227 Man’s needs are boundless, whereas the resources are limited. The satisfaction that is obtained from the goods and services228 is called requirement.229 The nature of requirement is complex. The limit and limitlessness depend upon the nature of mind of a person. The thought that arises in the mind is turned to desires. These desires are changed to needs. In man whose nature is tinged with cravings, arise thoughts like the water that springs up from the spring. Such a realistic analysis of thought was presented by the Buddha long ago. Lionel Robinson points out that Buddhism presents far-reaching views regarding its nature of the world and presents a universal social system together with a philosophy of economics based on restraint.230 This has been very clearly stated in various Buddhist Suttas. Max Weber231 is of the opinion that Buddhism is confined to the other world. Similary V. P. Verma232 states that there is no economic philosophy in Buddhism. But on the other hand, A. R. Gard in his book named Foreword to the Study o f Buddhism states as follows:

226 M. Vol. Ill Upripannasom, Bahudhatuka sutta. p. 63 Yadidam avijjapaccaya sankhara sam kharapaccaya vinnanam, vinnanapaccaya namarupam, nam arupapaccaya salayatanam salayatanapaccya p h a sso ............. 227 Dictionary o f Econom ics and Business, p. 122 The science w hich studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and sources, means, which have alternative u ses.......... 228 Ibid. p. 172, p. 385 Goods - (In econom ics) A ‘Commodity or service that satisfies som e human want. Service - An intangible econom ic goods either for the benefit o f consumers or industry. That is usually consumed at the same time as it is produced, eg include transportation, catering, and the work produced by an accountant a teacher, or a hairdresser. 229 Introduction to Micro Econom ics, p. 4. These unlimited human wants are the mainsprings o f econom ics activity. A ll econom ic activity is carried on for the purpose o f fulfilling people’s desires. It is directed towards satisfying as fully as possible the wants o f individuals, o f groups and o f the entire society. 2j0 Tanha sutta. p. 39 Tanhaya niyati loko Dh Cittavaggo., p. 18, ve. 3 M. Vol. II (PTS) Majjimapannasam Ratthapala sutta. p. 68 -jl Sociology o f Religion, p. 267 Early Buddhism and its Origins, p. 329

74

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

“It is time to investigate into the facts that Buddhism has a religious nature, historical traditions and social activities. These factors are to be viewed with a broad outlook”. How to acquire and distribute wealth among the people? How to utilize the natural resources correctly? What does Buddhism say about family planning, military and political power, administration and their nature etc. These matters ought to be examined.233 It becomes quite clear from the preceding statements that Buddhism is not confined to the other world. It can be said that it has politico-socio-economic ideas. Therefore, it is intended to discuss Buddhist economic ideas that are found in Tipitaka when we consider the modem economic view. We find that the factories while fulfilling the unlimited desires, produce goods that are suitable for the secondary requirements but are unsuitable for the primary requirements. Because of these conditions we get propaganda for the artificial demand in economic society, for the secondary requirements rather than the primary requirements. Because of this, society is facing problems like excessive consumption, unemployment, unnecessary wastage of resources, malnutrition, pollution of environment. Under such circumstances, the rich people become richer and the poor people become poorer. Therefore, it may be viewed that the consideration the Buddhist economic thought is necessary to understand the economic ideas been demonstrated by Buddhism. A knowledge of these ideas is useful for the problems of modem society. The well-known Book under the title Small is Beautiful by E. F. Schumacher gives a good introduction to the Buddhist ideas on economics. According to it, when we possess and consume goods, it is only means to fulfil our intentions and ambitions. Buddhist economics is a systematic study that leads to the fixed objectives that can be achieved through minimum usage of goods. Therefore, the basic characteristics of the Buddhist economics is simplicity, non­ violence. According to the view of the economists the wonder of Buddhist economics is its inherent intellectual approach. That is, a satisfactory outcome through a wonderful simple ways and means.234

H. N. Karunatilaka in his book named This Confused Society, states that in Buddhist economics, the material development is based on the spiritual development.233 It may be said that according to Buddhism development of man is limitless. Here the development of man is not confined material aspect only but it also must be concerned with spiritual development. When we talk about man, his progress in the field of ethics and spiritually is limitless. Nevertheless, the material development is limited. Buddhist economics is inclined to spiritualism. This fact has been stressed by E. F. Schumacher. He says, “Everywhere, men ask

Quoted at p. 8. Buddhist Econom ic Philosophy, (Sinhala edition) 2j4 Small is Beautiful (Sinhala translation) p. 59 2” Quoted at p. 4. Buddhist Economic Philosophy (Sinhala edition)

75

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

themselves, as to what they should do. The answer that is to be given is simple. Yet it is liable to distraction. All of us can make it orderly within us.”236 According to him Buddhist economic system can be pointed out through right action and right livelihood,237 Prof. Glen Alexandrian is of the opinion that we recognize our new economics as Buddhist, because it can be pointed out that Buddhism has an approach to Universal Justice.238 He further states that Buddhist economics is for the prolonged welfare of the society and is enjoined for the economic activities with essential human ethic.239 E. F. Schumacher opines that Buddhist economics should be different from the modem material economics because Buddhism presents a value of culture not through the accumulation of goods but through moral conduct.240 Considering the opinions expressed above we can understand the meaning o f Buddhist economics. When we engage ourselves in the study of economics we ought to talk about wealth. Wealth is an essential means for the modem society. While leading a social life, wealth has to be accepted. However, it is seen that man in modem society has made the accumulation of wealth as his sole aim. As long as man’s unsatisfied desires exist so long man needs wealth. Because he wants to satiate these desires, he does not take into account the ways and means of earning wealth. He does not care whether such ways and means are socially just or not, reasonable or not, legal or illegal, suitable or unsuitable and ethical or un-ethical. Wealth according to Buddhism is not an Ultimate Goal. It considers wealth as a means to fulfil material as well as spiritual requirements. It becomes quite clear from the Catukka nipata of the Anguttara nikaya that the rich man eats and drinks and enjoys himself and makes his parents, wife and children, friends and servant happy. He treats priestly class and guests. Here, he accumulates wealth for his welfare as well as that of others. But he does not hoard his wealth.241 Buddhism emerged at a time when Brahmanical authority was at its height. The society that was biologically equal, was divided under the Brahmanical supremacy into classes, and they were allotted the means to earn wealth according their view. The allotment of means has already been dealt with. As a result of this the unequal distribution of wealth took place. A great deal of wealth went to a certain class and others got a very little. Under such conditions that particular 2j6 Small is Beautiful, p. 54 237 Ibid. p. 54 238 Quoted at p. 4. Buddhist Economic Philosophy (Sinhala edition) 235 Ibid. p. 4 240 Small is Beautiful, pp. 54, 55. 241 A. Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Pattakamma vagga, p. 67 Idha gahapati ariyasavako utthanaviriyadhigatehi boghehi bahabalapariecitehi sedavakhittehi dhammikehi dhammaladdhehi attanam sukheti pin eti sam m a sukhaih pariharati, m atapitaro sukheti-pe-puttadarakariim akaraporise-pe-m itlam acce-pe.

76

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

class enjoyed a luxurious life while the other classes suffered a lot. Through this, there arose social injustice and inequality. Seeing this the Buddha looked down upon such conditions and delivered His sermons to establish justice, equality and social harmony. The Buddha clearly pointed out in the Catukka nipata of the Anguttara nikaya that wealth is not an end in itself. The wealth is not for oneself only. But it should be utilized for the sake of the other people.242 This seems to be an important guideline for the modem economist and society. In capitalism we see that wealth flows into one direction. People who can face competition in capitalism can get their profit which is a personal gain. Consequently, wealth is unequally divided among the masses. This means that Buddhism does not approve of such an unequal distribution of wealth. The Buddhist economic view is to be happy oneself and to make other people happy (sabbe satta bhavantu sukhitatta). Buddhism upholds the view that wealth should be equally distributed and the primary needs of every body should be fulfilled. Then everybody can be happy and contented. Wealth should not be hoarded at one place. The economic system should be based on ethics. Under such an economic organisation man gets the top priority in which his economic welfare and moral upliftment are also considered. As far as modem capitalism is concerned the first place is given to goods and services along with machinery instead of giving man his due importance. The main reason for this is the expectation of profit. The means that are used for gaining the profit does not consider human welfare. The noble tenets in Buddhist economics such as easy maintenance (subhara), contentment (santussaka), simple livelihood (sallahukavutti), equality, classlessness, dignity of labour, economic protection and frugality are not to be found in modem capitalism. The Buddhist economic system shows the basic needs of man, such as food and drink, clothes, shelter and medicine, and points out as to how to satisfy oneself regarding one’s needs. These are the aspects of Buddhism economy. These basic needs are common to all, we see differences in their fulfilment, such conditions are not approved by Buddhism. The modem economist accepts that the desires of man are limitless. But the resources that satiate the desires, are limited. There is no congruity between them. Therefore, a competition takes place in society. Because of this unnecessary competition the ultimate goal that is demonstrated in Buddhist economics is ignored by consequent development of forces foreign to Buddhist Principles. So there result instead of non-competition competitions, instead of investing resources, wastage of resources, instead of well organised production, distribution and consumption, disorganised production, distribution and consumption instead of ethical restraint in well organised society, in a pleasure seeking society. All these conditions are put into practice in modem economic society.

242 Ibid. pp. 65, 66 f f

77

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

G. Alexandrian states that the man who fulfils his activities in accordance with the Buddhist economics limits his desires and does his work well. He is not tempted by that desire shown by Adam’s Smith.243 He is of opinion that Buddhist economics substantiates the view that man is endowed with potentiality and capability to change human thinking and action as well as economic conditions, environment etc.244 It is obvious from this that in Buddhist economic objectives humanity and ethical behaviour and human potentiality have got the first place. The above objectives are the best guide for the capitalist economy that does not recognize humanity while giving a prominent place to wealth. The Buddhist economics demonstrates that wealth must be acquired according to the above mentioned objectives. Wealth is a collection of goods and services from the stand-point of utility. It is put into practice as a means of goods and services for their interchange. In the context of the modem economics wealth is defined as movable and immovable thing in so far as utility is concerned.243 Buddhist economics excels the modem economic ideas and gives spiritual mental culture and contentment (santutthi paramam dhanam)246 a higher place over material things.247 The Buddhist economics defines wealth in terms of moral aspect of conduct. Therefore, it takes work as a means to acquire wealth. At the same time, it emphasizes that these means have to be ethically justifiable. Yet according to modem economics the ways and means for acquiring wealth need not be moral. For instance, legal or illegal prostitution, slaughter, trade in armaments, trade in toxin, selling of infants, selling of liquor, gambling etc are permissible. A Buddhist who is always mindful earns his livelihood by means of right living. In order to make his livelihood meaningful, he uses right action. Buddhism that discards the above mentioned unrighteous ways and means and the wrong livelihood are mentioned in the Samannaphala sutta. They are not to be practised by Buddhists to earn their livelihood.248 Some ways and means of acquiring wealth sanctioned by modem economics are unethical. If the above mentioned ways and means are utilized then the human rights and moral code of ethics are destroyed but Buddhist economics accepts the ways and means of acquiring wealth in such a way that noble ideals 243 Quoted at p. 10 Buddhist Economic Philosophy (Sinhala edition) 244 Ibid. p. 11 245 Dictionary o f Econom ics, p. 305 Anything which is immediately and generally acceptable for the discharge o f a debt or in exchange for a good or service. 246 Dh. Sukhavagga, p. 177 v. 8 247 A. V ol. IV (PTS) VII. Nipata p. 5 Saddha dhanam, sila dhanam, H iriottappiyam dhanam Suta dhanam cago ca Panna m e sattam am dhanam 248 D. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 67, 68, 69.

78

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n

such as human rights and code of morality are preserved. This Buddhist economic ideas have been substantiated by G. Alexandrian in his book, Buddhist Economics. The ways and means sanctioned by Buddhism to earn wealth are conducive to the welfare of others in society. He while engaging himself in his work, is mindful (satisarhpanna). There he produces useful goods and services.249 Glen and Barbara Alexandrian point out in their book called Towards a Buddhist Economics that a Buddhist refrains himself from providing prostitutes, producing flesh and meat through slaughter and carrying out unimportant experiments.250 Buddhism accepts that the wealth could be a basis for ethical deterioration in human society. We find in this regard an important statement in the Cakkavattisihanada sutta. According to this sutta, stealing is brought about by poverty. Because of poverty weapons are produced. And weapons are used to murder people. Because of murder lying is brought about and back-biting, harsh speech are also caused so on and so forth.251 Therefore, kings are advised to provide the people who are engaged in diverse occupations, with necessary things.252 Here, Buddhist economics bears a great importance in the sense that it advocates equal distribution of wealth, consequently, ethical drawbacks and anti­ human ideas are discarded from society. In order to make this more meaningful, the Buddha advises that economic satisfaction ought to be achieved through the basic concept of Dhamma i.e. righteousness. Here, Dhamma means congruity of Dhamma. The ideas relevant to this are found in the Anana sutta of the Anguttara nikaya. These ideas are certainly important. The Pali quotation concerning these ideas runs as follows: So bhoga me atthi utthanaviriyadhigata bahubalaparicita sedhavakhitta dhammika dhammaladdha, ti adhigacchati sukharii, adhigacchati somanassam 253 Here in this sutta, it is pointed out that contentment is to be obtained through perseverance, through one’s own energy and by the sweat of one’s brow, and through righteousness. It is conducive to the welfare of both oneself and others. Buddhist economics recommends to earn wealth in this way. Then everybody in society can enjoy.254 In order to be happy one has to acquire different kinds of resources. To get resources one must have wealth. There is no scope in Buddhism for obtaining happiness through anti-social activities. Thus, there is scope in Buddhism to enjoy wealth and happiness by just means i.e. righteousness. If this policy is put into practice then malpractices, such as bribe, corruption, exploitation of labour, theft, illegal trade, which are considered to be immoral practices can be removed from society. Buddhism

249 Quoted at p. 24 Buddhist Econom ic Philosophy (Sinhala edition) 250 Ibid. p.24 251 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 68 ........Adhananam ahane anuppadiyam ane D aliddiyam vepulla magamasi, D aliddiye vepullam gate adinnadanam vepullamagam asi. te annam annam m igasanna patilabh issati....... 252 Ibid. p. 65 ff 25j A Vol. II (PTS) Catukka Nipata pattakarhma vagga. p. 60 254 Ibid. p. 60

79

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

recommends to earn wealth righteously and without harming others. This is clear from the following verse of the Dhammapada: Na attahetu na parassa hetu Na puttamiccheyya na dhanam na rattham Na iccheyya adhammena samiddhi mattano Sa silava, punnava dhammiko siya 255 Neither for one’s own sake nor for another’s sake, one should desire son nor wealth nor a kingdom, nor one’s prosperity by unjust means. He who does not seek prosperity in this way is virtuous, wise and righteous. The Sigalovada sutta of the DIgha nikaya brings to our notice that a householder should accumulate wealth just like a bee that gathers nectar from flower to flower. The Pali quotation of the above statement runs as follows: Pandito silasampano, Jalam aggiva bhasati Bhoge sariiharamanassa Bhamarasseva iriyato Bhoga sannicayam yanti Vammiko viipaciyati Evarii bhoge samagantva Alamattho kule g ih i256 Catudha vibhaje bhage Sa ve mittani ganthati Buddhist economics demonstrates that the methods of production should be selected on a certain selective basis. That basis comprises ethical behaviour, righteousness, conditions for social welfare as well as human welfare. In this way, while adjusting economic policy, the lives of all those who desire for happiness become safe, and their lives are well arranged. These conditions are included in Buddhist economics as mentioned in the Vyagghapajja sutta. It is as follows: First is agriculture, then comes trade and cattle breeding, archery, government services.257 Agriculture gets primary place in Buddhism. It is stated in the Subha sutta of the Majjhima nikaya that agriculture is a greatly useful occupation. Agriculture bears a great significance, it is a great task, it is a great investigation, it is a great inception, it is prosperous and greatly fruitful.258 255 Ibid. Pandita Vagga p. 79 v. 9 256 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 188 257 A. V ol. IV (PTS) VII Nipata p. 281 Idha Byagghapajja, Kulaputto ye n a kamm atthanena jivik a m kappeti y a d i k a siya y a d i vanijjaya, y a d i gorakkhena y a d i Issatthena y a d i rajaparisen a y a d i sippannata tattha dakkho hoti analaso tatrupayaya vim am saya samannagato alam katum alom sam vidh atu ih ........ 258 M. Vol. II (PTS) Brahmana vagga, Majjhima pannasa, p. 198 K asi yevakho, manava, kammatthanam, mahattharh m ahakiccaih mahadhikaranam m ahasm aram bham sam pajjam anam mahapphalam h o ti............

S o c ia l i s e d E c o n o m i c P h il o s o p h y a n d B u d d h is t I n t e r p r e t a t io n

The Khettupama sutta of the Anguttara nikaya brings to our notice that right conditions are essential to reap a rich harvest.259 The Tatiya sutta of the Lonaphala vagga belonging to the Anguttara nikaya throws light on cultivation. The following conditions should be followed. First is ploughing, second is levelling the ground, sowing the seeds, watering on time.260 The Pathama sutta of the same Text explains how to sow the seeds.261 Kasibharadvaja sutta of the Sutta nipata explains that Buddha also partakes of food after ploughing and reaping. Ahampi kho brahmana kasami ca vapami ca, kasitva ca vapitva ca bhunjami.262 Furthermore it explains that the Buddha considers faith as the seeds, austerity as the rain, yoke of the plough as wisdom, modesty, shame as the plough pole, mind as the yoke tie, mindfulness as the plough share and goad. Saddha bijam tapo vutthi Panna me yuganangalam Hiri isa mano yottam Sati me phalapacanam263 Thus, the Buddha explained his ethical and spiritual cultivation. The above similes of agriculture show that cultivation was an important means of livelihood. E. F. Schumacher thinks of agriculture in the following way. Because of agriculture the environment in which man lives, becomes smooth and relationship with his environment also becomes smooth, it improves food commodity, and other essential things.264 A. P. De Zoysa in his book Indian Culture in the Days o f the Buddha says, “Agricultural products formed important articles of merchandise.”265

259 A. V ol. IV (PTS) VIII Nipata, D anavaggo, p. 237 Idha bhikkhave Khettam unnamininnami ca hoti, pasanasakkharillan ca hoti, n a ca gam bhirasitam hoti, n a ayasampannam hoti, na apayasam panna hoti, na matikasampannam hoti, na m ariyadasapannam hoti, evam atthangasam annagati bhikkhave khette bijam vuttam na mahapphalam hoti na mahassadam na p h a tis e y y a m ......... 260 A. V ol. NI (PTS) III Nipata, Lonaphala vagga pp. 2 3 9 ,2 4 0 . Idha bhikkhave kassako gahapati sighasigham khettam sukattham karoti sum atikatam sighasigham khettam sukattham karitva sumatikatam sighasigham p i bijam patitth apeti sighasigham bijanm i p a ttih a p etva sighasigham, udakam abhineti p i apan eti p i im ani kho bhikkave tini kassakassa gah apatissa accayikani karan iyan i........... 261 A . V ol. I (PTS) III Nipata, samana vagga, pp. 2 2 9 ,2 3 0 . Idha bhikkhave kassako gu hapati p a tigacc 'eva khettam sukattham karoti sumatikatam, p a tig a cc ’eva khettam, sukattam karitva sumatikatam kalena bijam patitthapeti, kalena bijam patitthapetva, sam ayena uddakam abhineti p i apaneti p i im ani kho bhikkhave tini kassakassa gah apatissa p u b b e karaniyan i........... 262 Sn. (PTS) p. 13 263 Ibid. p. 13 264 The Search for Buddhist Economics, p. 5 (Sinhala edition) 265 Indian Culture in the Days o f the Buddha, p. 155. (Sinhala edition)

81

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The Salikedara Jataka tale furnishes an important information about tenancy. Kosiyagotta owned an estate of a thousand acres wherein grew rice. He gave the land on lease, fifty acres to one sixty acres to another. Thus, he distributed five hundred acres among them.266 The above Jataka clears the fact that in the time of the Buddha there were landlords who owned thousands of acres of land. There were tenants who were landless. It may be surmised that there were two extremes in Indian economy. One extreme was that of having enormous wealth and the other extreme was that of abject poverty. Trade, according to the Buddhist economics, is also a method of getting wealth. Under this system, righteousness is upheld. The Vanijja sutta of the Anguttara nikaya throws light on the trade system. According to it, there were five kinds of trade. They were prohibited by the Buddha. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Satta Vanijja - Selling of human beings. Sattha Vanijja - Dealing in armaments. Visa Vanijja - Dealing in poison. Mamsa Vanijja - Dealing in flesh. Majja Vanijja - Dealing in liquor or intoxicants.267

The Satta vanijja means dealing in human beings. This is further explained that people in the time of the Buddha used to sell young ones as slaves. This kind of situation takes place in a society, wherein there is no systematic economic planning. It also occurs through an unequal distribution of national resources. As a result of this, there occurs moral deterioration. Poverty is the root cause of all these conditions. The aim of all living things is to live in this world.268 To live is meant by fulfilling one’s requirements, when one does get enough wealth to live, he is tempted to use immoral, unjust means to get the wealth. Therefore, irrespective good and bad, he engages his children slavery. Therefore, the government should govern the country justly, taking the requirements of people into consideration. The Sattha Vanijja means dealing in armaments. This according to Buddhist ethics, is not a suitable trade. Wealth should be acquired in order to live. For this one can choose various occupations. Though one is at liberty to choose one’s trade, yet he is prohibited from dealing in armaments. Buddhist philosophy is centred round man and society. Therefore, the economic programme that is detrimental to human welfare, has not been put forth. And so, the trade in armaments under the Sattha Vanijja has completely been done away with, as it deprives human beings of their precious lives.

266 J. Salikedara Jataka (No. 484). J. IV pp. 276-282. 267 A. V ol. Ill (PTS) V Nipata, Upasakavagga, p. 208 Pancim a bhikkhave vanijja upasakena akaraniya, kattha satta vanijja, sattha vanijja, mansa vanijja, visa vanijja, m am sa vanijja. Ima kho bhikkave p a n ca vanijja u pasaken a......... 268 Dh. Danda vagga p. 124. v. 02, Sabbesam jivitam piyam.

82

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B

u d d h is t

In t e r p r e t a t i o n

B. Dharhmajoti, in his book, titled Buddhist Economic Philosophy states that when there is rapid deterioration of economy in the whole of world, expenditures on warfare are shot up. While fifty crores of people are suffering from starvation, the capitalist countries use wealth to bring about world wars.269 Thus, while millions of people in the world are suffering from starvation, the wealthy nations are producing armaments and are trying their best to preserve their own power and wealth. However, there is no such thing in Buddhism. Buddhism makes an effort to enable man to lead a good virtuous life. Therefore. Buddhism has spoken against the production and the sale of armaments. Trade of poison that causes death of living beings, has been prohibited. It is expected through this prohibition that there should be an evenness in man as well as in environment. The presence of evenness of environment is important. Nonetheless, the chemicals can be included in poison. It is used for agriculture and its effects are injurious to the environment. It has been detrimental to man’s livelihood. Moreover, the chemicals are used in the production of vegetables which are used by men on a large scale. The chemicals that are artificially made, help the growth of agricultural product. Even then, they affect both the environment and beings feat \Vve in sudn an environment. Therefore, the trade m poison has been prohibited. Buddhism that advocates non-violence preaches that all fear death (sabbe bhsyanti maccuno)210 Life is dear to all (Sabbesarh jivitarh piyarh)211 Thus, Buddhism which is based on non-violence prohibits trade in flesh. Though trade in flesh is economically profitable, yet Buddhists should not follow it, as it has an evil influence on ethics. It is important for Buddhists to avoid the fivefold trade, as Buddhism preaches non-violence, amity, compassion and mercy. Buddhism inculcates friendliness that should be practised by an individual towards all beings. It is said, “Mettanca sabbalokcismim manasarh bhavaye aparimanani'2 ". This kind of noble attitude cannot be meaningful unless the trade in flesh has totally been prohibited by Buddhism. Killing of animals under any cirumstances has been prohibited (panatipata veramani).21'' Moreover, it has been included under the first defeat (pathama parajika)274 in the sense of killing human beings which was enacted for monks by the Buddha. Killing of animals for flesh has been banned for laymen under the fivefold trade. On the one hand, killing of animals for human beings, brings about the destruction of life, on the other hand, it causes deprivation of the right to live in this world. All that is bom in this world must have the right to live. This right is 269 Buddhist Economic Philosophy, p. 84 (Sinhala edition) 270 Dh. Danda vagga, p. 123. v. I 271 Ibid. p. 123. v ? 02 272 Sn. (PTS) Metta sutta. p. 26 27~’ A. Vol. I (PTS), III Nipata, Apayika vagga. p. 268

Tisso ima bhikkhave vipattiyo katama tisso, silavipatti, cittavipatti ditthi vipatti. Katdma ca bhikhave silavipatti Idha bhikkm’e ekacco panatipati h o ti ........... 274 Vinaya Texts, Vol. 13, Part I, p. 4

83

SOCIAL A SPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

common to all. Buddhist philosophy recommends as kindness to animals and bans the killing of animals. A. Indaratana in his book, Buddhist Cultural Collection An Anthology on Buddhist Culture (Bauddha Sanskritika Sangrahaya, Sinhala edition) puts forward an important opinion. It is as follows: Those who are bom in this world, ought to have freedom to live in this world. It is a common right. If such a right is seized by someone, then it is not to be approved of by a civilized society. Moreover, it should be contemptuously be discarded by them.275 The Veludvara sutta throws light on the killing of animals. It is as follows: “ ........ I like to live. I do not like to die. I like happiness, suffering is to be detested. If other’s lives are destroyed, it is not a pleasant thing for them. If there is something unpleasant and detestable for me, it is the same for others. This which is disliked by me, how can I apply to others. While he ponders over such things, refrains himself from killing and makes other to refrain from killing. Thus, his bodily action becomes pure in threefold ways.”276 Majja means to get intoxicated. All things that cause intoxication derangement, and negligence are included in the Majja. All drugs and alcohol come under Majja vanijja, i.e. trade in intoxicants. As this trade causes a complete deterioration of man as well as of society, it has been pointed out in Buddhist economics as an unsuitable trade. It does not have any ethical basis. Nevertheless, it has been accepted as an easy way to earn money, in modem society without considering the downfall of both man and society. This trade must be banned because of the use of alcohol and drugs, mental state and physical conditions of man become deteriorated. In society as man becomes sick in body and in mind the human resources become weak. It affects the development of national economy. When we pointed out the economical development as a function, the human resources become a fact. Their relationship is as follows: D = f (hr ....) D = Development f = function hr = human resources When human resources decrease, it causes decrease of development. On the other hand, when human resources increase, the development is increase. The Sigalovada sutta explains that drinking of alcohol as a source of disease (roganarh ayatanam).277 If that is so, is it possible to get human resources in such a society, where drinking is rampant. Then it affects the development of the country. Therefore, the Commentary on the DIgha nikaya, named Sumanagalavilasini elaborates on this point. Those drugs like heroin etc. are included in intoxicants and are prohibited by Buddhism. The fivefold wine is as follows:

2,3 Buddhist Cultural Collection, pp. 341, 342 (Sinhala edition) 276 S. V ol. V. (PTS) Anapana Samyutta, p. 352 ff 277 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 182

84

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n

1.

Pitthi sura - It is made of various kinds of flour. The flour is put into water and is stagnated.

2.

Pupa sura - It is made of different sweets. These sweets are put into water and are stagnated.

3.

Odana sura i.e. wine made of rice. The rice is put into water and is stagnated.

4.

Kinnapakkitta sura - The wine made of wild flowers.

5.

Sambhara samyutta sura - Wine is made of fruits like myrobalan etc. They are put in water and stagnated.278

mango,

There are five kinds of distilled liquor. They are as follows: 1.

Pupphasava - The wine made of nectar of various flowers of trees such as, palmyra tree, coconut tree etc.

2.

Phalasava - The wine made of essence of jackfruit.

3.

Madasava - Wine made of grapes.

4.

Gulasava - The wine made of molasses.

5.

Sambhara Samyutta - The wine made of nectar that iscollected from the flowers of myrobalan.279

The same Commentary brings the following items to our notice. They are as follows: 1.

Tula kuta - Deceit in scaling

2.

Kamsa kuta-Forgery in brass

3.

Mana kuta - Fraud in weighing.280

These deceitful practices should be avoided by Buddhists. It is obvious that the merchants practise fraud in scaling and weighing. They are engaged in such activities with the intention o f getting more profit, from dishonest trading. But Buddhism does not approve o f the profit that is not obtained by honest means. Buddhism makes an attempt to put forth an ideal whereby a man does not socially, economically and spiritually harm another man. This becomes quite clear from the following Dhammapada verse: 278 Quoted at p. 36 Buddhist Econom ic Philosophy (Sinhala edition) 279 Ibid. p. 37 280 Sumangalavilasini, pp. 58, 59.

85

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Yatthapi bhamaro puppham Vannagandham ahethayam Paleti rasamadaya Evarii game muni care?m “Just as a bee without damaging or hurting the colour and fragrance of a flower collects nectar from it and runs away, just so a sage, should wander in a village.” While not taking an advantage for the sake of oneself as well as for the sake of others, one should act without hurting another person. This shows an essential characteristic. This is the basic thing through which man’s accomplishment can be brought about. The merchant who expects excessive profit, uses fraud in his trade. This fact has been clearly pointed out in the above mentioned concept of Tula kuta.282 Being fraudulent in weighing goods has been shown by Tula kuta. They are practised in the following four ways. For example: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Rupa kuta Anga kuta Gahana kuta Paticchanna kuta

While selling or buying goods the balance is used for evenness of goods and the weight. The balance that is used for the evenness in fraudulent way is called Rupa kuta. While weighing goods, the merchants strike the upper part of the balance and this kind of fraud is called Anga kuta. The fraud that is connected with the strings of the balance is called Gahana kuta. The fraud that is connected with the fixing of iron dust to the hole made in the balance is called Paticchanna kuta. Other frauds of the present day merchants such as mixing small pebbles in the rice, making sugar slightly wet etc. can be considered under the Paticchanna kuta. The fraud in gold and silver is regarded is Kamsa kuta. Such practices as selling iron and brass as real gold and artificial glass beads as real gems and printing of black money all these are considered as Kamsa kuta. Serivanija jataka tale brings to our notice that the trader Kacchaputa tried to buy a gold plate as a silver one.283 The measures that are falsely used for measuring the land etc. are considered to be Mana kuta. Three kinds of wrong measurement are said to have been practised by merchants. They are as follows:

281 Dh. Puppavagga. p. 53 v. 06 282 S. (PTS) Catuttha Amakadhanna Peyyalavagga p. 346 "Evameva kho bhikkhave appaka te s a tta y e tulakuta,kariisakuta 2Sj J. Serivanija Jataka N o.03 J.Vol. l .p . l l O f f

86

s o c ia l is e d

1. 2. 3.

E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

Hadayabheda Sikhabheda Rajjubheda

Hadayabheda fraud is that the merchant while buying oil makes it fall in his oil-pot and while selling passes it quickly. This type of fraud is called Hadayabheda. While buying he fills it above the brim, and while selling gives it quickly, as it would benefit him. It is called the Sikhabheda. If the landowner does not give any bribe then he wrongly measures the land wrongly. It is called Rajjubheda. Ukkotana is shown by taking bribe. In modem society, bribe is widely practised. This is done while carrying out the business. Nikiti means selling false gold as real gold and selling of false gems as tme ones. Therefore in the Buddhist economics, it has been shown how a trader carries on his trade. The polity of Kautiliya suggests that a fraudulent merchant should be punished.284 Similarly, the polity of Brihaspati recommends punishment for such traders.285 All the religious teachers of the world, taught their doctrines, hoping to build a good society. Nevertheless, such principles cannot be put into practice because of theoretical problems. The main reason is the diversity of opinions of different people in society. Therefore, their principles cannot be put into practice. Some of the members of society are righteous whereas the others are not. Those people who righteous realize the doctrine and practice it well whereas those misunderstand it act accordingly. Tula kuta and Ukkotana sutta of the Samyutta nikaya brings to our notice that the Buddha who realized the nature of society, pointed out that it was difficult to find honest merchants.286 Cattle breeding in Buddhist economics, is another means to earn wealth. Cow-rearing has got a primary place, under cattle breeding. It is said that there is no wealth like cow (Natthi go samitam dhanam).287 This shows that cows were regarded as the most precious wealth. In the economy that is based on agriculture, there was an opportunity for rearing other animals for agricultural purpose and not for flesh. The Brahmana Dhammika sutta of the Sutta nipata mentions that cows 284 Arthasastrava p. 260 As the difference in weight or measure or difference in price or quality, for the weigher or measurer w ho by a trick o f the hand brings about a difference to the extent o f one - eight part in an article priced at one pana, the fine is two hundred (pana). 285 Quoted at p. 15 Buddhist Econom ic and Philosophy (Sinhala edition) 286 S.Vol. (PTS) Sacca samutta, Catutta Amadanna Peyyala vagga p. 473 E vem eva kho bhikkhave appaka te satta y e tidakuta-kariisakuta-manakuta, pativirata atha kho va

bahutara satta ye tulakuta-kaihsakuta-manakuta appati-virata evameva kho bhikkhave appaka te satta ye ukkotanavancananikati - sa\’iyoga pativirata 287 S. V ol. 1 (PTS) Devata Samyutta Nandana vagga, Natthi puttasama sutta. p. 6

Natthi puttasamampemam Natthi gosamitam dhanam Natthi suriyasamam abha Samudha parama sarati

87

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

are our best friends. They supply us with food, strength, colour, and happiness. The Pali quotation is as follows: Gavo no parama mitt a, tasu jayanti osadha, annada, balada, ceta vannada, sukhada sada?u It is pointed that under Buddhist economics that government servants and military men are appointed to earn wealth. The Samannaphala sutta of the Digha nikaya throws light on several occupations that accrue wealth. They are as follows: Mahouts, house men, charioteers, archers, standard-bearers, camp marshals, camp-followers, high military officers, military-scouts, brave warriors, champions, warriors in bow-string, home-born, servants, cooks, barbers, bath attendants, confectioners, garland makers, washermen, weavers, basket-makers, potters, mathematicians and accountants.289 A. P. De Zoysa commenting on the aforesaid occupations in his book Indian Culture in the Days o f the Buddha says that these were evidently connected with the King’s court.290 In addition to the occupations that included in Buddhist economics that there is an opportunity to follow any craft that does not go against moral virtues. According to the Ambalatthika Rahulovada sutta of the Majjhima nikaya, the ways and means applied to earn the wealth, should be considered as to whether they are conducive to one’s own welfare and happiness or conducive to those o f others or those of both sides.291 Here Buddhist economics guides how to build up good conditions for everybody’s welfare and happiness. According to the Anana sutta o f the Anguttara nikaya the fourfold happiness, atthi sukha, bhoga sukha, anavajja sukha, and anana sukha can be obtained through this economic system. This happiness is described as follows: “O ’ householder, what is meant by atthi sukha. O’ householder, the wealth that is acquired by a clansmen with energy, and by the sweat of his own eyebrow, and by a just means. After getting such wealth he becomes happy and delighted. This is called atthi sukha.

Sn. (PTS) Cullavagga. p. 52, vs, 296, 297. J8’ D. V ol 1 (PTS) pp. 67, 68 ff 290 Indian Culture in the Days o f the Buddha, p. 132 291 M .Vol. 1 (PTS) p. 415 Yadeva tvarii Rahula kayena kammam kattukama hosi, tadeva te kaya-kam mam Paccavekkhitabbaiii, y a m nu kho aham idam kayena kamm am kattukamo idam- M e kayakam mam attabyabadhaya p i sam vatteyya parabyabadh aya p i sam vatteyya U bhayabyabadhaya p i

samvatteyya,.......

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

In the same way, he earns bhoga sukha by a just means and enjoys it happily and becomes delighted. This is called bhoga sukha. The anana sukha is that a person thinks himself that he lives happily without being indebted to any one. This is called anana sukha.”292 Under the above mentioned system of earning wealth, it is not appropriate to earn wealth out o f excessive desire. Suvannaharhsa Jataka tale reveals the fact that the wealth earned by such means gets deteriorated. One should be contented with what one earns. Avarice is considered to be evil. Because of avarice, a man who caught the golden swan and plucked all its golden feathers with the intention of getting wealth as early as possible lost the opportunity of becoming rich.293

The Kamanita Jataka points out that there is no medicine for greedy persons. The description is that some can cure a person stung by a black snake, by charms and medicines. When a person is possessed by a devil, wise people cure him by means of medicine. A person who is excessively affected by a desire for worldly things and sensual pleasures nobody can cure him. If such a person, transgresses the wholesome actions and gets himself engaged in unwholesome behaviour then what cure is there for such a man?294 The Atthassadvara Jataka295 throws light on certain matters related to man’s earning of wealth. According to it, good qualities such as virtuous character, obedience to elders, learning, righteous livelihood and endeavour, help him to earn wealth without clinging to excessive desires. The Buddhist economics instructs man to earn wealth in this way. The Sigalovada sutta of the DIgha nikaya throws light on this matter. According to it, the wealth that is earned by a person through just means should be divided into four parts, one portion should be utilised for the welfare of his family and his own happiness. Two portions should be invested in industry. The fourth portion should be saved for future use at the time of an emergency such as fire, flood, and theft etc.296

Thus, Buddhist economics reveals to us modem economic concepts such as saving, investment, consumption, interest and banking system. Even the modem economists do not advise to consume all wealth. Every consumer is enticed to dedicate one’s consumption for future use. Therefore, the consumer is expected to

292 A. V ol. 11 (PTS) lv Nipata, Pattakammavagga pp. 69, 70. "...... Cattarim ani gahapati sukhani adhigam aniyani gihina kamabhogina kalena kalaiii sam ayena sam ayam upadaya. Katam ani cattari? Atthisukham, bhogasukham, ananasukham, anavajjasukham ” 293 J.Vol. I Suvannahamsa Jataka N o .136 pp. 474, 474 ff 254 J.Vol. II Kamanita Jataka N o. 228, pp. 212-216 f f 295 J.Vol. I Atthassadvara Jataka N o. 84, pp. 366-367 ff 296 D. V ol. I l l (PTS) p. 188 Ekena bhoge bhunjeyva D vihi kammam payojaye Catuttham ca nidhapeyya A padasu bhavissati

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

save a portion of his wealth and use the remaining for his consumption. Therefore, saving a portion is encouraged. Thus, the national saving is also increased through it. It stands in good stead to improve nation. Similarly, when a person’s capital is increased and it is possible for him to get some interest by investing his capital in a bank. On the other hand, when personal and public capital is increased, the investment is also increased. It leads to the development of a country. Nandasena Ratnapala, in his book, Buddhist Sociology, throws light on the statement of the Sigalovada sutta that this simple verse needs careful interpretation beyond what it openly conveys in its face value. In the verse, indication of economic development or prosperity of an individual group or a state is found. The basic economic policy of a state is also outlined. Unless the verse is analysed carefully keeping the spirit of Buddhist Teaching in mind, it is not easy to unravel the implied meaning.297 The Vyagghapajja sutta of the Anguttara nikaya throws light on the fourfold norm for happiness of a householder. They are as follows: “O’ Vyaggaphajja, there are four norms, which exist for the welfare and happiness of a clansman, in this world. What are those four norm? Utthana sampada, Arakkha sampada, Kalyana mitta and Samajivikata ,”298 Utthana sarhpada means engaging oneself in agriculture, business, cow breeding, archery, government service or any kind o f suitable craft, with energy, without being lax, with device and investigation etc. The Utthana sampada is a manly enterprise according to Buddhist economics. Without endeavour, there is neither spiritual nor material development. Right effort (Samma Vayama) stands in good stead for the spiritual as well as material advancement. The effort is one o f the ten perfections which lead to the Attainment of Buddhahood i.e. Enlightenment. Because o f right endeavour one can lead himself and others to the Ultimate Goal and enjoy happiness. This has been clearly stated in the Jataka called Vannupathaka.299 If someone keeps himself engaged in a craft without being indolent, if he thinks of cold, heat, evening, morning, hungry or not hungry,300 he cannot earn wealth or cannot protect the wealth he has already acquired. Moreover, if he does not pay attention to his occupation and is unskilled and without any device, he cannot make any further progress. The Utthana sarhpada is important in so far as protection and earning of wealth is concerned. Arakkha sarhpada means protection of wealth. This is how to protect one’s wealth from a king, robber, fire, flood, etc. The above mentioned sutta clarifies the fact that what is meant by Arakkha sampada as follows:

29 Buddhist Sociology, p. 9883. 298 A .V ol. IV (PTS) VIII Nipata, Sa-adhana vagga. p. 281 "Cattaro 'me Byaggapajja dhamma kulaputtassa ditthadhammahitaya samvattati ditthadhammasukhaya. Katame cattaro? Utthanasampada, Arakkhasampada, Kalyanam ittata, S a m a jivik a ta......... " 2V> J. Vol. I Vannupataka Jataka N o. 2 pp. 106-110 f f ™ D . Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 185 “ A ti s i tain, a ti -unham, a ti sayam idam ahu iti vissattha kamm anto attha accenti m anave ”

90

S o c ia lis e d Ec o n o m

ic

P h il o s o p h y a n d B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n

“Vyagghapajja, here a clansman who earns wealth by the sweat of his brow, with manual work, wealth earned by a just means, he thinks that whether the king would seize his wealth or robbers would seize or it would be destroyed by fire or whether it would be carried away by flood or whether enemies would take it away. Thinking thus, he protects his wealth. Vyagghapajja this is called Arakkha sampada.301 While protecting wealth one should be careful about the deterioration of wealth and the conditions related to it.” The Vyagghapajja sutta has pointed out four ways of destruction of wealth. They are as follows: “O ’ Vyagghapajja, the wealth, which is acquired thus, has four doorways of destruction. The first is attachment to women. The second is taking liquor. The third is addiction to gambling. The fourth is association with evil friends.”302 Getting addicted to women, liquor, gambling and association with evil friends destroy the wealth of a person. It is like a lake, of which the inlet is shut and the outlet is open. As the water of such a lake is exhausted, so is the wealth of such a person is destroyed. If a person is not attached to women, is not addicted to liquor, gambling and is not free from the association of evil friends, then the wealth of such a person is protected just like the water of the lake of which the inlet is fully opened and the outlet is also wholly shut. This has been shown in the same sutta. Even the Parabhava sutta of the Sutta nipata points out that the man who is attached to women, addicted to liquor, and gambling becomes a victim of downfall. Itthi dhutto sura dhutto Akkha dhutto cayo naro Laddham laddham vinaseti Tam parabhavato mukham 303 The Sigalovada sutta shows the six doorways for the downfall of the wealth of a person. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Using intoxicants Haunting streets in inappropriate times Going to watch festivals Gambling Association with evil friends

301 A .Vol. IV (PTS) VIII N ipata sa-adhana vagga pp. 281-282 ",........ Idha Byagghapajja kulaputtassa bhoga honti utthanaviriyadhigata bahabalaparicita sedavakkhita dhammika dhammaladdha, te arakkhena gu ttiya sam padeti kinti me ime bhoge neva rajano hareyyum, na cora h a re y y u m .............. ” 302 Ibid. p. 283. ' “Evaih samuppannanam byagghapajja bhoganam cattari apayam ukhani honti, itthidhutto hoti.suradhutto, akkha dhutto. Papam itto, p a p a sa h sy o ......... ” 303 Sn. (PTS) Uragavagga p. 19

91

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

6.

Laziness304

These six doorways to man’s downfall have separately been explained. Therefore, these are recognised as the doorways to the destruction of wealth. They should be shunned by a clansman. The sutta shows laziness under the bhogavinasa mukha (the ways of the destruction of wealth) as the doorways of the destruction of wealth. The Tatiya sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, explains what is that laziness? There the Buddha says, “O ’ monks, I say that laziness that exists leads to the unwholesome condition of a person. I do not see another thing leading to downfall like it.”305 The Itthadhamma sutta of the Anguttara nikaya states that both inactivity and laziness are hindrance to the production of wealth.306 Suttas like Mangala, Vasala and Parabhava point out the downfall of a person.307 Now the concept of consumption ought to be investigated. Vyagghapajja sutta sheds light on the consumption of wealth as follows:

The

The Buddha asks Vyagghapajja whether he knows the life of evenness (samajivikata) and goes on to explain it. “In this world, a clansman, knowing the proportion of the income and expenditure regarding wealth sees when spending his expenses should not exceed income and also thinks that his income should not trangress his expenses.”308 The Buddhist economic philosophy points out that one’s expenditure should be in proportion to one’s income. A Buddhist leads a life of evenness, in accordance with the Buddhist economic philosophy, if he does not exceed his income just like balancing the scale. So he leads the life of evenness without being indebted to anyone. If someone who has less income and spends much, then he eats his wealth like a fig tree glutton. If a person who has much more income but spends meagerly, then he will die like a starving. The sutta, furthermore, elucidates the facts about it.

304 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 182 K atam am ch a bhoganam apaya mukhani na sevati? Suram ereya tnajja pam adattananicyogo kho gah apatipu tta bhoganam apaya mukham, vikala visikhacariy an uyogo.......... p e .......... 305 A. V ol. I (PTS) I Nipata, Pamada vagga p. 16 “N aham bhikkhave annam ekadh am m am pi sam anupassam i y o evarii anatthaya sam vattati ya th a yid a m bhikkhave pam ado ” j06 A. V ol. V (PTS) X Nipata Akanka vagga p. 136 "Alas sain anutthanam bhoganam paripan th o ” j07 Sn. pp. 4 6 ,4 7 . Culavagga Ibid. pp. 21, 25. Uragavagga Ibid. pp. 18, 20. f f Uragavagga j08 A. Vol. IV (PTS) VII Nipata. Sa-adhana vagga p. 282 “ Idha Byagghapajja kulaputto ayaiii ca bhoganam viditva vayam ca bhoganam vid itva samam jivikarii kappeti na accogalarh na atihinam evam me a yo vayam pariya d a ya th a ssa ti.......... ”

92

S o c i a l i s e d E c o n o m i c P h i l o s o p h y a n d B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n

The Buddhist economic philosophy does not approve of opulence of Illisa309 who did not consume it but spent it in an unjust way and also of Adinnapubbaka310 who was extremely avaricious. Therefore, Buddhist economic philosophy does not appreciate an excessive consumption and meagre consumption. It puts forth and appreciates an even consumption, knowing the proportion in eating (bhojanamhi ca mattaffnu).m Consumption should be set up. A person who works knowing the proportion in consumption, gets an attitude of common consumption that is sharing one’s surplus income. It is stated in the Vasala sutta of the Sutta nipata that one becomes lowly if one does not show his hospitality to a guest (Agatam na patipujeti......,).3U Similarly the Parabhava sutta of the same Text brings to our notice that if a person enjoys his meal alone, that is the cause of his downfall (Eko bhunjati saduni tamparabhavato mukham).3'3 The Aputtaka sutta of the Kosala Sarhyutta mentions a man who being rich neither enjoys himself nor gives to another person nor does any meritorious work. Such a person is said to be like a lake protected by a devil. The sutta further states that the place that is inhabited by a devil, if it has water in it, it is not used, as no one can dare to drink from it. Just so, the wealth that is acquired by an unrighteous person is not consumed by him or is not allowed to be consumed by another person. On the other hand, a courageous and wise person acquiring wealth consumes it himself and allows others to consume it. And so he does meritorious work such a noble man nurturing his kinsmen, lives happily and goes to heaven after his d eath/14 The Mayaka Jataka also furnishes us with an important information about the consumption of wealth. According to it the Mayaka bird who inhabits the slopes and mountainous ranges, climbing up the fig tree with ripe fruits crying utters that these are his. When this is done other birds come over there and eat the fig fruits and fly away. Even after their departure, this Mayaka bird continues his crying and uttering the same words. In the same way, certain persons having an enormous wealth, do not consume themselves nor share it with their kith and kin, and while crying and uttering that they have a lot of wealth, the royal persons, robbers and illegal heirs dispossess of their property. The wise man after earning wealth, treats

305 J. Vol. I Illisa Jataka N o. 78 p. 345 ff 310 Dhaihmapadatthakatha. p. 15 311 Dh. Yamaka Vagga p. 10 v. 8 3,2 Sn. (PTS) Uravagga p. 22 v.128 Yo ve parakulam gantva bhutvana suci bhojanaih A gataiii na patipujeti, tam ja n h a v a s a lo ’ iti. 313 Ibid. p. 19 314 S. (PTS) Kosala samyutta Dutiya vagga p. 90 “E v a m ........ asappuriso kho m ah a ra ja ........ bhoge labhitva nevattanam suketi, pineti, na m atapitaro suketi, pineti, na pu ttadaram suketi, pineti, na dasa kamm a karaporise na m itt a m acca -pe na samanabrahm anesu... “seyyathapi maharaja am anussattana acchadaka sitodaka sitodaka setaka supatittha ramaniya, tam ja n e neva hareyya na piv eyya na nahayeyya n a ya th a p a cca ya m va k a r e y y a ........”

ff

93

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

his kith and kin, and as a result of it, becomes famous, and after death goes to heaven.313 The Pattakarhma sutta of the Anguttara nikaya informs us that there are several ways to consume wealth and they are mentioned as Panca bali. They are as follows: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Nati bali Atithi bali Pubba Peta bali Raja bali Devata bali316

Nati bali means by treating one's relations, Atithi bali means treating one’s guests, Pubba Peta bali means treating one’s departed relatives, Raja bali means paying the tax to the government and Devata bali means treating Sramanas and Brahmanas who are regarded as family Gods. This shows the consumption of personal wealth. Thus, a person while doing his own work in society is not an isolated person but becomes part and parcel of society. Thereby his personal protection as well as the protection of other people is secured. The Sedaka sutta of the Samyutta nikaya states that a person who protects himself also protects other people and vice-versa. The Pali quotation runs as follows: Attanam bhikkhave rakkhanto param rakkhati, param rakkhanto attmarn rakkhati317 The Buddhist economic philosophy further elucidates the fact that one should get the highest benefit from one’s wealth. The modem economics sheds light on the consumption of the meager wealth and explains as to how to get the highest benefit thereof. The resources are naturally scanty. When men’s desires are considered, the resources seem to be meager. Therefore, the present man should carefully consume his wealth. This noble concept was first explained to the monks by the Buddha.318 The Guna Jataka belonging to the Jataka book, furnishes us with an interesting information about a discussion that took place between Ven. Ananda and King Udena of Kosambi.

3,5 J. V ol. Ill Mayaka Jataka p. 299 f f ' A. Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata Pattakarhma vagga p. 68

"Puna ca param gahapali arivasavaka utthana .................. dhammaladdhehi pancabatim katta hoti. N atibalim atithibaliiii, pubbapetabalim, devatabalim ....... ’ ’ 1~ S. Vol. (PTS) Satipatthana samyutta, Nalanda vagga, Sedaka sutta p. 267 Jl8 Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) Dhammacakkappattana sutta p. 10

"Asha kho bhagava paftcavaggiya bhikkhit amantesi ch’eme bhikkhave anta pabbajitena na sex’itabba, katame dve? Yo cayaih kamesukamasukhallikanuyogo hino gammo yo cavarii attakilamatanuyogo dukkho ete kho bhikkhave ubho ante anupagamma majjhima patipacla saim’attati ”

94

.........

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

According to it, the resources should be consumed proportionately. The King asked Ananda the following question: “Why have you accepted five hundred robes in spite of the injunction of the Buddha that monks should use only three robes?” In response to the above query, Ven. Ananda replied that three was no fault in accepting these pieces of clothes in addition to three robes as these are meant to be offered to those monks who haven’t robes. Thereupon, the King asks him as to what would they do with the robes that are already been used. Ven. Ananda said that they would convert them into bedsheets. Then, the King asks as to what they would do with those bedsheets that were already used. Ven. Ananda said that they would use them as door rugs. Then, the King asks what would they do with door rugs that were already used. Ven. Ananda replies that they would cut them and make under garments. The King asks as to what would they do with the under garments that were already used. Ven. Ananda said that they would use them as bedsheets. The King asks Ven. Ananda what would they do with the bedsheets that were already used. Ven. Ananda said that they would use them as door rugs. Then King asks what would they do with door rugs that were already used. Ven. Ananda said that they would cut them into small pieces and mix them with clay and plaster the wall with it.319 The characteristic of the resources is that they get exhausted along with consumption. Therefore, the resources of the world get exhausted along with the dynamic development or rapid progress. According to the ways of consumption of the world resources, the further complicated problems cannot be avoided. Therefore, Buddhist economic philosophy is important, just like modem economy. If the life of a young man is taken into consideration it appears to be dynamic. He is tempted to spend the resources that he acquires through various ways. The Janasanda Jataka puts forth the ten conditions for his repentance. First the Jataka relates the repentance of not saving the wealth that was acquired during the time of youth.320 This shows the right consumption of wealth. As there was in ancient India a theory of divine creation, the divine concept was influential to the production. Therefore, they thought that the prosperity through agriculture was obtained through the blessings of Gods. They had no ideas about the dignity of labour. B. N. Munasinghe in his book A Comprehensive History o f India states that ancient Indians of Indus civilization did not know the value of labour. They worshipped Mother Goddess as the Goddess of Fertility.321 Thus, while worshipping various Gods and Goddesses for fertility, they did not think of the potentiality of their labour but they thought that fertility, harvest etc. depended on the blessings of the Gods and Goddesses. They were helpless and ignorant as they worshipped these divine powers. Such people could not think of the value of labour. Rabindranath Tagore, the great poet, was of opinion that

319 J. V ol. II Guna Jataka N o. 157 p. 23 ff j2° J. V ol. IV Janasandava Jataka N o. 468 p. 176 f f 321 Descriptive History o f India pp. 158, 159.

95

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Gods do not dwell in the dark cell but they live where people work hard.322 Thus, he has given a new interpretation of labour. The various resources which are provided by the nature are in proportion to the needs of people and in order to produce goods and service certain things are used. They are recognised as the means of production. These are four such as land, labour, capital, and administration or management.323 Here, labour means both the physical and mental power of a person.324 What is the Buddhist concept of labour? Buddhism that rejects divine creation, has put forth ideas about labour giving it the primary place. The Agganna sutta shows that the human evolution explains the division of human labour.325 In this regard, Prof. S. R. Goyal in his book A History o f Indian Buddhism states that “As noted above in the Agganna sutta He (the Buddha) rejects the divine origin theory of the caste system and instead ties it up with the evolutionary process. In this sutta, He opines that all castes arose because of the laziness and greed of men. The first that emerged was the Khattiya, it is so called because their job was look after the field.326 According to Buddhism, labour should be in accordance with righteousness. Such a righteous labour ought to be done effectively (utthana viriyadhigata). It ought to be done with manual power (bahabala paricita). It should be done by the sweat of one’s brow (seda-vakkhitta). These concepts have

322 Gitanjali p. 150 D on ’t worship more w hy are you inside the closed-door temple? To whom do you adore secretly, open your eyes and look. He is not in the room. God is there. Where the plough man is tilling the soil. The labour is breaking the stone, making the way, working hard all time. He is with them, in season and out o f season. Both o f his hands are soiled with dust. Changing your holy dress com e on that dust and sand. Where is salvation? God has confined him self to his ow n creation. G ive up the divine contemplation, work hard, sweaty deeds - you can get him only in the life o f action. 323 108. Dictionary o f Economics.p. 261 Land: The fixed factor o f production described b y Ricardo as “the original and indestructible powers o f soil now used to refer to all natural resources. Ibid. p. 58 Capital: A sum o f m oney which is invested in a business enterprice. Ibid. p. 258 Labour: A factor o f production which consists o f the effort and time o f human beings engaged in the production o f goods an services. The notions o f human capital and econom ic rent blur the distinction between this factor and capital and land. Ibid. p. 305 Organisation : A set o f business techniques involving the formal action and synthesis o f the procedures management, and methods o f control relating to any undertaking. It is more specialized than general administration. 324 Ibid. p. 226 ff The sum total o f human effort that is used in the productive process. Whether it is the creation o f goods or the provision o f services. It includes both the total number o f hours worked and the physical strength and sk ill.... 325 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) Patikavagga, pp. 93, 94. 3:6 A History o f Indian Buddhism, p. 277

96

S o c ia l is e d E c o n o m ic P h il o s o p h y

and

B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n

been explained in suttas like Vyagghapajja, Pattakamma, Anana, Kamabhogi and Licchavikumara of the Anguttara nikaya.327 This shows that one should earn one’s wealth by the sweat of one’s brow. There is no place in Buddhist economic philosophy for illegal earning of wealth, apart from the above mentioned ways of labour. Without exerting if one gets wealth, it is regarded as unjust, illegal and unrighteous wealth. The Licchavi Kumara sutta states that one should earn wealth by one’s efforts, by the sweat of one’s brow.328 According to this sutta, it is equally applicable to all human beings. According to Buddhist economic philosophy, there is no room for a person to enjoy happiness by unjust means, or by being indolent. It is said in the Dhammapada that even a day of energy, perseverance and without being lazy, is better than a life of hundred years of being inactive, lazy etc. The verse in Pali is as follows: Yo ca vassasatam jive Kusito hinaviriyo Ekaham jivitam seyyo Viriyamarabhato dalham 329 Collective labour has been discussed under the Buddhist concept of labour in the Buddhist economic philosophy. It becomes quite clear from the story of Maghamanavaka of the Dhammapadatthakatha.330 The young man named Magha, together with his followers, engaged himself in collective labour and lived developing the village. When collective labour or an individual labour is applied to any task there are certain conditions that tempt for perseverance. These are mentioned in the Anguttara nikaya. They are as follows: 1.

Having thought of the future work, the work that is to be done, should be done now itself.

2.

On the completion of the work, thinking that it has not been completed during the work time, one should find out that whether there is any neglected work. If there is such work, it should be done.

3.

Before going out, one should complete the work in which one was engaged.

'27 A. Vol. IV (PTS) VIII Nipata p. 281 f f Vyagghapajja Sutta A. Vol. II (PTS) p. 86 f f Anana Sutta A . V ol. VI (PTS) XII p. 318 Kamabhogi Sutta A . V ol. Ill (PTS) pp. 76, 77 f f Licchavikumara Sutta 328 A. Vol. Ill (PTS) V Nipata, N ibbana Vagga, pp. 76, 77. .... Yassa kassaci M ahanama ku lapu ttassapan ca dhaihma samvijjanti, y a d i va ranno khattiyassa ... Idha M ahonama kulaputto utthanaviriyadhigtehi bhogehi bah abalaparicitehi sedavakkhittehi dhaihmikehi dhaihmaladdhehi m atapitara.........” 329 Dh. Sahassavagga, p. 106 V. 13 3j0 Dhammapadatthakatha p. 130 f f Magha Manavaka story.

97

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

4.

After coming back from a journey, one should do the work that was left undone during his absence.

5.

One should make an attempt to work, though one does not get enough food and one should think, that one has energy in one’s body, that can be applied to any work. My body is light and before it becomes weak I must work.

6.

While taking enough food one should think that one has enough energy and so one should start working.

7.

When one feels slightly ill, one should try to complete one’s work before one’s illness gets worse.

8.

After getting cured, one should complete one’s work, that was neglected during one’s illness.331

We can form some ideas about the philosophy of Buddhist economics in the light of Pali Canonical literature, though it was not the main intention of the Buddha to preach on economics. The opinion of Nandasena Ratnapala as expressed in his book Buddhist Sociology is in tune with the aforesaid explanation. His ideas regarding Buddhist economics are as follows: “Buddhist economic thought is not available presented in one discourse as a separate coherent theory. One has to glean from numerous discourses and collect material pertaining to economics and then weave these into a system consistent with the spirit of the Buddhist Doctrine (Dharhma).”332

331 A. V ol. IV (PTS) VIII Nipata, Yamakavagga, p. 334 f f Atth 'imani bhikkhava kusitavatthuni katam ani attha? Idha bhikkhava bhikkhuna kamm am kattabbarh hoti. Tassa evarh hoti ‘Kam m am kho m e kattabbam bhavissati, kamm am kho p an a me karonatassa kayo kilamissati, handadam nipajjam i ‘ti. So nipajjati na viriyam arabhati appattassa p a ttiy a anadhigatassa adhigam aya asacchikatassa sacchi Kiriyaya. Idam bhikkhava path am am ku silavatth u m ...........” 332 Buddhist Sociology, p. 97

CHAPTER VI IDEAL BHIKKHU SOCIETY AND ITS JUSTIFICATION The Buddha is reported to have brought about a peaceful social change, overthrowing the age old, stereotyped social institutions. Therefore, He described as an epoch making great person. He established the Buddhist Order, knowing the current society and human nature in the light of scientific investigation. His main aim to establish the Community of Monks was to show the importance of human nature and society. A great deal of information about the Buddhist Order can be obtained through Buddhist Pali literary sources. The inception of the Buddhist Order, Lower Ordination (Pabbajja) and Higher Ordination (Upasampada), its aims and nature, administration, etc. will be properly discussed under this chapter. These matters will be dealt with in the light of Pali literary sources. In so far as the nature, conditions are concerned, the Buddhist Order seems to have been an ideal institution of Indian society of that period. Some individuals of society, being disgusted with the current social conditions, renounced the world and became Buddhist monks. They had a few requirements such as, food and clothing without being attached to the worldly life, they led wanderers’ life. Therefore, it may be said that it was a very simple institution. As the members were dedicated to the aims, policies and principles of Buddhism, they were naturally influenced by the prevalent Sramanic tradition of ancient India. The Sramanas were attached to the religious life of Kim kusala gavesi and Kim sacca g a v e s i That means, they were seekers of wholesome things, and the Truth. It is an accepted fact that the existing ascetic life paved the way for the Buddhist Order. Even the Buddha is known as Samana Gotama.333 So, the Sramana school in the time of the Buddha played a predominant role in the eremite life of ancient wanderers. The number of famous religious thinkers is not so big, it is quite clear from the Samannaphala sutta. According to this sutta, there were only six pre-eminent religious leaders.334 Besides these leaders, there were other few ascetics who were well-known in the time of the Buddha. The most famous of them were Uruvela Kassapa, Nadi Kassapa and Gaya Kassapa. They had a large number of followers.333

~’33 D. V ol. I (PT) Sonadanda sutta p. 111 Samano Khalu bho G otam o Sakkya putto sakya kula p a b b a jito ..... 334 D. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 52, 53 ff 335 M hv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 24 A t ha kho bhagava anupubbena carikam caramano ye n a uruvela ta d avasari, te rn kho pan a sam ayena U ru ve la ya m ta yo ja tila p a tiva sa n ti Uruvelakassapo, N adikassapo, G a yaka ssa p o ’ t i ...

99

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The Buddhist Order that was initiated with the five ascetics, was a small organisation.3^6 This Buddhist Order was not founded on any disciplinary basis to begin with it. It is obvious from the first admonition of the Buddha that the first sixty Worthy Ones (Arahantas), had no settled or permanent domicile. So it is clear that they led a life of homeless wanderers. The above statement can be substantiated by the following Pali quotation. Caratha bhikkhave carikam bahujanahitaya, lokanukampaya atthaya hit aya sukhaya devamanussanam,337

bahujanasukhaya

Its translations is as follows: "Go ye now O’ Bhikkhus, and wander, for the gain of the many, for the welfare of the many, out of compassion for the world, for the good, for the gain, and for the welfare of Gods and men.” The Buddhist Order was organised aiming at deliverance and altruistic principles, and it did not ignore the worldly things such as economic gain, political ideals etc. On the other hand, it was an organisation based on the simple principles of frugality, simplicity, mutual co-operation, and the Attainment of a Summum Bonum. In the beginning, this simple, uncomplicated organisation, was based on a code of conducts. The Doctrine of the Buddha is two-fold, such as Dharhma and Vinaya.338 In the beginning, the organisation was regulated by mere admonitions. There were no hard and fast rules. Therefore, its administration was very easy. According to the Brahmajala sutta, the code of moral conduct was threefold i.e. Cula sila, Majjhima slla, and Maha slla. That is a simple code of moral conduct. It was adequate for the Bhikkhu life as far as their celibacy and restraint were concerned.339 The following statement clarifies the fact that the Bhikkhu Sangha acted in accordance with the morality of four-fold restraints. Na ce vikale vicareyya bhikkhu Gamanca pindaya careyva kale Akalacarimhi sajanti sangha Tasma vikale na caranti buddha Rupa ca saddaca rasa ca gandha Phassa ca ye sammadayanti satte 336 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 12 A t ha kho ay asm a Annakondanno labheyyaham bhante bhagavato santike pabbajjam , labheyyam u pasam padam ti; ehi bhikkhu ti bhagava a voca ..... jj7 Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, p. 21 D. Vol. II (PTS) Mahavagga, Mahaparinibbana Sutta p. 156 Yo kho Ananda m ay a Dhaihmo ca Vinayo ca desito pannatto y o vo m am accayena sattha. 339 D. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 4-12 ff

100

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c i e t y

a n d it s

Ju s t if ic a t io n

Etesu dhammesu vineyya chandam Kalena so pavise patarasam340 The Samannaphala sutta of the DIgha nikaya throws light on the four-fold morality of restraints. So evam pabbajito samano patimokha samvarasamvuto viharati acaragocara saiiipanno anumattesu vajjesu bhayadassavi, samadaya sikkhati sikkhapadesu kaya karhma vacikammena samannagato kusalena parisuddhajivo silasampanno indriyesu guttadvaro bhojane mattanm satisampajannena i 341 samannagato santuttno. Thus, in the beginning, mere instructions sufficed for the emancipation and unity of the Bhikkhu Sangha. Thus, in the first phase of the Bhikkhu Sangha was not based on the rules and regulations. Dharhmam yeva sakkaronto, dhammam garukaronto dhammam apacayamana suvaca bhavessama sovacasstam appajjissamati evamhi vo bhikkhave sikktiabbam.342 Thus, the Buddha in the Kakacupama sutta of the Majjhima nikaya, instructs His disciples to respect and obey the Dhamma. But with the passage of time, a change occurred in the life of the Bhikkhu Sangha. Some monks behaved unsatisfactorily. For example, the sexual misconduct of monk Sudinna gave rise to a new rule of Parajika. The other monks who led a life of celibacy, treated the case of Sudinna in the light of the doctrine, i.e. dhamma and not by means of disciplinary code of conduct. It becomes quite clear that a disciplinary code of conduct had not been enjoined by the Buddha. Tattha nama tvam avuso bhagavata viragaya dharhme desite saragaya cetessasi,343 It was declared that the sexual misconduct of Sudinna Bhikkhu was antidhamma and was not anti-vinaya. Thus, in the beginning the bhikkhu patimokkha was only admonitory. This fact is clarified by the following statement: Sabba papassa akaranam Kusalassa upasampada Sacittapariyodapanam Etaiii Buddhana sasanam. Khanti paramam tapo titikkha Nibbanariiparamam vadanti Buddha Nahi pabbajito parupaghati 340 Sn (PTS) C ula Vagga. D ham m ika Sutta p. 68 341 D. V ol. I (PTS) p. 63 j42 M. Vol. I (PTS) p. 126 M ulapannasam K akacupam a Sutta. ,4' M hv. V ol. Ill Suttavibhanga P arajik a I (PTS) pp. 19, 20.

101

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Samano hoti paraiii vihethayanto. Anupavado anupaghato Patimokkhe ca samvaro Mattannuta ca bhattasmim Panthanca sayan asanarh Adhicitte ca ayogo. Etam Buddhana sasanam.344 1.

Not to do evil, to cultivate good, to purify one's mind, this is the Teaching of the Buddhas.

2.

Forbearing patience is the highest austerity. Nibbana is Supreme sa> the Buddhas. He, indeed, is not a recluse who harms another. Nor is He ascetic who torments others.

3.

Not insulting, not harming, restraint according to the fundamental moral code, moderation in food, scheduled abode, intent on higher thoughts - this is the Teaching of the Buddhas. Samagga sammodamana avivadamana khirodaki bhuta annamannam piyacakkhuni samphassamana viharathaMS

In the first phase, the Buddhist Order was established on a concise code of moral conduct that was given by the Buddha as an admonition. For a monk, as a matter o f fact, it was his own responsibility to fulfil his celibate life. As it is stated in the Culagosinga sutta of the Majjhima nikaya, monks used to look at each other with a loving eye. They practised loving kindness, even in one's absence. They lived without any disagreement. They led a united life just like the mixture of milk and water. In a sense, they led a harmonious life. Though they were different in their bodies, yet they were one in their minds. They did not think ill of others, in body, words or mind. It may be thought that in the early phase of Buddhism, monks being disgusted with worldly pleasures, dissociated themselves from them, and being endowed with simple way of life, realised the essence and reality of life, and generated a love towards the Dhamma and Vinaya. All the above ideals were possible for them as they were intent on the Attainment of Emancipation. As it is stated above, it is quite clear that there was no disciplinary code in the early phase of Buddhism. Nevertheless, it appears that the disciplinary code came into being after the lapse of twenty years, and that was mainly due to the misbehaviour of certain monks.

’4l Dh. B uddha vagga p. 165 v. 5, 6, 7. ~’JS M. Vol. II (PTS) M ajjhim apannasam , D ham m acetiya Sutta pp. 120, 121.

102

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

....... Bhaddali sattha savakanam sikkhapadam pannapeti, vava na idhekacce asavatthaniya dhamma Sanghe patubhavanti. Yato ca kho bhaddali idhekacce asavatthaniya dhamma sanghe patubhavanti, atha sattha savakavam sikkhapadampannapeti tesam-yeva asvatthaniyarh dhammanampatighataya,346 Ven. Sariputta requested the Buddha to enjoin certain rules and regulations on the Bhikkhu Sangha. Then the Buddha explained the fact that the rules and regulations might be enjoined on the Bhikkhu Sangha, provided that any unethical behaviour occurs. The following reasons justify the codification of the disciplinary rules: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Long lapse after the establishment of the Buddhist Order. Numerical growth of the Bhikkhu Sangha. Increase of facilities. Increase of educated monks.347

There was, prior to the emergence of Buddhism, a class of wanderers that was bent on finding the ultimate good and reality. They are said to have failed in their search of reality and ultimate goal. Nevertheless, they expressed their ideas according to their understanding and knowledge. This gave rise to various speculative as well as philosophical thoughts. Prince Siddhartha Gautama was bom into such a background. As he became aware of these, he found no essence or truth in them. As a result of it, he made up his mind to find out the ultimate truth of life as well as a solution to human problems. He was fed up with worldly pleasures, so he renounced the world and became Kim Sacca Gavesi and Kim Kusala Gavesi, just like other ascetics. In the course of his wandering, he came across world renowned religious teachers, such as Bhaggava, Alarakalama and Uddakaramaputta. He learnt their ascetic practices but he was not satisfied with their speculations. Later, he was joined by five ascetics who helped him in diverse ways. He practised rigorous penance for about six years. His efforts w'ere of no avail. Therefore, he gave up austrity. The five ascetics seeing his laxity, deserted him. Ascetic Siddhartha followed the Golden Mean and realised the Ultimate Reality at Bodhgaya in Bihara. Thereafter, He went to Saranath where He met the five ascetics who had deserted Him. He explained what He had discovered and gradually they were convinced about His discovery. Having realized the truth, they requested the Blessed One, “Lord, may we receive the Pabbajja and Upasampada Ordinations at the hands of the Blessed 346 M. Vol. I (PTS) B haddhali Sutta 445 (PTS) 347 M hv. V ol. (Ill) PTS Suttavibhanga, veranjabhana-varam pp. 9, 10. Yato co kho sariputta sangho rattanfru m ahattam p a tto hoti, atha idh 'ekacce asavatthaniya dhamma sanghe patu bhavanti, atha Sattha savakanam sikkhapadam pannapeti uddisati patim okkham tesanneva asavatthaniyanam dhamm anam patighataya-pe-vepullam ahattam -pe-labhaggam ahattam-pe-bahusaccam ahattam.

103

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

One.” "O’ Bhikkhus,” said the Blessed One, “Well taught is the Doctrine, lead the holy life for the sake of complete extinction of suffering.” Thus, these venerable persons received the Ordination. The ascetics who went from place to place, searching the ultimate reality and highest goal, joined the Buddhist Bhikkhu Sangha. As the number of monks increased, the qualitative aspects of the monks' life began to deteriorate.348 The Buddhist Sangha was a conglomeration of various individuals who had hailed from different strata of society. Those monks had different attitudes, opinions and social status. They differed from each other in many aspects, such as, educational economic, restraint, feelings, hopes etc. In the beginning, the monks had only one objective and that was Nibbana. But, in the course of time, they began to disagree with each other on certain disciplinary matters. And thus, different sects came into being. As the individual attitude different from the Buddhist Sangha, a disciplinary code was necessitated. On the other hand, the kings, ministers and wealthy merchants being pleased with the noble demeanour of the Buddhist Sangha, showered their munificence on them. Because of this, the earlier frugality and simplicity were ignored by the monks, and they started hoarding various goods. As a result, some complicated problems cropped up in the Buddhist Sangha. On the other hand, there arose among scholars, a controversy on the Vinaya rules. Therefore, the learning became powerful and faith deteriorated. The bhikkhus lost touch with the way of behaviour. As a result, the dispensation of the Buddha became subjected to the deterioration and misconduct took place. Because of this, the Buddha had to codify certain disciplinary rules. On the basis of the Text of Parajika Pali, it appears that no Vinaya rules were promulgated during the first twenty years. Nirabbudohi sariputta bhikkhusamgho niradinavo apagatakalato suddho sare patitthito.349 Thus, the introduction of Vinaya rules came into existence in the later period. This fact is quite clear from the aforesaid statement. And the feelings of unity, restraint, peace and harmony as well as a way to Nibbana, were neglected by the monks. Because of the misconduct of persons, the need of Vinaya rules was strongly felt. The Bhaddali sutta, brings to our notice that the Buddha explained the necessity of the Vinaya rules when indisciplinary conduct came to its height. Konu kho bhante hetu, ko pacca-yo, yena pubbe appatarani ceva sikkhapadani, ahesum bahutaraca bhikkhu annaya santhahimsu, ko pana bhante hetu, ko paccayo yenetarahi bahutarani ceva sikkhapadani honti, appataraca bhikkhu annaya, santhahantiti.

j4s M hv. Vol. Ill (PTS) S uttavibhanga, P arajika I p. 8 y e te pacchim a savaka nananam a nanagotta nanajacca, nanakula p a b b a jita ......... 349 Ibid. p. 10

104

I d e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

Evarh hetarii bhaddali hoti sattesu, hayamanesu saddhariime antaradhayamani bahutarani ceva sikkhapadani honti appataraca bhikkhu annaya santhahanti.33° The monk Bhaddali asks the Buddha as to what was the reason for when many monks attained Nibbana, when the Vinaya rules were few. Now the rules of Vinaya are many, but the number of monks following these rules, and attaining to Nibbana is small. What might be the reason for this, asked Bhaddali. While explaining the matter, the Buddha said, "When the discipline of the monks is deteriorated, the number of monks who attain Nibbana becomes small.” Thus, it becomes clear that the earlier Bhikkhu Sangha that was simple, self-disciplinary and aspiring for Nibbana, transformed into a much more developed organisation of Buddhist Order. There emerged a disciplinary code bigger than the earlier one.

The Place of Pabbajja and Upasarhpada in the Buddhist Order

The Pabbajja (Initial Ordination) and Upasampada (Higher Ordination) took place with the group of five monks. Later on, this system developed. After the First Sermon of the Buddha, that took place at Isipatanarama at Varanasi, Ven. Kondanna who understood the Dhamma, requested to bestow Initial Ordination (Pabbajja) and Higher Ordination (Upasampada) on him. Labheyyaharh bhante bhagavato santike pabbajjam, labheyyaharii upasampadanti, ehi bhikkhuti bhagava avoca, svakkhate dhamme cara brahma cariyam sabba dukkhassa antakiriyaya,3M “Come, O’ Bhikkhu,” said the Blessed One, “Well taught is the Doctrine, lead the holy life for the sake of the complete extinction of suffering.” Thus, the five ascetics received the Higher Ordination. This statement of the Mahavagga sheds light on several facts. In the beginning, Pabbajja and Upasampada were bestowed at a time when there was no disciplinary code. It was expected that the monks should lead a righteous life. The formula of Ehi Bhikkhu (Come O’ monk) was used during this period. This was expressed by the Buddha himself. In the beginning, the Buddhist Order comprised of the group of five monks. In the course of time, it was developed with the entry of Yasa clansman and his fifty four friends. These fifty five monks were bestowed both Ordinations with the formula of Ehi Bhikkhu (Come O’ Bhikkhu). Yasa, the noble youth, soon after his father had left, said to the Buddha, “Lord, let me receive the Pabbajja and Upasampada Ordination from the Blessed One”.

350 M. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 444, 445. 351 M hv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 12

105

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

“Come, O’ Bhikkhu” said the Blessed One, “Well taught is the Doctrine, lead the holy life for the sake of the complete extinction of suffering.” Thus, this venerable person entered the Order.3,2 Thus, the Buddha who bestowed the Lower Ordination and Higher Ordination on the monks, ordered them to wander forth and initiate the aspirant laity into the Buddhist Order. This statement makes it quite clear that the Buddha empowered the monks to bestow Pabbajja and Upasampada. Anujanami bhikkhave tumhevadani tasu-tasu disasu tesu tesu janapadesu pabbajetha, upasaripadetha. 333 “I grant you, O ’ Bhikkhu, the permission to confer henceforth, in the different regions and in the different countries, the Pabbajja and Upasampada on those who desire to receive them.”354 This decentralisation took place mainly due to the inconvenient geographical situations. The monks who lived in far off places experienced inconvenience in going to the Buddha for Pabbajja and Upasampada. Therefore, the Buddha empowered the monks to bestow the Initial and Higher Ordinations on the aspirant devotees. The Mahavagga elaborates on the methods, Vinaya rules and regulations for their bestowal. They are explained in the following manners: “........ And you ought, O’ Bhikkhus to confer the Pabbajja and Upasampada Ordinations in this way. Let him (who desires to receive the Ordination), first have his hair and beard cut-off, let him put on yellow robes, adjust his upper robe so as to cover one shoulder, salute at the feet of the Bhikkhus (with his head) and sit down squatting, then let him raise his joined hands and tell him to say: I take my refuge in the Buddha, I take my refuge in the Dhamma, I take my refuge in the Sangha. And for the second time and for the third time. I prescribe O’ Bhikkhus, in the case of Initial and Higher Ordinations, the declaration of taking Refuge in the Triple Gem be repeated thrice.” 355

352 Ibid. p. 17

"Atha kho Yaso kulaputto acirappakkante sefthiihhi gahapatimhi, bhagavantam e ta d avoca : labbheyyaham bhante bhagavato santike pabbajjam labbheyyaham upasampadanti. ” 355 Ibid. p. 22 554 Vinaya Text p. 115(S B E ) 353 Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 22 Pafhamam kesamassum, oharapetva, kasayam xattham acchadapetva, ekam sam uttara sangam karapetva, bhikkhunam p a d e vandapetva, ukkutikam nisidapetva, anjalim pagganhapetva evaih vadehiti vattabbo, Buddham saranam gacchami, dham m am saranam gacchami, sam gham saran am gaccham i-dutiyam pi-pe-tatiyam pi-pe.

106

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

The above statement of the Maha vagga shows that the Pabbajja and Upasampada were based on the formula of the Triple Refuge (Tisarana). This indicates the development of the earlier ‘Ehi Bhikkhu’ formula to the later development of Triple Refuge formula (Tisarana). This development is a phase of the decentralisation of authority to the monks, and general will of the people. This formula of Triple Refuge (Tisarana) was not accompanied by any disciplinary code, as the monks were righteous, self-restraint and constantly aware of their celibate life. In the early phase, there were no teachers and preceptors, i.e. Acariya and Upadhyaya. The Upasampada was bestowed by all the monks. In later period, the monks behaved in such a way that they required guidance from the teachers and preceptors. So they showed a good relationship between the teachers and the pupils and other inmates of the monastery. But later due to certain changes, certain principles of behaviour that to be followed by both the teachers and the pupils had to be introduced. I prescribe, a Bhikkhu ought to treat a saddhiviharika (i.e. pupil) as a son, the saddhiviharika ought to treat an upajjhaya as a father. Thus, these two united by mutual reverence, confidence, and communion of life will progress, advance, and reach a high stage in this doctrine and discipline.356 The Bhikkhu organisation may be seen as a minor organisation within human organisation. It was started with a small number of monks but it developed into a larger organisation in the Indian society, and to achieve this target it had to face a number of complicated problems. This was the first organisation that separated from the householder's society. In the first phase of Buddhist organisation of monks, there were no hard and fast rules. People from every walk of life got entry into it. When this institution was confronted with knotty problems, it adopted certain strict rules, such as, who was eligible to be ordained who was eligible to be given Higher Ordination (Upasampada) and what was the age-limit for it and so on. Thus, it appears that there were no rules in the early phase of the Buddhist institution of monks but later the need arose for rules and regulations. Anujanami pabbajetum,357

bhikkhave

unapannarasavassam darakarh kakuddepakam

356 Ibid. p. 45 Anujanami bhikkhave upajjhayam upajjhayo bhikkhave saddhiviharikam hi puttacittam upatthapessati, saddhivihariko upajjhayamhi p itu cittam upatthapessati evam te annamannam sa garava sappatissa sabhagavuttino viharanta imasmiih Dhaihm avinaye bhikkhave virulham vepullam apajjesanti. 357 Ibid. p. 79

107

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDFnSM

The Blessed One, after having delivered a religious discourse, thus addressed the Bhikkhus. “I allow you, O ’ Bhikkhus, to confer the Pabbajja Ordination on boys even under fifteen years of age.” 358 The Buddha rebuked the Bhikkhus who had conferred the Higher Ordination on persons under twenty years of age and made a rule to prevent such an action in future. The rule runs as follows: “Let no one, O’ Bhikkhus, knowingly confer Higher Ordination on a person under twenty years of age. He who does so is to be treated according to the Dhamma.”359 According to the above-mentioned rules, a boy of tender age and a monk of below twenty years of age was not to be conferred Pabbajja and Upasampada Ordination respectively. Once Magadha country was affected by five kinds of diseases i.e. Kusta, Ganda, Kilasa, Kisaya and Apamara. As it was severe, the people went to the physician named Jivaka. He refused to treat the public as he was appointed to treat only the Buddha, Bhikkhu Sangha and the royal family. Since the monks were treated by the physician Jivaka, they thought that it would not be impossible for them to get treatment from him. Some people who suffered from the above disease, entered the order to get cured, and after their being cured, disrobed themselves. They did so, as they thought that it would be easy for them to get their disease cured. This was brought to Jivaka’s notice by a person who had entered the Order just for the sake of getting his disease cured at the hands of Jivaka. Being anguished with the statement of the person, he informed the matter to the Buddha. Thereupon, the Buddha promulgated a rule to the effect that a sick person should not be ordained. Na bhikkhave pancahi abadhehi phuttho pabbajetabbo, yo pabbajeyya apatti dukkatasati,360 Now one day a man who was affected with the five diseases went to Jivaka and said, “Pray, doctor, cure me”. “I have too many duties, Sir, and am too occupied. I have to treat the Magadha King Bimbisara, and the royal seraglio, and the fraternity of Bhikkhus with the Buddha as their head. I cannot cure you.”

j38 Vinaya text. 205 359 Ibid. p. 203 N a bhikkave ja n a m unavisativasso pu ggalo upasam padetabbo ... y o upasam padeyya, yathadharhmo karetabbo ti. 360 Mhv. V ol. 1 (PTS) p. 73

108

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

Now that man thought, “If I take the precepts upon myself which these Sakyaputtiya Samanas keep, then the Bhikkhus will nurse me, and Jivaka will cure me. When I am free from sickness, then I will return to the world.” Thus, that man went to the Bhikkhus and asked them for the Pabbajja Ordination, the Bhikkhus conferred on him the Pabbajja and Upasampada Ordinations and nursed him, and Jivaka cured him. When he had become free from sickness, he returned to lay life. Now Jivaka saw this person that had returned to the world, and when he saw him he asked that person whether he had not entered into the religious order. “Yes, doctor”, said the person. “And why have you adopted such a course, Sir”. Then that man revealed Jivaka the whole matter. Then, Jivaka was annoyed and became angry. “How can the venerable brethen confer Pabbajja Ordination on a person affected with the five diseases?” “Let no one, O’ Bhikkhus who is affected with the five diseases, receive the Pabbajja Ordination. He who confers the Pabbajja Ordination on such a person is guilty of a dukkata offence.”361 As this rule was codified by the Buddha, the unworthy people could not get entry into the Order of Monks. While the Buddha was making a tour of Kapilavatthu, His step-brother Nanda and His own son Rahula were ordained. On hearing this news King Suddhodana, the father of Prince Siddhartha, was greatly grieved at heart. He went up to the Buddha and entreated Him not to ordain any person without his parents’ permission. The Buddha complied with his request and enjoined a rule that no person should be ordained without his parents’ permission. Na bhikkhave ananunnato matapituhi putto pabbajetabbo yo pabbajeyya apatti dukkatassati,362 “Let no son, O’ Bhikkhu, receive the Pabbajja Ordination without his parents’ permission. He who confers the Pabbajja Ordination (on a son without permission) is guilty of a dukkata offence.”363 Thus, in the beginning the Ordination was limited. According to this rule, a teacher was empowered to ordain only two novices at a time. Later on this restriction was relaxed and a teacher was allowed to ordain one or two novices at a time.

V inaya text pp. 192, 193. 362 M hv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 83 j63 V inaya text. p. 210 ‘

109

SOCIAL A SPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Anujanami bhikkhave byattena bhikkhuna patibalena ekena dve samanere upatthapetum. 364 “I allow. O’ Bhikkhus, a learned, competent Bhikkhu to ordain one or two novices as he is able to administer, exhort and instruct.”365 In the early phase, the novices (samaneras) had no separate rules and regulations. The ten precepts366 were enjoined on them because of their earnest request to have some rules to regulate their daily life. The Vinaya texts, point out how certain rules and regulations were made for them from time to time. Anujanami bhikkhave dandakammarh katum367

pancahangehi

samannagatassa

samanerassa

“I prescribe O’ Bhikkhu, that you inflict punishment upon a novice in five cases. When he is intent on the Bhikkhus’ receiving no alms, when he is intent on the Bhikkhus’ meeting with misfortune, when he is intent on the Bhikkhus’ finding no residence, when he abuses and reviles the Bhikkhus, when he causes division between Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunls, I prescribe O’ Bhikkhu, that in these five cases you inflict punishment upon a novice.”368 It is clear from the above mentioned facts that the novices were subject to a certain type of punishment for their misbehaviour. Furthermore, the following matters caused the expulsion of novices from the Bhikkhu Sangha. “I prescribe, O’ Bhikkhu that you expel a novice on the following ten cases, i.e when he destroys life, when he commits theft, when he commits impurity, when he is a liar, when he drinks strong drinks, when he speaks against the Buddha, when he speaks against the Dhamma, when he has sexual intercourse with Bhikkhunls. In these ten cases I prescribe, O’ Bhikkhus, that you expel the

364 M hv. V ol I (PTS) p. 83 65 V inaya text. p. 211 366 M hv. V ol I (PTS) p. 83 Atha kho sam aneranam e ta d ahosi, katti nu kho am hakam sikkhapadani, kattha ca amhehi sikkhitabban ti, bhagavato etarii attain, arocesum Anujanami bhikkhave sam aneranam dasa sikkhapadani, tesu c a sam anerehi sikkhitum Panatipata veram ani adinnadana-pe -abrahm acariya-pe-m usavada-pe -suramerayam ajjapam adatthana-pe-vikalabhojan a-pe-naccagita vaditavisukadasana-pem alagandha vilepanadharanam ndana vibhusa -nath ana-pe- uccasayanamah as a y an a-pej ataruparajatapatiggahana-pe. 317 M hv. Vol. 1 (PTS) p. 84. 168 V inaya text. p. 212

110

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

novice from the fraternity.”369 In the same way, certain people were named not to be ordained, as there arose certain complicated problems in the Buddhist Order. Among them were maimed persons (those whose hands were broken, those who were dumb and deaf and limping persons, blind ones and the like). At that time the Bhikkhus conferred the Pabbajja Ordination on persons whose hands were cut-off, whose feet were cut off, whose hands and feet were cut-off, whose ears were cut off, whose nose was cut-off, whose ears and nose were cut-off, whose fingers were cut-off and whose thumbs were cut-off. “Let no person, O’ Bhikkhus whose hands are cut-off, receive the Pabbajja Ordination. He who confers the Pabbajja Ordination is guilty of a dukkata offence.”370 These restrictions were imposed, since certain people who were maimed entered the Buddhist Order to lead a comfortable life. That was the cause of the downfall of the Buddhist Order. Therefore, certain rules were enacted while bestowing Pabbajja and Upasampada. As far as the Upasampada is concerned, it was bestowed with the single formula of Ehi Bhikkhu (Come, O ’ Monk). This single formula was in later period replaced by the threefold formula of Tisarana i.e. Triple Refuge. This w'as the easiest method for conferring Upasampada. But in course of time, this was not adequate, therefore, another formula o f Natti Catuttha Kamma was enacted by the Buddha. Ya sa bhikkhave maya tihi saranagamanehi upasampada anunnata, taham ajjatagge patikkhipami, anujanami bhikkhave natticatutthena kammena upasampadetum. 371 Then the Blessed One on this occasion, having delivered a religious discourse addressed the Bhikkhus as follows: “I abolish, O’ Bhikkhus from this day, the Upasampada Ordination by the declaration of taking Triple Refuge which I had prescribed, I prescribe, O ’ Bhikkhu, that you confer the Upasampada Ordination by a formal act of conferring the Upasamada followed by three 372 announcements. By introducing this enactment, the earlier easy formula of Tisarana was abolished. The Natti means announcement or notification. According to it, when m (Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 85) p. 215 Anujanami bhikkhave dasahangehi samannagataih sam aneram n a se tu m ....... 370 Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 91 N a bhikkhave hatthacchinno pabbajetabbo, na p a d a cchinn opabbajetabbo ....y o p a b b a je y y a , apatti dukka tassa ’ ti. 371 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 56 372 Vinaya text. p. 169

111

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

the monks gather at the Sima house, is the announcement forwarded to the Sangha, three times. Having made an inquiry of the Buddhist Order, if it is approved by them as the fourth items the Natti Catuttha Karhma of Upasamapada as followed. While forwarding the suggestion for three times, monks can unanimously agree upon the Upasampada. According to their approval, the monk was considered to be a full-fledged Upasaiiipanna Bhikkhu. The presence of the ten Upasaiiipanna Bhikkhus, i.e. who had received the Higher Ordination, was needed at the ceremony of Higher Ordination. This regulation was utilized in the early phase of the Buddhist Order. In one of the above regulations, Sona, a disciple of Venerable Mahakaccayana of Avanti, came to the Buddha, and on behalf of his Dhaiiima teacher requested the Buddha, to grant the permission to confer Higher Ordination, with a less number of bhikkhus as there was a dearth of bhikkhus at Avanti. The Buddha who took his request into consideration, granted him permission to confer Higher Ordination not only in Avanti but also in the Madhyadesa that will be effective to other places too. As it is recorded in the history of the Buddhist Order, there are eight methods of conferring Higher Ordination. They are as follows: 1.

Ehi Bhikkhu Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination with the single formula of Ehi Bhikkhu (Come, O ’ monk).

2.

Saranagamana Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination with the formula of threefold refuge.

3.

Natti catuttha kamma Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination after suggesting three times and getting approval of it for the fourth time.

4.

Ovada Patiggahana Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination through cross examination.

5.

Panha Byakarana Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination through cross examination.

6.

Attha Garudhamma Patiggahana Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination on the acceptance of eight norms.

7.

Dutena Upasampada - Conferring Higher Ordination through a proxy.

8.

Atthavacika Upasampada - Conferring of the Higher Ordination after inquiring for eight times.373

~’7"’ V inayavinicchayo. p. 32 ed. H ari Shankar Sukla

112

I d e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

I u s t if ic a t io n

Some monks who committed offence, were inquired by other monks. At that juncture, they told the inquiring monks that they did not get Pabbajja and Upasampada of their own accord, but on the requirement of their teachers. Therefore, it was enacted that no Pabbajja and Upasampada were to be granted to monks without their request for the same.374 In order to lead a life of ease and comfort, they refused to go for alms-begging and lived in the monastery. Therefore, they were taught the purpose and meaning of both the Initial Ordination and the Higher Ordination. Thus, they were taught the four types of Nissayas (resources). They are as follows: “I prescribe, O’ Bhikkhu that he who confers the Upasampada Ordination (on a Bhikkhu) indicates him the four resources. The religious life has morsels of food given in alms for its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life, by meals given to the Sangha, to certain persons, invitations, food distributed by ticket, meals given each fortnight, each Uposatha day (i.e. the last day of each Uposatha fortnight) or the first day of each fortnight being extra allowances. The religious life has the robe made of rags taken from a dust-heap for its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life. The religious life has dwelling at the foot of a tree for its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life. The religious life has decomposing urine as medicine for its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life, butter, oil, honey and molasses being extra allowances.”375 Because of this, there developed in monks, good qualities such as frugality, easy maintenance, contentment, simplicity etc. The unworthy persons for Higher Ordination at the hands of the preceptor, have been mentioned.376 In addition to the above norms, a monk was required to be free from thirteen disqualifications for the Higher Ordination.

374 M hv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 57, 58. Kim p a n a tvam avuso udarassa karana pa b b a jito 'ti eva m avuso 'ti. 375 Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 58 Anujanami bhikkhave upasam padentena cattaro nissaye acikkhitum pindiyalopabhojanam nissaya pabbajja, pamsukulacivararh nissaya p a b b a jja rukkhamulasenasanam -p e pu ctim uttabhesajjam nissaya pabbajja. 376 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 86, 87 ff. Pandako bhikkhave anupasam panno na upasaihpadetabbo.

113

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

“I prescribe, O’ Bhikkhu, that he who confers the Upasampada Ordination, asks the applicant about the disqualifications for receiving the Ordination and let him question, O’ Bhikkhu, in this way: Are you afflicted with the following diseases, leprosy, boils, dry leprosy, consumption and fits. Are you a man? Are you male? Are you a freeman? Have you no debts? Are you not in the royal service? Have your father and mother given their consent? Are you full twenty years old? Are your alms-bowl and robes in due states? What is your name? What is your Upajaya's name?”377 At the end of the Higher Ordination, while giving resources four Parajikas were enacted. Those monks who were subject to four Parajikas had to suffer expulsion from the Buddhist Sangha and their Pabbajja and Upasampada, were deemed to be null and void.

The Nature and Objective o f Pannatti

According to Buddhism, Nibbana is the Highest Goal for all Buddhists whether the members of Ordained Community or those of the laity. Sabba dukkha nissarana nibbana sacchi karanatthaya. 378 Although the highest goal for both monks and laymen is the same i.e. Nibbana, yet, its ways and means are different. Therefore, the Order of Monks came into being. It is stated in the Pabbajja sutta of the Sutta nipata that the household life is full of obstacles and it is the source of impurities. The Pabbajja is as free as the firmament, having seen thus, the Prince Siddhartha became a wandering ascetic. Sambadho yam gharavaso, rajassayatanam iti abbhokaso va pabbajja iti disvana pabbaji. 379

777 V inaya text. p. 230 (M hv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 93 Anujanami bhikkhave, upasaihpadentena terasa antarayike dhaihme pucchitum santi te evarupa abadha kuttham gan do......... 378 ‘A Path to O rdination’ or Book o f R eligious Precepts for a N ovice (S am anera) (S inhala edition) p. 5 379 Sn. (PTS) Pabbajja Sutta p. 72

114

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c i e t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

The household life is full of obstacles. The householders find it difficult to attain the highest goal while leading such a life. Therefore, many a young man entered the Order of Monks, so that they could achieve their highest goal, i.e. Nibbana. Therefore, there was no Pannatti in the beginning. But rules and regulations were needed in later period. According to the Buddhist suttas and Vinaya (disciplinary code), the Pannatti, can be divided into two main divisions. It is as follows: 1. 2.

Pakati Slla Pannatti Sila.

The Pakati Slla was applicable to both monks and lay people. But the Pannatti Slla was meant for the Order of Monks. Pancaslla and Uposatha Slla, although silas were included in the Pakati Sila. The Patimokkha Slla i.e. disciplinary code of monks, was included in the second category i.e. Pannatti Sila.380 When we consider the objectives of the Pannati Sila, we may say that it was for the stability of the Order of the ordained members. It is said that Vinayao nama sasanassa ayu Vinaye thite sasanarh thitam hoti. On the one hand, the disciplinary code i.e. Vinaya is a Pannatti Slla. Its function is threefold control i.e. restraint in body, restraint in speech and restraint in mind. The Vinaya has been defined in the Samantapasadika/81 • This definition is quite in keeping with the above statement. The Visuddhimagga clarifies the facts of Vinaya as follows: Vinayo samvaratthaya, saihvaro avippatisaratthaya, avippatisaro, pamojjatthaya, pamojjo, pitatthaya, pitipassaddhaya. passaddhi sukhatthaya, sukharh samadatthaya, samadhi yatha bhuta nanadassanatthaya yathabhuta nanadassanarh nibbidatthaya, nibbida viragatthaya virago vimutthaya, vimutti nanadassanatthaya, vimutti nanadassanarh anupada parinibbanatthaya. 382 Discipline is for the purpose of restraint, restraint is for the purpose of non­ remorse, non-remorse is for the purpose of gladdening. Gladdening is for the purpose of tranquility, tranquility is for the purpose of bliss, bliss is for the purpose of concentration, concentration is for the purpose of correct knowledge and vision. Correct knowledge and vision is for the purpose of dispassion, dispassion for the purpose of detachment, detachment for the purpose of deliverance, deliverance for the purpose of correct knowledge and vision and correct knowledge and vision for the purpose of final passing away nothing remaining.383 380 V isuddhim agga, Silaniddesa p. 10 381 Ibid. p. 18 V ividhavisesanatta vinayanatto C eva Kayavacanam -vinayatthaviduhi ayam vinayo Vinayo 'ti akkhala. 382 V isuddhim agga, silaniddesa saptam a dvika. p. 19 383 The Path o f Purification p. 13

115

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The objectives of the Vinaya Pannatti can be understood from the above explanation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

For the excellence of the Order. For the convenience of the monks. To control the evil-minded persons. For happy life of the virtuous monks. For destruction of the worldly taints. To destroy the other worldly taints. To make non-believing persons pleased. To increase the number of believers. For continuity of the Dharhma. For the encouragement of disciplinary behaviour.

The disciplinary code was enjoined from time to time, because of some knotty problems in the Order of Monks. As a matter of fact, the fundamental objective of the disciplinary code was to bring about a restraint in monks and nuns. The community of ordained members occupied an important place among the people. The Community of Monks was developed as an ideal community based on the admonition of the Buddha. The Community of Monks, in so far as its restraint, attitude and highest goal, were concerned was an ideal community. The disciplinary code was enjoined in the later period as the members had turned away from their fundamental objectives. After the First Council, the Teaching of the Buddha was divided into three divisions such as Sutta, Abhidhamma and Vinaya. All the disciplinary rules that were in the Sutta, were included in the Vinaya and named as Parajika Pali, Pacittiya Pali, Mahavagga Pali, Culavagga Pali and Parivara Pali. The Patimokkha was compiled on the basis of the above Vinaya texts. Its compilation is undated. The commentaries mention that the Patimokkha rules were prescribed by the Buddha after the elapse of twenty years from His Attainment of Enlightenment. Thus, the Patimokkha came into existence after the Attainment of Enlightenment. It was promulgated from time to time, according to changing circumstances. It reached its final stage with two hundred and twenty seven rules of monks. The Patimokkha consists of same rules. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

4 13 2 4 30 92

Parajika Sanghadisesa Aniyata Patidesanlya Nisaggiyapacittiya Pacittiya

116

iD liA l, BHIKKHU SOCIKTY AND ITS JUSTIFICATIO N

7. 8.

Sekhiyadharhma Adhikarana samatha Total

75 22 7 384

Among the rules that are obligator}' for monks, four Parajikas are the most important out of these rules. If four Parajikas are not transgressed by the monks, he can be absolved from the transgression of other rules. This can be done at a special Sima house of monks. But on the other hand, if one of the four Parajikas is transgressed, the bhikkhuhood or the celibate life of a monk ceases, he is no more accepted as an Upasaiiipanna Bhikkhu, such a monk should either remain as a novice or turn householder’s life, i.e. family life. His condition can be explained in the following simile. Just as the top of the palm tree, after its destruction does not grow again, just so, a monk who commits one of the four Parajikas, cannot grow spiritually. In applying these rules, the Buddha did not mean them to be imperative, but He meant them to be understood and respected, and to try to get emancipation with their help. The most important features of a monk's life are the threefold restraint which are explained as follows: Kayena samvaro sadhu Sadhu vac aya samvaro Manas a samvaro sadhu Sadhu sabbattha samvaro Sabbattha sarhvuto bhikkhu Sabbadukkha pam uccati.^ “Restraint in body is good, good is restraint in speech, restraint in mind is good, good is restraint in all the senses. A bhikkhu restrained in everywhere is freed from all ills.” This restraint is not obtained by more learning the Patimokkha rules. But it could be achieved by understanding the meaning of them and practising them in day-to-day life. As Pannatti has spiritual and practical importance, so the monks ought to honour, respect all the Pannatti rules. The principle of law is not just for the sake of law is shown here. It is for the society and its development. Therefore, it appears that the disciplinary rules were prescribed considering the welfare of the Order of Monks. Therefore, a change or flexibility is found in the Patimokkha rules. In the beginning, the monks were required to make their robes from the rags that were collected from places where they were found. But in later period, the Buddha gave His permission to monks to accept ready made robes offered by the laity. The Buddha did so, at the request of Jivaka, the renowned physician at the time. Therefore, the acquisition of robes increased. As a result, new positions came into being. Two 384 V inaya text. p. 69 385 Dh. B hikkhu vagga p. 274, v. 02

117

SOCIAL A SPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

designations were approved by the Buddha. One designation was that of a monk who received the robes, and another designation was of a monk who stored them. In short, two posts of receiver, and store-keeper were sanctioned by the Buddha. Later, third designation of monk became known as a distributor of robes.386 According to the rules that were prescribed in early period, the presence of ten monks was required to carry out the Sanghakamma. Some interesting changes of rules were introduced by the Buddha. One such a rule was that the monks should not use slippers made of a single leather strip. The monks were prohibited from taking more than one bath in a fortnight. The monks were not allowed to use animal hides for sitting purposes. Meanwhile, a monk, named Sona, a disciple of Mahakaccayana, approached the Buddha and requested for laxity of rules as far as Avanti was concerned. He said that there was a dearth of monks in that region. It was difficult to find ten monks for Higher Ordination. The land of Avanti was awkward. Therefore, he requested the Buddha to allow the monks of Avanti, to confer Upasampada on monks with the presence of monks less than ten, and to allow them to use slippers that were made of many strips of animal hide. As the people of Avanti often bathe, so, they would be allowed to bathe frequently. The people of Avanti used animal hide to sit on the ground, so they should be permitted to use animal hide. This is what the disciple of Mahakaccayana told the Buddha. “In the Southern country and Avanti there are O’ Lord, but few bhikkhus, and it was only after the lapse of three years that with difficulty and with trouble an Assembly of the Order was made possible in which ten members were present and I could be received into the higher rank of the Order. May the Blessed One be pleased, therefore, to allow the Higher Ordination in the Southern country and Avanti with a less number of monks.” Having listened to his statement, the Buddha summoned the monks and changed the rules prescribed earlier. This is what the Buddha said: “The Southern country and Avanti have but few bhikkhus, I allow the Upasampada in border countries to be held in a meeting of four bhikkhus, beside the chairman, who must be a vinaya-dhara.” “In the Southern country and Avanti, O’ Bhikkhus the soil is black on the surface and rough and trampled by the feet of cattle. I allow the use in all the border countries, O’ Bhikkhus, of shoes with thick linings.” Sona continued to mention the difficulties:

~'8(l M hv. V ol. il (PTS) civaravagga p. 176 Anujanami bhikkhavepancahangehi sam anagatam bhikkhum b h andagarikam ....... civarapatiggahakam, c iva ra b h a ja k a w ........sam m annitum .........

118

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

“In the Southern country and Avanti, Lord, men attach great importance to bathing and purity by use of water. May the Blessed One be pleased to allow, in the Southern country and Avanti, the constant use of bath.”387 This change was brought about considering the geographical and environmental conditions of the country as well as the needs of monks. It seems that the Buddha prescribed certain rules for monks after listening to the complaints o f the masses. For example, the King Suddhodana requested the Buddha not to ordain a boy o f tender age without his parent’s permission. The Buddha having complied with his request prescribed a new rule that a boy of tender age was not to be ordained without the permission of his parents (See footnote 361). Thus, taking into account the various conditions, the Vinaya rules were divided into two main divisions. These divisions were made in accordance with the nature of those rules. The divisions are as follows:

1. 2.

Garukapatti Lahukapatti

This division was made on the basis of the gravity of offence. Parajikas Sanghadisesa etc, were placed under the Garukapatti and the rest of the rules under the Lahukapatti.388

Administration o f Buddhist Community (Order) The Buddhist Community began as a small organisation. In the course of time, it changed to an institutional organisation. As it developed, it needed certain rules that based on relevant conditions. In order to put into practice the rules and regulations, they needed an administration aimed for the benefit of monks. Thus, the new administration that belonged exclusively to Buddhist monks, was systematically framed. Buddhism attaches greater importance to the fact that an individual should be self-reliant. Self is the Lord o f Self:

Atta hi attano natho Kohi natho parosiya Attana va sudantena Natharh labhati dullabham. 389 Oneself, indeed, is one's own saviour, for what other saviour would there be? With oneself well-tamed one obtains a saviour difficult to obtain. Although the disciplinary rules and regulations were framed yet, there was no imperative force for putting them into practice. They were shown the path to 387 Ibid. II (P T S ) p. 34 388 Ibid. II (PTS) p. 88 389 Dh. A ttavagga p. 145, v. 4

119

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

lead a holy life. It was not imperative at all. Therefore, Buddhism points out that the monks and nuns are expected to exercise threefold restraint to reach the highest goal. Thus, the one is responsible for every action that one commits oneself. Attana va katampapam Attana samkilissati, Attana akatarhpapam Attanava visujjhati Suddhi asuddhi paccattam Nanno annam visodhaye.390 “By oneself indeed is evil done and by oneself is one defiled, by oneself is evil not done and by oneself is one purified, purity and impurity depend on oneself, no one can purify another.” Individual purity and impurity depend upon the actions that one commits. Therefore, having understood the whole of the common law, the monks had to think that it was their own responsibility in exercising the triple restraint for self­ purity and the realisation of Nibbana. Tasma Ananda, attadipaviharatha attasarana anannasarana dhanvnadipa dhariimasarana anannasarana. 391 “Monks, live being a lamp unto yourselves. Live, taking refuge in yourselves. Do not seek refuge in others. Live taking Dhariima as your refuge.” In this way, the Buddha, in the Digha nikaya, pointed out that an individual should not seek refuge from outside, but he should take refuge in himself. As he pointed out, there was no leader in the Community of Monks. Tathagatassa kho Ananda na evam hoti, aharh bhikkhu samgham pariharissamiti va mamuddesiko bhikkhu samgho. 392 Ananda, with the Tathagata, there is no such thought that he governs the Community of Monks and that the Community of Sangha should incline towards my leadership. This statement shows that to what extent, the Buddha adopted democratic principles for the Buddhist Order. He appreciated the freedom and safety of monks and entrusted the monks with leadership, and admonished them to regard Dhamma and Vinaya as their master. Yo kho Ananda, may a dhammo ca vinayo ca desito pannato so kho mamaccayena sattha. 393

390 Ibid. p. 165 v. 9 ' D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 77 C akkavattisihanada Sutta. x D. Vol. II (PTS) M ahavagga, Parinibbana Sutta p. 100 3,3 Ibid. p. 242

120

I d e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

The Buddha seems to have taken a progressive decision to decide the leadership of the Buddhist Order. The Community of Monks is a common organisation based on the common responsibilities. The people belonging to four castes join this organisation. These people may be possessed of different opinions and ideas. It appears that it was the responsibility of the Buddha to provide a suitable leadership for them. Therefore, He started the organisation of the Buddhist Order by Himself. He had sufficient qualification for the leadership, yet He appointed Dhamma and Vinaya to be the Leader of the Monks. This was acceptable to all. If that leadership was taken by the Buddha with the passage of time, it would have been objected by others. Realising this fact, the Buddha advised the monks to regard the Dhamma and Vinaya as their master. Nahi mam gandhamaladihi pujam karonto mama pujan karonti, namayo pana dhammamidhamma patipattiya mam pujjenti, so tathagatam sakkaroti, garukaroti, maneti, pujeti, paramaya pujaya patipattiya pujaya. It is obvious from this statement that irrespective of individual respect, He emphasised on honouring the Dhamma and Vinaya. On the entreaty of Ven. Ananda, the Buddha declared the Dhamma and Vinaya as the Master. It is quite clear from the Gopaka Moggallana sutta of the Majjhima nikaya that after the passing away of the Buddha, Ven. Ananda was questioned by Vassakara Brahmana, about the leadership of the Buddhist Order. Ven. Ananda replied that no leadership was fixed by the Buddha. Again the Brahmana asked him whether the Order of the Monks has appointed any leader, on behalf of the Order. Ven. Ananda’s reply was negative. The Brahmin said, if that is so, how could the Order of Monks be controlled sane leadership. Ven. Ananda replied that Buddhist Order had Dhamma as its only Refuge. Thus, Buddha empowered the Buddhist Order with the self-leadership, knowing the Doctrine well and fulfilling self-responsibility for mutual co-operative, co-existence and happiness. Anujanami bhikkhave tumheva ........ tasu disasu tesu tesu janapadesu pabbajetha, upasampadetha. 395 The administrative rules for Buddhist Order were framed for the convenience of Buddhist Order. And their total presence in fulfilling them, was very important. Upasampanna monks were to be present at the Vinaya acts. For such Vinaya acts, the presence of at least four of five monks was required. But on

394 M . V ol. Ill (PTS) pp. 9, 10 U paripannasam A tthi nil kho, bho Ananda, ekabhikkhu p i tena bhota gotam ena thapito ayam vo m am accayena patisa ra n a m bhavissatiti, y a m turiihe etarahi patidhareyyath ati ... na kho mayam, brahm ana appatisarana, sappatisarana mayam, brahm ana dhamma patisaran a ti vadesi. 395 M hv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 22

121

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

certain occasions, for the performance the acts, the presence of twenty monks was needed. If a certain monk was absent, owing to illness, in that case, he was either to be brought in a chair to the place where the act was being performed or his consent was to be taken for carrying it out. This shows the importance of the presence of monks.396 Thus, with the presence of the monks, all the rules were unanimously accepted. If they did not agree or adopt any procedure unanimously, then the voting system was resorted to with the help of it, they arrived at a unanimous decision. They took that decision keeping the Unity of the Order in their mind. There are a number of Vinaya acts which are important as far as the dispensation of the Buddha is concerned. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Ordination Higher Ordination Rainy retreat and Kathina ceremony Observing fundamental rules

These Vinaya acts stand in good stead for the longevity of the Buddha sasana. 397 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tajj aniy a kamma Ukkhepaniya kamma Abbhana Vinaya kamma Pabbajaniya kamma and Nissaya Vinaya kamma398

These Vinaya acts were to be forwarded before the monks who had rights to vote. If a monk who is entitled to vote owing to any inconvenience, does not attend the Vinaya kamma on time, his consent had to be taken. The Mahavagga Pali of the Vinaya pitaka throws light on the three methods to perform the above Vinaya kamma. The are as follows: 1. 2. 3.

Natti kamma Natti Dutiya kamma Natti Catuttha kam m a/99

Here, Natti means information or announcement. To inform the Buddhist clergy for one time, is called Natti kamma. For example, Uposatha Vinaya kamma: J V inaya te x t V ol I. p. 242 397 Ibid. pp. 239, 240. 398 Ibid. Vol. I p. 49 S ace sam gho upajjhayassa karhmam kattukamo hoti tqjjaniyarii va, nissayam va, pabbh ajan iyam va, pafisaraniyam va, ukkhepaniyaw va. 399 Ibid. Vol. II (PTS) p. 89 Nattikammam, nattidutiyakam mam, natticatutthakaihmam idarii vuccati kiccadhikaranaiii

122

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

Sunatu me bhcinte samgho ajja uposatho pannaraso, yadi samghassa pattakallam, samgho uposatham kareyya, patimokkham uddiseyyam “Let the Sangha, Reverend Sirs, hear me. Today it is Uposatha, the fifteenth (of the half month). If the Sangha is ready, let the Sangha hold the Uposatha service and recite the Patimokkha”.401 The practice o f Uposatha (service of the fast day) was followed by Brahmins, Paribbajakas belonging to Titthiya schools. After the request of King Bimbisara, the Buddha asked the monks to gather at the monastery to perform Uposatha Vinaya Kamma. In later period, on the insistence of the laity, the monks were advised to deliver sermons to the lay people. In the early phase, the monks congregated on the days o f Catuddasi, Punnami and Atthami. Thus, monks need to come together on the three Uposatha days, but later minimised to two days. The Uposatha was to be held on both full moon day and moonless day.

These are the instructions given by the Buddha to the effect: “I prescribe, O ’ Bhikkhu that you assemble on the fourteenth, fifteenth and eighth of each month. I prescribe, O ’ Bhikkhu, that you recite the Dhamma, when you have assembled on the fourteenth day of each half month.”402 The Natti dutiya was understood by forwarding the announcement for two times and then getting it approved by the majority of monks. For example, the Kathina ceremony. Dinnam idam samghena kathinadussam itthamnamassa bhikkhuno ka&tinam attharitum khamati sanghassa tasma tunhi, evametam dharayamiti. 403 Uttering this for three times, this Vinaya kamma is called Natti Catuttha kamma. In this case, approval of the monks is sought for three times. For example, Upasampada Vinaya Kamma. Sunatu, me bhante samgho, ayam itthamnamo itthamnamassa ayasmato upasampadapekkho, parisuddho antarayikehi dhammehi paripunnassa pattacivaram. Itthamnamo samgham upasampadam yacati ittham namena

‘'“ Ibid. (PTS) p. 102 401 Vinaya text. p. 242 S.B.C. Vol. I 402 Mhv. V ol I (PTS) p. 102 Anujanami bhikkhave catuddase pannarase attham iya ca pakkhassa sannipatitum ti. Mhv. V ol. I (PTS) p. 102 anujanami bhikkhave catuddase pannarase attham iya ca pakkhassa sannipatitva dhammam bhasitum ti. 403 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 254

123

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

upajjhayena, yadi samghassa pattakallam sangho itthannamam upasampadeyya ittham namena upajjhayena esa natti. 404 “Then, let Ven. Sirs, a competent bhikkhu, proclaim the following natti before the Sangha. Let the Sangha, Ven. Sirs, hear me, this person N. N. desires to receive the Upasampada Ordination from the Ven. N. N., he is free from the disqualification, his alms-bowl and robes are in due state. N. N. is Upajjhaya. If the Sangha is Upajjhaya, willingly let the Sangha perform the Act.405 The proposal is put forward for three times and thereafter the approval of the monks is sought for third time. If the monks agree to this proposal they are to keep silence, if not, they can put forward their opinion.’" Yassayasmato khamati itthannamassa upasampada upajjhayena so tunhassa, yassa na khamati, so bhaseyya,406

ittham

namena

“Let the Ven. Brethren who are in favour of the Upasampada Ordination of N. N. with N. N. as Upajjhaya, be silent, and any one who is not in favour of it speak.”407 Thus, having made an inquiry about the opinion of the members of the Sangha the approval is sought: Upasampanno samghena ittham namena upajjhayena khamati samghassa, tasma tunhi evametam dharayamiti.m N. N. has received the Upasamapada Ordination from the Sangha with N. N. as Upajjhaya. “The Sangha is in favour of it, therefore, it is silent. Thus, I understand.”409 The Vinaya points out the problems that crop up in the Community o f Monks and suggests the solution to them mainly by means by jurisdiction. The Culavagga records seven such jurisdictions. It further states that there are four methods to hear a case. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Vivadadhikarana Anuvadadhikarana Apattadhikarana Kiccadhikarana.410

The problems on disputes that cropped up among monks especially regarding the Dhamma and Vinaya were discussed and settled at the 404 Ibid. p. 95 405 S.B.E. Vol. I, p. 233 406 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 56 407 S.B.E. Vol. I p . 170 408 Mhv. Vol. I (PTS) p. 57 409 S.B.E. Vol. Ip . 170 410 Cv. V ol. II (PTS) p. 88 Cattarim ani bhikkhave adhikaranani, vivadadhikaranam , apattadhikaranam kiccadhikaranam.

124

I d e a l B h ik k h u

s o c ie t y a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

Vivadadhikarana. The Anuvadadhikarana deals with ideas, opinions, code of conduct, transgression of morality, transgression of livelihood, going beyond the right view and transgression of livelihood. All these matters are discussed and solution to them is found at the Anuvadadhikarana. Breaking of morality is settled at the Apattadhikarana. Natti Kamma such as Natti Dutiya Karima and Natti Catuttha Karima are discussed under the Kiccadhikarana. The hearing of cases is shown under the jurisdiction which is of seven kinds. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Sammukha vinaya kamma Sati vinaya kamma Amulha vinaya kamma Patinnata karana vinaya kamma Yebhuyyasika vinaya kamma Tassapapiyyasasika vinaya kamma Tinavattharaka vinaya kamma 411

1.

The Sammukha Vinaya deals with the plaintiff and the accused. Their case is heard and settled face to face. The accused is allowed to put questions to the plaintiff before the audience.

2.

The Sati Vinaya deals with the Arahants. This includes the accusation levelled against the Arahants who do not transgress the moral conduct. Even then, they may be accused of wrong behaviour. This matter is discussed at Sati Vinaya. On the accusation, the Arahants are asked to follow Sati Vinaya. After listening to their explanation, the monks discuss the matter and do not accept the accusation that is levelled against them.

3.

Sometimes the monks, may inadvertently commit lapses. In such cases, the monks when they are accused, if it could be proved that such lapses were unintentionally committed, then the monks that constitute of jurisdiction redeem him of such an accusation. This jurisdiction is called the Amulha Vinaya.

4.

If a monk commits anything wrong and later accepts his fault, and promises that he would not continue such an act, it is called Patinnatakarana Vinaya. The specific feature of this Vinaya is to admonish the monk after his acceptance of his lapse.

5.

The knotty controversial problems which crop up among monks are discussed under the Yebhuyyasika Vinaya. This Vinaya Kamma settles such knotty problems that are not settled by other jurisdictions. This is settled by a monk who has the voting authority. He settles it by consulting and getting the approval of morally good monks. It is the responsibility of an elected monk to dispense verdict in spite of the

411 Ibid. p. 88 f f Cv. IV 14.2, 14.3, 14.16, 14.27, 14.30.

125

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

unrighteous monks’ protest. methods are used: i. ii. iii.

For such persons three types of voting

Gulhaka - it means, taking consent by ballots. Vivataka - it is method of voting by an explicit manner. Sakannajappaka - this method of voting means getting approval by means of whisper.412

6.

The accused monk after his acceptance of the wrongdoing is named as papiyasasika. Here, if any monk does not answer the questions but beats about the bush, such a monk is designated as an accused one, while hearing such cases, if a monk is not proved to be guilty of parajika (defeat), he has to beg forgiveness.

7.

If a monk conceals his wrongdoing just like concealing excrements under a heap of grass is called by this name. It is followed for minor lapses.

While considering the facts in the above light, it appears that all the matters related to Vinaya Kamma were settled after coming to an unanimous decision. It was carried out by seeking votes, similar to the democratic method of election. It may be assumed that the administration of the Buddhist Order was based on democratic administration.

Attitude o f a monk

According to the Pali Canon, the organisation of the Buddhist Order emerged in an era, in which ascetics were divided into various groups. There were Samanas, Brahmanas, Niganthakas, Acelaka, Paribbajakas and Jatilas. All of them, no doubt, propagated their views among the people. The activities and responsibilities which were to be carried out by monks in a changing society were much complicated. It was necessary for the Buddha to introduce some ways and means. In that the Buddha considered the ideals of monks and nuns as well as the needs of society. Prior to the appearance of the Buddhist Order of Monks and Nuns there existed the above mentioned sectarian ascetics whose popularity and acceptance were not so satisfactory. Under such circumstances, the Buddha felt that it was necessary to introduce the Buddhist counterpart monk in a different way. It was a competitive phase, the monk was to have certain qualities which would draw the attention of the public and would also please the public. Therefore, the Buddhist Order was founded on the basis of social decorum, as well as self-discipline. The Dasadhamma sutta reveals that the Buddha advocated ten norms for monks, so as to elevate them in the light of their code of conduct. The norms given in the sutta are as follows:

412 Ibid. p. 88 f f (14.26)

126

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

1.

Vevannayamhi ajjhupagatoti pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

2.

Parapatibaddha me jivikati pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

3.

Anno me akappo karaniyoti pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

4.

Kaccinukho me atta silato na upavadatiti pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

5.

Sabbehi me piyehi manapehi nanabhavo vinabhavoti pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

6.

Kammassakomhi kammadayado, kammayoni, kammabandhu, kamma patisarno, yam kammarh karissami kalyanam va papakam va tassa day ado bhavissamiti Pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhimtabbam.

7.

Kathambhutassa me rattim diva viti patanititipabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

8.

Kaccinukhoham sunnagare abhiramamitipabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam.

9.

Atthi nukho me uttari manussa dhamma alamariyanana dassana viseso adhigato yohampacchime kale sabrahmacarihi puttho na mamku bhavissamiti. Pabbajitena abhinham paccavekkhitabbam,413

Being fed up with worldly sensual pleasures, a clansman enters the Order of Monks. Having abandoned the family he had attachment now, he is induced to develop spirituality. These factors are revealed in the Dasadhamma sutta. It is rather difficult for a newly ordained monk to shed off the worldly sense pleasures. The pleasures divided are form, sound, odour, taste and touch. Therefore, a good deal of transformation ought to be brought about in him, and it is necessary to bring about a spiritual change in a newly ordained monk. And also he is to generate a sort of detachment towards the sensual pleasures and make him understand the reality of life. All these things can be achieved through these Dasadhamma principles. His social decorum as well as spiritual awakening should be in fact in keeping with the Dhamma and Vinaya. This is quite clear from the following statement of the Dhammapada. Bahumpi ce samhitam bhasamano Na takkano hoti naro pamatto Gopova gavo ganayam paresam 4,5 A Vol. V (PTS) N ipata A kkosavagga, pp. 87, 88.

127

SOCIAL ASPECTS O F EARLY BUDDHISM

Na bhagava samannassa hoti. 414 Though much he recites the Canonical Texts, but is negligent and does not practise accordingly like a cowherd who counts the cattle of others, he has no share in the benefits of the Holy life. Yo ca vantakasavassa Silesu susamahito Upeto damasaccena Save kasavamarahati. 415 “He, who has discarded all moral defilements, who is established in the moral precepts is endowed with restraint and speaks truth, is indeed worthy of the yellow robe. Household life is full of obstacles. It is the source of five sensual pleasures. It is the basis for rising of lust, hatred and delusion. There is a little scope to eradicate these taints in a society that is full of sensual pleasures. Therefore, the household life is full of hindrances, impediments, whereas the celibate life or an ascetic life is as free as open sky.” Sambadhoyarh gharavaso. 416 “Thus, seeing this, a monk dedicates himself to the service of mankind and tries his best to enable them to attain to the Highest Bliss of Nibbana. Therefore, a monk ought to be possessed of a few requirements and must lead a life of frugality, contentment and simplicity.” From the Karaniya Metta sutta is quite obvious how a monk should elevate himself in accordance with the above qualities.417 Therefore, the life of a monk should be simple, his appearance should be simple and pleasant, movements calm and quiet, speech restrained and expectations should be few. Therefore, they were given the following instructions: Pansakula civaram nissaya pabbajja Pindiyalopabhojanam nissaya pabbajja Rukkhamula senasanam nissaya pabbajja Putimutta bhessajjam nissayapabbajamm “The religious life has the robe made of rags taken from a dust heap as its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life. Linen, cotton, silk, woollen garments, coarse cloth and hempen cloth are extra allowances. 4,4 Dh. Y am akavagga, p. 20, v. 19 415 Ibid. p. 12 v. 10 416 Sn. (PTS) P abbajja Sutta p. 72 417 Sn. (PTS) p. 25 4,8 Mhv. Vol. 1 (PTS) p. 58

128

Id e a l

b h ik k h u

S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

The religious life has morsels of food given in alms for its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life. The religious life has dwelling at the foot of a tree for its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life. The religious life has decomposing urine as medicine as its resource. Thus, you must endeavour to live all your life.”419 Thus, a monk bent on the Attainment of Nibbana, should have few requirements and he should practise simplicity. By this, the Buddha did not mean self-mortification. It is quite clear that the Buddha in the very beginning, rejected the practice of self-mortification.420 While enjoying the requirements, the monk is required to subjugate his conceit, he should develop simplicity. He should also aim at right thought and attitude and try to achieve his Higher Goal i.e. Nibbana. The Paccavekkhana retrospection given to them is not a mere word but it should be put into practice. In it lies the spiritual significance.421 Necessary requirements are a must for a monk but it is harmful for him to be greedy for such requirements. Therefore, the Buddha exhorted the monks to be an heir to the Dhamma and not to be an heir to the worldly things. Dhammadayada me bhikkhave bhavatha Ma amisadayada.*21 In the same manner, the Buddha pointed out in the Ariyavamsa sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, that a monk should be pleased with what he receives from others according to their capacity, according to the propriety.423 The worldly objectives and supramundane objectives cannot be gained by one path, but by two different paths. Anna hi labhupanisa Anna nibbanagamini Evametam abhinnaya, Bhikkhu buddhassa savako Sakkaram nabhinandeyya Vivekamanubruhaye. 424 415 S.B .E Vol. I, p. 173, 174. 420 M hv. V ol I (PTS) D ham m acakkappavattana Sutta, p. 10, 11 ff 421 The G reat B ook o f Protections, p. 8. 422 M . V ol. I (PTS) M ulapannasam D ham m adayada Sutta, p. 12 423 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV N ipata, U ruvelavagga p. 27 Puna c a p a r a m bhikkhave bhikkhu santuttho hoti, itaritarena pindapatena itaritara pindapatasantutthiya ca vannavadi na ca pindapatahetu anesanam 424 D h. B alav ag g a p. 72, v. 16.

129

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Indeed, the path that leads to worldly gain is one and the path that leads to Nibbana is another. Fully comprehending this, the bhikkhu, the disciple of the Buddha should not delight in the worldly gain and honour, but devote himself to solitude, detachment and the realisation of Nibbana. If we take other matters into account, the Dhammacetiya sutta of the Majjihima nikaya also furnishes important facts. According to it, the highest attitude that lies in a monk can be understood through his tranquility and cheerful demeanour. It again points out the seven factors that induced the King Kosala to be pleased and satisfied with the Buddhist Order. They are as follows: “O ’ Lord, there are certain other ascetics, who having led a celibate life for ten, twenty, and thirty or forty years, turn to household life and enjoy five sensual pleasures. But in the Order of the Buddha, we find monks who practise celibacy throughout their lives. O’ Lord, I do not know how other ascetics practising celibacy like that of monks in the Buddhist Order. Therefore, the Blessed One is Supremely Enlightened One. His religion is well expounded, and the Community of Monks is on the right track. This is the notion of righteousness in me.” said the King Prasenajit to the Blessed One. The King adds that the kings fight against the kings, khattiyas against khattiyas, Brahmins against Brahmins, householders against householders, mother against her sons, and vice versa, father against the sons and vice versa, brothers against brothers, sisters against sisters, friends against friends. “Thus, the world fights, continuously. O’ Lord, I do not see harmonious life outside of the Order of Monks. The monks lead a life of perfect harmony and unity just like the mixture of milk and water.” Furthermore, the king says that he visits groves, gardens, parks and comes across various types of people who are deformed in their physical set up. “Some of them have no good complexion, some are lean, some are ugly. I wonder myself whether they are fed up with their lives or they are undergoing the bad effects of their unwholesome deeds. On inquiry, I am told that they are suffering from the disease of caste. However, the monks of the Buddhist Order are seen as contented, pleased, lively and of pleasant countenance. The monk goes on saying that he is a crowned king. The people talk to each other even they are attending a law-suit at the royal palace. But, when the Buddha preaches His Doctrine, the entire congregation listens to Him in silence. Even a sneeze is not heard. On a previous day, I noticed that while the Blessed One was delivering His sermon, a monk coughed, at that time another monk who was beside him, gave a knock with his knee and made that coughing monk silent. It occurred to me that how the Buddha has righteously tamed His disciples.”425 425 M. Vol. II (PTS) M ajjhim apannasam D ham m acetiya Sutta p. 122 Idha panaham, bhante bhikkhu p a s s am i yasm im sam aye bhagava an ekasatsya p a risa ya dhammam deseti n ’eva tasm im sam aye bhagava to savakanaiii khipitasaddo va hoti ukkasitasaddo va, bhutapubbam, bhante, bhagavato savako ukkesi,

130

Id e a l B h ik k h u S o c ie t y

a n d it s

J u s t if ic a t io n

Thus, the monk who is devoid of hypocrisy and endowed with good attitudes, becomes the object of social respect and honour, such a monk does not brood over the past, and does not expect anything in future. He spends his present life enjoying the bliss of spiritual gain. This being meaningful, strengthens the attitude of a monk. Atitarh nanusocati Nappajappantinagatam Paccuppannena yapenti Tena vanno pasidati. 426 Something of importance, can be learnt through the dialogue that occurred between Jariibukajiva and Ven. Sariputta. The questions and answers mentioned that resulted between them are mentioned in the Dukkara sutta of the Samyutta nikaya, some of them are as follows: “Tell me, O’ friend, Sariputta, what is the difficulty in this Order. Friend, Ordination is the difficulty in this Order. Friend, what is difficult for monks? Friend, continuation is difficult for monks. Friend, what kind of continuation is difficult for a monk? Friend, to fulfil all the rules and regulations of the norm, is difficult. Friend, how long does it take for a virtuous monk to attain Nibbana. Friend, it can be attained in no time.”427 According to this dialogue, the monk has to face difficulties for continuation, in following all moral codes to the full. It can be said that a monk who has this sort of attitude and concept can very soon attain the Supreme Bliss of Nibbana.

tarn evam annataro sabrahm acari jannukena ghattesi. 426 M. V ol. II Ibid. p. 122 427 S. Vol. IV (PTS) p. 259

131

CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION Attempts have been made in the preceding chapters to explore the socio­ economic conditions that were prevalent at the time of the Buddha. It has been found that the Indian society had beliefs in natural forces. They believed that the world and the being were created by the Almighty God. This belief was not based on rationality. The Teaching of the Buddha found in various suttas, reveal that the world was not created by an Almighty God but it evolved. The concept of divine creation was proved to be baseless by the Buddha. The Buddhist view on the origin of the world and the development of being, is in keeping with the modem scientific findings. According to the foregoing findings, it may be assessed that the Indian society in the time of the Buddha was based on inequality. The people had no unity. They were divided into various communities, according to their castes, tribes, clans, etc. Intermarriage and interdining were supposed to be a social taboo. As a result, people did not co-operate with each other. Going through the preceding research work it can be asserted that Buddhism was able to pave the way for a new society that was based on equality. After establishment of the Buddhist Order, the Buddha was able to bring in unity among His followers. The Doctrine of Equality that was put forward by the Buddha was in fact, applicable to all human beings, irrespective of caste, creed, colour, sex, etc. But unfortunately except His followers, other people did not act accordingly it. The Teaching of Buddhism, especially its social programme of non-violence and its exploration of the problem has relevant to humanity. The sad fact is that it was not followed by all. It has been brought to light, in the foregoing findings that Buddhist social philosophy is based on righteousness. The current social philosophy was centred round the belief in the Almighty God and metaphysical soul. According to this social philosophy, man had no power or right to do any thing as he liked. Buddhist social philosophy on the other hand recognised the human dignity and declared that man is the master of his own destiny. The current ethical thoughts were guided by the faith in divine power. Buddhist ethics was practical and pragmatic. Buddhist ethics is centred round the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the Highest Goal of Man, i.e. Salvation. It has been found that the contemporary society had a sort of social ethic that was based on the worship of natural forces. These primitive practices were replaced by a new Buddhist ethics of duties and responsibilities of family members towards each other. It may be asserted that Buddhist ethics excelled all the current social ethic that was followed by the Indian masses both social philosophy and ethics of Buddhism enabled common man to lead a life of respect, dignity and spirituality.428

4:8 Indian Buddhism , A. K. W arder, p. 519

132

C o n c l u s io n

As it has been discovered that India in the time of the Buddha had two types of economies. One being the rural economy and the other the urban economy. The latter was reliant on the rural economy. It may be asserted that the entire economy and trade were handled by the magnates. The poor people had no chance to improve their wretched life. The economy in the time of the Buddha did not give due a place to man. It laid the greatest emphasis on the material development only. On the contrary, the Buddhist economy recognized the dignity of labour and man rather than the resources. There were various religious communities in the time of the Buddha. Consequently, they followed different ideas. Those communities are said to have been unaware of the right ideals. The path they trod led them nowhere. It is said that they followed either the ideals of self-mortification or self-indulgence. These two extremes were detrimental to spiritual attainments and were by all means harmful to achieve the Highest Goal of Life i.e. Salvation. The Buddhist Community on the other hand, was based on the factors of the Middle Path that consists of Right View, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. The practice and development of these factors, enabled monks to lead a life of spirituality and eventually made them realise the highest goal of their noble lives i.e. Nibbana, the Summum Bonum. The Community of Buddhist Monks unlike other communities of Brahmanas allowed people from every walk of life to lead the holy life. It practiced noble ideals of equality, unity, spirituality, sanctity and utility. The Buddhist Community was, thus, required to follow the ideals of chastity, simplicity, frugality, universal love etc. which did not find in significant place in other communities of recluses or priests. Thus, it may be concluded that Buddhist Community of Monks was an ideal one which strove for the welfare and well-being of the whole of mankind.

133

BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES (TEXTUAL SOURCES) THE ANGUTTARA NIKAYA

Ed. R. Morris and E. Hardy, 5 Vols. London: PTS, 1985-1900. Tr. F. L. Woodward Vols I, II and V; E. M. Hare Vols. Ill and IV The Book of the Gradual Sayings, London : PTS, 1955-1970 (Reprints)

THE CULLAVAGGA PALI

Ed. H. Oldenberg, London : PTS, Vol. II, Distributed by Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. London. Henley and Boston : 1977.

THE DHAMMAPADA

Ed. Sangasen Singh Published by University Of Delhi : 1977 (Devanagari Script)

THE DIGHANIKAYA

Ed. T. W. Rhys Davids and J. Estlin Carpenter, PTS London. Distributed by Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd, London : Boston and Henley 1982

THE JATAKAS

Ed. V. Fausboll, 7 Vols. Trubner and Co. London : 1877-1897.

THE KHUDDAKA PATHA

(Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka Pali of the Khuddaka Nikaya, Sutta Pitaka.) Revised and edited by Arangala Siridhamma Thero Publishers J. D. Fernando, Granthaprakasha Press, Dam Street, Colombo : 1920.

THE MAJJHIMANIKAYA

Ed. V. Trenckner 3 Vols. PTS London. Distributed by Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. London, Henley and Boston : 1979.

THE MANUSMRTI

Ed. with the Maniprabha Hindi Commentary by Haragovinda Sastri, The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, India : 1997.

134

B ib l io g r a p h y

THE MAHAVAGGA PALI

Ed. H. Hermann Oldenberg, London. Published for the Pali Text Society by Luzae and Company Ltd, Great Russell Street, W.E. 1964.

THE SAMYUTTA NIKAYA

Ed. M. Leon Feer, of the Bibliotheque Nationale, London Vols. 4 Published for Pali Text Society by Henry Frowde Oxford, University Press. Warehouse, Amen Comer E.C. 1884.

THE SUTTA NIPATA

New Ed.bBy Dines Andersen and Heler Smith; Published for the Pali Text Society by Geoffrey Cumberlege. Oxford University Press, 1913.

THE SUMANGALA VILASINI

The Commentary of the Dighanikaya of the Sutta Pitaka Part I. Ed. Heyyantuduwe Dhammakitti Siri Devamitta Mahathera Published by the Tmstees Charles Alwis Hewavitarana, The Tripitaka Publication Press, Colombo : 1918.

THE ATTHASALINI

Commentary on the Dhammasarigini Printed by John De Silva Samayawardhana Print, Colombo : 1916

THE HOLY BIBLE

(Containing the Old and New Testaments) New York and Glasgow Collins Clear Type Press London : 1952.

THE ATHARVAVEDA SAMHITA

(With the Commentary of Sayanacharya) Ed. By Shankar Pandurang Pandit Part II Publisher-Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi: 221001 Reprinted 1989.

THE YAJURVEDA SAMHITA

(Bhasa-Bhasya) Part II Bhasyakara-Sri Pandit Jayadeva Sharma Publisher - Arya Sahitya Mandal Ltd. Ajmer.

135

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

SECONDARY SOURCES Buhler, G.

The Laws of Manu Published by Motilal Banarasidass Private Ltd. Delhi : 1993 10th Edition (English)

Buddhadatta, P.

The Buddhist Philosophy of Theravada (Sinhala Edition) Anula Print. Colombo : 1962

Dhammajoti, Beligalle

Buddhist Economic Philosophy (Sinhala Edition) Sri Devi Printers Ltd. Colombo : 1993.

Dhammananda, T.

The Cultural Traits in the Tripitaka (Sinhala Edition) Tabru Print. Colombo : 1978

Dhammaratana, U

The Social Philosophy of Buddhism Published by Mahabodhi Society 17 Kennet Lane Egmore, Madras, India 1988

Das, A. C.

An Introduction to the Study of Society Published by Motilal Banarasidass. Delhi-7 : 1972

Fred Hoyle and Wickremasinghe

N. C. Evolution from Space J. M. and Sons. London : 1981

Gnamamoli Bhikkhu

The Path of Purification Published by Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy : 1979

Geiger, Wilhem

The Mahavamsa Published by the Pali Text Society, London. Distributed by Routiedge and Kegan Paul Ltd, London, Henley and Boston : 1980

Goyal, S.R.

A History of Indian Buddhism Kusumanjali Prakashan, Meerut First Edition (English) 1987

136

B ib l io g r a p h y

Glen and Barbara Alexandrin

Towards a Buddhist Economics, Zero. Vol. II, Zero Press Los Angeles : 1979

Harishankar Shukla

Vinayavinicchayo Published by Pa Academy, Benaras Hindu University, Varanasi : 1988

Indaratana, Aturaliye

Buddhist Cultural Collections (Sinhala Edition) Published by Dharmasena Samarasinghe, Matara, Sri Lanka : 1968

Karunatilake, H. N. S.

This Confused Society, Buddhist Information Centre The Diamond Printers Colombo : 1976

Karunaratne, W. S.

Buddhist Philosophy and Conduct 1st Edition Colombo : 1987

Karunanda, M. W.

Small is Beautiful (Sinhala transaction) Published by Sarvodaya Movement, Colombo-10 : 1985

Kangle, R. P.

The Kautilya Arthasastra, Part-I Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. (Second Edition), 1988

Lokuliyane, Lionel

The Great Book of Protection Published by Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre Singapore 0511 : 1992

Marasinghe, M. M. J.

Gods in Early Buddhism. A study in their social and mythological milieu as depicted in the Nikayas of the Pali Canon Published by the Vidyalankara Campus, University of Sir Lanka : 1974

Mookerjee, S.

The Samantapasadika Commentary on Vinaya, Vol. I Published by Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Patna, Bihar, India : 1964

137

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Malalasekhara, G. P. and K. N. Jayatilleke

Buddhism and Race Problem (Sinhala Edition) Publishing Department of the Government of Sri Lanka : 1960

Muir, J.

Original Sanskrit Texts. On the origin and history of the people of India, their religion and institution Published by Oriental Publishers, Delhi-6. India : 1972

MacKenzie, J. S.

Outlines of Social Philosophy George Allen and Unwin Ltd. London : 1961

Munasinghe, B.

Descriptive History of India (Sinhala Edition) Anula Prints, Baddegama, Colombo : 1967.

Narayana, Rama

Hitopadesah Chaukhambha Orientalia A house of oriental and antiquarian books. Varanasi : 1984

Oddenberg, H.

Vinaya Texts, Part I, The Patimokkha The Mahavagga I-IV Published by Motila Banarasidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, Delhi : 1990

Pankaj, N. Q.

State and Religion in Ancient India Chng Publications, India : 1983

Pandeya, Rajabali

Hindu Dharma Kosha First edition Babulal Jaina, Phagulla Mahavir Press Bhelupur, Varanasi : 1978.

Vijayasundara, Senarat

Economics in Buddhist Perspective Buddhist Research Society Singapore : 1985

138

ENCYCLOPAEDIAS DICTIONARIES Encyclopaedia of Religion Vols. 5 Mircea Eliade Editor in Chief, 1987. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Vols. 30 Macropaedia Vol. 7 15th Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. William Benton. Publisher. 1943-1973. Student Encyclopaedia of Sociology M. Chael Mann, MacMillan Press. London 1983. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences Vo. 14 Edited by Davil L. Sills The McMillan Company and the Free Press 1968 The Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition Vol. XV. Ser-soosu Clean Dow Press. Oxford 1989. Pali-English Dictionary by T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede. Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited. Delhi, 1993.

139

INDEX A

Anguttara Nikaya, 1, 4, 14, 24, 28, 31, 63, 67, 68, 70, 71, 76, 77, 79, 81, 82, 88, 90, 92, 94, 97, 129 Animal, 8, 9, 10, 19, 20, 27, 29, 30, 35, 44, 45, 55,62,83,84, 87, 118 Animal kingdom, 36, 45, 46, 50, 55 Aniyata, 116 Announcement, 111, 112, 122, 123 Anthony Giddens, 51 Anupada sutta, 3 Anupada vagga, 3 Anuruddha, 73 Anuvadadhikarana, 124, 125 Apadana, 5 Apamara, 108 Apannaka sutta, 3 Apattadhikarana, 124, 125 Appearance, 21, 25, 28, 126, 128 Aputtaka sutta, 93 Arahattaphala, 40 Arakkha sampada, 62, 90, 91 Archery, 62, 80, 90 Ariyavamsa sutta, 129 Aryans, 33, 48, 69 Ascetic, 53, 54, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 114, 126, 128, 130 Ashoka, 5 Assalayana sutta, 38 Association, 52, 53, 62, 68, 69, 91 Astronomers, 30 Astronomy, 12 Asuddhi, 7, 39, 66, 120 Asvaghosa, 45 Atharvaveda, 8 Atithi bali, 94 Atta, 40, 53, 119 Attachment, 91, 127 Attainment, 54, 56, 61, 100 Attainment of Buddhahood, 90 Attainment of Emancipation, 102 Attainment of Enlightenment, 116 Attainment of Nibbana, 129 Atthami, 123 Atthassadvara jataka, 89 Atthi sukha, 63, 88 Aushat, 18 Austerity, 58, 81, 102 Avanti, 112, 118, 119 Ayasa, 64

A. C. Das, 11 A. Indaratana, 84 A. P. De Zoysa, 81, 88 A. R. Gard, 74 Abbhana vinaya kamma, 122 Abbuda, 25, 26 Abel, 21 Abhassara Brahmaloka, 21,24 Abhidhariima, 32 Abhidhamma Pitaka, 1, 4, 5, 116 Abode, 15,23,27, 102 Acelaka, 126 Acinteyya Sutta, 14, 31 Action, 9, 28, 41, 42, 44, 48, 49, 52, 57, 78, 84, 89, 96, 108, 120 Activities, 6, 7, 10, 55, 66, 67, 75, 76, 78, 79, 85, 126 Adam, 20, 21 Adam’s Smith, 78 Addhyatmika vikasa, 60 Adhikarana, 117 Adinnapubbaka, 9, 93 Administration, 13, 30, 37, 46, 47, 75, 96, 99, 100, 119, 126 Agarika, 11 Agatis, 48 Agganna sutta, 6, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 36, 37, 46, 47, 53, 54, 69, 96 Agriculture, 6, 27, 80, 81, 83, 87, 90, 95 Aitareya Upanishad, 17, 24 Ajivaka, 56 Ajjhayaka, 22 Alabha, 64 Alan Mcclave, 51 Alarakalama, 103 Almighty God, 7, 20, 37, 46, 53, 132 Almighty One, 65 Alms, 26, 64, 110, 113, 114, 124, 129 Ambalatthika rahulovada sutta, 3, 57, 88 Ambattha, 43, 44 Ambition, 75 Amity, 64, 83 Amulha vinaya kamma, 125 Anagarika, 11, 56 Anana sukha, 63, 88, 89 Anana sutta, 63, 79, 88, 97 Ananda, 1, 28, 42, 94, 95, 100, 120, 121 Anathapindika, 9 Anathapindikovada sutta, 3 Anavajija sukha, 63, 88 Anga kuta, 86

B B. Dhammajoti, 83

140

INDEX

B. N. Munasinghe, 95 Badalata, 21 Bahabala paricita, 96 Banking, 12, 89 Behaviour, 22, 27, 42, 49, 54, 57, 68, 74, 78, 80, 89, 102, 103, 104, 107, 116, 125 Being, 23, 27 Belief, 6, 7, 23,40, 132 Benefit, 26, 33, 52, 61, 74, 87, 94, 119, 128 Bhaddali, 103, 105 Bhaddali sutta, 104 Bhaddekaratta sutta, 3 Bhaggava, 103 Bhagu, 42 Bhanavaras, 2, 4 Bharadvaja, 36 Bhautika vikasa, 60 Bhariga, 44, 58, 72 Bhaya, 46, 48 Bhikkhu, 1, 42, 49, 56, 66, 70, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 123, 124, 129, 130, 136 Bhikkhu Sangha, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 108, 110 Bhikkhu vagga, 3,117 Bhikkhuni, 49, 70, 110 Bhoga sukha, 63, 89 Bhogavinasa mukha, 92 Bhumipappataka, 21 Bihara, 103 Biological, 12, 32, 35,39, 65, 76 Biology, 32 Birth, 4, 8,23, 24, 25, 26, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 44, 48,49, 56, 64, 65, 69, 71,74 Blame, 64, 68 Blessed One, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 111, 118, 119, 130 Bodhgaya, 103 Body, 15, 18, 27, 32, 34, 49, 52, 63, 70, 71, 77, 84, 98, 102, 115, 117 Bojjhariga samyutta, 4 Brahadaranyaka Upanishad, 16,18 Brahma, 4, 14, 19, 24,25, 28, 29, 34, 39, 45, 46, 65 Brahmajala sutta, 2, 21, 23, 24, 100 Brahmakayika, 23 Brahmaloka, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29 Brahman, 15, 16, 17, 20, 25, 35, 36, 44, 48, 49 Brahmana, 8, 10, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46,

141

47, 48, 49, 55, 65, 68, 69, 80, 94, 121, 126, 133 Brahmana Dhamiiiika sutta, 87 Brahmana vagga, 3, 80 Brahmanical, 26, 32, 36, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 65, 76 Brahmanical social philosophy, 69 Brahmanical Texts, 9, 33 Brahmanirmana, 23, 24 Brahmasahavyata, 39 Brahmayu sutta, 3 Brahmins, 33, 34, 36, 38, 123, 130 Brihaspati, 87 Brotherhood, 6, 8, 35 Buddha, 1,2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 19, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112,116, 117, 118,119, 122, 123,126, 129, 130, 132, 133 Buddha visaya, 14 Buddhadatta, 28 Buddhaghosa, 1,29 Buddhahood, 39, 90 Buddhavamsa, 5 Buddhism, 1, 6, 10, 12, 14, 25, 26, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 96, 99, 102, 103, 114, 119, 120, 132 Buddhist, 1,2, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,21, 24, 28, 29, 30, 33,40, 42,43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 59, 61, 65, 69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112, 114, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 130, 132, 133 Buddhist Order, 42, 99, 100, 121, 126 Buddhist Sangha, 104 Buddhist social philosophy, 10, 11, 24, 41, 44, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 82, 84, 132 C Cakkavattisihanada sutta, 6, 46, 55, 79, 120

Calm, 128 Canonical Texts, 47, 128 Capacity, 129

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Craving, 21, 25, 27, 54, 56, 60, 73, 74 Creation, 15, 19, 20, 23, 30, 34, 37, 40, 45, 46, 95,96, 132 Creator, 7, 23 Creature, 19 Creed, 12, 35, 39, 42, 47, 48, 132 Creeper, 21 Cula slla, 100 Cula-assapura Sutta, 3 Culagosinga sutta, 3, 102 Culakamma vibhanga sutta, 49 Culanika sutta, 28 Culapunnama sutta, 3 Culasaropama sutta, 3 Culaslhanada sutta, 3 Culasunnata Sutta, 3 Culavagga, 5, 92, 116, 124 Culavagga Pali, 5,116 Culayamaka, 2, 3 Cuiture, 30, 32, 51, 53, 64, 76, 78, 81, 84, 88

Capital, 90, 96 Capitalist, 46, 51, 78, 83 Cariyapitaka, 5 Caste, 6, 12, 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39,41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 69, 71, 96, 121, 130, 132 Caste system, 6, 12, 25, 32, 35, 45 Cattle, 27, 80, 87, 118, 128 Catuddasi, 123 Catukka nipata, 76, 77 Caturmaharajika, 23 Celibacy, 100, 101, 130 Chalabhijati sutta, 44 Chanda, 48 Chandyogya Upanishad, 17, 18, 24 Charles Page, 55 Chava, 69 Chemicals, 83 Children, 21, 45, 47, 55, 62, 64, 65, 67, 69, 76, 82 Clan, 35, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 47, 49, 53, 132 Clansman, 62, 88, 90, 91, 92, 105, 127 Clergy, 64, 122 Clinging, 56, 89 Cloth, 71, 128 Code, 34, 41, 42, 49, 55, 61, 78, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, 115, 116, 125, 126, 131 Co-existence, 6, 52, 63, 64, 72, 121 Colour, 12, 33, 34, 36,38, 39,42, 44, 47, 48, 69, 86, 88, 132 Community of Monks, 12, 99, 116, 120, 121, 124, 130, 133 Compassion, 59, 83, 100 Complexion, 21, 33, 69, 130 Conceit, 21,30, 50, 67, 129 Concentration, 60, 72, 74, 115 Concept, 6, 11, 12, 15,24,28,30,37,39, 43, 46, 53, 54, 57, 58, 65, 69, 70, 79, 86, 89, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 131, 132 Concord, 6, 8 Condition, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 39, 40, 46, 52, 58, 62, 63, 64, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 88, 91, 92, 95, 97, 99, 117, 119, 132 Conduct, 49, 56, 59, 76, 78, 100, 101, 102, 104, 125, 126 Consent, 47, 114, 122, 126 Consumption, 6, 12, 75, 77, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 114 Contentment, 77, 78, 79, 113, 128 Cosmic, 30 Cosmology, 37 Cosmos, 15, 28

D

Dakkhina vibhanga sutta, 3 Dana, 64 Darkness, 8, 20, 21, 24, 48, 65, 70, 71 Darwin, 12, 19, 20, 30 Dasadhamma sutta, 126, 127 Dassana, 11, 127 Dasuttara sutta, 2 Dearth, 112, 118 Death, 17, 23, 24, 25, 32, 48, 50, 57, 83, 93,94 Decay, 50 Deceit, 63, 85 Deeds, 7, 12, 14, 27, 33, 36, 37, 42, 43, 48,49, 64,71,96 Defilements, 33, 128 Delusion, 48, 128 Desire, 21, 32, 48, 54, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 89, 94,106, 124 Destruction,-44, 83, 91, 92, 116, 117 Deterioration, 27, 30, 39, 48, 49, 56, 68, 70, 79, 82, 83, 84,91, 104 Detrimental, 46, 48, 82, 83, 133 Deva, 4, 69 Devadaha sutta, 3 Devadaha vagga, 3 Devadatta, 42 Devaduta sutta, 3 Devanirmana, 23, 24 Devata bali, 94 Devata samyutta, 4, 87

142

INDEX

Development, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,29, 31, 32, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 53, 55, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 84, 90, 95, 107, 117, 132, 133 Dhamma, 1,4, 59, 79, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 108, 110, 112, 116, 120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 129 Dhammacakkappavattana sutta, 4, 60, 66, 73 Dhammacetiya sutta, 130 Dhammapada, 4, 32,41, 59, 66, 71, 80, 85,97, 127 Dhammapadatthakatha, 9, 93, 97 Dhammas visaya, 14 Dhaiiimasangam, 5 Dhammika sutta, 56, 73 Dhatukatha, 5 DIgha nikaya, 1, 2, 21, 23, 24, 36, 45, 46, 53, 54, 55, 64, 66, 69, 80, 84, 88, 89,

Economic, 6, 9, 12, 33, 38, 46, 52, 53, 61, 64, 67, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95,96,97, 98, 100, 104 Economy, 6, 9, 12, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84, 87, 95, 133 Education, 30 Educational, 27, 55, 104 Egg, 14, 15, 17, 18 Ehi Bhikkhu, 105, 107, 111, 112 Emancipation, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 56, 59, 101, 102, 117 Energy, 79, 88, 90, 97, 98 Enlightenment, 29, 54, 90 Environment, 15, 54, 75, 78, 81, 83 Environmental, 32, 33, 39, 65, 119 Equal, 7, 8, 15, 33, 48, 50, 64, 76, 79 Equality, 12, 32, 35, 36, 45, 46, 47, 50, 62, 64, 77, 132, 133 Essence, 85, 102, 103 Eve, 20,21 Evil, 8, 9, 10, 12, 22, 27, 32, 37, 39, 70, 71,72, 83,89,91, 102, 116, 120 Evolution, 11, 14, 15, 19, 20,21,24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 46, 96 Existence, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24, 25, 29, 58, 64, 72, 104, 116 Experience, 11,32, 58, 67

101, 120

Dighajanu koliyaputta, 62 Direction, 14, 20, 45, 64, 65, 67, 77 Disciple, 8, 14, 28, 40, 45, 56, 58, 64, 66, 101, 112, 118, 130 Disciplinary, 42, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 115, 116, 117, 119 Disease, 8, 73, 84, 108, 109, 114, 130 Dishonest, 85 Dishonour, 64 Distribution, 12, 46, 76, 77, 79, 82 Dittha, 62, 73 Divine, 15, 23, 24, 37, 95, 96, 132 Doctrine, 2, 10, 32, 50, 53, 60, 61, 62, 87, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 121, 130, 132 Domain, 2, 14 Doorways, 91, 92 Dosa, 48 Downfall, 30, 39, 56, 70, 84, 91, 92, 93 Dowry, 9 Dr. G. P. Malalasekera, 33, 35, 49 Dr. K. N. Jayatilleke, 33, 35, 49, 138 Dr. M. M. J. Marasinghain, 56 Drinking, 6, 84 Drugs, 84 Dukkara sutta, 131 Dukkata, 109, 111 Dukkha, 64, 73, 114

F Falsehood, 27, 30, 37, 63 Family, 10, 12, 36, 42, 50, 51, 57, 58, 65, 66, 67, 68,69, 75, 89, 94, 108, 117, 127, 132 Favour, 47, 50, 124 Fear, 18, 48, 57, 59, 68, 83 Feeling, 32, 45, 47, 104 Fertility, 95 Filth, 50 First Council, 1, 116 Food, 16, 18, 26, 27, 29, 71, 77, 81, 88, 98, 99, 102, 113, 129 Forgery, 85 Form, 18, 19,21,25,37,51,98, 127 Four Noble Truths, 54, 58 Fraud, 63, 85, 86, 87 Fraudulent, 86, 87 Freedom, 9, 11, 34, 39, 40, 84, 120 Friend, 45, 55, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 76, 88, 91, 105, 130, 131 Frugality, 77, 100, 104, 113, J28, 133

E E. F. Schumacher, 75, 76, 81 Earth, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30

G G. Alexandrian, 78, 79

143

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Gahana kuta, 86 Gahapati vagga, 3 Gain, 62, 64, 66, 77, 100, 130, 131 Gambling, 78, 91 Ganda, 108 Gandhabba, 25 Gargya, 18 Gatikara sutta, 3 Generosity, 9, 45, 64 Genes, 30 Genetic, 30 Giving, 20, 26, 33, 64, 65, 77, 78, 96, 114 Glen and Barbara Alexandrian, 79 God, 6, 7, 10, 16, 17, 19, 20, 28, 30, 37, 54, 56, 61, 66, 68, 69,94, 95, 96, 100 Goddess, 68, 69, 95 Goodness, 8 Gopaka Moggallana sutta, 121 Gotama, 99 Granting, 33 Grief, 21, 22, 48 Gulasava, 85 Gulhaka, 126 Guna Jataka, 94, 95

Husband, 19, 25, 45, 55, 64, 67, 68, 69 Husbandry, 35, 62

I Illisa, 93 Illusion, 48 Impermanence, 60 Impulse, 32 Impure, 33 Impurity, 7,39, 66, 110, 120 Incarnation, 19 India, 6, 7, 33, 34, 40, 69, 95, 99, 133, 138 Indian, 6, 7, 9, 10, 32, 53, 81, 82, 88, 96, 99, 107, 132 Indra, 4 Indriyabhavana sutta, 3 Inferior, 48, 49, 50 Information, 82, 93, 94, 99, 122 Initial Ordination, 105, 106, 113 Injustice, 12, 35, 77 Institution, 6, 12, 30, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 66, 67, 68, 99, 107 Intellectual, 10, 32, 36, 57, 59, 75 Intention, 42, 75, 85, 89, 98 Interest, 52, 89, 90 Investment, 12, 89 Involution, 21, 23 Itivuttaka, 4 Itthadhamma sutta, 92

H H. N. Karunatilaka, 75 Hadayabheda, 87 Happiness, 7, 18, 41, 45, 47, 61, 62, 63, 64, 71, 73, 79, 80, 84, 88, 89, 90, 97,

J

121

Harmful, 8, 48, 129, 133 Harmonious, 52, 72, 102, 130 Harmony, 6, 63, 64, 77, 104, 130 Hatred, 9, 48, 128 Heir, 44, 129 Higher Ordination, 99, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, 118, 122 Highest Bliss, 128 Highest Goal, 133 Hindrances, 39, 128 Hindu, 6, 19 Hinduism, 6 Historical, 5, 6, 9, 10, 35, 36, 51, 52, 75 History, 4, 95, 96, 112 Holy Bible, 20,21, 135 Homeless, 11, 60, 100 Honest, 85, 87 Honesty, 30 Honour, 38, 42, 64, 117, 121, 130, 131 Householder, 11, 56, 62, 63, 65, 80, 88, 90, 107, 115, 117, 130 Hoyle Fred, 30 Humanity, 47, 51,61,78, 132

Jain, 56 Jambukajiva, 131 Janasanda jataka, 95 Jataka, 5, 47, 82, 86, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95 Jatilas, 126 Jhayaka, 22 Jhayantiti, 22 Jivaka, 108, 109, 117 Joti, 70 Joy, 23, 27 Jurisdiction, 27, 33, 35, 124, 125 Justice, 10, 35, 59, 77

K Kacchaputa, 86 Kakacupama, 3, 101 Kakacupama sutta, 101 Kakkharapatta, 62 Kalala, 25, 26 Kalyana mittata, 62 Kama, 54 Kama sutta, 54

144

INDEX

L

Kamabhogi sutta, 97 Kamanita jataka, 89 Kamboja, 38 Kamma, 14, 37, 44, 48, 49, 64, 101, 123, 127 Kamsa kuta, 85, 86 Kandaraka sutta, 3 Kanha, 34 Kannakatthala sutta, 3, 41 Kapilavatthu, 7, 58, 109 Karaniya metta sutta, 50, 128 Karma, 6, 8, 49 Karmic, 36, 49 Karuna, 59 Kasi, 10,62, 80 Kasi Kingdom, 10 Kasibharadvaja sutta, 81 Katha Upanishad, 16,24 Kathavatthu pakarana, 5 Kathina ceremony, 122, 123 Kautiliya, 87 Kayin, 21 Khandha vagga, 4 Khattiya, 22, 37, 47, 96, 130 Khettupama sutta, 81 Khiddapadusika, 23 Khuddaka nikaya, 1,4, 42 Khuddakapatha, 4 Kiccadhikarana, 124, 125 Kilasa, 108 Kilesa kama, 54 Kimbila, 42 Kindness, 8, 9, 59, 66, 68, 84 King Bimbisara, 10, 108, 123 King Menander, 9 King Pasenadi, 4, 10, 40 King Suddhodana, 7, 109, 119 King Udena, 94 Kinnapakkitta sura, 85 Kisaya, 108 Kitagiri sutta, 3 Knowledge, 11, 14, 23, 24, 57, 58, 60, 66, 67, 75, 103, 115 Koliya, 62 Kosala Kingdom, 10, 40 Kosala sariiyutta, 4, 93 Kosambi, 94 Kosarakkha, 1 Kosiyagotta, 82 Krishna, 40 Ksatriya, 27, 34,37, 44, 45, 46 Kusta, 108 Kutadanta sutta, 6

Labha, 64 Labour, 77, 79, 95, 96,97, 133 Lamentation, 48 Laziness, 92 Licchavikumara sutta, 97 Life, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, 23, 27, 29, 30, 37, 42, 49, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 83, 92, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,106,107,109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115,116,117,120, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131,132,133 Light, 9, 10,11, 12, 13, 14,15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 39, 43, 45, 47, 48, 51, 53, 60, 61, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 74, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94,98, 99, 101, 105, 122, 126, 132 Lionel Robinson, 74 Liquor, 78, 82, 85, 91 Livelihood, 27, 72, 77, 78, 81, 83, 89, 125 Lokavisaya, 14 Lonaphala vagga, 81 Longevity, 122 Loss, 64 Loving kindness, 102 Lower Ordination, 99, 106 Lust, 22, 30, 128

M Madasava, 85 Madhura sutta, 38, 42 Magadha, 108 Magha, 97 Maghamanavaka, 97 Maha slla, 100 Mahabrahma, 34, 45, 48 Mahadhana, 9 Mahakaccayana, 38, 112, 118 Mahakassapa, 1 Mahaniddesa Pali, 54 Mahapadana sutta, 2 Mahasammata, 22,47 Mahasatipatthana sutta, 3 Mahavagga, 2, 4, 5,24, 43, 44, 64, 100, 105, 106, 107, 116, 120, 122 Mahavagga Pali, 2, 4, 5, 116, 122 Mahavamsa, I Mahayamaka, 2, 3,25 Mahinda Ranaweera, 27 Maintenance, 77, 113 Majja vanijja, 82, 84 Majjhima nikaya, 1, 2, 3, 29, 38, 42, 43, 49, 80, 88, 101, 102, 121

145

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Majjhima pannasa, 2, 3, 80 Majjhima slla, 100 Makkhali Gosala, 44 Malalasekara, 35 Mamsa vanijja, 82 Man, 7, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 68, 69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81,82, 83, 84, 85,86, 89,91,92,93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 108, 109, 114, 115, 132, 133 M ana kuta, 85, 86 Mangala sutta, 56, 73, 92 Manopadusika, 23 Manu, 8, 14, 15, 26, 27,34 M anusmjti, 7, 14, 23, 26 Mara, 32

121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133 Moon, 15, 18, 20,21,28, 123 Moral, 7, 10, 12, 41, 49, 53, 55, 56, 69, 76, 77, 78, 82, 88, 100, 102, 125, 128, 131 Morality, 60, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 100, 101, 125 Mud, 57 Mulapannasa, 2, 57 Mulapariyaya sutta, 2, 3 Mundane, 18, 60 N

N. C. Chandrawickramasinghe, 30 Nadir, 24, 55, 64, 69 Nagasena, 9 Nanda, 109 Nandasena Ratnapala, 90, 98 Nati bali, 94 Natti catutthakamma, 111, 112, 122, 123, 125 Natti dutiya kamma, 122, 123, 125 Natti kamma, 122, 125 Nature, 4, 7, 14, 18, 29, 33,48, 56, 57, 58, 64, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 87, 96, 99, 114, 119 Nibbana, 10, 11, 48, 49, 55, 73, 97, 102, 104, 105, 114, 115, 120, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133 Nidana vagga, 4 Niddesa, 5 Niganthakas, 126 Nikiti, 87 Ninda, 64 Nipata, 4 Nisaggiyapacittiya, 116 Nissaya vinaya kamma, 122 Noble Eightfold Path, 60, 61, 132 Non-violence, 30, 75, 83, 132 Nun, 42, 116, 120, 126 Nutriment, 73

M aratajjanlya sutta, 3 Marriage, 67, 68 Marx, 51 Master, 1, 7, 8, 9, 34, 38, 39, 45, 47, 55, 65, 120, 121, 132 Material, 12, 18, 30, 48, 54, 59, 60, 61,68,

73,75, 76, 78, 90,98, 133 M ax Weber, 53, 54, 74 Mayaka, 93 M ayaka jataka, 93 Meditation, 22, 23, 61 Mental, 32, 48, 54, 59, 68, 70, 74, 78, 84, 96 Mentality, 29, 39, 48 Merchant, 9, 85, 86, 87, 104 Mercy, 83 Meritorious, 64, 93 M iddle Path, 10,58, 133 M igara, 9

Mind, 21, 31, 32, 33, 39, 49, 50, 52, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 70, 71, 72, 74, 81, 84, 90, 102, 103, 115, 117, 122 Mindfulness, 60, 81 Ministry, 12 Misconduct, 101, 104 Misery, 64 Misfortune, 110 Modem, 12, 38, 51, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 84, 87, 89, 94, 95, 132 Moggaliputta Tissa, 5 Moha, 48 Monk, 29, 33, 45, 56, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 70,71,83,92, 94, 95,99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120,

O Objective, 37, 75, 78, 104, 114, 115, 116, 129 Odana sura, 85 Offence, 35, 109, 111, 113, 119 Old age, 48 Opamma, 2, 3 Order of Monks, 42, 43, 109, 114, 115, 116, 117, 121, 126, 127, 130 Order of Nuns, 42, 43, 126 Ordination, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 122, 124, 131

146

INDEX

Organisation, 12, 65, 66, 67, 77, 100, 105, 107, 119, 121, 126 Origin, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20,21,23, 24, 28,31,44, 52, 96, 132

Payasi sutta, 2 Peace, 72, 104 Petavatthu, 5 Phalasava, 85 Phenomenal, 15, 58 Phenomenon, 11, 50, 51 Philosophical thoughts, 40, 103 Philosophy, 11, 28,45, 46, 50, 53, 57, 58, 59, 61, 74, 75, 78, 83, 85, 87, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98 Physics, 28 Pitaka, 1,4, 122 Pitthi sura, 85 Pleasant, 45, 64, 84, 128, 130 Pleasures, 54, 63, 77 Poison, 82, 83 Political, 6, 33, 46, 52, 53, 61, 75, 100 Poverty, 6, 46, 73, 79, 82 Power, 21, 25, 31, 46, 65, 75, 83, 96, 132 Practices, 6, 8, 10, 12, 79, 85, 86, 103, 132 Praise, 64 Prajapati, 16, 19, 20 Prajna, 59 Precepts, 68, 69, 71, 72, 109, 110, 128 Pride, 42 Priestly class, 6, 10, 76 Prince Siddhartha, 14, 109, 114 Prince Siddhartha Gautama, 103 Principle, 11, 20, 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 77, 87, 99, 100, 107, 117, 120, 127 Privileges, 6, 33, 35, 49 Production, 6, 12, 77, 80, 83, 92, 95, 96 Prof. D. D. Kosambi, 53 Prof. Glen Alexandrian, 76 Prof. O. H. De. A Wijesekera, 52 Prof. S. R. Goyal, 96 Prof. W. S. Karunaratne, 59, 60 Profit, 77, 85, 86 Progress, 6, 27, 39, 47, 48, 61, 70, 71, 72, 75, 90, 95, 107 Propriety, 129 Prosperity, 7, 46, 71, 72, 80, 90, 95 Psychological, 32, 35, 39, 48, 54, 67 Pubba peta bali, 94 Puggalapaftnatti, 5 Punishment, 22, 30, 35, 47, 57, 87, 110 Punna, 42 Punnami, 123 Pupa sura, 85 Pupils, 55, 65, 107 Pupphasava, 85 Pure, 27, 32, 33, 84 Purity, 7,25, 39, 40, 59, 66, 119, 120 Purusha, 16, 17, 18,25

P Panna, 59, 60,61,81 Pabbajaniya kamma, 122 Pabbajja, 99, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 128 Pabbajja Ordination, 109, 111 Pabbajja sutta, 114 Pannatti, 114, 115, 116, 117 Paccavekkhana, 129 Paccaya, 49, 73 Pacittiya, 5, 116 Pacittiya Pali, 5, 116 Pali Canonical, 1, 34, 98 Pali quotation, 37, 38, 42, 46, 49, 57, 60, 79, 80, 88, 94, 100 Pali Text, 14,32, 53 Panatipata, 83, 110 Pancavaggiya, 66 Pannasas, 2 Pansparmia, 30 Parabhava sutta, 56, 73, 91, 92, 93 Parajika, 83, 101, 104, 114, 116, 117, 119, 126 Parajika Pali, 5, 104, 116 Parasurama, 19 Parents, 6, 25, 39, 44, 45, 55, 64, 65, 66, 69, 76, 109, 119 Paribbajaka, 123, 126 Paribbajaka vagga, 3 Parivara Pali, 5, 116 Pasansa, 64 Passion, 22, 30 Pataliputta, 5 Path, 11,40,56, 60, 73, 119, 129, 130, 133 Pathama saiiivasa sutta, 68 Pathama sutta, 81 Pathika sutta, 2 Pathika vagga pali, 2 Paticchanna kuta, 86 Patidesanlya, 116 Patika vagga, 2 Patimokkha, 115, 116, 117, 123 Patinnata karana vinaya kamma, 125 Patisambhida magga, 5 Patisandhi vinnana, 44 Pattakamma sutta, 94, 97 Pattakarhma vagga, 63, 65, 76, 79, 89, 94 Patthana, 5

147

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Q

Rupa kuta, 86

Qualities, 7, 8, 27, 34, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 63,68, 89,'113, 126, 128

S Sacca, 87, 103 Sacca samyutta, 4 Sacrifice, 9, 10, 27, 73 Sagatha vagga, 4 Sakannajappaka, 126 Sakka, 4 Sakyaputtiya samanas, 109 Sakyas, 42, 44 Salayatana vagga, 3, 4 Saleyyaka sutta, 3 Salikedara jataka, 82 Sallahukavutti, 77 Salvation, 10, 70, 96, 132, 133 Samannaphala sutta, 78, 88, 99, 101 Samadhi, 60, 61 Samajivikata, 62, 90,92 Samanas, 65, 68, 69, 126 Samantapasadika, 115 Sambhara samyutta sura, 85 Samkharuppatti sutta, 29 Saiiuna Ajiva, 60 Sariima Ditthi, 60 Sariima Kammanta, 60 Sariima Samadhi, 60 Sariima Sarhkappa, 60 Sariima Sati, 60 Sariima Vaca, 60 Sariima Vayama, 60, 90 Sariimukha vinaya kariima, 125 Sariivattamana, 37 Sariiyutta, 4, 26, 29, 84 Sariiyutta nikaya, 1, 3, 4, 56, 87, 94, 131 Sanctity, 133 Sangaha, 45, 50 Sangaha vatthu sutta, 63 Sangarava sutta, 3 Sangha, 104, 106, 112, 113, 114, 120, 123, 124 Sanghadisesa, 116, 119 Sanghakariima, 118 Sangiti sutta, 48 Sankhara, 73 Sankharupapatti sutta, 3 Sanskrit, 6, 16, 19, 20 Santussaka, 77 Saranath, 103 Sariputta, 4, 103, 131 Satapatha, 19, 24 Sati vinaya kariima, 125 Satriya, 8 Satta suriyuggamana Sutta, 24

R R. M. Mace Iror, 55 R. M. Macivew, 51 Rabindranath Tagore, 95 Rags, 113, 117, 128 Rahula, 88, 109 Raja bali, 94 Raja vagga, 3 Rajagaha, 1 Rajjubheda, 87 Ranjetiti Raja, 47 Reality, 102, 103, 104,127 Reason, 11, 27, 35, 50, 77, 87, 103, 105 Rebirth, 24, 44 Reborn, 21, 23,24 Refrain, 22, 70, 71, 79, 84 Refuge, 40, 106, 107, 111. 112, 120, 121 Regulations, 101, 103, 106, 107, 110, 112, 115, 119, 131 Relationship, 12, 39, 45, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 71, 74, 81, 84, 107 Religion, 10, 30, 51, 53, 130 Religious, 10, 14, 23, 33, 38, 48, 61, 75, 87, 99, 103, 108, 109, 111, 113, 128, 129, 133 Requisites, 45, 46 Resources, 9, 47, 74, 75, 77, 79, 82, 84, 94, 95, 96, 113, 114, 133 Restlessness, 65, 68 Restraint, 74, 77, 100, 102, 104, 107, 115, 116, 117, 120, 128 Rgveda, 16, 25,29, 65 Right Action, 60, 76, 133 Right Aspiration, 60, 133 Right Concentration, 60, 133 Right Effort, 60 Right Livelihood, 60, 76, 133 Right Mindfulness, 133 Right Speech, 60, 133 Right View, 60, 133 Righteous, 56, 62, 80, 87, 89, 96, 105, 107 Righteousness, 7, 10, 56, 63, 79, 80, 82, 96, 130, 132 Rights, 7,33,35,47, 69, 78, 122 Robe, 95, 106, 113, 114, 117, 128 Roga, 73 Rules, 39, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 131

148

INDEX

Spiritual, 9, 12, 26, 27, 30, 35, 39, 41, 43, 48, 49, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 68, 69, 71, 75, 76, 78, 81, 90, 117, 127, 129, 131, 133 Sramanas, 10, 55, 65, 94, 99 Sri Lanka, 1 Starvation, 83 State, 29, 30, 32, 52, 59, 84, 90, 114, 124 Stealing, 22, 30, 79 Stratification, 8, 27, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 49, 70 Sunnata vagga, 3 Subha sutta, 80 Subhara, 77 Suddhi, 7, 39, 66, 120 Sudinna, 101 Sudras, 33, 34, 35, 37 Suffering, 7, 15, 59, 60, 73, 74, 83, 84, 104, 105, 106, 130 Sukha, 64, 73, 88 Sukka, 34 Sumanagalavilasini, 84 Sun, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20,21,28, 65 Superior, 16, 36, 38, 44, 48, 49, 50 Superiority, 36, 43, 48 Superstitious, 7, 10, 12 Supramundane, 60, 129 Supreme Bliss, 42, 48, 131 Sutta nipata, 5, 54, 81, 87, 91,93, 114 Sutta Pitaka, 1, 2, 116 Suttanta Pitaka, 2, 3 Suvannahamsa jataka, 89

Satta vanijja, 82 Sattabhariya sutta, 67 Sattha vanijja, 82 Saving, 12, 89,95 Scaling, 85 Scholars, 10, 31, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 104 Sectarian, 14, 126 Sedaka sutta, 94 Seda-vakkhitta, 96 Sekhiyadhamma, 117 Selfishness, 32, 38 Semi-urban civilization, 6 Sensations, 32 Sensual pleasures, 27, 62, 89, 127, 128, 130 Sensuality, 54 Serivanija jataka, 86 Set, 21 Seven Factors of Enlightenment, 4 Sexual intercourse, 22, 110 Siddhartha, 103 Siddhatta, 54 SIgala, 65 Sigalovada, 12, 45, 50, 55, 56, 64,66, 67, 69, 80, 84, 89, 90 Sigalovada sutta, 73, 91 SIhanada, 2, 3 Sikhabheda, 87 Sikkhapada, 71 Slla, 60,61, 115 Sllakkhandha vagga, 2 Simple, 27, 75, 76, 77, 90, 99, 100, 102, 105, 128 Simplicity, 72, 75, 100, 104, 113, 128, 129, 133 Sinhalese, 6 Slavery, 9 Slaves, 9, 64, 65, 82 Social philosophy, 10, 11, 58, 63, 65, 132 Society, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 26, 27, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38,40, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 82, 84, 87,94, 99, 104, 107, 117, 126, 128, 132 Socio-economic, 6, 9, 67, 75, 132 Sociological, 35, 45, 51, 52 Socio-religious, 6 Sorrow, 48 Soul, 6, 16, 17, 18, 20, 25, 132 Soullessness, 60 Speech, 49, 63, 64, 70, 71, 79, 115, 117, 128 Spirit, 25, 90, 98

T Taitiriya, 19 Taittiariya Upanishad, 24 Tajjaniya kamma, 122 Tamo, 70 Tamo tama parayana sutta, 70 Tanha, 25,27, 54, 56, 60, 74 Tassapapiyyasasika vinaya kamma, 125, 126 Tathagata, 40, 120 Tatiya sutta, 81, 92 Teacher, 9,44, 45, 55, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 74, 87, 103, 107, 109, 112, 113 Teaching, 8, 9, 11, 53, 61, 71, 72, 90, 102, 116, 132 Temperaments, 32 Tendencies, 8, 27, 32, 69, 70 Tevijja sutta, 2 Tevijjavacchagotta sutta, 3 Theft, 22, 27, 37,46, 79, 89, 11-0

149

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

Theory, 6, 12, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 30, 34, 39, 49, 52, 95, 96, 98 TheragathaJ 5 Therigatha, 5 Thinker, 7, 14,39, 40, 43,61,99 Thinking, 6, 10, 39, 44, 46, 63, 78, 97 Third Council, 5 Thiti, 44, 58, 72 Thought, 1,6, 11, 15, 17, 18, 23,24, 27, 32, 39, 44, 46,51,59,61,63,74, 75, 95, 97, 98, 102, 108, 109, 120, 129, 132 Tinavattharaka vinaya kamma, 125, 126 Tipitaka, 1, 11,24,25,48, 75 Titthiya, 123 Trade, 9, 27, 52, 62, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 133 Training, 74 Transcendental, 39, 60, 61, 62 Triple Gem, 106 Truth, 30, 49, 57, 66,99, 103, 128 Tula kuta, 85, 86, 87

U Ubhayattha, 73 Udana, 4 Udana Pali, 42 Uddakaramaputta, 103 Ukkhepaniya kamma, 122 Ukkotana, 87 Ukkotana sutta, 87 Ultimate, 50, 76, 77, 90, 103, 104 Ultimate Goal, 76, 77, 90, 103 Understanding, 39, 57, 58, 61, 67, 103, 117 Unity, 6, 12, 30, 32, 36, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 58, 101, 104, 122, 130, 132, 133 Universal, 8, 74, 76, 133 Universal Common Law, 48 Universe, 16, 18, 19, 20,30, 57 Unwholesome, 27, 33, 89, 92 Unwholesome deeds, 8, 34, 36, 41, 70, 130 Upadana, 56 Upajaya, 114 Upajijhaya, 107, 124 Upali, 1, 42 Upanishads, 15, 23, 24, 69 Uparipannasa, 2, 3 Upasaka, 49, 70 Upasampada, 99, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 118, 124 Upasampada vinaya kariima, 123 Upasika, 49, 70 Uposatha, 113, 115, 123

Uposatha sutta, 42 Uposatha vinaya kamma, 122, 123 Uppada, 44, 58, 72 Utthana sarhpada, 62, 90 V V. P. Verma, 74 Vada, 23 Vaisya, 8, 26, 27, 34, 44, 45 Vanijja, 82 Vannupathaka jataka, 90 Varanasi, 14, 105, 138 Varna, 25, 69 Vasala sutta, 43, 56, 73, 92, 93 Vasettha, 8, 22, 29, 35, 36, 37, 43, 49 Vasettha sutta, 35, 36, 43, 49 Vassakara, 121 Vatthu kama, 54 Veda, 9, 15, 23,26, 27,35 Vedic, 7, 8, 33, 35, 46, 69 Vedic Texts, 69 Vekhanassa sutta, 3 Veludvara, 73, 84 Ven. Dhammananda, 24, 27 Ven. Kondanna, 105 Vibhanga, 5 Vibhanga vagga, 3 Views, 4, 6, 12, 14, 15, 23, 24, 27, 44, 53, 54, 74, 126 Vimanavatthu, 5 Vinaya, 1, 83, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 127 Vinaya kamma, 122, 126 Vinaya Pitaka, 1, 4, 5, 116 Violence, 22, 27, 30, 46 Virtues, 27, 88 Virtuous, 24, 56, 57, 59, 68, 71, 80, 83, 89, 116, 131 Visa vanijja, 82 Visnu, 19 Visuddhimagga, 115 Vitakkasanthana sutta, 3 Vivadadhikarana, 124, 125 Vivataka, 126 Vivattamana, 37 Void, 19, 37, 114 Vyagghapajja, 62, 90, 91, 92, 97 Vyagghapajja sutta, 56, 73, 80, 90, 91 W War, 83

150

INDEX

Water, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 29, 42, 74, 85,91,93, 102, 119, 130 Ways, 14, 21,40, 46,47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 57, 60, 67, 75, 76, 78, 84, 86, 88, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 103, 114, 126 Wealth, 6, 9, 38, 46, 63, 68, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97 Weighing, 85, 86 Welfare, 45, 57, 59, 61, 66, 70, 71, 73, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 88, 89, 90, 100, 117, 133 Wholesome, 64, 89, 99 Wholesome deeds, 8, 33, 34, 41 Wife, 64 Wine, 84, 85 Wisdom, 14, 57, 59, 60, 61, 72, 74, 81 Wise, 34, 56, 80, 89,93 Woman, 9, 18, 19, 20, 21, 35, 42, 44, 45, 67, 68, 91 World, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 28,29, 30, 31, 32, 37,41, 50, 51, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62,65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 82,83, 84, 87, 90, 92, 95, 99, 100, 103, 109, 130, 132 World system, 28,29 Worldly, 10, 23, 39, 62, 63, 64, 89, 99, 100, 116, 127, 129, 130 Worldly pleasures, 54, 62, 63, 102, 103, 127 Worthy, 67, 68, 69,128 Y Yajnvalkya, 18 Yajurveda, 6, 7 Yamaka, 5, 42,93 Yasa, 64, 105 Yebhuyyasika vinaya kamma, 125 Yona, 38 Z Zenith, 24, 55, 65, 69

151

ABOUT AUTHOR jggggggggggga — »p mamaasammBsmam

"Ven. Dr. B. Devananda deserves congratulations on presenting before the public a valuable research "Social Aspects of Early Buddhism" which earned him Ph. D. from the University of Delhi. Though many scholars have explored the field o f sociology in Buddhism, his lucid presentation based on the Texts o f the Pali Canon o f Theravada School brings the reader to a freshmen and clarity o f thought which are very much wanted in studies. In Sixth and Fifth Chapters, he has been able to cover a very large area of the subject and therein he introduces the reader to new perspectives and two o f them being the Ideal Bhikkhu Society and Buddhist Economies. Therefore, this Book, no doubt, will be useful to those who are eager to examine further the ever-widening scope o f Buddhist W isdom embodied in Pali Literature."

Senarat Wijayasundara Visiting Lecturer Buddhist Research Center Penang "This book aims to be a thorough going exposition of som e o f the social aspects of Buddhism. It seems that the author is more interested in highlighting the most important sociological teachings of Buddhism which can provide the guidelines for a perfect global society to which intellectuals in new millennium are looking for. Ven. Dr. Devananda deserves special praise for giving us an analytical, critics and authoritative clear account of Buddhist Social Philosophy."

Prof. Kapila Abhayawansa Head of the Department of Buddhist Culture Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Kelaniya "This book presents an in depth study o f social aspects o f Buddhism . The contents o f this book are timely and quite suitable to the present day society. I am sure the readers would find the connectivity o f Buddhism in day-to-day life enlightening. Ven. Dr. Devananda deserves praise in presenting this book on Social Aspect o f Early Buddhism to the public."

Prof. Arjuna Balasuriya Senior Lecturer Nanyang Technological University Singapore "This book by Rev. Dr. B. D evananda is a valuable addition to the literature in En^rsh on the sociological aspects o f Buddhism . Ven. Dr. Devananda should be comm ended for his decision and effort to publish his Ph. D. thesis in the form o f a book thereby m aking his research findings available to a larger audience. M oreover, this book would contribute im m ensely to the broader goal of propagating the Dhamma at a time when there is great interest in Buddhism around the world."

Prof. N. E. Wijesundera National University of Singapore Singapore