Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Report 152

ISSN: 0889-3144

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers A.K. Bledzki, V.E. Sperber and O. Faruk

Volume 13, Number 8, 2002

Rapra Review Reports Expert overviews covering the science and technology of rubber and plastics

RAPRA REVIEW REPORTS A Rapra Review Report comprises three sections, as follows: 1. A commissioned expert review, discussing a key topic of current interest, and referring to the References and Abstracts section. Reference numbers in brackets refer to item numbers from the References and Abstracts section. Where it has been necessary for completeness to cite sources outside the scope of the Rapra Abstracts database, these are listed at the end of the review, and cited in the text as a.1, a.2, etc. 2. A comprehensive References and Abstracts section, resulting from a search of the Rapra Polymer Library database. The format of the abstracts is outlined in the sample record below. 3. An index to the References and Abstracts section, derived from the indexing terms which are added to the abstracts records on the database to aid retrieval.

Source of original article Title

Item 1 Macromolecules

33, No.6, 21st March 2000, p.2171-83 EFFECT OF THERMAL HISTORY ON THE RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANES Pil Joong Yoon; Chang Dae Han Akron,University The effect of thermal history on the rheological behaviour of ester- and ether-based commercial thermoplastic PUs (Estane 5701, 5707 and 5714 from B.F.Goodrich) was investigated. It was found that the injection moulding temp. used for specimen preparation had a marked effect on the variations of dynamic storage and loss moduli of specimens with time observed during isothermal annealing. Analysis of FTIR spectra indicated that variations in hydrogen bonding with time during isothermal annealing very much resembled variations of dynamic storage modulus with time during isothermal annealing. Isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiments indicated that the thermoplastic PUs exhibited a hysteresis effect in the heating and cooling processes. It was concluded that the microphase separation transition or order-disorder transition in thermoplastic PUs could not be determined from the isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiment. The plots of log dynamic storage modulus versus log loss modulus varied with temp. over the entire range of temps. (110-190C) investigated. 57 refs.

Location

GOODRICH B.F. USA

Authors and affiliation

Abstract

Companies or organisations mentioned

Accession no.771897

DOCUMENT DELIVERY SERVICE Almost all of the documents which are listed in the References and Abstracts section are available in full text form, as photocopies or pdf files from Rapra Technology Ltd’s Document Delivery Service. Documents can be delivered by a variety of methods, including email, post or fax. Customers may pay for individual copies at the time of ordering by credit card or alternatively open up a deposit account. See the back of this report for further information. Please contact the Document Delivery Department for availability, current prices and delivery methods. Document Delivery Department Rapra Technology Limited, Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, United Kingdom Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 Email: [email protected]

RAPRA REVIEW REPORTS VOLUME 13 Series Editor Dr. S. Humphreys, Rapra Technology Limited Rapra Review Reports comprise a unique source of polymer-related information with useful overviews accompanied by abstracts from hundreds of relevant documents. A Rapra Review Report is an excellent starting point to improve subject knowledge in key areas. Subscribers to this series build up a bank of information over each year, forming a small library at a very reasonable price. This series would be an asset to corporate libraries, academic institutions and research associations with an interest in polymer science. Twelve reports are published in each volume and these can be purchased individually or on a subscription basis. Format: Soft-backed, 297 x 210 mm, ISSN: 0889-3144 Order individual published Rapra Review Reports (see the following pages for a list of available titles), or purchase a subscription to Volume 13 (12 issues).

ORDER FORM Title of Publication

Price £/$/€

I would like to order the following Rapra Review Report(s) at £80 / US$120 / €136 each Report Number(s) ................................................................................................ (please state quantity if more than one) Please add postage at the following rates: UK £5 total, Overseas £7 / US$11 / €10 per item Subtotal: I would like to order ................ subscription(s) to Volume 13 of the Rapra Review Report Series at £630 / US$882 / €1071 each Please add postage at the following rates: UK £35 total, Overseas £65 / US$110 / €110 per subscription Total Order Value:

All prices are subject to change and orders will be charged at the price indicated on www.polymer-books.com on the date of processing

❑ Remittance enclosed ❑ Please invoice my company ❑ Please charge my credit card

(Please make cheques payable to Rapra Technology Ltd. in £ Sterling/US$/Euros via UK banks only or make payment direct to Account No: 05625025, Sortcode: 55-50-05, National Westminster Bank Plc, 8 Mardol Head, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY1 1HE, UK)

American Express / Visa / Mastercard (delete as appropriate)

IMPORTANT - Value Added Tax (VAT) The above prices do not include VAT. Customers in EU member countries may be liable to pay VAT if their Registration Number is not supplied. Please enter your EU Registration Number (VAT - BTW - IVA - TVA - MWST - MOMS - FPA) below:

Card Number: VAT Number:

Signature: ______________________ Exp. date: _________________

Full Name: ________________________________________________

Issuing Bank: ______________________________________________

Company: _________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Job Function: ______________________________________________

Cardholders Name (as on card): _______________________________

Delivery Address (if different from Cardholder's Address): _________

Cardholders Address: ________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Postcode: ______________________ Country: __________________

_________________________________________________________

Telephone: _____________________ Fax: ______________________

Postcode: ______________________ Country: __________________ Telephone: _____________________ Fax: ______________________

If you would like to receive regular electronic updates informing you of new titles and offers please enter your E-mail address below.

Company PO#: _____________________________________________

E-mail: ___________________________________________________

Please Return to:

Publications Sales, Rapra Technology Limited Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, United Kingdom

Tel. +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 E-mail: [email protected]

www.rapra.net

Previous Titles Still Available Volume 1

Volume 4

Report 3

Advanced Composites, D.K. Thomas, RAE, Farnborough.

Report 37

Report 4

Liquid Crystal Polymers, M.K. Cox, ICI, Wilton.

Polymers in Aerospace Applications, W.W. Wright, University of Surrey.

Report 5

CAD/CAM in the Polymer Industry, N.W. Sandland and M.J. Sebborn, Cambridge Applied Technology.

Report 39

Polymers in Chemically Resistant Applications, D. Cattell, Cattell Consultancy Services.

Report 8

Engineering Thermoplastics, I.T. Barrie, Consultant.

Report 41

Failure of Plastics, S. Turner, Queen Mary College.

Report 11

Communications Applications of Polymers, R. Spratling, British Telecom.

Report 42

Polycarbonates, R. Pakull, U. Grigo, D. Freitag, Bayer AG.

Report 12

Process Control in the Plastics Industry, R.F. Evans, Engelmann & Buckham Ancillaries.

Report 43

Polymeric Materials from Renewable Resources, J.M. Methven, UMIST.

Report 44

Flammability and Flame Retardants in Plastics, J. Green, FMC Corp.

Volume 2 Report 13

Injection Moulding of Engineering Thermoplastics, A.F. Whelan, London School of Polymer Technology.

Report 45

Composites - Tooling and Component Processing, N.G. Brain, Tooltex.

Report 14

Polymers and Their Uses in the Sports and Leisure Industries, A.L. Cox and R.P. Brown, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 46

Quality Today in Polymer Processing, S.H. Coulson, J.A. Cousans, Exxon Chemical International Marketing.

Report 47

Report 15

Polyurethane, Materials, Processing and Applications, G. Woods, Consultant.

Chemical Analysis of Polymers, G. Lawson, Leicester Polytechnic.

Report 16

Polyetheretherketone, D.J. Kemmish, ICI, Wilton.

Report 17

Extrusion, G.M. Gale, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 49

Report 18

Agricultural and Horticultural Applications of Polymers, J.C. Garnaud, International Committee for Plastics in Agriculture.

Blends and Alloys of Engineering Thermoplastics, H.T. van de Grampel, General Electric Plastics BV.

Report 50

Report 19

Recycling and Disposal of Plastics Packaging, R.C. Fox, Plas/Tech Ltd.

Automotive Applications of Polymers II, A.N.A. Elliott, Consultant.

Report 51

Report 20

Pultrusion, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey.

Biomedical Applications of Polymers, C.G. Gebelein, Youngstown State University / Florida Atlantic University.

Report 21

Materials Handling in the Polymer Industry, H. Hardy, Chronos Richardson Ltd.

Report 52

Polymer Supported Chemical Reactions, P. Hodge, University of Manchester.

Report 22

Electronics Applications of Polymers, M.T.Goosey, Plessey Research (Caswell) Ltd.

Report 53

Weathering of Polymers, S.M. Halliwell, Building Research Establishment.

Report 23

Offshore Applications of Polymers, J.W.Brockbank, Avon Industrial Polymers Ltd.

Report 54

Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, A.R. Nutt, Arnold Nutt & Co. and J. Wade.

Report 24

Recent Developments in Materials for Food Packaging, R.A. Roberts, Pira Packaging Division.

Report 55

Computer Modelling of Polymer Processing, E. Andreassen, Å. Larsen and E.L. Hinrichsen, Senter for Industriforskning, Norway.

Volume 3

Report 56

Plastics in High Temperature Applications, J. Maxwell, Consultant.

Report 25

Report 57

Joining of Plastics, K.W. Allen, City University.

Report 58

Physical Testing of Rubber, R.P. Brown, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 59

Polyimides - Materials, Processing and Applications, A.J. Kirby, Du Pont (U.K.) Ltd. Physical Testing of Thermoplastics, S.W. Hawley, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Foams and Blowing Agents, J.M. Methven, Cellcom Technology Associates.

Volume 5

Report 26

Polymers and Structural Composites in Civil Engineering, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey.

Report 27

Injection Moulding of Rubber, M.A. Wheelans, Consultant.

Report 28

Adhesives for Structural and Engineering Applications, C. O’Reilly, Loctite (Ireland) Ltd.

Report 60

Report 29

Polymers in Marine Applications, C.F.Britton, Corrosion Monitoring Consultancy.

Volume 6

Report 30

Non-destructive Testing of Polymers, W.N. Reynolds, National NDT Centre, Harwell.

Report 61

Food Contact Polymeric Materials, J.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 31

Silicone Rubbers, B.R. Trego and H.W.Winnan, Dow Corning Ltd.

Report 62

Coextrusion, D. Djordjevic, Klöckner ER-WE-PA GmbH.

Report 63

Conductive Polymers II, R.H. Friend, University of Cambridge, Cavendish Laboratory.

Report 64

Designing with Plastics, P.R. Lewis, The Open University. Decorating and Coating of Plastics, P.J. Robinson, International Automotive Design.

Report 32

Fluoroelastomers - Properties and Applications, D. Cook and M. Lynn, 3M United Kingdom Plc and 3M Belgium SA.

Report 33

Polyamides, R.S. Williams and T. Daniels, T & N Technology Ltd. and BIP Chemicals Ltd.

Report 65

Report 34

Extrusion of Rubber, J.G.A. Lovegrove, Nova Petrochemicals Inc.

Report 66

Report 35

Polymers in Household Electrical Goods, D.Alvey, Hotpoint Ltd.

Reinforced Thermoplastics - Composition, Processing and Applications, P.G. Kelleher, New Jersey Polymer Extension Center at Stevens Institute of Technology.

Report 67

Report 36

Developments in Additives to Meet Health and Environmental Concerns, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Plastics in Thermal and Acoustic Building Insulation, V.L. Kefford, MRM Engineering Consultancy.

Report 68

Cure Assessment by Physical and Chemical Techniques, B.G. Willoughby, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 69

Toxicity of Plastics and Rubber in Fire, P.J. Fardell, Building Research Establishment, Fire Research Station.

Report 70

Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Polymers, M.E. Adams, D.J. Buckley, R.E. Colborn, W.P. England and D.N. Schissel, General Electric Corporate Research and Development Center.

Report 71

Rotational Moulding, R.J. Crawford, The Queen’s University of Belfast.

Report 72

Advances in Injection Moulding, C.A. Maier, Econology Ltd.

Report 94

Compressive Behaviour of Composites, C. Soutis, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine.

Report 95

Thermal Analysis of Polymers, M. P. Sepe, Dickten & Masch Manufacturing Co.

Report 96

Polymeric Seals and Sealing Technology, J.A. Hickman, St Clair (Polymers) Ltd.

Volume 9 Report 97

Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory and Innovation, Part II: Processing, Bonding, Fire Retardants, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 98

Advances in Biodegradable Polymers, G.F. Moore & S.M. Saunders, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 99

Recycling of Rubber, H.J. Manuel and W. Dierkes, Vredestein Rubber Recycling B.V.

Volume 7 Report 73

Reactive Processing of Polymers, M.W.R. Brown, P.D. Coates and A.F. Johnson, IRC in Polymer Science and Technology, University of Bradford.

Report 74

Speciality Rubbers, J.A. Brydson.

Report 75

Plastics and the Environment, I. Boustead, Boustead Consulting Ltd.

Report 100 Photoinitiated Polymerisation - Theory and Applications, J.P. Fouassier, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Mulhouse.

Report 76

Polymeric Precursors for Ceramic Materials, R.C.P. Cubbon.

Report 101 Solvent-Free Adhesives, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company.

Report 77

Advances in Tyre Mechanics, R.A. Ridha, M. Theves, Goodyear Technical Center.

Report 102 Plastics in Pressure Pipes, T. Stafford, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 78

PVC - Compounds, Processing and Applications, J.Leadbitter, J.A. Day, J.L. Ryan, Hydro Polymers Ltd.

Report 103

Report 79

Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory and Innovation, Part I: Vulcanising Systems, Antidegradants and Particulate Fillers for General Purpose Rubbers, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 80

Anti-Corrosion Polymers: PEEK, PEKK and Other Polyaryls, G. Pritchard, Kingston University.

Report 81

Thermoplastic Elastomers - Properties and Applications, J.A. Brydson.

Report 82

Advances in Blow Moulding Process Optimization, Andres Garcia-Rejon,Industrial Materials Institute, National Research Council Canada.

Report 83

Molecular Weight Characterisation of Synthetic Polymers, S.R. Holding and E. Meehan, Rapra Technology Ltd. and Polymer Laboratories Ltd.

Report 84

Rheology and its Role in Plastics Processing, P. Prentice, The Nottingham Trent University.

Gas Assisted Moulding, T.C. Pearson, Gas Injection Ltd.

Report 104 Plastics Profile Extrusion, R.J. Kent, Tangram Technology Ltd. Report 105 Rubber Extrusion Theory and Development, B.G. Crowther. Report 106 Properties and Applications of Elastomeric Polysulfides, T.C.P. Lee, Oxford Brookes University. Report 107 High Performance Polymer Fibres, P.R. Lewis, The Open University. Report 108 Chemical Characterisation of Polyurethanes, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 10 Report 109 Rubber Injection Moulding - A Practical Guide, J.A. Lindsay. Report 110 Long-Term and Accelerated Ageing Tests on Rubbers, R.P. Brown, M.J. Forrest and G. Soulagnet, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 8

Report 111

Polymer Product Failure, P.R. Lewis, The Open University.

Report 85

Ring Opening Polymerisation, N. Spassky, Université Pierre et Marie Curie.

Report 112 Polystyrene - Synthesis, Production and Applications, J.R. Wünsch, BASF AG.

Report 86

High Performance Engineering Plastics, D.J. Kemmish, Victrex Ltd.

Report 113 Rubber-Modified Thermoplastics, H. Keskkula, University of Texas at Austin.

Report 87

Rubber to Metal Bonding, B.G. Crowther, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 114 Developments in Polyacetylene - Nanopolyacetylene, V.M. Kobryanskii, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Report 88

Plasticisers - Selection, Applications and Implications, A.S. Wilson.

Report 115 Metallocene-Catalysed Polymerisation, W. Kaminsky, University of Hamburg.

Report 89

Polymer Membranes - Materials, Structures and Separation Performance, T. deV. Naylor, The Smart Chemical Company.

Report 116 Compounding in Co-rotating Twin-Screw Extruders, Y. Wang, Tunghai University.

Report 90

Rubber Mixing, P.R. Wood.

Report 117 Rapid Prototyping, Tooling and Manufacturing, R.J.M. Hague and P.E. Reeves, Edward Mackenzie Consulting.

Report 91

Recent Developments in Epoxy Resins, I. Hamerton, University of Surrey.

Report 118 Liquid Crystal Polymers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications, D. Coates, CRL Ltd.

Report 92

Continuous Vulcanisation of Elastomer Profiles, A. Hill, Meteor Gummiwerke.

Report 119 Rubbers in Contact with Food, M.J. Forrest and J.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 93

Advances in Thermoforming, J.L. Throne, Sherwood Technologies Inc.

Report 120 Electronics Applications of Polymers II, M.T. Goosey, Shipley Ronal.

Volume 11 Report 121 Polyamides as Engineering Thermoplastic Materials, I.B. Page, BIP Ltd. Report 122 Flexible Packaging - Adhesives, Coatings and Processes, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company. Report 123 Polymer Blends, L.A. Utracki, National Research Council Canada. Report 124 Sorting of Waste Plastics for Recycling, R.D. Pascoe, University of Exeter. Report 125 Structural Studies of Polymers by Solution NMR, H.N. Cheng, Hercules Incorporated. Report 126 Composites for Automotive Applications, C.D. Rudd, University of Nottingham. Report 127 Polymers in Medical Applications, B.J. Lambert and F.-W. Tang, Guidant Corp., and W.J. Rogers, Consultant. Report 128 Solid State NMR of Polymers, P.A. Mirau, Lucent Technologies. Report 129 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Photo-oxidation, D.C. Wright. Report 130 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Chemical Attack, D.C. Wright. Report 131 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Thermo-oxidation, D.C. Wright. Report 132 Stabilisers for Polyolefins, C. Kröhnke and F. Werner, Clariant Huningue SA.

Volume 12 Report 133 Advances in Automation for Plastics Injection Moulding, J. Mallon, Yushin Inc. Report 134 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy of Polymers, J.L. Koenig, Case Western Reserve University. Report 135 Polymers in Sport and Leisure, R.P. Brown. Report 136 Radiation Curing, R.S. Davidson, DavRad Services. Report 137 Silicone Elastomers, P. Jerschow, Wacker-Chemie GmbH. Report 138 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, N. Chaiear, Khon Kaen University. Report 139 Rubber Analysis - Polymers, Compounds and Products, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 140 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance, M.S. Evans, Kumho European Technical Centre. Report 141 Particulate Fillers for Polymers, Professor R.N. Rothon, Rothon Consultants and Manchester Metropolitan University. Report 142 Blowing Agents for Polyurethane Foams, S.N. Singh, Huntsman Polyurethanes. Report 143 Adhesion and Bonding to Polyolefins, D.M. Brewis and I. Mathieson, Institute of Surface Science & Technology, Loughborough University. Report 144 Rubber Curing Systems, R.N. Datta, Flexsys BV.

Volume 13 Report 145 Multi-Material Injection Moulding, V. Goodship and J.C. Love, The University of Warwick. Report 146 In-Mould Decoration of Plastics, J.C. Love and V. Goodship, The University of Warwick

Report 147 Rubber Product Failure, Roger P. Brown Report 148 Plastics Waste – Feedstock Recycling, Chemical Recycling and Incineration, A. Tukker, TNO Report 149 Analysis of Plastics, Martin J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 150 Mould Sticking, Fouling and Cleaning, D.E. Packham, Materials Research Centre, University of Bath Report 151 Rigid Plastics Materials - Materials, Processes and Applications, F. Hannay, Nampak Group Research & Development

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers A.K. Bledzki, V.E. Sperber and O. Faruk (University of Kassel)

ISBN 1-85957-359-2

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Contents 1.

Survey of Natural Fibre Composites ..................................................................................................... 3

2.

Cellulose Based Fibres ............................................................................................................................. 4 2.1

2.2

2.3

3.

Methods of Surface Treatment of Natural and Wood Fibres ............................................................ 15 3.1

3.2

4.

Physical Methods .......................................................................................................................... 15 3.1.1 Corona Treatment ............................................................................................................. 15 3.1.2 Cold Plasma Treatment .................................................................................................... 15 Chemical Methods ........................................................................................................................ 15 3.2.1 Change of Surface Tension ............................................................................................... 16 3.2.2 Impregnation of Fibres ..................................................................................................... 16 3.2.3 Mercerisation .................................................................................................................... 16 3.2.4 Chemical Coupling ........................................................................................................... 18

Processing of Natural Fibre Reinforced Plastics ................................................................................ 19 4.1

4.2

5.

Description of Fibres ...................................................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Natural Fibres ..................................................................................................................... 4 2.1.2 Wood Fibres ........................................................................................................................ 7 2.1.3 Man-Made Cellulosic Fibres .............................................................................................. 9 2.1.4 Nanofibres .......................................................................................................................... 9 Structure and Chemical Constituents of Fibres .............................................................................. 9 2.2.1 Cellulose ............................................................................................................................. 9 2.2.2 Lignin ............................................................................................................................... 12 2.2.3 Further Components ......................................................................................................... 12 Characteristics ............................................................................................................................... 12 2.3.1 Mechanical ....................................................................................................................... 12 2.3.2 Physical ............................................................................................................................. 12 2.3.3 Chemical ........................................................................................................................... 15

Thermoplastics .............................................................................................................................. 19 4.1.1 Extrusion ........................................................................................................................... 19 4.1.2 Injection Moulding ........................................................................................................... 20 4.1.3 Compression Moulding .................................................................................................... 20 4.1.4 Express Process ................................................................................................................ 20 4.1.5 Mixing .............................................................................................................................. 21 Thermosets .................................................................................................................................... 21 4.2.1 Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) ...................................................................................... 21 4.2.2 Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) ................................................................................. 22

Properties of Natural and Wood Fibre Composites ........................................................................... 22 5.1

5.2

Mechanical Properties .................................................................................................................. 22 5.1.1 Tensile Properties ............................................................................................................. 22 5.1.2 Flexural Properties ........................................................................................................... 23 5.1.3 Impact Properties .............................................................................................................. 23 Physical Properties ........................................................................................................................ 24 5.2.1 Water Absorption .............................................................................................................. 24 5.2.2 Swelling ............................................................................................................................ 25 5.2.3 Moisture Content .............................................................................................................. 26

1

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

5.3

Biological Properties .................................................................................................................... 26 5.3.1 Fungi ................................................................................................................................. 27 5.3.2 Bacteria ............................................................................................................................. 27

6.

Biologically Degradable Composite Materials ................................................................................... 27

7.

Applications of Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymers.......................................................................... 28 7.1

Automotive Applications .............................................................................................................. 28

7.2

Building Applications ................................................................................................................... 28

7.3

Furniture and Panels ..................................................................................................................... 29

7.4

Aerospace Applications ................................................................................................................ 29

7.5

Others ............................................................................................................................................ 29

8.

Recent Developments in Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement of Polymers ............................. 29

9.

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 30

Additional References ................................................................................................................................... 31 Abbreviations and Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 32 Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database .......................................................................................... 33 Subject Index ............................................................................................................................................... 135

The views and opinions expressed by authors in Rapra Review Reports do not necessarily reflect those of Rapra Technology Limited or the editor. The series is published on the basis that no responsibility or liability of any nature shall attach to Rapra Technology Limited arising out of or in connection with any utilisation in any form of any material contained therein.

2

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

1 Survey of Natural Fibre Composites The use of composite materials dates from centuries ago, when it all started with natural fibres. In ancient Egypt some 3,000 years ago, clay was reinforced by straw to build walls. Later on the natural fibre lost much of its interest. With the industrial use of plastics, combinations of plastics with natural fibres or wood flour were introduced. The body of the East German car ‘Trabant’ (1950-1990) was one of the typical examples for application of natural fibres (cotton) embedded in a polyester matrix (a.1). Other more durable construction materials were developed when glass fibres in combination with tough, rigid resins could be produced on a large scale. The last decade showed a renewed interest in natural and wood fibre as a substitute for glass fibre. After decades of high-tech developments of artificial fibres like carbon, aramid and glass, it is remarkable that natural grown fibres are once more of interest, particularly as a glass fibre substitute in automotive industries. Fibres like flax, hemp or jute are cheap, have better stiffness per unit weight and have a lower impact on the environment. Although automotive is taking the lead in the revival of natural fibres, applications are mainly restricted to upholstery applications where acoustic and thermal insulation, low cost and an environmentally friendly image are advantages. Structural applications are rare since existing production techniques are not applicable and the availability of semi-finished materials of consistent quality is still a problem. There is a renewed interest in the use of natural fibres, also known as agro-based resources for composites.

These resources include wood, agricultural plants and residues, grasses, water plants, and a wide variety of waste agro-mass including recycled wood, paper, and paper products. Rowell and co-workers (a.2) have demonstrated the possible processing pathways for each plant fraction leading to different composite products: •

The whole plant can be fiberised and used for structural and non-structural composites.

•

Pith can be used for sorbents, packing, lightweight composites and insulation.

•

Long fibres are suitable for combinations with other resources.

•

Long fibre mats can be used in filters, geotextiles, packaging and moulded composites.

The use of natural and wood fibres in composite applications is being investigated intensively in Europe. As a result, many automotive components (156, 164, 180, 202, 203, 248, 256, 265, 266, 283, 292, 308, 322) are now produced in natural composites, mainly based on polyester or polypropylene and fibres like flax, jute or wood. Until now however, the motivation in this industry has been price and marketing spin (processing renewable resources), rather than technical demands. The range of products is restricted to interior and nonstructural components like door upholstery or rear shelves, due to the traditional shortcomings of natural and wood fibre composites: (a) low impact strength and (b) poor moisture resistance. Table 1 (a.3) shows the consumption of natural fibre in the automotive industry in Europe which was 21,300 ton in 1999 and 28,300 ton in 2000, which indicates the

Table 1 Consumption of natural fibre in the automotive industry in Europe (1996-2010) Fibre

1996

1999

2000

2005

2010

Flax

2,100

15,900

20,000

-

-

0

1,700

3,500

-

-

Jute

1,100

2,100

1,700

-

-

Sisal

1,100

500

100

-

-

Kenaf

0

1,100

2,000

-

-

Coir

0

0

1,000

-

-

Total

4,300

21,300

28,300

50,000-70,000

> 100,000

Hemp

3

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

rapid increase in natural fibre consumption. These fibres are also being used in applications such as packaging in Europe, e.g., egg cartons, particularly in Germany. Compared with Europe, some Asian countries, especially India have been continually using natural fibres, mainly jute fibres, as reinforcement for composites. It is briefly reported (190, 191, 195, 196, 201, 284, 293) that wood polymer composites account for a 300,000 t/year market in USA for building and garden products and this figure should more than double by 2005. Decking accounts for about 60% of the total, with the rest being used for flooring, etc.

The plant fibres may be bast fibres, leaf or seed fibres. Plant fibres are usually used as reinforcement in plastics. The plant world is full of examples where cells and groups of cells are designed for strength and stiffness. A sparing use of resources has resulted in optimisation of the cell functions. Cellulose is a natural polymer with high strength and stiffness per weight, and it is the building material of long fibrous cells. These cells can be found in the stem, the leaves or the seeds of plants. Wood fibres are also included as cellulose based fibres, but are different to plant fibres.

2.1 Description of Fibres

In 2000 Materials Today announced (186) that natural fibre composites of thermoplastics and thermosets, were soon to be approved by the US Federal Aviation Authority and the UK Civil Aviation Authority for aerospace applications. This review will discuss the possible applications of natural and wood fibre polymer composites as presently developed.

2 Cellulose Based Fibres In general, natural fibres are subdivided as to their origin, coming from plants, animals or minerals (Figure 1).

2.1.1 Natural Fibres 2.1.1.1 Flax The bast fibre flax is the cellulose fibre that is the most frequently used in the higher value-added textile markets. Linen has historically been a widely used and appreciated fashion fabric, and textile flax therefore has a substantial infrastructure. Nowadays, it is widely used in the automotive industry. Girault and co-workers (243) examined the composition and structure of cell walls of flax fibres as targets for biotechnology. The findings confirm the biochemical data showing that early developing flax

Figure 1 Classification of fibres

4

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

fibres synthesise and secrete different pectin and protein molecules in addition to cellulose and suggest that the composition of fibre walls is spatially developed and regulated.

The technology of cultivation, harvesting, production, marketing and processing of hemp fibre have been discussed, and the life cycle of hemp fibre reinforced components has been assessed (225, 226, 303, 244, 309).

Various investigations have been carried out on the use of flax fibres in composites:

Thermal conductivity (224), mechanical properties (which could be improved by minimising processing damage (320)) and the influence of molecular structures, curing conditions and formulations on the thermal, mechanical and morphological properties (419) of hemp fibre reinforced composites have been investigated.

•

processing method (192, 379),

•

coupling effect (fibre/matrix adhesion) in unsaturated polymers (194),

•

flammability in polypropylene composites (223),

2.1.1.3 Jute

•

effects of defects and dispersion in epoxy composites (295) and

•

critical fibre length (387).

Jute is the bast fibre with the highest volume of production. Although never used in higher value textiles, its prominence as a coarse textile fibre for sacking, its wide use as a cordage fibre, and as a carpet backing fibre has supported its continued development in regions such as Bangladesh, India and China which are suited to its growth and which have low labour costs.

Four different types of flax fibres (188) (green flax, dew-retted flax, Duralin-treated flax and stearic acidtreated flax fibre) were used with different isotactic PP matrices. The effect of crystallisation temperature, time and cooling rates on the formation of transcrystallinity was investigated. It was found that the interfacial adhesion was improved by the presence of a transcrystalline layer. Brouwer (257) has examined the feasibility of using flax fibre composites in the trailers, coachwork and bus industry. In the production of composite materials from flax fibre and polypropylene (PP), the process parameters have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the parts (334). The boundaries of the process control are derived from theoretical principles and temperaturetime dependencies, determined by thermoanalytical techniques.

2.1.1.2 Hemp The production of hemp is relatively limited and its infrastructure remains undeveloped. Hemp is currently the subject of a European Union subsidy for non food agriculture, and a considerable initiative has been underway for further development in Europe. Lear Corp. (265, 283), Johnson controls (266) and Ford (411) are using hemp fibre for reinforcing plastics in a number of automotive components.

Mohanty and co-workers (286) investigated the effects of surface modification of jute fabrics, examining the mechanical properties and biodegradability of jute/ Biopol (a biodegradable polymer) composites. Jute reinforced Biopol demonstrated more than 50% enhancement in tensile strength, 30% in bending strength and 90% in impact strength relative to pure Biopol sheets. From degradation studies it was found that after 150 days of burial as compost more than 50% weight loss of the jute/Biopol composites occurs. Similar studies have been carried out on jute/polyester amide composites (321). The effect of hybridisation (231) on the tensile properties of jute-cotton woven fabric reinforced polyester composites were investigated as a function of fibre content, orientation and roving texture. It was observed that tensile properties along the direction of the jute roving alignment (transverse to the cotton roving alignment) increase steadily with fibre content up to 50% and then show a tendency to decrease. The tensile strength of composites with 50% fibre content parallel to the jute roving is about 220% higher than pure polyester resin. Khan and co-workers (275, 369, 412, 427) have investigated the properties of jute/plastic composites under UV radiation. The properties of jute/plastic composites have also been compared to glass fibre composites including thermal

5

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

stability, crystallinity, modification, transesterification, weathering and mechanical properties (148, 245, 251, 269, 367, 381). Mitra and co-workers (368, 371) have studied the dynamic parameters, such as storage, flexural and shear modulus, loss flexural and shear modulus and loss factor or damping efficiency (tan delta) of jute/ polypropylene composites. The nature of the transition peak, amplitude and temperatures of the moduli and the tan delta of different compositions were shown to indicate possible improvements of molecular interaction in the presence of a compatibiliser. A detailed review is given of jute composites by Mohanty and co-workers (443), particularly the structure and chemical composition of jute fibres, jute fibre reinforced thermosetting, rubber and thermoplastic polymer composites and cost aspects and applications of jute products.

2.1.1.4 Sisal Sisal is commercially produced in Brazil and East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya and Madagascar) from the agave plant. It is a prominent cordage fibre and is used in decorative carpeting. It is also used specially in papermaking. Joseph and Mattoso have reviewed the use of sisal in polymer composites (240) and state that the composites have relatively high impact strength, with moderate tensile and flexural properties. Thomas and co-workers have experimented widely (220, 274, 287, 342, 442) on sisal/plastic composites measuring the thermal properties, melt rheological behaviour, morphology, processing variables, effect of fibre length, distribution, orientation, concentration and bonding agent on physico-mechanical properties. Many other studies have been carried out on sisal fibre reinforced polymer composites regarding mercerisation and acetylation (232), NMR studies (242), the effect of coupling agent (267), crystallinity (271), the effect of fibre length (237) and impact properties (230). Li and co-workers (276) have reviewed developments in sisal fibre and its composites. The properties of the sisal fibre itself, the modification of the interface between sisal fibre and matrix and the properties of sisal fibre reinforced composites and their hybrid composites are reviewed.

6

2.1.1.5 Pineapple Leaf Fibre Pineapple leaf fibre is rich in cellulose, relatively inexpensive and abundantly available, and has the potential for polymer reinforcement. Pineapple leaf fibres at present are a waste product of pineapple cultivation. Hence, without any additional cost input, pineapple fibre can be obtained for industrial purposes, this is proved by recent studies. Pineapple leaf fibre reinforced polymer composites were investigated in depth by Thomas and co-workers (337, 382, 393, 395, 397, 421, 430, 444). The effects of strain rate and temperature, environmental effects, chemical modification effects on physico-mechanical properties and electrical properties, stress relaxation behaviour (dependence on fibre loading, length, orientation and chemical treatment) and rheological properties were examined. Netravali and co-workers (346, 351) studied the mechanical and thermal properties of pineapple/plastic composites, using poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) as the matrix. The tensile and flexural properties of pineapple composites with different fibre contents were measured in both longitudinal and transverse directions. Compared to those of virgin resin, the tensile and flexural strengths of sisal composites are significantly higher in the longitudinal direction while they are lower in the transverse direction. Pineapple leaf fibre (285, 422) has been modified by alkali, acetylation and graft copolymerisation. Grafting improved the thermal stability of pineapple leaf fibre: modified fibres showed significant hydrophobicity, improved mechanical strength and chemical resistance.

2.1.1.6 Kenaf Kenaf has the benefit of extensive research and development during the past 30 years, much of it underwritten by government agencies in the USA and the European Union. However, it remains a relatively insignificant fibre crop with very limited infrastructure. Kafus Environmental industries (375) have developed applications for materials reinforced with kenaf fibres, particularly in the automotive industry. Kenaf composites have good impact strengths, are 20-30% lighter in weight than glass reinforced plastics (GRPs), are less likely to warp under extreme heat and humidity, and can be recycled. The long outer fibres of kenaf can be combined with polymers such as polypropylene to

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

create automotive trim components such as door panels, seat backs, headliners and package trays. Kenaf fibres have been used in rubber vulcanisates where they had an improved reinforcing effect compared to synthetic viscose (229). Graft copolymerisation (348) of kenaf fibres and mechanical properties (383) have also been studied.

2.1.1.7 Ramie Ramie’s popularity as a textile fibre has been limited largely by regions of production and a chemical composition that has required more extensive pretreatment than is required of the other commercially important bast fibres. Structural analysis (405), reinforcement possibility (407, 431) and the crystallinity (437) of ramie fibres have all been investigated.

2.1.1.8 Abaca/Banana Fibre The abaca/banana fibre, which is from the banana plant, is durable and resistant to sea water. Abaca, the strongest of the commercially available cellulose fibres, is indigenous to the Philippines and is currently produced in that country and in Ecuador. It was once the preferred cordage fibre for marine applications. Tobias and co-workers (389, 388, 447) have investigated the creep behaviour and physicomechanical properties of banana fibre composites. A composite with 30%wt banana fibre had a flexural strength of 97 MPa and a modulus of elasticity in bending of 6.5 GPa. The fracture toughness of the composite was about 1.6 times greater than the polyester matrix.

Ismail and co-workers (161, 162, 163) studied the mechanical properties of rice husk filled polymer composites and their relation to fibre loading, coupling agent and processability. Physical properties and swelling (174), and potential for use as a carbon black replacement in natural rubber (374) of rice husk filled composites have been examined. Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres have shown potential as a reinforcement fibre for plastic. Thomas and coworkers (171, 281, 302) investigated the stress relaxation effect, different chemical treatments and thermal conductivity and diffusivity of oil palm empty fruit bunch reinforced composites. The matrix investigated was phenol-formaldehyde resin. Ishak and co-workers (182, 372, 377) studied the effect of oil extraction, compounding techniques and fibre loading on the mechanical properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch filled composites. High density polyethylene and polypropylene were used as the matrix.

2.1.2 Wood Fibres Throughout history, the unique characteristics and comparative abundance of wood have made it a natural material for homes and other structures, furniture, tools, vehicles, and decorative objects. Today wood fibre reinforced thermoplastics are enjoying rapid growth due to a lot of advantages. Wood particles, such as chips, flakes, fibres, and wood pulps are used as reinforcement agents. Woods are divided into two broad classes, usually referred to as hard woods and soft woods. These terms can be confusing since some soft woods are actually harder than some hard woods and conversely some hard woods are softer than some soft woods. For example, soft woods such as longleaf pine and Douglas-far are typically harder than the hard woods bass wood and aspen. Table 2 shows the difference in chemical constituents of hard wood and soft wood (a.4).

2.1.1.9 Seed Fibres Cotton is the most common seed fibre and is used for textiles all over the world. Other seed fibres are applied in less demanding applications such as stuffing of upholstery. Coir is an exception to this. Coir is the fibre of the coconut husk. It is a thick and coarse but durable fibre and applications are ropes, matting and brushes. Life cycle assessment (228) of automobile seats based on coir fibre/latex composites and technical feasibility (227) for the production of fibre boards from coir fibre have been evaluated.

A lot of investigations (159, 205, 418, 425, 438, 449, 390, 392) were carried out on wood fibre reinforced composites without defining the wood type as hard or soft. Bledzki and co-workers (378) have discussed the problems concerning the processing of thermoplastics reinforced with wood fillers. The high level of moisture absorption by the filler, its poor wettability, as well as the insufficient adhesion between untreated filler and the polymer matrix are reasons for the low tensile strength and high moisture sorption of composites.

7

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Table 2 Chemical constituents of wood (a.4) Soft wood

Hard wood

Principal constituent Percentage (mass) Cellulose I

40-45

45-5 0

15-20

-

10

-

glucuronoxylan

-

20-30

glucomannan

-

1-5

26-34

22-3 0

0-5

0-1 0

Hemicellulose galactoglucomannan arabinoglucuronoxylan

Lignin Extractives

Physical and chemical modifications to overcome these shortcomings were evaluated. Optimisation of technological parameters of wood thermoplastics processing is necessary. Bledzki and co-workers (2) have also investigated the effect of maleic anhydride grafted PP as a compatibiliser on hard wood and soft wood fibre/ polypropylene (PP) composites. Hard wood fibre/PP composites showed better performance compared with the soft wood fibre/PP composites.

Steam exploded fibres from Yellow Poplar (350) were assessed in terms of their thermal stability characteristics. Fibres included water-extracted steam exploded fibre, alkali-extracted fibres, acetylated fibres and a commercial milled out fibre sample. It was found that acetylated fibre composites produced the best mechanical properties. Cutinho and co-workers (294, 417) studied aspen fibres with polypropylene and evaluated the effect of treatment, mixing conditions and coupling agent on mechanical properties.

2.1.2.1 Hard Wood Fibres 2.1.2.2 Soft Wood Fibres Botanically, hard woods are angiosperms; the seeds are enclosed in the ovary of the flower. Anatomically, hard woods are porous; that is they contain vessel elements. A vessel element is a wood cell with open ends. Typically, hard woods are plants with broad leaves that, with few exceptions in the temperate region, lose their leaves in autumn or winter. Wood polymer composites (344) made with different chemical combinations have been evaluated for dimensional stability, ability to exclude water vapour and liquid water, and hardness. Maple and oak hard wood were combined with different combinations of hexanediol diacrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate, hexamethylene diisocyanate and maleic anhydride. Treatment slows the rates of water vapour and liquid water absorption and the rate of swelling of wood polymer specimens is less than that of unmodified wood specimens. In addition, wood polymer composites are harder than unmodified wood.

8

Botanically, soft woods are gymnosperms or conifers; the seeds are naked (not enclosed in the ovary of the flower). Anatomically, soft woods are nonporous and do not contain vessels. Soft woods are usually cone-bearing plants with needle- or scalelike evergreen leaves. Different types of pine wood fibre reinforcement have been examined. Investigations have been undertaken into chemical modification (165), interphase development (by gas chromatography) (279), water vapour absorption behaviour (354), developing a high grade industrial material from plastics and pine wood fibres (385) and modelling and simulation of vacuum forming of wood fibre/thermoplastics (409). Dufresne and co-workers (332) pretreated a soft wood (spruce) using a steam explosion technique and used it as a natural filler in PP based composites. The steam-

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

explosion pretreatment severity increased the surface energy and the apparent specific surface, but at the same time decreased the aspect ratio of the fibre. Steamexploded softwood was found to be ineffective, giving similar Young’s modulus and lower strengths compared to the unfilled PP matrix and to the composites with raw softwood fibres. Both the tensile strength and the Young’s modulus of the composites increased when a functionalised compatibiliser, maleic anhydride modified PP, was used to coat the fibre.

2.1.3 Man-Made Cellulosic Fibres As a rule, a distinction is made between man-made fibres from synthetic polymers and those from cellulosic polymers. The acrylic, polyamide, polyester and elastane fibres belong to the group of man-made fibres made from synthetic polymers. With cellulosic man-made fibres (e.g., viscose), cellulose from wood is used as the raw material. There are three types of cellulosic man-made fibres, such as filament yarns (viscose and acetate for textile and industrial), staple fibres (viscose), and tow (viscose and acetate). Viscose is the most important of the cellulosic manmade fibres and has a long tradition. Viscose is made up for linings and mostly light summer wear. Viscose has many properties which vary according to the method of processing. Mieck and co-workers (a.5) have described the feasibility and applications of using man-made cellulosic fibres and studied their mechanical properties compared to flax fibres.

nanoscale structures via innovative synthetic approaches. The properties of nanocomposite materials depend not only on the properties of their individual parents but also on their morphology and interfacial characteristics. This rapidly expanding field is generating many exciting new materials with novel properties. Dufresne and co-workers (172, 241, 255, 277, 329, 401, 424, 428, 434) have carried out extensive work on separation, characterisation and processing of cellulose microfibrils and have analysed the properties of these nanocomposites. Hajji and co-workers (433) have measured the tensile behaviour of nanocomposites under the influence of different processing conditions and content of filler.

2.2 Structure and Chemical Constituents of Fibres Climatic conditions, age and the degradation process influence not only the structure of fibres but also the chemical composition. The major chemical component of a living tree is water, but on a dry basis, all plant cell walls consist mainly of sugar based polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose) that are combined with lignin with lesser amount of extractives, protein, starch and inorganics. The chemical components are distributed throughout the cell wall which is composed of primary and secondary wall layers. Chemical composition varies from plant to plant, and within different parts of the same plant. Rowell and co-workers have produced data on this. Table 3 shows the range of average chemical constituents for a wide variety of plant types.

2.2.1 Cellulose 2.1.4 Nanofibres The lignocellulosic materials are mainly made of a complex network of three polymers namely cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulosic nanofibres can be separated from raw natural fibres by a process such as steam explosion. Nanofibres consist of monocrystalline cellulose domains with the microfibril axis parallel to the cellulose chains. The definition of nanocomposite material has broadened significantly to encompass a large variety of systems such as one-dimensional, twodimensional, three-dimensional and amorphous materials, made of distinctly dissimilar components and mixed at the nanometer scale. The general class of nanocomposite organic/inorganic materials is a fast growing area of research. Significant effort is being focused on the ability to obtain control of

Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer in the world and the most essential component of all plant fibres. It is an isotactic β-1,4-polyacetal of cellubiose. The basic unit, cellubiose, is composed of two molecules of glucose. As a result, cellulose is often called a polyacetal of glucose. The summation formula for cellulose is (P - degree of polymerisation): C6P H10P+2 O5P+1 elementary composition: carbon hydrogen oxygen

44.4% 6.2% 49.4%

with the molecular weight of m0 = 162 Figure 2 shows the chemical structure of cellulose.

9

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Table 3 Chemical composition of some common natural and wood fibres (%) Type of fibre

Cellulose

Lignin

Pentosan

Ash

Silica

Rice

28-48

12-16

23-28

15-20

9-14

Wheat

29-51

16-21

26-32

2.5-9

3-7

Barley

31-45

14-15

24-29

5-7

3-6

Oat

31-48

16-19

27-38

6-8

4-6.5

Rye

33-50

16-19

27-30

2-5

0.5-4

Bagasse

32-48

19-24

27-32

1.5-5

0.7-3.5

Bamboo

26-43

21-31

15-26

1.7-5

0.7

33-38

17-19

27-32

6-8

-

-

22

24

6

-

44-46

22-24

20

3

2

Seed flax

43-47

21-23

24-26

5

-

Kenaf

44-57

15-19

22-23

2-5

-

Jute

45-63

21-26

18-21

0.5-2

-

Hemp

57-77

9-13

14-17

0.8

-

Ramie

87-91

-

5-8

-

-

Kenaf

37-49

15-21

18-24

2-4

-

Jute

41-48

21-24

18-22

0.8

-

Abaca (Manila)

56-63

7-9

15-17

1-3

-

Sisal (agave)

43-62

7-9

21-24

0.6-1

-

85-96

0.7-1.6

1-3

0.8-2

-

Coniferous

40-45

26-34

7-14

<1

-

Deciduous

38-49

23-30

19-26

<1

-

Stalk fibre

Cane fibre

Grass fibre Esparto Sabai Reed fibre Phragmites communis Bast fibre

Core fibre

Leaf fibre

Seed hull fibre Cotton Wood fibre

Reproduced from R.M. Rowell, J.S. Han and J.S. Rowell in Natural Polymers and Agrofibers Based Composites, Eds., E. Frollini, A.L. Leão and L.H. Mattoso, Emprapa, 2000, 115, with permission.

10

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

OH

CH2OH

HO

O

O

HO

1

HO

O

HO

1

O

2

CH2OH

CH2OH

OH 2

OH

HO

O

4

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

x

Figure 2 Chemical structure of cellulose (X = single unit) (a.6)

H2COH

H2COH HC

C

HCOH

CH2

O

H2COH

P H2COH

CH3O

H2COH C

R

HC OCH3

H2COH

OCH3 O

HC

CH

O

O

O

CH HC

CH2

H2COH

HC

CH

Q

B

HC

OCH3

A O

OH

C

H2COH

CH3O

1/2

HC O

H2COH

HC

HC

HC

C

HC

O

O H2COH HC

H2COH

I

OCH3

CH2

C

O

O H 2C

CH

HC

CH

O

O–(C6H10O5)nH HC

HC

L

M

N OCH3

OCH3 O

OH

O

CH2

K

H

CH

CH HCOH

CH HC

O H2COH

HC

OCH3 H2COH

E O

HCOH

J

CH3O

D

HC

O

O OH

CH

OH OCH3

O

(OCH3)1/2

CH

OCH3

O

1/2

H2COH

CH3O OCH3

CHOH HC HC

O O

F CH3O O

G OCH3 OH

Figure 3 Part of a lignin molecule

11

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Cellulose molecules are randomly oriented and have a tendency to form intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The packing density of cellulose is highly crystalline and may contain as much as 80 percent crystalline regions. The remaining portion has a lower packing density and is referred to as amorphous cellulose. On a dry weight basis, most plants consist of approximately 45 to 50% cellulose. This can vary from a high (cotton) of almost 90% to a low of about 30% for stalk fibres.

2.2.2 Lignin Lignins are amorphous, highly complex, mainly aromatic, polymers of phenyl-propane units (Figure 3). Lignins can be classified in several ways but they are usually divided according to their structural elements (a.7). Lignin is distributed throughout the secondary cell wall with the highest concentration in the middle lamella. The function of lignin in plants is as an encrusting agent in the cellulose/hemicellulose matrix. It is often referred to as the plant cell wall adhesive.

2.2.3 Further Components The hemicellulose fraction of plants consists of a collection of polysaccharide polymers. Hemicelluloses usually consist of more than one type of sugar unit. Part of the hemicellulose fraction consists of pentose sugars mainly D-xylose and L-arabinose. The polymers containing these five carbon sugars are referred to as pentosans.

2.3 Characteristics A single natural or wood fibre is a three dimensional, biopolymer composite composed mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin with minor amounts of free sugars, starch, protein, extractives and inorganics. The performance of a given fibre used in a given application depends on several factors including chemical composition, physical properties, mechanical properties, the interaction of a fibre with the composite matrix, and how that fibre or fibre/matrix performs under a given set of environmental conditions. In order to expand the use of natural and wood fibre for composites, it is essential that information is available about fibre characteristics and the factors which affect the performance of that fibre. It is also necessary to know the factors which affect the performance of a given fibre in a given application.

2.3.1 Mechanical The range of characteristic values, as one of the drawbacks for all natural products, is considerable, which can be explained by differences in fibre structure due to the overall environmental conditions during growth. Natural and wood fibres can be processed in different ways to yield reinforcing elements having different mechanical properties. Hydrophilic nature is a major problem for all cellulose fibres if used as reinforcement in plastics. The moisture content of the fibres is dependent on the content of non-crystalline parts and the void content of the fibre. The hydrophilic nature of natural fibres influences the overall mechanical properties.

2.3.2 Physical The inorganic content of a plant is usually referred to as its ash content, which is an approximate measure of the mineral salts and other inorganic matter in the fibre after combustion at a temperature of 575 ± 25 °C. The inorganic content can be quite high in plants containing large amounts of silica.

The physical properties of each natural and wood fibre are critical, including fibre dimensions, defects, strength and structure.

2.3.2.1 Fibre Dimensions Proteins are polymers of amino acids that are normally in high concentration in young growing cells, but can also be found in some plants in high concentration throughout their life cycle. The extractives are a group of cell wall chemicals mainly consisting of fats, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, phenols, terpenes, steroids, resin acids, rosin, waxes, etc. These chemicals exist as monomers, dimers and polymers.

12

Knowledge about fibre length and width is important for comparing different kinds of natural and wood fibres. A high aspect ratio (length/width) is very important in cellulose based fibre composites as it give an indication of possible strength properties. Rowell and co-workers have compiled data: the length and width of some common natural fibres are shown in Table 4. In many cases, there is a wide variation in both length and width.

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Table 4 Length and width of selected natural fibres Fibre length (mm)

Fibre width (mm)

Common name Average

Range

Average

Range

Ramie

120

60-250

50

11-80

Flax

33

9-70

19

5-38

Hemp

25

5-55

25

10-51

Kapok

19

8-30

19

10-30

Cotton lint

18

10-40

20

12-38

Paper-mulberry

10

6-20

30

2.5-35

Sunn hemp

8

4-12

30

25-50

Abaca

6

2-12

24

16-32

Kenaf

5

2-6

21

14-33

Sisal

3

1-8

20

8-41

Bamboo

2. 7

1.5-4.4

14

7-27

Raphia

2.4

-

30

17-46

Sabai

2. 1

0.5-4.9

9

4-28

Common reed

2

1-3

16

10-20

Jute

2

2-5

20

10-25

Papyrus

1. 8

1-4

12

8-25

Sugar cane

1. 7

0.8-2.8

20

10-34

Corn

1. 5

0.5-2.9

18

14-24

Rice

1. 4

0.4-3.4

8

4-16

Wheat

1.4

0.4-3.2

15

8-34

Esparto

1. 2

0.2-3.3

13

6-22

Albardine

1.1

0.2-3.1

12

6-21

Reproduced from R.M. Rowell, J.S. Han and J.S. Rowell in Natural Polymers and Agrofibers Based Composites, Eds., E. Frollini, A.L. Leão and L.H. Mattoso, Emprapa, 2000, 115, with permission.

2.3.2.2 Fibre Strength

2.3.2.3 Fibre Structure

The fibre strength can be an important factor in selecting a specific natural fibre for a specific application. Data on the tensile strength of several natural fibres indicates that tensile strength varies widely depending on the type of fibre tested (414).

Changes in physical properties can be due to differences in fibre morphology. Major differences in structure such as density, cell wall thickness, length and diameter do result in differences in physical properties. It is also interesting to note that the morphology of land plant fibres is very different to that of water plant fibres.

The tensile strength values of a variety of natural fibres are listed in Table 5.

Bledzki and co-workers (a.8) assert that the degree of openness of a fibrous material is of major impact on the properties and values of products, in mechanical, physical and chemical aspects. Openness depends on

13

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Table 5 Mechanical properties of natural and wood fibres as compared to conventional reinforcing fibres Fibre

Density (g/cm3)

Elongation (%)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Young’s modulus (GPa)

Cotton

1.5-1.6

7.0-8.0

287-597

5.5-12.6

Jute

1.3

1.5-1.8

393-773

26.5

Flax

1. 5

2.7-3.2

345-1035

27.6

Hemp

-

1.6

690

-

Ramie

-

3.6-3.8

400-938

61.4-128

Sisal

1.5

2.0-2.5

511-635

9.4-22.0

Coir

1.2

30.0

175

4.0-6.0

Viscose (cord)

-

11.4

593

11.0

Soft wood kraft

1.5

-

1000

40.0

E-glass

2. 5

2.5

2000-3500

70.0

Aramid (standard)

1.4

3.3-3.7

3000-3150

63.0-67.0

Carbon (standard)

1.4

1.4-1.8

4000

230.0-240.0

factors such as the number of fibres per unit weight, fibre length and thickness and branching. Figure 4 shows scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of a single jute fibre structure at different magnifications.

2.3.2.4 Crystallinity and Permeability Crystallinity values of natural and wood fibres vary in different parts of the plant. Crystallinity tends to decrease as the plant matures, but the difference between bast and core fibres is inconclusive. The permeability of kenaf core is the highest followed by cotton. Green flax, dew ratted flax and Duralin flax (352) were examined using the crystallisation from the melt of various polyolefin matrices (isotactic PP, maleic anhydride PP and HDPE). It was revealed that all three types of flax fibres induce the formation of a transcrystalline layer in isotactic PP, while only dew ratted flax was found able to induce transcrystallinity in HDPE and maleic anhydride PP. Bledzki and co-workers (315) examined the influence of thermal conditions as well as of different fibre treatments on the crystallisation of PP. The results of

14

Figure 4 SEM micrographs of a single jute fibre at different magnifications

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

this investigation show that the nucleation density of untreated and maleic anhydride treated jute fibres is higher in comparison with alkali treated jute fibres because of differences in the chemical composition and physical properties of the fibre surface. With increasing recrystallisation temperature, the maximum transcrystalline layer thickness is shifted to higher crystallisation times.

2.3.3 Chemical The major chemical component of a living tree is water, but, on a dry weight basis, all plant cell walls consist mainly of sugar based polymers combined with lignin with lesser amounts of extractives, protein, starch, and inorganics as described in Section 2.2. Chemical composition varies from plant to plant, and within different parts of the same plant. It also varies with plants from different geographic regions, ages, climate and soil conditions. Chemical properties are influenced by fibre growth time (days after planting), botanical classification of fibre and stalk height. Chemical composition can also vary within the same part of a plant. Both root and stalk core have high lignin content.

3 Methods of Surface Treatment of Natural and Wood Fibres New natural and wood fibre based composites are being developed that could benefit from a thorough and fundamental understanding of the fibre surface. These products may require new adhesive systems to reach their full commercial potential. The natural fibre and wood fibre surface is a complex heterogeneous polymer composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The surface is influenced by polymer morphology, extractive chemicals and processing conditions. The extent of the fibre-matrix interface is significant for the application of natural and wood fibres as reinforcement fibres for plastics. There are two types of methods used to optimise the fibre surface, physical methods and chemical methods. These modification methods are of different efficiencies for improving the adhesion between matrix and fibre (217).

the production of hybrid yarns. Physical treatments change structural and surface properties of the fibre and thereby influence the mechanical bonding to polymers.

3.1.1 Corona Treatment Electric discharge (corona and cold plasma) is another way of physical treatment. Corona treatment is one of the most interesting techniques for surface oxidation activation. This process changes the surface energy of the cellulose fibres and in the case of wood surface activation increases the amount of aldehyde groups. Corona discharge treatment of cellulose fibre and hydrophobic matrix was found to be effective in improving compatibilisation between hydrophilic fibre and hydrophobic matrix. Tossa jute fibres (260) were corona discharge treated to improve the mechanical properties of natural fibre/ epoxy composites. Corona-treated fibres exhibited significantly higher polar components of the free surface energy with increasing treatment energy output. Owing to difficulties in effective treatment of threedimensional objects with corona discharge, the increase of polarity of treated yarns is relatively small. Furthermore a decrease in the yarn tenacity was observed with increasing corona energy level.

3.1.2 Cold Plasma Treatment The same effects are achieved by cold plasma treatment. A variety of surface modification can be achieved depending on the type and nature of the gases used. Reactive free radicals and groups can be produced, surface energy can be increased or decreased and surface crosslinking can be introduced. Plasma treatment is another important treatment to achieve better interfacial bonding of the fibre to the matrix (420, 429). Modification effects by plasma treatment depend on the nature, flux and energy distribution of the incident species (217). Martin (233) prepared sisal-HDPE composites and showed that some improvements in mechanical properties of the composites are achieved due to the plasma treatments.

3.1 Physical Methods

3.2 Chemical Methods

Reinforcing fibres can be modified by physical methods such as stretching, calendering, thermotreatment, and

Cellulose fibres which are strongly polarised are inherently incompatible with hydrophobic polymers due

15

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

to their hydrophilic nature. When two materials are incompatible, it is possible in many cases to bring about compatibility by introducing a third material, that has properties intermediate between those of the other two. There are several mechanisms of coupling in materials: •

Weak boundary layers - coupling agents eliminate weak boundary layers.

•

Deformable layers - coupling agents produce a tough, flexible layer.

Ismail and co-workers (263, 264) treated oil palm empty fruit bunch and coir fibres with silane coupling agent. They found that the addition of silane increased the scorch time and cure time and enhanced the tensile strength, tensile modulus, tear strength, fatigue life and hardness.

3.2.2 Impregnation of Fibres

•

Restrained layers - coupling agents develop a highly crosslinked interphase region, with a modulus intermediate between that of the substrate and of the polymer.

•

Wettability - coupling agents improve the wetting between polymer and substrate (critical surface tension factor).

•

Chemical bonding - coupling agents form covalent bonds with both materials.

•

Acid-base effect - coupling agents alter the acidity of the substrate surface.

The development of a definite theory for the mechanism of bonding by coupling agents in composites is a complex problem. The main chemical bonding theory alone is not sufficient. So the consideration of other concepts appears to be necessary, including the morphology of the interphase, the acid-base reactions at the interface, the surface energy and the wetting phenomena.

A better combination of fibre and polymer is achieved by impregnation of the reinforcing fabrics with polymer matrices compatible to the polymer. For this purpose polymer solutions or dispersions of low viscosity are used. For a number of interesting polymers, the lack of solvents limits the use of the method of impregnation. When cellulose fibres are impregnated with a butyl benzyl phthalate plastified polyvinyl chloride (PVC) dispersion, excellent partitions can be achieved in polystyrene (PS). This significantly lowers the viscosity of the compound and of the plasticator and results in co-solvent action for both PS and PVC. Valadez and co-workers (359) found that preimpregnated henequen-HDPE composites gave better fibre wetting. NafpurTec from Hennecke comprises a flax/sisal (331) (50/50) blend impregnated with the Baypreg PU system to produce a finished, lightweight product which is 35-45% urethane and 55-65% natural fibres. It is being used in automotive interior parts. Jute fibre (306, 406) and flax fibre (214, 257) reinforced composites have also utilised impregnation methods.

3.2.1 Change of Surface Tension

3.2.3 Mercerisation

The surface energy of fibres is closely related to the hydrophilic nature of the fibre. Some investigations are concerned with methods to decrease hydrophilicity. Silane coupling agents may contribute hydrophilic properties to the interface, especially when aminofunctional silanes, such as epoxies and urethane silanes, are used as primers for reactive polymers. The primer may supply much more amine functionality than can possibly react with the resin at the interphase. Those amines which cannot react are hydrophilic and therefore responsible for the poor water resistance of bonds. An effective way to use hydrophilic silanes is to blend them with hydrophobic silanes such as pheniltrimethoxysilane. Mixed siloxane primers also have an improved thermal stability, which is typical for aromatic silicones.

An old method of cellulose fibre modification is mercerisation, it has been widely used on cotton textiles. Mercerisation is an alkali treatment of cellulose fibres which depends on the type and concentration of the solution, temperature, time of treatment, the tension of the material as well as on the additives. At present there is a tendency to use mercerisation on other natural fibres as well (359).

16

Alkalisation (311) successfully modifies the structure of natural fibres (hemp, sisal, jute and kapok) and these modifications will most likely improve the performance of natural fibre composites by promoting better fibre to resin bonding.

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Bledzki and co-workers (349, 370) examined alkali treated jute fibres. Shrinkage of fibres during treatment had significant effects on the fibre structure, as well as on fibre mechanical properties such as tensile strength and modulus. Alkali treated jute yarns exhibited an increase in yarn tensile strength and modulus of about 120% and 150% respectively. These changes in mechanical properties were effected by modifying the fibre structure, basically via the crystallinity ratio, degree of polymerisation and orientation. Sisal fibre (154, 193, 216, 289), coir (198), jute (221, 291, 296) and flax fibre (314) have also been mercerised and their properties evaluated.

Figure 5 (452, 453) shows the results of fibre extraction pull-out tests where adhesion is plotted against treatment time for sisal and coir fibres in a polyester matrix. The cohesion of polyester resin to alkalised sisal fibres went from 10 to 15.5 N and the adhesion increased correspondingly up to an alkalising time of around 90 hours. After that the pull-out load and the adhesion decreased distinctly. A similar result was found for debonding stress with coir fibrepolyester composites.

Figure 5a Plot of adhesion and pull-out load of sisal versus soaking time (452)

Figure 5b The effect of soaking time on the debonding stress (453)

17

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

3.2.4 Chemical Coupling An effective method of chemical modification of natural fibres is graft copolymerisation which improves the interfacial adhesion in composites. The fibre surface is treated with a compound that forms a bridge of chemical bonds between fibre and matrix. This reaction is initiated by free radicals of the cellulose molecule. The cellulose is treated with an aqueous solution containing selected ions and is exposed to high energy radiation. Then the cellulose molecule cracks and radicals are formed. Afterwards the radical sites of the cellulose are treated with a suitable solution, compatible with the polymer matrix. The resulting copolymer possesses properties with characteristics of both fibrous cellulose and grafted polymer. For example, the treatment of cellulose fibres with hot maleicpolypropylene anhydride (MAH-PP) copolymers, provides covalent bonds across the interface with the matrix (451). The mechanism of reaction can be divided into two steps as shown in Figure 6.

After this treatment the surface energy of the fibres is increased to a level much closer to the surface energy of the matrix. Thus, a better wettability and a higher interfacial adhesion is obtained. The graft copolymerisation method is effective, but complex. Many publications have discussed the effectiveness of maleic anhydride-polypropylene copolymers (MAH-PP) as a coupling agent in natural fibre reinforced polypropylene: •

flax (310, 403, 436),

•

sisal (218),

•

bamboo (391),

•

kenaf (426),

•

wheat straw (441),

•

oil palm (268) and

HO HO

C C

CH2 C H

O

PP chain

O

C

Δ

C

CH2

C

C H

PP chain

(1) Activation of the copolymer by heating (t = 170 °C) (before fibre treatment)

O

O

C

O

(2) Esterification of cellulose

Figure 6 Treatment of cellulose fibres with hot MAH-PP

18

+

H2O

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

•

wood fibres (165, 166, 270, 280, 297, 344, 392, 398, 400, 404, 413).

Mieck and co-workers (448) determined increased shear and tensile strengths of about 100% and 25% respectively for flax-polypropylene composites when the coupling agent was applied to the flax fibre surfaces before the composite was processed. These improvements depend on the grafting rate and on the average molar mass of the grafted copolymer.

separating agent in the fibre-matrix interface. Additionally, during the reaction process, voids appear in the matrix due to the evaporation of water. Both phenomena lead to a decrease in the mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced composites. Fibre drying can be carried out in a vacuum oven at different temperatures.

4.1 Thermoplastics Mishra and co-workers (288, 324, 399, 402) examined the influence of MAH-PP on banana, hemp and sisal fibre reinforced composites. Treated fibres showed that the absorption of steam and water, thickness swelling is less than the untreated respective fibre composites. The shore-D hardness was generally higher for composites based on maleic anhydride-treated fibres. Gassan and co-workers (338) demonstrated that fibre pull-out is reduced after modification with MAH-PP for jute reinforced composites. This improved fibrematrix adhesion further leads to a lower creep strain in the outer fibres. Matuana and co-workers (400) observed that the effectiveness of maleated polypropylene in improving the mechanical properties of wood fibre reinforced composites could be attributed to the compatibilisation effect which was accomplished by reducing the total wood fibre surface energy, improving the polymer matrix impregnation, improving fibre dispersion and orientation and enhancing the interfacial adhesion through mechanical interlocking. Aranguren and co-workers (384) treated wood fibres with MAH-PP and alkali. No improvement in the mechanical behaviour of polyester-wood fibres composites occurred with only alkali-treatment, while the composites treated with MAH-PP exhibited better performance under compressive load. Gassan and co-workers (410) investigated the influence of MAH-PP treatment conditions on the modulus of jute fibre reinforced PP. This treatment improves wetting, resulting in better fibre-PP matrix adhesion compared to that of unmodified fibre matrix systems.

4 Processing of Natural Fibre Reinforced Plastics Drying of fibres before processing is an important factor, as water on the fibre surface acts like a

The lower thermal stability of natural and wood fibres (up to 230 °C) limits the number of thermoplastics which can be used as matrix material for composites. Only those thermoplastics whose processing temperature does not exceed 230 °C, are useable for natural and wood fibre thermoplastics. These are generally polyolefins, such as polyethylene and polypropylene. Technical thermoplastics, like polyamides, polyesters and polycarbonates require processing temperatures in excess of 250 °C and are therefore not useable for such composite processing without fibre degradation.

4.1.1 Extrusion The extrusion process involves two types of extruder. Twin-screw extruders dominate today’s market due to their compounding capability and functional versatility. Twin-screw extruders continuously mix and devolatilise wood fibres and other natural cellulosic materials with plastics. High-speed twinscrew extruders have been used to produce pellets, which are then processed in a separate operation on a single-screw extruder to make an extruded part. A suitable combination of process variables was required to limit the thermal degradation of the wood and natural fibres. Twin-screw extruders have been widely used for wood/plastic composites (149, 176, 187, 246, 262, 293, 317, 318, 360, 366. Yeh Wang and co-workers (152) experimented with the influence of processing parameters on the properties of wood flour filled polyethylene using co-rotating twin-screw extruders. A suitable combination of processing variables including screw speed, screw configuration, throughput rate and barrel temperatures were necessary to limit thermal degradation and darkening of the filler. Similar investigations have been carried out for flax fibre (183, 300, 362), rice hulls (207) and bamboo fibre (358) reinforced composites.

19

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

4.1.2 Injection Moulding Injection moulding requires a polymer with a low molecular weight to maintain low viscosity. By contrast, extrusion requires a polymer with a higher molecular weight for better melt strength. Injection moulding differs from profile extrusion in that after the material is heated, it is pumped into a permanent mould, where it takes shape and cools. The mould is then opened and the finished part discharged. Injectionmoulded parts range from buttons to computer cases to automotive components. Currently, the primary application of high thermoplastic content lignocellulosic composites is for interior door panels and trunk liners in automobiles. Johnson Controls Automotive (312) presented an overview of the state of the art of the use of plasticnatural fibre composite materials for interior car parts and the technologies used to produce such parts (injection moulding, low pressure injection moulding and coinjection moulding). Research has been performed on several kinds of natural and wood fibre (jute, flax, kenaf, eucalyptus) for applications in semifinished products, i.e., granules (short natural fibre) for the injection moulding process. Research by the automotive industry (363) into plant fibre composites is focusing on two processing routes: injection moulding for non-structural parts and resin transfer moulding for semi-structural parts. The injection moulding process has been applied to wood fibre (355), flax fibre (361, 408), hemp (411), jute (396), rice hulls (173) and sisal fibre (197, 356) filled composites. Abbes and co-workers (365) tried to optimise the injection moulding process using available moulding software. Two sets of process simulation software were used, namely C-MOLD and STRIMFLOW. It was shown that the conventional continuous mechanics equations can be used for modelling the injection moulding of thermoplastic-cellulose composites.

4.1.3 Compression Moulding Thermoplastic fibre-reinforced composites are distinguished from thermoset reinforced composites primarily by a high elongation at break, short cycle times and the possibility of recycling. The compression moulding technique has proved suitable for the production of profiles with any thermoplastic prepreg.

20

Compression moulding brings the thermoplastic prepreg gently to the required shape without over compressing the material. The different layer orientations are thus retained after moulding. Johnson Controls (164) compared new materials and processes for the manufacture of automotive door panels. The material was Fibropur, a natural fibre mat (flax, sisal, hemp, kenaf) sprayed with PU-resin and processed by compression moulding. Flax fibre (147, 167, 362), wood fibre (184) and jute fibre (357) reinforced composites have also been prepared by the compression moulding process. Iannace and co-workers (353) prepared biocomposites based on sea algae fibres and a biodegradable thermoplastic matrix and investigated the effects of processing, such as compression moulding and calendering on the mechanical properties of the materials.

4.1.4 Express Process Extrusion press processing (express-processing) was developed for the production of flax fibre reinforced polypropylene at the research centre of Daimler Chrysler, Ulm, Germany. In this process natural fibre non-wovens and thermoplastic melt films are alternately deposited in a mould. The thermoplastic melt films are laid on by a mobile extruder. If this process is optimally adapted, a single passage by the extruder suffices. The structural order consists of three layers: two layers of non-wovens on the bottom and one on top with the melt film in between. The values for the tensile strength plotted against density for flax fibre PP composites exceed the characteristics values of sisal fibre reinforced PP composites. Figure 7 shows the tensile strength of different fibre reinforced PP composites prepared by express processing (380). A special production process for natural fibre mat reinforced thermoplastics (NMT) has been developed by BASF AG, Germany (450). NMT products have been tested including flax fibrePP composites (211, 313, 319, 450) and the properties compared with glass fibre mat thermoplastic composites. Bruijin (210) has highlighted the advantages and disadvantages of natural fibre mat thermoplastics in automotive applications.

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Figure 7 Tensile strength of different types of fibre reinforced composites, produced by express processing (380)

4.1.5 Mixing Mixing is of key importance for obtaining materials with appropriate processing characteristics. Before a natural or wood fibre-plastic composite can be processed into a final product, it will usually have to undergo mixing or compounding. It is not merely the base materials, but also the choice of additives that will determine the properties of the finished product. Mixing is the process of imparting the desired distribution to two or more components that may be present in solid or liquid form. For mixing or compounding, thermokinetic mixers are divided into two types depending on the mixing system: continuous mixers and batch mixers. Balatinecz and co-workers (418) studied the feasibility of developing a continuous compounding process for wood fibre/thermoplastic composites using a Szego mill in comparison with a thermokinetic Gelimat mixer. Composites with 30 wt% wood fibre were prepared by both compounding processes and their mechanical properties were evaluated.

fibre reinforced composites. The advantages, design, operation and optimisation of processing through further modification was evaluated.

4.2 Thermosets Thermoset polymers form the matrix in filled plastics and fibre-reinforced composites used in a diversity of products. These range from consumer items and automotive body panels to advanced composites for printed circuit boards, aerospace structural components and expensive, high-performance sports equipment. The economically most attractive glass-fibre reinforced plastics for special technical uses are produced by resin transfer moulding (RTM) and winding technology, etc., while semi-finished products are made from sheet moulding compound (SMC) and bulk moulding compound (BMC) systems.

4.2.1 Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) Chopped jute fibre and kenaf fibre PP composites (440); waste wood fibre (mixture of plywood, particle board and fibre board), kenaf and waste jute fibre polyester composites (445); and kenaf fibre PP composites (446) have also been compounded by mixer. Bornemann (a.9) has reviewed the use of batch type high speed mixers for compounding natural and wood

Resin transfer moulding (RTM) describes a family of processes for the fabrication of composite components. The distinguishing feature of RTM is the transfer of thermosetting resin from some external supply into a matched mould that contains fibre reinforcement in the form of a mat or preform. This is facilitated by a pressure difference between the resin supply and the

21

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

mould cavity. RTM provides a convenient fabrication route for a variety of applications ranging from high stress components with directional reinforcements to non-structural items using modest levels of random reinforcement.

5 Properties of Natural and Wood Fibre Composites

Richardson and co-workers (219) concluded that RTM of natural plant fibres as reinforcement in polymeric composites provide additional technological, economical, ecological and environmental benefits. The RTM filling process has significant effects on different aspects, such as fibre wetting out and impregnation, injection gate design, dry patch and void formation.

There are several mechanical properties that are important to know about each natural fibre. Tensile, flexural, impact and creep are some of the important considerations.

The RTM process has also been tested for flax fibre (209, 341), hemp (215) and sisal (238) plastic composites and the physico-mechanical properties evaluated.

5.1 Mechanical Properties

Natural and wood fibres are in general suitable to reinforce plastics (thermosets as well as thermoplastics) due to their relatively high strength and stiffness and low density. Table 5 (a.11) shows that the characteristic values for flax and soft wood kraft fibres reach levels approaching the values for glass fibres.

5.1.1 Tensile Properties 4.2.2 Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) In the automobile and electronic industries, big amounts of pressed parts from SMC or BMC are used for bumpers, trunk covers and spoilers. In Figure 8 (a.10) pressed SMC materials based on flax fibres are compared with those made of glass fibres. This shows that the glass fibre reinforced material has higher characteristic values except for tensile strength. However, if the measured values are compared with reference to density, the results of the flax fibre based SMC moulded plastics are located in the same range as the glass fibre SMC moulded types.

Tensile properties are some of the most widely tested properties of natural and wood fibre reinforced composites. The fibre strength can be an important factor in selecting a specific natural fibre for a specific application. Investigations about this behaviour have covered the effect of coupling agents (166, 185, 264), different matrices (150, 200) and chemical treatment (234) for wood fibre composites, and all of these factors can improve tensile properties. Fossen and co-workers (208) showed that adding flax fibre to caseinate plastic gave composites with a six-

Figure 8 Characteristic values of glass fibre and flax fibre SMC moulded plastics (absolute values and in reference to density)

22

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

fold increase in tensile modulus and a five-fold increase in tensile strength. Flax fibres have also been tested with Duralin treatment (169), with MAH-PP (252) and with alkali treatment (339). Khan and co-workers (291, 321) investigated the influence of surface modifications (dewaxing, 5% alkali treatment, grafting of acrylonitrile and gamma radiation) on jute fibre reinforced biodegradable composites, and found a significant increase in tensile strength. Investigations have also been carried out into the tensile properties of composites with jute (336, 415), sisal (206, 235, 301, 342, 364), coir (170), pineapple leaf fibre (100, 327, 346, 444) and bagasse (254, 326). The tensile strength of natural fibres also depends on the length of the specimens which is of primary importance regarding reinforcing efficiency. Figure 9 illustrates that the tensile strength of flax fibres is significantly more dependent on the length of the fibre than is the case for glass fibres (a.12). Flax is compared with DDA flax (steam explosion) and glass fibre.

5.1.2 Flexural Properties Flexural properties have also been widely investigated. d’Almeida (181) showed that on a cost basis the composites fabricated with high flexural strength,

natural and wood fibres can even compete with glass fibre-mat polyester matrix composites. Flexural properties have been extensively investigated for wood fibre (159, 165, 199, 250), flax fibre (177, 212, 278), jute fibre (299, 371), coir (325) and oil palm fibre (158), looking at the influence of moulding parameters, chemical treatment, esterification, different wood species, fibre loading and surface wettability. Gassan and co-workers (340) showed the effect of water absorption-desorption cycles on jute reinforced composites. Silane treatment of the jute fibre led to an increase of up to 30% in flexural strength. Absorptiondesorption cycles of fibres changed the fracture mechanisms.

5.1.3 Impact Properties Nowadays, there is a lot of research going on into the impact properties of natural and wood fibre reinforced composites. Impact properties were examined for: •

wood/sisal (235),

•

jute (178),

•

oil palm (239),

•

maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (151, 189),

•

silane treated fibre (307), and

•

degraded fibre composites (258).

Figure 9 Dependence of tensile strength on the test length, flax fibres compared to textile glass fibres (a.12)

23

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Bledzki and co-workers (213, 305, 328) introduced an impact falling weight testing device. Jute reinforced composite materials were impacted on an instrumented low-velocity non-penetration fallingweight impact tester. Matuana and co-workers (200, 273) investigated the effects of impact modifiers on the properties of rigid PVC/wood fibre composites, which showed that impact resistance was strongly dependent upon the type and content of impact modifiers, increasing significantly with modifier concentration. Gassan and co-workers (a.11) have performed impact investigations on jute-polypropylene composites with and without coupling agent (MAHPP) (338). It turned out that damage initiation can be shifted to higher forces with strong fibre-matrix adhesion, as composites with a weak fibre-matrix adhesion break down at smaller forces at a load perpendicular to the fibre. Bledzki and co-workers investigated the impact properties of hard wood fibre-PP composites. Figure 10 (a.13) shows that with the addition of the coupling agent MAH-PP, impact strength (maximum force) increased significantly and lead to a decrease of loss

energy and damping index of composites compared to untreated composites where damping index decreased 60% maximum (Figure 11 (a.13)) .

5.2 Physical Properties Natural and wood fibre when dry, has unique properties. But the understanding of water-polymer interactions in polymeric composite materials is critical to the prediction of their behaviour in applications where they are exposed to water or a humid environment. The application of natural and wood fibre reinforcement is limited mainly because of the changes in geometry due to swelling.

5.2.1 Water Absorption Drying of fibres before processing is an important factor because water on the surface acts like a separating agent in the fibre-matrix interface. For jute-epoxy composites (439), the tensile strength of maximally pre-dried fibres (moisture content approximately 1 wt.%) rises by about 10% compared to minimally dried fibres (moisture content approximately 10 wt.%).

Figure 10 Influence of fibre treatment on force-deflection behaviour of hard wood-polypropylene composites comparing untreated and MAH-PP treated fibres (impact energy = 1.69 J, fibre content = 30 vol.%, thickness of specimens = 2 mm)

24

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Figure 11 Influence of fibre surface treatment on the loss energy and damping of hard wood fibre-polypropylene composites (impact energy = 1.69 J, thickness of specimens = 2 mm)

Water absorption tests on maleic anhydride modified wood fibre reinforced composites (270) indicated that they were more hydrophobic than the unmodified ones. This was also shown by Mitra and co-workers (282) for acrylonitrile modified jute fibre composites, water absorption was much reduced for cold and boiling water compared to unmodified jute fibre composites. Bledzki and co-workers found that jute fibres lost 30% of their tenacity after exposure to water while the tenacity of flax fibres remained unaffected (339). Woodflour-plastic composites based on PP, PE and UPVC were found to be as strong as medium density fibreboard (MDF) and superior to wooden materials due to their lower water absorption on exposure to water (323). Modification by crosslinking and acetylation of cellulose was found to reduce the hygroscopicity of wood and wood composites (378).

matrices and for fibreboard, particleboard and flakeboard resistance to degradation mediated by water vapour adsorption.

5.2.2 Swelling The hydroxyl groups (-OH) in cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin build a large amount of hydrogen bonds between the macromolecules of wood polymers. Exposing the wood to humidity, causes these bonds to be broken. The hydroxyl groups then form new hydrogen bonds with water molecules which induce the swelling illustrated in Figure 12 (378).

Thomas and co-workers (382) have evaluated the influence of fibre loading, temperature and chemical treatment on the water uptake of pineapple leaf fibreLDPE composites.

Thomas and co-workers (168) investigated short sisal fibre reinforced styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) composites using the restricted equilibrium swelling method. The influence of fibre loading, fibre orientation, bonding agent and variations in dimensions on swelling behaviour of the composites were evaluated. Test solvents included benzene, toluene and xylene.

Tshabalala and co-workers (354) examined the surface characteristics of wood fibres and attempted to correlate these to water adsorption behaviour. They showed that a desirable feature for wood/plastic composites was optimal adhesion to non-wood

Chauhan and co-workers (290) showed that swelling of graft copolymers of jute fibre reinforced composites increases as a function of grafting and at a particular graft level follows the order: dimethyl formamide> H2O>isopropanol.

25

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

OH

5.2.3 Moisture Content

OH

WOOD OH

OH

Moisture content at a given relative humidity can have a great effect on the performance of a composite made from natural and wood fibres. Different fibres absorb different amounts of water. For example, a composite made from pennywort fibres would have a much greater moisture content at 90 per cent relative humidity than would a composite made from bamboo fibres. The pennywort product would be much more prone to decay as compared to the bamboo product. Table 6 shows the equilibrium moisture content of some natural and wood fibres.

OH

OH

OH

WOOD OH

OH

OH

nH2O

OH

Marchovich and co-workers (330) investigated the moisture diffusion in unsaturated polyester-wood flour composites kept at room temperature and exposed to different relative humidities. The effect of size and shape of specimen, types of wood flours, neat resin and composites were also evaluated.

OH

WOOD OH

OH

H

O

OH

Hargitai and co-workers (249, 252, 253) investigated widely the effect of moisture content on flax fibre-PP composites, including the effect of adding the coupling agent maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene.

O

H

O H

OH

H

H

HO

WOOD

5.3 Biological Properties OH

OH

Figure 12 Schematic illustration of wood swelling process on exposure to water

If natural fibre/plastic composites are used outdoors, they will be exposed to moisture, light, temperature changes, freezing, thawing, and biological attacks by fungi and bacteria (236).

Table 6 Equilibrium moisture content of some natural and wood fibres (%) Equilibrium moisture content at 27 °C

Fibre 30%RH

65%RH

90%RH

Bamboo

4.5

8.9

14.7

Bagasse

4.4

8.8

15.8

Jute

4.6

9.9

16.3

Aspen

4.9

11.1

21.5

Southern pine

5.8

12.0

21.7

Water hyacinth

6.2

16.7

36.2

Pennywort

6.6

18.3

56.8

Reproduced from R.M. Rowell, J.S. Han and J.S. Rowell in Natural Polymers and Agrofibers Based Composites, Eds., E. Frollini, A.L. Leão and L.H. Mattoso, Emprapa, 2000, 115, with permission.

26

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

The biological properties of natural fibre/plastic composites are dependent on the load of natural material in the matrix and on the surface conditions of samples produced. These properties are significantly different to the biological properties of the natural components used. The improved spectrum of properties is the basis for success in the market. Wood/plastic composites are sold for exterior application as decay resistant materials that require no maintenance. The plastic matrix is presumed to protect the fibre or wood particles against biological attack. However, wood particles remains susceptible to fungal degradation since certain amounts of water can be absorbed (258, 330). In order to prevent potential decay, borates, such as zinc borate, can be incorporated as effective and leach-resistant preservatives (a.14). In comparison to the number of physical and mechanical investigations carried out on wood, natural fibres and plastics the number of investigations on the biological properties of composites is limited and results are inconsistent. The actual lifetime of wood/ plastic lumber used for exterior applications is under debate (a.15).

5.3.1 Fungi Natural fibre and wood rotting fungi need a suitable temperature, oxygen and water supply for their growth. Water is the key parameter in decay mechanisms and in controlling durability of decay (a.16). Wood/plastic composites are relatively immune to fungal attacks since the plastic matrix largely encapsulates the wood particles. There are recent reports describing fungal attacks on wood and natural fibre filled materials (304, a.17). The decay happens at far lower rates than those found for natural wood. Traditional methods of evaluating biological durability such as weight loss and visual inspection seem not to be sufficient to adequately describe the extent of decay. Inconsistency in the different reports suggest that methods of manufacturing may be the reason for different fungal decay results. Decay susceptibility increases with wood loading (a.18).

5.3.2 Bacteria Bacteria tend to colonise natural fibres and wood with high moisture content. They can affect wood permeability, attack the structure and work together with other bacteria or fungi. Lignocellulose is degraded in a very slow process (a.19).

Whereas bacterial degradation of natural fibres and wood has been investigated, the literature about bacterial biodegradation of plastic composites is limited.

6 Biologically Degradable Composite Materials Biologically degradable composite material has become interesting in recent years as the recycling characteristics of composites are considered to be important for society, producers and consumers. The discussions about preservation of natural resources and recycling have led to increased efforts towards the development of biomaterials. Due to environmental concerns and the demands of legislative authorities, researchers are looking to replace traditional composites such as polymer/glass and polymer/aramid with biologically degradable composite materials, i.e., natural fibre reinforced biologically degradable polymers (64, 298). Biodegradation takes place through the action of enzymes and other agents of decomposition associated with living organisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.); further, abiotic reactions like photodegradation, oxidation and hydrolysis should be considered among the processes (a.20). Although all relevant international standard organisations (i.e., ASTM, CEN, DIN, ISO, ISR, and other) are developing definitions of biodegradable materials, a worldwide standard has not yet been established. Numerous biodegradable polymers have been developed which can be applied as matrices and in combination with plant fibres for the development of new composites. These include: cellulose acetate, copolyester, polycaprolactone (PCL), modified polyethylene terephthalate, polyglycolide (PGA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), polylactic acid (PLA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), starch and starch blends, etc. Natural fibres are available at low prices. Biodegradable polymers are still more expensive than standard polymers, however, it is expected that future mass production will lead to an acceptable and competitive price level. Starch converted to thermoplastic material offers many marketable products. Compostable materials have been described using cellulose, starch and casein embedding flax and wood pulp (208).

27

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Tests with different flax fibre reinforced biodegradable polymers show that the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of these composites are significantly influenced by the matrix used and the adhesion between fibre and matrix. Another recent approach is to combine soy oil resins with natural fibres (209).

Interior trim components such as dashboards, and so called ‘Green Door Panels’ using PP and natural fibres (hemp, kenaf) are produced by Johnson Controls Inc., for DaimlerChrysler (202, 203).

Surface modification of natural fibres contributes to significant increases in both the tensile and flexural strength of composites.

Soft trim parts made of PUR systems using natural fibre reinforcements were developed by Bayer (155). Interior panels of Audi’s energy efficient A2 are made of natural fibre (flax, sisal or hemp) filled PU that has an extremely low mass per unit, but very high dimensional stability (247).

7 Applications of Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymers

The Adam Opel AG uses composites made of flax fibre and polypropylene in the inner door trims of the model ‘Astra’ (a.22).

Applications of natural fibre composites have been reported since the first plastic materials (both thermosets as well as thermoplastics) were introduced to the market (175, 272, 378).

7.2 Building Applications

Countries like India have been producing natural composites for many applications such as pipes, panels and pultruded profiles for many years, however, North America and Western Europe re-invented natural fibre composites only in recent years after critical discussion about the preservation of natural resources led to a high interest in renewable raw materials. Natural fibres used in composites offer several advantages, such as no net carbon dioxide release and 40% less weight compared with glass fibre. Today, renaissance in the use of natural fibres as reinforcements in technical applications is taking place in the automotive industry (363). Wood fibre/plastics have found many applications replacing natural wood or pure plastics.

7.1 Automotive Applications There are remarkable trends towards the replacement of established materials by several types of plant fibres embedded in plastic matrices. The automotive industry is using flax, hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, wood or grainbased products as reinforcement. The most commonly used plastic matrix is polypropylene although many polyurethane (PU) applications are emerging (156, 204, 256, 376, 380). Less weight in comparison to glass fibre filled materials and no net carbon dioxide release make the new materials attractive for car manufacturers.

28

In contrary to Asia, where natural fibre reinforced materials have been used for buildings and similar applications for many years, application in the western world started in the mid-nineties in Japan and in the US followed by Europe recently (196). In this field of application, wood fibre filled materials are the main products. They are used as alternatives for natural wood (345). The market for wood polymer composites has recorded growth rates of 100% over the past 5 years in the USA. The group of materials covers a wide range of polymer matrix types including PE, PP and PVC. Finished products such as decking, cladding and window frames are very successful in the markets. The market volume in the US for building and garden products was 300,000 t/y (196). Decks are the most important application in the US. Almost all suppliers of engineered lumber in the US are serving the deck market. Nexwood Industries Brampton (ON, USA), have developed a prototype house for the Asian markets. Two million units are expected to be sold annually (a.23). In Japan, wood composites are applied for stairs, handrails and bathrooms as demonstrated by Mizawa Homes, a manufacturer of pre-manufactured houses. Window and door profile manufacturer are another industrial segment for composites (146, 316, 347).

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

7.3 Furniture and Panels Recently, furniture applications based on wood flour filled materials have been reported from Canada, Japan and Germany (222, a.24).

7.4 Aerospace Applications Due to advantages of weight, mechanical stability and price, interest in the application of natural fibre reinforced materials is growing in the aerospace industry in the US and Europe. Applications for the use of such materials based on thermoplastics are being checked for approval by the US Federal Aviation Authority and the UK Civil Aviation Authority (52, 186).

7.5 Others Natural fibre composites are being used in benches, dog kennels, sheds, flower pots, partitions and fences on the Japanese market along with decks, pavements and balcony boards. Another Japanese development is weather resistant and effective noise protection walls along the highways which is a project supported by the Ministry of Transport (a.24). Flooring products replacing hardwood materials are offered by SWH Technologies of Canada (284). Pallets made of composite fibre reinforced polyolefin composite are the subject of a US patent (386).

8 Recent Developments in Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement of Polymers Wood and other natural fibres have become a major part of thermoplastic filler and reinforcement developments worldwide. Agriculture and other industries see opportunities for developing these materials (335, a.25-a.27). The goal for the creation of bio-based products set by the US government is a pacemaker for industry,

forestry and agriculture. North American demand for natural fibres in plastic composites is forecast to reach 15 to 50% annually. Thus far European efforts have been concentrated on natural fibre reinforced plastics for automotive applications, due to the European automotive recycling law, this development could be interrupted as natural fibre composites may not be economical to recover (259). Many of the European developments have a chance to be transferred to North America and find application in new car models. North America is by far the leading wood plastic market with high annual growth rates and will hold this position. However, the trend to produce engineered wood will reach Europe soon. The ambitious objective of the Dutch company Techwood International B.V. to produce 50,000 houses for the Caribic will be signal for other European enterprises. Window profiles are expected to be produced soon in Europe after Anderson in the US demonstrated the feasibility of this market segment. Window profiles are in position to compete with wooden window constructions because they are maintenance free and moisture resistant. Since PVC is under pressure from environmentalists this market share can be occupied as well. Not only the UK, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia but also Austria, Italy and Germany are considering a higher involvement in the wood plastic market. The increased activities of equipment producers offering suitable extrusion and injection moulding machinery is a significant indication of this trend (146, 333). The furniture industry in Japan and Germany is just making the first steps in creating new offerings based on wood plastic materials. Recently, the concept of creating microcellular foamed structures in natural and wood fibre composites as a means of improving the shortcomings (mainly weight reduction) has successfully been demonstrated. The production of microcellular foamed structures in polymer/wood fibre composites through a batch foaming process has been investigated (160, 373, 394, 416, 417, 423, 432, 435). The batch foaming process used to generate cellular foamed structures in the composites is not likely to be implemented in the industrial production of foams because it is not costeffective. The microcellular batch foaming process is time consuming due to the multiple steps in the production of foamed samples.

29

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

The manufacture of polymer/wood fibre composite foams in an extrusion process has also been investigated (134, 136, 179, 343, a.28, a.29) considering factorial design, cellular morphology and cell density. Park and co-workers (153) have been experimenting with two system configurations (tandem extrusion system versus single extruder system) for wood fibre/polymer composites to demonstrate the system effect on cell morphology and foam properties. Microcellular foams containing flax fibre as well as wood fibre in an injection moulding process have been introduced, the density was reduced by around 25% (a.30, a.31). Natural fibre (jute and flax fibre) reinforced epoxy foams (a.32) and polyurethane microfoams (81) have also been introduced. The effect of chemical foaming agents on the processing and properties of wood plastic composites has been of interest, because properties such as insulation values, shrinkage, distortion and stiffness can be influenced positively. The benefits of using chemical foaming agents were considered including consistent process control, nucleating effects which can solve the moisture problems, improvements in mechanical properties and improved wood/plastic compatibility (157). A promising potential application in the near future for wood/plastic composite is the replacement of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) pressure treated wood products for landscaping and playgrounds. After having found that CCA treated materials can cause liver cancer, authorities in the US and Europe started actions to replace them. Hetfleisch has prepared the deck body and basin of a boat with sisal fibre mat using a thermoforming process (a.33). Since the demand for sustainable and renewable materials is rising biodegradable polymers have had a chance to grow during recent years. Recent work on biocomposites could prove them to be compatible in major technical aspects, however, cost reduction is required. The challenge lies in finding applications which would consume sufficient amounts in order to reduce and stabilise costs.

30

9 Conclusion Over 100 years of development, scientific work and technical application into combining natural fibres with both thermosets and thermoplastics, has culminated in growing new markets and industries. Worldwide activities can be encountered, industrialised countries are always looking for new materials, agriculture and plant producing regions hoping for new fibre opportunities. The advantages of natural fibres over traditional reinforcing materials such as glass are lower cost, lower density, high toughness and environmentally friendly processes. Figure 13 shows the mechanical properties of natural and wood fibre reinforced composites compared to glass fibre mat thermoplastic (GMT) reinforced composites. Due to the improving mechanical properties (tensile strength, charpy impact strength) of natural and wood fibre reinforced composites, which are increasing day by day, these composites are taking their place in the world market with a good reputation. Much work has been done to optimise the interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix. Various surface modifications of natural fibres such as alkali treatment, acetylation, bleaching, isocyanate treatment, vinyl grafting and treatment with coupling agents have been assessed. However, the success of natural fibre/plastic composites for industrial applications depends on both economically viable production and mechanical and physical performance. The automotive industry is a sensitive indicator of those requirements. The increasing acceptance by car makers demonstrates that natural fibre reinforced plastics have become mature materials. The growing number of publications in the scientific literature proves the field of research and development to be more active than ever. Also, the mushrooming number of international and regional conferences on natural and wood fibre plastics indicates the importance of the field of investigation. With efforts being made to introduce biodegradable polymers and their composites on an industrial scale, a new chapter of development has been opened.

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

Figure 13 Potential properties of natural and wood fibre reinforced composites

Additional References a.1

a.2

W. Sonntag and W. Barthel, Proceedings of the 4th International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2002, 1-1. R.M. Rowell, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Frontiers of Polymers and Advanced Materials, Kualalumpur, Malaysia, 1995, New York, Plenum Press, 659.

a.8

A.K. Bledzki and J. Gassan, 7th Internationales Techtexil Symposium, Frankfurt, Germany, 1995, 311.

a.9

H.J. Bornemann, Proceedings of the 4th International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2002, 13-1.

a.10

R. Kohler and M. Wedler, 6th Internationales Techtexil Symposium, Frankfurt, Germany, 1994.

a.11

A.K. Bledzki and J. Gassan, Progress in Polymer Science, 1999, 24, 221.

a.3

M. Karus and M. Kaup, Technische Textilien, 2001, 44, 258. a.12

R. Kohler and M. Wedler, Landinfo, 1995, 3, 33.

a.4

J.M. Dinwoodie, Wood: Nature’s Cellular, Polymeric Fibre-Composite, Institute of Metals, 1989.

a.13

R. Lützkendorf, K.P. Mieck, T. Reußmann, A. Nechwatal and M. Eilers, Proceedings of the 3rd International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2000, 7-1.

O. Faruk, M. Huque and A.K. Bledzki, Poster, Proceedings of the 3rd International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2000, 30-1.

a.14

P. Laks, Protecting Wood Composites, Pioneer Magazine, July 1995.

a.15

P.I. Morris and R. Cooper, Forest Products Journal, 1998, 48, 1, 86.

a.16

R.A. Zabel and J.J. Morell, Wood Microbiology: Decay and its Prevention, Academic Press, 1992.

a.5

a.6 a.7

C.D. Römpp, Chemielexikon, Version 1.0, Georg Thieme Verlag, 1995. H. Bosshard, Holzkunde, Birkhäuser Verlag Basel, 1984, 2. Auflage.

31

Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers

a.17

B.W. English and R.H. Falk, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Woodfiber-Plastic Composites, 1996, 189.

a.32

A.K. Bledzki and W. Zhang, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 2001, 20, 1263.

a.18

S.A. Verhey, P.E. Laks and D.L. Richter, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Woodfiber-Plastic Composites, 2001, 79.

a.33

J. Hetfleisch. Kunststoffe, Special Edition, 2002, 3.

a.19

K.E.L. Erikson, R.A. Blanchette and P. Ander, Microbial and Enzymatic Degradation of Wood and Wood Components, SpringerVerlag, New York, 1990, 407.

Abbreviations and Acronyms BMC

bulk moulding compounds

CCA

chromated copper arsenate

DDA

Dampfdruckaufschluss (steam explosion)

GMT

glass fibre mat thermoplastics

GRP

glass reinforced plastics

HDPE

high density polyethylene

MAH-PP

maleic anhydride-polypropylene copolymer

MDF

medium density fibreboard

NMT

natural fibre mat reinforced thermoplastics

PCL

polycaprolactone

PE

polyethylene

PGA

polyglycolide

PHA

polyhydroxyalkanoate

PLA

polylactic acid

PP

polypropylene

PS

polystyrene

C.B. Park, G.M. Rizvi and H. Zhang, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Wood Fiber-Plastic Composites, 1999, Wisconsin, USA, 105.

PU

polyurethane

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

PVOH

polyvinyl alcohol

L.M. Matuana, J.J. Balatinecz and C.B. Park, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Woodfiber-Plastic Composites, 1999, Poster, Wisconsin, USA, 318.

RTM

resin transfer moulding

SBR

styrene-butadiene rubber

SEM

scanning electron micrographs

a.30

W. Zhang, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kassel, Germany, 2001.

SMC

sheet moulding compounds

UP

unsaturated polyester resin

a.31

A.K. Bledzki and O. Faruk, Proceedings of Antec 2002, Volume 2, 1897.

UPVC

rigid polyvinyl chloride

a.20

a.21 a.22

A.C. Albertson and S. Karlson, Chemistry and Technology of Biodegradable Polymers, Blacky, Glasgow, 1994. MarTech, Biodegradable Polymers in North America and Europe, New York, USA, 2002. P. Walter, Proceedings of the 3rd International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2000, 14-1.

a.23

Natural and Wood Fiber, 2002, 1, 1.

a.24

T. Kikuchi, Proceedings of the 3rd International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2000, 19-1.

a.25

J.H. Schut, Plastic Technology, 1999, 45, 3, 46.

a.26

C. Eckert, Opportunities of natural fibers in plastic composites, Proceedings of Progress in Woodfiber-Plastic Composites Conference, Toronto, Canada, 2000.

a.27

a.28

a.29

32

V.E. Sperber, Proceedings of the 4th International Wood and Natural Fibre Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 2002, 3-1.

References and Abstracts

Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database Item 1 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 41, No.3, 2002, p.453-68 POLYPROPYLENE (PP) - ACACIA MANGIUM COMPOSITES: THE EFFECT OF ACETYLATION ON MECHANICAL AND WATER ABSORPTION PROPERTIES Abdul Khalil H P S; Rozman H D; Ismail H; Rosfaizal; Ahmad M N Universiti Sains Malaysia Acacia mangium wood flour (AMWF)-PP composites were produced at different filler loadings (20, 30, 40 or 50 w/w) and mesh number (35, 60, 80 or 100 mesh). The mechanical properties and water absorption properties of acetylated AMWF (100 mesh only)-PP and unmodified AMWF-PP composites were studied. Increasing the mesh number of the unmodified AMWF resulted in increased flexural and impact properties. The flexural modulus increased with increasing filler loading, but the flexural strength and impact strength decreased. Water absorption and thickness swelling increased with increasing mesh number and filler loading, which was attributed to the presence of hydrophilic hydroxyl groups in the filler. Modified AMWF-PP composites showed higher mechanical properties and good water resistance compared with unmodified AMWF-PP composites at all filler loadings. The failure mechanism was studied by SEM. 23 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.862926 Item 2 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 41, No.3, 2002, p.435-51 PHYSICO-MECHANICAL STUDIES OF WOOD FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES Bledzki A K; Faruk O; Huque M Kassel,Universitat; Bangladesh,University of Engineering & Technology Wood-PP composites containing 30, 40 or 50% wood fibres were prepared using a maleic anhydride grafted PP copolymer (MAH-PP) coupling agent (5 or 10% of the wood fibre content). Hard wood fibre-PP composites showed a better performance than soft wood-PP fibre composites. The mechanical properties of the composites increased when the coupling agent was added. The tensile strength increased by about 50% maximum with the addition of MAH-PP (5%) at a hard wood fibre content of 50%. The Charpy impact strength increased up to 20% with the addition of MAH-PP (5%) at a hard wood fibre content of 30%. The damping index decreased by 60% with the addition of MAH-PP (10%) at a hard wood fibre content of 50%. 16 refs.

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

BANGLADESH; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.862925 Item 3 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 41, No.3, 2002, p.419-33 WATER ABSORPTION BEHAVIOR AND ITS EFFECT ON TENSILE PROPERTIES OF ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-DIENETERPOLYMER/POLYPROPYLENE/FILLER TERNARY COMPOSITES: A PRELIMINARY STUDY Siriwardena S; Ismail H; Ishiaku U S Universiti Sains Malaysia The water absorption behaviour of white rice husk ash (WRHA) and silica filled EPDM/PP ternary composites and its effect on the tensile properties of the composites were studied. The effects of filler type, sample preparation (die cut or moulded) and dynamic vulcanisation of the elastomer phase on the rate of water absorption and final water uptake were investigated. Silica-filled composites showed more water uptake at a higher rate than did WRHA-filled composites and die cut samples absorbed more water at a faster rate than die moulded samples. All vulcanised composites showed a lower water uptake than the unvulcanised ones. After immersion in water, the tensile properties of the unvulcanised composites were almost unaffected, whereas the vulcanised composites showed increased tensile properties. None of the composites reached the equilibrium state within the 40 day immersion period. The results were discussed. 16 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.862924 Item 4 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 85, No.9, 29th Aug.2002, p.1961-9 KUDZU FIBER-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITE Luo X; Benson R S; Kit K M; Dever M Tennessee,University Polypropylene composites which are fibre-reinforced with Kudzu were prepared, and their mechanical and thermal properties determined. Kudzu is a legume that is native to Japan and China, but is a major invasive post in the USA. It has been suggested as a source of reinforcing fibres. In the composite, maleic anhydridegrafted polypropylene (MAPP) was used as a compatibiliser to improve the adhesion between the fibre and the polypropylene. Up to a concentration of 35 weight percent of MAPP a continuous improvement was seen in the tensile properties. The tensile modulus

33

References and Abstracts

increased by 24 percent and the tensile strength by 54 percent. FTIR spectroscopy, SEM and DSC were both used to characterise the composites. FTIR showed an increase in hydrogen bonding with an increase in MAPP content. 8 refs. USA

Accession no.862884

BRAINED IDEA? Pierce J Researchers at the University of Delaware have developed wafers using chicken feather fibres and soybean resin. These wafers are claimed to have outperformed silicon microchips. DELAWARE,UNIVERSITY USA

Item 5 Composite Interfaces 9, No.4, 2002, p.335-53 EFFECT OF FIBER SURFACE TREATMENTS ON THE FIBER-MATRIX INTERACTION IN BANANA FIBER REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Pothan L A; George J; Thomas S Bishop Moore College; Eindhoven,University of Technology; Mahatma Gandhi,University The surfaces of banana fibre were treated with various silanes and alkali (sodium hydroxide) and characterised by means of scanning electron microscopy and FTIR spectroscopy. The effects of surface treatment on the tensile, flexural and impact properties and interfacial adhesion of composites made from the treated fibres and a polyester resin were investigated and the influence of fibre-matrix adhesion on the mechanical properties of the composites examined. Changes in the surface morphology and polarity of the treated fibres were also analysed and the effectiveness of the various treatments compared. 25 refs. INDIA

Accession no.862465 Item 6 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 92, No.7, July 2002, p.34-6 NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE. DIRECT PROCESSING OF NATURAL LONG FIBRES BY THE PLASTICISING COMPRESSION PROCESS Reussman T; Miack K-P; Brussel R Chemnitz,Technical University; Dieffenbacher AG Refer to Kunststoffe, 92, No.7, 2002, p.86-9 for graphs and tables. Brief details are given of the potential properties of natural fibre-reinforced PP using long and short fibre reinforcement. Changes in fibre content on changes in mechanical properties are discussed. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.862422 Item 7 Engineer 291, No.7609, 9th-29th Aug. 2002, p.10 CHICKEN-FIBRE WAFERS: A FEATHER-

34

Accession no.862255 Item 8 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 15, No.4, July 2002, p.337-53 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FIBERS ON THE PROCESSING AND PROPERTIES OF POLYPROPYLENE MATRIX COMPOSITES Lopez-Manchado M A; Biagiotti J; Kenny J M Madrid,Instituto de Ciencia y Tec.de Polim.; Perugia,Universita The effects of different fibres on the processing and physical and mechanical properties of PP composites based thereon were investigated. Fibres employed were aramid fibres, PETP fibres, glass fibres and sisal and properties evaluated included flow, tensile properties, flexural properties, impact resistance and morphological properties. The morphology of the composites was analysed by scanning electron microscopy and the relationship between the morphology and properties of the composites examined. 25 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.860578 Item 9 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 15, No.4, July 2002, p.281-300 DEVELOPMENT OF A FLAX/POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITE WITH OPTIMAL MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS BY FIBER AND MATRIX MODIFICATION Van de Velde K; Kiekens P Ghent,University Long flax fibres were treated with propyltrimethoxysilane, phenyl isocyanate and maleic acid anhydride modified PP and the sorption characteristics, tensile properties and roughness of the treated fibres determined. Composites were produced from treated fibres expected to exhibit good properties and subjected to flexural, interlaminar shear strength and sorption tests. Composites containing fibres treated with the maleic acid anhydride modified PP or with a maleic acid anhydride modified PP matrix were found to have the best properties. 11 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.860575

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 10 Polymer Composites 23, No.3, June 2002, p.383-94 SURFACE MODIFICATION OF FIQUE FIBRES. EFFECTS ON THEIR PHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Ganan P; Mondragon I Medellin,Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana; Pais Vasco,Universidad

form in crystals tend to increase in the PP/SF composites considerably. These results lead to the increase in the melting temperature of PP. Moreover, the stiffness of the PP/SF composites is improved by the addition of sisal fibres but their tensile strength decreases because of the poor interfacial bonding. The PP/SF composites are toughened by the sisal fibres due to the formation of Bform PP crystals and the pull-out of sisal fibres from the PP matrix, both factors retard crack-growth.

A study is performed to assess the possibilities of fique fibres (a Colombian native fibre) as a reinforcement for polymeric matrices. The fique fibres are treated using different chemical surface treatments. The effects produced on the properties of fique fibres are investigated. The treatments applied are mercerisation, and/or chemical agents such as maleic anhydride and acrylic acid, and also silanisation. In order to analyse the chemical in the treated fibres, FTIR spectroscopy is used along with two related techniques: attenuated total reflection and coupled microscopy. Additionally, physical and mechanical properties of untreated and treated fique fibres are studied. A wettability study using contact angle measurements is also performed for surface free energy determination. The thermal stability of the fibres is investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. 33 refs.

AUSTRALIA; CHINA; HONG KONG

BRAZIL; COLOMBIA

Accession no.860533 Item 11 Polymer Composites 23, No.3, June 2002, p.319-28 STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF INJECTION MOULDED COMPOSITES OF POLYPROPYLENE AND SISAL FIBRE Xie X L; Li R K Y; Tjong S C; Mai Y W Hong Kong,City University; Huazhong,University of Science & Technology; Sydney,University Composites based on isotactic PP and sisal fibre (SF) are prepared by melt mixing and injection moulding. The melt mixing characteristics, thermal properties, morphology, crystalline structure and mechanical behaviour of the PP/ SF composites are systematically investigated. The results show that the PP/SF composites can be melt mixed and injection moulded under similar conditions as the PP homopolymer. For the composites with low sisal fibre content, the fibres act as sites for the nucleation of PP spherulites, and accelerate the crystallisation rate and enhance the degree of crystallinity of PP. On the other hand, when the sisal fibre content is high, the fibres hinder the molecular chain motion of PP, and retard the crystallization. The inclusion of sisal fibre induces the formation of B-form PP crystals in the PP/SF composites and produces little change in the inter-planar spacing corresponding to the various diffraction peaks of PP. The apparent crystal size as indicated by the several diffraction peaks such as L(, L((.,()_ and L(300)B of the (v and B-

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Accession no.860527 Item 12 Plastics in Building Construction 25, No.10, 2001, p.8-9 EXTRUSION SYSTEM FOR POLYMER/WOODFIBRE COMPOSITES Murdock D Davis-Standard Corp. The development of the Davis-Standard’s Woodtruder extrusion system for the processing of wood fibre and polymers is described, as are the techniques that are critical for good efficiency with this fully intermeshing counter-rotating, twin-screw extruder system that is suitable for wood fibre with an initial moisture content of less than 8%. Aspects covered include extruder design and processing. USA

Accession no.860469 Item 13 Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 16, No.8, 2002, p.999-1015 ENGINEERED NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES: INFLUENCE OF SURFACE MODIFICATIONS AND NOVEL POWDER IMPREGNATION PROCESSING Mohanty A K; Drzal L T; Misra M Michigan,State University Biocomposites were produced from chopped natural fibres of Kenaf and henequen and PP powder by powder impregnation processing. The fibres were surface modified by alkali treatment or treatment with maleated polyolefins and the effect of these surface treatments on the physicomechanical properties, such as tensile and impact properties, of the composites investigated. It was found that engineered natural fibres could be produced from a blend of these surface treated fibres, which provided composites with superior physicomechanical properties. 15 refs. USA

Accession no.860336 Item 14 Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 16, No.6, 2002, p.703-27

35

References and Abstracts

PLASMA TREATMENT OF SISAL FIBRES AND ITS EFFECTS ON TENSILE STRENGTH AND INTERFACIAL BONDING Xiaowen Yuan; Jayaraman K; Bhattacharyya D Auckland,University Argon and air plasma treatments were used to modify the surface of sisal fibres. The Taguchi method of experimental design with three factors and three levels was used to optimise the treatment parameters in relation to fibre strength. The effects of plasma treatment on interfacial bonding between sisal fibres and PP were evaluated by means of a single fibre pull-out test. The optimum treatment parameters were found to be the shortest plasma treatment time, medium power level and medium chamber pressure. Under optimal treatment, the interfacial shear strength of air plasma-treated fibres was higher than that of the argon plasma-treated fibres. SEM analyses showed that the overall roughness of the plasmatreated fibre surface increased with treatment time. The argon-plasma treated fibre surface revealed obvious corrugations, whereas cracking was apparent on the air plasma-treated fibre surface. 20 refs. (3rd International Symposium on Polymer Surface Modification, Newark, New Jersey, USA, May 2001) NEW ZEALAND

Accession no.860034 Item 15 GPEC 2002: Plastics Impact on the Environment. Proceedings of a conference held Detroit, MI, 13th14th Feb. 2002. Brookfield, CT, SPE, Paper 46, p.383-398, CD-ROM, 012 NATURAL/BIO-FIBER REINFORCED POLYOLEFIN COMPOSITES: BIO-BASED OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES IN THE MATERIALS WORLD Misra M; Mohanty A K; Drzal L T Michigan,State University (SPE,Environmental Div.) The development and commercialisation of new bio-based products is discussed with particular reference to natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyolefin biocomposites. These materials are claimed to have the largest application potential. The choice of the coupling agent is reported to govern the overall physico-mechanical properties of the biocomposite, and attention is given to the use of maleated polyolefins as effective coupling agents in the compatibilisation of natural fibre-polyolefin composite systems. Choice of fibre and matrix materials are examined, and details are given of material properties, commercial process and applications to review current developments. Also discussed is a new environmentally benign powder impregnation processing technique, which is said to show significant advantages for the manufacture of commercially attractive high volume biocomposites. 12 refs. USA

Accession no.859627

36

Item 16 GPEC 2002: Plastics Impact on the Environment. Proceedings of a conference held Detroit, MI, 13th14th Feb. 2002. Brookfield, CT, SPE, Paper 25, p.217-228, CD-ROM, 012 USE OF FUNCTIONALIZED POLYOLEFINS IN ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY PLASTIC COMPOSITES Sigworth W; Roberts D H Crompton Corp. (SPE,Environmental Div.) The use is described of maleic anhydride grafted HDPE and PP in plastic composites containing natural products such as wood flour. Data are presented to show the effects that the functionalised additives have on processing and mechanical properties. Polybond maleic anhydride functionalised polyolefins are evaluated as chemical coupling agents. These chemical coupling agents have functions in respect of wetting the wood fibre and dispersing it in the polyolefin resin. They also bond the wood to the plastic matrix, providing stronger interfacial adhesion. The effect of these functionalised products on 40% wood-filled HDPE and PP is found to increase the breaking strengths, impact properties and heat deflection temperatures, in addition to reducing water absorption. USA

Accession no.859610 Item 17 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 85, No.10, 6th Sept.2002, p.2145-54 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF SISAL FIBERS AND HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE BY COLD PLASMA TREATMENT Martin A R; Manolache S; Denes F S; Mattoso L H C Sao Carlos,Universidade Federal; Wisconsin,University Chopped sisal fibres and HDPE were surface functionalised using dichlorosilane under radio frequency plasma conditions and characterised by ESCA and fluorescence labelling techniques. A three-factor fractional experimental design was used to evaluate the effect of radio frequency power, pressure, and reaction time on the atomic composition of plasma-treated samples. 39 refs. BRAZIL; USA

Accession no.859439 Item 18 Additives for Polymers May 2002, p.3 COUPLING AGENTS FROM CROMPTON OPEN NEW MARKETS FOR WOOD-FILLED COMPOUNDS In the USA, Crompton Corp. has created new “Polybond” coupling agents for improving the processing and performance of both PE and PP compounds filled with

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

wood and other natural fibres. Brief details of the new additive are given in this concise article. CROMPTON CORP. USA

Accession no.858945 Item 19 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 85, No.7, 15th Aug.2002, p.1465-8 SOLID-STATE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE STUDY OF POLYURETHANE/ NATURAL FIBRES COMPOSITES Tavares M I B; Mothe c G; Araujo C R Rio de Janeiro,Cidade Universitaria Fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP) are prepared with sisal and sugarcane waste material. Composites of these fibres with PUs are obtained by processing these materials in a Haake plastograph, and their homogeneity is characterised by nuclear magnetic resonance measurements. The results are discussed in terms of composites interaction, homogeneity and compatibility. 10 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.858753 Item 20 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 33A, No.6, 2002, p.763-77 WATER SORPTION IN OIL PALM FIBER REINFORCED PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES Sreekala M S; Kumaran M G; Thomas S Rubber Research Institute of India; Mahatma Gandhi,University Kinetics of sorption of water in oil palm fibre-reinforced phenol-formaldehyde(PF) composites and oil palm/glass hybrid fibre-reinforced PF composites were investigated. The effects of fibre loading, relative volume fractions of fibres in hybrid composites and fibre surface modifications on the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of water sorption by the composites were also studied. Water sorption at four different temps. was analysed and compared. The composite with 10 wt % fibre loading exhibited maximum water uptake. Hybridisation of the oil palm fibre with glass markedly decreased the water sorption by the composite. The concentration dependence of the diffusion constant was analysed and discussed. 15 refs. INDIA

Accession no.858459 Item 21 Advanced Composites Letters 10, No.6, 2001, p.299-303 DETERMINATION OF INTERFACIAL SHEAR

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

STRENGTH AND CRITICAL FIBRE LENGTH IN INJECTION MOULDED FLAX FIBRE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Aurich T; Mennig G Chemnitz,Technical University Results of studies of the above are presented and discussed, particular attention being paid to influence of fibre content on modulus in tension, influence of fibre content on TS, effect of maleic anhydride-PP as coupling agent on TS for various fibre contents, frequency distribution of flax fibre length in an injection moulded part, and interfacial shear strength and critical fibre length calculated by an iterative procedure. 11 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.858411 Item 22 Advanced Composites Letters 10, No.6, 2001, p.293-7 INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS ON THE INTERFACE OF FLAX/POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Zafeiropoulos N E; Baillie C A; Matthews F L London,Imperial College of Science,Technol.& Med. The effect of cooling rates upon the interface in flax fibre/ isotactic PP composites was investigated by means of fragmentation tests. It was found that slower cooling led to a stronger interface for two different grades of flax fibres, i.e. dew retted and green flax. The interfacial stress transfer ability in these composites could thus be improved simply by controlling the processing conditions, thus avoiding the application of surface treatments that are environmentally hazardous. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.858410 Item 23 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 85, No.1, 5th July 2002, p.169-76 INTERFACE MODIFICATION ON THE PROPERTIES OF SISAL FIBER-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Fung K L; Li R K Y; Tjong S C Hong Kong,University Melt blend with subsequent injection moulding were used to prepare short sisal fibre (SF)-reinforced polypropylene (PP). In order to increase the interfacial bond strength between the SSF and PP, the PP matrix was maleated by blending PP and maleic anhydride-grafted PP (MAPP) in 9:1 wt. ratio. The SF/MAPP composites had lower melt viscosities (as indicated by torque rheometer measurements) than the SF/PP composites at the respective sisal fibre contents. The tensile strength was

37

References and Abstracts

increased by PP maleation because of the increased SF/ matrix interfacial bonding when MAPP was used, but the impact strength was decreased. The increased SF/matrix interfacial bond strength prevented fibre/matrix debonding and fibre pullout. 11 refs.

with a measured technical fibre tensile strength of 550 MPa. Reasons for the differences were discussed. 19 refs. BRAZIL; EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.857043

CHINA

Accession no.857107 Item 24 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 85, No.1, 5th July 2002, p.129-38 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH SHORT ABACA FIBER Mitsuhiro Shibata; Kei-ichiro Takachiyo; Koichi Ozawa; Ryutoku Yosomiya; Hiroyuku Takeishi Chiba,Institute of Technology The mechanical properties of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-cohydroxyvalerate)(PHVB) composites reinforced with short abaca fibres, obtained by melt mixing followed by injection moulding, were compared with those of PHVB reinforced with glass fibre (GF). The effects of fibre length, fibre content, and surface treatment of the natural abaca fibre on its mechanical properties were assessed. Tensile tests showed that the tensile strength of the fibres reached a maximum at a fibre length of about 5 mm. Surface treatment of abaca fibres with butyric anhydride and pyridine over 5 hours improved the flexural properties of the PHVP/composite because of the increase in interfacial adhesion between the matrix polyester and the surface-esterified fibre, as was obvious from the SEM micrographs. The flexural and tensile properties of the PHVP/treated abaca composite were comparable with those of PHVP/GF composite. 19 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.857103 Item 25 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 84, No.13, 24th June 2002, p.2358-65 MORPHOLOGY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF UNIDIRECTIONAL SISALEPOXY COMPOSITES Oksman K; Wallstrom L; Berglund L A; Toledo Filho R D SICOMP AB; Lulea,University of Technology; Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal The longitudinal stiffness and strength were studied, together with the morphology, in unidirectional sisal-epoxy composites manufactured by resin transfer moulding. Horseshoe-shaped sisal fibre bundles (technical fibres) were non-uniformly distributed in the matrix. In contrast to many wood composites, the lumen was not filled by polymer matrix. Technical sisal fibres showed a higher effective modulus when included in the composite, compared with a technical fibre test (40 GPa compared with 24 GPa). In contrast, the effective technical fibre strength in the composites was estimated to be about 400 MPa compared

38

Item 26 Polymer Preprints. Volume 43, Number 1. Spring 2002. Papers presented at the ACS meeting held Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th April 2002. Washington D.C., ACS, Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2002, p.482-3, 28 cm, 012 INFLUENCE OF SURFACE MODIFICATION AND COMPATIBILIZATION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED BIODEGRADABLE THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITE Hokens D; Mohanty A K; Misra M; Drzal L T Michigan,State University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) The advantages of using natural fibres rather than glass fibres to fill and reinforce thermoplastics were discussed. The effect of alkali treatment and the use of maleated PS as a compatibiliser to improve the properties of composites fabricated from hemp fibre and the biodegradable thermoplastic Bionolle (polybutylene succinate or butylene succinate-butylene adipate copolymer) were studied. The tensile strength and tensile modulus of the virgin Bionolle polymer were enhanced by about 135% and 700% respectively when it was reinforced with 35 wt% of alkali-treated hemp fibre in the presence of the maleated PS compatibiliser. 2 refs. USA

Accession no.857010 Item 27 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition 40, No.12, 15th June 2002, p.1214-22 STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF POLYPROPYLENE/ MALEATED STYRENE-ETHYLENE-COBUTYLENE-STYRENE/SISAL FIBER COMPOSITES PREPARED BY INJECTION MOLDING Xie X L; Fung K L; Li R K Y; Tjong S C; Mai Y-W Hong Kong,City University; Huazhong,University of Science & Technology; Sydney,University Details are given of the use of maleic anhydride grafted styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene copolymer as compatibiliser to improve the interfacial bonding between PP and sisal fibre. The composites were prepared by melt compounding followed by injection moulding. The meltcompounding torque behaviour, thermal properties, morphology, crystal structure and mechanical behaviour of the composites were systematically investigated. 27 refs. AUSTRALIA; CHINA

Accession no.856773

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 28 Composites Science & Technology 62, Nos.7-8, 2002, p.911-7 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL AND THERMAL ANALYSIS OF VINYL ESTER-RESIN-MATRIX COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH UNTREATED AND ALKALI-TREATED JUTE FIBRES Ray D; Sarkar B K; Das S; Rana A K Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science; Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn. Vinyl ester resin-matrix composites reinforced with untreated and 5% NaOH treated jute fibres for 4 and 8 h with different fibre loading are subjected to dynamic mechanical and thermal analysis to determine their dynamic properties as a function of temperature. For all the composites, the storage modulus, E’, decreases with increase in temperature, with a significant fall in the temperature range 110-170 deg. C. For the treated composites, the rate of fall, dE’/dT, has an inverse relationship with the defect concentrations in the composites. The lowest defect concentrations in the 4 h treated composites correspond to the highest rate of fall. The glass transition temperature, Tg, of the unreinforced resin, corresponding to the loss modulus peak, is 101.2 deg.C, whereas that of the composites increases by nearly 28 deg.C on account of the restricted mobility of the resin molecules in the presence of the fibres. In the case of the treated composites, the Tg value shows a decreasing trend (128 to 25 deg.C). Unlike the plain resin, a tiny hump is observed in the loss modulus, E2, curves of all the composites around 166 deg.C, which become broader and more prominent with increase in the jute fibre content. The very high tan delta value of the resin decreases in the composites, indicating that the addition of the fibres lowers the damping capacity of the composites. 17 refs. INDIA

Accession no.856483 Item 29 Plastics Technology 48, No.4, April 2002, p.20 IMPROVED WOOD FIBERS We are informed in this little item that Rayonier of the USA has developed a high-purity cellulose fibre derived from local hard and soft woods, with a high content of pure alpha-cellulose. Brief details are given of the new material, which is known as “TerraCel”. RAYONIER EUROPE-GENERAL; USA

Accession no.855910 Item 30 Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe 10, No.1, 2002, p.22-6 BIODEGRADATION OF LIGNIN BASED RESINS

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

AND FIBROUS LIGNIN COMPOSITES Wrzesniewska-Tosik K; Struszczyk H; Ratajska M; Tomaszewski W Lodz,Institute of Chemical Fibres The results of an investigation are presented which consider the biodegradation of lignin-based resins and fibrous composites obtained upon the application of such resins. Selected samples destined for tests are exposed to biological decomposition in a water medium, which contains bacterial strains originating from active wastewater sediments taken from a sewage treatment plant of the cellulose industry. The process is conducted in conditions of so-called carbon deficiency, whereas the analysed samples are the source of carbon. 26 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.855152 Item 31 Plast’ 21 No.107, Dec.2001, p.63 Spanish INJECTION MOULDING OF NATURAL FIBREREINFORCED PLASTICS The advantages of natural fibres such as hemp and flax as replacements for glass fibres in plastics composites are discussed, and applications of such composites are reviewed with particular reference to components for automotive and other transport applications. Developments by Demag Ergotech in processes and machinery for the injection moulding of natural fibrereinforced plastics are examined. DEMAG ERGOTECH; FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT FUER CHEMISCHE TECHNOLOGIE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.854894 Item 32 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 92, No.5, May 2002, p.35-7 POLYPROPYLENE-CELLULOSE COMPOUNDS Weigel P; Ganster J; Fink H-P; Gassan J; Uihlein K Fraunhofer-Institute for Applied Polymer Research; Faurecia-SAI Automotive SAL GmbH A propylene block copolymer was compounded with high strength renewable cellulose fibres (Cordenka 700) by pultrusion and the density and mechanical properties of the resulting composites determined. The performance of these cellulose fibre reinforced PP composites was compared with that of PP composites containing other types of fibres, particularly glass fibres. It was found that, under certain conditions, the high strength cellulose fibres were promising as replacements for glass fibres. (Kunststoffe, 92, No.5, 2002, p.95-7) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.854550

39

References and Abstracts

Item 33 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 92, No.5, May 2002, p.34-5 POLYPROPYLENE-FLAX COMPOUNDS ... INCLUDING FLAME RETARDANTS Schwartz U; Pflug G; Reinemann S Ostthueringische Materialpruefgesellschaft mbH; TITK e.V The suitability of expandable graphite as a flame retardant in PP/flax composites is examined and the mechanical properties of PP/flax composites containing expandable graphite or ammonium polyphosphate, as flame retardants, compared. A potential application of these composites is considered to be vehicle trim and building applications. (Kunststoffe, 92, No.5, 2002, p.93-4) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.854549 Item 34 Polymer Engineering and Science 42, No.4, April 2002, p.790-7 OXYGEN PLASMA TREATMENT OF SISAL FIBERS AND POLYPROPYLENE: EFFECTS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES Couto E; Tan I H; Demarquette N; Caraschi J C; Leao A Sao Paulo,Escola Politecnico; Paulista,Universidade Estadual Oxygen plasma treatment of polypropylene is an efficient method for functionalising surface polar groups and improving adhesion to cellulose-based materials, provided that care is taken in preventing degradation and chain scission. To this end, PP powder and sisal fibres were oxygen plasma-treated in selected plasma conditions in order to functionalise oxygen polar groups in the PP and to induce chain scission and low-molecular weight fragments in both PP and sisal fibres. These treatments were tested for their effectiveness in improving mechanical properties of sisal/PP composites. 17 refs.

agent. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that the onset of thermal degradation of treated wood flour occurs at a lower temperature than that of the untreated one, and that the same behaviour was found in the corresponding composites. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed that both wood flours acted as nucleating agents for PP, while only the treated version induced PP crystallisation in beta-phase in the composites. It was shown by X-ray diffractometry that this crystallisation was a shear-induced phenomenon favoured by the chemical modification of the wood flour surface. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed that the properties of the composite decreased at concentrations higher than 40 wt% of wood flour and that the overall performance of maleic anhydride-treated wood flour composites was shown to be lower than that of the composites to which a compatibiliser was added. 30 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.854508 Item 36 Materials for Lean Weight Vehicles IV. Proceedings of a conference held Gaydon, UK, 30th.-31st. Oct. 2001. London, Institute of Materials, 2001, Paper 2, pp.10, 012 TOWARD A NEW PARADIGM IN CAR DESIGN De Kanter J L C G; Viot A; Kandachar P; Kaveline K Delft,University of Technology (Institute of Materials) The University of Delft’s new concept car, the DutchEVO uses an integrated approach to resolve the many inherent conflicts in car design, especially relating to safety and weight reduction, fuel efficiency and use of sustainable materials. In particular, the use is discussed of natural fibre composites based on low cost thermoplastics. Current applications are indicated, and the future for natural fibre composites is considered. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.853960

BRAZIL

Accession no.854514 Item 35 Polymer Engineering and Science 42, No.4, April 2002, p.733-42 THERMAL AND DYNAMIC MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYPROPYLENEWOODFLOUR COMPOSITES Nunez A J; Kenny J M; Reboredo M M; Aranguren M I; Marcovich N E Mar del Plata,Universidad Nacional The performance of wood particle/PP composites with modified capabilities was compared. Wood flour modification was performed by esterification with maleic anhydride, and a non-commercial maleic anhydridepolypropylene copolymer was selected as compatibilising

40

Item 37 Polymer Composites 23, No.2, April 2002, p.182-92 INTERFACIAL INTERACTION IN SISAL/ EPOXY COMPOSITES AND ITS INFLUENCE ON IMPACT PERFORMANCE Rong M Z; Zhang M Q; Liu Y; Yan H M; Yang G C; Zeng H M Zhongshan,University Sisal fibre was surface treated using various methods, including alkali treatment, acetylation, cyanoethylation, treatment with a silane coupling agent, heat treatment or a combination of these techniques, and then incorporated into an epoxy matrix. Interfacial interactions in the resulting composites were investigated using a surface tensiometer and dynamic mechanical analysis and the

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

effect of these interactions on the impact properties of both unidirectional and short fibre composites investigated. Scanning electron microscopy was utilised to analyse the fracture surfaces of the treated samples and the failure mechanism identified. 28 refs. CHINA

Accession no.853505 Item 38 Polymer Composites 23, No.2, April 2002, p.164-70 INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL MODIFICATION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SISALPOLYESTER BIOCOMPOSITES Mishra S; Misra M; Tripathy S S; Nayak S K; Mohanty A K Ravenshaw College; Michigan,State University Sisal-polyester composites were prepared by hand lay-up and their mechanical properties, including tensile, flexural and impact properties, investigated. The effects of fibre loading and surface modification of the fibres on mechanical properties were examined and fibre-matrix adhesion of the surface modified fibre reinforced composites analysed by scanning electron microscopy. Surface modification methods employed included cyanoethylation, grafting with acrylonitrile and methyl methacrylate, bleaching, mercerisation and dewaxing. 21 refs.

Item 40 Polymers & Polymer Composites 10, No.4, 2002, p.281-90 POLYPROPYLENE AND ALIPHATIC POLYESTER FLAX FIBRE COMPOSITES Hodzic A; Shanks R A; Leorke M RMIT University Polypropylene and aliphatic polyester flax fibre composites were prepared from hydrophobic and hydrophilic PP with and without silane surface treated flax fibres. Other comparable biodegradable composites have been prepared from poly(lactic acid) and poly(ethylene succinate). The polar polymers were found to provide better wetting of the surface of the flax, regardless of the surface treatment. DSC was used to study the crystallisation and melting of the composites compared with the pure polymers. Surface wetting of the fibres and morphology of the composites was studied by SEM and optical microscopy, and mechanical properties were studied using dynamic mechanical analysis. It was found that the relatively low density flax fibres provided efficient reinforcement compared with that expected from analogous glass fibre composites and the influence of the transcrystalline interphase on the dynamic storage modulus was found to be important. 17 refs. AUSTRALIA

Accession no.853058

INDIA; USA

Accession no.853503 Item 39 International Polymer Science and Technology 29, No.4, 2002, p.T/82-6 PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF WOOD POLYMER COMPOSITES Sangalov Y A; Krasulina N A; Il’yasova A I The modification of wood flour for use in wood polymer composites is studied with the aim of developing a method of modification envisaging the chemical change of the surface and a complex improvement in the properties of the wood materials. The reactive modifier selected was oligoethoxysiloxane or ethylsilicate-40 (ES-40). The polymer component consisted of polypropylene, polyisobutylene, and butyl rubber. Transesterification of the ES-40 by alcohols and modification of the wood flour using the ES-40 were carried out by mixing the components and subsequent heating in a stream of nitrogen or in air, and the liquid products of transesterification of ES-40 were characterised in terms of their solubility, the molecular mass values, and IR spectra. Typical properties of the initial and modified powders of wood flour were also determined, and the properties of the resultant composite are described. 13 refs.(Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.7, 2001, pp.39). RUSSIA

Accession no.853076

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 41 Composite Interfaces 9, No.2, 2002, p.171-205 SHORT SISAL FIBRE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES: THE ROLE OF THE INTERFACE MODIFICATION ON ULTIMATE PROPERTIES Josph P V; Josph K; Thomas S Kerala,St Berchmans’ College; Mahatma Gandhi,University Sisal fibres have been used for the reinforcement of PP matrix. Compatibility between the hydrophilic cellulose fibre and hydrophobic PP is achieved through treatment of cellulose fibres with sodium hydroxide, isocyanates, maleic anhydride modified PP (MAPP), benzyl chloride and by using permanganate. Various fibre treatments enhance the tensile properties of the composites considerably, but to varying degrees. SEM photomicrographs of fracture surfaces of the treated composites clearly indicate the extent of fibre-matrix interface adhesion, fibre pullout and fibre surface topography. Surface fibrillation is found to occur during alkali treatment, which improves interfacial adhesion between the fibre and PP matrix. The grafting of the fibres by MAPP enhances the tensile strength of the resulting composite. It is found that the urethane derivative of polypropylene glycol and cardanol treatments reduces the hydrophilic nature of sisal fibre and thereby enhances the tensile properties of the sisal-PP composites, as evident

41

References and Abstracts

from the SEM photomicrographs of the fracture surface. The IR spectrum of the urethane derivative of polypropylene glycol gives evidence for the existence of a urethane linkage. Benzoylation of the fibre improves the adhesion of the fibre to the PP matrix. The benzoylated fibre is analysed by IR spectroscopy. Experimental results indicate better compatibility between benzoylated fibre and PP. The observed enhancement in tensile properties of permanganate-treated composites at a low concentration is due to the permanganate-induced grafting of PP on to sisal fibres. Among the various treatments, MAPP treatment gives superior mechanical properties. Experimental results of the mechanical properties of the composite are compared with theoretical predictions. 55 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.852988 Item 42 PVC 2002: Towards a Sustainable Future. Proceedings of a conference held Brighton, 23rd-25th April 2002. London, IOM Communications Ltd., 2002. Paper 13, p.151-6, 21cm, 012 EXTRUSION OF WOOD-PVC COMPOSITE MATERIALS Sehnal E Cincinnati Extrusion (Institute of Materials) The extrusion of woodlike, wood-filled and wood profiles based upon wood fibres and PVC is discussed and the extruders employed are described. The characteristics and benefits of the products are also considered. AUSTRIA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.852749 Item 43 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 84, No.12, 20th June 2002, p.2222-34 CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF HEMP, SISAL, JUTE, AND KAPOK FIBRES BY ALKALIZATION Mwaikambo L Y; Ansell M P Bath,University Hemp, sisal, jute and kapok fibres were soaked in sodium hydroxide solutions of various concentrations, and the alkalinisation studied using differential scanning calorimetry, wide angle X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Rapid degradation of the cellulose was observed in solutions containing 0.8-8% sodium hydroxide, further degradation at higher concentrations being negligible. Solution concentrations of 0.8-30% caused a marginal drop in the hemp crystallinity, and a slight increase in the sisal, jute and kapok crystallinities.

42

All fibres were relatively smooth prior to treatment and exhibited uneven surfaces after treatment. It was concluded that alkalisation modified the fibres so as to promote fibre-matrix adhesion, leading to enhanced thermal and mechanical properties of polymer-fibre composites. 24 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.852686 Item 44 International Journal of Polymeric Materials 49, No.3, 2001, p.311-22 OIL PALM WOOD FLOUR FILLED NATURAL RUBBER COMPOSITES: EFFECTS OF VARIOUS BONDING AGENTS Ismail H; Jaffri R M; Rozman H D Universiti Sains Malaysia The effects of various bonding agents on curing characteristics and mechanical properties of oil palm wood flour (OPWF) filled NR composites are examined. Compared to control compound, the presence of various bonding agents increase the curing time, t90, maximum torque (except phenol formaldehyde (PF) and resorcinol formaldehyde (RF)/silica(Sil)), tensile strength, tensile modulus (except PF and RF/Sil), and hardness (except PF) but decrease the elongation at break and fatigue life of the composites. Swelling test results indicate that the presence of various bonding agents leads to stronger adhesion at the OPWF-rubber interface. Overall results indicate that RF/Sil/Hexa (Hexamethylene tetramine) is the most suitable bonding system for OPWF filled NR composites. 15 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.851827 Item 45 Materie Plastiche ed Elastomeri 66, No.6, June 2001, p.386-8 Italian GROWING INTEREST IN FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTICS Calato F A review is presented of German developments in composites technology. Some innovative processing methods are examined, and the use by Audi of natural fibre-reinforced PU composites (Bayer’s Baypreg F) in automotive components is described. Consideration is also given to trends in the European composites market. AVK-TV; DARMSTADT,TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY; BRAUNSCHWEIG,DLR-INSTITUT FUER STRUKTURMECHANIK; BAYER AG; HENNECKE; AUDI AG EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.851797

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 46 Journal of Materials Science 37, No.8, 15th April 2002, p.1683-92 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES OF FLAX FIBRES FOR NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES Bos H L; van den Oever M J A; Peters O C J J ATO Mechanical properties of flax fibres were determined in tension and compression. The effect of clamping length on tensile properties of fibre bundles was examined. The tensile strength of elementary flax fibres was found to range between 1500 MPa and 1800 MPa depending on the isolation procedure. An examination of kink bands in the fibres is discussed. 22 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.851680 Item 47 Journal of Reinforced Plastics & Composites 21, No.1, 2002, p.55-70 NOVEL ECO-FRIENDLY BIOCOMPOSITES: BIOFIBER REINFORCED BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER AMIDE COMPOSITES FABRICATION AND PROPERTIES EVALUATION Mishra S; Tripathy S S; Misra M; Mohanty A K; Nayak S K Ravenshaw College; Michigan,State University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. The effect of various surface modifications of sisal fibres, including mercerisation, cyanoethylation, acetylation, bleaching and vinyl monomer (acrylonitrile) grafting, on the mechanical performance (tensile strength and flexural strength) of sisal fibre-reinforced polyester-amide (BAK 1095 from Bayer) biocomposite was studied. The biodegradability of the composite was also evaluated. A pineapple leaf fibre-BAK 1095 biocomposite was fabricated for comparison. SEM studies provided clear pictures of compatibility between various surfacemodified fibres and matrix in the composites. 18 refs. BAYER AG INDIA; USA

Accession no.851495 Item 48 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 15, No.3, May 2002, p.253-65 INFLUENCE OF THE FIBER CONTENT AND THE PROCESSING CONDITIONS ON THE FLEXURAL CREEP BEHAVIOR OF SISAL-PCLSTARCH COMPOSITES Cyras V P; Martucci J F; Iannace S; Vazquez A INTEMA; CNR Flexural creep tests were performed on sisal fibre/ polycaprolactone/starch composites at different temps.

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

The creep compliance increased with the increase of temp. and with the decrease of the fibre content. The fragmentation of the polymer macromolecules and the natural fibre fragmentation, however, influenced the creep behaviour. The curves of compliance versus time were shifted along the logarithmic time scale to develop a creep master curve. Activation energy was determined from the shift factors. A four-parameter model was applied in order to quantify the viscoelastic behaviour of the composites. 17 refs. ARGENTINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.851490 Item 49 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 92, No.2, Feb. 2002, p.11-4 INNOVATIVE DIRECT PROCESSING OF NATURAL FIBRES Ruch J; Fritz H-G; Buerkle E; Zimmet R Stuttgart,Institut fur Kunststofftechnologie; Stuttgart,University; Krauss-Maffei Kunststofftechnik GmbH The three phases involved in the development of a single-stage compounding and moulding process for the manufacture of natural fibre-reinforced PP composites and shaping them into thin-walled interior door trim parts in a single heating step are described. These phases involved (i) the investigation of a multi-stage compounding/compression method, (ii) combining matrix functionalisation and natural fibre (flax) incorporation into a single-step process and scale-up of the process to a larger compounding unit and (iii) collaboration with Krauss-Maffei to transfer the process to an injection moulding compounder. (Kunststoffe, 92, No.2, 2002, p.28-34) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.850987 Item 50 European Polymer Journal 38, No.1, Jan.2002, p.39-47 EFFECTS OF A SILANE COUPLING AGENT ON CURING CHARACTERISTICS AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BAMBOO FIBRE FILLED NATURAL RUBBER COMPOSITES Ismail H; Shuhelmy S; Edyham M R Malaysia,Science University The scorch time and cure time of bamboo fibre-filled natural rubber decreased with increased filler loading in the presence of a silane coupling agent. The Mooney viscosity increased with increasing filler content, but for a given filler loading was reduced by the addition of the coupling agent. The tensile strength and modulus, tear strength, and hardness also increased on the addition of

43

References and Abstracts

coupling agent, attributed to enhanced adhesion between the fibre and the matrix. 19 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.850821 Item 51 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 84, No.11, 13th June 2002, p.1971-80 PREPARATION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE OF FIBROUS CELLULOSE AND MALEATED POLYETHYLENE Farao Zhang; Endo T; Wulin Qiu; Liqun Yang; Hirotsu T Japan,National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology The maleation of PE was studied, together with the compounding of the resultant maleated PE(MPE) with cellulose under melt mixing to prepare composites of fibrous cellulose(FC) and MPE with FC contents of 5 to 60 wt %. The mechanical properties of the FC-MPE composite were studied in relation to the content of maleic anhydride groups in the MPE and the content of FC in the composite. With an increase in the FC content to 60 wt %, the TS of the FC-MPE composite increased significantly and reached 125% of that of pure PE. Furthermore, the larger Young’s modulus, larger bending elastic modulus and smaller elongation of the FC-MPE composite strongly indicated effective transfer of the high TS and elasticity of FC to the MPE matrix through the strong adhesion between FC and MPE. 23 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.850794 Item 52 Composites International No.50-51, March/June 2002, p.38-46 French; English FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES, A STRONG MARKET POTENTIAL Nair N G; Jayakumar Y J India,Fibre Reinforced Plastics Institute India’s fibre-reinforced composites industry is discussed, which from a modest beginning in 1966, has today grown to be a 212 million US dollar industry. An overview is presented of the industry, with information relating to glass fibre manufacturers and their capacities; growth of fibre-reinforced composites; leading manufacturers of polymeric matrix materials; manufacturing technologies; and consumption trends in the aerospace, manufacturing, land transport, marine, building and civil engineering, chemical industry, electrical/electronic telecommunications sectors. INDIA

Accession no.850511

44

Item 53 Composites International No.50-51, March/June 2002, p.30-2 French; English NATURAL FIBRES: MATERIALS OF THE FUTURE? Harris T Kline & Co.Inc. The trend towards increased interest in natural fibrereinforced plastics is discussed, with reference to the North American market, and in particular, the automotive and construction industries. Current estimates are reported to place the North American market for natural fibres in plastic composites at over 150 million US dollars, and a recent market study by Kline & Co. shows demand for both wood and agricultural fibres is forecast to increase over 20% per year in automotive applications and 50% annually in selected building products. NORTH AMERICA

Accession no.850509 Item 54 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 15, No.2, March 2002, p.89-114 MELT RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SHORT SISAL FIBRE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Joseph P V; Oommen Z; Joseph K; Thomas S St.Berchman’s College; Kottayam,CMS College; Mahatma Gandhi,University The melt rheological properties of short sisal fibrereinforced PP composites were investigated by capillary rheometry. The effects of shear rate, fibre loading, aspect ratio and fibre treatment, such as alkali, TDI, maleic anhydride and permanganate treatment, on the melt viscosity of the composites were examined and a comparison made between two techniques for making the composites, namely melt mixing in a Haake Rheocord and solution mixing in toluene and xylene. Optical microscopy was employed to analyse fibre breakage during extrusion and optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to study extrudate morphology. 38 refs. INDIA

Accession no.850426 Item 55 Plasticheskie Massy No.7, 2001, p.39-41 Russian PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF WOODPOLYMER COMPOSITES Sangalov Yu A; Krasulina N A; Il’yasova A I The preparation and physical properties such as moisture absorption, acid resistance and heat resistance of composites based on wood flour and polypropylene,

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

polyisobutylene and butyl rubber are described. 13 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and Technology. Accession no.849787 Item 56 Machine Design 74, No.5, 7th March 2002, p.100-2 PLASTICS GO ON A NATURAL-FIBRE DIET Busch J Composite Products Inc. Natural fibre has emerged to compete with glass as the reinforcement for a composite matrix. This new option for long-fibre-thermoplastic reinforced composites offers designers an attractive alternative when weighing cost versus performance. Renewability and recyclability are also important considerations. The main physical limitation of bast fibres when compared to glass is heat sensitivity. Processing temperatures must remain below 400F, limiting their use to reinforcement in PP, styrenics and other low-melting-point resins. Generally, tensile and flexural strength and impact resistance of natural fibre composites are about half that of comparable glass-filled materials. Design considerations and in-line compounding and continuous moulding of natural fibre composites are discussed. USA

Accession no.849551 Item 57 Plast’ 21 No.105, Oct.2001, p.164-5 Spanish OPENING DOORS TO REINFORCED PLASTICS Trends in the European market for reinforced plastics in 1999 are reviewed, and some developments in composites processing and applications are examined. These include processes for the production of glass and carbon fibrereinforced thermoplastic pipes and tubes and of large composite structures, and the use of natural fibrereinforced PU composites in car construction. DARMSTADT,TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY; AUDI AG; DAIMLERCHRYSLER AG EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.849038 Item 58 Composites Science & Technology 62, No.3, 2002, p.339-53 MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF HYBRID PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE-BASED COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH GLASS AND OIL PALM FIBRES Sreekala M S; George J; Kumaran M G; Thomas S

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Mahatma Gandhi,University; Eindhoven,University of Technology; India,Rubber Research Institute Oil palm fibre is hybridised with glass fibre in order to achieve superior mechanical performance. The reinforcing effect of glass in phenol formaldehyde resin is evaluated at various glass fibre loadings. Tensile strength, tensile modulus and flexural strength increase with in increase in fibre loading. However, elongation at break and flexural modulus are found to decrease beyond 40 wt.% fibre loading. Impact strength and density of the composites show similar trends. Compared to the gum sample, hardness of the composites decreases by glass fibre reinforcement. The hybrid effect of glass fibre and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fibre on the tensile, flexural and impact response of the composites is investigated. Randomly oriented glass and OPEFB fibre mats are arranged as interlayers to enhance the hybrid effect. The overall performance of the composites is improved by the glass fibre addition. Impact strength shows great enhancement by the introduction of a slight amount of glass fibre. Density of the hybrid composite decreases as the volume fraction of the OPEFB fibre increases. Hardness of the composites also shows a slight decrease on an increased volume fraction of OPEFB fibre. Scanning electron micrographs and optical photographs of the fractured surfaces are taken to study the failure mechanism and fibre/matrix interface adhesion. The experimental results are compared with theoretical predictions. The hybrid effect of glass and OPEFB fibre is also calculated. 29 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; INDIA; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.848943 Item 59 Plastics Technology 48, No.3, March 2002, p.15 KENAF NATURAL FIBER STIFFENS LUMBER PROFILES Kenaf natural plant fibre is used as a filling in the latest version of “TexDek” PP synthetic wood decking planks from Kenaf Industries of the USA, we are informed in this concise article. Brief details of the reasons for the selection of kenaf are given. KENAF INDUSTRIES; DAVIS-STANDARD CORP.; COLORTRONIC INC. USA

Accession no.848839 Item 60 Composites Science & Technology 62, No.5, 2002, p.669-78 THERMOELASTIC ANISOTROPY OF A NATURAL FIBRE Cichocki F R; Thomason J L Owens-Corning Science & Technology Center

45

References and Abstracts

The elastic and thermal expansion characteristics of a jute fibre-reinforced epoxy composite system over a broad temperature range were investigated by DMA and TMA and the data obtained incorporated into several micromechanical and semi-empirical models to predict the thermoelastic properties of the jute fibres. It was found that the longitudinal Young’s modulus of the fibres exceeded the transverse fibre modulus by as much as an order of magnitude in certain temperature regimes and that the fibres exhibited negative thermal expansion coefficients along their lengths and positive thermal expansion coefficients in the transverse directions. 37 refs. USA

Accession no.848803 Item 61 Modern Plastics International 32, No.3, March 2002, p.40-1 EQUIPMENT OVERCOMES SOME KNOTTY PROBLEMS Rose J New feeders and blenders for processing wood flour for the manufacture of wood composites are described. Machinery from Colortronic Inc., K-Tron and Conair is covered and includes a high-intensity spray tank for cooling extruded wood composite parts and loss-in-weight gravimetric blenders. COLORTRONIC INC.; K-TRON; CONAIR USA

Accession no.848709 Item 62 Iranian Polymer Journal 10, No.6, Nov./Dec.2001, p.377-83 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES AND SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF BAMBOO FILLED NATURAL RUBBER COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF BONDING AGENT Ismail H; Edyham M R; Wirjosentono B Sains Malaysia,University; Medan,Universitas Sumatera Utara The effect of filler loading and bonding agent on the dynamic properties and swelling behaviour of bamboo fibre-filled NR composites was studied. Bamboo fibre was used as a filler and the loading range was 0 to 50 phr. Dynamic properties were determined using a Monsanto moving die rheometer at 150C. The results obtained showed that the maximum elastic torque and minimum elastic torque increased with increasing filler loading and the addition of bonding agent. The viscous torque and tan delta, however, decreased with addition of bonding agent. For swelling behaviour, the water absorption of the composites increased with increasing filler loading but decreased with the addition of bonding agent. The presence of bonding agent was found to improve the adhesion between bamboo fibre and NR matrix, as

46

indicated by studies of the tensile fracture surfaces of the composites using SEM. 15 refs. INDONESIA; MALAYSIA

Accession no.848610 Item 63 Composites Science & Technology 62, No.1, 2002, p.17-27 PERFORMANCE OF COMPOSITE CONES UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION LOADING Khalid A A; SAhiri B B; Khalid Y A Malaysia,International Islamic University; Putra,University The load/displacement response and the energy absorption of cotton- and glass fibre-reinforced epoxy composite cones under axial compression was studied. Composite cones with semi-vertex angles of 5, 10 and 20 degrees and with fibre orientation angles of 90 or 80 degrees were used. A finite element analysis for cones of the same dimensions and materials was also carried out. The load required and the specific energy absorption for glass/ epoxy cones were higher than those for cotton/epoxy cones for all the cases studied. For both glass/epoxy and cotton/epoxy cones, there was a slight increase in the load capability and the energy absorption when the fibre orientation angle was 80 degrees rather than 90 degrees. When the cone angle was increased from 5 to 20 degrees, all the composite cones tested could withstand higher loads and the specific energy absorption was improved. Reasons for the differences observed between the experimental and finite element analysis results were discussed. 18 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.848130 Item 64 Polymer Preprints. Volume 42. Number 2. Fall 2001. Proceedings of a conference held Chicago, Il., 7th-11th April 2002. Washington, D.C., ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2001, p.73-4 NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED THERMOSET COMPOSITES: STUDIES ON FIBRE-MATRIX ADHESION OF ALIGNED HENEQUEN FIBRE EPOXY COMPOSITES Belcher L K; Drzal L T; Misra M; MohantyA K Michigan,State University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Natural/bio-fibre composites (biocomposites) are mainly price-driven commodity composites that have useable structural properties at relatively low cost. Biocomposites, derived from natural fibres and traditional thermoplastics or thermosets, are not fully environmentally friendly as the matrix resins are non-biogradable. However, these types of biocomposites can maintain a balance between economics and the environment allowing them to be

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

considered for applications in the automotive, building, furniture and packaging industries. Natural fibre composites are now emerging as a realistic alternative to glass reinforced composites. Epoxy resins are known for good tensile strength, high stiffness, excellent electrical properties and good solvent resistance. The chief drawbacks of epoxy resins for industrial use are their brittleness and high cost. The ideal reinforcement material would raise the tensile strength, increase toughness and reduce cost of the composite, compared to epoxy resin alone. The influence of two surface modifications (alkali and silane coupling agent treatments) on aligned henequen fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites is examined. Effect of fibre volume percent on biocomposite properties is also evaluated.13 refs. USA

Accession no.847977 Item 65 Polymer Preprints. Volume 42. Number 2. Fall 2001. Proceedings of a conference held Chicago, Il., 7th-11th April 2002. Washington, D.C., ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2001, p.31-2 ENVIRONMENTALLY BENIGN POWDER IMPREGNATION PROCESSING AND ROLE OF NOVEL WATER BASED COUPLING AGENTS IN NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Drzal L T; Mohanty A-K; Misra M Michigan,State University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) The usual extrusion and injection moulding processing techniques most widely accepted for the production of natural fibre thermoplastic composites require an environmentally benign manufacturing alternative, as the fibres are damaged during the usual accepted processing techniques. Powder impregnation technology is an environmentally benign manufacturing processing and is gaining ground as a novel processing in composite field. This process markedly reduces/eliminates volatile organic compounds, and is thus an eco-friendly processing. Besides the processing side, an attempt is made to replace E-glass fibres with biofibres. However the selection of a petro-based matrix, i.e. PP, under this research programme is based on the fact that the development of commercial product ecology-economy-technology should be balanced. On a cost/performance basis, natural fibrereinforced PP composites are competing well with existing E-glass fibre based composites in many applications. As natural fibres are hydrophilic and PP is hydrophobic, suitable surface treatment is needed to improve fibrematrix adhesion so as to obtain superior composites. Water-based surface treatment is a realistic and costeffective way to achieve biocomposites of commercial value. Through the suitable blending of surface treated bast and leaf fibres, mechanical properties, such as

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

flexural and impact strength, of the resultant biocomposites can be optimised. Development of a hybrid water-based coupling agent to obtain best fibre-matrix adhesion is in progress. Through biocomposite stampable sheet forming (BCSS) processing, the aim is to produce biocomposites from chopped ‘engineered natural fibres’ and thermoplastic powder polymer to fabricate future generations of biocomposites with industrial value. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.847955 Item 66 Polymer Preprints. Volume 42. Number 2. Fall 2001. Proceedings of a conference held Chicago, Il., 7th-11th April 2002. Washington, D.C., ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2001, p.23-4 NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES BY REACTIONINDUCED PHASE SEPARATION Prieto A; Jana S C Akron,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) In recent years, many natural fibre-filled polymer composites have been reported. Thermosetting polymers such as polyesters, epoxy, cyanate esters and thermoplastic polymers such as PP, PE, PVC and PS have been compounded with wood flour, wood pulp and cellulose fibres to form composites. Despite of ongoing research activities, many issues need to be resolved to expand the use of natural fillers in polymer products for diverse applications in automotive, aerospace and building industries. One such issue is poor polymer-fibre bonding in the final composites, mainly due to hydrophobic nature of the polymers. Another issue is low decomposition temperatures of natural fibres which seldom exceed 200220 deg.C. This precludes many engineering polymers, whose processing temperatures often exceed 250 deg.C, from consideration. New technologies, therefore, are needed to reduce the gap between processing temperatures of engineering polymers and decomposition temperatures of natural fibres. A novel methodology is developed for combining wood flour particles with a high temperature thermoplastic polymer PPE with the aid of liquid epoxy. The epoxy coating layers around wood flour particles provide good adhesion and stronger interfaces with the PPE phase. The composite material performs better than many engineering polymer composites in terms of mechanical properties. 11 refs. USA

Accession no.847951 Item 67 Emerging Technologies for the New Millennium. SPE Topical Conference held Montreal, Canada, 20th-21st. Sept. 2001.

47

References and Abstracts

Brookfield, Ct., 2001, 27 cms., paper 6, p.25-34. 012 NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES PREPARED BY POLYMERIZATION COMPOUNDING PROCESS Ait-Kadi A Laval,University (SPE; INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS INSTITUTE) The relatively low degradation temperature of wood fibre as a natural reinforcement for thermoplastic materials, and its water sorption are two factors which limit the use of wood fibres in the plastics industry. The first drawback limits the number of thermoplastic materials to be used as matrix to those having processing temperatures lower than its degradation temperature (around 200 degrees C), and the second problem has a negative effect on adhesion with the generally hydrophobic polymers. Polymerisation compounding was used as a means of partially overcoming these limitations. It consists of using the surface of the reinforcing material as a support for polymerisation. To this end, HDPE composites with unmodified and UHMWPE modified wood fibre composites were prepared. Fibre modification was carried out using a polymerisation compounding approach. Composites containing around 34% of UHMWPE were obtained by the polymerisation compounding approach. Steady state rheological data indicate the effect of the surface modification of the fibres on the viscoelastic properties of obtained composites. 11 refs. CANADA; USA

Accession no.847426 Item 68 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 83, No.2, 10th Jan.2002, p.323-31 NOVEL APPLICATIONS OF LIGNIN IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS Thielemans W; Can E; Morve S S; Wool R P Delaware,University Novel uses of lignin as a filler or comonomer in thermosetting unsaturated polyesters and vinyl esters were investigated. The easiest way to introduce a new component to an existing resin is by adding the unmodified component as a filler, however the high styrene content in commercially available thermosets showed incompatibility with lignin. For this reason, soybean oil based resins were used, as this gave the ability to vary the styrene content. The use of lignin increased the glass transition temperature, and the modulus at 20 degree C decreased due to the plasticising effect of lignin. The lignin was modified to improve its effect on the matrix properties by adding double bond functionality, making it possible to incorporate the lignin in the resin through free radical polymerisation. Lignin was used to treat the surfaces of natural hemp fibres, as lignin has a natural affinity for cellulosic fibres. The lignin bonds to the surface of natural fibres and the irregular shape of the lignin particles provides mechanical interlocking with the matrix in composites. This improves the fibre-matrix

48

interfacial strength, resulting in improved properties for the composite. 26 refs. USA

Accession no.846618 Item 69 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 83, No.12, 2002, p.2634-43 THERMAL DEGRADATION OF FLAX: THE DETERMINATION OF KINETIC PARAMETERS WITH THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS Van de Velde K; Kiekens P Ghent,University Thermogravimetric analysis was used to study the thermal degradation of flax that had either been retted to varying degrees or boiled. The most retted flax was also treated chemically to obtain elementary fibres. Thermograms were obtained for samples of each flax preparation and used to calculate the kinetics of cellulose degradation. TGA could not be used to quantify the different components of flax because the degradation is spread over a wide temperature range. However, the mass loss around peak 2 of the TGA curves proved to be proportional to the amount of cellulose present in the flax. Both the fully retted and boiled fibres showed the best thermal stability. The boiled fibres are most promising for use in composites, as ecological alternatives to traditional reinforcing fibres, because they provide better adhesion with a thermoplastic matrix. 9 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.846599 Item 70 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 83, No.12, 2002, p.2505-21 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD FLAKE-POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES. II. INTERFACE MODIFICATION Balasuriya P W; Ye L; Mai Y-W; Wu J Sydney,University; Hong Kong,University of Science & Technology The modification of composites made from wood flakes and HDPE was studied. An HDPE matrix was treated with maleic anhydride (MA) in a twin-screw extruder then compounded with wood flakes. The wood flakes were treated with a silane coupling agent before the preparation of the composite. DSC and FTIR showed that a polyethylene-silane-grafted wood structure was formed. The MA treated composites contained esters formed by maleated HDPE reacting with wood. Both of these effects compatibilise the wood flakes with the HDPE: the treated composites have improved tensile strength, ductility and Izod impact strength. It was reported that the best properties were achieved with 1-2% MA by weight of HDPE and 1-3% silane by weight of wood. 25 refs. AUSTRALIA; HONG KONG

Accession no.846586

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 71 Polyurethanes Expo 2001. Creating Opportunity through Innovation. Proceedings of a conference held Columbus, Oh., 30th. Sept. - 3rd. Oct. 2001.. Arlington, Va., Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry, 2001, Paper 29, p.239-244 NANO- AND MICRO-FILLERS FOR POLYURETHANE FOAMS: EFFECT ON DENSITY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Krishnamurthi B; Bharadwaj-Somaskandan S; Shutov F Tennessee,Technological University (American Plastics Council; Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry)

Item 73 Polymer Testing 21, No.2, 2002, p.139-44 BAMBOO FIBRE FILLED NATURAL RUBBER COMPOSITES: EFFECTS OF FILLER LOADING AND BONDING AGENT Ismail H; Edyham M R; Wirjosentono B Sains Malaysia,University; Indonesia,Universitas Sumatera Utara Bamboo fibre-reinforced NR(SMR L) composites were prepared by incorporation of different loadings of bamboo fibre (0-50 phr). Two series of composites were studied, i.e. composites with and without the presence of a bonding agent (phenol formaldehyde and hexamethylene tetramine). The curing characteristics of the composites were determined and the composites were vulcanised at 150C using a hot press. The properties of the composites, such as TS, tensile modulus, tear strength, EB and hardness, were studied. The adhesion between the bamboo fibre and the NR was enhanced by the addition of bonding agent as exhibited by the tensile fracture surfaces of the composites using SEM. The presence of bonding agent also gave shorter curing time and enhanced mechanical properties. 18 refs.

A comparison analysis is undertaken to evaluate the effect of different types of fillers on the density and mechanical properties of two different types of commercial polyetherbased PU foams: low density flexible foams and high density rigid foams. The two types of filler used are microfillers based on wood flour and mineral type nanofillers. The relationship is established between the filler size and content, density and various mechanical properties. In general, the relative mechanical property (property/ density ratio) is found to be higher for nano-size filler than for micro-size filler. The comparison of the reinforcement effects of micro- and nano-fillers is discussed. 8 refs.

INDONESIA; MALAYSIA

USA

Accession no.845964

Accession no.846298 Item 72 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 33A, No.2, 2002, p.233-41 IMPACT FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF VINYLESTER RESIN MATRIX COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH ALKALI TREATED JUTE FIBRES Ray D; Sarkar B K; Bose N R Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science; India,Central Glass & Ceramic Res.Inst. An impact fatigue study was conducted on 35% jute/vinyl ester resin composites containing both untreated and alkalitreated fibres. Longer alkali treatment removed the hemicellulose and improved the crystallinity and gave better fibre dispersion. The flexural strength properties of the composites made from treated fibre were superior. Jute fibres treated with alkali for four hours gave the optimum combination of improved interfacial bonding and fibre strength properties. This was not, however, reflected in their impact fatigue behaviour. The composites reinforced with jute fibres treated with alkali for eight hours, on the other hand, exhibited superior impact fatigue properties. The fibres in the latter case suffered catastrophic fracture with microfibrillar pull-out at some places and improved the fatigue resistance properties of the composites as evident from SEM micrographs. 24 refs. INDIA

Accession no.846111

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 74 Plastics Additives & Compounding 4, No.2, Feb. 2002, p.8 COUPLING AGENT IMPROVES PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCE OF WOOD-FILLED COMPOUNDS Crompton Corp. This coupling agent, called Polybond, has been designed for use in PE and PP wood/natural fibre filled compounds and is available from Crompton Corp. USA

Accession no.845230 Item 75 Polymer Composites 23, No.1, Feb. 2002, p.49-60 PRODUCTION OF LEATHER-LIKE COMPOSITES USING CHEMICALLY MODIFIED SHORT LEATHER FIBRES. I. CHEMICAL MODIFICATION BY EMULSION POLYMERISATION Madera-Santana T J; Aguilar-Vega M J; MarquezLucero A; Vazquez-Moreno F Yucatan,Universidad; Mexico,Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados; Mexico,Universidad Autonoma del Estado Short chrome-tanned leather fibres were chemically modified by in-situ emulsion polymerisation of methyl methacrylate in order to increase their compatibility with

49

References and Abstracts

polymers for use in the footwear and furrier industries. The effects of reaction variables, such as monomer concentration, initiator and polymerisation temperature, were investigated by IR spectroscopy, TGA, DSC, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy and the characteristics of the treated fibres compared with those of untreated fibres. 12 refs. MEXICO

Accession no.845120 Item 76 Vinyltec 2001. Pushing Profitability. Conference proceedings. Iselin, N.J., 11th-12th Sept.2001, p.163-76 FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF WOOD AS A COMPONENT OF THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Stokke D D; Gardner D J Iowa State University; Maine,University (SPE,Vinyl Div.; SPE,Palisades Section) Wood is a good cellular biopolymer. To effectively utilise wood-based particles and fibres as fillers or reinforcements in thermoplastic composites, a fundamental understanding of the structural and chemical characteristics of wood is required. An overview of these topics is presented. Its basic characteristics of anatomy and structure combine to impart variations in permeability, bulk chemistry and surface chemistry. Characterisation of particle size and shape, as well as surface tension characteristics as indicators of wettability, become important when trying to understand how these biopolymeric materials behave when introduced into synthetic polymer systems. Some recent work on the use of contact angle analysis and inverse phase gas chromatography as means to characterise these interesting, variable and useful wood materials is described. 14 refs. USA

Accession no.845043 Item 77 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 33A, No.3, 2002, p.369-74 STUDY OF FIBRE AND INTERFACE PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES Gassan J Kassel,Universitat The tension-tension fatigue behaviour of different natural fibre reinforced plastics is investigated. The composites used are made of flax and jute yarns and wovens as reinforcements for epoxy resins, polyester resins and PP. Fibre type, textile architecture, interphase properties, fibre properties and content are found to

50

affect the fatigue behaviour strongly as illustrated with damping versus applied maximum load curves. It is found that natural fibre-reinforced plastics with higher fibre strength and modulus, stronger fibre-matrix adhesion or higher fibre fractions possess higher critical loads for damage initiation and higher failure loads. In addition, damage propagation rates are reduced. Furthermore, unidirectional composites are less sensitive to fatigue-induced damage than woven reinforced ones. 35 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.844842 Item 78 Journal of Reinforced Plastics & Composites 20, No.16, 2001, p.1414-29 EFFECT OF VINYL AND SILICONE MONOMERS ON MECHANICAL AND DEGRADATION PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE JUTE-BIOPOL COMPOSITE Khan M A; Kopp C; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University Composites of jute fabrics (Hessian cloth) and Biopol are prepared by compression moulding. Three types of Biopol (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) such as D300G, D400G and D600G, depending on the concentration of 3-hydroxyvalerate (3HV) in 3hydroxybutyrate (3HB) are used for this purpose. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength (TS), bending strength (BS), elongation at break (Eb) and impact strength (IS) of the jute-Biopol composites are studied. It is found that the composite with D400G produces higher mechanical properties compared with the other two types of Biopol. To increase mechanical properties as well as interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix, 2-ethyl hydroxyacrylate (EHA), vinyl trimethoxysilane (VMS) and 3-methacryloxypropyl trimethoxysilane (MPS) are taken as coupling agents. Enhanced mechanical properties of the composites are obtained by using these coupling agents. Biopol D400G composites show the highest mechanical properties. Among the coupling agents EHA depicts the highest increase of mechanical properties such as tensile strength (80%), bending strength (81%), elongation at break (33%) and impact strength (130%) compared with pure Biopol. SEM investigations demonstrate that the coupling agents improve interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix. The surface of the silanised jute is characterised by FTIR and finds the deposition of silane on jute fibre is observed. Soil degradation testing proves that the composite prepared with EHA treated jute exhibits better degradation properties in comparison to pure Biopol. 24 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.844774

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 79 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 14, No.5, Sept. 2001, p.421-32 INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ABSORPTION ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD FLOUR-POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Stark N USDA Forest Products Laboratory Composites were produced by filling a PP with 20 or 40 wt.% of wood flour and the influence of moisture absorption on the mechanical properties of these composites examined. Some specimens were placed in a water bath at room temperature and their mechanical properties tested periodically after removal from the water bath. Mechanical properties investigated were flexural, tensile and impact properties. It was found that more moisture was absorbed by the wood flour at the higher filler level, which, in turn, affected the mechanical properties of the composites. 8 refs. USA

Accession no.843943 Item 80 Composites Science & Technology 61, No.16, 2001, p.2519-29 THERMAL AND DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF POLYSTYRENE COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH SHORT SISAL FIBRES Nair K C M; Thomas S; Groenineckx G Mahatma Gandhi,University; Leuven,Catholic University The thermal behaviour of PS composites reinforced with short sisal fibres is studied by means of thermogravimetric and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis. The thermal stability of the composites is found to be higher than that of sisal fibre and the PS matrix. The effects of fibre loading, fibre length, fibre orientation and fibre modification on the dynamic mechanical properties of the composites are evaluated. Fibre modifications are carried out by benzoylation, polystyrene maleic anhydride coating and acetylation of the fibre and the treatments improve fibrematrix adhesion. PS/sisal composites are thermally more stable than unreinforced PS and sisal fibre. The addition of 10% fibre considerably increases the modulus but the increase is found to level off at higher fibre loadings. The Tg values of the composites are lower than that of unreinforced PS and may be attributed to the presence of some residual solvents in the composites entrapped during the composite preparation. The treated-fibre composites show better properties than those of untreated-fibre composites. The Arrhenius relationship is used to calculate the activation energy of the glass transition of the composites. A master curve is constructed based on timetemperature superposition principle. 23 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; INDIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.843446

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 81 Composites Science & Technology 61, No.16, 2001, p.2405-11 NATURAL-FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYURETHANE MICROFOAMS Bledrzej A K; Zhang W; Chate A Kassel,Universitat; Riga,Technical University PU-based composites reinforced with woven flax and jute fabrics are prepared with an evenly distributed microvoid foam structure. The relationship between the resin-filled grade and the microvoid content and the density is described. The influence of the type of reinforcing fibre, fibre and microvoid content on the mechanical properties is studied. The investigation results for the static mechanical properties of the composites are described by approximate formulae. It is found that the specific data are only slightly dependent on microvoid content. Increasing the fibre content induces an increase in the shear modulus and impact strength. However increasing the microvoid content in the matrix results in decreased shear modulus and impact strength. The woven flax fibre results in composites with better mechanical strength than the woven jute fibre composites. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; LATVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.843435 Item 82 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 13, No.6, April 2001, p.481-96 INSTRUMENTED PERFORATION IMPACT RESPONSE OF POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES WITH HYBRID REINFORCEMENT FLAX/GLASS AND FLAX/ CELLULOSE FIBRES Benevolenski O I; Karger-Kocsis J; Mieck K-P; Reussmann T Institut fuer Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH; Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & Kunststoff-Forschung eV The effect of partially replacing flax with discontinuous cellulose (Lyocell) and discontinuous glass fibre on the impact properties of flax mat-reinforced PP composites was investigated by means of dynamic mechanical thermal analysis and standard Charpy impact strength and biaxial penetration impact tests. An attempt was made to correlate instrumented falling weight impact and Charpy impact results and the mode of failure of the composites, as determined by scanning electron microscopy, considered. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842900 Item 83 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 81, No.538, April 2001, p.467-75 Spanish

51

References and Abstracts

POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH VEGETABLE FIBRES: AN ECOLOGICAL ALTERNATIVE FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY Arribas J M; Navarro J M; Perea J M; Rial C Repsol-YPF A comparative study was made of the mechanical and thermal properties of PP composites reinforced with short sisal and glass fibres, and the effects of fibre content and coupling agents on these properties were investigated. The results suggested sisal fibres as an effective replacement for glass fibres in PP composites for automotive applications. 39 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842574 Item 84 Advanced Composites Letters 10, No.5, 2001, p.229-36 EFFECT OF TRANSCRYSTALLINITY ON THE INTERFACE OF GREEN FLAX/ POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITE MATERIALS Zafeiropoulos N E; Baillie C A; Mathews F L London,Imperial College of Science,Technol.& Med. In recent years there has been an increasing interest in using natural fibres as potential reinforcements for polymers. The introduction of fibres such as flax in a semicrystalline thermoplastic matrix such as isotactic PP (iPP) has been shown to lead to the development of transcrystallinity. The presence of an anisotropic layer such as transcrystallinity in the composite material may in turn have a profound effect on the mechanical behaviour of the interface. The role of transcrystallinity is investigated in green flax/iPP by means of fragmentation. The results are discussed in terms of previously reported results for treated flax fibres (dew retted)/iPP. Transcrystallinity leads to a stronger interface in green flax/iPP, and its thickness affects the interfacial strength, with thinner transcrystalline layers giving a stronger interface. Examination of the mode of failure at the interface after the fragmentation test also supports the conclusion that the transcrystalline interface is stronger than the spherulitic interface in green flax/iPP composites. 24 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842051 Item 85 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 83, No.4, 24th Jan.2002, p.880-8 SUGARCANE BAGASSE REINFORCED PHENOLIC AND LIGNOPHENOLIC COMPOSITES Paiva J M F; Frollini E Sao Paulo,University

52

Lignin, extracted from sugarcane bagasse by the organosolv process, is used as a partial substitute of phenol (40 w/w) in resole phenolic matrices. Short sugarcane fibres are used as reinforcement in these polymeric matrices to obtain fibre-reinforced composites. Thermoset polymers (phenolic and lignophenolic) and related composites are obtained by compression moulding and characterised by mechanical tests such as impact, differential mechanical thermoanalysis (DMTA) and hardness tests. Impact testing shows an improvement in the impact strength when sugarcane bagasse is used. The inner part of the fractured samples is analysed by scanning electron microscopy, and the results indicate adhesion between fibres and matrix, because the fibres are not set free, suggesting they suffer a break during impact tests. Modification of fibre surface does not lead to an improvement in impact strength. The results as a whole show that it is feasible to replace part of phenol by lignin in phenolic matrices without loss of properties. 34 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.842043 Item 86 British Plastics and Rubber Oct. 2001, p.14-5 THE NATURAL ALTERNATIVE TO GLASS Research being conducted at Demag Ergotech into the reinforcement of plastics with natural fibres, mainly hemp and flax fibres, for injection moulding is briefly discussed. The advantages and limitations of these natural fibre reinforced plastics are briefly considered and other research and development projects being conducted at the company are indicated. DEMAG ERGOTECH EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.841712 Item 87 Journal of Elastomers & Plastics 33, No.1, Jan. 2001, p.34-46 POTENTIAL OF RUBBERWOOD AS A FILLER IN EPOXIDIZED NATURAL RUBBER COMPOUNDS Ismail H Sains Malaysia,University This study is concerned with evaluating the potential of using rubber wood as a filler in epoxidised natural rubber compounds. Loading ranges of 0 to 50 phr were investigated with respect to the influence on curing characteristics and mechanical properties. Results indicated that the scorch and cure times decreased with an increasing rubber wood loading. Tensile modulus and hardness of the composites increased with rubber wood loading, whereas tensile strength and tear strength decreased. The failure mechanism of the

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

composites was investigated by the use of scanning electron microscopy which indicated that the increasing rubber wood loading weakened the rubber-rubber wood interactions. These interactions were determined by using an equilibrium swelling in hydrocarbon solvent. 24 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.840559 Item 88 Polymer Composites 22, No.6, Dec. 2001, p.815-22 INTERFACIAL ADHESION IN JUTEPOLYOLEFIN COMPOSITES Tripathy S S; Levita G; Di Landro L Ravenshaw College; Pisa,University; Milan,Politecnico The interfacial adhesion is studied between four different forms of jute fibres used as reinforcement in polyolefin matrices. Mercerised, silver, bleached and untreated jute in LDPE and PP matrices were investigated in terms of mechanical performance. The fibre-matrix adhesion was estimated by means of the critical fibre length, and the stress transfer ability parameter, with such parameters being obtained by single fibre composite tests. Tests were carried out to evaluate the mean tensile strength of the fibres, the mean critical fibre lengths, and the stress transfer ability parameter for every fibre-matrix combination according to Weibull’s statistical method. Thermal-mechanical characterisation of the fibres was also carried out to evaluate the resistance to processing conditions. 29 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; INDIA; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.840491 Item 89 Polymer Composites 22, No.6, Dec. 2001, p.770-8 NOVEL ECO-FRIENDLY BIODEGRADABLE COIR-POLYESTER AMIDE BIOCOMPOSITES: FABRICATION AND PROPERTIES EVALUATION Rout J; Misra M; Tripathy S S; Nayak S K; Mohanty A K Ravenshaw College; Michigan,State University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. The results are discussed of different chemical surface modifications carried out on coir fibres in order to improve its efficiency as a reinforcement in polyesteramide. The fibres were surface modified through alkali treatment, cyanoethylation, bleaching and vinyl grafting. The effects of different fibre surface treatments and the influence of differing fibre amounts on the mechanical performance of the resultant composites is examined. 13 refs.

Item 90 Polymer Recycling 6, No.2-3, 2001, p.109-18 MODIFICATION OF RECYCLATES OF POLYETHYLENE AND POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE) WITH SCRAP PAPER CELLULOSE FIBRES Kowakska E; Pelka J Poland,Industrial Chemistry Research Institute Compositions of secondary LDPE and PVC filled with scrap paper cellulose fibres as a filler were evaluated to establish the formulation and to determine an optimum filler content. To evaluate the resulting compositions, and to optimise the formulations, physico-mechanical studies, biodegradability and processing of the compositions was carried out. Resultant thermoplastics are reported to exhibit high rigidity and hardness with a good surface finish and good mechanical property data sufficient for intended end-uses such as flower pots, rubbish bins, buckets, curbs and fence elements, etc. Preliminary economic analysis indicated that the most suitable cellulose filler was in the form of scrap newspapers or office waste. 34 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.840464 Item 91 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41. Number 2. Conference proceedings. Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.1792-3 CHARACTERISATION OF PLANT FIBRES BY INFRA-RED SPECTROSCOPY Garside P; Wyeth P Southampton,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) The application of IR spectroscopy with respect to the characterisation of cellulosic (plant) fibres is demonstrated. The ability to characterise fibres is of importance to textile conservators, as this information aids in the determination of the age and origin of the artefact from which they are taken, and may influence the choice of treatment. The fibres under examination are taken largely from the bast group (flax, hemp, jute and ramie); in addition, sisal and cotton are compared. FT-IR microspectroscopy and ATR techniques are employed. To complement the conventional use of these methods, the inherent polarisation effects of the equipment are exploited to record polarised IR spectra. Jute, sisal and cotton are readily differentiated, but flax, hemp and ramie prove more difficult to distinguish. Peak ratio techniques are applied in the latter case. 2 refs.

INDIA; USA

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.840487

Accession no.840045

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

53

References and Abstracts

Item 92 Journal of Materials Science Letters 20, No.18, 15th Sept.2001, p.1711-3 INFLUENCE OF NOVEL COUPLING AGENTS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF JUTE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITE Khan M A; Hinrichsen G; Drzal L T Berlin,Technical University; Michigan,State University Modern technology relies heavily on the development of new materials having superior properties, such as mechanical and thermal properties along with toughness. Fibre-reinforced composites have successfully proven their versatile qualities due to their specific properties, e.g. high mechanical properties, stiffness, light weight, etc. The potential of natural fibre-based composites prepared mainly from jute as reinforcing fibre in polymer matrix has received much attention. Jute fibres are polar and of hydrophilic nature due to the presence of several hydroxyl groups in their cellulosic backbone. However, this is the most important disadvantage of using natural fibre in non-polar polymer like PP. Selection of proper coupling agents is important to improve the fibre-matrix interaction. The effects of two monomers, HEMA and EHA, used as coupling agents on the performance of jute fabric (hessian cloth) PP composite, are reported. 7 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.839846 Item 93 Japan Chemical Week 42, No.2150, 6th Dec.2001, p.4 SEKISUI CHEMICAL IN SYNTHETIC LUMBER ALLIANCE WITH U.S. FIRM Sekisui Chemical of Japan and the US technology development venture Strandics have signed an agreement concerning the production of synthetic wood using a thermoplastic resin (HDPE or PVC) and a vegetable fibre. Brief details are given. SEKISUI CHEMICAL; STRANDICS JAPAN; USA

Accession no.839028 Item 94 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 91, No.12, Dec.2001, p.29-33 English; German ECOLOGICAL BENEFICIAL COMPOSITES Hieber G; Kohler R; Alex R Schock & Co.GmbH; Reutlingen,Fachhochschule We are told that world-wide interest in the use of natural fibres in engineering applications is increasing, and the environmental and engineering advantages of the materials are explained. This article then looks at reinforcing PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) thermosetting resins with flax fibres under the section

54

headings: comparison of fibre characteristics, advantages of PMMA as polymer matrix, adhesion promoters improve mechanical characteristics, acrylic fibre composite materials, comparison of natural fibre and glass fibre composite materials, production of different components, and testing industrial production. (Translated from Kunststoffe 91, No.12, Dec.2001, p.70/5). EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.838991 Item 95 Journal of Materials Science 36, No.20, 15th Oct. 2001, p.4903-9 PREPARATION, PROCESSING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BIODEGRADABLE WOOD FLOUR/STARCH-CELLULOSE ACETATE COMPOUNDS Cunha A M; Liu Z Q; Feng Y; Yi X-S; Bernardo C A Minho,Universidade; Hangzhou,Zhejiang University Details are given of the compounding of wood flour and a starch-cellulose acetate blend of a configurable corotating twin screw extruder. The compounds were injection moulded and the mechanical and rheological properties of the mouldings were determined. The effect of the wood flour content on shear viscosity is discussed. 13 refs. CHINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.838729 Item 96 Materials World 9, No.8, Suppl., Aug.2001, p.2 EUROPEAN NETWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE COMPOSITES A new network has been launched in the UK to promote the development of sustainable composite materials, which are composites manufactured from renewable and sustainable resources such as natural fibres, which employ environmentally-sensitive fabrication processes and biodegrade at the end of their lives. Full details are provided of the new network, called the Sustainable Composites Network, and its proposed strategy. WARWICK MANUFACTURING GROUP; WARWICK,UNIVERSITY; WALES,UNIVERSITY; UK,SUSTAINABLE COMPOSITES NETWORK; EUROPEAN SCIENCE FOUNDATION EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; SPAIN; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.838619 Item 97 Rubber and Plastics News 2 23, No.4, 19th Nov.2001, p.3 NEW TIRE FEATURES STARCH DERIVATIVE

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

The “GT3 BioTred” from Goodyear is the subject of this concise article. The new tyre uses a polymer reinforced in part with a corn starch derivative, which replaces some of the carbon black. Compared with conventional tyres, the BioTred is less polluting to produce, quieter on the road, boosts car fuel economy, and stops faster in the wet. BMW AG; GOODYEAR; FORD EUROPE EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; GERMANY; TURKEY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.838586 Item 98 Polymer Composites 22, No.5, Oct.2001, p.680-9 FLOW-INDUCED FIBER ORIENTATION IN INJECTION MOLDED FLAX FIBER REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Aurich T; Mennig G Chemnitz,Technical University A thorough experimental study of flax fibre orientation in a plate processed by injection moulding was conducted. The material used was PP containing 30 wt % flax fibres and 2 wt % maleic anhydride-grafted PP as coupling agent. The state of orientation was described by orientation tensors and partly by frequency distribution diagrams. Composite stiffness was predicted by use of a modified classical laminate theory including unidirectional models and orientation averaging. Comparison of the measured and calculated modulus in tension showed good agreement. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.838269 Item 99 Journal of Reinforced Plastics & Composites 20, No.4, 2001, p.335-40 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE AND TENSILE PROPERTIES OF EPOXY/POLYCARBONATE BLEND COATED BAMBOO FIBRES Rajulu A V; Rao G B; Reddy R L; Sanjeevi R Sri Krishnadevaraya University; India,Central Leather Research Institute The resistance of the above coated fibres to acids, alkalis and solvents and their tensile properties were investigated. It was found that the coated fibres exhibited higher tensile strength than uncoated fibres and were resistant to acids and alkalis but their solvent resistance was minimal. 13 refs. INDIA

Accession no.838108 Item 100 Journal of Reinforced Plastics & Composites 20, No.4, 2001, p.321-34

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

POTENTIALITY OF PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE AS REINFORCEMENT IN PALF-POLYESTER COMPOSITE: SURFACE MODIFICATION AND MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE Mishra S; Misra M; Tripathy S S; Nayak S K; Mohanty A K Ravenshaw College; Iowa State University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. The mechanical properties of composites consisting of surface modified pineapple leaf fibre and general-purpose polyester resin were investigated to determine the suitability of these fibres as reinforcement for plastics. Surface modifications employed included dewaxing, alkali treatment, cyanoethylation and grafting of acrylonitrile onto dewaxed fibres. The effects of fibre content and fibre surface treatment on the tensile, flexural and impact properties of the composites were evaluated and fibre-matrix adhesion evaluated by means of scanning electron microscopy. 15 refs. INDIA; USA

Accession no.838107 Item 101 International Polymer Science and Technology 28, No.11, 2001, p.T/55-6 STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF ACYLATED LIGNIN ON THE PHYSICOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD BASED COMPOSITES Efanov M V Altai,State University; Russia,Scientific Research Institute of Wood-Filled Thermoplastics Experiments are carried out to determine the properties of acylated lignin and cellulose and mixtures thereof, when used as thermoplastic binders in wood composites for the production of wood-based boards. The study involves the identification of the dependence of certain physicomechanical properties of wood-based composite on the quantitative ratio of binder and filler when acylated lignin and cellulose are used as the thermoplastic binders 5 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.3, 2001, pp.29). RUSSIA

Accession no.838064 Item 102 Plastics News(USA) 13, No.40, 3rd Dec.2001, p.13 ONAGA OFFERS WOOD-FLOUR PE, PP Esposito F Onaga Composites in Kansas is a new compounder that will begin producing wood-flour-filled PE and PP compounds in January. The firm will operate a twin-screw extrusion line with 15 million pounds of annual capacity and wood-flour loadings of up to 60%. Onaga expects to have 30 employees by Q1 2002 and could add a second similar-sized twin-screw extruder in Q1 as well. First-

55

References and Abstracts

year sales are expected to be around 7m US dollars. Onaga’s products could end up in such products as landscaping bender boards, decorative moulding, deck boards, door thresholds and spa skirting. ONAGA COMPOSITES LLC USA

Accession no.837966 Item 103 Additives for Polymers Dec.2001, p.9 SHORT SISAL FIBRES AS A REINFORCEMENT FOR BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER PBS Details are provided in this article about investigations carried out at the Chiba Institute of Technology in Japan into the reinforcement of polybutylene succinate (PBS), a biodegradable polyester, with natural sisal fibres, with the aim of developing a fully degradable composite with superior mechanical properties. Materials used and method are detailed, and the Institute’s results are presented. CHIBA,INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; JAPAN; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

TGA, DSC and dynamic mechanical analysis(DMA) were carried out to study the interfacial interaction between wood flour and starch/cellulose acetate(SCA) blend. It was found that the main components in the compounds, i.e. starch, cellulose and cellulose acetate, started to decompose at about 330C, a characteristic temp. for breaking glycoside-linked glucose units. Complexation of lignin in wood flour with amylose in SCA occurred during compounding, which gave rise to new crystallites that had a m.p. of around 160C. Hydrogen bonding was thought to play a key role in the crystallisation. With increasing wood flour content, both the Tg and the softening temp. increased as a result of the restricted molecular chain mobility imposed by rigid cellulose filaments. In addition, the DMA data showed that amylose could occur as linkages in the crystallites. All these observations indicated that the interfacial adhesion between SCA and wood flour was relatively strong, even in the absence of a coupling agent. 20 refs. (Europhysics Conference on Structure Development during Polymer Processing: Physical Aspects, Sept.2000, Minho, Portugal) CHINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.836384

Accession no.836813 Item 104 Polymers & Polymer Composites 9, No.8, 2001, p.549-60 EFFECT OF KENAF FIBRES ON THE PROPERTIES OF NATURAL RUBBER VULCANIZATES El-Sabbagh S H; El-Hariri D M; El-Ghaffar M A A Cairo,National Research Centre The mechanical properties and swelling behaviour of natural rubber vulcanisates loaded with kenaf fibres were studied using hydrated silica, resorcinol and hexamethylene tetramine as the adhesion system, and are compared with those of NR composites loaded wit synthetic polyester short fibres. The effect of fibre content on these mechanical properties were also studied before and after ageing, and scanning electron microscopy was used to investigate the surface texture of unreinforced and reinforced vulcanisates. 23 refs. EGYPT

Accession no.836554 Item 105 Journal of Macromolecular Science B 40, No.3-4, 2001, p.529-38 THERMAL CHARACTERIZATIONS OF WOOD FLOUR/STARCH CELLULOSE ACETATE COMPOUNDS Liu Z Q; Cunha A M; Yi X S; Bernardo C A Minho,Universidade; China,National Key Laboratory of Advanced Composites

56

Item 106 Polymer Engineering and Science 41, No.9, Sept.2001, p.1471-85 REVIEW ON INTERFACE MODIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC COMPOSITES George J; Sreekala M S; Thomas S Eindhoven,University of Technology; Mahatma Gandhi,University A critical review is presented of the literature on physical and chemical treatment methods that improve fibre-matrix adhesion in natural fibre-reinforced plastic composites and on their characterisation methods. The chemical modification methods include silane treatments, isocyanate treatment, graft copolymerisation and impregnation of fibres. The characterisation methods include inverse gas chromatography, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, environmental SEM, energy-dispersive Xray analysis, solid-state carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and micromechanical studies. Biodegradation of these composites is also discussed. 102 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; INDIA; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.836147 Item 107 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 33A, No.1, 2002, p.43-52 EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AGEING ON

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BAMBOO-GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER MATRIX HYBRID COMPOSITES Thwe M N; Lio K Nanyang,Technological University Short bamboo fibre reinforced PP composites (BFRP) and short bamboo-glass fibre reinforced PP hybrid composites (BGRP) are fabricated using a compression moulding method. Maleic anhydride PP (MAPP) is used as a compatibiliser to improve the adhesion between the reinforcements and the matrix material. By incorporating up to 20% (by mass) glass fibre, the tensile and flexural modulus of BGRP are increased by 12.5 and 10%, respectively; and the tensile and flexural strength are increased by 7 and 25%, respectively, compared to those of BFRP. Sorption behaviour and effects of environmental ageing on tensile properties of both BFRP and BGRP systems are studied by immersing samples in water for up to 1200 h at 25 deg.C. Compared to BFRP, a 4% drop in saturated moisture level is seen in BGRP. After ageing in water for 1200 h, reduction in tensile strength and modulus for BGRP is nearly two times less than that of BFRP. Use of MAPP as coupling agent in the PP matrix results in decreased saturated moisture absorption level and enhanced mechanical properties for both BFRP and BGRP systems. Thus it is shown that the durability of bamboo fibre reinforced PP can be enhanced by hybridisation with a small amount of glass fibres. 34 refs. SINGAPORE

Accession no.835056 Item 108 Composite Interfaces 8, No.5, 2001, p.313-43 SURFACE MODIFICATIONS OF NATURAL FIBRES AND PERFORMANCE OF THE RESULTING BIOCOMPOSITES: AN OVERVIEW Mohanty A K; Misra M; Drzal L T Michigan,State University A review of biocomposite highlighting recent studies and developments, in natural fibres, biopolymers and various surface modifications of natural fibres to improve fibre matrix adhesion is presented. One of the most important factors determining the final performance of the composite materials is the quality of the fibre matrix interface. A sufficient degree of adhesion between the surface of hydrophilic ligno-cellulosic natural fibres and the polymer matrix resin is usually desired to optimum performance of the biocomposite. Dewaxing, alkali treatment, isocyanate treatment, peroxide treatment, vinyl grafting, bleaching, acetylation and treatment with coupling agents are useful ways to improve fibre-matrix adhesion in natural fibre composites. Two major areas of biocomposites are discussed. One is the most predominant biocomposite currently being commercialised for semistructural use in the durable goods industries, i.e. natural fibre PP composites. The second type is the biocomposites

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

from natural fibres and biodegradable plastics. Two major classes of biogradable plastics are available, one being derived from renewable resources and the second type being synthesised in the laboratory from petrochemical sources, which can also be used as matrix materials to make value-added biocomposites. 101 refs. USA

Accession no.835049 Item 109 European Plastics News 28, No.9, Oct.2001, p.69-70 LONG STORY Vink D An increasing number of long-fibre reinforced thermoplastics and processes are available. Compounding extruder manufacturer Coperion Werner & Pfleiderer and injection moulding machinery maker Husky introduced an in-line compounding process last year in a technical joint venture. Now Krauss-Maffei is presenting its injection moulding compounder (IMC) at K2001. Shot weights can exceed 40kg and PP, ABS or PA can be processed with long glass or natural fibres. An IMC would cost about 2.5 times more than a standard injection moulding machine, but the material savings should give a payback within two years, the company claims. Press manufacturer Dieffenbacher has supplied its presses for ten direct LFT systems, including its complete LFT-D lines. Customers include Menzolit-Fibron which introduced the LFT development to replace a GMT frontend application for Volkswagen. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.834686 Item 110 Materials World 9, No.5, May 2001, p.24 BIOMASS GRASS MAKES FOR COMPOSTABLE CARS Thomas S M Researchers at the University of Warwick are currently developing innovative new applications for Miscanthus, or elephant grass, namely biodegradable plastic car parts. As a construction material, Miscanthus can be used in fibreboards, such as MDF. For plastic wheel trims, short fibres of the grass are used, which are blended by hand mixing and then injection moulded to create the part. By using Miscanthus as a structural filler, strength is given to biodegradable plastics that were previously too weak to be used in many car parts. Car parts made using Miscanthus can be composted at the end of their life instead of being put into a landfill. WARWICK,UNIVERSITY EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.834608

57

References and Abstracts

Item 111 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 26th Oct.2001, p.24 INDUSTRY LISTENS TO THE SOUND OF NATURAL FIBRES

BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Natural fibres such as flax and hemp can provide a good alternative reinforcing fibre for use in a range of applications. During K, Demag Ergotech will be producing a technical part on a 50-tonne Ergotech Viva machine, processing Arborform, a fully natural moulding material made from tree-derived lignin and wood fibre. The automotive sector is one of the key end-user markets for natural fibre reinforced plastics, largely because of the benefits in terms of sound deadening. Demag Ergotech predicts applications will also emerge in the domestic appliance sector and in sports equipment. DEMAG ERGOTECH GMBH

Item 114 Composite Structures 54, No. 2-3, Nov./Dec. 2001, p.207-14 POLYPROPYLENE/WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES: TREATMENTS AND PROPERTIES Ichazo M N; Albano C; Gonzalez J; Perera R; Candal MV Simon Bolivar,Universidad; Venezuela,Universidad Central

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.834566 Item 112 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 26th Oct.2001, p.1 FORD/BMW ROLL OUT CORN TYRES Ford had introduced tyres partly strengthened with a modified cornstarch on its new Fiesta. BMW is about to begin using them on a version of its 3-Series saloon. Both OEMs have signed supply contracts to use Goodyear’s energy-saving GT3 BioTred tyres, which include the starch as a reinforcing filler. Goodyear developed the system with Italian biomaterials firm Novamont. It replaces some of the carbon black and silica reinforcement in the tyre formulation. Goodyear claims the tyre cuts fuel consumption by 5%, reduces rolling noise by 50% and improves wet braking performance by 10% compared with its GT2 tyre range. This abstract includes all the information contained in the original article. GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO. USA

Accession no.834561 Item 113 Composite Structures 54, No. 2-3, Nov./Dec. 2001, p.355-60 THERMOPLASTIC PULTRUSION OF NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES Van de Velde K; Kiekens P Ghent,University The results are reported of an investigation into the use of flax as reinforcement in thermoplastic pultruded composites. The pultrusion line used in the experiments is briefly described and candidate thermoplastic materials are evaluated. The properties of flax fibre are described and compared with those of glass fibres and the flexural and tensile properties of flax/PP composites are compared

58

with those of glass fibre-reinforced polypropylene. (Third International Conference on Composite Science & Technology) 21 refs. Accession no.832837

The results are reported of a study of the effects of various coupling agents and compatibilisers on the mechanical properties, thermal properties, morphology and water absorption of wood flour filled PP. Investigative techniques employed included tensile testing, DSC and scanning electron microscopy. The filler was treated with vinyl-tris-(2-methoxyethoxy)silane, sodium hydroxide and two commercial polypropylenes functionalised with maleic anhydride. (Third International Conference on Composite Science & Technology) 16 refs. VENEZUELA

Accession no.832824 Item 115 Plastics Technology 47, No.7, July 2001, p.58/65 FOAMING EXPANDS POSSIBILITIES FOR WOOD-FIBER COMPOSITES Schut J H It is explained that wood-filled plastic profiles are growing quickly in non-structural wood-replacement applications such as decking. But now processors of wood composites are evaluating the newer alternative of foamed composites, which are lighter in weight and feel more like real wood. This article examines all the advantages of foaming, the process and its difficulties, and extrusion equipment and dies. It also presents a comprehensive list of new foamed wood composite products. AMERICAN WOOD FIBERS; ACCEL COLOR; BP AMOCO POLYMERS; CLARIANT ADDITIVE MASTERBATCHES; DAVIS-STANDARD CORP.; EXTRUSIONTEK MILACRON; EXTRUTECH INTERNATIONAL INC.; REEDY INTERNATIONAL CORP.; SOLVAY POLYMERS INC.; STRANDEX CORP.; ISO-TECK; US,NAVY; WASHINGTON STATE,UNIVERSITY; MARLEY MOULDINGS; EMPIRE CO.; SANDFORD CORP.; MIKRON INDUSTRIES; CORRECT BUILDING PRODUCTS; COUNTERTOPS INC.; LOUISIANA-

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

PACIFIC CORP.; FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY; AMESBURY GROUP INC.; CERTAINTEED CORP.; COMFORT-TEX; ROYAL WOOD HOME PRODUCTS; HUNTER DOUGLAS INDUSTRIES BV; COMPOS-A-TRON INC.; CPI PLASTICS GROUP LTD.; CRILA PLASTICS INC.; DRY RIVER INC.; SOUTHERN COMPOSITE TECHNOLOGIES; JET PLASTICS; PLASTIC EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGIES INC.; POLYWOOD PRODUCTS; PRECISION COMPOSITES; PROFILE SOLUTIONS INC.; TRI-EX COMPOSITES; YOUNGSTOWN PLASTICS TOOLING & MACHINERY CANADA; USA

Accession no.832601 Item 116 Macplas International May 2001, p.77-9 ALOE FIBRES FOR REINFORCEMENT OF COMPOSITES Carrino L In this article the use of natural fibres from the aloe plant as reinforcement for composite material is examined fully. The article looks at figures for the annual production of aloe fibre, at the types of fibre that the aloe plant generates, and in depth at the mechanical characteristics of aloe fibre. It also discusses the use of aloe fibres in composites, and mentions hybrid composites which can be achieved by coupling aloe fibres within the same matrix to other fibres such as those of glass, carbon, or aramide. SYDNEY,UNIVERSITY AUSTRALIA; BRAZIL; NORTH AMERICA; SOUTH AMERICA; TANZANIA

Accession no.832550 Item 117 Composites International No.46, July/Aug.2001, p.67-9 English; French AGRICULTURAL WASTE-BASED COMPOSITES Durafibre Inc. is a joint venture company owned by Cargill Ltd., the Government of Saskatchewan, and SaskCan Fibre Inc., which is a farmer-owned co-operative. The company produces “Durafibre” and “Durafill” which are natural fibres derived from agricultural waste such as oilseed-flax straw, most of which would otherwise be burned as the only means of disposal. This article explains the benefit of this alternative, and of the materials themselves. DURAFIBRE INC.; CARGILL LTD.; SASKATCHEWAN,GOVERNMENT; SASK-CAN FIBRE INC. CANADA; NORTH AMERICA; WORLD

Accession no.832528

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 118 Composites International No.46, July/Aug.2001, p.64-6 English; French NATURAL FIBRES This article discusses the use of natural fibre-reinforced composite materials in automotive applications, reporting that up until now they have been used exclusively for interior components. The article highlights current developments where researchers and designers are working on using them in exterior components too. It concludes that natural fibres as reinforcement material in these applications are just beginning a very promising career. DAIMLERCHRYSLER CORP.; AUDI AG; BAYER AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.832527 Item 119 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 82, No.9 28th Nov.2001, p.2150-4 SOLID-STATE CARBON-13 NMR STUDY OF MATERIAL COMPOSITES BASED ON SUGARCANE BAGASSE AND THERMOPLASTICS POLYMERS Stael G C; Tavares M I B Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal Dried sugarcane fibre was ground to a length of 5 mm and melt blended with poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate), polypropylene and polyethylene. The blends were studied using magic angle spinning (MAS) and cross-polarisation MAS carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The proton spin-lattice relaxation time in the rotating frame indicated compatibility at the molecular level. 25 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.832434 Item 120 Macromolecular Symposia 170, June 2001, p.157-64 POLY(ETHYLENE-CO-METHACRYLIC ACID) COPOLYMER AS AN EFFECTIVE COMPATIBILIZER OF LDPE/WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITE Sedlackova M; Lacik I; Chodak I Bratislava,Polymer Institute The mechanical properties of a ternary system comprising low density polyethylene (LDPE), poly(ethylene-co-methacrylic acid) copolymer (EMAA), and wood flour (WF) were studied. To obtain better understanding of the mutual interactions between the components, binary LDPE/EMAA and EMAA/WF blends were also studied, and the results

59

References and Abstracts

were compared with published information for LDPE/ WF composite. The mechanical properties for the LDPE/EMAA blends were almost additive, whereas the properties of the EMAA/WF mixtures were similar to those of LDPE/WF composites compatibilised in situ by peroxide crosslinking. In the ternary blends, addition of 5 to 10 wt% of EMAA was enough to give high values of the Young’S modulus and tensile strength. The beneficial effect of the copolymer can be explained by the introduction of close contact between the organic filler and the polyolefin matrix at the phase boundaries. 14 refs. SLOVAK REPUBLIC; SLOVAKIA

Accession no.831765 Item 121 Journal of Materials Science Letters 20, No.12, 15th June 2001, p.1125-6 EFFECTS OF THE REMOVAL OF MATRIX SUBSTANCES AS A PRETREATMENT IN THE PRODUCTION OF HIGH STRENGTH RESIN IMPREGNATED WOOD BASED MATERIALS Yano H; Hirose A; Collins P J; Yasaki Y Kyoto,University; Sekisui House Ltd.; CSIRO; Monash,University The strength of resin-impregnated wood can be improved by the removal of the weaker consituents of the wood matrix, mainly lignin and hemicellulose, prior to resin impregnation. Hoop pine veneers were treated with 1% sodium chlorite solution alone, sodium hydroxide solution alone, or sodium chlorite solution followed by sodium hydroxide, before impregnation with phenol formaldehyde resin. The mechanical properties of the resulting materials were determined. It was found that improvements of Young’s modulus and bending strength in the final materials were in the order of 40% for sodium chlorite alone, 20% for sodium hydroxide alone, and 48% for both. The use of 2% sodium chlorite solution caused the wood veneers to become too fragile for impregnation. 5 refs. AUSTRALIA; JAPAN

Accession no.831673 Item 122 Gummibereifung 77, No.3, March 2001, p.124-5 REVOLUTIONARY ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPT Mutz K Engineers at the world’s largest tyre producer are reported to have made a sensational breakthrough: the first efficient tyre with integrated ecological materials is on the market. The natural product corn starch mostly replaces the additive carbon black in the tread compound of the new summer tyre GT-3. Thus Goodyear has succeeded in contributing significantly to reducing CO2 emissions,

60

which car producers must cut by 25% by 2008. Details are given of the new Bio-TREAD technology, which relies on corn starch produced by photosynthesis. GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.831589 Item 123 International Polymer Science and Technology 28, No.9, 2001, p.T/70-7 MODIFICATION OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS WITH WASTEPAPER CELLULOSE FIBRES. PART 1- PVC COMPOSITIONS FILLED WITH WASTEPAPER CELLULOSE FIBRES Pelka J; Kowalska E The use is examined of used cellulose from waste paper as a filler in compositions based on primary PVC as well as recycled PVC. Using this method, new compositions are obtained that are cheaper than the virgin polymer, but with altered and improved properties for particular applications. The use of coupling agents, processing aids, and compatibilisers is discussed in order to increase the interaction between the cellulose and the polymer matrix. Mechanical and processing properties of PVC filled with a cellulose filler can be controlled by suitable selection of their composition. 17 refs. (Article translated from Polymery, No.3, 2001, p.201) EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.831547 Item 124 Chemical Marketing Reporter 260, No.10a, 10th Sept.2001, p.6 DOW SEEKS TO BOOST SALES OF WHEAT STRAW AND PU MATERIALS Brown R Dow Chemical is hoping to build its current niche in the wood composites market by advancing the use of composites made from wheat straw and PU resin. Although sales are small, the company is seeking to build the business to 100m US dollars over the next five to 10 years. Earlier this year, the company purchased Canadabased Isobord Enterprises, a manufacturer of composite panels made from wheat straw and PU resin. Dow is marketing the building panels under the name Woodstalk. Leading applications for the product will be in construction, ready-to-assemble furniture and floor underlay. DOW CHEMICAL CO. NORTH AMERICA

Accession no.831470 Item 125 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 21st Sept.2001, p.10

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

PROCESSOR RUNS UNDRIED WOOD It is briefly reported that the University of Maine has installed a Davis-Standard Woodtruder wood processing system, which will be used to run contract research, product testing and development trials at its Advanced Engineered Wood Composites Centre. The Woodtruder system comprises a WT94 75mm diameter twin screw extruder, 24:1 Mark V single screw extruder, die tooling system, spray cooling tank with driven rollers, travelling cutting saw, run-off table, gravimetric blending unit and PC-based blender control. The ability to handle undried wood is a key benefit of the Woodtruder system. DAVIS-STANDARD CORP. USA

Accession no.831464 Item 126 European Plastics News 28, No.5, May 2001, p.38 RECYCLING ACCOMPLISHED IN THREE STEPS Lear, one of Europe’s two main producers of natural fibre composites, has developed a technique to recycle natural fibres so that they can be used again for automotive parts. The three-step process involves reducing the flax-PP carrier part to small pieces; the second is the separation of the flax-PP from fabric foam granules; the final one is the injection moulding of granulated flax-PP with additives to improve mechanical properties and reduce odour. LEAR CORP. WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.831396 Item 127 European Plastics News 28, No.5, May 2001, p.37-8 NATURAL SELECTION The renewability and environmentally friendly qualities of natural fibres have led to their increased use in composite applications, particularly in the European automotive industry. Only a small fraction of composite waste can be recycled, the rest must be incinerated. Incorporating natural fibres in the composites can reduce the impact of incineration, because they only release as much CO2 as the plant absorbed when it was growing. Natural fibres can also be chemically recycled back to raw materials. However, European environmental legislation is threatening the use of natural fibres in composites. The ELV directive sets recycling quotas of 80% by 2007 and 85% by 2015, allowing feedstock recycling to raw materials only in exceptional cases. AKV has asked the German federal environment ministry to interpret the directive to allow feedstock recycling and energy recovery as equivalent to recycling for renewable materials. WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.831395

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 128 Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe 54, No.9, 2001, p.474-6 RICE HUSK ASH IN POLYSILOXANE COMPOUNDS Sereda L; Pereira H L; Reis Nunes R C; Visconte L L Y; Guimaraes Furtado C R Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal; Rio de Janeiro,Universidade do Estado Black rice husk ash was used as an alternative filler to silica in silicone rubber and the physicomechanical properties (tensile strength, tear strength, elongation at break, hardness and density) of the filled rubber investigated. Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine fracture surfaces of the filled rubber. It was found that the black rice husk ash filled rubber exhibited a tensile strength similar to silica filled rubber although tear strength was lower. 12 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.830511 Item 129 Iranian Journal of Polymer Science & Technology 14, No.1, May 2001, p.31-8 Persian EFFECT OF ALPHA-CELLULOSE FIBRE ON THE PROPERTIES OF MELAMINEFORMALDEHYDE MOULDING COMPOUNDS Khatibi M A; Beheshti M A; Morshedian J Iran,Polymer Institute The effect of alpha-cellulose fibre on the mechanical properties, wettability and gloss of the above moulding compounds was investigated. It was found that alphacellulose had no effect on mechanical properties but a significant effect on the wettability and gloss of the moulding compounds. 14 refs. IRAN

Accession no.830310 Item 130 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 81, No.6, 8th August 2001, p.1420-8 IMPACT BEHAVIOR OF SAWDUST/RECYCLEDPP COMPOSITES Li TQ; Ng CN; Li RKY Hong Kong,University A fracture mechanics study was conducted using instrumented Izod and Charpy tests to characterise the dynamic impact fracture behaviour of various percentages of sawdust wood flour reinforced polypropylene composites. Two batches of recycled polypropylene were used as the matrix, one with maleated propylene (MAPP) compatibiliser grafted by melt extrusion. It was found that the notched Izod strength and fracture energy of the MAPP containing composites increased with filler content in contrast with the unmodified polypropylene

61

References and Abstracts

composites. Both compounds had higher fracture toughness than the base polypropylene although strong interfacial bonding of filler to matrix was not observed. Further characterisation is proceeding. Full details of the test results are given. 22 refs. CHINA

Accession no.830238 Item 131 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 81, No.6, 8th August 2001, p.1333-40 PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE USE OF MODIFIED ALCELL LIGNIN AS A COUPLING AGENT IN THE BIOFIBER COMPOSITES Rozman H D; Tan K W; Kumar R N; Abubakar A Sains Malaysia,University The compatibility and interfacial bond strength between naturally hydrophilic lignocellulosic materials and hydrophobic thermoplastics is inherently poor. Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) modified lignin was used as a coupling agent between oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres and polypropylene. As a control, unmodified lignin/PP was also evaluated. The materials were mixed and then hot pressed into sheet for the production of cut tensile and flexural test specimens. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to study the morphology of both modified and unmodified compounds. Test results demonstrated that the mechanical properties of TDI modified compounds were superior to the unmodified equivalent and SEM showed that the modification also resulted in better blending and compatibility between the lignin and polypropylene matrix. Full compounding and test procedures are given with detailed results. 13 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.830229 Item 132 Polymer Testing 20, No.7, 2001, p.819-23 DYNAMIC VULCANIZATION OF RUBBERWOOD-FILLED POLYPROPYLENE/ NATURAL RUBBER BLENDS Ismail H; Salmah; Nasir M Penang,Universiti Sains Malaysia The effect of increasing sulphur content, and from this the degree of vulcanisation, in a dynamically vulcanised thermoplastic elastomer of polypropylene and natural rubber with a filler of rubber wood fibre was investigated. Mixing was carried out in a miniature twin rotor mixer, and the tensile properties, water absorption and morphology of the resultant compounds were examined. A reduction in water absorption and increase in Young’s modulus and flexural modulus with increasing degree of vulcanisation and crosslink density were reported. Compared to a blend that did not contain sulphur, all

62

mechanical properties of sulphur containing blends were enhanced. 11 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.830223 Item 133 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 609 FOAMING OF RIGID PVC/WOOD-FLOUR COMPOSITES THROUGH A CONTINUOUS EXTRUSION PROCESS Mengeloglu F; Matuana L M Michigan,Technological University (SPE) The influence of chemical foaming agent (CFA) type and concentration, and the use of an all-acrylic processing aid, on the density and cell morphology of extrusion foamed poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)/wood flour composites was investigated. The foaming agents were modified azodicarbonamide (exothermic) and sodium bicarbonate (endothermic). The foamed materials were characterised by density and cell size measurement. The density was not influenced by the CFA content, whilst the cell size was dependent upon the CFA type, the exothermic CFA giving smaller average cell sizes compared with the endothermic agent. Addition of the processing aid gave foams with densities comparable to those of neat rigid PVC, and offered the possibility of producing rigid PVC/wood-flour composite foams without the use of CFA. 19 refs. USA

Accession no.830041 Item 134 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 608 STUDIES ON THE FOAMABILITY OF RIGID PVC/WOOD-FLOUR COMPOSITES Matuana L M; Mengeloglu F Michigan,Technological University (SPE) The influence of crosslinked acrylic and un-crosslinked chlorinated polyethylene impact modifiers on the foamability of rigid poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) and rigid PVC/wood flour composites was investigated. The materials were dry-blended, extruded using a single-screw extruder, and compression moulded into panels. Samples were placed in a CO2 atmosphere at 5.52 MPa, and sorption and desorption determined gravimetrically. Microcellular foamed samples were prepared by saturating the materials with CO2 at 5.52 MPa for 2 d, then rapidly reducing the pressure and simultaneously increasing the temperature. The cellular materials were characterised by density measurement, and cell size determination by scanning electron microscopy. The presence of impact modifiers

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

accelerated the rate of gas loss, which impeded cell growth. 26 refs. USA

Accession no.830040 Item 135 Polymers & Polymer Composites 9, No.5, 2001, p.333-8 POLY(BUTYLENE SUCCINATE) COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH SHORT SISAL FIBRES Shibata M; Makino R; Yosomiya R; Takeishi H Chiba,Institute of Technology This report describes an investigation into polybutylene succinate reinforced with sisal fibres for the development of a fully biodegradable composite with superior mechanical properties. The influence of fibre length, fibre content and surface treatment of the fibres on the mechanical properties of the composite were evaluated. 18 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.829664 Item 136 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 7, No.3, Sept.2001, p.142-8 FOAMING OF RIGID PVC/WOOD-FLOUR COMPOSITES THROUGH A CONTINUOUS EXTRUSION PROCESS Mengeloglu F; Matuana L M Michigan,Technological University The effects of chemical foaming agent(CFA) type (endothermic versus exothermic) and concentrations as well as the influence of an all-acrylic processing aid on the density and cell morphology of extrusion-foamed neat rigid PVC and rigid PVC/wood flour composites were studied. Regardless of CFA type, the density reduction of foamed rigid PVC/wood flour composites was not influenced by the CFA content. The cell size, however, was affected by the CFA type, independent of CFA content. Exothermic foaming agent produced foamed samples with smaller average cell sizes compared with those of endothermic counterparts. The experimental results indicated that the addition of an all-acrylic processing aid in the formulation of rigid PVC/wood flour composite foams provided not only the ability to achieve density comparable with that achieved in the neat rigid PVC foams but also the potential to produce rigid PVC/ wood flour composite foams without using any chemical foaming agents. 19 refs. USA

Accession no.829657 Item 137 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 7, No.3, Sept.2001, p.138-41

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

NEW OPPORTUNITIES WITH WOOD-FLOURFOAMED PVC Patterson J Rohm & Haas Co. A major disadvantage of composites of wood with thermoplastics materials is a relatively high specific gravity compared with those of many natural wood products. A PVC-wood composite, for example, has a specific gravity of about 1.3 g/cc. The manufacture of cellular PVC-based wood composites was studied and the properties that were achieved as the foam density was reduced were examined. Overall, even with densities as low as 0.6 g/cc, the physical properties should be adequate for many wood replacement applications. The composites also exhibited the aesthetics of wood and economics that were favourable compared with those of both rigid and cellular PVC. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.829656 Item 138 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 7, No.3, Sept.2001, p.134-7 PVC WOOD: A NEW LOOK IN CONSTRUCTION Chetanachan W; Sookkho D; Sutthitavil W; Chantasatrasamy N; Sinsermsuksakul R Thai Plastic & Chemicals The use of PVC wood, which includes PVC foam and PVC/wood flour composite, as an alternative to wood and wood-like products is discussed. Compared with traditional products, the PVC wood is shown to exhibit improved termite resistance and weathering resistance, lower moisture absorption and ease of installation. It is demonstrated that PVC wood can be nailed, screwed, sawed, cut and bonded like wood by conventional tools without any special skills being required. The bending strength of PVC wood is lower, but it can still be used for decorative applications, i.e. cornices, doors and siding. 5 refs. THAILAND

Accession no.829655 Item 139 Polymer Testing 20, No.8, 2001, p.885-93 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS: OVERVIEW OF SEVERAL PROPERTIES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES IN FLAX FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES Van de Velde K; Kiekens P Ghent,University An overview is given of the properties, particularly the mechanical, physical and thermal properties, of a range of thermoplastics polymers, the aim being to provide guidance on selection of a suitable polymer for a specific application. Many of the properties are shown to be

63

References and Abstracts

interrelated and, as a result, some combinations of desired properties are not possible, but this overview should provide guidelines to the best compromise between conflicting property demands. Data are presented mainly as ranges (in tables) and in graphs for quick comparison purposes. A specific application, thermoplastic pultrusion with flax as reinforcement, is also studied. In this particular case, PP is shown to have the best combination of properties for use as the composite matrix. 48 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.829640 Item 140 Polymer Testing 20, No.8, 2001, p.869-72 IMPACT BEHAVIOR OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE WASTE-EVA COMPOSITES Stael G C; Tavares M I B; d’Almeida J R M Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal; Rio de Janeiro,Pontificia Universidade Catolica The impact properties of chopped bagasse-EVA matrix composites were evaluated and compared with the behaviour of bagasse-filled PP and PE matrix composites and wood-based materials. The volume fraction (0.13, 0.30, 0.48, 0.59) and size (less than 3 mm, 3-5 mm and 20-30 mm) of the chopped bagasse used as filler was varied. The results obtained showed that the incorporation of bagasse strongly reduced the deformation capacity of EVA polymer. The reduction of the deformation capacity of the composites was also inferred by solid-state NMR relaxation analysis. The impact strength was independent of the bagasse size, but varied with the volume fraction. It was shown that the mechanical performance of bagasseEVA composites could be tailored, as a function of the volume fraction, to reproduce the behaviour of woodbased particle boards. 13 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.829637 Item 141 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 81, No.8, 22nd August 2001, p.1971-84 REACTIVE EXTRUSION OF POLYCAPROLACTONE COMPOUNDS CONTAINING WOOD FLOUR AND LIGNIN Nitz H; Semke H; Landers R; Mulhaupt R Albert-Ludwigs,University Woodflour and lignin were added to biodegradable polycaprolactone by melt compounding in a Werner & Pfleiderer twin-screw extruder. Maleic anhydride-grafted polycaprolactone was used as a compatibiliser. Size exclusion chromatography and titration were used to characterise the graft copolymers formed. Mechanical and biodegradation properties were examined. Some retardation of the latter was found. 19 refs.

64

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.829463 Item 142 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 32A, No.9, 2001, p.1271-9 NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED SHEET MOULDING COMPOUND Van Voorn B; Smit H H G; Sinke R J; de Klerk B Wageningen,University A newly developed system enabling utilisation of short flax fibres for SMC production is described. It is shown that by using an evenly-distributed layer of short dried flax fibres, after controlled impregnation and maturation, a homogeneous flow of the prepreg in the mould is obtained, and accordingly a flax fibre-reinforced SMC can be produced. Mechanical data indicate that for applications designed with respect to stiffness, flax fibrereinforced SMC materials compete with glass fibre SMC, especially when fibre length exceeds 25 mm. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.829091 Item 143 European Design Engineer Oct.2001, p.17-9 FINDING A NATURAL SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF VEHICLE DISPOSAL Stevens P For many years, automotive manufacturers have followed routes that have led to significant weight reductions, but now they are having to rethink their strategies due to the additional requirement to consider the vehicle’s eventual disposal. It is reported that natural fibres are looking extremely promising as a replacement for many ‘engineering’ materials. AUSTRALIA; WORLD

Accession no.828967 Item 144 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 545 NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES - AN APPROACH ON THERMOFORMING PROCESSING Neto O P R; Giacomini N P Mercedes-Benz do Brasil; Sao Paulo,University (SPE) Jute fibre-reinforced polypropylene (PP) sheet was produced by calendering a non-woven jute mat of 6 mm thickness between two sheets of PP of 9 mm thickness. Composite and pure PP sheets were compared by

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

measurement of longitudinal and transverse tensile strength, Young’s modulus, strain, flexural strength, and density. The composite material had a lower tensile and flexural strength, and a higher toughness compared with PP Sheet. The composite density was approximately 21% lower than that of PP. Sheet containing 50 wt% jute fibre was successfully vacuum moulded to form automotive components. BRAZIL

Accession no.828870 Item 145 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 507 CPI IN-LINE COMPOUNDING SYSTEMS Voelker M J; Weber C D Composite Products Inc. (SPE) A patented in-line compounding system, based on the use of two screw extruders, for the preparation of long fibre (glass, carbon or natural fibre) reinforced thermoplastics is described. One extruder blends the thermoplastic with other additives and brings the material up to the required melt temperature, feeding it to the second extruder. This extruder is fed with the chopped fibre, and has a gentle screw action to warm the fibre and disperse it in the melt, minimising fibre size reduction. The second extruder feeds an accumulator which supplies preforms to the compression moulding machine. The process offers advantages of: reduced screw wear; reduced thermal degradation, as the polymer is only heated once; ability to use custom formulations; in-line recycling; ability to produce custom colours; just in time compounding; reduced inventories; reduced packaging (raw materials delivered in bulk, using return double packaging); uniform fibre content; reduced energy consumption; process versatility; and cost reduction. 7 refs. USA

Accession no.828832 Item 146 Plastiques Flash No.316, Feb./March 2001, p.38/43 French EXTRUDING WOOD Developments in the extrusion of plastics profiles containing up to 80% or more of wood fibres are reviewed on the basis of a symposium organised in Vienna by Cincinnati Extrusion in the summer of 2000. Extruders developed by Cincinnati Extrusion and Davis-Standard for the processing of these materials are described. FASALEX; JRS; PROPOLYTECH; DAVISSTANDARD; CINCINNATI EXTRUSION GMBH AUSTRIA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.828691

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 147 Polymer Composites 22, No.4, Aug.2001, p.568-78 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND MORPHOLOGY OF FLAX FIBER REINFORCED MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES Hagstrand P O; Oksman K Chalmers,University of Technology; Swedish Institute of Composites Non-woven flax fibre mat-reinforced and particulatefilled melamine-formaldehyde(MF) composites processed by compression moulding were studied and compared with a similar MF composite reinforced with glass fibres. Using flax instead of glass fibres had a rather negative effect on tensile performance. The difference was, however, relatively small and, if density and material cost were taken into account, flax fibres became competitive. Tensile damage was quantified from the stiffness reduction during cyclic straining. Compared with glass fibres, flax fibres generated a material with a significantly lower damage rate. From SEM, it was found that microcracking took place mainly in the fibre cell walls and not at the fibre-matrix interface. This indicated that the fibre-matrix adhesion was high. The materials were also compared using dynamic mechanical thermal analysis and water absorption measurements. 37 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.827668 Item 148 Polymer Composites 22, No.4, Aug.2001, p.518-27 JUTE FELT COMPOSITE FROM LIGNIN MODIFIED PHENOLIC RESIN Sarkar S; Adhikari B Indian Institute of Technology Raw and dewaxed jute felt composites were prepared with resol- and lignin-modified phenol-formaldehyde resin. Four different types of lignin-modified resins were used by replacing phenol with lignin. The lignin-modified resins were prepared from purified lignin obtained from paper industry waste black liquor. IR spectroscopic studies of jute felts and composites were carried out to investigate the bonding between jute and resin. The thermal stability of the composites was studied by DSC and TGA. It was found that the lignin resin jute composite was thermally more stable than the resol composite. X-ray diffraction of jute felt and composite showed that the crystallinity of the jute fibre increased after composite preparation. The lignin resin composites were tested for water absorption and thickness swelling and it was found that the results were comparable with those of resol jute composite. Composites prepared from lignin phenol-formaldehyde resin with up to 50% phenol replacement showed 75% TS retention. 73 refs. INDIA

Accession no.827664

65

References and Abstracts

Item 149 International Polymer Processing 16, No.2, June 2001, p.100-7 TWIN SCREW COMPOUNDING OF PE-HD WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES Wang Y; Chan H C; Lai S M; Shen H F Tunghai,University; Chinese Culture University; Taichung,Plastics Industry Development Centre The compounding of wood flour-filled PE was examined with reference to co-rotating twin-screw extruders from two manufacturers. An acrylic acidgrafted PE copolymer was used as the compatibiliser in HDPE-wood flour composite system. Particular attention was paid to the compounding of the heat- and shear-sensitive wood flour. The relevant screw configuration was found to consist of short mixing length with low intensity of shearing. A suitable combination of process variables was necessary for limiting the thermal degradation of the wood filler, but tensile properties of the composites were not much affected. Furthermore, the allowable range of processing temp. was limited and there was an upper limit of rotating speed and a lower limit of throughput rate within which the darkening of wood filler in the composites was acceptable. The processing window was also experimentally constructed in terms of the degree of darkening of wood composites. 24 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.827621 Item 150 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 492 WOOD FILLED HIGH CRYSTALLINITY POLYPROPYLENE Jacoby P; Sullivan R; Crostic W BP Amoco Polymers (SPE) The properties of wood flour-filled polyethylenes (PE) and polypropylenes (PP) were compared. The materials tested were: PP homopolymer, high crystallinity PP, an impact propylene copolymer, high density PE, and low density PE, containing 20-60% pine wood flour. Maleated PP or maleated PE were evaluated as compatibilisers in some blends. Test samples were prepared by injection moulding, and tensile strength measured at 23 C and 60 C, and flexural and impact strengths measured at ambient temperatures. Tensile creep was measured at 23 C and 7 MPa, and at 60 C and 3.5 MPa. Samples were also tested following immersion in water for various times up to 30 days. The PPs exhibited significantly higher stiffness, strength and high temperature performance compared with the PE-based materials, the high crystallinity PP having the best performance. 2 refs. USA

Accession no.827222

66

Item 151 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 491 EFFECTIVENESS OF FUNCTIONALIZED POLYOLEFINS AS COMPATIBILIZERS FOR POLYETHYLENE/WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES Lai S-M; Yeh F-C; Yeh Wang; Chan H-C; Shen H-F; Hsiao Y-K Tunghai,University; Chinese Culture University; Taichung,Plastics Industry Development Centre (SPE) High density polyethylene was compounded with wood flour using a self-wiping, co-rotating twin-screw extruder, and various maleic anhydride (MA)-grafted polyolefins were evaluated as compatibilisers. The MA-grafted polymers were: linear low density polyethylene (LLDPEg-MA), styrene-ethylene butylene-styrene block copolymer (SEBS-g-MA), and polypropylene (PP-gMA). Tensile and impact test samples were prepared by injection moulding, and the morphology of the fracture surfaces was studied by scanning electron microscopy. The highest tensile and impact strengths were achieved using LLDPE-g-MA, with lower strength gains coming from the use of SEBS-g-MA. Enhanced compatibility was attributed to the compatibility between the HDPE matrix and the LLDPE backbone of the compatibiliser, and with enhanced interfacial bonding resulting from the chemical reaction between MA and hydroxyl groups of the wood flour. The notched impact strength decreased with increasing PP-g-MA content. 10 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.827221 Item 152 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 490 EFFECT OF COMPOUNDING CONDITIONS ON THE WOOD FLOUR/POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES IN TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS Yeh Wang; Chan H-C; Lai S-M; Shen H-F; Hsiao Y-K Tunghai,University; Chinese Culture University; Taichung,Plastics Industry Development Centre (SPE) The influence of processing parameters on the properties of wood flour-filled polyethylene, compounded using corotating twin-screw extruders was investigated. Polymer pellets and poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid) compatibiliser were blended prior to feeding into the extruder. The wood flour was introduced at the mid-extruder position to minimise thermal and shear degradation. Two extruders were used, the experimental variables being: screw configuration, throughput rate, screw speed, and barrel temperature profile. The prepared materials were characterised by measurement of tensile strength and tensile modulus, determination of fibre length reduction, assessment of bonding by scanning electron microscopy, and determination of darkening due to thermal

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

degradation. The appropriate screw configuration consisted of short mixing elements with low intensity shearing. A suitable combination of processing variables, including screw speed, throughput rate, and barrel temperatures were necessary to limit thermal degradation and darkening of the filler. The degradation caused only a minor reduction in tensile properties. 12 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.827220 Item 153 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 460 DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXTRUSION SYSTEM FOR FINE-CELLED FOAMING OF WOODFIBER COMPOSITES USING A PHYSICAL BLOWING AGENT Zhang H; Rizvi G M; Lin W S; Guo G; Park C B Toronto,University (SPE) The use of wood fibre filler, combined with a cellular structure, to reduce cost and increase the mechanical properties of thermoplastics was investigated. An extrusion system was developed for material preparation, consisting of two extruders working in tandem. In the first extruder the plastic and wood fibre were compounded, moisture being vented in vapour form at the junction between the two extruders. In the second extruder the dry material was blended with a physical blowing agent, passed through a static mixer, then homogeneously cooled to enhanced melt strength, before extrusion through a nucleation die with cooling to freeze the surface layer of the extrudate. Trials were conducted using high density polyethylene, softwood fibre (50% less than 125 micrometre, with an addition of 0-40 wt%), modified polyethylene coupling agent, CO2 physical blowing agent (0-4 wt%) and talc as the nucleating agent. The system operated successfully, attributed to the combination of uniform mixing, improved bonding and effective moisture removal. The cell morphology was dependent upon the system configuration, and was strongly influenced by the coupling agent. Increasing the CO2 content had little effect on the cell morphology, but increased the volume expansion ratio and decreased the minimum foaming temperature. Reducing the fibre content enhanced the cell morphology. 58 refs. CANADA

Accession no.827190 Item 154 Composites Science & Technology 61, No.10, 2001, p.1437-47 EFFECT OF FIBER TREATMENT ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF UNIDIRECTIONAL SISAL-REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITES

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Rng M Z; Zhang M Q; Liu Y; Yang G C; Zeng H M Guangzhou,Zhongshan University Details are given of the effect of fibre treatment on the mechanical properties of unidirectional sisal-reinforced epoxy resins. Treatments including alkalisation, acetylisation, cyanoethylation, the use of silane coupling agent, and heating were used to modify the fibre surfaces and internal structures. Characterisation was undertaken using FTIR, X-ray diffraction, and tensile tests. 19 refs. CHINA

Accession no.826932 Item 155 Composites International No.45, May/June 2001, p.24 French; English NATURAL-FIBRE-REINFORCED PU FOR SOFT TRIM PARTS Using natural fibre mats as reinforcement for PUR systems makes it possible to reduce both the weight of parts and the cost of manufacturing. In the automotive industry, side doors along with their soft trim components are considered as safety parts. For these trim parts, Bayer has developed new PU systems that are marketed under the Baypreg brand name. Hennecke provides complete custom-built production facilities under the name NafpurTec. BAYER AG; HENNECKE GMBH EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.826731 Item 156 Composites International No.45, May/June 2001, p.22-3 French; English SIGNIFICANT PENETRATION INTO THE AUTOMOTIVE MARKET Today, several types of plant fibre are in use in the automotive industry including flax, hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, wood or grain-based products. The most commonly used thermoplastic binder is PP, although many PU applications are emerging. Natural materials offer several advantages such as no net carbon dioxide release, 40% less weight compared with glass fibre and production consumes one-fifth the energy of glass fibre production. DaimlerChrysler will fit the new MercedesBenz Travego travel coach with a natural fibrereinforced engine and transmission casing as standard equipment, the first natural fibre-reinforced vehicle exterior component to go into series production. WORLD

Accession no.826730

67

References and Abstracts

Item 157 BLOWING AGENTS AND FOAMING PROCESSES CONFERENCE 2001. Proceedings from a conference held Frankfurt, 13th-14th March 2001. Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2001, Paper 2. 012 ADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS IN WOOD-PLASTIC COMPOSITES Luebke G Clariant Masterbatch GmbH & Co.OHG (Rapra Technology Ltd.) The growing market for wood-plastic composites is discussed with some statistics for the North American market. The benefits in using chemical foaming agents in wood-plastic composites are examined, with particular reference to the following points: material and cost savings, consistent process control, nucleating effects which can solve the moisture problems, improvement of mechanical properties, and improved compatibility between hydrophilic wood and hydrophobic plastics. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; NORTH AMERICA; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.826073 Item 158 Journal of Materials Science Letters 20, No.11, 1st June 2001, p.1017-9 FLEXURAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PIASSAVA FIBERS (ATTALEA FUNIFERA) RESIN MATRIX COMPOSITES Aquino R C M P; D’Almeida J R M; Monteiro S N Norte Fluminense,Universidade Estadual; Rio de Janeiro,Pontificia Universidade Catolica Fibres from the piassava palm (attalea funifera) were evaluated as suitable reinforcement for orthophthalic ester resin. Waste fibres from broom production were collected and composites fabricated by moulding and curing. Fibre loading varied from 30-50% by mass. The samples were subjected to flexural testing and their stress at rupture shown to increase with fibre loading. The flexural strength was comparable to other natural fibre-reinforced composites. 24 refs.

flour) was investigated. Moulding behaviour was assessed, and the appearance and colour, reinforcement distribution, and impact and flexural strength were determined after moulding. Extended moulding times resulted in surface burning. The reinforcement in the wood flour mouldings was more uniformly distributed and wetted, resulting in superior mechanical properties compared with the sawdust-reinforced mouldings. Impact strength decreased with increasing filler content. Heating times during moulding increased with increasing filler content, whilst cooling time decreased. This was attributed to the reduced shrinkage enhancing contact with the mould wall, so improving heat transfer. 7 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NEW ZEALAND; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.825349 Item 160 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 7, No.2, June 2001, p.67-75 MICROCELLULAR FOAMING OF IMPACTMODIFIED RIGID PVC/WOOD-FLOUR COMPOSITES Matuana L M; Mengeloglu F Michigan,Technological University Solid-state microcellular foaming technology was used to investigate the influence of impact modification on the foamability of neat rigid PVC and rigid PVC/wood flour composite samples. The effects of impact modifier types (crosslinked versus uncrosslinked) and concentrations on the void fraction of foamed samples were examined. The influence of impact modification on the sorption behaviour of carbon dioxide in the samples was also studied. The experimental results indicated that impact modification accelerated the rate of gas loss during the foaming process, which impeded the growth of nucleated cells, independent of modifier type. As a result of this accelerated gas loss, impact modification inhibited the potential of producing foamed samples with void fractions similar to those achieved in unmodified samples. 26 refs. USA

Accession no.825288

BRAZIL

Accession no.825922 Item 159 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 253 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION INTO THE USE OF WOOD FIBERS AS A FILLER IN THE ROTATIONAL MOLDING OF POLYETHYLENE McDowell G W G; Orr J F; Kissick J; Crawford R J Belfast,Queen’s University; Auckland,University (SPE) The rotational moulding of polyethylene reinforced with 2.5-60 wt% wood fibre (waste sawdust and very fine wood

68

Item 161 International Journal of Polymeric Materials 48, No.4, 2001, p.461-75 WHITE RICE HUSK ASH FILLED NATURAL RUBBER/LINEAR LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE BLENDS Ismail H; Nizam J M; Khalil H P S A Universiti Sains Malaysia NR/LLDPE blends were prepared using an internal mixer at 150C and a rotor speed of 55 rpm. The TS, tensile modulus and hardness increased with increasing LLDPE content, while EB and mass swelling showed decreasing trend. With 30/70 w/w NR/LLDPE blends, the increasing

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

white rice husk ash loading also increased the tensile modulus and hardness, but reduced the TS, EB and mass swelling. The poor TS performance was attributed to the poor filler-matrix interaction or compatibility and poor dispersion of filler in NR/LLDPE blends. 22 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.825028 Item 162 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 40, No.4, 2001, p.519-38 WHITE RICE HUSK ASH FILLED ETHYLENEPROPYLENE-DIENE TERPOLYMER/ POLYPROPYLENE BLENDS: EFFECT OF DYNAMIC VULCANIZATION AND FILLER LOADING Siriwardena S; Ismail H; Ishiaku U S Universiti Sains Malaysia White rusk husk ash was incorporated into elastomer-rich EPDM/PP blends and the effect of filler loading (0 to 60 pph) and dynamic vulcanisation were investigated using mechanical properties and processability as indicators. Mixing rheology of the blends based on Brabender torque was also studied. The results obtained are presented and discussed with particular reference to mixing torque, stress-strain properties, TS, EB, stress at yield, moduli at different strains, tear strength, compression set, hardness, hysteresis, processability and recyclability. 26 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.825002 Item 163 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 40, No.4, 2001, p.463-78 EFFECTS OF A COMPATIBILIZER AND A SILANE COUPLING AGENT ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WHITE RICE HUSK ASH FILLED POLYPROPYLENE/ NATURAL RUBBER BLEND Ismail H; Mega L Universiti Sains Malaysia The effects of a compatibiliser, poly(propylene-ethylene acrylic acid)(PPEAA), and a silane coupling agent, 3aminopropyltriethoxysilane(3-APE), on the properties of white rice husk ash(WRHA)-filled PP/NR blends were investigated. The incorporation of WRHA into PP/NR blends improved tensile modulus but decreased TS, EB and stress at yield. The improvement was due to better filler dispersion and better filler-matrix interaction through the surface modification of filler and matrix. Water absorption increased with increasing filler loading, but the presence of 3-APE and PPEAA affected the water resistance of the composites. 18 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.824998

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 164 UTECH 2000. Proceedings of a conference held The Hague, Netherlands, 28th-30th March 2000. London, 2000, Automotive Session, Paper 3, pp.6, 012 INTERIOR TRIM PARTS FROM NATURAL FIBRE MAT AND GLASS FIBRE TECHNOLOGIES Kleinholz R Johnson Controls (Crain Communications Ltd.; European Isocyanate Producers’ Association) Two new materials and processes for the manufacture of door panels for the Daimler Chrysler class S and class CLK cars are evaluated and compared. The materials are Fibropur, a natural fibre mat with a PU binder, produced by compression moulding, and LFI (Long Fibre Injection), a PU rigid foam with cut glass fibres made by a foaming technique. Reasons for the development of these materials are outlined, the processes are described and the properties of the two materials compared. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.824804 Item 165 Molecular Crystals & Liquid Crystals Vol.353, 2000, p.95-108 COMPOSITES MADE FROM LIGNOCELLULOSICS AND THERMOSET POLYMERS Aramguren M I; Marcovich N E; Reboredo M M INTEMA Preparation and testing of composites from a styrene/ unsaturated polyester thermoset matrix and wood flours from different wood species was carried out. Studies were carried out on Pine (Pino Eliottis), eucaliptus (Eucaliptus Saligna) and marmelero (Ruprechia Laviflora), a softwood and two semi-hard woods, respectively. The particles were used untreated and chemically modified with maleic anhydride. For the characterisation of untreated and treated flours, thermogravimetric analysis and analytical techniques were utilised. Dispersion of the fibrous particles, in addition to maximum fibre concentration (accompanied by complete wetting of the wood fibres) was dependent on the treatment and on the wood species utilised. Bending and compression tests suggested some improvement in the performance of the composites, if the wood flour was previously esterified. Changes in the fracture surfaces due to maleic anhydride treatment of the fibres were observed using scanning electron microscopy. 12 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.824162 Item 166 Molecular Crystals & Liquid Crystals Vol.353, 2000, p.85-94

69

References and Abstracts

WEATHERING PERFORMANCE OF PLANTFIBER/THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Rowell R M; Lange S E; Jacobson R E US,Dept.of Agriculture,Forest Products Laboratory Natural fibre/thermoplastic composites were produced from polypropylene and aspen fibre. A number of different levels of aspen fibre (30-60% by weight) were used with and without the addition of a compatibiliser (maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene, MAPP). Tests were carried out on these composites for strength properties, exposure to boiling and cyclic liquid water and oven drying tests, and evaluated in an accelerated weathering test for 2000 hours. As the level of fibre rises without MAPP, flexural strength, flexural modulus, tensile strength, and tensile modulus increases but notched and unnotched impact strength decreases compared with pure polypropylene. The presence of MAPP has a very large positive impact on flexural strength, flexural modulus, tensile strength, and tensile modulus compared with composites made without MAPP. As the level of fibre increased in the composites, the rate and extent of thickness swelling and moisture sorption rose compared with pure polypropylene. The presence of MAPP lowered the degree of swelling and moisture pickup. Under accelerated weathering conditions (water sprayed for 18 minutes followed by 102 minutes without water spray of UV radiation produced by a 6500 watt xenon arc light source), weathering of composites was limited to the outer 0.5 mm of the surface. Weathering gave rise to the development of a white chalky surface layer which began at about 150-200 hours of weathering. Following 2000 hours of accelerated weathering, weight loss increased with increasing fibre content and there was more weight loss in samples containing MAPP compared with samples without added MAPP. After 2000 hours of weathering and scraping off the chalky white layer, weight loss was highest in samples containing no fibre. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.824161 Item 167 Molecular Crystals & Liquid Crystals Vol.354, 2001, p.373-80 FLAMMABILITY OF COMPOSITES BASED ON POLYPROPYLENE AND FLAX FIBERS Helwig M; Paukszta D Poznan,University of Technology Details are given of the flammability of PP composites with long flax fibres obtained by compression moulding. Heat release rate and mass loss rate curves were determined. Mechanisms of thermal decomposition and combustion are discussed. 11 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.823855

70

Item 168 Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 15, No.6, 2001, p.633-52 INTERFACIAL ADHESION IN SISAL FIBRE/SBR COMPOSITES: INVESTIGATION BY THE RESTRICTED EQUILIBRIUM SWELLING TECHNIQUE Kumar R P; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University The degree of interfacial adhesion at the fibre-matrix interface of short sisal fibre-reinforced SBR composites was investigated using the restricted equilibrium swelling method. The swelling behaviour of untreated composites and composites treated with a two-component dry bonding agent consisting of hexamethylene tetramine and resorcinol was examined in a series of aromatic solvents, including benzene, toluene and xylene. The influence of fibre loading on the swelling behaviour of the composites and the effects of fibre orientation, fibre loading, bonding agent and variations in dimensions were evaluated and the mechanical properties of the composites determined. 30 refs. INDIA

Accession no.823098 Item 169 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 32A, No.8, 2001, p.1105-15 EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAX FIBRES Stamboulis A; Baillie C A; Peijs T Imperial College of Science,Technology & Medicine; London,University,Queen Mary & Westfield College The environmental degradation behaviour and mechanical properties of Duralin treated flax fibres were investigated by moisture absorption measurements and tensile testing and the results compared with those for untreated fibres. Electrochemical experiments were also carried out to evaluate the effect of Duralin treatment on the moisture uptake of the flax fibres. The effects of moisture absorption on mechanical properties and zeta potential measurements are discussed as is the pH dependence of the zeta potential measurements. 22 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.823014 Item 170 Composites Science & Technology 61, No.9, 2001, p.1303-10 INFLUENCE OF FIBRE TREATMENT ON THE PERFORMANCE OF COIR-POLYESTER COMPOSITES Rout J; Misra M; Tripathy S S; Nayak S K; Mohanty A K

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Ravenshaw College; Michigan,State University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. Coir fibres were subjected to various surface treatments including alkali treatment, bleaching and vinyl grafting in an attempt to improve their adhesion to polyester matrix resins. Mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength, of composites containing the treated fibres were determined and fibrematrix adhesion was examined by scanning electron microscopy. The effect of fibre treatment on water absorption of the untreated and treated coir fibre composites and coir/glass hybrid composites was also investigated. 16 refs. INDIA; USA

Accession no.822965 Item 171 Composites Science & Technology 61, No.9, 2001, p.1175-88 STRESS-RELAXATION BEHAVIOUR IN COMPOSITES BASED ON SHORT OIL-PALM FIBRES AND PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN Sreekala M S; Kumaran M G; Joseph R; Thomas S India,Rubber Research Institute; Mahatma Gandhi,University A study was made of the stress relaxation of phenolformaldehyde resins reinforced with short oil-palm empty fruit bunch fibres and hybrid composites composed of oil-palm fibres and glass fibres. The effects of fibre loading, fibre treatment, hybridisation with glass fibres, physical ageing and strain level on stress relaxation behaviour were examined and the rate of relaxation at different time intervals was calculated in order to explain gradual changes in relaxation mechanisms. 32 refs. INDIA

Accession no.822959 Item 172 Macromolecular Symposia Vol. 169, May 2001, p.211-22 NEW WATERBORNE EPOXY COATINGS BASED ON CELLULOSE NANOFILLERS Ruiz M M; Cavaille J Y; Dufresne A; Graillat C; Gerard J-F CNRS-INSA; Fourier J.,Universite; LCPP-CNRS; laboratoire des Materiaux Macromoleculaires Nanocomposites based on a waterborne epoxy emulsion and a suspension of cellulose crystallites were prepared by film casting in order to obtain coatings which displayed both flexibility and stiffness. Typical processing problems associated with this type of composite are related to high viscosity values of filled polymers in the molten state, the incompatibility between hydrophobic matrices and hydrophilic cellulose, and the formation of hydrogen bonds between cellulose of this type in an epoxy matrix.

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

This work aims to solve some of these problems by careful selection of the components of the coatings. The use of cellulose whiskers are demonstrated to produce an improvement of the composite modulus in the rubbery state of the matrix, which is attributed to the formation of a network of whiskers from the hydrogen bonds existing between the cellulose whiskers. 25 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.822664 Item 173 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 81, No.3, 18th July 2001, p.742-53 HYGROTHERMAL AGING AND TENSILE BEHAVIOR OF INJECTION MOLDED RICE HUSK-FILLED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Ishak Z A M; Yow B N; Ng B L; Khalil H P S A; Rozman L C Sains Malaysia,University Rice husks are a widely available low cost waste product of rice production and their potential suitability for reinforcing polypropylene was studied. The effect of filler volume fraction on tensile properties and kinetics of hygrothermal ageing were evaluated using injection moulded test pieces. It was found that the rice hush/ polypropylene compounds had improved tensile modulus and strength but lower elongation and energy to break. Moisture adsorption increased with filler volume and ageing temperature and physical properties decreased permanently with ageing time. Scanning electron microscopy, used to investigate the failure mode, indicated that reinforcement agglomeration had a detrimental influence on the ultimate performance. Complete details of the test procedures and results are given and the results fully discussed. 24 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.821957 Item 174 Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe 54, No.5, 2001, p.242-9 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND SWELLING OF NATURAL RUBBER COMPOUNDS CONTAINING RICE HUSK ASH da Costa H M; Nunes R C R; Visconte L L Y; Furtado C R G Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal; Rio de Janeiro,Universidade do Estado The use of rice husk ash, as-received (RHA) or milled (MHA), as a new type of filler for NR was investigated. The physical properties of the NR vulcanisates involved tensile, tear and abrasion resistance, hardness and resilience were tested. The interaction between RHA and NR was investigated by swelling in an organic solvent. The effect

71

References and Abstracts

of the coupling agent bis(3-triethoxysilylpropyl) tetrasulphane on the curing and physical properties of the vulcanisates was investigated. The presence of the silane coupling agent did not bring about the expected increase in properties, but MHA exhibited better overall vulcanisate properties when compared with RHA, although still inferior to commercial fillers such as precipitated silica (Zeosil175) and carbon black (N762), especially with regard to TS and abrasion resistance. 24 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.820511 Item 175 New Scientist 169, No.2274, 20th Jan.2001, p.1-4(insert) PERFECT PARTNERSHIPS Matthams T Cambridge,University This detailed article provides us with an in-depth introduction to the world of composites, explaining how materials which are weak and brittle can be turned into tough, strong ones by selecting the right combination of metals, fibres, plastics, and ceramics. Section headings include: making the most of composites, controlling the composite, ceramics take the heat, and learning from nature. Two smaller insert articles are also included, entitled “The right stuff” which discusses all kinds of fibres, and “It’s a tough old world” which points out composites in the natural world. BOEING; NASA; DAIMLERCHRYSLER EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SOUTH EAST ASIA; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.818337 Item 176 British Plastics and Rubber Nov.2000, p.13 “PLASTIC WOOD” EXTRUSION DIRECT FROM THE COMPOUNDER This small article highlights a new direct compounding extrusion line for synthetic wood, from B&P of America, which consists of a feeder for the wood, a twin-screw compounder, a melt extruder with degassing unit, a melt pump or discharge extruder, and die and downstream equipment. Brief details are given. B & P OF AMERICA; UNIPLEX MACHINERY SALES; WTL INTERNATIONAL EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.818300 Item 177 Macromolecular Materials and Engineering Vol.286, No.4, 30th April 2001, p.237-42 INFLUENCE OF FIBRE AND MATRIX MODIFICATIONS ON MECHANICAL AND

72

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAX FIBRE REINFORCED POLY(PROPYLENE) Van de Velde K; Kiekens P Ghent,University Several types of flax were used as reinforcement in PPbased unidirectional composites. These flax types included non-treated as well as treated (boiled) samples. Two types of PP were used as matrix, i.e. non-modified PP and maleic anhydride-modified PP. The influence of both fibre and matrix modification was studied through mechanical (flexural) and physical (density, sorption and drying) tests. The combination of boiled flax with the modified PP yielded the best mechanical properties, combined with good physical properties. A 100% stress transfer between fibre and matrix could be calculated in this optimised case. Interlaminar shear strength tests were conducted in order to confirm this improved fibre-matrix adhesion. 13 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.817757 Item 178 Journal of Materials Science Letters 20, No.5, 28th Feb.2001, p.477-9 IMPACT DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION ON JUTE REINFORCED COMPOSITES Santulli C; Cantwell WJ Liverpool,University Woven jute fibre-reinforced polyester resin laminates were subjected to impact testing with energy up to 20J and impact velocity up to 2 m/s. Some samples were then subjected to tensile testing to failure, which occurred by matrix cracking at the impact point but not delamination. Other damaged samples were subjected to fatigue testing and the damaged zones examined by optical microscopy. 7 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.817307 Item 179 Cellular Polymers 20, No.2, 2001, p.115-30 FACTORIAL DESIGN APPLIED TO THE EXTRUSION FOAMING OF POLYPROPYLENE/ WOOD-FLOUR COMPOSITES Matuana L; Li Q Michigan,Technological University A factorial design was performed to determine the statistical effects of material compositions and extrusion processing variables on the foamability of PP/wood flour composites. The effect of variables on the void fraction of foamed composite samples were analysed using Design Expert software. 25 refs. USA

Accession no.817289

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 180 Popular Plastics and Packaging 46, No.5, May 2001, p.25-6 ALL STRENGTH NO BULK: NEW PROCESSES AND FIBRES FOR REINFORCED PLASTICS The European market for GRP increased by nearly 6% in 1999 to some 950,000 tonnes. It is estimated that production volume for 2000 will have reached well over one million tonnes for the first time. The TCP centrifugal casting process has been shown to deliver end products that meet narrow tolerance specifications at high fibre volume fractions. Trial runs to date have used PP and polyamide as the matrix, plus glass and carbon fibres as the reinforcing materials. A fibre volume fraction of 5060% and non-porous laminates were achieved. The SLI (single line injection) process is primarily a combination of the RTM method and select elements of prepreg technology. The use of natural fibres as a reinforcing material in composite structures is discussed. Vehicle door panels have been produced using a combination of natural fibres and PU. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.816591 Item 181 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 40, No.2, 2001, p.205-15 ANALYSIS OF COST AND FLEXURAL STRENGTH PERFORMANCE OF NATURAL FIBRE-POLYESTER COMPOSITES d’Almeida J R M Rio de Janeiro,Pontificia Universidade Catolica Natural fibre reinforced polyester matrix composite materials are evaluated both for strength performance and cost. The flexural strength of composites fabricated with untreated chopped natural fibres is comparable only to the performance of low-strength wooden agglomerates and plywood. Nevertheless, it is shown that on a cost basis the composites fabricated with high-strength natural fibres can even compete with glass fibre-mat polyester matrix composites. The primary constraint is to maintain consistently low cost of the fibres. 28 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.816115 Item 182 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 40, No.2, 2001, p.103-15 EFFECT OF OIL EXTRACTION OF THE OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYPROPYLENE-OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH-GLASS FIBRE HYBRID COMPOSITES Rozman H D; Tay G S; Kumar R N; Abusainah A; Ismail H; Ishak Z A M

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Universiti Sains Malaysia Hybrid composites are made using oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) and glass fibres (GF) as reinforcing agents in PP matrix. Three types of coupling agents are incorporated in the composites, i.e. maleic anhydridemodified PP (Epolene E-43), polymethylene (polyphenyl isocyanate) (PMPPIC) and 3-(trimethoxysilyl)-propyl methacrylate. Comparisons are made between composites with oil-extracted (extracted with toluene, acetone and ethanol) and unextracted EFB. It is shown that composites with oil-extracted EFB produce significantly higher flexural and tensile strength and toughness than those without extraction. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that oil extraction results in the formation of continuous interfacial region between EFB and PP matrix, and an increase in the ductility of the matrix. 12 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.816108 Item 183 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 91, No.4, April 2001, p.23-4 REPLACING ESTABLISHED PLASTICS .... BY PP/FLAX COMPOUNDS IMPACT-MODIFIED WITH PET FIBRES Pflug G; Reinemann S Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & KunststoffForschung eV Research undertaken at the Thuringian Institute for Textile and Polymer Research (TITK) into the production of PP/ flax compounds impact modified with PETP fibres, is described. The toughness of PP/flax and PP/flax/ wollastonite composites can be increased using a hybrid construction involving ductile high-strength PETP fibres. The flax and the PETP component serving as the impact modifier were incorporated in the form of chopped fibres. Studies were performed using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder. (Article translated from Kunststoffe 91 (2001) 4, pp.71-2) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.815265 Item 184 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 80, No.11, 13th June 2001, p.1943-50 PHOTOAGING AND STABILIZATION OF RIGID PVC/WOOD-FIBER COMPOSITES Matuana L M; Kamdem D P; Jun Zhang Michigan,Technological University; Michigan,State University Composite samples were prepared by dry blending poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), wood fibre and other processing additives in a high-intensity mixer, followed by extrusion and compression moulding. Both unpigmented and rutile-pigmented samples were

73

References and Abstracts

produced and subjected to accelerated UV testing. Photoageing was studied by visual assessment of surface roughness, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and measurements of contact angle and colour. The wood fibres sensitised the PVC matrix to UV irradiation, accelerating the degradation. The light stability was enhanced by the addition of rutile. 30 refs. USA

Accession no.814346 Item 185 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 80, No.14, 28th June 2001, p.2833-41 CONIFER FIBERS AS REINFORCING MATERIALS FOR POLYPROPYLENE-BASED COMPOSITES Chengzhi Chuai; Almdal K; Poulsen L; Plackett D Tianjin,Institute of Light Industry; Riso National Laboratory; Lyngby,Technical University The thermal and mechanical properties of polypropylene (PP), reinforced with conifer fibres (waste from bleached wood pulp board) were investigated. The fibre compatibility was enhanced by either grafting with maleated PP (MAPP), treatment by MAPP additions, or by mixing with ethylene-propylene-diene (EPDM) terpolymer. MAPP grafting and MAPP treating gave greater improvements in thermal properties, processability, and tensile strength compared with EPDM treatment, whilst EPDM gave greater improvements in impact and tensile properties. 12 refs. CHINA; DENMARK; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.813725 Item 186 Materials Today 3, No.3, 2000, p.9 AEROSPACE APPROVALS SOON FOR NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES Natural fibre composites of thermoplastics and thermosets, which have already been embraced by car manufacturers, are shortly to be approved by the US Federal Aviation Authority and the UK Civil Aviation Authority for aerospace applications, it is announced in this short article. Brief details are given. US,FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION; UK,CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY; KAFUS BIOCOMPOSITES INC.; OWENS CORNING EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.813376 Item 187 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 32A, No.5, 2001, p.619-29

74

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD FLAKE-POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES. I. EFFECTS OF PROCESSING METHODS AND MATRIX MELT FLOW BEHAVIOUR Balasuriya P W; Ye L; Mai Y-W Sydney,University The structure-property relationship of wood flake-HDPE composites is studied in relation to the matrix agent melt flow behaviour and processing technique. Flake distribution and flake wetting are optimised to obtain acceptable mechanical properties in these composites using two processing techniques, namely twin-screw compounding and mechanical blending. The microstructure of the composites reveals that the twinscrew compounded composites based on medium melt flow index (MMFI) HDPE always achieves better flake wetting and distribution, and therefore has higher mechanical properties, than those mechanically blended composites or twin-screw compounded composites with low MFI (LMFI) HDPE. For 50:50 wt.% composites, the overall flake wetting, depending on processing technique and matrix flow behaviour, is ranked as compounded MMFI, compounded LMFI, blended MMFI, blended LMFI. However, uniformity of flake distribution of the composites follows a somewhat different pattern, i.e. compounded MMFI, blended MMFI, compounded LMFI, blended LMFI. Evidence shows that medium MFI HDPE penetrates into lumens of wood fibres in wood flakes. This phenomenon, combined with flake wetting and flake distribution, has a profound effect on mechanical properties, in particular impact strength. 17 refs. AUSTRALIA

Accession no.811183 Item 188 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 32A, Nos.3-4, 2001, p.525-43 STUDY OF TRANSCRYSTALLINITY AND ITS EFFECT ON THE INTERFACE IN FLAX FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS Zafeiropoulos N E; Baillie C A; Matthews F L London,University,Imperial College Four different types of flax fibres, green flax, dew-retted flax, Duralin-treated flax and stearic acid-treated flax, were used with two different isotactic PP matrices. The effect of various conditions, such as the crystallisation temp., time and cooling rates, on the formation of transcrystallinity was investigated using hot stage optical microscopy. DSC was used to investigate the inner morphology of the transcrystalline layer. SEM and Xray diffraction were used in an attempt to identify the origin of the transcrystalline layer in relation to the structural characteristics of the fibres. Finally, the effect of the transcrystalline layer on the mechanical properties of the interface was studied using the single fibre fragmentation test. It was found that the interfacial

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

adhesion was improved by the presence of a transcrystalline layer. 46 refs. (6th International Conference on Interfacial Phenomena in Composite Materials, Berlin, Sept.1999)

Item 191 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 20th April 2001, p.12 WOOD YOU BELIEVE IT?

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

The market for wood polymer composites has recorded growth rates of 100% a year over the past five years. DPDS is marketing the US-developed Strandex process in the UK. The group of materials covers a wide range of polymer matrix types, including PP, PE and PVC, as well as a range of fillers and stiffeners such as wood flour, flax, jute and other cellulose-based fibre fillers. Finished products such as decking, cladding and window frames are already on the market. Wood polymer composite products are extremely moisture-resistant, with less thickness swell. Pigments, UV stabilisers and/or fire retardants can be added to the compound prior to extrusion. DPDS

Accession no.810864 Item 189 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 40, No.1, 2001, p.1-21 FRACTURE MECHANICS STUDY OF POLYPROPYLENE-WOOD FLOURS BLENDS Li T Q; Li R K Y Guangdong,University of Technology; Hong Kong,University PP/wood blends were prepared from various resins and wood flours by extrusion compounding and injection moulding. It was observed that the notched Izod strength of the blends with a relatively brittle resin matrix exceeded that of the neat resin at higher filler loading when the compounds contained the maleic anhydride-PP(MAPP) copolymer. The Izod strength of the blends with a tough matrix increased with the content of the interfacial modifier MAPP and was higher in blends with coarser fillers. Fracture mechanics analyses of the instrumented drop-weight Charpy test results were then performed to study the nature of these increases in impact fracture resistance. It was found that both the fracture toughness(Kc) and the critical strain release energy(Gc) increased with filler content in blends containing MAPP. In blends without MAPP, however, Gc decreased slightly with filler content, while Kc increased less significantly. The increases of Gc with MAPP and with increasing filler particle size were also observed for the blends with a tougher PP as matrix. 28 refs. CHINA; HONG KONG

Accession no.810599 Item 190 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 20th April 2001, p.12 US LEADS THE WAY It is briefly reported that wood polymer composites account for a 300,000 t/y market in the US for building and garden products. Allchem International is marketing a wood fibre product suitable for producing a range of wood polymer composites. Lignocel is a 100% wood fibre product suitable for producing a variety of materials. It can be supplied as granules or a fine powder fibre. The granular product has a higher density which improves its mixing performance and allows fill levels of up to 85% to be achieved. ALLCHEM INTERNATIONAL USA

Accession no.810054

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.810053 Item 192 Patent Number: US 6133348 A1 20001017 2000 FLAX SHIVES REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC RESIN COMPOSITION Kolla F A; Balatinecz J J Cargill Inc. The present invention is directed to flax shives reinforced thermoplastic compositions and a method for reinforcing thermoplastic resins. The present invention provides a use for flax shives, which is the portion left over after processing plant materials to separate plant fibres (bast fibres) from the shives. USA

Accession no.809061 Item 193 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, No.6, 7th Feb.2001, p.1084-91 EFFECT OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS ON DIMENSIONS OF SISAL FIBRES IN THERMOPLASTIC BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES Iannace S; Ali R; Nicolais L Naples,University Composites of sisal fibre, both untreated and alkaline treated, with a biodegradable material, mater Bi-Z, were produced in a miniature batch mixer. Degradation of sisal fibre with mixing conditions was studied using both optical and scanning electron microscopy. Both fibre length and diameter were reduced, but aspect ratio was increased, with mixing time, decrease in mixer temperature and increase in mixer rotor speed, and a semiempirical model was developed to predict fibre dimensions against time of mixing. Alkaline treatment of

75

References and Abstracts

the sisal fibre increased the rate of reduction in fibre size. 19 refs EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.808783

composite decking market is expected to grow 25% this year to about 225m US dollars. Waste wood fibres are combined with plastic, usually PE, PVC or PP, to make the weatherproof “lumber”. Recycled or virgin plastic can be used. NORTH AMERICA

Item 194 Macromolecular Materials and Engineering Vols.284-5, Dec.2000, p.25-9 CHARACTERISATION OF THE FIBRE/MATRIX ADHESION WITH DIFFERENT MICROSCOPIC ANALYSING METHODS ON NATURAL FIBREREINFORCED THERMOSETS Michaeli W; Muenker M; Krumpholz T IKV; Aachen,University of Technology; RWTH The addition of butyl titanate as a coupling agent improved the mechanical properties of natural fibrereinforced (flax fibre-reinforced) unsaturated polyester resins. SEM/energy dispersive X-ray analysis, TEM and atomic force microscopy were used to study the mechanism by which the mechanical properties were improved. The butyl titanate seemed to cause a stiffening of the matrix, which had a stiffening effect on the mechanical properties of the natural fibre-reinforced laminate. Further studies with different resin systems are necessary to clarify the mechanism involved. 8 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.807871 Item 195 Plastics News(USA) 12, No.51, 19th Feb.2001, p.31 ENTREPRENEUR INVESTS IN WOOD-FLOUR MARKET Renstrom R It is briefly reported that hardwood flooring entrepreneur Bert Thompson has invested about 3m US dollars for a new Macon, Ga., mill to transform wood flour into filler for plastics and chemical processing. Operations at the newly formed Southern Wood Services will start in March. SOUTHERN WOOD SERVICES LLC USA

Accession no.807032 Item 196 Plastics News(USA) 12, No.51, 19th Feb.2001, p.1/31 COMPOSITES GET ALL DECKED OUT Bregar B North American demand for wood/plastic composites, pegged at 700 million pounds in 2000, should more than double by 2005. Decking accounts for about 60% of the total. The driver for composite decks is the demand for lower-maintenance exterior products that look good. The

76

Accession no.807006 Item 197 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 91, No.1, Jan.2001, p.25-7 INJECTION MOULDING OF NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED THERMOPLASTICS Marek A; Widdecke H The results are reported of a study of the mechanical properties of natural fibre (sisal) reinforced plastics (cellulose acetate) produced by injection moulding. The effect of fibre content on composite properties is discussed and the mechanical properties of the reinforced composites compared with those of unreinforced cellulose acetate. (Kunststoffe, 91, No.1, 2001, p.60-2) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.806695 Item 198 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, No.7, 14th Feb. 2001, p.1169-77 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY STUDY OF CHEMICALLY MODIFIED COIR FIBRES Rout J; Tripathy S S; Nayak S K; Misra M; Mohanty A K Ravenshaw College; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech.; Berlin,Technical University Coir fibres were subjected to various surface treatments, including dewaxing, grafting with methyl methacrylate, mercerisation and cyanoethylation, and analysed by means of SEM and FTIR spectroscopy. Changes in the surface topology of the treated fibres were evaluated and measurements of the maximum stress at break carried out to corroborate the results of scanning electron microscopy. 18 refs. INDIA

Accession no.805879 Item 199 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 724 WOOD FLOUR REINFORCED POLYSTYRENE COMPOSITE USING SEBS-G-MA AS COMPATIBILIZER Chen-Jui Hung; Jenn-Fong Kuan; Jaine-Ming Huang Taichung,Plastics Industry Development Centre (SPE) A functionalised thermoplastic elastomer, poly(styreneblock-ethylene-block-butadiene)-graft-poly(maleic

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

anhydride) (SEBS-g-MA), was used as a compatibiliser in composites of high impact polystyrene containing 30 wt% wood flour. Using compression moulded samples, the composites were evaluated by measurement of flexural modulus and impact strength. The morphology of the impact fracture surfaces was studied using scanning electron microscopy. Significant improvements in flexural modulus and impact strength were gained by the introduction of the compatibiliser, attributed to the insitu formation of a copolymer at the polystyrene/wood interface, which enhanced interfacial adhesion. 6 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.805732 Item 200 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 660 EFFECTS OF IMPACT MODIFIERS ON THE PROPERTIES OF RIGID PVC/WOOD-FIBER COMPOSITES Mengeloglu F; Matuana L M; King J A Michigan,Technological University (SPE) Composites consisting of rigid poly(vinyl chloride) and wood fibre, modified by the addition of crosslinked (acrylic and methacrylate butadiene styrene) and uncrosslinked (chlorinated polyethylene) impact modifiers, were prepared by dry mixing followed by extrusion and compression moulding. The composites were characterised by measurement of tensile and impact properties. The tensile strength and modulus were significantly decreased by the impact modified additions, whilst the elongation at break was not affected. The impact resistance was strongly dependent upon the type and content of impact modifier, increasing significantly with modifier concentration. The crosslinked modifiers were more effective than the chlorinated polyethylene. 27 refs. USA

Accession no.805668 Item 201 Asian Plastics News Oct.2000, p.12-3 WOOD ENTERS THE FRAME We are told in this article that markets for extruded wood fibre composite profiles are growing rapidly in the USA, and are now starting to take off in Europe and Asia. This article examines the new technologies which are on offer in detail, as well as explaining the advantages of wood composites over traditional timber. DAVIS-STANDARD; CINCINNATI EXTRUSION; PROPOLYTECH; APPLIED MARKET INFORMATION ASIA; AUSTRIA; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; JAPAN; KOREA; NORTH AMERICA; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.804704

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 202 Automotive Engineering International 108, No.10, Oct.2000, p.120 NATURAL FIBERS IN AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS Broge J L It is announced in this short article that DaimlerChrysler Corp. is to equip the new Mercedes-Benz Travego travel coach with a natural fibre-reinforced engine and transmission cover - the first natural fibre-reinforced exterior vehicle component to go into series production. Brief details are presented. DAIMLERCHRYSLER CORP.; MERCEDES-BENZ; CHRYSLER GROUP EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; SOUTH AFRICA; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.804699 Item 203 Plastics Technology 46, No.11, Nov.2000, p.27 “GREEN” DOOR-TRIM PANELS USE PP AND NATURAL FIBERS Johnson Controls Inc. is reported to have begun production of door-trim panels for DaimlerChrysler, using its new “Eco-Cor” material and process, which is based on PP reinforced with natural fibres kenaf and hemp. Brief details of this composite, and the benefits of its use, are given. JOHNSON CONTROLS INC.; DAIMLERCHRYSLER; INDIANA BIOCOMPOSITES; KAFUS BIO-COMPOSITES INC. USA

Accession no.804686 Item 204 Patent Number: US 6136415 A1 20001024 2000 VEHICLE INTERIOR TRIM PANEL WITH A SOFT-TOUCH FOAM LAYER, AND A METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR MAKING THE SAME Spengler G RS Technik GmbH An interior trim component such as a vehicle dashboard includes a substantially rigid and form-stable substrate of polypropylene and natural fibres, a supporting halo skeleton and other frame components heat fused onto the backside of the substrate, and a polyolefin foam layer as well as a decorative polyolefin cover film laminated onto the front side of the substrate. The foam layer has an increased thickness and a decreased foam density at sharply contoured or curved areas of the trim component, in comparison to the flat surfacial areas. As a result, the trim component has a desirable soft-touch characteristic and impact absorbing properties at all areas including protruding curves and edges. A method for forming such a trim component involves steps of pre-moulding the foam layer and cover film by vacuum thermoforming, pre-moulding the substrate

77

References and Abstracts

by vacuum thermoforming, and then heat laminating the pre-heated, pre-moulded substrate onto the pre-moulded foam layer and cover film. The sharply curved or contoured areas of the component are provided with a greater tolerance spacing between the substrate and the cover film, which are held to the respective mould contours by vacuum. Under the effect of heat and the applied vacuum, the foam layer expands to have a greater thickness and a lower density in these sharply contoured areas. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.804658 Item 205 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, No.3, 18th Jan.2001, p.418-25 CREEP RESISTANCE OF WOOD-FILLED POLYSTYRENE/HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE BLENDS Xu B; Simonsen J; Rochefort W E Oregon,State University Wood-filled polymer composites have given poor performance in some applications because of creep, i.e. deformation of a material under stress with time. The advantages of blending a plastic of lower creep polystyrene (PS) with high density polyethylene (HDPE) at the ratios: 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 respectively were studied. The blends were melted with a short-fibre length wood flour (WF), and the elastic modulus and ultimate stress of extruded bars of each blend were measured. In all composites increase of WF ratio increased the elastic modulus, except for 30 and 40% WF, while the effect of WF on ultimate stress varied. Scanning EM images and thermal analysis showed that the wood particles interacted weakly with the PS phase. The creep rate was calculated using three-point bending geometry and a load 50% of the ultimate stress. With increase in WF content creep decreased only slightly, but the increase was greater when the PS content was increased, except with pure PS. A WF/75PS-25HDPE blend showed the minimum creep. 15 refs. USA

Accession no.804437 Item 206 Polymer Composites 22, No.1, Feb.2001, p.104-10 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROCESSING AND PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES BASED ON PLC/STARCH MATRIX AND SISAL FIBERS Cyras V P; Iannace S; Kenny J M Argentina,Institute of Mat.Science & Technology; Italy,Institute for Composite Materials Technology; Perugia,University Biocomposites were produced using polycaprolactone and starch as matrix and sisal fibres as reinforcement. An

78

investigation is carried out with reference to the relationship between processing conditions and properties of the biocomposite, a commercial product known as MaterBiZ. An alkaline treatment was performed in order to improve the adhesion and the compatibility of the fibre with the matrix, and the effect of this treatment on the tensile properties and morphology was determined. 13 refs. ARGENTINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.804308 Item 207 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 576 PROFILE EXTRUSION OF HIGHLY FILLED RECYCLED HDPE Charlton Z; Vlachopoulos J; Suwanda D McMaster University; CRF Technologies Group Ltd. (SPE) Recycled high density polyethylene from post consumer bottles was melt blended with up to 70 wt% rice hulls and a coupling agent. Subsequently a lubricant was dryblended with some of the mixes. The materials were then extruded using a vented screw extruder, and the rheological properties determined using a parallel plate rheometer. Flow simulations were performed using 2D and 3D finite element analysis. The addition of the rice hulls resulted in large increases in the dynamic shear properties, and extrudate tearing occurred at all extrusion rates, increasing with increasing throughput and decreasing temperature. The simulations indicated that the most severe tears occurred when the wall shear stress was low. 20 refs. CANADA

Accession no.803873 Item 208 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.433-7 LIGNOCELLULOSIC FIBRE REINFORCED CASEINATE PLASTICS Fossen M; Ormel I; Van Vilsteren G E T; Jongsma T J Wageningen,Agrotechnological Research Institute Biodegradable natural fibre-reinforced caseinate plastics were obtained by mixing the plastic with either flax fibres or wood pulp fibres and the effects of the fibre and fibre volume fraction on the mechanical properties of the composites investigated. It was found that reinforcement of the plastic with up to 20 wt.% of these natural fibres gave rise to composites exhibiting a six-fold increase in tensile modulus and a five-fold increase in tensile strength, which were attributed to the adhesion between the hydroxyl groups of the fibre and the hydrophilic moieties of the plastic. 11 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803429

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 209 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.421-32 COMPOSITES FROM NATURAL FIBRES AND SOY OIL RESINS Williams G I; Wool R P Delaware,University A report is presented on the development of rigid crosslinked thermosetting polymers from plant triglycerides, the manufacture of resin transfer moulded composites based on flax or hemp fibres and a modified acrylated epoxidised soy oil resin and the properties of these composites. The tensile properties, flexural properties, water absorption and fracture surfaces of these composites are reported and the suitability of these allnatural composites for high volume, low cost applications is briefly considered. 8 refs. USA

Accession no.803428 Item 210 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.415-20 NATURAL FIBRE MAT THERMOPLASTIC PRODUCTS FROM A PROCESSOR’S POINT OF VIEW De Bruijn J C M Polynorm Plastics BV; Delft,University of Technology The advantages and disadvantages of natural fibres over glass fibres in the areas of impact on the environment, health, safety, dimensional stability, cracking, degradation of mechanical properties, moisture absorption, odour, cost and recyclability are considered. Experiments conducted on natural fibre mat thermoplastic composites for automotive applications, which highlight some of the disadvantages of these materials, are briefly reported and possible end-used for these composites are identified. 2 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803427 Item 211 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.403-14 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBRE MAT REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC Oksman K SICOMP AB The results are reported of an investigation into the mechanical properties and morphological properties of four different commercially available semi-finished natural fibre mat reinforced thermoplastic composites. The materials studied were PP melt impregnated fibre mat in the form of sheet and non-woven PP fibres and flax fibres in the form of needle punched fibre mat. The

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

properties of these composites are compared with those of conventional glass fibre mat reinforced thermoplastic and the pure polymer matrix. 9 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803426 Item 212 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.387-402 INFLUENCE OF THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF FLAX FIBRES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAX FIBRE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Van Den Oever M J A; Bos H L; Van Kemenade M J J M Wageningen,Agrotechnological Research Institute The results are reported of a study of the influence of the physical structure of uncombed and combed, random flax fibres on the tensile and flexural properties of flax fibrereinforced PP composites manufactured by the wet layup method. The effect of improved fibre-matrix adhesion on the mechanical properties of scutched and hackled flax fibre-reinforced PP achieved using a maleic anhydride/ propylene graft copolymer, as adhesion promoter, is discussed and the various data obtained compared using the Cox-Krenchel model for E-modulus and the KellyTyson model for composite strength. 26 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803425 Item 213 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.373-85 POSSIBILITIES TO IMPROVE THE PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBREREINFORCED PLASTICS BY FIBRE MODIFICATION - JUTE POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Gassan J; Bledzki A K Kassel,Universitat The results are reported of a study of the effect of fibrematrix adhesion on the properties of jute fibre-reinforced PP subjected to fatigue and impact loading. Fibre-matrix adhesion was improved by surface treating the fibres with maleic anhydride-propylene copolymer, as coupling agent. The effects of fibre surface treatment on dynamic modulus versus number of load cycles and of fibre surface treatment and fibre content on specific damping capacity versus applied maximum load, as measured by load increasing tests in tensile mode, are discussed as are the influence of fibre surface treatment, number of impacts and test temperature of impact loss energy and of number of impact events and temperature during impact on the residual dynamic modulus of the composites. 30 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803424

79

References and Abstracts

Item 214 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.351-72 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURALFIBRE-MAT-REINFORCED THERMOPLASTICS BASED ON FLAX FIBRES AND POLYPROPYLENE Garkhail S K; Heijenrath R W H; Peijs T Eindhoven,University of Technology; London,University,Queen Mary & Westfield College Random flax-mat-reinforced PP composites were produced using a film-stacking method and a suspension impregnation method. The effects of fibre length and fibre volume fraction on stiffness, mechanical strength and impact strength and of maleic anhydride-grafted PP for improving interfacial adhesion on the mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated. The results obtained are compared with those for glass mat reinforced thermoplastics and with predictions obtained using micromechanical models for random short fibrereinforced composites. 41 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803423 Item 215 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.341-9 RTM HEMP FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Sebe G; Cetin N S; Hill C A S; Hughes M Swansea,University of Wales Hemp fibre-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites were obtained by resin transfer moulding and their flexural and impact properties investigated as a function of fibre loading. The effect of chemical modification of the fibres using methacrylic anhydride to introduce reactive vinylic groups at the surface of the fibres on the interfacial adhesion between the fibres and the matrix and on the mechanical properties of the composites was also evaluated. The properties of these composites were compared with those of glass fibre-reinforced composites. 15 refs.

on the wettability and cohesion of sisal-epoxy composites was evaluated. It was found that alkali treatment gave rise to fibres with enhanced wettability and that composites containing the treated fibres exhibited improved compression strength and water resistance. 14 refs. TANZANIA

Accession no.803421 Item 217 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.295-329 OIL PALM FIBRE REINFORCED PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES: INFLUENCE OF FIBRE SURFACE MODIFICATIONS ON THE MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE Sreekala M S; Kumaran M G; Joseph S; Jacob M; Thomas S India,Rubber Research Institute; Mahatma Gandhi,University Oil palm fibres were subjected to various surface treatments, including mercerisation, acrylonitrile grafting, acrylation, latex coating, permanganate treatment, acetylation and benzoyl peroxide treatment, and the effects of such treatments on the interfacial and mechanical properties of the composites evaluated. Scanning electron microscopy and IR spectroscopy were used to investigate the morphological and structural changes occurring in the fibres. The stress-strain properties, tensile strength, tensile modulus, elongation at break of the treated and untreated fibres were examined and the effect of hydrophobic-hydrophilic balance on the impact properties of the composites determined. Scanning electron microscopy was also employed to study the tensile and impact fracture surfaces of the composites. 44 refs. INDIA

Accession no.803420

Accession no.803422

Item 218 China Synthetic Rubber Industry 24, No.1, 2001, p.44 MECHANICAL AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR OF POLYPROPYLENE/SISAL FIBER COMPOSITES COMPATIBILIZED BY MALEIC ANHYDRIDE GRAFTED SEBS Xiaolin X; Xingping Z; Renwei Q Huazhong,University of Science & Technology; Gudao Oil Production

Item 216 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.331-9 EFFECT OF ALKALI TREATMENT ON THE ADHESION CHARACTERISTICS OF SISAL FIBRES Bisanda E T N Dar es Salaam,University

Maleic anhydride grafted SEBS is used as a compatibiliser in sisal fibre-reinforced PP to improve interfacial adhesion between the fibres and the matrix. In addition, the mechanical properties of PP/MA-SEBS/SF composites are improved, and it is shown that the Izod impact strength of these composites increases with sisal fibre content. Fracture behaviour is examined by means of the drop weight dart impact test. 3 refs.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Sisal fibres were treated with a solution of sodium hydroxide and the influence of this mercerisation treatment

80

CHINA

Accession no.803122

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 219 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 31A, No.12, 2000, p.1303-10 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION AND FLOW VISUALISATION OF THE RESIN TRANSFER MOULD FILLING PROCESS FOR NON-WOVEN HEMP REINFORCED PHENOLIC COMPOSITES Richardson M O W; Zhang Z Y Loughborough,University Resin transfer moulding (RTM) of glass fibre reinforced polymeric composites offers the advantages of automation, low cost and versatile design of fibre reinforcement. Replacement of glass fibres with natural plant fibres as reinforcement in polymeric composites provides additional technological, economical, ecological and environmental benefits. The resin transfer mould filling process has significant effects on different aspects, such as fibre wetting out and impregnation, injection gate design, ‘dry patch’ and void formation. Flow visualisation experiments are carried out using a transparent RTM mould to develop a better understanding of the mould filling process for hemp mat reinforced phenolic composites. The mould filling of unreinforced phenolics is characterised by a steady state flow. In the case of hemp non-woven reinforced system, the mould filling process can be considered as the flow of fluids through porous media. Fibre washing is a typical problem encountered during the injection process, leading to poor property uniformity. In addition, a preferential flow path is usually created near the edges and corners of the mould. The path exhibits low flow resistance and causes the resin flow front to advance much faster in these regions. The edge flow disturbs the steady flow, leading to difficulties in venting arrangement and ‘dry patch’ formation. The edge flow and fibre washing are alleviated by reinforcement manipulation so steady state flow can be achieved. Relationships between filling time and injection pressure and between filling time and different fibre weight fractions are established for certain specific injection strategies. 18 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.802602 Item 220 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.16, 2000, p.2967-77 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY ANALYSES OF LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH SISAL, GLASS AND INTIMATELY MIXED SISAL/GLASS FIBRES Kalaprasad G; Pradeep P; Mathew G; Pavithran C; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University; Kerala,Sree Narayana College; Kerala,CMS College; Kerala,Regional Research Laboratory

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

The thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of sisalreinforced PE (SRP), glass-reinforced polyethylene (GRP) and hybrid fibre-reinforced PE (GSRP) is evaluated at cryogenic to high temperature (120-350 K). It is observed that the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature is almost the same for LDPE and SRP containing perpendicularly oriented sisal fibres. The difference between the values of thermal conductivity shown by LDPE and GRP is greater than that of SRP and LDPE. The enhanced thermal conductivity of glass fibre is due to the presence of Fe2+ ions in the glass fibres, The linear variation in thermal conductivity with fibre loading is explained with the help of a model suggested by Agari. The difference between the thermal conductivity properties in directions parallel and perpendicular to file applied flux is a maximum for SRP owing to the anisotropic nature of sisal fibre. The difference is marginal for GRP on account of its isotropic nature. The position of GSRP is found to be intermediate. It is observed that the variation of thermal diffusivity with temperature is just opposite to that of thermal conductivity. This may be due to a reduction in the mean free path of phonons. An empirical equation is derived to explain the variation in thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity with temperature. 32 refs. INDIA

Accession no.802597 Item 221 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 32A, No.1, 2001, p.119-27 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF VINYLESTER RESIN MATRIX COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH ALKALI-TREATED JUTE FIBRES Ray D; Sarkar B k; Rana A K; Bose N R Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science; Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.; India,Central Glass & Ceramic Res.Inst. Jute fibres are subjected to alkali treatment with 5% NaOH solution for 0, 2,4, 6 and 8 h at 30 deg.C. The modulus of the jute fibres improves by 12, 68 and 79% after 4, 6 and 8 h of treatment, respectively. The tenacity of the fibres improves by 46% after 6 and 8 h treatment and the % breaking strain is reduced by 23% after 8 h treatment. For 35% composites with 4 h-treated fibres, the flexural strength improves from 199.1 to 238.9 MPa by 20%, modulus improves from 11.89 to 14.69 GPa by 23% and laminar shear strength increases from 0.238 to 0.283 MPa by 19%. On plotting different values of slopes obtained from the rates of improvement of flexural strength and modulus, against NaOH treatment time, two different failure modes are apparent before and after 4 h of NaOH treatment. In the first region between 0 and 4 h, fibre pull out is predominant whereas in the second region between 6 and 8 h, transverse fracture occurs with minimum fibre pull out. This observation is well supported by SEM investigation of the fracture surfaces. 32 refs. INDIA

Accession no.802556

81

References and Abstracts

Item 222 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.557-63 NATURAL POLYMERIC FIBROUS MATERIALS FOR FIRE RESISTANT UPHOLSTERY Kozlowski R; Mieleniak B; Muzyczek M Poznan,Institute of Natural Fibres Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Fulfilment of the requirements of the market in the field of upholstered furniture and mattresses both from the point of view of their form, modern comfort and fire safety requirements presents a real challenge to furniture manufacturers. For flammability evaluation, full-scale tests as well as bench scale tests are very useful. To meet the test requirements, modern fire-resisting components, i.e. non-flammable containing composites, are designed. Natural fibres in upholstery composites have been superseded by synthetic fibres; but now the former are again perceived as ecological, renewable and environmentally friendly materials. This return of natural fibres is accelerated by the possibility of producing natural fibre-containing materials of increased resistance to ignition even in the absence of flame retardants. 13 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.802335 Item 223 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.520-6 COMPOSITES BASED ON POLYPROPYLENE AND FLAX FIBRES - A STUDY OF FIRE PERFORMANCE AND SOME PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Helwig M; Paukszta D; Garbarczyk J; Borysiak S Poznan,Institute of Natural Fibres; Poznan,University of Technology Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Biodegradability and interesting physical and mechanical properties of PP/cellulose composites are an essential motive for fundamental investigations on various properties of such materials. An addition of lignocellulosic particles to polymer results in a change in properties of the product obtained which is due to properties of lignocellulosic material and those of the polymer depending on the proportion of both materials. It is also reflected in the flammability characteristics of the composites. Isotactic PP composites containing short flax and hemp fibres have previously been studied. The presence of such short fibres causes formation of hexagonal, as well as monoclinic form of PP. The hexagonal form is observed in samples obtained by injection moulding. Composites with long flax fibres are analysed. The conditions of the processing of the

82

composites plates are examined to determine the basic properties and also changes in the structure of the PP matrix. Flammability as well as some physical and mechanical properties of composites based on PP and long flax fibres are discussed. 12 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.802330 Item 224 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.517-9 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF HEMP COMPOSITE BOARDS TO BE USED IN BUILDING COMPONENTS Pogorzelski J A; Firkowicz-Pogorzelska K Poland,Building Research Institute Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) One possibility of the utilisation of waste materials is manufacture of insulating boards for use in building components. New materials for building use should be approved by a special board or organisation. Insulating boards of hemp straw are now being evaluated for their performance in such applications; among the characteristics tested are thermal conductivity as well as the thermal transmission of the building component. 3 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.802329 Item 225 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.511-6 INDUSTRIAL HEMP CULTIVATION AND NEW TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL HEMP PRODUCTS IN CHINA Wei W Liaoning Tongxin Industrial Co. Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Contemporary cultivation, production and conditions of industrial hemp in China are summarised. New trends of hemp products, as application of an ecological raw material in the country, are identified. CHINA

Accession no.802328 Item 226 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.495-500 TECHNOLOGY OF CULTIVATION, HARVESTING AND PRIMARY PROCESSING OF BAST FIBRE PLANTS, E.G. HEMP FOR SPINNING PURPOSES

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Kaniewski R; Mankowski J; Rynduch W; Rolski S; Tymkow J Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The technology of cultivation, harvesting and primary processing of bast fibre plants, e.g. hemp for spinning, are discussed. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.802325 Item 227 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.488-92 COIR-BASED FIBREBOARD FOR MOULDED COMPONENTS Wiedman G A; Costa C Z; Nahuz M A R Sao Paulo,University; Sao Paulo,Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnologicas Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Technical feasibility for the production of fibre boards from coconut fibre using tannin and urea-formaldehyde binders is evaluated. The basic properties of the panels are presented and an industrial application of the composite is proposed in a school chair prototype. 7 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.802324 Item 228 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.484-7 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF AUTOMOBILE SEATS BASED ON COCONUT FIBRE AND LATEX Salazar V L P; Leao A L UNESP Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) An attempt is made to compare seats based on coconut fibre and latex versus PU foam. Tests simulating the natural ageing in those seats, the waste generated along its useful life is evaluated, and compression tests and simultaneous torsion are carried out on coconut fibre with latex and PU of different sizes. For the study of deformation models of simple linear regression and descriptive statistics are used. 2 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.802323 Item 229 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.469-83

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

EFFECT OF THE NOVEL FILLER KENAF FIBRES ON THE PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL RUBBER (NR) VULCANISATES El-Sabbagh S H; Hariri D M; EI-Ghaffar M A A Dokki,National Research Centre Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The physicomechanical properties of NR vulcanisates loaded with kenaf fibres (long and short) are studied using the adhesion system (hydrated silica, resorcinol and hexamethylene tetramine) (HRH) and compared with that of NR vulcanisates loaded with the synthetic viscose short fibres. The effect of fibre content on the physicomechanical properties of the NR vulcanisates is also studied before and after ageing. The loaded kenaf fibres show a reinforcing effect higher than that of the synthetic viscose fibres and improved rheological properties. Scanning electron microscopy is used to investigate the surface texture of non-loaded and loaded NR vulcanisates. 23 refs. EGYPT

Accession no.802322 Item 230 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.460-8 IMPACT STRENGTH OF PHENOLIC MATRICES REINFORCED WITH LIGNOCELLULOSIC MATERIAL Paiva J M F; Silva S P; Tanaka I A; Trindade W G; Angelucci C A; Frollini E Sao Paulo,University Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Phenolic (resol type) and lignin-phenol (40% sugarcane bagasse lignin/phenol w/w) prepolymer are synthesised, in order to be used to prepare thermoset matrices composites, using sugarcane bagasse, sisal, jute and curaua as reinforcing agents, these being lignocellulosic materials modified by chemical and/or physical methods. Sugarcane bagasse presents a small improvement in impact strength for both phenolic and ligno-phenol matrices. Jute and composites show good performance as reinforcing agents for the thermoset used. Compared with the other lignocellulosic materials used, sisal composites present an exceptional impact strength increase with fibre length. Its high spiral angle is probably an important structural parameter. 16 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.802321 Item 231 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings.

83

References and Abstracts

Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.454-9 JUTE/COTTON WOVEN FABRIC REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF HYBRIDISATION Joseph K; De Carvalho L H St.Berchman’s College; Paraiba,Universidad Federal Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Effects of hybridisation on the tensile properties of jutecotton woven fabric reinforced polyester composites are investigated as function of fibre content, orientation and roving texture. It is observed that tensile properties along the direction of jute roving alignment (transverse to cotton roving alignment) increases steadily with fibre content up to 50% and then shows a decreasing tendency. Tensile properties along the direction of roving alignment (transverse to jute roving alignment) remain almost constant. It is noted that tensile strength of composite, having 50% fibre content parallel to jute roving direction (transverse to cotton roving) is about 220% higher than pure polyester resin. It is also observed that tensile properties of the composites increases with jute roving texture, i.e. composites having 10/4 jute roving show maximum tensile strength. Tensile properties of cotton/ cotton woven fabric reinforced polyester composites do not show any significant improvement with fibre orientation and fibre content. 14 refs. BRAZIL; INDIA

Accession no.802320 Item 232 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.437-40 PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE USE OF SISAL FIBRES AS A REINFORCEMENT FOR TYRE RUBBER Martins M A; Joekes I Campinas,Universidade Estadual Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The effect of chemical modification (mercerisation and acetylation) of the sisal fibre in tyre rubber composites is evaluated. Tyre rubber is chosen as a large amount of tyres are discarded around the world, generating a large environmental impact. 8 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.802316 Item 233 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.431-6 PLASMA MODIFICATION OF SISAL AND HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES: EFFECT ON MECHANICAL

84

PROPERTIES Martin A R; Manolache S; Mattoso L H C; Rowell R M; Denes F Sao Carlos,Universidade Federal; WisconsinMadison,University; EMBRAPA Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Sisal fibres and finely powdered HDPE are surface functionalised using dichlorosilane under R-F plasma conditions to improve interfacial adhesion between the two dissimilar substrates. The functionalised PE (70%) and sisal (30%) are compounded in four different ways using a thermokinetic mixer and injected moulded into composites specimens for testing. Some improvements in mechanical properties of the composites due to the plasma treatments are achieved. Scanning electronic microscopy data indicate that some compatibilisation of the two plasma modified phases has taken place as compared to non-plasma treated composite. 14 refs. BRAZIL; USA

Accession no.802315 Item 234 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.426-30 WOOD FLOUR/POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE COMPOSITES Caraschi J; Leao A L UNESP Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The mechanical properties of composites made of wood flour (WF) and bioplastic polyhydroxybutyrate are investigated. Preparation of WF/PHB composites is done by mixing the components and moulding in specimens by injection moulding to ASTM standards. WF is used in ratios of 10 to 40% by weight. Dimensional stability, density and tests of mechanical properties of the composites are evaluated. The effects of surface modification and content of the WF on the mechanical properties of the composites are discussed. The results indicate that the tensile modulus of the composites increases, and that tensile strength and elongation at break decrease with high WF content. The surface treatments employed do not affect the tensile properties of the composites. Results show that WF can be used as excellent reinforcing materials for low-cost composites and are able to match economical and ecological interests. 7 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.802314 Item 235 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.419-21

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

WOODFLOUR/SISAL FIBRES AS HYBRID REINFORCEMENT OF THERMOSET POLYMERS Marcovich N E; Ostrovsky A N; Aranguren M I; Reboredo M M Mar del Plata,University; CONICET Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Wood flour (a fibrous particulate filler) and sisal, in the form of short fibres, are selected as reinforcements of an unsaturated polyester matrix. Sisal fibres are of particular interest because their composites have all improved impact response when compared with other lignocellulosic composites, added to a moderate tensile response. One difficulty encountered during the incorporation of lignocellulosic fillers into a polymeric matrix (except for phenolics or urea-formaldehyde matrices) is the hydrogen bonding which tends to hold the cellulose fibrils together. The polar nature of wood based fillers adversely affects the dispersion of such polar materials in a polymeric matrix. The mechanical properties of composites made of a thermoset polyester filled with wood flour or sisal individually and with both types of fibres simultaneously (hybrids) are evaluated. 4 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.802312 Item 236 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.382-5 EFFECTS OF WEATHERING ON COLOUR LOSS OF NATURAL FIBRE-THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Falk R H; Felton C; Lundin T USDA Forest Products Laboratory; Global Resource Technologies LLC; Wisconsin-Madison,University Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The technology currently exists to manufacture natural fibre-thermoplastic composites from recycled materials. Development of commodity building products from these composites would open huge markets for waste-based materials in the USA. To date, the construction industry has only accepted wood-thermoplastic composite lumber and only for limited applications. In a little more than a decade, the use of composite decking has grown to about 4% of the exterior decking market. Even larger markets within the building industry could be developed, such as the roofing market. However, a lack of durability performance data and reluctance by homebuilders to use undemonstrated products has hampered market development. Because thermoplastics are polymeric in nature, they are susceptible to environmental stresses. These stresses include, but are not limited to, thermal and moisture induced expansion and contraction, UV and

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

chemical agents such as organic solvents, ozone, acids and bases. The objective is to investigate the effects of weathering on natural fibre-thermoplastic composites for roofing applications. Because colour fade is an important performance factor for roofing products, preliminary results are presented indicating the effect of weathering on colour fade of selected composite formulations. 3 refs. USA

Accession no.802307 Item 237 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.362-6 EFFECTS OF FIBRE LENGTH IN RESOL/SISAL COMPOSITES Zarate C N; Aranguren M I; Reboredo M M Mar del Plata,University Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The flexural properties for different composites of resol using cotton fibres sugar cane bagasse and sisal mat as reinforcements, have been analysed. It was observed that cotton and sugar cane bagasse composites present maximum values in flexural strength (Cb ) and modulus (Eb) for certain fibre volume fraction, VF, and for higher loads these properties decrease. This decrease is attributed to incomplete wetting of fibre because both cotton and sugar cane bagasse, present a higher degree of disorder, generating a subsequent increase in void content and fibrefibre contact. The porosity is evaluated through the calculation of void volume fraction, which is shown as a function of Vf, for resol/raw cotton composites. It can be seen that the void volume fraction increases as the fibre content increases, due to the incomplete wetting. The effect of fibre length in resol/sisal composites is examined. In all cases the fibres are arranged randomly in three dimensions. 4 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.802304 Item 238 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.355-61 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND MORPHOLOGY OF SISAL FIBRE EPOXY COMPOSITES Oksman K; Wallstrom L; Berglund L; Filho R D T SICOMP AB; Lulea,University of Technology Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) The morphology and mechanical properties of sisal fibre composites manufactured with resin transfer moulding (RTM) is studied. The sisal fibres are unidirectional and the matrix is an epoxy resin. The mechanical properties

85

References and Abstracts

of the composites are compared to conventional RTM manufactured glass fibre composites, flax fibre composites and to the pure epoxy. The results of mechanical testing show that the (46/54) sisal/epoxy composite has a stiffness of about 20 GPa compared to the stiffness in pure epoxy of 3.2 GPa. The same composite has a tensile strength of 210 MPa compared to 80 MPa of the epoxy. 13 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.802303

appropriate technology to utilise these natural fibres as effectively and economically as possible to produce good quality fibre reinforced polymer composites for housing and other needs. Among the various natural fibres, sisal is of particular interest in that its composites have high impact strength besides having moderate tensile and flexural properties compared to other lignocellulosic fibres. The research work published in the field of sisal fibre reinforced polymer composites is reviewed with special reference to the processing techniques, physical and mechanical properties of the composites. 42 refs. BRAZIL; INDIA

Item 239 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.349-54 EFFECT OF CHEMICAL MODIFICATIONS ON THE MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF OIL PALM FIBRE REINFORCED PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES Sreekala M S; Kumaran M G; Thomas S India,Rubber Research Institute; Mahatma Gandhi,University Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP)

Accession no.802300

Oil palm fibres are used as reinforcement in phenol formaldehyde resin. The fibres are subjected to different chemical modifications to improve interface properties. Mechanical properties of untreated and treated fibres are studied. Changes in tensile strength, tensile modulus and elongation at break of the fibres on various modifications are compared. The incorporation of the modified fibres results in composites with excellent impact resistance. Use of coupling agents enhances impact strength of untreated composite by a factor of four. 9 refs.

Starch is not truly thermoplastic as most synthetic polymers. However, it can be melted by water addition and made to flow at high temperatures under pressure and shear. In order to extrude or mould starch, it should be converted into thermoplastic starch. Addition of water or other plasticisers enables starch to flow under milder conditions and reduces degradation considerably. By itself, starch is a poor choice as a replacement for any plastic. It is mostly water soluble, difficult to process and brittle when used without plasticiser addition. Its mechanical properties are very sensitive to moisture content, which is difficult to control. Previous research has shown that some properties can be significantly improved by blending with cellulose fillers. Improved thermomechanical properties and decrease of the water sensitivity of these systems are reported. However, the understanding of the phenomena involved in these improvements requires processing and characterisation of model systems. Such a system can be obtained using cellulose whiskers as filler. 12 refs.

INDIA

Accession no.802302 Item 240 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.333-43 SISAL FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITES: STATUS AND FUTURE Joseph K J; Mattoso L H C St.Berchman’s College; EMBRAPA Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Natural fibres are prospective reinforcing materials and their use so long has been more traditional than technical. They have long served many useful purposes but the application of the material technology for the utilisation of natural fibres as reinforcement in polymer matrix took place in comparatively recent years. Economics and other related factors in many developing countries, where natural fibres are abundant, demand scientists and engineers to apply

86

Item 241 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.206-11 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERISATION OF PLASTICISED STARCH 1 TUNICIN WHISKERS NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIALS Angles M N; Vignon M R; Dufresne A CERMAV-CNRS Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP)

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.802278 Item 242 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.32-6 STUDY OF BENZYLATED SISAL FIBRES BY 13 C SOLID STATE NMR Mello N C; Ferreira F C; Curvelo A A S; Mattoso L H C; Colnago L A

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

EMBRAPA; Sao Paulo,University Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP)

different pectin and AGP molecules in addition to cellulose and suggest that the composition of fibre walls is spatially and developmentally regulated. 16 refs.

Benzylated sisal derivatives are prepared from the treatment of sisal fibres with benzyl chloride, in sodium hydroxide solution, at different reaction times. The alkaline treatment besides eliminating lignin and polyoses modifies the arrangement of the cellulose chains and promotes the benzylation of the cellulosic hydroxyl groups. The benzylated products and the raw material are characterised by 13C CP/MAS NMR. From the 13C NMR spectra it is possible to monitor benzylation extent by determining the ratio between the areas correspondent to the benzyl moieties (signal in 129 and 138 ppm) and the cellulose backbone (signal of 60 to 110 ppm). This ratio reaches a maximum value of 2.8 for the benzylated derivative obtained with 12 hours of reaction time. 17 refs.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

BRAZIL

The use of non-wood raw material could be an effective mean of backing up world-wide wood supply, especially in countries with insufficient forest resources. Fibre plants industrially grown are usually herbaceous or bushy plants with a short growing period. Their stems are formed by many layers, the most important of which are phloem and xylem; other layers such as the epidermis, cambium and pith do not currently have any commercial importance. When the textile type fibre is prevailing in the crop economy, non-woody plants are commonly named bast fibre plants. Much attention has been devoted to bast fibre plants and, between them, kenaf and hemp. These plants seems to be promising in that they have a short growing period, they give high yield of product and they are versatile as they produce various types of fibres and byproducts which can be utilised in many different sectors. It is important to note that their most valuable fractionis only the 30% of the whole biomass, and so the woody fraction must be recovered and utilised in profitable outlets. 3 refs.

Accession no.802244 Item 243 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.16-21 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF CELL WALLS OF FLAX FIBRES: TARGETS FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY Girault R; Andeme-Onzighi C; His I; Driouich A; Morvan C CNRS Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Owing to cellulases, the main encrusting polysaccharides of fibre secondary walls, namely 1-4-beta-D galactan chains are scrutinised in their native form and shown to consist of long chains, branched onto a RG-I backbone. Two proteoglycans are isolated and characterised as deficient in hydroxyproline and by high levels of glutamic acid and aspartic acids. They react strongly with betaglucosyl Yariv reagent, suggesting a relationship with cell wall hydroxyproline-deficient arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs). Using immunogold electron microscopy with well characterised antibodies, the distribution of various epitopes associated with either pectins or AGPs is mapped. Unesterified pectic epitopes recognised by PGA/RG-I antibodies are localised not only in the middle lamellae and cell functions but also all over the secondary wall of fibres. The 1-4-beta-D galactan epitopes recognised by the monoclonal antibody (mAb) LM5 are present near the plasmalemma in young fibres but are homogeneously distributed throughout the secondary walls in more mature fibres. AGP epitopes recognised by anti 1-6-beta-Gal4 and mAb LM2 antibodies are primarily in the half of the secondary wall nearest the plasmalemma. LM2 epitopes are then undetectable later in fibre differentiation. These findings confirm hence the biochemical data showing that early developing flax fibres synthesise and secrete

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Accession no.802241 Item 244 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.10-5 HEMP AND KENAF: PROFITABLE MARKETS AND PREPARATION OF PRODUCTS Cappelletto P; Mongardini F; Brizzi M Rome,Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP)

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.802240 Item 245 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 458 ENHANCEMENT OF NATURAL FIBER-EPOXY INTERACTION USING BI-FUNCTIONAL SURFACE MODIFIERS Sampath A; Martin G C Syracuse,University (SPE) Jute fibres were woven into fabric, treated with a number of bifunctional amine surface modifiers and used to prepare epoxy resin composites. The influence of the modifiers on fibre-matrix interactions was determined by measuring the flexural modulus of the composites. 2-Amino 5-chloropyridine gave the highest enhancement in the fibre-matrix bonding, followed by

87

References and Abstracts

3-amino benzoic acid and 2-amino 4-chloro 6-methyl pyridine. 8 refs. USA

Accession no.801988 Item 246 Modern Plastics International 30, No.12, Dec.2000, p.62/6 WOOD-FIBRE COMPOSITES BUILD PROMISING ROLE IN EXTRUSION Leaversuch R D The extrusion of profiles in which a plastic is used to encapsulate wood fibre is entering a new and promising stage. On the polymer side, the long-preferred material of choice, reclaimed PE, is now being supplemented by virgin PE, PVC and PP. Additive technology is also being utilised in more ambitious ways. Wood-fibre composites are spawning novel construction profiles including decking, fencing, railing, window, corner post and framing. Most processors have depended heavily on conical, twin-screw counter-rotating extrusion equipment supplied by ExtrusionTek Milacron. A shift in processing methods is now likely to affect some key sectors. This involves inline or direct extrusion of wood-plastic composite profiles and dispenses with pre-drying of wood. WORLD

Accession no.801783 Item 247 Modern Plastics International 30, No.12, Dec.2000, p.16 AUDI A2 GOES NATURAL TO CUT WEIGHT It is briefly reported that Audi’s energy-efficient A2 is the world’s first volume-production aluminium car and the lightest car in its class. Interior door panels are made from a natural fibre-reinforced PU that has an extremely low mass per unit, but very high dimensional stability. Fibre mats made of flax, sisal or hemp are coated on both sides with a fine layer of a special two-component PUR system developed by Bayer, using Hennecke’s NafpurTec process. AUDI AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.801765 Item 248 Composites International No.41, Sept./Oct.2000, p.46 English; French DAIMLERCHRYSLER CORPORATION TO EXPAND USE OF NATURAL FIBRES IN AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS In Germany, DaimlerChrysler Corp. is to equip its new travel coach with a natural-fibre-reinforced engine and transmission cover. Brief details are given.

88

DAIMLERCHRYSLER CORP. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.801324 Item 249 International Journal of Polymeric Materials 47, No.4, 2000, p.667-74 INFLUENCE OF WATER ON PROPERTIES OF CELLULOSIC FIBRE REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Hargitai H; Racz I Bay Zoltan,Institute of Materials Science & Technology; Budapest,Technical University A study was made of the mechanical properties (three point bending and Izod impact strength) of composites of PP reinforced with flax fibres having different moisture contents. The effects of fibre moisture content and of the amount of coupling agent (maleic anhydride grafted PP) on the mechanical properties of the composites are discussed. 29 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY

Accession no.800195 Item 250 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 422 EFFECTS OF LONG TERM ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD FLOUR FILLED RECYCLED HDPE Heuer D; Albert M Pennsylvania,State University (SPE) Recycled high density polyethylene containing 40% wood flour (60 mesh pine) was injection moulded and exposed to UV radiation in accelerated weather testing equipment for time periods of 250-1000 h. The samples were then subjected to tensile, flexural and impact testing. A small increase in yield stress and tensile modulus was observed, the impact strength was unchanged, and decreases were observed in the other measured properties. It is proposed that the UV light may have been preferentially absorbed by the wood flour, and that the thermal energy of the incident radiation caused a slight increase in surface crystallinity. USA

Accession no.799937 Item 251 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, No.4, 24th Jan.2001, p.575-81 FTIR SPECTRA AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF VINYL ESTER PARTICIPATED TRANSESTERIFICATION AND CURING OF JUTE

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Samal R K; Acharya S; Mohanty M; Ray M C Orissa,Ravenshaw College Details are given of the transesterification of jute with butyl acrylate using sodium hydroxide, pyridine and a pyridine-acetone mixture as catalyst. The modified jute was then cured with benzoyl peroxide in acetone. The modified and unmodified jute was characterised by FTIR. The percent moisture regain, mechanical strength and chemical resistance of the jute fibres were tested. 24 refs. INDIA

Accession no.799593 Item 252 International Polymer Science and Technology 27, No. 11, 2000, p.T/25-30 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS REINFORCED WITH NATURAL FIBRES. 2. EFFECT OF THE WATER CONTENT OF THE FIBRES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Hargitai H; Racz I The effect of the quantity of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene as a chemical coupling agent to improve interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix in PP composites reinforced with flax fibre, was tested. Particular reference was made to the effect of the moisture content of the fibres on the mechanical properties of the composite specimens. Increase in the amount of additive was shown to have a favourable effect on the tensile and bending properties of the composite, but the impact bending strength decreases with increase in the amount of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene. In most cases, it was found that an increase in the moisture content led to impaired properties. Scanning electron microscopy of the fracture surface of the composites showed agreement with the other tests that increasing the amount of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene as coupling agent, gave rise to a stronger interaction at the fibre/matrix interface. 31 refs. (Translated from Muanyag es Gumi, No.7, 2000, p.249) EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY

Accession no.799375 Item 253 Muanyag es Gumi 37, No.8, Aug.2000, p.287-92 Hungarian NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS. PART III. WATER UPTAKE OF COMPOSITES AND ITS EFFECT ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Hargitai H; Racz I Composites were prepared from flax fibres with different moisture contents, using different amounts of polypropylene grafted with maleic anhydride as the binding component. The water uptake of the composites and its effects on three-point bending and Izod impact

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

properties were tested. 7 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and Technology. Accession no.797712 Item 254 Polymers & Polymer Composites 8, No.7, 2000, p.489-95 TENSILE AND FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF SUGAR CANE BAGASSE WASTE REINFORCED EVA MATRIX COMPOSITES Stael G C; Tavares M I B; d’Almeida J R M Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal; Rio de Janeiro,Pontificia Universidade Catolica The use of EVA as a matrix in natural fibre-reinforced composite materials is evaluated. In particular, the mechanical behaviour of chopped bagasse-EVA matrix composites is studied and compared to that of more common thermoplastic matrix composites such as PP and PE, and wood based materials. The tensile and flexural behaviour of the composites were measured as a function of the volume fraction and size of the reinforcement and the values obtained were compared to those of commonly used agglomerates and plywood. Results show that EVA composites could compete with low density wood-based materials. 25 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.797602 Item 255 Materiaux & Techniques Nos.7-8, 2000, p.63-8 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERISATION OF NEW THERMOSET NANOCOMPOSITE BASED ON CELLULOSE WHISKERS Ruiz M M; Cavaille J Y; Dufresne A; Gerard J F; Graillat C CERMAV-CNRS; LCPP-CNRS; Lyon,Institut National des Sciences Appliquees The processing and the mechanical properties of new nanocomposites prepared from aqueous suspensions of microcrystalline cellulose fillers and thermoset epoxy are described. The nature of cellulose fibres, which display a large shape factor and the capability to be associated by means of H-bonds implies that the processing method chosen avoids the problem of a high level of viscosity of the epoxy reactive system-whiskers mixture. The reinforcing effect of this type of natural fibres in an epoxy matrix is shown from the dynamic mechanical properties in the rubbery state. This unusual reinforcement is due to the strong interactions existing between the cellulose whiskers and the epoxy network and the creation of a percolating network linked by H-bonds between cellulose fibres. The existence of such a percolation effect is evidenced from the analysis of the rubbery shear modulus of nanocomposites based on various volume fractions of

89

References and Abstracts

whiskers with mechanical modelling, such as HalpinKardos and percolation approaches. 25 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.796790 Item 256 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 90, No.11, Nov.2000, p.23-4 English; German HEAVY DOOR TRIM PANELS... ARE THINGS OF THE PAST Fries K W; Augustin S; Muller H; Leyrer H; Russ S Hennecke GmbH; Drazlmaier Gruppe The low density of natural fibres can be exploited to produce lightweight door panels. Economical production techniques will allow such parts to become established in the automotive industry. 2 refs. (Translated from Kunstoffe 90, 2000, p.60/3). EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.796769 Item 257 SAMPE Journal 36, No.6, Nov./Dec.2000, p.18-23 NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES: WHERE CAN FLAX COMPETE WITH GLASS? Brouwer W D Delft,University of Technology The properties of natural fibres, including bast fibres, leaf fibres and seed fibres, are outlined and the advantages and disadvantages of the use of natural fibres in composites are discussed. The Dutch Biolicht project, which examined the feasibility of using natural fibre composites in the trailers, coachwork and bus industry, is described. Pretreatment of the fibres, particularly that of flax, are discussed, including impregnation with thermosets, thermoplastics or biological materials, drying and degassing. Processing techniques are described, including resin transfer moulding and vacuum injection, sheet moulding compounds and vacuum pressing. 4 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.795947 Item 258 Polymer Degradation and Stability 70, No.2, Nov.2000, p.135-45 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF WOODHDPE COMPOSITE Li R Sydney,University; New South Wales,University Wood flake reinforced post-consumer HDPE composites were produced using a flake-start technology and the

90

feasibility of using these composites as a replacement for conventional particleboard evaluated by means of longterm weathering tests. Samples were weathered outdoors for 205 days and changes in their morphology investigated during weathering using microscopy. The effect of weathering on the fracture toughness and flexural, tensile and impact properties of the composites were also examined as was the seasonal influence on degradation. Dynamic mechanical analysis was utilised to monitor the effects of UV exposure, heat or oxidation on samples aged at 37, 67 and 88C. 8 refs. AUSTRALIA

Accession no.795253 Item 259 Modern Plastics International 30, No.11, Nov.2000, p.18 SCRAP CAR LAW IS CRITICIZED BY EUROPE’S COMPOSITES INDUSTRY The European Union’s End of Life Vehicles directive sets high quotas for materials recycling in end-of-life vehicles, but limits amounts which can be incinerated with energy recovery. Reinforced plastics suppliers and processors claim that the law, by not differentiating between materials, will hinder the fast-growing use of parts containing natural fibres in automotive parts. AVK-TV argues that recovering materials from natural fibrereinforced parts is neither cost-effective nor environmentally friendly. These parts would serve the most good after their useful life by being incinerated for energy recovery, as natural fibre fillers burn easily and create significant heat energy. AVK-TV EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.795179 Item 260 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.15, 2000, p.2857-63 EFFECTS OF CORONA DISCHARGE AND UV TREATMENT ON THE PROPERTIES OF JUTEFIBRE EPOXY COMPOSITES Gassan J; Gutowski V S Kassel,Universitat; Australia,CSIRO The results are reported of a study of the effects of corona discharge treatment and UV treatment on jute fibres and yarns and on the physical properties of the fibres, yarns and their composites with an epoxy resin. Measurements were made of the contact angles of the fibres and yarns and the surface free energy components of the fibres calculated using an equation developed by Owens and Wendt. The mechanical properties of the composites were determined by tensile and three-point bending tests and their dynamic-thermal properties were obtained by means of DMTA over the temperature range between 50 and 120C. 21 refs.

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

AUSTRALIA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.794663 Item 261 Sao Carlos, Brazil, EMBRAPA, 2000, pp.x,593. 29cms. 7/11/00 NATURAL POLYMERS AND COMPOSITES. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3RD INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND THE WORKSHOP ON PROGRESS IN PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING OF CELLULOSIC FIBRES AND NATURAL POLYMERS HELD SAO PEDRO, BRAZIL, 14TH-17TH MAY 2000 EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E This collection of papers focus on the latest technologies and new concepts available worldwide in the field of natural polymers and composites. Main sessions examine natural polymers and fibres, polysaccharides, lignins and derivatives, biobased polymers, and composites. The final session looks progress in production and processing of cellulose fibres and natural polymers. Accession no.793777 Item 262 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 3rd Nov.2000, p.18 DAVIS-STANDARD REPORTS WOOD ENTHUSIASM It is briefly reported that the UK division of DavisStandard claims a high level of interest in the wood extrusion system introduced by its US parent at NPE last year. The twin-screw Woodtruder technology allows wood mill waste to be fed directly into a compounding system without pre-drying to produce a dense polymer/wood fibre composite profile. Formulations can be developed containing up to 80% wood scrap, with applications seen in a wide range of traditional timber products. DAVIS-STANDARD EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.792628 Item 263 Polymer Testing 20, No.1, 2001, p.65-75 EFFECT OF ACETYLATION AND COUPLING AGENT TREATMENTS UPON BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF PLANT FIBRE REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Khalil H P S A; Ismail H Sains Malaysia,University Plant fibre-reinforced polyester resin composites were manufactured using non-woven fibre mats of oil palm empty fruit bunch and coconut fibres. The fibres were

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

treated by acetylation or with coupling agent (silane or titanate). The results of biological tests on the fibre composites were found to be dependent on fibre treatment. Acetylation of fibres resulted in superior bioresistance, followed by silane-treated fibres, in soil tests for up to 12 months exposure. Titanate and unmodified fibre composites exhibited significant losses in tensile and impact properties. 16 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.792599 Item 264 Polymer Testing 20, No.1, 2001, p.33-41 EFFECTS OF PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF OIL PALM WOOD FLOUR BY SILICA AND SILANE COUPLING AGENT ON PROPERTIES OF NATURAL RUBBER COMPOUNDS Ismail H; Khalil H P S A Sains Malaysia,University The effects of partial replacement of oil palm wood flour(OPWF) by silica and of silane coupling agent on mechanical properties and curing characteristics of NR compounds were investigated. Comparison was made with a control compound (50 phr of OPWF, without coupling agent) and it was found that increase of the silica in the weight ratio of OPWF/silica and addition of silane coupling agent increased the scorch time and cure time and enhanced the TS, tensile modulus, tear strength, fatigue life and hardness. The results from maximum torque-minimum torque studies indicated that the rubber-filler interaction was improved by partial replacement of OPWF by silica and the presence of silane coupling agent. 12 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.792595 Item 265 Automotive Engineering 108, No.9, Sept.2000, p.106 NEW POLYMERS FOR INTERIOR APPLICATIONS Broge J L This article looks at two new innovative polymer materials developed by Lear Corp. of the USA, for use in automotive interior trim products, including door panels, pillars, and boot trim. Details are given of the new natural fibre acrylic, and natural fibre PP. LEAR CORP. USA

Accession no.792054 Item 266 Plastics News(USA) 12, No.30, 25th Sept.2000, p.4 JOHNSON CONTROLS HITS NEW HIGH WITH IDEA

91

References and Abstracts

Miel R It is reported in this article that Johnson Controls Inc. of the USA is now using a hemp and kenaf natural fibre biocomposite as a substrate in door trim panels for a DaimlerChrysler vehicle. The parts are made of a blend of 50 percent PP, 25 percent hemp, and 25 percent kenaf. Full details are given. JOHNSON CONTROLS INC.; DAIMLERCHRYSLER AG CANADA; USA

Accession no.791656 Item 267 Polymer International 49, No.11, Nov. 2000, p.1444-51 FT-IR MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON COUPLING AGENTS. TREATED NATURAL FIBRES Singh B; Gupta M; Verma A; Tyagi O S India,Central Building Research Institute; Indian Institute of Petroleum The nature of adsorbed coupling agents on sisal fibre surfaces was analysed by FTIR. The presence of precipitated oligomers on the surface was confirmed by the appearance of hydrogen-bonded carbonyl group and unsaturation bands. Results of surface morphology, adsorption depth profile and extent of hydrophilicity using vibrational spectra. 21 refs. INDIA

Accession no.791557 Item 268 Polymer International 49, No.11, Nov. 2000, p.1273-8 EFFECT OF COUPLING AGENTS ON THE MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCHPOLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Rozman H D; Lai C Y; Ismail H; Ishak Z A M Penang,Universiti Sains Malaysia Oil palm empty fruit bunch-PP composites were produced using a twin-screw extruder. Maleic anhydride-modified PP, polyphenyl isocyanate, and trimethoxysilylpropyl methacrylate were used as coupling agents. Data are presented for water absorption, swelling and mechanical properties. 25 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.791534 Item 269 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 78, No.9, 28th Nov.2000, p.1671-9 NOVEL LOW-COST JUTE-POLYESTER COMPOSITES. III. WEATHERING AND THERMAL BEHAVIOUR Dash B N; Rana A; Kmishra H K; Nayak S K; Tripathy S S

92

Salipur College; Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.; Vedvyas College; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech.; Ravenshaw College Jute-polyester composites are fabricated with untreated (control) and bleached slivers with 60% loading of fibre by weight and are designated as JPH(C) and JPH(B), respectively. Both types of composite specimens are subjected to water absorption and outdoor weathering tests to assess their relative performance under environmental conditions. While both composites show low water absorption, JPH(B) shows lesser water absorption (8.48%) than JPH(C) (12.25%). Mechanical properties are measured for both the weathered and unweathered specimens and compared. The tensile strength of JPH(C) and JPH(B) decreases while the tensile modulus increases after weathering. The flexural strength, moduli and ILSS of weathered specimens are less than those of unweathered ones. The nature of the fibre-matrix adhesion can be established from these results. The cause of every observation is explained. Thermal analyses of the composite specimens are also carried out. Overall thermal stability of JPH(C) is found to be better than that of JPH(B). 27 refs. INDIA

Accession no.791439 Item 270 Polymer 42, No.2, 2001, p.815-25 MODIFIED WOODFLOUR AS THERMOSET FILLERS. I. EFFECT OF THE CHEMICAL MODIFICATION AND PERCENTAGE OF FILLER ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Marcovich N E; Aranguren M I; Reboredo M M Mar del Plata,Universidad Nacional Composites were prepared from an unsaturated polyester/ styrene thermoset matrix and esterified wood flour and were tested. Different degrees of esterification of the wood particles with maleic anhydride were obtained by using different times of reaction, which led to materials with varied final properties. Water absorption performed on treated particles indicated that they were more hydrophobic than the untreated ones. Flexural, compression and dynamic mechanical tests were performed on composites to determine the optimum level of chemical modification of the wood flour. The relationship between the filler content and the composite final properties was also studied for a selected filler treatment. An important increment in particle dispersion was obtained by modifying the wood flour with maleic anhydride. 19 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.791291 Item 271 Polymer Engineering and Science 40, No.10, Oct.2000, p.2194-204

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

EFFECTS OF REINFORCING FIBRES ON THE CRYSTALLISATION OF POLYPROPYLENE Lopez Manchado M A; Biagiotti J; Torre L; Kenny J M Perugia,University The results are reported of a study of the effects of the addition of various fibres, including PETP, aramid, sisal and glass fibres, on the crystallisation kinetics and thermodynamics of isotactic PP carried out using DSC under isothermal and constant cooling rate conditions and optical microscopy. The values of the Avrami exponent, kinetic constant of the crystallisation rate and the halftime of crystallisation for composites containing the different fibres are compared and the spherulitic growth and transcrystallinity of PP and its composites evaluated by taking photomicrographs at different intervals of time. The fibres were found to behave as nucleating agents. 31 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.790462 Item 272 International Polymer Science and Technology 27, No.8, 2000, p.T/75-84 NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERS MAKE A COMEBACK Bledzki A K; Gassan J; Lucka M Szczecin,Polytechnic The environmental benefits of using natural fibre reinforced plastics are examined with respect to the use of vegetable and plant fibres as renewable sources. Characteristics of natural fibres of vegetable origin are discussed with reference to chemical composition and physical structure, and mechanical properties are compared to those of glass and aramid fibres. Techniques for the production of composites reinforced with natural vegetable fibres are described, and examples are given of applications in various countries. The effect of structural and surface modification of vegetable fibres on the mechanical properties of such composites is also discussed. 19 refs. Translation of Polimery, No.2, 2000, p.98. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.790305 Item 273 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 6, No.3, Sept.2000, p.153-7 EFFECTS OF IMPACT MODIFIERS ON THE PROPERTIES OF RIGID PVC/WOOD-FIBER COMPOSITES Mengeloglu F; Matuana L M; King J A Michigan,Technological University The effects of impact modifier types and addition levels on the mechanical properties of rigid PVC/wood-fibre composites were examined. The impact resistance of rigid PVC/wood-fibre composites was found to be strongly

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

dependent on the type and content of impact modifier. With proper choice of modifier type and concentration, the impact strength of rigid PVC/wood-fibre composites could be significantly improved without degrading the tensile properties. Methacrylate-butadiene-styrene and allacrylic modifiers performed in a similar manner and were more effective and efficient in improving the impact resistance of rigid PVC/wood-fibre composites than the chlorinated PE modifier. 27 refs. USA

Accession no.788891 Item 274 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 31A, No.11, 2000, p.1231-40 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF SHORT SISAL FIBER-REINFORCED POLYSTYRENE COMPOSITES Nair K C M; Kumar R P; Thomas S; Schit S C; Ramamurthy K Mahatma Gandhi,University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. The rheological behaviour of short sisal fibre-reinforced PS composites was studied using an Instron capillary rheometer. The effect of fibre length, fibre loading, shear rate, shear stress and temp. on the rheological behaviour of the composites was studied. Unlike other short fibrereinforced thermoplastics at lower temp., the melt viscosity of PS-sisal composites was lower than that at higher temps. At 180C, the viscosity of the composite was governed by wall-slip, which decreased the viscosity, and at 190C the viscosity was governed by fibre melt interaction that increased the viscosity. The morphology of the extrudate was studied using optical and electron microscopy. 16 refs. INDIA

Accession no.788825 Item 275 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 39, No.4, 2000, p.743-55 TENSILE PROPERTIES OF JUTE YARNS IMPROVED WITH ORGANO-METALLIC COMPLEXES Hassiruzzaman; Akhtar F; Khan M A; Ali K M I Bangladesh,Atomic Energy Commission Several formulations were prepared with oligomer urethane acrylate(Ebcryl 264) combined with a diluent monomer of different acrylated functionalities in the presence of a plasticiser, an antibubbling agent, ligands and organometallic complexes. The complexes were made with benzohydroxamato-pyridine complex and benzohydroxamato-ethylenediamine in the presence of titanium dioxide. Thin polymer films were prepared under UV radiation with these solutions and were characterised.

93

References and Abstracts

A jute-plastic composite was prepared with these solutions under UV radiation. The tenacity of the treated jute was increased by about 25% with reduced water absorption ability but the presence of a very small amount (0.1%) of an organometallic complex in the formulation also enhanced jute tenacity up to 223%. The effect of the ligands on these properties was also investigated. 10 refs. UCB BANGLADESH

Accession no.788819 Item 276 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.11, Aug./Sept.2000, p.2037-55 SISAL FIBRE AND ITS COMPOSITES: A REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS Yan Li; Yiu-Wing Mai; Lin Ye Sydney,University A summary is presented of recent developments (19871998) of sisal fibre and its composites. The properties of the sisal fibre itself, the modification of the interface between sisal fibre and matrix, and the properties of sisal fibre-reinforced composites and their hybrid composites are reviewed. 70 refs. AUSTRALIA

modelling such as Halpin-Kardos and percolation approaches. 30 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.786900 Item 278 Composite Interfaces 7, No.2, 2000, p.103-15 EFFECT OF SILICONE INTERPHASE ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAXPOLYURETHANE COMPOSITES Gassan J; Dietz T; Bledzki A Kassel,Universitat Flax fibres coated with two types and various amounts of silicones are used to make flax-PU composites. Coating conditions are found to affect strongly the composite properties. The effect of these two types and different amounts of silicone on the impact toughness, flexural strength and modulus, dynamic modulus and loss-energy and notch sensitivity is determined. These properties are compared with results of composites with a strong fibrematrix adhesion. 30 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.788781

Accession no.786899

Item 277 Composite Interfaces 7, No.2, 2000, p.117-31 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERISATION OF NEW THERMOSET NANOCOMPOSITES BASED ON CELLULOSE WHISKERS Riuz M M; Cavaille J Y; Dufresne A; Gerard J F; Graillat C Institut National des Sciences Appliquees; CNRS; Lyon,Ecole Superieure de Chemie Physique Electronique

Item 279 Composite Interfaces 7, No.2, 2000, p.81-92 INVESTIGATING INTERPHASE DEVELOPMENT IN WOOD-POLYMER COMPOSITES BY INVERSE GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY Rials T G; Simonsen J USDA; Oregon,State University

The processing and the mechanical properties of new thermoset nanocomposites prepared from aqueous suspensions of microcrystalline cellulose fillers and epoxy are described. The nature of cellulose fibres which display a large aspect ratio and the ability to associate by means of H-bonds implies that the processing method chosen avoids the problem of a high level of viscosity of the epoxy reactive system-whiskers mixture. The reinforcing effect of this type of natural fibre in an epoxy matrix is mainly shown from the dynamic mechanical properties in the rubbery state. This unusual reinforcement is due to the strong interactions existing between the cellulose whiskers and the epoxy network, and the creation of a percolating network linked by Hbonds between cellulose fibres. The existence of such a percolation effect is evidenced from the analysis of the rubbery shear modulus of nanocomposites based on various volume fractions of whiskers with mechanical

94

The influence of secondary interactions on the development of interfacial structure in composites of wood and amorphous thermoplastic polymers is not well understood. Inverse gas chromatography is used to investigate the effect of different polymers on the surface energy of partially or fully coated white pine wood meal. In this way, the development of the interphase is monitored as a function of polymer depth on the wood surface. The polymers are selected to provide a range of functional groups and include PS, PMMA, PVC, polymethacrylic acid and polymethacrylonitrile. The overall variation of the dispersive component of the surface energy and the ratio of acceptor to donor coefficients appear to group themselves into two categories based upon the polarity of the polymer’s functional groups. In addition, the high loadings required for stabilisation of the less polar polymers suggest that a relatively large volume of the matrix phase isaffected by the wood filler. 20 refs. USA

Accession no.786897

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 280 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 77, No.13, 23rd Sept.2000, p.2963-7 EFFECT OF MALEIC ANHYDRIDE TREATMENT ON STEAM AND WATER ABSORPTION OF WOOD POLYMER COMPOSITES PREPARED FROM WHEAT STRAW, CANE BAGASSE, AND TEAK WOOD SAWDUST USING NOVOLAC AS MATRIX Patil Y P; Gajre B; Dusane D; Chavan S; Mishra S North Maharashtra,University Wheat straw, cane bagasse and teak sawdust (agricultural waste materials) were sieved up to a 425 micrometre mesh size and used for sheet preparation, with and without maleic anhydride(MA) treatment, using novolac resin in a 50:50 w/w ratio. The shore D hardness of MA treated and untreated wood polymer composites(WPCs) was measured. The MA treated WPCs showed two to three times more hardness than that of the untreated respective WPCs. Moisture absorption had a detrimental effect on the mechanical properties of the WPCs. MA treatment restricted swelling and water and steam absorption in the agricultural waste materials. Teak sawdust showed the best results of the three WPCs in all respects. 18 refs. INDIA

Accession no.786225 Item 281 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 78, No.3, 17th Oct.2000 p.603-8 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TREATMENTS ON THE THERMAL BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE POLYMER COMPOSITES Agarwal R; Saxena N S; Sharma K B; Thomas S; Sreekala M S Rajasthan,University; Mahatma Gandhi,University; India,Rubber Research Institute Analysis was carried out on the thermal behaviour of oil palm fibre-reinforced phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resins with different chemical treatments using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). A well-defined peak of crystallisation was identified in all the samples. However, in one sample a second exothermic peak also emerged, which indicates some structural changes at high temperature. Studies of crystallisation kinetics were carried out in terms of activation energy of crystallisation, dimensionality of growth and stability using various recent theories developed for nonisothermal crystallisation. The results suggest surface nucleation and crystallisation through one-dimensional growth. Thermal stability of PF composites increases after chemical treatment, and is maximum for resin treated with peroxide PF composite in comparison to fibre-treated PF composites. 14 refs. Accession no.786100

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 282 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 78, No.3, 17th Oct.2000 p.495-506 IMPROVEMENT OF FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF JUTE-BASED COMPOSITE BY ACRYLONITRILE PRETREATMENT Saha A K; Das S; Basak R K; Bhatta D; Mitra B C Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.; Uktal,University; India,National Institute of Research on Jute and Allied Fibre Technology Cyanoethylation of jute fibre in the form of nonwoven fabric was successfully achieved using an acrylonitrile monomer which is claimed to react with the hydroxyl groups of fibre constituents. The degrees of cyanoethylation to different extents were carried out by varying the reaction time. That extent of cyanoethylation rises with increase in the reaction time was shown by an IR study. Cyanoethylated fibres thus obtained were further treated with unsaturated polyester resin to obtain modified fibre composites. These composites have been found to be tolerant against cold and boiling water where water absorption and thickness swelling are much reduced compared to those of unmodified fibre composite. The moisture content of the modified fibre composites is also significantly reduced. Cyclic tests indicate that use of cyanoethylated fibre leads to improvement of the dimensional stability of the fibre composites. The mechanical properties of the modified fibre composites improved substantially because of better bonding at the fibre-matrix interface and this effect is more pronounced with a higher degree of cyanoethylation. A scanning electron micrograph of the fractured surfaces of cyanoethylated jute composite showed excellent retention of resin on broken fibre ends, whereas the unmodified composite showed uncoated fibres and holes in the matrix. That the moisture content of the composites reduces with increase of the cyanoethylation was shown by DSC analysis. Both TG and DSC thermograms showed an additional peak due to decomposition of cyanoethyl group which is shifted to a higher value with the extent of cyanoethylation. However, the cellulose degradation temperature remained almost unchanged. 26 refs. Accession no.786088 Item 283 Advanced Materials & Processes 158, No.2, Aug.2000, p.15-6 NATURAL FIBERS REINFORCE ACRYLIC AND POLYPROPYLENE The use is briefly described of natural fibre reinforced plastics in automotive applications such as interior door panels, by Lear Corp. of Sweden. The company is using kenaf, hemp and jute reinforced PP and flax reinforced acrylic. In addition, a one-step process for manufacturing has also been developed, in which the fibre-reinforced PP is covered with the surface material in one step.

95

References and Abstracts

LEAR CORP. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.785643 Item 284 Canadian Plastics 58, No.7, July 2000, p.9 NEW COMPANY TO CHALLENGE HARDWOOD FLOORING WITH PLASTIC-WOODFIBRE COMPOSITE SHW Technologies has developed Synthetic Hardwood flooring made of oriented polymers and hardwood fibre that is an affordable, water resistant alternative to hardwood and laminate flooring. The extrusion orientation process mixes PP and woodfibre to produce flooring which is impermeable to water, resistant to fungus and insects and has a PU finish. A plant in Guelph, Ontario will be completed by September and production is expected to reach an annual production capacity of 3 million square feet of flooring within twelve months. SHW TECHNOLOGIES INC. CANADA

Accession no.785040 Item 285 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 77, No.14, 29th Sept.2000, p.3035-43 CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBER: GRAFT COPOLYMERISATION OF ACRYLONITRILE ONTO DEFATTED LEAF FIBERS Mohanty A K; Tripathy P C; Misra M; Parija S; Sahoo S Berlin,Technical University; Orissa,Ravenshaw College A copper sulphate/potassium periodate combination was used as an initiator for the graft copolymerisation of acrylonitrile onto defatted pineapple leaf fibre (PALF), a lignocellulosic fibre. The reaction was carried out in an aqueous medium at 30-50C. The results showed that a combination of cupric ions and periodate ions, with concentrations of periodate ions and cupric ions of 0.005 mol/L and 0.002 mol/L respectively, produced optimum grafting with 0.1 g defatted PALF with a fibre-to-liquor ratio of 1:50 at 50C for 2 h. Neither potassium periodate nor copper sulphate alone was able to induce the graft copolymerisation of acrylonitrile on to the PALF surface. Grafting improved the thermal stability of PALF. 24 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; INDIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.784880 Item 286 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.7, May/June 2000, p.1115-24 SURFACE MODIFICATION OF JUTE AND ITS

96

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE OF BIODEGRADABLE JUTE-FABRIC/BIOPOL COMPOSITES Mohanty A K; Khan M A; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University Surface modifications of two varieties of jute fabrics, i.e. hessian cloth (HC) and carpet backing cloth (CBC), involving dewaxing, alkali treatment, cyanoethylation and grafting, are made with a view to their use as reinforcing agents in composites based on a biodegradable polymeric matrix, Biopol. The chemically treated fabrics are characterised by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The effects of different fibre surface treatments and amounts of fabrics on the performance of the resulting composites are investigated. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, bending strength and impact strength increase in comparison to pure Biopol as a result of reinforcement with jute fabrics. More than 50% enhancement in tensile strength, 30% in bending strength and 90% in impact strength of the composites relative to pure Biopol sheets are observed under the present experimental conditions. Scanning electron microscopy investigations show that surface modifications improve the fibre/matrix adhesion. From degradation studies it is found that after 150 days of compost burial more than 50% weight loss of the jute/ Biopol composite occurs. 14 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.784161 Item 287 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.9, July 2000, p.1737-51 MORPHOLOGY AND MELT RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SHORT-SISAL-FIBREREINFORCED SBR COMPOSITES Kumar R P; Nair K C M; Thomas S; Schit S C; Ramamurthy K Mahatma Gandhi,University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. The melt flow behaviour of untreated and treated shortsisal-fibre-reinforced SBR composites is analysed by using an Instron capillary rheometer. The effects of fibre breakage, length concentration and shear rate/stress on melt viscosity are studied. The fibre breakage is analysed before and after extrusion and the polydispersity index (PDI) estimated. It is found that these composites behave as pseudo-plastic materials. At low shear rates, the short fibres increase the viscosity much more than at high shear rates. There is an increase in viscosity upon chemical treatments owing to the strong interfacial adhesion between the fibre and the rubber matrix. The dependence of viscosity on temperature, flow behaviour index, n’, melt elasticity, extrudate distortion and deformation of these composites is analysed. Finally, die-swell measurements are carried out to understand the elastic

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

effects. The extruded samples are analysed by optical and electron microscopy in order to study the surface morphology and extrudate deformation of these composites. 38 refs. INDIA

Accession no.784021 Item 288 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.9, July 2000, p.1729-35 COMPATIBILISING EFFECT OF MALEIC ANHYDRIDE ON SWELLING AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PLANT FIBREREINFORCED NOVALAC COMPOSITES Mishra S; Naik J B; Patil Y P North Maharashtra,University Fibres of banana hemp and sisal are used as fillers in novolac resin. These fibres are esterified with maleic anhydride and the effects of maleic anhydride on the swelling and mechanical properties of plant fibre polymer composites assessed. Higher absorption of steam and water is observed in untreated fibre composites. Young’s modulus increases with an increase in fibre content up to 45 and 50% in untreated and MA treated fibre composites, respectively. The impact strength and shore D hardness are found to be higher in maleic anhydride-treated fibre composites than the untreated-fibre composites. 25 refs. INDIA

Accession no.784020 Item 289 Journal of Materials Science Letters 19, No.13, 1st July 2000, p.1155-7 EFFECT OF GAMMA-IRRADIATION ON THE SHORT BEAM SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF PULTRUDED SISAL-FIBRE/GLASS-FIBRE/ POLYESTER HYBRID COMPOSITES Tsang F F Y; Jin Y Z; Yu K N; Wu C M L; Li R K Y Hong Kong,City University Pultrusion has been accepted as an effective and versatile technique for the production of continuous fibrereinforced composites with constant profile cross-section. Fillers such as calcium carbonate, hollow glass microspheres, liquid rubber are quite often added to reduce materials cost and to improve impact resistance. One possible class of filler for pultruded GRP is natural cellulosic fibres. Cellulose-based natural fibres are used as reinforcing fillers in polymeric matrix composites for their low cost and attractive specific properties. The microstructures of sisal fibres are very different from those of synthetic fibres. A sisal fibre is not a single fibre but is made up of a bundle of tubular micro-fibres of diameter. The cell wall of a tubular microfibre has a composite structure of lignocellulosic material reinforced by helical microfibrillar bands of cellulose. The cell walls are, in turn, covered by a layer of bonding material that separates

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

one micro-fibre from another. The major problem in using sisal fibre in polymer matrix composite is poor interfacial bonding. The general approach to improve the interfacial bonding between sisal fibre and polymer matrix includes mercerisation, heat treatment and coupling agent coating. In the mercerisation process, some of the lignin phase is dissolved away by the alkali solution, giving a corresponding increase in the density of the treated sisal fibres. For heat treated sisal fibres, the crystallinity of the cellulosic micro-fibres will be increased as determined by X-ray diffraction. The effect of gamma-irradiation treatment on the short beam shear behaviour of a sisalfibre/glass-fibre/polyester hybrid composite produced by pultrusion is investigated. 8 refs. HONG KONG

Accession no.783947 Item 290 Polymer Degradation and Stability 69, No.3, Sept.2000, p.261-5 EVALUATION OF OPTIMUM GRAFTING PARAMETERS AND THE EFFECT OF CERIC ION INITIATED GRAFTING OF METHYL METHACRYLATE ON TO JUTE FIBRE ON THE KINETICS OF THERMAL DEGRADATION AND SWELLING BEHAVIOUR Chauhan G S; Bhatt S S; Kaur I; Singha A S; Kaith B S Himachal Pradesh,University; Hamirpur Regional Engineering College To effect useful changes in jute fibre it was graft copolymerised with MMA initiated by ceric ions and optimisation of grafting parameters studied as a function of various reaction conditions. Jute and its graft copolymer thermally degrade in one and two stages, respectively, but following the same degradation mechanism. The degradation mechanism and thermal kinetics were evaluated by applying seven kinetic degradation models. Both fibres decompose following the R-2 (PBRcylindrical symmetry) kinetic equation. Initially, the thermal stability of the graft copolymer is better, as evident from higher energy of activation and higher initial decomposition temperature. Swelling (Ps) of graft copolymers increases as a function of grafting and at a particular graft level follows the order: DMF greater than H2O greater than iso-propanol. 23 refs. INDIA

Accession no.783819 Item 291 ACS Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering.Spring Meeting 2000.Volume 82.Conference proceedings. San Francisco, Ca., 26th-30th March 2000, p.29-30 NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED BIODEGRADABLE MATRIX COMPOSITE: EFFECT OF SURFACE MODIFICATIONS OF JUTE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF JUTE-

97

References and Abstracts

BIOPOL COMPOSITES Mohanty A K; Khan M A; Misra M; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University (ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.) The influence of surface modifications (dewaxing, 5% alkali treatment and the grafting of acrylonitrile) of jute fibre in jute-reinforced Biopol biodegradable composites was investigated. Significant increases in both tensile and flexural strength of the composites were observed following the surface treatment. The biodegradability was assessed using a synthetic municipal solid waste burial test, the weight loss increasing with time. After 180 days, the pure Biopol had a weight loss of 44%, the composite containing dewaxed fibre a loss of 56.6%, and the composite containing the acrylonitrile-grafted fibre a loss of 41.2%. The lower degradation rate of the grafted material was attributed to the non-biodegradable nature of the grafted polyacrylonitrile. 8 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.782844 Item 292 Reinforced Plastics 44, No.7-8, July-Aug.2000, p.19 GREEN COMPOSITES FOR CAR INTERIORS Lear has introduced two environmentally friendly polymer materials for use in vehicle interior trim products, it is briefly reported. The polymer materials contain up to 70% of natural fibre obtained from plants that are sustainable and can be easily recycled. A natural fibre acrylic polymer has been developed for automotive door panel trim, package tray and trunk applications. The natural fibre PP has improved mechanical properties through the use of coupling agents to enhance the chemical bonding between the fibre and polymer. LEAR CORP. USA

Accession no.780201 Item 293 Plastics and Rubber Weekly No.1845, 14th July 2000, p.10 COMPOUNDERS GO FOR WOOD Smith C Wood-filled plastics is one of the hottest markets in the building sector. The US lumber industry is currently leading the move towards extruded wood products, driven largely by the construction industry’s demand for decking and sidings. Cincinnati Extrusion hopes to become a significant player in this sector and has developed a wood extrusion system of its own, which is claimed to be able to handle composites with wood contents of up to 85%. Davis-Standard has shown a newly developed direct compounding and extrusion line for wood products. Its

98

new Woodtruder technology is said to be able to process a wet wood feed. USA

Accession no.780132 Item 294 Polymer Testing 19, No.4, 2000, p.419-428 STATISTICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND MODELING OF POLYPROPYLENE-WOOD FIBER COMPOSITES Costa T H S; Carvalho D L; Souza D S C; Coutinho F M B; Pinto J C; Kokta B V UFRJ; Quebec,Universite A Trois-Rivieres Maleated propylene coating of vinyl-tris(2-methoxy ethoxy)silane treated wood fibres, their matrix type and relative composition influences the tensile and flexural behaviour of the composite. The effects of the variables were studied and an analysis of variance of the experimental and predicted data indicated that constructed models provided a fair approximation of the actual measurements. Empirical models to produce optimum composites were discussed. 12 refs. BRAZIL; CANADA

Accession no.779578 Item 295 Journal of Materials Science Letters 19, No.11, 1st June 2000, p.979-80 STIFFNESS PREDICTION OF FLAX FIBERSEPOXY COMPOSITE MATERIALS Lamy B; Baley C Nantes,Ecole Centrale Details are given of an investigation of the mechanical properties of flax fibre-reinforced epoxy resins. The effects of defects and dispersion in geometry of the fibres on the mechanical properties are discussed. 3 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778981 Item 296 Journal of Materials Science 35, No.10, 15th May 2000, p.2589-95 EFFECT OF CHEMICAL MODIFICATION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF BIODEGRADABLE JUTE YARN-BIOPOL COMPOSITES Mohanty A K; Khan M A; Sahoo S; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University Details are given of the preparation of jute fibre-reinforced hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate copolymers by a hotpress moulding technique. The effects of temperature, yarn amount, chemical modification, alkali treatment, graft copolymerisation, and orientation of yarn winding on the performance of the resulting composites were

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

investigated. Properties were compared with those of the pure copolymer. 19 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778953 Item 297 Macromolecular Materials and Engineering Vols.276-277, March 2000, p.51-8 INFLUENCE OF COMPATIBILISERS ON SURFACE HARDNESS WATER UPTAKE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYPROPYLENE WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES PREPARED BY REACTIVE EXTRUSION Nitz H; Reichert P; Romling H; Mulhaupt R Albert-Ludwigs,University Anisotropic wood flour (WF) particles, composed of fibre bundles, are melt compounded in a twin screw extruder at 200 deg.C together with PP in the presence of maleic anhydride-grafted PP (PP-g-MA) and maleic anhydridegrafted PS-block-PE-co-1-butene-block-PS (SEBS-g-MA). Mechanical properties, surface hardness and water uptake are monitored as a function of compound composition and type of compatibiliser. PP/WF/SEBS-g-MA containing 30 vol.% (40 wt.%) WF and 3.5 vol.% (3 wt.%) SEBS-g-MA gives Shore hardness of 78 with respect to 70 for PP and increased simultaneously Young’s modulus (100%), yield stress (20%) and notched Izod impact strength (24%). SEBS-g-MA compatibiliser addition does not affect the surface hardness but accounts for substantially reduced water uptake and excellent interfacial adhesion. In comparison, to talcum-filled PP, PP/WF/SEBS-g-MA composites exhibit lower density combined with higher specific strength, specific Young’s modulus and higher surface hardness. WF particle as well as composite morphologies are imaged by means of environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM). 8 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778217 Item 298 Macromolecular Materials and Engineering Vols. 276-277,March 2000, p.1-24 BIOFIBRES, BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND BIOCOMPOSITES: AN OVERVIEW Mohanty A K; Misra M; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University Due to increased environmental consciousness and demands of legislative authorities, use and removal of traditional composite structures, usually made of glass, carbon or aramid fibres being reinforced with epoxy, unsaturated polyester, or phenolics, are considered critically. Recent advances in natural fibre development, genetic engineering and composite science offer

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

significant opportunities for improved materials from renewable resources with enhanced support for global sustainability. The important feature of composite materials is that they can be designed and tailored to meet different requirements. As natural fibres are cheap and biodegradable, the biodegradable composites from biofibres and biodegradable polymers will render a contribution in the 21st century due to serious environmental problems. Biodegradable polymers have offered scientists a possible solution to waste disposal problems associated with traditional petrol petroleum derived plastics. For scientists the real challenge lies in finding applications which would consume sufficiently large quantities of these materials to lead price reduction, allowing biodegradable polymers to compete economically in the market. Prices of biodegradable polymers can be reduced on mass scale production; and such mass scale production will be feasible through constant R&D efforts of scientists to improve the performance of biodegradable plastics. Manufacture of biodegradable composites from such biodegradable plastics will enhance the demand of such materials. The structural aspects and properties of several biofibres and biodegradable polymers, recent developments of different biodegradable polymers and biocomposites are discussed. 254 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778213 Item 299 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.6, May 2000, p.833-44 EFFECT OF WETTABILITY AND AGEING CONDITIONS ON THE PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF UNIAXIALLY ORIENTED JUTE-ROVING-REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES de Albuquerque A C; Kuruvilla J; Hecker de Carvalho L; Morais d’Almeida J R Paraiba,Universidad Federal; Rio de Janeiro,Pontificia Universidade Catolica The tensile, flexural and impact behaviour of jute roving reinforced polyester composites are investigated as a function of fibre loading and fibre surface wettability. Two types of unsaturated polyester, Resana (having a wetting agent) and Elekeiroz (without wetting agent) are used. 49 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.777330 Item 300 Polymer Process Engineering ’97. Conference proceedings. London, July 1997, p.202-13 INTEGRATED COMPOUNDING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE PREPARATION OF POLYMER

99

References and Abstracts

COMPOSITES CONTAINING WASTE MATERIALS Bream C E; Hinrichsen E; Hornsby P R; Tarverdi K; Williams K S Brunel University (Institute of Materials) A novel twin-screw extrusion compounding process is described for the preparation of polymer composites containing low cost reinforcing additives derived from waste products. The technology is exemplified using natural fibre reinforcements, from agricultural sources and fibrereinforced thermoset scrap, added to a PP matrix. Central to the method is the integration of a preparation step, which through comminution controls the physical size and morphology of the additive component. This is combined with a treatment stage, which allows the surface chemistry of the filler to be modified, thereby promoting interaction with polymer during subsequent melt blending. A significant enhancement in modulus and tensile strength of PP can be achieved by this method, particularly using well bonded linseed flax and comminuted woven glass fibre-reinforced thermoset. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of the compounding route on the microstructure and properties of the composites produced. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.775993 Item 301 Polimeros: Ciencia e Tecnologia 9, No.4, Oct./Dec.1999, p.136-41 Portuguese TENSILE PROPERTIES OF UNSATURATED POLYESTER COMPOSITES REINFORCED BY SHORT SISAL FIBRES Joseph K; Medeiros E S; Carvalho L H St.Berchman’s College; Paraiba,Universidad Federal A study was made of the effects of fibre length, content and orientation on the tensile properties of the above composites. It was found that tensile strength increased with fibre lengths of from 5 to 45 mm, levelled off between 45 and 55 mm and then decreased from 55 to 75 mm. Tensile strength also increased with fibre contents up to 55% and then decreased and modulus and elongation at break were insensitive to fibre length. 25 refs. BRAZIL; INDIA

Accession no.774207 Item 302 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition 38, No.7, 1st April 2000, p.916-21 EFFECT OF TREATMENT ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY OF OIL-PALM FIBRE-REINFORCED PHENOLFORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES Agrawal R; Saxena N S; Sreekala M S; Thomas S

100

Rajasthan,University; Indian Rubber Institute; Kottayam,University The transient plane source technique was used to measure both the thermal conductivity and diffusivity of untreated oil-palm-fibre-reinforced and chemically treated composites. The effects of the various treatments on the thermal properties of the composites is discussed. 25 refs. INDIA

Accession no.773147 Item 303 Modern Plastics International 30, No.4, April 2000, p.84 NATURAL FIBRE It is briefly reported that natural fibre composites from Apollor are based on thermoset and thermoplastic resins. Epitex grades contain straw reinforcement in PP, PE or PVC. Hemptex is an unsaturated polyester reinforced with either 20% hemp or 10% each of hemp and glass fibres in mat form of various types. Property data are presented. APOLLOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.772724 Item 304 Composites Science & Technology 60, No.4, 2000, p.581-9 DURABILITY OF JUTE FIBRE-REINFORCED PHENOLIC COMPOSITES Singh B; Gupta M; Verma A India,Central Building Research Institute The physical and mechanical properties of jute fibrereinforced phenolic resin composites were studied under varying conditions of humidity, hydrothermal and weathering. The ageing-induced degradative effect of these conditions on dimensional stability, surface topography and mechanical properties of the composites was observed. The severity of ageing was greater in an accelerated water test as compared with the other exposure conditions. SEM observation revealed the fibre accentuation along with fibre breakage/splitting and surface discolouration in both natural and accelerated weathering of UV exposure. Some biological defacement in the form of fungal infestation appeared at the cut edges of weathered composites, while extensive disfigurement was observed on all surfaces under high humidity/water immersion. These results could be useful as an indicator for assessing the suitability of jute composites for use in damp and dry conditions. 24 refs. INDIA

Accession no.772532 Item 305 Journal of Testing & Evaluation 27, No.1, Jan.1999, p.36-41

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

LOSS ENERGY OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS. II. IMPACT LOADING Bledzki A K; Gassan J; Kessler A J Kassel,Universitat The influence of material structure parameters (fibre treatment and content of micropores) on the impact behaviour of composite materials is described. An impact falling weight testing device and the characteristic impact values are introduced. The role of the fibre/matrix interphase is investigated by using glass and natural (Jute) fibres with different treatments. To study the influence of the content of micropores, epoxy foam reinforced with glass fibre mats are prepared. All materials are impacted on an instrumented low-velocity non-penetration falling-weight impact tester. By integrating the measured force/deflection curves, all characteristic values are determined. Finally, the fatigue behaviour of epoxy foam reinforced with pretreated woven fabrics and the jute/PP laminates under repeated impact are investigated. In all impact experiments, the damping index responds more sensitively to changes in the material structure than does the loss energy. It is found that the damping index is an excellent measurement for characterising the extent of damage. 14 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.772259

Item 307 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 76, No.7, 16th May 2000, p.1000-10 EFFECT OF FIBRE PRETREATMENT CONDITION ON THE INTERFACIAL STRENGTH AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD FIBRE/PP COMPOSITES Jingshen Wu; Demei Yu; Chi-Ming Chan, Jangkyo Kim, Yiu-Wing Mai Hong Kong,University of Science & Technology; Xian Jiaotong,University; Sydney,University Several different methods for pretreatment of woodfibre with a silane coupling agent prior to compounding with polypropylene are described. The compounds produced from these different pretreated materials using a twin screw compounding method are examined by reference to rheological testing in a parallel plate rheometer, physical testing (both tensile and impact) and by microscopical examination of fracture surfaces. The coupling chemistry is discussed and toughening mechanisms are proposed and discussed with reference to interfacial bond strengths, matrix plastic deformation and fibre-matrix separation. A further compound prepared using a grafted copolymer (styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene grafted with maleic anhydride) as a compatibiliser was also examined, and results compared and contrasted with those obtained from the silane coupled materials. Silane coupled materials were shown to give the greatest tensile strength, but those using the compatibiliser gave the greater impact strength. 32 refs

Item 306 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 39, No.1, 2000, p.187-98 STUDY ON MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF JUTE-EPOXY COMPOSITES Mishra H K; Dash B N; Tripathy S S; Padhi B N Vedvyas College; Salipur College; Ravenshaw College

AUSTRALIA; CHINA

Jute fibres in the form of slivers are reinforced with epoxy resins to prepare composites. The solution impregnation method is adopted in an attempt to increase the percentage of fibre loading. Both untreated (control) and chemically modified (bleached) slivers are used to prepare composites. The optimisation study of fibre loading in composites is done with control slivers through tensile property assessment. Composites having 50% sliver (control) by weight are served to give the best tensile characteristics. The tensile, flexural, impact and hardness properties of the composites of both bleached and control slivers are investigated and it is observed that although the latter have better tensile properties, the former possesses unusually high flexural properties. Both Izod and Charpy impact tests reflect that the composites with bleached slivers have higher impact strengths. In comparison to the composites with control slivers, they also exhibit greater (Rockwell) hardness. 30 refs.

This article highlights a headliner for cars which uses natural fibres, from Findlay Industries Inc. of the USA. It replaces glass fibre with fibres such as jute, sisal, and kenaf, held together by adhesives as a thin sheet. Details are given. FINDLAY INDUSTRIES INC.

INDIA

With the increasing importance of environmental interactions, several innovations of the environmental

Accession no.772202

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Accession no.771964 Item 308 High Performance Textiles April 2000, p.3-4 HEADLINER EXPLOITS NATURAL FIBRES

USA

Accession no.771030 Item 309 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.121-7 LIFE CYCLE STUDIES ON HEMP FIBREREINFORCED COMPONENTS AND ABS FOR AUTOMOTIVE PARTS Wotzel K; Wirth R; Flake M Braunschweig,Technische Universitat; Seeber Systemtechnik KG

101

References and Abstracts

performance are introduced in automotive industry. One aspect of innovation is an environmental material selection including renewable raw materials. Products of renewable raw materials are generally regarded as environmentally friendly, including products from hemp, jute and flax. The ecological preferences of products of natural fibres can be investigated and described by means of ecological balances. However, no general principles for the ecological advantages or disadvantages of fibre plants can be deducted from their life cycle assessment, since the ecological compatibility of the different products strongly depends on the circumstances of the journey of life of the product. The objective is a decision support of automotive engineers by giving an ecological balance of the benefits of substituting ABS by hemp fibres for covering applications. A life cycle assessment (LCA) of hemp fibre-reinforced components is introduced. This study contains the agricultural cultivation of fibre plants, the method of harvesting and the processing of the harvested crops. Finally, the analysis includes the further processing of the fibre, starting from the manufacturing of the fibre composite matrix on which the production of form press components for the automotive industry bases. The differences of energy demand and emissions amount during the use phase of a passenger car as well as different recycling scenarios are assessed. 10 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769759 Item 310 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.117-20 INTERFACIAL CHARACTERISATION OF FLAX FIBRE-THERMOPLASTIC POLYMER COMPOSITES BY THE PULL-OUT TEST Stamboulis A; Baillie C; Schulz E London,Imperial College of Science,Technol.& Med.; Berlin,Federal Inst.for Mat.Res.& Testing The interface between flax fibres and thermoplastic polymer matrices is investigated. Two types of flax fibres are used: dew retted and upgraded Duralin fibres. The latter fibres are treated by a novel treatment process for improved moisture and rot sensitivity. The apparent shear strength of dew-retted and upgraded Duralin fibres embedded in high and low density PE, PP and maleic anhydride-modified PP, respectively, is calculated from the maximum force measured from the pull-out test using the Kelly-Tyson equation. Higher apparent shear strength values are measured in the case of HDPE. An improvement in the interfacial shear strength by the use of upgraded flax fibres is not clearly observed. The curves of pull-out force versus displacement for all samples are typical of a brittle fracture mixed mode interface behaviour. The pull-out test of flax fibre-polymer matrices

102

exhibit similar characteristics with the pull-out test of synthetic fibre-polymer systems. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769758 Item 311 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.108-16 EFFECT OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT ON THE PROPERTIES OF HEMP, SISAL, JUTE AND KAPOK FOR COMPOSITE REINFORCEMENT Mwaikambo L Y; Ansell M P Bath,University Two chemical treatments are applied to hemp, sisal, jute and kapok natural fibres to create better fibre to resin bonding in natural composite materials. The natural fibres are treated with varying concentrations of caustic soda with the objective of removing surface impurities and developing fine structure modifications in the process of alkalisation. The same fibres are also acetylated with and without an acid catalyst to graft acetyl groups onto the cellulose structure, in order to reduce the hydrophilic tendency of the fibres and enhance weather resistance. Four characterisation techniques, namely XRD, DSC, FTIR and SEM, are used to elucidate the effect of the chemical treatment on the fibres. After treatment, the surface topography of hemp, sisal and jute fibres is clean and rough. The surface of kapok fibres is apparently not affected by the chemical treatments. X-ray diffraction shows a slight initial improvement in the crystallinity index of the fibres at low sodium hydroxide concentration. However, high caustic soda concentrations lower the fibre crystallinity index. Thermal analysis of the fibres also indicates reductions in crystallinity index with increased caustic soda concentrations and that grafting of the acetyl groups is optimised at elevated temperatures. Alkalisation and acetylation successfully modify the structure of natural fibres and these modifications will most likely improve the performance of natural fibre composites by promoting better fibre to resin bonding. 30 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769757 Item 312 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.99-107 VEGETABLE FIBRES IN AUTOMOTIVE INTERIOR COMPONENTS Magurno A Johnson Controls Automotive srl A brief overview is presented of the state of the art of the use of plastic/vegetable fibre composite materials for interior car parts, and the technologies to produce such parts (injection moulding, low pressure injection moulding, thermoforming, thermocompression and

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

coinjection moulding). Details are given of development activity in composite plastic-wood materials to be used in the automotive sector carried out by Johnson Controls Automotive, with emphasis on the research lines performed on several kinds of vegetable fibres (eucalyptus, jute, flax, kenaf) to be applied to semifinished products: granules (short vegetable fibre) for injection moulding), and extruded sheets (long and short vegetable fibre) for thermoforming. 1 ref. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769756 Item 313 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.71-6 FLAX FIBRE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND ITS EFFECT ON COMPOSITE PROPERTIES: IMPACT STRENGTH AND THERMOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES Van den Oever M J A; Bos H L; Molenveld K ATO-DLO Earlier investigations have shown that the tensile modulus of flax fibre mat PP composites (NMT) could surpass the values of glass mat reinforced thermoplastic (GMT) on fibre weight basis. The tensile and flexural strength could reach values of up to 65% of the GMT strength values, however, very much dependent on the fibre physical structure. This study deals with the Charpy impact and the thermo-mechanical properties of flax NMT materials. The trend is that the Charpy impact strength decreases with increasing fibre internal bonding and enhanced fibre-matrix adhesion, which is opposite to the trend for the tensile and flexural properties. The impact strength of the NMT materials is lower than generally reported for GMT materials. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis reveals that with increasing temperature the storage modulus of the NMT materials reduces more slowly when the fibre internal bonding and the fibre-matrix adhesion are improved. In order to approach the tensile, flexural and impact strength of GMT materials, composites should be based on the strong elementary flax fibres. The axial tensile strength of elementary fibres approaches the strength of glass fibres and the lateral strength of the elementary fibres is higher than the technical flax fibres lateral strength. The thermo-mechanical properties can probably be improved when non-cellulosic material can be removed from the flax fibre surface without damaging the fibre. 15 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769753 Item 314 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.41-5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAX FIBRE REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITES

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

George J; Ivens J; Verpoest I Leuven,Catholic University Flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composites are prepared by autoclave moulding. Influence of various fibre parameters such as lignin content, pectin content and degree of polymerisation on the composite properties is investigated. Fibre surface modifications such as alkali, silane and isocyanate treatment are done to improve the fibre-matrix interactions. The modified fibre surface is characterised by scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry measurements. It is found that treatment of fibre has a significant influence on the mechanical properties of the composites. Morphological studies of the fracture surfaces are carried out using scanning electron microscopy. 4 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769748 Item 315 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.27-33 German TRANSCRYSTALLISATION IN NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Mildner I; Bledski A Kassel,Universitat The influence of thermal conditions (recrystallisation temperature, cooling rate) as well as of different fibre treatments on the crystallisation of PP is examined by using melting-microscopic analysis. The results of these investigations show that the nucleation density of untreated and MAH-grafted PP treated jute fibres is higher in comparison with alkalised jute fibres because of differences in the chemical composition and physical properties of the fibre surface. With increasing recrystallisation temperature the maximum of transcrystalline layer thickness is shifted to higher crystallisation times. Experimental data of this coherence are successfully fitted by using a simple Arrhenius-type relationship. Regarding non-isothermal crystallisation, the beginning of transcrystallisation is shifted, as expected, to lower temperatures with increasing cooling rate. 21 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769746 Item 316 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.272, Dec.1999, p.11-6 German PULTRUSION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES Gensewich C; Riedel U DLR Braunschweig; Deutsches Zentrum fuer Luft- & Raumfahrt

103

References and Abstracts

Pultrusion is a continuous production technology for manufacturing fibre-reinforced plastic profiles. Usually glass or carbon fibres are used which are impregnated with liquid petrochemical thermosetting polymers, e.g. unsaturated polyesters or epoxy resins, and cured while being pulled through a heated die. The cured profile is then cut into parts as required. This cost-effective production method from reinforced plastics technology is now used for profiles from natural fibres. Choosing adequate natural reinforcing fibres, the properties of these composites can be even better than those of GRP. This potential for lightweight structures should be used especially for applications in the automotive and furniture industries. Profiles made of natural fibres and biopolymers show decisive advantages in terms of recycling compared with GRP. Incineration of these materials is carbon dioxideneutral. Using a biodegradable matrix, composting is another interesting recycling option. In order to manufacture natural fibre profiles with similar properties like GRP processing, fibre preforms, e.g. slivers, preyarns, yarns and biopolymers, have to be adapted to each other. To limit investments in new machinery, the manufacture of natural fibre profiles should be possible in the same production plants as for GRP profiles. Research still has to be done to reduce the moisture sensitivity of these composites and increase the fibre-matrix adhesion. At present, natural fibre composites sites are suited to panelling elements and loaded structures for interior applications, in future also for exterior structural parts. 5 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.769743 Item 317 Patent Number: US 6015612 A 20000118 POLYMER WOOD COMPOSITE Deaner M J; Puppin J; Heikkila K E Andersen Corp. Disclosed is a composition comprising a polymer and wood fibre composite, which can be used in the form of a linear extrudate or thermoplastic pellet to manufacture structural members. The polymer and wood fibre composite structural members can be manufactured by extrusion or injection moulding. The linear extrudate or pellet can have a cross-section of any arbitrary shape or can be a regular geometric. The pellet can have a crosssection shape having a specific volume. Preferably the pellet is a right cylindrical pellet having a minimum radius of about 1.5 mm and a minimum length of 1 mm weighing at least 14 mg. The invention also relates to the environmentally sensitive recycling of waste streams. The polymer and wood fibre composite contains an intentional recycle of a waste stream comprising polymer flakes or particles or wood fibre. The waste stream can comprise, in addition to a polymer, such as polyvinyl chloride or wood fibre, adhesive, paint, preservative or other chemical stream common in the wood-window or door

104

manufacturing process, or mixtures thereof. The initial mixing step before extrusion of the composite material ensures substantial mixing and melt contact between molten polymer and wood fibre. The extruded pellet comprises a consistent proportion of polymer, wood fibre and water. During the extrusion, water is removed intentionally to dry the material to a maximum water content of less than about 10 wt.%, based on the pellet weight. To make a structural unit, the pellet is introduced into an extruder or injection moulding machine wherein, under conditions of temperature and pressure, the composite pellet material is shaped into a useful crosssection. Alternatively, the extruded thermoplastic mass, in the form of a elongated linear extrudate without a pelletising step, can be immediately directed after formation into an extruder or injection moulding machine. USA

Accession no.769624 Item 318 Patent Number: US 6015611 A 20000118 ADVANCED POLYMER WOOD COMPOSITE Deaner M J; Puppin J; Heikkila K E Andersen Corp. Disclosed is a composition in the form of pellets comprising a thermoplastic and wood fibre composite material suitable for forming structural members as a replacement for wood in the manufacture of doors and windows. The composite has less than about 10 wt.% water based on pellet weight and a Young’s modulus of at least about 500,000. Structural members are typically formed from the composite in an extrusion or injection moulding process. USA

Accession no.769623 Item 319 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 89, No.12, Dec.1999, p.37-9 English; German STRONG AND IMPACT RESISTANT Mieck K P; Reubmann T Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & KunststoffForschung eV; Chemnitz,Technical University The impact strength of natural fibre mat-reinforced thermoplastics can be increased by the addition of cellulosic fibres with high strength and elongation. In fact, it can be doubled by adding only 10-15% by wt. (German version of this paper, which includes illustrations, is on p.102-5). 5 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.764396 Item 320 Journal of Materials Science 35, No.2, 15th Jan. 2000, p.293-8 MANUFACTURE AND MECHANICAL TESTING

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

OF THERMOSETTING NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES Hepworth D G; Bruce D M; Vince-nt J F V; Jeronimidis G Silsoe Research Institute; Reading,University Composites were manufactured from high volume fraction hemp and flax fibres and low viscosity phenolic and epoxy resins and their mechanical properties, density and adhesion determined. It was found that the mechanical properties of the composites could be improved by minimising processing damage. The influence of two fibre pretreatments (urea and a 50% PVA solution) for improving adhesion on the stiffness and strength of the composites was also evaluated. The latter pretreatment process increased both the stiffness and strength of the composites. 17 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.764273 Item 321 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 31A, No.2, 2000, p.143-50 INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL SURFACE MODIFICATION ON THE PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE JUTE FABRICSPOLYESTER AMIDE COMPOSITES Mohanty A K; Khan M A; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University Jute fabrics are subjected to various surface chemical modifications and then fabricated into composites with a polyester amide matrix. The mechanical properties of the composites are then measured in order to investigate the effects of fabric surface modification. Scanning electron microscopy is used to study the fracture surfaces of the composites. Samples are also subjected to compost burial for observations of degradation including weight loss and residual bending strength. 22 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.763631 Item 322 Automotive Engineer 25, No.2, Feb.2000, p.50 FORD GOES BACK TO NATURE Morton I Ford is reported here to be pioneering the use of a natural plant fibre, a relative of hibiscus known as kenaf, for boot-liners for its Continental and Mustan, and for full structural door panels for the new Focus. Full details of the properties and advantages of kenaf are provided. FORD; VISTEON; KAFUS BIO-COMPOSITES; R&S STANZTECHNIK

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.763299 Item 323 International Polymer Science and Technology 26, No.6, 1999, p.T/1-T/4. (Translation of Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe, No. 4, 1999, p.294) WOOD-FILLED THERMOPLASTICS AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO NATURAL WOOD Bledzki A K; Sperber V; Theis S; Gassan J; Nishibori S Kassel,Universitat; EIN Engineering Co.Ltd. Data are presented on the mechanical properties and moisture absorption characteristics of wood-fibre and wood-powder filled plastics. The strength values of composites filled with up to 55% by weight of wood flour based on PP, PE, uPVC and pPVC are found to be fully comparable with those of MDF, although not so good as those of natural wood. However, due to their lower moisture absorption on exposure to water, composite materials in swollen conditions are found to be superior to wooden materials. 6 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; JAPAN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.762029 Item 324 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 38, No.5, 1999, p.1051-8 STUDIES ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF WOOD-POLYMER COMPOSITES BASED ON AGRO-WASTE AND HDPE IN STEAM AND WATER AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Mishra S; Naik J B North Maharashtra University Polymer composites of HDPE and banana, hemp and agave fibres (50:50, w/w) are prepared separately with and without treatment of maleic anhydride. The swelling phenomenon in terms of absorption of water and steam is studied and it is found that the steam penetrates more within a smaller period of time than the water at ambient temperature. The maleic anhydride treatment on these fibres shows the esterification of fibres and because of that, the absorption (swelling) of steam and water is less than the untreated respective fibres composites. 10 refs. INDIA

Accession no.761081 Item 325 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 38, No.5, 1999, p.997-1011 POLYPROPYLENE HYBRID COMPOSITES: A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE USE OF GLASS AND COCONUT FIBRE AS REINFORCEMENTS IN POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Rozman H D; Tay G S; Kumar R N; Abubakar A;

105

References and Abstracts

Ismail H; Ishak Z A M Penang,Universiti Sains Malaysia PP hybrid composites are made using coconut and glass fibres as reinforcing agents in the PP matrix. The incorporation of both fibres results in the reduction of flexural, tensile and impact strengths, and elongation at break. The reduction is attributed to the increased incompatibility between the fibres and the PP matrix, and the irregularity in fibre size, especially for biofibres as shown by scanning electron micrographs. Both flexural and tensile moduli are improved with increasing level of fibre loading. Most of the properties tested for composites with high glass fibres/low biofibre loading are comparable with the ones with low glass fibre/high biofibre loading. The results show that more biofibres could be incorporated in hybrid composites, giving the same range of properties as the composites with higher loading of glass fibres. 18 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.761078 Item 326 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 12, No.6, Nov.1999, p.477-97 BAGASSE FIBER-POLYPROPYLENE BASED COMPOSITES Vazquez A; Dominguez V A; Kenny J M Mardel Plata,University; Perugia,University The processing and properties of bagasse fibrepolypropylene composites are studied and the effect of surface modification of the fibres with different treatments, on the interfacial adhesion to the polypropylene matrix, is reported. The effect of the treatment reactions on the chemical structure of the fibres is analysed by infrared spectroscopy. The effects of the fibre chemical treatment on the tensile properties of the moulded composite, produced by different processing routes, is also analysed and creep measurements are discussed. 30 refs. ARGENTINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.760392 Item 327 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 12, No.6, Nov.1999, p.443-64 EFFECT OF STRAIN RATE AND TEMPERATURE ON THE TENSILE FAILURE OF PINEAPPLE FIBER REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES George J; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University The dependence of strain rate and temperature on the mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) reinforced polyethylene (LDPE) composites is investigated. The effects of fibre loading, fibre orientation

106

and fibre treatment on the properties are studied. Scanning electron microscopy is used to present failure mechanisms and the activation energy of failure is calculated using an Arrhenius equation. A failure envelope is generated to aid understanding of the effect of temperature and strain rate on the composite properties. 23 refs. INDIA

Accession no.760390 Item 328 Journal of Cellular Plastics 35, No.6, Nov./Dec.1999, p.550-62 IMPACT PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBREREINFORCED EPOXY FOAMS Bledzki A K; Gassan J; Zjang W Kassel,Universitat The impact behaviour of natural fibre-reinforced epoxy foams is described. The effects of different types of fibres, fibre content and void content are discussed. It is found that the woven flax fibre results in composites with better impact strengths than the woven jute fibre based composites. The impact damage configuration and mechanism of these laminated composites are discussed. Impact properties such as loss energy and damping index are found to be almost linearly dependent on void content and impact energy. The loss energy and damping index are decreased with increasing fibre content under comparable void content and test conditions. 32 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.760239 Item 329 Macromolecules 32, No.22, 2nd Nov.1999, p.7396-401 TRANSCRYSTALLIZATION IN MCL-PHAS/ CELLULOSE WHISKERS COMPOSITES Dufresne A; Kellerhals M B; Witholt B Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University; Zurich,Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule Nanocomposite materials were prepared from an elastomeric medium-chain-length polyhydroxyalkanoate(Mcl-PHA) latex as semicrystalline material using a colloidal suspension of hydrolysed cellulose whiskers as natural and biodegradable filler. After stirring, the preparations were cast and evaporated. High-performance materials were obtained from this system, preserving the natural character of PHA. Differences were, however, reported by comparison with amorphous PHA filled systems. These differences were ascribed to a transcrystallisation phenomenon of semicrystalline HA on cellulose whiskers, evidenced by DMA. Transcrystallisation hindered the mechanical percolation of cellulose whiskers and the formation of a rigid network within the polymer matrix during the film

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

formation by evaporation. The whiskers network could reorganise under thermal ageing. 37 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.759192 Item 330 Polymer 40, No.26, 1999, p.7313-20 MOISTURE DIFFUSION IN POLYESTERWOODFLOUR COMPOSITES Marcovich N E; Reboredo M M; Aranguren M I Mar del Plata,Universidad Nacional The understanding of water-polymer interactions in polymeric composite materials is critical to the prediction of their behaviour in applications where they are exposed to water or humid environment. Moisture diffusion in unsaturated polyester-wood flour composites exposed to environments kept at room temperature and different relative humidities is investigated. Equations obtained from microscopic mass balances for vapour diffusion in solids are used to determine the effective diffusion coefficients of the different woodflours, neat resin and composites. The effect of the size and shape of the composite specimens used in the experimental work on the final moisture content is also evaluated. Different models are used to predict the composite effective diffusion coefficients as a function of filler concentrations. 20 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.758984 Item 331 Polyurethanes Expo ’99. Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 12th-15th Sept.1999, p.373-6 PRODUCTION EXPERIENCES WITH AUTOMOTIVE INTERIOR TRIM COMPONENTS UTILISING NATURAL FIBRE MATS Fries K-W; Sander W; Rompala T; Muto J Hennecke GmbH; Bayer Corp. (American Plastics Council,Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry) NafpurTec, a Hennecke technology utilising a natural fibre mat impregnated with Bayer’s Baypreg F PU systems, most recently went into production for the manufacturing of automotive interior parts. The first actual production experiences with this new process technology are related. By utilising the NafpurTec technology, interior panels can be moulded with minimal thicknesses of 1.5-2.0 mm, within 30-60 seconds. The natural fibre mat used is a flax/ sisal blend (50/50) which is used to replace glass fibre, commonly used in competitive technologies. A variety of other natural fibres such as hemp are also conceivable for this technology. The natural fibre mat is impregnated with the Baypreg PU system to produce a finished, lightweight product which is 35-45 % urethane, and 55-

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

65% natural fibres. Advantages of the technology are short cycle times as compared to competitive technologies, thin wall thicknesses, the lightweight nature of the finished parts, the cost savings resulting from the favourable ratio of natural fibres to urethane (i.e. 65%:35% versus 20%:80%), and the use of a natural fibre which is a renewable resource with the opportunity for recycling. Processing data, part physical properties, equipment configurations and production data are outlined. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.755704 Item 332 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 74, No.8, 21st Nov.1999, p.1962-77 STEAM-EXPLODED RESIDUAL SOFTWOODFILLED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Angles M N; Salvado J; Dufresne A Tarragona,Universitat Rovira i Virgili; Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University Residual softwood sawdust was pretreated using a steamexplosion technique and was used as a natural filler in PP-based composites. DMA and tensile properties of the materials were studied. The influence of filler loading, steam-explosion severity and coating of the fibre with a functionalised compatibiliser, such as maleic anhydridemodified PP, on the mechanical behaviour of the composite was evaluated. The results were analysed in relation to those from SEM observations and surface energy and apparent specific area measurements. 59 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.755613 Item 333 European Plastics News 26, No.11, Dec.1999, p.40 TWO-MATERIAL DEMONSTRATION It is briefly reported that Battenfeld has demonstrated an HM 4500/2x2800 injection moulding machine producing a furniture door and handle. The door part consists of a flax reinforced PP core and Targor PP for the outer layers. The door part and the thermoplastic elastomer grip were made in a multi-component mould. BATTENFELD AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.754611 Item 334 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 89, No.8, Aug.1999, p.18-20 English; German FLAX-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Wielage B; Kohler E; Odenwald S; Lampke T; Bergner A

107

References and Abstracts

Chemnitz,Technical University In the production of composite materials from natural fibres and a thermoplastic matrix, the process parameters have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the parts. The boundaries of the process control are derived from theoretical principles and temperature-time dependencies, determined by thermoanalytical techniques. 7 refs. (Translated from Kunststoffe p.60-2). EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.753240 Item 335 Plastics Technology 45, No.10, Oct.1999, p.62/8 NATURAL FIBERS Sherman L M A review is presented of developments in the use of natural fibre-reinforced plastics in vehicle interiors. Technology for using natural fibre composites in interior trim is being cultivated by Tier I and II automotive suppliers, typically in partnership with producers of natural fibre-based mat materials. Much developmental work is focused on PPbased composites produced by compression moulding or thermoforming extruded sheet or commingled mats of PP and plant fibres, and at least one SRIM-type polyurethane application has been commercialised. Details are given of automotive applications using these biocomposites, processing techniques used, and material combinations. NORTH AMERICA

Accession no.752984

Item 337 Journal of Composite Materials 31, No.5, 1997, p.509-27 INFLUENCE OF SHORT GLASS FIBRE ADDITION ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SISAL REINFORCED LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES Kalapasad G; Joseph K; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University The evaluation of enhancement in the mechanical properties of short sisal fibre reinforced PE composites by the incorporation of short glass fibre as an intimate mix with sisal is described. Intimately mixed short glasssisal hybrid fibre reinforced PE composites (GSRP) are prepared by solution mixing technique. The effects of fibre orientation and alkali treatment on sisal fibre in GSRP are studied. Addition of relatively small volume fraction of glass (0.03) to the sisal reinforced PE matrix (SRP) enhances the tensile strength of longitudinally oriented composites by about 80%. Addition of the same volume fraction of glass to the alkali treated sisal incorporated SRP enhances the tensile strength by more than 90%. The flexural strength of the longitudinally oriented composites is also studied. The incorporation of glass fibre (Vf = 0.03) to SRP enhances the flexural strength by more than 60%. The effect of hybridisation on water absorption tendency of the sisal fibre is studied by immersing SRP and GSRP in boiling water for 3 hours. It is observed that water uptake of GSRP is two to four times less than that of SRP composites. Halpin-Tsai equation for composites is tried for calculating the tensile modulus of longitudinally oriented GSRP. 25 refs. INDIA

Item 336 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 38, No.4, 1999, p.767-82 JUTE-REINFORCED URETHANE POLYMER COMPOSITE UNDER GAMMA RADIATION Khan M A; Balo S K; Ali K M I Bangladesh,Atomic Energy Commission Some formulations are developed with urethane triacrylate oligomer in combination with monomers of different functionalities. Thick (2 mm) polymer films are prepared with these formulations under Co-60 gamma radiation. The films are reinforced with jute by mixing jute particles in the above formulations at different proportions. These films are characterised and it is observed that both tensile and bending strengths are enhanced by the addition of the jute in the formulation; however, elongation is reduced with the increase in jute concentration. However, the presence of trimethylol propane triacrylate (TMPTA) in the formulations slightly reduce the tensile properties of the composites from the already enhanced properties induced by the TMPTA in the films. 9 refs. BANGLADESH

Accession no.752297

108

Accession no.751391 Item 338 Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 12, No.5, Sept.1999, p.388-98 INFLUENCE OF FIBRE SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE CREEP BEHAVIOUR OF JUTE FIBREREINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Gassan J; Bledski A K Kassel,Universitat Improvements in the characteristic properties of jute-PP composites are obtained with the application of MAH grafted PP copolymers as a coupling agent to the fibre SEM investigations demonstrate that fibre pull-out is reduced after the modification with the coupling agent. This improved fibre-matrix adhesion further leads to a lower creep strain in the outer fibres. This is demonstrated for composites with two different fibre contents. Up to applied stresses of 5.1 N/sq.mm, the creep behaviour for the composites with unmodified, as well as for those with MAH-PP modified, fibres obeys the creep law according to Abbott. The experimental data of creep tests at higher applied stresses are fitted more successfully by using the creep law according to Findley. The creep kinetic

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

coefficient according to Abbott is dependent on the applied stress for both types of composites and for both fibre contents. 32 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.751376 Item 339 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie No.268, July 1999, p.22-8 German EFFECT OF WATER EXPOSURE ON ALKALI TREATED JUTE AND FLAX FIBRE-EPOXY RESIN COMPOSITES Gassan J; Bledzki A K Kassel,Universitat The influence of water exposure on the physical properties of untreated and alkali-treated jute and flax fibres and their composites with an epoxy resin is reported. The water caused strong anisotropic swelling which was more significant for the alkali-treated fibres. Generally, jute fibres lost 30% of their tenacity after exposure to water while the tenacity of flax fibres remains unaffected. In consequence, the tensile strength of jute-epoxy composites decreases with increasing water content, while the strength of comparable flax-epoxy composites increases slightly. The dynamic strength of the composites was improved after the use of alkali-treated fibres. Over a 49-day period of storage in water, the dynamic strength decreased in relation to the type of fibre and their treatment. 32 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.750687

decreased, regardless of the quality of fibre-resin adhesion. For dynamic loadings, storage cycle induced damage, further bringing about a decreased dynamic modulus and an increased progress in damage with increasing loading cycles during the first two environmental cycles, being constant afterwards. 29 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.750345 Item 341 Antec ’99. Volume II. Conference proceedings. New York City, 2nd-6th May 1999, p.2645-9. 012 HIGH QUALITY FLAX FIBRE COMPOSITES MANUFACTURED BY THE RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING PROCESS Oksman K Swedish Institute of Composites (SPE) The use of high quality natural fibres as reinforcements is studied using the resin transfer moulding (RTM) processing technique. The fibres are unidirectional high quality ArcticFlax and the matrix is an epoxy resin. The mechanical properties of the composites are compared to conventional RTM manufactured glass fibre composites, traditionally retted UD-flax fibre composites and to the pure epoxy. Results of mechanical testing show that the (50/50) high quality ArcticFlax/epoxy composite has a stiffness of about 40 GPa compared to the stiffness in pure epoxy of 3.2 GPa. The same composite has a tensile strength of 280 MPa compared to 80 MPa of the epoxy. RTM is shown to be a suitable processing technique for natural fibre composites when high quality laminates are preferred. 9 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Item 340 Polymer Composites 20, No.4, Aug.1999, p.604-11 EFFECT OF CYCLIC MOISTURE ABSORPTION DESORPTION ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SILANIZED JUTE-EPOXY COMPOSITES Gassan J; Bledzki A K Kassel,Universitat The effect of water absorption-desorption cycles on the mechanical properties of natural fibre-reinforced plastics was studied. Epoxy resins with jute woven fabrics as reinforcement with untreated and silane-treated fibres were investigated. Silane treatment of fibres led to increases of up to 30% in TS, flexural strength and Young’s modulus of composites. Absorption-desorption cycles of fibres changed the fracture mechanisms of fibres without having significant effects on the TS of the fibres. Light microscopic investigations showed that absorptiondesorption cycles of composites led to the debonding of resin from fibres as well as to cracks in the adjacent resin. As a result of these mechanisms, TS and Young’s modulus

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Accession no.749510 Item 342 Composites Science & Technology 59, No.11, 1999, p.1625-40 EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SISAL-FIBERREINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Joseph P V; Joseph K; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University; Kerala,St.Berchmans’ College Short sisal fibre-reinforced PP composites were prepared by melt mixing and solution mixing methods. The melt mixing parameters were optimised. A mixing time of 10 min, rotor speed of 50 rpm and a mixing temp. of 170C were found to be optimum conditions. The tensile properties were evaluated as a function of fibre length, loading and orientation. Fibre length of 2 mm was found to be optimum for the best balance of properties in the case of melt-mixed composites. Composites containing longitudinally oriented

109

References and Abstracts

fibres showed superior mechanical properties to those of the transverse and random orientations. Tensile properties of melt-mixed and solution-mixed composites were compared. Melt-mixed composites showed better properties than solution-mixed composites. 34 refs. INDIA

Accession no.749069 Item 343 Antec ’99. Volume II. Conference proceedings. New York City, 2nd-6th May 1999, p.2040-8. 012 FOAMING OF PS/WOOD FIBRE COMPOSITES IN EXTRUSION USING MOISTURE AS BLOWING AGENT Rizvi G; Matuana L M; Park C B Toronto,University; Michigan,Technological University (SPE) An experimental study on foam processing of PS and HIPS/ wood fibre composites in extrusion using moisture as a blowing agent is presented. Wood fibre inherently contains moisture that can potentially be used as a blowing agent. Undried wood fibre is processed together with PS and HIPS materials in extrusion and wood fibre composite foams are produced. The cellular morphology and volume expansion ratios of the foamed composites are characterised. Because of the high stiffness of styrenic materials, moisture condensation during cooling after expansion at high temperature does not cause much contraction of the foamed composite and a high volume expansion ratio up to 20 is successfully obtained. The experimental results show that the expansion ratio can be controlled by varying the processing temperature and the moisture content in the wood fibre. The effects of a small amount of a chemical blowing agent and mineral oil on the cell morphologies of plastic/ wood fibre composite foams are also investigated. 36 refs. CANADA; USA

Accession no.748770 Item 344 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 73, No.12, 19th Sept.1999, p.2493-505 WOOD-POLYMER COMPOSITES MADE WITH ACRYLIC MONOMERS, ISOCYANATE AND MALEIC ANHYDRIDE Ellis W D; O’Dell J L US,Dept.of Agriculture,Forest Service Wood could provide better service in some applications if it were harder and more dimensionally stable. Woodpolymer composites (WPC) made with different chemical combinations are evaluated for dimensional stability, ability to exclude water vapour and liquid water and hardness. Pine, maple and oak solid wood are combined with different combinations of hexanediol diacrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate, hexamethylene diisocyanate and maleic anhydride. Treatment slows the rates of water vapour and liquid water absorption. Although the resultant dimensional

110

stability is not permanent, the rate of swelling of WPC specimens is less than that of unmodified wood specimens. In addition, WPC are harder than unmodified wood. The chemical combination of hexanediol diacrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate and hexamethylene diisocyanate greatly decrease wetting and penetration of water into the wood. This chemical combination also gives the hardest and most dimensionally stable WPC. In general, WPC prepared using hydroxyethyl methacrylate are harder than specimens made without hydroxyethyl methacrylate and exclude water and moisture more effectively. 17 refs. USA

Accession no.747986 Item 345 Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe 52, No.4, April 1999, p.294-6 German WOOD-FILLED THERMOPLASTICS AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO NATURAL WOOD Bledzki A K; Sperber V; Theis S; Gassan J; Nishibori S Kassel,Universitat; EIN Engineering Co.Ltd. Data are presented on the mechanical properties and moisture absorption of wood-fibre and wood-powder filled plastics (polypropylene, polyethylene and PVC) as compared with MDF and natural wood. 6 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and Technology. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.747662 Item 346 Journal of Materials Science 34, No.15, 1st Aug. 1999, p.3709-19 INTERFACIAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY “GREEN” COMPOSITES MADE FROM PINEAPPLE FIBRES AND POLY(HYDROXYBUTYRATE-CO-VALERATE) RESIN Luo S; Netravali A N Cornell University The results are reported of a detailed study of the physical and tensile properties of pineapple fibres, the tensile and flexural properties of biodegradable composites reinforced with these fibres and measurements of pineapple fibre/poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) interfacial shear strength, performed using the microbond test. The tensile and flexural properties of the composites are compared with those of various kinds of wood and the fracture surfaces of the composites are briefly discussed. 20 refs. USA

Accession no.745938

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 347 Modern Plastics International 29, No.9, Sept.1999, p.70/79 PROCESSORS FOCUS ON DIFFERENTIATION IN WINDOW PROFILES Defosse M The need for product differentiation in the window industry is discussed as the market reaches maturity. In the two largest geographical markets, North America and Germany, penetration is said to be over 40% and 50% respectively. Processors are aware that future sales growth will depend on offering unique products, including the use of composites materials and taking advantage of possible US legislation regarding the energy efficiency of buildings, by offering thermally efficient products. Product developments are reviewed. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; NORTH AMERICA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.745194 Item 348 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 73, No.9, 29th Aug.1999, p.1757-61 GRAFT COPOLYMERISATION OF ACRYLONITRILE ON KENAF FIBRES BY CERIC ION IN THE PRESENCE OF ALLYL COMPOUNDS Eromosele I C; Bayero S S Yola,Federal University of Technology Graft copolymers of acrylonitrile on kenaf fibres are obtained in an aqueous medium by the use of allyl alcohol and allyl chloride in combination with ceric ion as redox pairs. The graft copolymerisation reactions show distinct features associated with different initiating species derived from the redox pairs. For a ceric-allyl chloride-initiated reaction, a minimum graft yield is observed, accompanied by an enhanced graft yield. This suggests the existence of two kinetically controlled grafting reactions arising from two different initiating species. For the ceric-allyl alcohol-initiated reaction, the grafting profile shows a maximum yield and suggests the presence of one active initiating species. High concentrations of acrylonitrile are favourable to grafting with values of up to 150%, but they also result in decreased efficiency in monomer conversion to grafted polymer. The frequency of grafting increases with the concentration of allyl alcohol but the molecular weight of grafted polymer of up to 4.46 x 10 4 decreases by a factor of one and half over the concentration range 1.8-9.0 x 10 -4 M of the latter. The presence of 10% (v/v) N,N’-dimethylformamide results in zero graft, but the same vol % of formic acid had no apparent effect on the graft yield. A negative temperature dependence in the graft yield is found in the temperature range of 50-70 deg.C. 15 refs. NIGERIA

Accession no.744465

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 349 Composites Science & Technology 59, No.9, 1999, p.1303-9 POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVING THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF JUTE/EPOXY COMPOSITES BY ALKALI TREATMENT OF FIBRES Gassan J; Bledzki A K Kassel,Universitat The mechanical properties of tossa jute fibres were optimised by treatment with sodium hydroxide using different alkali concentrations and shrinkages. The effects of shrinkage on fibre structure and, as a result, on the mechanical properties of the fibre and the influence of treatment on the mechanical properties of the composites are discussed in depth. Mechanical properties evaluated included tensile properties and impact properties. A correlation was established between composite impact damping and yarn toughness. 20 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.741354 Item 350 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 73, No.7, 15th Aug.1999, p.1329-40 FIBER-REINFORCED CELLULOSIC THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Glasser W G; Taib R; Jain R K; Kander R Virginia Tech Steam-exploded fibres from Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) wood were assessed in terms of their thermal stability characteristics, their impact on torque during melt processing of a thermoplastic cellulose acetate butyrate matrix, their fibre-matrix adhesion and dispersion in composites, and their mechanical properties under tension. Fibres included water-extracted steam-exploded fibres, alkali-extracted fibres(AEF), acetylated fibres(AAEF) and a commercial milled oat fibre sample (untreated control). AAEF composites produced the best mechanical properties. Fibre-aspect ratio was reduced to an average of 25 to 50 from much more than 200 during compounding. The superior reinforcing characteristics of AAEF fibres were also reflected by SEM, which revealed better fibre-matrix adhesion and failure by fibre fibrillation rather than by fibre pull-out. 29 refs. USA

Accession no.739040 Item 351 Polymer Composites 20, No.3, June 1999, p.367-78 MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY ‘GREEN’ COMPOSITES MADE FROM PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRES AND POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE-CO-

111

References and Abstracts

VALERATE RESIN Luo S; Netravali A N Cornell University

Item 353 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 73, No.4, 25th July 1999, p.583-92 BIOCOMPOSITES BASED ON SEA ALGAE FIBERS AND BIODEGRADABLE THERMOPLASTIC MATRICES Iannace S; Nocilla G; Nicolais L Napoli,Universita Federico II

The mechanical and thermal properties of unidirectional, degradable, environmentally friendly ‘green’ composites made from pineapple fibres and polyhydroxybutyrate-covalerate (PHBV) resin are presented. Tensile and flexural properties of the green composites with different fibre contents are measured in both longitudinal and transverse directions. Compared to those of virgin resin, the tensile and flexural strengths of green composites are significantly higher in the longitudinal direction while they are lower in the transverse direction. However, the mechanical properties are lower than those predicted by simple models. Scanning electron microscope photomicrographs of the tensile fracture surfaces demonstrate fibres being pulled out from the matrix, the interfacial failure, fibre fibrillation and the nonunidirectional nature of the green composites. The thermal behaviour of the green composites, studied by differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis, shows that the presence of pineapple fibres does not affect the non-isothermal crystallisation kinetics, crystallinity and thermal decomposition of PHBV resin. 23 refs.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

USA

Accession no.738097

Composites were prepared by mixing thermoplastic biodegradable polymers (Mater-Bi Y101 U, Mater-Bi ZF03 U/A and polycaprolactone) with sea algae (lignocellulosic) fibres. Tensile properties were analysed as a function of fibre concentration. The effect of processing, such as compression moulding and calendering, on the mechanical properties of the materials was investigated. Composites showed higher elastic modulus and lower strength than the matrix components. Fibre damaging, characterised by a reduction of both length and diameter, was observed in the composites. Films prepared by calendering operations showed anisotropic properties due to fibre alignment. 23 refs. NOVAMONT

Accession no.738681 Item 352 5th International Conference on Deformation and Fracture of Composites. Conference proceedings. London, 18th-19th March 1999, p.282-96 HETEROEPITAXIAL NUCLEATION OF FLAX FIBRES IN POLYOLEFIN CRYSTALLISATION Zafeiropoulos N E; Barber A H; Baillie C A; Matthews FL London,Imperial College of Science,Technol.& Med. (Institute of Materials; Institution of Mechanical Engineers) Cellulose fibres have long been used in the plastics industry as cost-cutting materials. They are now recognised as a potential replacement for glass fibres for use as reinforcing agents in composite materials. They enjoy a number of certain advantages over glass fibres, such as low cost, high strength-to-weight ratio, biodegradability and ease of processing. Crystallisation from the melt of various polyolefin matrices (isotactic PP (i-PP), maleic anhydride modified PP (MAPP) and HDPE) in the presence of flax fibres of three different types (green flax, dew retted flax and Duralin treated flax) is examined using hot stage optical microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. It is revealed that all the three types of flax fibres induce the formation of a transcrystalline layer in i-PP, while only dew retted flax is found able to induce transcrystallinity in HDPE and MAPP. 19 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.738674

112

Item 354 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 73, No.3, 18th July 1999, p.399-407 CORRELATION OF WATER VAPOR ADSORPTION BEHAVIOR OF WOOD WITH SURFACE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Tshabalala M A; Denes A R; Williams R S US,Forest Products Laboratory; Wisconsin,University The surface thermodynamic characteristics of a wood fibre were determined and an attempt made to correlate these characteristics with water vapour adsorption behaviour of the fibre. The surface thermodynamic characteristics were the dispersive component of the surface energy, surface acid-base free energy and enthalpy of desorption of acid-base probes, and surface acid-base acceptor and donor parameters. The data obtained were relevant to the design of appropriate processes for manipulating the surface properties of wood fibres while preserving their desirable bulk properties. A desirable feature for wood-plastic composites was optimal adhesion to non-wood matrices and for fibreboard, particleboard and flakeboard resistance to degradation mediated by water vapour adsorption. 20 refs. USA

Accession no.738079 Item 355 Antec ’99. Volume III. Conference proceedings. New York City, 2nd-6th May 1999, p.3849-51. 012 EFFECT OF FILLER SIZE AND COMPOSITION

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

ON THE PROPERTIES OF INJECTION MOULDED PP AND PP/HDPE-WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES Albano C; Ichazo M N; Gonzalez J; Molina K; Espejo L Venezuela,Universidad Central; Simon Bolivar,Universidad (SPE) The effect of filler size and composition on the mechanical properties of wood PP composites is studied. The blends are prepared in an intermeshing co-rotating twin screw extruder and injection moulded. The best properties (elastic modulus and tensile strength) are obtained for the 40 wt.% wood flour composites for all filler sizes employed. PP/HDPE blends (80/20 wt.%) are prepared based on the higher wood flour content of the composites tested previously. 8 refs. VENEZUELA

Accession no.734017

jute layers increases, by keeping the number of PP layers constant, generally failure properties decrease but an increased water uptake is observed. The influence of various constructions on the properties is analysed by changing the mode of combination of jute and PP layers. In these experiments, the total number of layers are fixed at a constant. It is found that the preferred combination is one with jute as core layer and PP as skin layers. Scanning electron microscopy is used to analyse the failure surface morphology of the composites. Finally, value-added product is fabricated using selected composites. 45 refs. INDIA

Accession no.732294 Item 358 Patent Number: US 5876649 A 19990302 PROCESS OF MAKING A LOAD-CARRYING STRUCTURE Ryan D B

Item 356 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 76, No.506, Aug.1998, p.190-7 Spanish DEVELOPMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSE FIBRE-REINFORCED THERMOPLASTICS FOR INJECTION MOULDING Gomez J L; Jarones C; Ganan P Gaiker; Medellin,Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana

At least one of bamboo culms, split bamboo culms, bamboo fibre tape or prepared bamboo fibres is coated with a bonding material to produce a core, which is then combined with a polymer matrix and extruded or moulded to form a structure having the desired shape. The structure compares favourably with wood, steel and concrete with regard to strength, longevity, price and ability to withstand earthquakes and may be used as a beam, column, telephone pole or marine pole.

The properties of injection moulded specimens of PP reinforced with sisal were studied in comparison with glass fibre-reinforced PP specimens. The influence of a propylene-maleic anhydride graft copolymer coupling agent on the mechanical properties of the composites was investigated. 15 refs.

USA

COLOMBIA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.732436 Item 357 Journal of Reinforced Plastics & Composites 18, No.4, 1999, p.346-72 JUTE SACK CLOTH REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES: MECHANICAL AND SORPTION STUDIES Harikumar K R; Joseph K CMS College; St.Berchman’s College; Mahatma Gandhi,University Composite materials are fabricated using jute and PP sacks by compression moulding. Different types of composites are fabricated by varying the number of jute layers, number of PP layers and the mode of combination of jute and PP layers, keeping the total number of layers a constant. It is found that as the number of PP layers increases, the tensile strength, tear strength and modulus increase, but the elongation at break and equilibrium water uptake are found to decrease. Also, when the number of

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Accession no.730270 Item 359 Composites Part B: Engineering 30B, No.3, 1999, p.309-20 EFFECT OF FIBRE SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE FIBRE-MATRIX BOND STRENGTH OF NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES Valadez-Gonzalez A; Cervantes-Uc J M; Olayo R; Herrera-Franco P J Yucatan,Centro de Investigacion Cientifica; Iztapalapa,University The interfacial shear strength between natural fibres (henequen fibres) and a thermoplastic matrix (HDPE) was improved by the morphological and silane chemical modification of the fibre surface. The three surface modifications were (1) treatment with alkaline solution, (2) surface treatment with vinyltris(2-methoxyethoxy) silane (Silane A-172 from Union Carbide), and (3) preimpregnation with a dilute solution of HDPE in xylene. The alkali treatment improved the interfacial shear strength by increasing the surface roughness to give better mechanical interlocking and increased the amount of cellulose on the surface to increase the number of possible reaction sites. The pre-impregnation gave better fibre wetting. Surface silanisation resulted in better interfacial load transfer efficiency, but did not seem to improve the

113

References and Abstracts

wetting of the fibre. The results obtained from the single fibre fragmentation test gave better agreement with the effective mechanical properties of composite material than those obtained by pull-out test. 27 refs. (See also next paper, this journal, p.321-31) MEXICO

Accession no.729210 Item 360 International Polymer Processing 14, No.1, March 1999, p.10-20 UTILISATION OF RHEOLOGY CONTROL TO DEVELOP WOOD-GRAIN PATTERNED PVC/ WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES Yong Lak Joo; Myung Ho Cho Hanwha Group The effects of wood flour and plasticiser on the rheology and extrusion of PVC-based wood-plastic composites were investigated. The intention was to determine an optimal pair of PVC-based wood-plastic composites that would exhibit substantially different rheological behaviours so that patterns similar to wood grain can be developed inside and on the surface of the product when the two compounds are extruded together. Experiments were performed on a single screw extruder, an intermeshing, co-rotating twin screw extruder and an intermeshing, counter-rotating twin screw extruder. Only the counter-rotating, twin screw extruder gave wood pattern both inside and on the surface as well as complete plasticisation. Considerable rheological, compounding (DOP content, wood flour content and optional acrylic impact modifier content), Tg, and processing data are given. Mechanical properties need to be improved before the composites can be used for door frames and windows. 22 refs. KOREA

Accession no.728752 Item 361 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 89, No.3, March 1999, p.6-7. (Translated from Kunststoffe 89 (1999) 3, pp.30-2) INJECTION MOULDING OF NATURAL FIBREREINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Aurich T; Mennig G Chemnitz,Technical University The suitability is investigated of natural fibres as reinforcements for use in polymer based composite materials. In particular injection moulded flax fibrereinforced polypropylene is discussed. Consideration is given to the fibre-matrix adhesion and the use of coupling agents, compounding, rheology and mechanical properties. It is shown that natural fibres can provide significant increases in strength and elastic modulus compared to the pure polymer, and represent an alternative to glass fibre-reinforced thermoplastics for use in the medium loading range. 8 refs.

114

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.726373 Item 362 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 89, No.2, Feb. 1999, p.23-4. (Translated from Kunststoffe 89 (1999), 2, pp.80-4). RECYCLING OF POLYPROPYLENE REINFORCED WITH NATURAL FIBRES Reussmann T; Mieck P; Gruetzner R; Bayer R Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & KunststoffForschung eV; Allied Polymers GmbH The recycling of flax fibre reinforced PP is examined, and the incorporation of a recompounding stage is investigated, which leads to a higher quality recycled compound for injection moulding and extrusion applications. By recompounding regrind, it is possible to optimise fibre content and also fibre/matrix adhesion by means of chemical coupling. The remoulding of used parts has not gained any major technical significance, since repeated compression moulding leads to a reduction in mechanical properties. 4 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.726066 Item 363 Reinforced Plastics 43, No.1, Jan.1999, p.19 PLANT FIBRES OFFER “GREENER” OPTION The automotive industry’s search for cheaper, “greener” materials is generating considerable research into plant fibre as an alternative to glass reinforcement in composite products. Research into plant fibre composites is focusing on two processing routes: injection moulding for nonstructural parts and resin transfer moulding for semistructural parts. Concargo has developed a hemp reinforced composite parcel shelf for the Ford Transit van using RTM. CONCARGO LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.725938 Item 364 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 38, No.1, 1999, p.99-112 STUDY ON PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BIOPOL-JUTE COMPOSITE Khan M A; Ali K M I; Hinrichsen G; Kopp C; Kropke S Bangladesh,Atomic Energy Commission; Berlin,Technical University A Biopol-jute composite (BJC) is prepared using a hotpress treatment by reinforcing the Biopol polymer with hessian cloth (jute fabrics) placed in between the layers

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

of Biopol polymer films. Both the tensile and bending strengths of the composite increase substantially, in comparison to pure Biopol. Jute fabrics are treated with different additives to improve the composite properties. Among them, 2-ethyl hexyl acrylate (3%), gammamethacryloxypropyltrimethoxy silane (2%), and trimethoxy vinyl silane (0.5%) are found to be effective in enhancing tensile properties up to 80% with respect to Biopol. Mixed additives increase the tensile properties of the composites to some extent, but not as much as the single additive. 23 refs. BANGLADESH; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.724276 Item 365 Polymer Engineering and Science 38, No.12, Dec.1998, p.2029-33 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THERMOPLASTIC WHEAT STARCH INJECTION MOULDING PROCESS Abbes B; Ayad R; Prudhomme J C; Onteniente J P Reims,University; ESIEC; IFTS Wheat starch was plasticised using 16% water, 10% glycerol and 2% magnesium stearate as lubricant. This lubricated and fully biodegradable thermoplastic wheat starch formulation was pelletised using an ogive-shaped head single screw extruder. After conditioning one week at 20C and 65% relative humidity, the pellets were moulded to produce standardised samples for tensile test. The aim of this work is to optimise the injection moulding process of this formulation using available moulding software. Two sets of process simulation software were used, namely, C-MOLD (AC-Technology USA) and STRIMFLOW (Matra-DataVision, France). It is shown that the conventional continuum mechanics equations can be used for modelling the injection moulding of thermoplastic starch. These equations are solved using the finite element method. Comparisons with some experimental results are presented, indicating good agreement. Data on the processing of thermoplastic starch and several other basic aspects are provided. 38 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.718719 Item 366 Plastverarbeiter 46, No.4, April 1995, p.18-24 German DIRECT EXTRUSION: COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING IN ONE STEP, PART II Berghaus U Examples of the use of direct extrusion in a wide range of applications for e.g. dispersion of additives and filling and reinforcement of polyolefins are given. Information is tabulated on the change in thermal, mechanical and

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

acoustic properties of polyolefins with the use of fillers (whiting, talc, barium sulphate and wood flour) and reinforcing agent (glass fibre), and the economics of production of pipes from different materials (HDPE, PVC, filled and unfilled PP) are considered. Articles from this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and Technology. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.716840 Item 367 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 30A, No.3, 1999, p.277-84 SOME MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF UNTREATED JUTE FABRIC-REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Gowda T M; Naidu A C B; Chhaya R Bangalore,Aeronautical Development Establishment Details are given of the mechanical properties of jute fibrereinforced composites. Data are given for tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, impact strength, in-plane shear strength, interlaminar shear strength, and hardness for jute fibre-reinforced saturated polyester resins. 21 refs. INDIA

Accession no.716342 Item 368 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 71, No.9, 28th Feb.1999, p.1505-13 JUTE FIBRE REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES BY DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS Saha A K; Das S; Bhatta D; Mitra B C Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.; Utkal,University Chemically modified jute fibres were used to make jute fibre-reinforced polyester composites. Dynamic mechanical thermal properties are discussed. 26 refs. INDIA

Accession no.716335 Item 369 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 71, No.5, 31st Jan.1999, p.841-6 IN SITU JUTE YARN COMPOSITE WITH 2HYDROXYETHYL METHACRYLATE(HEMA) VIA UV RADIATION Ali K M I; Khan M A; Ali M A; Akhunzada K S Bangladesh,Atomic Energy Commission Jute yarns were soaked for 30 min in HEMA/methanol solutions of different proportions and were then irradiated

115

References and Abstracts

in situ with a UV lamp for different periods of time. The treated jute yarns, which were washed in acetone after the irradiation to remove the unused excess HEMA monomer, gained about 10% polymer loading with enhanced TS (80%) and elongation (95%). The tenacity was not further increased by incorporation of a very small amount (1%) of various additives into the HEMA/ methanol solutions, but elongation was enhanced up to 140% when the additive urethane acrylate(1%) was mixed with the solution. 11 refs. BANGLADESH

Accession no.713503 Item 370 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 71, No.4, 24th Jan.1999, p.623-9 ALKALI TREATMENT OF JUTE FIBERS: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Gassan J; Bledzki A K Kassel,Universitat The mechanical properties of tossa jute fibres were shown to be improved by using sodium hydroxide treatment. Shrinkage of fibres during this treatment had significant effects on the fibre structure, as well as on fibre mechanical properties such as TS and modulus. Isometric sodium hydroxide-treated jute yarns (20 min at 20C in 25% sodium hydroxide solution) exhibited an increase in yarn TS and modulus of about 120% and 150%, respectively. These changes in mechanical properties were affected by modifying the fibre structure, basically via the crystallinity ratio, degree of polymerisation and orientation (Hermans factor). Structure-property relationships, developed for cellulosic man-made fibres, were used with a high correlation factor to describe the behaviour of the jute fibre yarns. 27 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.709661 Item 371 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 71, No.4, 24th Jan.1999, p.531-9 SHORT JUTE FIBER-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES: DYNAMIC MECHANICAL STUDY Rana A K; Mitra B C; Banerjee A N Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.; Calcutta,University Short jute fibre-reinforced PP composites were prepared using a high-speed thermokinetic mixer. A compatibiliser was used to improve the molecular interaction between jute and PP, the weight fractions of both jute fibre and compatibiliser being varied. Dynamic parameters, such as storage flexural modulus, loss flexural modulus, storage shear modulus, loss shear modulus and loss factor or damping efficiency (tan delta), were determined in a

116

resonant frequency mode. The nature of the transition peak, amplitude and temps. of the moduli and the tan delta of different compositions were shown to indicate possible improvements of molecular interaction in the presence of a compatibiliser. The modulus retention term, a plot of the reduced modulus with the weight fraction of the jute fibre, also indicated its improvement. 33 refs. INDIA

Accession no.709649 Item 372 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 70, No.13, 26th Dec.1998, p.2647-55 EFFECT OF COMPOUNDING TECHNIQUES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCHPOLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Rozman H D; Peng G B; Ishak Z A M Sains Malaysia,University Oil palm empty fruit bunch-PP composites were produced using two types of compounding techniques, i.e. an internal mixer and a single screw extruder. The mechanical and water absorption properties of both types of composites were investigated. 25 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.709569 Item 373 Polymer Engineering and Science 38, No.11, Nov.1998, p.1862-72 CELL MORPHOLOGY AND PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS OF MICROCELLULAR FOAMED PVC/WOOD FIBRE COMPOSITES Matuana L M; Park C B; Balatinecz J J Michigan,Technological University; Toronto,University Details are given of the characterisation of microcellular foamed PVC/wood fibre composites. The effect of changes in cell morphology and surface modification of fibres on tensile and impact properties are discussed. 40 refs. CANADA; USA

Accession no.709519 Item 374 Second International Conference on Carbon Black. Conference proceedings. Mulhouse, 27th-30th Sept.1993, p.389-92. 51B INVESTIGATION ON THE POTENTIAL OF RICE HUSK ASH AS CARBON BLACK REPLACEMENT FOR EPOXIDISED NATURAL RUBBER VULCANISATES Nasir M; Ishak Z A M; Bakar A A; Azahari B Universiti Sains Malaysia (Societe Francaise de Chimie; CNRS; HauteAlsace,Universite; Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse; Ecole Nationale Superieure de Chimie de Mulhouse)

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

The search for potential new fillers, particularly those of lignocellulosic based, which are of obvious advantages of being cheap, in abundance and renewable are not new. In fact, some have been used in commercial applications. Previous studies by Haxo and Mehta, and Mehta and Pitt, and later Nasir and Low, have clearly indicated the vast potentials of rice husk ash (RHA) fillers in rubbers, with properties comparable to commercial silicas. Earlier studies have found that these fillers enhance the flexural modulus of PP. In short, preliminary investigations reveal the potential of RHA as fillers in polymers albeit semireinforcing or as extender type fillers. A further attempt is made to examine its use as a reinforcing agent in rubber, particularly epoxidised NR is presented. ENR is chosen specifically as it has been found to be more receptive to silica and carbon black, even without the presence of coupling agent. The influence of A-189 silane coupling agent on the vulcanisate properties is also described. Comparisons with a commercial silica and carbon black are presented. 9 refs. MALAYSIA

Accession no.709149 Item 375 Advanced Composites Bulletin Dec.1998, p.2-3 PLASTICS REINFORCED WITH NATURAL FIBRES FOR TRIM COMPONENTS

trim from a combination of natural fibre mat and a PU system. It can now produce parts with wall thicknesses of 1.5-2.0 mm - depending on the unit weight of the natural fibre mat used. End products weigh from 1,250 to 1,600 g/m2 with natural fibre contents between 55 and 65% by weight. These end products weigh about 45% less than products using conventional injection moulding materials, for example. This potential weight reduction is attractive to car manufacturers. Bayer’s raw materials are marketed under the trade name Baypreg; Hennecke offers the associated plant engineering under the name NafpurTec. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.708727 Item 377 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 37, No.4, Nov.1998, p.495-507 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYETHYLENE-OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH COMPOSITES Rozman H D; Ismail H; Jaffri R M; Aminullah A; Ishak Z A M Universiti Sains Malaysia

Kafus Environmental Industries has established a whollyowned subsidiary, Kafus Bio-Composites, to develop applications for materials reinforced with kenaf fibres, particularly in the automotive industry. Kenaf composites have good impact strengths, are 20-30% lighter in weight than GRPs, are less likely to warp under extreme heat and humidity and can be recycled. The long outer fibres of kenaf can be combined with polymers, such as PP, to create automotive trim components such as door panels, seat backs, headliners and package trays. KAFUS ENVIRONMENTAL INDUSTRIES LTD.

The mechanical properties of composites consisting of HDPE and oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre are reported. Three sizes of EFB at different filler loadings are compounded with a single-screw compounder. Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) of the EFB-HDPE composites increase and decrease, respectively, with increasing filler loading. Samples with smaller sized particles display higher MOE and MOR compared to the larger ones. Flexural toughness and tensile and impact strengths decrease as more filler is incorporated in the composite. Scanning electron micrographs show that the particles embedded in the matrix are in the form of irregular-shaped fibre bundles and the tensile failure occurs through extensive fibre bundles pull-out and debonding. 15 refs.

CANADA

MALAYSIA

Accession no.708784

Accession no.704285

Item 376 Polyurethanes Expo ’98. Conference proceedings. Dallas, Tx., 17th-20th Sept.1998, p.397-9. 43C6 NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYURETHANES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AUTOMOTIVE TRIM PARTS Muller H; Seagrave T D Bayer AG; Bayer Corp. (SPI,Polyurethane Div.)

Item 378 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 37, No.4, Nov.1998, p.451-68 THERMOPLASTICS REINFORCED WITH WOOD FILLERS: A LITERATURE REVIEW Bledzki A K; Reihmane S; Gassan Kassel,Universitat; Riga,Technical University

Natural fibre-reinforced PUs are being used more and more in the automotive industry. Bayer has recently developed polymer systems based on PU raw materials and, in cooperation with its Hennecke subsidiary, has developed efficient process engineering for manufacturing

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Problems concerning the processing of thermoplastics reinforced with wood fillers are discussed. The high level of moisture absorption by the filler, its poor wettability, as well as the insufficient adhesion between untreated filler and the polymer matrix are reasons for the low tensile strength and high moisture sorption of composites. These shortcomings of composites can be

117

References and Abstracts

prevented by the modification of the interface. The fibre-matrix compatibility and the composites’ properties can be improved by using some physical (e.g. steam explosion, corona, cold plasma) and chemical (crosslinking and acetylation of cellulose, grafting, use of coupling agents) methods. Modified wood-polymer interaction mechanisms are complex and specific for each definite system and processing conditions. Cellulose crosslinking and acetylation reduce hygroscopicity and swelling of wood and wood composites. Grafting of styrene to wood is effective for wood-PS systems. The best coupling agent for wood-thermoplastics is polymethylenepolyphenyl isocyanate. Silanes’ coupling effect can be increased with additives to the polymer matrix. Optimisation of technological parameters of wood-thermoplastics processing is necessary. 52 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; LATVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.704282 Item 379 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 85, No.3, March 1995, p.23-4 FLAX VERSUS GLASS Mieck K P; Reussmann T Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & KunststoffForschung eV

Item 381 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 84, No.11, Nov.1994, p.22-3 JUTE FIBRES - AN ALTERNATIVE TO GLASS FIBRES IN REINFORCEMENT OF POLYPROPYLENE? Wuttke B; Hinrichsen G TU Berlin The substitution of glass fibre-reinforced PP by jute fibrereinforced polymers is discussed with reference to mechanical properties and specific gravity. Laminates are produced from jute fibre-reinforced PP using the film stacking process, and their properties are compared to those of glass mat reinforced PP. Tensile strength in quasiisotropic and unidirectional laminates is compared. 4 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.703633 Item 382 Composites Science & Technology 58, No.9, Sept.1998, p.1471-85 EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON THE PROPERTIES OF LDPE COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH PINEAPPLE-LEAF FIBRE George J; Bhagawan S S; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University

Flax-mat-reinforced thermoplastics are compared with glass mat reinforced thermoplastics in terms of mechanical properties. Consideration is given to the influence on properties made by fibre opening processes and the mat forming process, and also the use of surface treatment to improve fibre matrix adhesion in polypropylene/flax composites is examined. 14 refs.

The influence of water environment on the sorption characteristics of LDPE reinforced with pineapple leaf fibres was studied. The effects of fibre loading, temperature and chemical treatment on the water uptake were evaluated. Correlations between theoretical and experimental sorption results were examined. The effects of water uptake on mechanical properties were also investigated. 36 refs.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

INDIA

Accession no.703671 Item 380 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 85, No.3, March 1995, p.10-1 AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION AND ECOLOGY Schlosser T; Folster T Daimler-Benz AG A description is given of two processes involving the use of natural fibre-reinforced plastics based on flax for automotive applications. The first is the express process for engineering structural carrier components for functional purposes which uses natural fibre-reinforced PP, and the second involves a SRIM process for thinwalled inside lining parts. 3 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.703665

118

Accession no.702915 Item 383 Journal of Advanced Materials 30, No.2, 1998, p.32-8 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF KENAF BAST FIBER REINFORCED EPOXY MATRIX COMPOSITE PANELS Zimmerman J M; Losure N S Mississippi,State University Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) bast fibre was used in a nonwoven mat form and embedded into an epoxy resin matrix. Plaques with three different fibre volume fractions were prepared by hand lay-up using 3, 4 and 10 layers of non-woven mat. Coupons were cut from these plaques and tested for impact and tensile strength. The random kenaf fibre mat did not reinforce the TS characteristics or the impact strength of the epoxy resin matrix. Percent elongation and Young’s modulus were calculated from the data. The strength and elongation values were

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

compared with the fibre volume fraction of the respective test plaques. Results showed that kenaf bast fibres served as a good filler for thermoset composites due to the fibre’s high yield strengths. Kenaf fibres possessed advantages such as low cost, biodegradability and environmental safety, while serving as a renewable resource. 14 refs. USA

Accession no.702804 Item 384 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 70, No.11, 12th Dec.1998, p.2121-31 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODFLOUR UNSATURATED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Marcovich N E; Reboredo M M; Aranguren M I Mar del Plata,Universidad Nacional The effect of the addition of chemically-modified wood flour on the final properties of unsaturated polyester composites was studied. The filler was treated with an alkaline solution to increase its interfacial area and then modified with maleic anhydride under severe reaction conditions (140C, 24 h). No improvement in the mechanical behaviour of polyester-wood flour composites was found when particles were only alkali-treated, while the composites prepared with maleic anhydride-treated wood flour exhibited better performance under compressive loads. Simple mechanical models used to fit the experimental flexural behaviour indicated that good compatibility between filler and matrix was achieved regardless of the type (treated or untreated) of reinforcement used. 20 refs. ARGENTINA

Accession no.702774 Item 385 Advanced Materials & Composites News 20, No.22, 16th Nov.1998, p.3 COMPOSITE MATERIAL DEVELOPED IN NEW ZEALAND FROM PLASTICS AND PINE WOOD FIBRES It is briefly reported that Auckland University has developed a high-grade industrial material from plastics and pine wood fibres. The University has developed a prototype machine which allows radiata pine wood fibres to be formed into large sheets. This has provided the edge in developing a composite material that enables natural wood fibres to be blended or reinforced with virgin or waste polymers. AUCKLAND,UNIVERSITY NEW ZEALAND

Accession no.702574 Item 386 Patent Number: US 5776281 A 19980707 METHOD OF MANUFACTURING A PALLET

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

MADE OF COMPOSITE FIBER REINFORCED POLYOLEFIN Evans D W A method of manufacturing a pallet made of a composite cellulose fibre reinforced polyethylene is disclosed. The composite polyethylene is produced through a process which blends preheated cellulose fibres with molten polyethylene. The blend of polyethylene and fibres is combined with ozone gas to form a polyethylene and fibre matrix. The polyethylene and fibre matrix is then fed to an extruder where it is further mixed, heated and then extruded through one of a series of dies to create the components of the pallet. The pallet has excellent rigidity and is welded together by coating meeting surfaces with a bonding material of blended high density polyethylene and iron oxide, placing the pallet into an electromagnetic field, and energising the pallet with electromagnetic field having a frequency between 1 megahertz and 100 megahertz, causing the bonding material to melt and fuse the meeting surfaces. USA

Accession no.701698 Item 387 Advanced Composites Letters 7, No.3, 1998, p.81-5 CRITICAL FIBRE LENGTH AND APPARENT INTERFACIAL SHEAR STRENGTH OF SINGLE FLAX FIBRE POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES van den Oever M J A; Bos H L ATO-DLO The stress transfer in both elementary and technical single flax fibre/PP composites was studied by determining the critical fibre length and the apparent interfacial shear strength. The influence of improved fibre-matrix interaction was examined and the results compared with data in the literature. The study indicated that the critical fibre length for elementary flax fibres was equal to or even higher than the flax fibre lengths found after extrusion and injection moulding processes. Furthermore, addition of maleic anhydride-modified PP to the matrix resulted in an apparent interfacial shear strength for elementary flax fibres close to the shear yield strength of the matrix, while for technical fibres the interfacial shear strength was somewhat lower. 11 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.700279 Item 388 Materials Challenge - Diversification and the Future. Volume 40: Book 1. Symposium proceedings. Anaheim, Ca., 8th-11th May 1995, p.221-31. 627 BANANA FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES Tobias B C; Zhu W H Victoria,University of Technology

119

References and Abstracts

(SAMPE) An attempt is made to determine whether banana fibre strands can be consolidated into a fibre-reinforced composite lamina using a vulcanised hydraulic platen press. The proportions of constituents and mechanical properties of fibre strands and composite lamina are investigated. A composite with 28% fibre by volume, resulted in a tensile strength of 54 MPa and a flexural strength of 97 MPa. The values of modulus of elasticity are 1.0 GPa and 6.5 GPa in tension and bending, respectively. These values are found to be higher than that of the polyester matrix used. The toughness of the composite, both in tensile and bending test, is about 1.5 times greater than the polyester matrix. Banana fibre strands reinforced polyester composite with fibre volume fraction greater than the critical volume fraction is shown to be a valuable source of material for commercial application. 10 refs. AUSTRALIA

Accession no.698119 Item 389 Materials Challenge - Diversification and the Future. Volume 40: Book 2. Symposium proceedings. Anaheim, Ca., 8th-11th May 1995, p.1002-10. 627 INVESTIGATION OF CREEP PROPERTIES OF NATURAL COMPOSITE MATERIAL Tobias B C; Lieng V T Victoria,University of Technology (SAMPE) Creep testing is conducted to determine the creep properties of a natural material-based hybrid composite. This material consists of 50% abaca fibre and 20% powdered rice husk embedded in polyester resin. The material is tested in tension at three temperature levels, and at three constant stress levels using a dynamic mechanical analysis. The creep curves show the standard regions of an ideal creep curve such as primary and secondary creep stage as well as the recovery stage. The results show that the minimum creep rate of the hybrid composite increases with increase of temperature and applied stress. By plotting minimum creep rate against stress, the stress exponents vary from 0.0252 at 20 deg.C to 0.0068 at 120 deg.C. Comparison of the creep behaviour between the polyester resin used in this study and the hybrid composite indicates that the hybrid composite showed a significant creep resistance than the polyester matrix, since the minimum creep rate of the hybrid composite is lower than that of the polyester resin. 6 refs. AUSTRALIA

Accession no.698011 Item 390 Polymer Composites 19, No.4, Aug.1998, p.377-82

120

SHORT TERM FLEXURAL CREEP BEHAVIOR OF WOOD FIBER/POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Byung-Dae Park; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University Short-term flexural creep tests were conducted to investigate the creep behaviour of wood fibre/PP composites. Three experimental parameters were selected, i.e. addition of a wetting agent, temp. and wood fibre concentration. All the creep curves were presented in terms of relative creep as a percentage of instantaneous (initial) strain. The creep power law model was used accurately to fit the creep data. The addition of a wetting agent significantly reduced the creep at high stress, but had little effect at a lower stress level. The extent of relative creep increased with increasing temp. It was found that the slope of the power law model was directly proportional to the temp. The addition of wood fibres to pure polymer greatly improved the creep resistance of the matrix polymer. The relative creep of the composites decreased with an increase in wood fibre concentration, but the composite showed relatively large creep compared with that of solid wood. It was found that both the time exponent and slope of the power law model were inversely related to wood fibre concentration. The flexural modulus of the composites also had an inverse relationship with the time exponent. 14 refs. CANADA

Accession no.697131 Item 391 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 69, No.10, 6th Sept.1998, p.1891-9 BAMBOO FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES: A STUDY OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Xiaoya Chen; Qipeng Guo; Yongli Mi Hong Kong,University of Science & Technology Bamboo fibre-reinforced plastic (BFRP) composite was developed as a cheap substitute for wood. To enhance adhesion between the bamboo fibre and the PP matrix, maleic anhydride-grafted PP (MAPP) was prepared and used as a compatibiliser for the composite. Mechanical properties of the composites are reported, e.g. tensile strength, tensile modulus, yield strength at break, and impact strength. 15 refs. HONG KONG

Accession no.694879 Item 392 Polymer Composites 19, No.3, June 1998, p.287-300 INTERFACES IN POLYOLEFIN/CELLULOSIC FIBRE COMPOSITES: CHEMICAL COUPLING, MORPHOLOGY, CORRELATION WITH ADHESION AND AGEING IN MOISTURE

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Gauthier R; Joly C; Coupas A C; Gauthier H; Escoubes M Claude Bernard,Universite

tensile strength and modulus decrease as the void fraction increases. 32 refs.

The characteristics of pure cellulose and wood fibres when associated with thermoplastic matrices for composite applications were detailed in this comprehensive review paper. Each step of composite elaboration and characterisation was considered, to summarise the most important characteristics of cellulosic fibre for composite applications and to point out recent aspects and developments, particularly in the domain of water interaction with fibres alone (treated or not treated) and for the composites made from these two kinds of fibres. 161 refs.

CANADA

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.689733 Item 393 Journal of Polymer Engineering 17, No.5, 1997/1998, p.383-404 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PINEAPPLE FIBRE REINFORCED PE COMPOSITES Jayamol G; Bhagawan S S; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University Pineapple fibre-reinforced LDPE composites were prepared by solution mixing. The dielectric constant, volume resistivity, and dielectric loss factor were evaluated as a function of frequency, fibre content, and fibre length. The influence of chemical treatments on electrical properties were studied. 23 refs. INDIA

Accession no.689591 Item 394 Antec ’98. Volume II. Conference proceedings. Atlanta, Ga., 26th-30th April 1998, p.1968-74. 012 CHARACTERISATION OF MICROCELLULAR FOAMED PLASTIC/CELLULOSIC FIBRE COMPOSITES Matuana L M; Park C B; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University (SPE) Microcellular foamed PVC/cellulosic fibre composites with unique cell morphology and material composition are characterised. The void fraction of the microcellular foamed PVC/cellulosic fibre composites is controlled by the foaming temperature and foaming time. Tensile and impact tests are performed on the foamed composites to investigate the dependence of these properties on the void fraction of foamed specimens. The notched Izod impact strength of microcellular foamed PVC/cellulosic fibre composites increases as the void fraction increases. When the void fraction is 56%, the notched Izod impact strength of foamed PVC/ cellulosic fibre composites is almost three times as high as that of the unfoamed composites. However, the

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Accession no.687470 Item 395 Composite Interfaces 5, No.3, 1998, p.201-23 IMPROVED INTERACTIONS IN CHEMICALLY MODIFIED PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES George J; Bhagawan S S; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University Mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fibre reinforced LDPE composites were studied with special reference to the effects of interface modifications. Various chemical treatments using reagents such as sodium hydroxide, poly(methylene)poly(phenyl) isocyanate (PMPPIC), silane, benzoyl peroxide, dicumyl peroxide and potassium permanganate were carried out to improve the interfacial bonding. IR spectroscopy and SEM were used to characterise the interface and the modified fibre surface. 30 refs. INDIA

Accession no.685319 Item 396 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 69, No.2, 11th July 1998, p.329-38 SHORT JUTE FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES. EFFECT OF COMPATIBILISER Rana A K; Mandal A; Mitra B C; Jacobson R; Rowell R; Banerjee A N Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.; US,Forest Products Laboratory; Calcutta,University Jute fibres were chopped to approximately 100 mm length and then processed through a granulator having an 8 mm screen. Final fibre lengths were up to 10 mm maximum. These fibres, along with PP granules and a compatibiliser (Epolene G-3002, maleated PP from Eastman) were mixed in a K-mixer at a fixed rpm, 5500, and dumped at a fixed temperature, 390F, following a single-stage procedure. The fibre loadings were 30, 40, 50 and 60 wt.%, and at each fibre loading, compatibiliser doses were 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 wt.%. The K-mixer samples were pressed and granulated before being moulded into test specimens using a Cincinnatti Milacron 33T injection moulding machine. At 60% by weight of fibre loading, the use of the compatibiliser improved the flexural strength as much as 100%, the TS by 120%, and the impact strength (unnotched) by 175%. Tensile energy absorption decreased with increase in fibre loading, but this could be remedied by addition of up to 3% compatibiliser. Above 4% compatibiliser, engineering properties deteriorated. Remarkable

121

References and Abstracts

improvements were attained even with 1% compatibiliser. Interface studies were carried out by SEM to investigate the fibre surface morphology, fibre pull-out, and fibre-polymer interface. 27 refs. INDIA; USA

Accession no.684706 Item 397 Journal of Reinforced Plastics & Composites 17, No.7, 1998, p.651-72 STRESS RELAXATION BEHAVIOR OF SHORT PINEAPPLE FIBER-REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES George J; Sreekala M S; Thomas S; Bhagawan S S; Neelakantan N R Mahatma Gandhi,University; Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre; Indian Institute of Technology The stress relaxation behaviour of short pineapple fibrereinforced PE composites in tension was studied with emphasis on the effects of fibre loading, fibre length, chemical treatment and fibre orientation. The stress relaxation rate was found to decrease with strain level. It was found that incorporation of fibre resulted in two relaxation processes. The rate of relaxation was decreased with increasing fibre content. It was observed that chemical treatment had a significant effect on the relaxation behaviour. Composites containing fibres oriented longitudinally had higher relaxation rate than transversely oriented composites. Ageing of samples improved the relaxation modulus due to improved interfacial adhesion at higher temp. It was demonstrated that the stress relaxation modulus values measured at different strains could be superimposed by a shift along the log. time axis to yield master curves of modulus over an extended time period. 27 refs. INDIA

Accession no.682897 Item 398 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No.10, 6th June 1998, p.1567-73 WOOD-FIBER REINFORCEMENT OF STYRENE-MALEIC ANHYDRIDE COPOLYMERS Simonsen J; Jacobsen R; Rowell R Oregon,State University; US,Forest Products Laboratory Styrene-maleic anhydride copolymers (SMA) containing either 7 or 14% maleic anhydride were filled with either pine flour or dry-process aspen fibre from a medium density fibreboard (MDF) plant. Material properties of the filled and unfilled SMA plastics were compared with those of aspen-fibre-filled and unfilled PS. 14 refs. USA

Accession no.681580

122

Item 399 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No.9, 31st May 1998, p.1417-21 ABSORPTION OF STEAM AND WATER AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE IN WOOD POLYMER COMPOSITES PREPARED FROM AGRO-WASTE AND NOVOLAC Mishra S; Naik J B North Maharashtra University Composites of banana, hemp and Agave fibres with novolac resin were prepared at a 50/50 wt/wt ratio. These fibres were also treated with maleic anhydride and it was found that composites based on treated fibres showed higher absorption of steam (at 100C) up to 12 h, while beyond 18 h it was lower than for the untreated fibre composites. At ambient temp., however, the absorption of water was lower for composites based on maleic anhydride-treated fibre than for composites based on untreated fibres. The Shore-D hardness was generally higher for composites based on maleic anhydride-treated fibres. 6 refs. INDIA

Accession no.680859 Item 400 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No.11, 13th June 1998, p.1845-55 INFLUENCE OF THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS ON ADHESION IN POLYETHYLENE-WOOD FLOUR COMPOSITES Oksman K; Lindberg H Lulea,University of Technology A maleated triblock styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene (SEBS-MA) compatibiliser was added to recycled lowdensity polyethylene/wood flour (LDPE/WF) composite to improve its mechanical properties. Maximum strength of the composites occurred with a 4wt% addition. Impact strength and elongation at break were also improved, but the stiffness was decreased. The interfacial adhesion between the different phases was characterised using dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, a lap shear adhesion test and scanning electron microscopy. There was interaction between the ethylene/butylene part of the copolymer and the wood flour. The shear lap test showed that the adhesion between the wood and SEBSMA was better than between the wood and SEBS. Investigation of the fracture surfaces confirmed good adhesion between the wood particles and the LDPE/ SEBS-MA matrix. 26 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.680615 Item 401 Macromolecules 31, No.8, 21st April 1998, p.2693-6

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

IMPROVEMENT OF STARCH FILM PERFORMANCES USING CELLULOSE MICROFIBRILS Dufresne A; Vignon M R Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University An attempt was made to improve the thermomechanical properties and to decrease the water sensitivity of starchbased systems, while preserving the biodegradability of the material. Cellulose microfibrils were used as an inexpensive and environmentally-friendly filler. They were extracted from potato parenchyma cell wall by a chemical treatment leading to purified cellulose, followed by a mechanical treatment in order to obtain a homogeneous suspension due to the individualisation of the microfibrils. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.678379 Item 402 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No.4, 25th April 1998, p.681-6 ABSORPTION OF WATER AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE AND STEAM IN WOODPOLYMER COMPOSITES PREPARED FROM AGROWASTE AND POLYSTYRENE Mishra S; Naik J B North Maharashtra University Hemp, banana and agave fibres were used for the preparation of wood-polymer composites using PS in the ratio of 50:50 w/w. These fibres were esterified with maleic anhydride and the effect of maleic anhydride was studied on the adsorption of water at ambient temperature and steam in wood-polymer composites made from said fibres and PS. 6 refs. INDIA

Accession no.676659 Item 403 Macromolecular Symposia No.127, Feb.1998, p.193-203 THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES BASED ON FLAX FIBRES AND PP: INFLUENCE OF FIBRE LENGTH AND FIBRE VOLUME FRACTION ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Peijs T; Garkhail S; Heijenrath R; van den Oever M; Bos H Eindhoven,University; Wageningen,Agrotechnological Research Institute Flax fibre-reinforced PP was manufactured using a film stacking method and a paper making process. The influence of fibre length and fibre content on stiffness and strength was compared with GRP, including the influence of using maleic anhydride grafted PP. Correlations between experimental results and theoretical predictions are discussed. 21 refs.

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.672898 Item 404 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 67, No.9, 28th Feb.1998, p.1503-13 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND MORPHOLOGY OF IMPACT MODIFIED POLYPROPYLENE-WOOD FLOUR(PP-WF) COMPOSITES Oksman K; Clemons C Lulea,University of Technology; USDA Forest Products Laboratory The mechanical properties and morphology of PP-WF composites with different impact modifiers and maleated PP(MAPP) as a compatibiliser were studied. Two different EPDMs and one maleated styrene-ethylene/butylenestyrene triblock copolymer(SEBS-MA) were used as impact modifiers. All three elastomers increased the impact strength of the PP-WF composites but the addition of maleated EPDM and SEBS gave the greatest improvements in impact strength. Addition of MAPP did not affect the impact properties of the composites but had a positive effect on the composite unnotched impact strength when used together with elastomers. Tensile tests showed that MAPP had a negative effect on the EB and a positive effect on TS. The impact modifiers were found to decrease the stiffness of the composites. SEM showed that maleated EPDM and SEBS had a stronger affinity for the wood surfaces than did unmodified EPDM. MAPP further enhanced adhesion between WF and impactmodified PP systems. 25 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.671143 Item 405 Polymer Journal (Japan) 29, No.12, 1997, p.1007-11 FINE STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF RAMIE FIBRES BY SMALL ANGLE X-RAY SCATTERING TECHNIQUE Misra T; Shukla J; Khan M N; Bisoyi D K; Patel T Orissa,Regional Engineering College; Orissa,IGIT; Orissa,Gandhi Mahavidyalaya Small-angle X-ray scattering studies on ramie fibres compared the macromolecular structure of natural fibre with fibres treated in sodium hydroxide solution at different concentration were presented. 24 refs. INDIA

Accession no.670324 Item 406 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 67, No.6, 7th Feb.1998, p.1093-100 STUDIES ON JUTE-REINFORCED

123

References and Abstracts

COMPOSITES, ITS LIMITATIONS, AND SOME SOLUTIONS THROUGH CHEMICAL MODIFICATIONS OF FIBERS Mitra B C; Basak R K; Sarkar M Indian Jute Industries’ Research Assn.

MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF THE VACUUM FORMING OF WOOD FIBRE-FILLED THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Liu S-J Chang Gung,College of Medicine & Technology

Some water-thin, solvent-dilutable low molecular weight precondensate based on phenol formaldehyde, cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL)-modified phenolic resin, modified melamine formaldehyde condensate and CNSL were examined with the object of providing a jute composite of higher strength and good water resistance. Pretreated non-woven jute was impregnated with phenol formaldehyde resin, and composite board prepared therefrom. The board was tested for bending strength, tensile strength, thickness swelling, and water absorption. Thermal analyses, e.g. DSC and thermogravimetry, were also conducted on jute and pretreated fibres. 20 refs.

Details are given of the development of a novel viscoelastic model of a two-dimensional finite element scheme with eight noded overlay isoparametric elements to numerically simulate the vacuum forming of wood fibre-filled isotactic PP. Computed results were compared with experimental data. 27 refs.

INDIA

Accession no.670308 Item 407 Patent Number: US 5663216 A 19970902 REINFORCING BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER Tomka I Bio-Tec Biologische Naturverpackungen GmbH In order that a substantially biologically degradable polymer is prevented from at least partially losing its biological degradability when reinforced by additives such as fibres and the like, it is proposed that natural fibres such as, in particular, sisal or ramie fibres, be used. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.670248 Item 408 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 87, No.12, Dec.1997, p.9-10 INJECTION MOULDING OF NATURAL FIBREREINFORCED PLASTICS Colberg M; Sauerbier M Ford Werke AG

CHINA

Accession no.666684 Item 410 Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 28A, No.12, 1997, p.1001-5 INFLUENCE OF FIBRE-SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF JUTEPP COMPOSITES Gassan J; Bledzki A K Kassel,Universitat Details are given of the effectiveness of propylene-maleic anhydride graft copolymer as coupling agents in jutereinforced PP composites. The influence of fibre treatment and copolymer concentration on mechanical properties is discussed. Fibre-matrix adhesion was examined by SEM. 38 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.666573 Item 411 Reinforced Plastics 41, No.11, Dec.1997, p.22 FORD PIONEERS MOVE TO HEMP FIBRE

Mass production of injection moulded natural fibrereinforced automotive parts is discussed. Flax and cotton fibre reinforced PP, PP/EPDM and ABS are investigated as to their suitability for these applications. Despite reduced weight and costs, the parts are shown to still have properties lying within the specifications set for conventional reinforced parts. 4 refs.

Ford is leading the drive to replace glass fibre with hemp for reinforcing plastics in a number of automotive components. Hemcore is providing Ford component suppliers with needlepunched hemp fibre. Bioforce Hemp 450 is used as a chopped strand mat replacement in the parcel shelf for the high roof Ford Transit van. The significant cost and weight savings associated with using hemp are the key reasons for this move by Ford. Hempmat 250 has also been trialed for use as a core material in thick composites. HEMCORE LTD.; FORD MOTOR CO.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.666980

Accession no.664756

Item 409 Polymer Composites 18, No.6, Dec.1997, p.673-80

Item 412 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 67, No.1, 3rd Jan.1998, p.79-85

124

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON REINFORCEMENT OF RADIATION-INDUCED JUTE-URETHANE POLYMER COMPOSITES Ali K M I; Khan M A; Balo S K; Ahmad M U Bangladesh,Atomic Energy Commission; Jahangirnagar,University Thick polymer films were prepared under gammairradiation using urethane acrylate in the presence of Nvinyl pyrrolidone, ethylhexyl acrylate and trimethylol propane triacrylate. Jute dust and hessian cloth (jute fabric) were used to prepare composites from the prepared resin matrices. Some of their physical and mechanical properties were studied. Some additives such as acetic acid, acrylamide, urea, talc and titanium oxide were incorporated into the formulation to examine their effect on the physical and mechanical properties. Water absorption and weathering resistance of the resin and composites were also investigated. 12 refs. BANGLADESH

Accession no.664532 Item 413 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 66, No.6, 7th Nov.1997, p.1163-73 DIFFUSE REFLECTANCE FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTRA OF WOOD FIBERS TREATED WITH MALEATED POLYPROPYLENES Kazayawoko M; Balatinecz J J; Woodhams R T Toronto,University The esterification reaction between wood fibres and maleated PP was studied. The reaction was conducted in a reactor in the presence of xylene used as a solvent and sodium hypophosphite as catalyst. The reaction between wood fibres and pure maleic anhydride was also investigated. The appearance of an IR absorption band near 1730/cm indicated that maleated PP chemically reacted by esterification with bleached Kraft cellulose. No direct evidence of an esterification reaction was, however, obtained between thermomechanical pulp and maleated PP. The FTIR studies also showed that both bleached Kraft cellulose and thermomechanical pulp reacted with maleic anhydride with the formation of ester links. 29 refs. CANADA

Accession no.658677 Item 414 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 87, No.9, Sept. 1997, p.25-7 VEHICLE PARTS REINFORCED WITH NATURAL FIBRES Schloesser T; Knothe J Daimler-Benz AG The substitution of natural fibre-reinforced plastics in place of glass fibre-reinforced plastics is discussed, with

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

reference to their use in car components. An overview is presented of the preparation and treatment of fibres, and of the mechanical properties of both types of fibre reinforced plastics. Economic, environmental and performance advantages are examined. 3 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.655707 Item 415 Polymers & Polymer Composites 5, No.4, 1997, p.273-9 THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES BASED ON JUTE FIBRE TREATED WITH CARDANOLFORMALDEHYDE Ton That Minh Tan HoChiMinh City,University The effect of surface treatment of jute fibre by aqueous sodium hydroxide solution and cardanolformaldehyde(CF) was evaluated by diffuse reflectance FTIR spectroscopy and carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy and the fibre tensile properties and the fibre water absorption were measured. Composites based on untreated and treated fibres and common thermoplastic films (LDPE, HDPE and PP) were also prepared by hot press moulding. Treatment of jute fibre with CF reduced the water absorption of composites and improved the tensile and flexural strengths, especially when the samples were immersed in water. 39 refs. VIETNAM

Accession no.653120 Item 416 Polymer Engineering and Science 37, No.7, July 1997, p.1137-47 PROCESSING AND CELL MORPHOLOGY RELATIONSHIPS FOR MICROCELLULAR FOAMED PVC/WOOD FIBRE COMPOSITES Maturana L M; Park C B; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University The effects of the materials and the processing conditions on the cell morphology of foamed PVC/wood fibre composites are studied with a view to establishing their process-structure relationships. Each step of microcellular PVC/wood fibre composites processing is addressed, including surface treatment of the wood fibre, mixing of polymer and wood fibre, manufacture of the composites, saturation of the composites with gas, microcellular foaming of the composites, and characterisation of cell morphology. The cellular morphologies of the foamed PVC/wood fibre composites are a strong function of the content of plasticiser and the surface treatment of wood fibre as well as the gas saturation and foaming conditions. 48 refs. CANADA

Accession no.650821

125

References and Abstracts

Item 417 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 65, No.6, 8th Aug.1997, p.1227-35 POLYPROPYLENE-WOOD FIBRE COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF TREATMENT AND MIXING CONDITIONS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Coutinho F M B; Costa T H S; Carvalho D L Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal Polypropylene/wood fibre composites were prepared at three different temperatures: 170, 180 and 190 C. The surface of wood fibres was modified using silane coupling agents and/or coating with PP or maleated PP. The fibre coating was performed by propylene polymerisation in the presence of wood fibres or by immersion in an odichlorobenzene polypropylene (or maleated PP) solution. Tensile and three-point bending tests were performed to evaluate the adhesion between matrix and wood fibres. 13 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.650316 Item 418 Polymer Composites 18, No.3, June 1997, p.425-31 COMPARISON OF COMPOUNDING PROCESSES FOR WOOD FIBRE/ THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Byung-Dae Park; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University The feasibility of developing a continuous compounding process for wood fibre/thermoplastic composites using the Szego mill, a high-speed planetary ring-roller grinding mill, was investigated. Prior to compounding, air-dried sawdust was ground to evaluate the grinding effect in the mill. As the feed rate and the mill speed increased, the particle size increased and decreased, respectively. Sawdust particles were successfully compounded in LLDPE using the Szego mill without any major heat application. A Gelimat mixer, used for the compounding of wood fibre through a high-shear thermokinetic mixing process, was also used for comparison. Composites with 30 wt% wood fibre were prepared by both compounding processes, and their mechanical properties were evaluated. 15 refs. CANADA

Accession no.650245

Details are given of the preparation of novel families of flexible, semiflexible and rigid crosslinked polyesters from modified soyabean, rape-seed and linseed oils. The resulting thermosetting polyesters were reinforced with hemp and flax fibres. The influence of molecular structures, curing conditions and formulations on thermal, mechanical and morphological properties were investigated. 24 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.649737 Item 420 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 65, No.2, 11th July 1997, p.381-90 LOW-PRESSURE PLASMA POLYMER MODIFICATION FROM THE FTIR POINT OF VIEW Nitschke M; Meichsner J Chemnitz,Technical University Details are given of the potential of FTIR spectroscopy as a diagnostic tool for low-pressure plasma polymer modification. PE and PS were treated in radio frequency discharges in argon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and tetrafluoromethane. results are compared with other diagnostic techniques. 32 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.640374 Item 421 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 64, No.9, 31st May 1997, p.1739-48 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Uma Devi L; Bhagawan S S; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University; Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre The tensile, flexural, and impact behaviour of pineapple leaf fibre-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites were investigated as a function of fibre loading, fibre length, and fibre surface modification. Scanning electron microscopic studies were undertaken to examine fibrematrix adhesion, fibre breakage, and failure topography. Properties were compared with other cellulose-based natural fibre composites. 18 refs. INDIA

Item 419 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.249, July 1997, p.79-92 POLYESTER NETWORKS BASED UPON EPOXIDISED AND MALEINATED NATURAL OILS Warth H; Mulhaupt R; Hoffmann B; Lawson S Albert-Ludwigs,University

126

Accession no.640322 Item 422 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 64, No.11, 13th June 1997, p.2119-25 EFFECT OF CHEMICAL MODIFICATIONS ON FTIR SPECTRA. II. PHYSICOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBER(PALF)

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Samal R K; Ray M C Ravenshaw College Chemical modifications such as alkali treatment, dinitrophenylation, benzoylation and benzoylationacetylation were carried out on a pineapple agrowaste leaf fibre(PALF). The parent and chemically-modified PALF were characterised by FTIR spectra, pH measurement and detection of nitrogen. The percent moisture regain (extent of hydrophobicity), mechanical strength and chemical inertness of parent and chemically-modified fibres were evaluated. The modified fibres showed significant hydrophobicity, improved mechanical strength and moderate chemical resistance. 19 refs. INDIA

Accession no.640096 Item 423 Antec 97. Volume II. Conference proceedings. Toronto, 27th April-2nd May 1997, p.2046-50. 012 STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES STUDY OF FOAMED WOOD FIBRE/ POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES Doroudiani S; Kortschot M T; Park C B Toronto,University (SPE) Wood fibre/PE composites are foamed and their mechanical properties investigated. HDPE is compounded with virgin kraft pulp and wood flour in a high intensity mixer. The compounds are granulated, injection moulded and then foamed by saturating the moulded specimens with carbon dioxide followed by a rapid heating cycle. It is shown that there is a weak interface between the matrix and cellulose fillers, which preferentially nucleate foam bubbles. The impact strength of the composites is improved through foaming, although not to the same extent as the impact strength of the polymer. The tensile strength and modulus of the composites are reduced by foaming. The structures of the foamed composites are examined using scanning electron microscopy to determine the density and distribution of cells to account for this behaviour. 8 refs. CANADA

Accession no.638338 Item 424 Polymer Composites 18, No.2, April 1997, p.198-210 THERMOPLASTIC NANOCOMPOSITES FILLED WITH WHEAT STRAW CELLULOSE WHISKERS. II. EFFECT OF PROCESSING AND MODELLING Dufresne A; Cavaille J Y; Helbert W Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University The reinforcing effect of cellulose microcrystals, or whiskers, dispersed in a thermoplastic matrix, was analysed. The effect of processing on the mechanical

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

properties of styrene-butyl acrylate copolymer/straw cellulose whiskers was investigated, the materials being processed by casting and evaporating a mixture of aqueous suspensions of microfibrils and latex. The behaviour of the composite was modelled by subdividing the sample into layers with different whisker contents lying parallel to the film surface. 42 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.635209 Item 425 Polymer Composites 18, No.1, Feb.1997, p.79-89 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD FIBRE/ TOUGHENED ISOTACTIC POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Park B D; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University A study was made of the mechanical properties of composites consisting of wood fibres in an isotactic PP matrix which had been modified by blending with EPDM. The addition of EPDM improved impact toughness while reducing the stiffness and strength properties. To compensate the non-plane strain fracture toughness, the specimen strength ratio was adopted as a comparative measure of toughness. The strength ratio increased with addition of EPDM and decreased with increasing fibre content. The work of fracture increased with EPDM content except at large fibre concentrations. The effectiveness of the impact modification was assessed with the balance between tensile modulus and unnotched impact energy as a function of fibre concentration. Examination of fracture surfaces showed twisted fibres, fibre breakage and fibre pull-out from the matrix. 41 refs. CANADA

Accession no.632370 Item 426 Polymer Engineering and Science 37, No.2, Feb.1997, p.476-83 BIOFIBRE-REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Karnani R; Krishnan M; Narayan R Michigan,State University Interfacial adhesion in PP composites containing lignocellulose (kenaf) fibres was enhanced by adding a maleic anhydride grafted PP compatibiliser to the matrix and modifying the fibre surfaces with a silane coupling agent in aqueous solution. The modified matrix and fibres were extruded to form compatibilised composites. Tests on injection moulded samples showed improved mechanical properties resulting from increased fibre/ matrix adhesion and polar interactions at the phase boundaries. 9 refs. USA

Accession no.632360

127

References and Abstracts

Item 427 Polymer Degradation and Stability 55, No.1, 1997, p.1-7 DEGRADABLE JUTE PLASTIC COMPOSITES Uddin M K; Khan M A; Ali K M I Bangladesh,Atomic Energy Commission A urethane prepolymer with an aliphatic chain was used to prepare several formulations, in the presence of plasticisers and monomers with different characteristics. Hessian cloth (a jute product) was coated with these formulations and cured with UV radiation. Tensile properties (such as strength and elongation) of the jute plastic composites formed were improved. The treated jute products (composites) were buried in soil, semi-mud, mud and water in order to study the degradability characteristics of the composite. They were found to be degradable in mud, while they did not decompose in water or soil. The composites were also treated under simulated weathering conditions by alternating sunshine and condensation and it was found that the composites were significantly degraded under these conditions. 6 refs. BANGLADESH

Accession no.621306 Item 428 Macromolecules 29, No.23, 4th Nov.1996, p.7624-6 NEW NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIALS. MICROCRYSTALLINE STARCH REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC Dufresne A; Cavaille J Y; Helbert W Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University A dispersion of starch microcrystals was obtained by acid treatment of the amorphous domain of potato starch granules, followed by washing, centrifugation and ultrasonic treatment. This colloidal microcrystalline was mixed with a latex containing a copolymer obtained by polymerising 65% w/w butyl acrylate, 34% w/w styrene, 1% acrylic acid and 1% acrylamide. The product was freeze-dried and hot pressed. Dynamic mechanical tests were performed on samples ranging from pure matrix to composites filled with 60% starch microcrystals. Storage tensile modulus versus temperature curve for pure matrix was typical of thermoplastic behaviour. Unexpectedly, Tg remained almost constant whatever the concentration of filler. Tg increased with filler content, both below and above Tg. The relaxed modulus of film containing only 30% starch at 50C above Tg was 100 times higher than that of the matrix. For 60% starch it was 1000 times higher. This reinforcing effect cannot be explained by classical models. A similar composite based on poly(hydroxybutyrate) is mentioned too. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.621239

128

Item 429 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 62, No. 9, 28th Nov. 1996, p.1347-60 KEVLAR FIBRE-EPOXY ADHESION AND ITS EFFECT ON COMPOSITE MECHANICAL AND FRACTURE PROPERTIES BY PLASMA AND CHEMICAL TREATMENT Wu S R; Sheu G S; Shyu S S Taiwan,National Central University Kevlar 49 fibres were surface-modified by ammonia, oxygen and water-plasma etching and chlorosulphonation and subsequent reaction with some reagents (glycine, deionised water, ethylenediamine, and 1-butanol) to improve the adhesion to epoxy resin. After these treatments, the changes in fibre topography, chemical composition of the fibre surfaces, and the surface functional groups introduced to the surface of fibres were identified by SEM, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and static secondary ion mass spectrometry. Interlaminar shear strength and T-peel strength between the fibre and epoxy resin, as measured by the short-beam test and T-peel test, were remarkably improved by gas plasma and chlorosulphonation (0.1% and 0.25% chlorosulphonic acid for 30 s). However, from the results of similar fracture toughness tests of treated and untreated composites, it is clear that the fibre/matrix interfacial bond strength is only a minor contributor to the fracture toughness. SEM was also used to study the surface topography of the fracture surfaces of composites in T-peel tests. It could be seen from SEM observations that the improvement of fibre/ matrix interfacial bond strength often accompanied a change in fracture mechanism. 26 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.617149 Item 430 Polymer 37, No.24, 1996, p.5421-31 MELT RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SHORT PINEAPPLE FIBRE REINFORCED LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITES George J; Janardhan R; Anand J S; Bhagawan S S; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University; Central Institute of Plastics Engineering & Technology; Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre The melt rheological properties of short pineapple fibrereinforced LDPE composites were studied as a function of fibre loading, fibre length, shear rate and temperature. Melt viscosity increased with fibre loading. Chemical treatments based on poly(methylene)-poly(phenyl) isocyanate, silane and peroxide increased the viscosity of the system by high fibre-matrix interfacial interaction. The viscosity of the system decreased with increasing temperature, but in peroxide-treated composites, viscosity was increased because of crosslinking of the composite at higher temperatures. Optical microscopy was used to

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

analyse fibre breakage during extrusion, and the morphology of the extrudates. The latter was also analysed by SEM. The melt flow index (MFI) of the composites was measured and master curves were generated using modified viscosity and shear rate function with MFI as one of the parameters. 30 refs. INDIA

Accession no.616294 Item 431 Reinforced Plastics 40, No.11, Nov.1996, p.16 STINGING NETTLES: A PROMISING REINFORCEMENT FOR PLASTICS Mercedes-Benz is now using animal hair and natural fibres in upholstery, door panels and rear shelves of its cars. The company says it is actually looking to replace glass fibre with natural fibre alternatives. Ramie yields fibres which are almost as resistant to tearing as glass, but processing proved a problem. Daimler-Benz Aerospace found a suitable technology and the material is currently being tested as a possible replacement in interior fittings for the Airbus. Various forms of polymer matrix are being explored. PU, which can be processed at a lower temperature, is promising. Daimler-Benz has developed a combined extrusion compression moulding technique to embed the natural fibre reinforcement in the polymer matrix. DAIMLER-BENZ AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.610670 Item 432 Journal of Cellular Plastics 32, No.5, Sept/Oct.1996, p.449-69 CHARACTERISATION OF MICROCELLULAR FOAMED PVC/CELLULOSIC-FIBRE COMPOSITES Matuana-Malanda L; Park C B; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University The feasibility of the production of microcellular PVC/ cellulosic-fibre composites and the effect of the fibre content on the cell morphology were studied. Emphasis is given to fibre surface treatment. 47 refs. CANADA

Accession no.608368 Item 433 Polymer Composites 17, No.4, Aug.1996, p.612-9 TENSILE BEHAVIOUR OF NANOCOMPOSITES FROM LATEX AND CELLULOSE WHISKERS Hajji P; Cavaille J Y; Favier V; Gauthier C; Vigier G GEMPPM; Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Composites comprising cellulose whiskers and styrenebutyl acrylate copolymer initially prepared by a water suspension-mixing procedure exhibited thermomechanical behaviour which was enhanced by increasing the filler content. Processing methods could be classified in ascending order of their reinforcement efficiency (extrusion, hot-pressing, evaporation) associated with a gradual decrease of the model’s L/D ratio, i.e. corresponding to a breakage and/or an orientation effect of the whiskers. The short fibre composite model of Halpin-Kardos perfectly fitted experimental composite moduli measured below Tg, whereas a significant reinforcing effect, indicating the presence of a cellulose network linked by hydrogen bonds, which could not be predicted by this model, was achieved above Tg. The formation of such networks was possible only above the whisker percolation threshold and the most developed one occurred in 6 wt % E-systems, where the apparent L/D ratio was the highest. 30 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.608128 Item 434 Polymer Composites 17, No.4, Aug.1996, p.604-11 THERMOPLASTIC NANOCOMPOSITES FILLED WITH WHEAT STRAW CELLULOSE WHISKERS. I. PROCESSING AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR Helbert W; Cavaille J Y; Dufresne A Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University Cellulose microcrystals with dimensions of about 5 nm by 150-300 nm were obtained from wheat straw. Composites with a weight fraction of cellulose ranging from 0 to 30 wt % were processed by freeze-drying and moulding a mixture of aqueous suspensions of microcrystals and styrene-butyl acrylate copolymer latex. It was found that these microcrystals, or whiskers, resulted in a significant reinforcing effect at temps. higher than the Tg of the matrix and improved the thermal stability of the composite. The relaxed modulus increased continuously with the filler content and, for a film containing 30 wt % whiskers, it was more than a thousand times higher than that of the matrix. This effect was examined with regard to theoretical calculations based on a mean field approach. It was concluded that the significant reinforcement observed was due not only to geometry and stiffness of the straw cellulose whiskers but also to the interactions of the microcrystals, their topological arrangement and the probable formation of whisker clusters within the thermoplastic matrix, the cellulose fillers probably being linked through hydrogen bonds. 43 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.608127

129

References and Abstracts

Item 435 Antec ’96. Volume II. Conference proceedings. Indianapolis, 5th-10th May 1996, p.1900-7. 012 PRODUCTION OF MICROCELLULAR FOAMED PVC/WOOD-FIBRE COMPOSITES: PROCESSING AND CELL MORPHOLOGY RELATIONSHIP Malanda L M; Park C B; Balatinecz J J Toronto,University (SPE) A microcellular polymer is a foamed plastic characterised by a cell and a fully grown cell size in the range of 0.1 to 10 micron. The plastic/wood fibre composites utilise wood fibres as a reinforcing filler in the polymer matrix and are known to be advantageous over the neat polymers in terms of the materials cost and some mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength. These wood fibre composites are microcellular processed to create a new class of materials with unique properties. Recent studies have demonstrated the feasibility of developing microcellular structures in PVC/wood fibre composites. In this research, the effects of the materials and the processing conditions on the cell morphology of foamed PVC/wood-fibre composites are studied with a view to establishing the process-structure relationships for these materials. Each step of microcellular PVC/wood fibre composites processing is addressed including: the surface treatment of the wood fibre; the mixing of polymer and wood fibre; the manufacture of the composites; the saturation of the composites with gas; the microcellular foaming of the composites; and the cell morphology characterisation of foamed composites. The experimental results indicate that the cellular morphologies of the foamed PVC/wood fibre composites are a strong function of the content of plasticiser and the surface treatment of wood-fibre as well as the gas saturation and foaming conditions. 38 refs. CANADA

Accession no.607202 Item 436 Advanced Composites Letters 5, No.3, 1996, p.81-5 NATURAL FIBRE MAT-REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES BASED ON FLAX FIBRES AND POLYPROPYLENE Heijenrath R; Peijs T Eindhoven,University of Technology Natural fibre mat-reinforced thermoplastics based on flax fibres and a PP matrix were manufactured using a filmstacking method. The influence of fibre content on stiffness and strength was investigated and the results compared with data for glass mat-reinforced thermoplastics, including the influence of improved fibre/ matrix adhesion as a result of the use of maleic anhydridegrafted PP. In addition, unidirectional and random flax mat composites based on epoxy resin were manufactured

130

as reference materials. The results obtained indicated that natural fibre mat-reinforced thermoplastics could be used for low cost engineering materials, especially when a high stiffness per unit weight was desirable. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.595393 Item 437 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 60, No.6, 9th May 1996, p.919-22 X-RAY LINE PROFILE ANALYSIS IN ALKALITREATED RAMIE FIBRE Sao K P; Samantaray B K; Bhattacherjee S Indian Institute of Technology A systematic study is reported of lateral crystallite size and paracrystalline distortion parameter in ramie fibres treated with various concentrations of alkali at room temperature and at 0C respectively. The conversion mechanism from cellulose I to cellulose II lattice in the light of changes in both size and distortion of the crystallites is also discussed. 22 refs. INDIA

Accession no.588297 Item 438 Acta Polymerica 47, No.4, April 1996, p.177-80 GRAFT COPOLYMERISATION ONTO WOOD FIBRES. OZONE-ACTIVATED HYDROPHOBISATION OF PRETREATED WOOD PULP Daneault C; Sain M M; Lavoie C Quebec,University The effect of various pretreatments on grafting efficiency was investigated. Grafting of thermomechanical pulp was feasible under all the pretreatment conditions studied. Exposure of thermomechanical pulp to ozone followed by grafting by the xanthation method further degraded the cellulose and decreased graft yield. Graft yield could be improved by introducing chemical crosslinks to the cellulose backbone before or after ozone exposure. 6 refs. CANADA

Accession no.588231 Item 439 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.236, March 1996, p.129-38 German EFFECT OF COUPLING AGENTS ON THE MOISTURE ABSORPTION OF NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTICS Bledzki A K; Gassan J Institut fuer Werkstofftechnik Details are given of improvements in mechanical properties of jute fibre-reinforced epoxy resins by using

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

a silane coupling agent and an optimal predrying technique. The influence of moisture on composite properties is discussed. 11 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.587669 Item 440 Antec ’95. Vol.II. Conference Proceedings. Boston, Ma., 7th-11th May 1995, p.2086-90. 012 COMPOSITES FROM JUTE- AND KENAFREINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE Schneider J P; Karmaker A C US,Dept.of Agriculture,Forest Products Laboratory; Connecticut,University (SPE) Composites were prepared from PP and chopped jute and kenaf fibres by melt mixing in a thermokinetic mixer, and the mechanical properties of injection moulded specimens were determined. Designed experiments were used to investigate the effects of fibre type and content, maleated PP coupling agent and melt flow index of PP on the mechanical properties. 20 refs. USA

Accession no.571285 Item 441 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.233, Nov.1995, p.149-66 STEAM-EXPLODED WHEAT STRAW FIBRES AS REINFORCING MATERIAL FOR POLYPROPYLENE-BASED MATERIALS: CHARACTERISATION AND PROPERTIES Avella M; Bozzi C; dell’Erba R; Focher B; Marzetti A; Martuscelli E Istituto di Ricerca e Tecnologia delle Materie Plastiche; Consorzio sulle Applicazioni dei Materiali Plastici e Corrosione; Stazione Sperimentale per la Cellulosa Composites of wheat straw fibres with PP and maleic anhydride modified PP were prepared. Before mixing with PP matrices the wheat straw fibres were subjected to a steam explosion process that induces morphological and structural changes in lignocellulosic materials. Such changes are able to enhance the interactions with the thermoplastic matrix. Thermal, mechanical and morphological behaviour of the two series of composites was investigated and compared; the resulting interfacial adhesion was examined by SEM and infra-red FTIR spectroscopy. Resistance to water of the composites was also tested by swelling measurements to assess the strength of the interphase between the PP and the exploded straw fibres. 18 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.569358

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 442 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 58, No.3, 17th Oct.1995, p.597-612 SHORT SISAL FIBRE-REINFORCED STYRENEBUTADIENE RUBBER COMPOSITES Kumar R P; Amma M L G; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University; Rubber Research Institute of India The effect of fibre length, fibre distribution, fibre orientation, fibre concentration and bonding agent on the physical and mechanical properties of short sisal fibre-reinforced SBR composites was investigated. Fibre length of 6mm was found to be optimum for the best balance of properties. Composites containing longitudinally oriented fibres showed superior mechanical performance to those with transversely oriented fibres. Fibre-matrix adhesion was analysed by SEM and anisotropic swelling measurements. The adhesion between fibre and rubber was enhanced by use of resorcinol-hexamethylene tetramine bonding system. 47 refs. INDIA

Accession no.563392 Item 443 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 34, No.5, 1995, p.729-92 STUDIES ON JUTE COMPOSITES - A LITERATURE REVIEW Mohanty A K; Misra M Ravenshaw College A detailed review is given of jute composites, particularly structure and chemical composition of jute fibres; jute fibre reinforced thermosetting polymer composites; jute fibre reinforced thermoplastic polymer composites; jute fibre reinforced rubber composites; and cost aspects and applications of jute products. 327 refs. INDIA

Accession no.561490 Item 444 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 57, No.7, 15th Aug.1995, p.843-54 SHORT PINEAPPLE-LEAF-FIBREREINFORCED LDPE COMPOSITES George J; Bhagawan S S; Prabhakaran N; Thomas S Mahatma Gandhi,University; Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre Short pineapple-leaf-fibre-reinforced LDPE composites were prepared by melt mixing and solution mixing methods. Tensile properties were compared. The influence of fibre length, fibre loading and orientation on the mechanical properties were also evaluated. 51 refs. INDIA

Accession no.558784

131

References and Abstracts

Item 445 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 1, No.2, June 1995, p.103-8 BIOFIBRES AS REINFORCING FILLERS IN THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Schneider J P; Myers G E; Clemons C M; English B W US,Dept.of Agriculture,Forest Service A waste wood composite (mixture of plywood, particleboard, and fibreboard), kenaf core, a waste jutepolyester composite panel, and waste newspaper biofibre materials were compared with wood flour for their ability to act as reinforcing fillers in melt blended composites with PP as the matrix polymer. The composites were prepared either by extrusion or by blending in a high intensity thermokinetic mixer (Kmixer), and mechanical properties were determined on injection moulded specimens. 11 refs.

composites are reported. A composite with 30 wt% fibre, had a flexural strength of 97 MPa, and modulus of elasticity in bending of 6.5 GPa. Fracture toughness of the composite was about 1.6 times greater than the polyester matrix. 4 refs. AUSTRALIA

Accession no.550168

Accession no.558189

Item 448 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie Vol.225, Feb.1995, p.37-49 German FIBRE-MATRIX ADHESION IN COMPOSITES OF A THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX AND FLAX. II. APPLICATION OF FUNCTIONALISED POLYPROPYLENE Mieck K P; Nechwatal A; Knobelsdorf C Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & KunststoffForschung eV

Item 446 Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 34, No.5, May 1995, p.1889-96 RENEWABLE AGRICULTURAL FIBRES AS REINFORCING FILLERS IN PLASTICS: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF KENAF FIBRE-POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITES Sanadi A R; Caulfield D F; Jacobson R E; Rowell R M Wisconsin,University; US,Forest Products Laboratory

The adhesion of flax fibres to a PP matrix in flax/PP composites was improved by pretreatment of the fibre with PPs grafted with maleic anhydride(MAH). Prior to composite preparation, the flax fibres were loaded with the coupling agent. Shear strength and tear strength were improved by 100% and 25%, respectively. They depended on degree of grafting and average molar mass of the PPMAH graft copolymers. Comparable results were achieved by embedding untreated flax fibres in a PP matrix modified with MAH. 18 refs.

USA

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) is a fast-growing annual growth plant that is harvested for its bast fibres. These fibres have excellent specific properties and have potential to be outstanding fillers in plastics. The fibres and PP were blended in a thermokinetic mixer and then injection moulded, with the fibre weight fractions varying to 60%. A maleated PP was used to improve the interaction and adhesion between the non-polar matrix and the polar lignocellulosic fibres. Specific tensile and flexural moduli of a 50 wt% (39% vol%) of kenaf-PP composite compare favourably with a 40 wt% glass fibre-PP injection moulded composite. 23 refs. USA

Accession no.551540 Item 447 Journal of Materials Science Letters 14, No.7, 1st April 1995, p.508-10 BANANA FIBRE STRANDS REINFORCED POLYESTER COMPOSITES Zhu W H; Tobias B C; Coutts R S P Victoria,University of Technology; CSIRO Fabrication techniques and the physical and mechanical properties of banana fibre strand reinforced polyester

132

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.547367 Item 449 Antec ’94. Conference Proceedings. San Francisco, Ca., 1st-5th May 1994, Vol.II, p.1474-5. 012 STUDY OF THE PREFERENTIAL CRYSTALLISATION OF POLYPROPYLENE ON THE SURFACE OF WOOD FIBRES Wang G; Harrison I R Pennsylvania,State University (SPE) DSC and optical microscopy were used to study the effectiveness of silane and acrylic polymer fibre surface treatments in inducing the preferential crystallisation of PP on the surface of wood fibres in PP/wood fibre composites. It was shown that wood fibres, whether treated or not, would nucleate crystallisation. However, untreated fibres showed less tightly packed spherulites compared with the treated fibres. Silane treated fibres exhibited the most complete spherulite encapsulation and more uniform spherulitic structure. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.544339

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 450 Modern Plastics International 23, No.5, May 1994, p.69 NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES ARE LIGHT AND STRONG BASF has made available test quantities of mat reinforced PP that contain sisal or flax instead of the usual glass fibres, designated NMTs (Natural Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastics). The company says that sisal fibres can be produced at around 20% of the cost of glass fibres; details of the typical properties of NMTs compared with those of GRP are given. BASF AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.512831

Item 453 Journal of Materials Science 18,No.5,May 1983,p.1443-54 ALKALI TREATMENT OF COIR FIBRES FOR COIR-POLYESTER COMPOSITES Prasad S V;Pavithran C;Rohatgi P K Coir fibres extracted from coconut husk were subjected to an alkali treatment with NaOH with a view to improving their wettability with polyester resin. The effect of alkali treatment on the microstructure, surface topography and tensile strength of the fibres was investigated and fibre/ matrix interfacial strength was determined from fibre pullout tests. Flexural, impact and ultrasonic properties of coir/polyester composites containing varying volume fractions of untreated and alkali treated fibres were also studied. 11 refs. INDIA

Item 451 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 42,No.3,5th Feb.1991,p.609-20 NATURE OF ADHESION IN COMPOSITES OF MODIFIED CELLULOSE FIBRES AND POLYPROPYLENE Felix J M;Gatenholm P CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Accession no.232496

Surface studies of cellulose fibres treated with a maleic anhydride-polypropylene copolymer were carried out in order to investigate the nature of adhesion between cellulose fibres and the copolymer. Techniques such as ESCA and contact angle measurements were used to determine the functioning of the coupling agent on the molecular level and Fourier transform IR spectroscopy was used to investigate the nature of adhesion. 22 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.420094 Item 452 Polymer Communications 27,No.5,May 1986,p.157-60 ADHESION OF SISAL FIBRE-POLYESTER SYSTEM Chand N;Rohatgi P K INDIAN REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY The effect of alkali (NaOH) treatment on the tensile strength and adhesion of sisal fibres to polyester resin was investigated. Adhesion was determined from pullout tests and SEM was employed to examine surface topography of both the treated and untreated fibres. It was found that treatment of the fibres with a 5% aqueous solution of NaOh at room temp. resulted in fibres having increased wettability. Treatment for 90h gave rise to improved tensile strength and adhesion of the fibres to the resin. 12 refs. INDIA

Accession no.311129

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

133

References and Abstracts

134

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

Subject Index A ABACA FIBRE, 24 389 ABRASION RESISTANCE, 174 175 ABS, 12 109 115 146 157 176 201 309 322 408 ABSORPTION, 204 269 344 357 363 ACACIA, 1 ACCELERATED AGEING, 166 304 ACETYLATION, 1 37 47 217 263 350 422 ACID RESISTANCE, 55 99 ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES, 31 203 312 322 366 ACRYLATION, 209 217 ACRYLONITRILE COPOLYMER, 38 47 100 217 285 296 348 ACTIVATION ENERGY, 48 69 80 281 326 327 382 ACYLATION, 101 ADDITIVE, 16 18 44 52 56 59 83 98 105 115 122 136 137 138 140 146 147 149 160 161 162 163 174 189 225 226 234 242 246 264 270 280 297 300 332 343 356 370 371 374 384 401 404 425 426 427 434 440 449 ADHESION, 4 5 14 38 44 59 64 67 76 83 87 100 103 104 114 170 194 213 214 216 252 266 272 278 313 316 320 321 356 361 362 379 391 392 400 410 417 421 426 439 446 448 451 452 453 ADHESION PROMOTER, 94 183 212 ADHESION PROMOTION, 34 206 311 359 395 426 429 ADHESIVE, 191 203 308 317 ADSORPTION, 267 354 AEROPLANE, 45 52 57 175 431 AEROSPACE APPLICATION, 31 52 175 186 AGAVE FIBRE, 25 402 AGAVE FOURCROYDES, 399 AGEING, 94 104 107 116 276 299 304 312 392 397 AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION, 117 AGRICULTURAL WASTE, 280 399 402

ALGAE, 353 ALKALI, 5 13 37 54 72 100 170 216 349 350 370 422 452 453 ALKALI TREATMENT, 26 43 89 339 359 437 ALKALINE DEGRADATION, 43 ALOE FIBRE, 116 ANALYSIS, 5 8 10 11 28 37 38 54 60 63 82 83 85 88 100 105 114 128 170 194 198 205 207 212 214 217 241 269 314 334 343 351 352 356 365 389 405 406 409 425 426 429 440 441 449 452 APPEARANCE, 36 115 137 201 APPLICATION, 7 15 16 18 29 31 33 36 45 49 52 53 56 57 59 83 93 94 102 103 108 109 110 111 115 116 117 118 126 127 137 138 139 143 144 146 155 156 157 164 175 176 180 183 186 190 196 201 202 203 209 210 236 246 247 248 256 257 259 262 265 266 272 283 293 308 309 317 318 322 335 347 358 360 362 363 366 375 376 380 381 385 392 408 411 414 431 443 AQUEOUS, 277 348 415 434 AQUEOUS SOLUTION, 43 285 426 452 ARAMID FIBRE, 8 94 103 271 272 429 ASPECT RATIO, 54 67 172 193 350 426 ASPEN FIBRE, 166 398 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY, 106 194 314 ATTENUATED TOTAL REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, 10 91 AUTOCLAVE MOULDING, 57 AUTOMATION, 57 333 AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION, 16 29 31 36 45 49 53 56 57 83 108 109 110 111 117 118 126 127 143 144 155 156 164 175 183 186 202 203 210 247 248 256 257 259 265 266 283 308 309 322 335 362 363 375 376 380 381 385 408 411 414 431 450

B BACK INJECTION MOULDING, 109

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

BAGASSE, 119 140 254 280 BALSA, 59 BAMBOO, 50 62 73 358 391 BAMBOO FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 99 358 391 BANANA FIBRE, 5 388 399 402 447 BASTING, 192 BENDING, 78 92 165 249 252 260 286 296 417 447 BENDING STRENGTH, 121 292 406 BINDER, 18 101 146 164 292 BIOCOMPOSITE, 13 15 36 47 64 65 89 108 127 206 266 335 353 BIODEGRADABILITY, 26 36 90 223 291 BIODETERIORATION, 24 26 30 36 40 47 52 78 89 90 94 96 103 105 106 108 110 123 135 141 146 176 206 208 223 254 261 263 286 291 296 298 304 321 329 346 352 353 363 364 365 383 401 407 431 BIOMATERIAL, 36 298 335 445 BIOPOLYMER, 76 108 127 180 234 286 438 BLEACHING, 38 47 88 89 170 321 BLEND, 95 99 120 161 163 183 201 203 218 266 293 335 356 378 385 386 404 425 426 446 BLENDING, 61 67 93 125 425 BLOWING AGENT, 115 133 136 153 157 176 246 343 416 BOARD, 196 406 BOAT, 175 BODY PANEL, 31 57 381 BOILING WATER, 166 BOND STRENGTH, 429 453 BONDING, 23 27 203 252 308 363 386 426 440 BONDING AGENT, 44 62 73 168 287 442 BREAKAGE, 54 425 430 BREAKING STRENGTH, 16 391 BREAKING STRESS, 158 178 198 BRITTLE FAILURE, 425 BRITTLENESS, 183 362 BUILDING APPLICATION, 16 18 33 45 52 53 59 93 102 110 115 117 137 138 146 157 176 190 196 201 236 246 262 293 317 318 347 358 360

135

Subject Index

BUILDING PANEL, 124 BULK MOULDING COMPOUND, 94 117 303 335 BUS, 31 BUTADIENE-STYRENE COPOLYMER, 116 168 287 392 442 BUTYL ACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 424 428 433 434

C CABLE, 123 CALENDERING, 353 CAR TYRE, 112 122 CARBON DIOXIDE, 94 97 134 160 202 423 CARBON FIBRE, 52 CARBON FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 45 57 145 180 CARPET, 116 CASEIN POLYMER, 208 CASHEW NUTSHELL LIQUID, 406 CAST, 180 329 CASTING, 45 172 424 CAUSTIC SODA, 5 26 43 114 121 216 221 251 321 349 370 395 405 415 430 CELLULAR MATERIAL, 52 71 81 115 133 134 137 138 153 157 160 164 179 203 204 228 246 305 308 328 331 343 373 380 394 414 416 423 CELLULOSE, 29 32 41 51 69 82 90 91 94 101 103 116 121 123 129 131 165 172 175 223 241 252 254 255 282 298 319 329 352 356 386 392 394 401 408 413 424 426 430 437 438 CELLULOSE ACETATE, 95 105 197 CELLULOSE ACETATE BUTYRATE, 350 CELLULOSE ESTER, 350 CELLULOSE FIBRE, 29 32 51 90 94 123 129 131 252 255 319 329 352 356 392 394 401 424 426 430 432 433 434 451 CELLULOSE XANTHATE, 438 CELLULOSIC, 68 392 CENTRIFUGAL CAST, 180 CENTRIFUGATION, 45 57 CHAIR, 227 CHARACTERISATION, 1 5 39 43 75 88 105 106 130 141 144 165 194 199 200 206 207 250 261

136

392 395 414 441 CHARPY, 2 82 130 356 391 CHEMICAL BONDING, 283 292 398 438 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, 272 443 CHEMICAL MODIFICATION, 1 10 13 24 35 37 38 39 43 47 51 75 83 87 89 100 101 131 157 165 185 198 209 215 217 251 263 270 272 282 285 288 294 296 307 350 356 378 384 392 395 402 404 406 413 420 422 425 426 429 438 443 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 99 251 378 422 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE, 55 99 251 422 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, 26 30 41 272 398 419 426 430 CHEMICAL TREATMENT, 83 430 CHLORINATED POLYETHYLENE, 200 273 CHLOROSULFONATION, 429 CHOPPED FIBRE, 140 183 254 440 CHOPPED STRAND, 13 164 411 CHROMATOGRAPHY, 76 141 243 279 CLADDING, 127 146 191 262 CLEAN ROOM, 109 CO-ROTATING, 149 355 CO-ROTATING EXTRUDER, 152 246 360 COATED FIBRE, 449 COATING, 172 210 217 247 284 331 417 COCONUT FIBRE, 115 202 227 263 325 414 COCONUT SHELL, 453 COIR, 198 453 COIR FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 89 170 453 COLOUR, 93 184 347 COMMERCIAL INFORMATION, 93 96 109 117 186 408 COMMERCIALISATION, 59 93 COMPATIBILISER, 2 4 15 26 27 34 35 44 70 114 120 123 141 149 150 151 163 166 185 199 218 233 246 288 297 307 332 371 372 391 392 396 400 404 426 COMPATIBILITY, 19 39 41 47 59 75 119 120 157 161 172 185 206 252 324 384 426 COMPOSITION, 2 26 50 133 134

150 151 153 159 199 200 207 253 317 318 366 COMPOSTING, 110 127 COMPOUNDING, 27 32 49 51 56 67 83 95 102 125 145 149 151 152 153 189 262 293 300 325 335 350 361 362 372 418 425 426 432 440 COMPRESSION, 63 156 165 270 384 COMPRESSION MOULDING, 31 45 49 52 78 85 117 142 145 147 164 167 186 187 203 247 266 312 335 353 357 362 380 411 414 431 432 COMPRESSION PROPERTIES, 6 46 71 216 228 367 COMPRESSION SET, 162 COMPRESSION STRENGTH, 71 216 COMPUTER SIMULATION, 347 365 CONCRETE, 116 175 CONSUMPTION, 45 52 57 111 190 246 CONTINUOUS EXTRUSION, 109 136 366 CONTINUOUS MOULDING, 56 COOLING, 35 61 115 125 146 175 201 271 315 COOLING RATE, 22 188 441 COPOLYESTER, 346 CORE, 52 115 175 333 358 411 445 CORN FIBRE, 93 CORN STARCH, 97 CORONA DISCHARGE, 260 CORROSION RESISTANCE, 52 175 CORRUGATED, 14 COST, 52 56 57 64 83 90 109 115 117 118 137 147 155 156 157 180 181 202 203 209 234 246 272 316 322 335 358 363 366 383 408 411 414 443 450 COTTON, 63 115 186 202 231 248 COUNTER-ROTATING EXTRUDER, 246 360 COUPLING AGENT, 2 15 16 18 21 37 40 50 65 70 74 78 83 92 94 98 114 115 123 131 153 154 163 174 194 213 239 246 249 252 253 263 264 267 268 278 283 292 332 338 356 359 361 362 372 374 378 379 410 417 426 439 440 448 449 451 CRACKING, 11 14 147 175 178 210 340 425 440

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

CREEP, 48 150 205 326 338 389 390 CREEP RESISTANCE, 115 150 CROSSLINKING, 39 44 120 132 209 261 419 430 CRYSTALLINITY, 27 40 43 67 72 83 105 148 150 188 271 311 356 370 440 441 449 CRYSTALLISATION, 11 35 40 105 188 271 281 315 352 449 CURAUA, 414 CURE TIME, 50 73 87 264 CURING, 44 50 73 85 87 94 158 174 251 264 316 374 419 427 CURING AGENT, 25 120 CYANOETHYLATION, 37 38 47 89 100 198 282 CYCLE TIME, 109 159 247

D DAMAGE, 77 147 175 178 340 353 DAMPING, 2 45 57 213 305 349 DASHBOARD, 155 204 DEBONDING, 340 DECK, 191 196 246 293 DECKING, 18 59 93 115 DEFENCE APPLICATION, 52 DEFORMATION, 140 235 254 287 425 DEGRADABLE, 26 40 47 52 78 89 103 105 108 110 123 135 146 176 206 208 254 261 291 298 321 329 346 353 363 364 365 383 401 407 427 431 DEGRADATION, 43 47 89 94 104 106 107 116 157 166 171 184 193 261 263 272 276 290 291 299 304 321 351 353 392 397 DEGRADATION RATE, 184 291 DELIGNIFICATION, 127 DEMAND, 45 53 57 180 191 196 362 DENSITY, 29 31 32 39 56 57 58 71 81 83 94 103 115 117 118 127 128 133 134 136 137 144 147 173 177 180 191 204 256 303 312 320 335 356 363 381 398 423 DESIGN, 12 14 18 93 115 118 201 347 354 DIE, 115 125 146 176 191 201 246 386 DIE DESIGN, 347 DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS, 4 11 27 35 40 43 67 70 75 85 105 114 148 188

241 269 271 281 282 311 314 343 352 406 419 449 DIMENSIONAL STABILITY, 18 57 83 93 118 210 247 282 304 344 DIRECT EXTRUSION, 246 366 DISCOLOURATION, 115 304 DOMESTIC EQUIPMENT, 31 111 DOOR, 31 57 138 155 164 180 201 203 318 333 DOOR FRAME, 360 DOOR PANEL, 31 57 156 247 283 292 335 375 431 DRYING, 59 103 146 153 177 201 246 257 293 317 331 418 439 DUCTILITY, 70 356 426 DURABILITY, 107 304 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS, 37 40 60 80 82 105 258 329 332 398 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 28 80 81 135 172 241 255 270 277 371 428 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL THERMAL ANALYSIS, 28 147 260 398 400 DYNAMIC MODULI, 213 278 340 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES, 28 80 81 135 172 241 255 270 277 371 428 DYNAMIC VULCANISATION, 3 132

E E-GLASS, 83 E-MODULUS, 23 25 51 60 67 120 121 132 144 178 218 254 318 326 327 340 362 383 395 ECOBALANCE, 156 272 ECONOMIC INFORMATION, 18 45 52 53 57 97 111 116 117 157 180 190 191 196 201 225 246 265 347 362 366 408 ELASTIC MODULUS, 23 25 51 60 67 120 121 132 144 178 212 218 252 254 303 318 319 326 327 340 353 355 356 361 362 381 383 395 ELASTICITY, 51 62 94 116 283 287 292 447 ELASTOMER, 3 39 44 50 55 62 73 87 97 104 112 116 122 128 132 161 162 163 168 174 198 199 218 229 232 233 261 264 281 287 302 307 333 358 374 400 407 408 425 428 442 443

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

ELECTRICAL APPLICATION, 52 183 ELECTRON MICROGRAPH, 1 2 25 26 194 430 ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 4 5 8 23 24 37 38 40 43 54 58 67 75 82 85 87 100 104 107 114 128 130 131 141 165 170 173 182 187 198 205 206 217 229 230 254 274 282 286 287 299 311 314 326 351 357 377 408 423 ELECTRONIC APPLICATION, 7 52 183 ELONGATION, 51 104 120 362 369 373 381 383 417 427 440 ELONGATION AT BREAK, 25 44 58 73 78 89 116 120 128 161 162 163 200 217 234 239 301 336 356 372 395 400 404 425 426 ENCAPSULATION, 115 246 449 ENERGY ABSORPTION, 45 57 63 83 299 312 396 446 ENGINE, 31 ENGINE COVER, 127 156 202 ENGINEERING APPLICATION, 13 45 57 66 94 380 436 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, 36 96 97 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, 15 36 203 210 272 380 ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY, 16 47 53 89 94 96 117 175 202 210 265 292 317 322 335 346 411 EPOXIDISED SOYBEAN OIL, 68 209 EPOXY RESIN, 25 37 60 63 64 66 77 94 99 116 126 154 172 175 216 245 255 260 295 305 306 314 316 320 328 339 340 349 383 392 429 436 439 443 EQUIPMENT, 115 202 248 ESTERIFICATION, 35 39 101 251 270 288 402 413 ETHYLENE COPOLYMER, 27 149 150 151 163 199 404 ETHYLENE-PROPYLENEDIENE TERPOLYMER, 3 162 185 404 408 425 ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATE COPOLYMER, 119 140 254 EXTRUDATE, 54 61 274 287 430 EXTRUDER, 12 42 56 59 95 102 109 115 125 145 146 149 151 152 153 176 183 196 246 262 293 347 355 360 372 377 418

137

Subject Index

EXTRUSION, 12 42 54 59 65 83 93 109 115 117 133 136 146 149 153 157 176 179 183 186 187 189 190 191 196 201 206 207 246 262 268 284 293 297 300 303 317 318 343 358 360 362 365 366 380 386 426 430 431 433 445 EXTRUSION BLOWING, 153 EXTRUSION COMPOUNDING, 83 109 145 151 152 153 377 426 EXTRUSION COMPRESSION MOULDING, 431 EXTRUSION MIXING, 83 149 187 189 300 426

F FABRIC, 45 211 222 282 321 363 FABRICATION, 47 63 89 96 447 FAILURE, 1 37 58 63 77 82 84 327 350 377 381 425 429 440 446 FALLING WEIGHT, 82 FATIGUE, 44 45 72 178 213 264 278 410 FEEDING, 31 59 61 146 176 201 293 FENCING, 18 FIBRE ALIGNMENT, 64 FIBRE DIAMETER, 83 FIBRE DISTRIBUTION, 25 72 326 442 FIBRE LENGTH, 21 36 60 83 88 94 135 152 164 206 214 274 301 326 342 385 387 397 426 430 442 FIBRE MAT, 147 335 379 FIBRE ORIENTATION, 36 45 57 63 83 98 168 231 301 327 342 353 362 379 381 397 433 442 FIBRE TREATMENT, 15 36 40 67 88 89 135 206 247 326 406 430 FIBRE VOLUME, 36 206 FIBRE-REINFORCED RUBBER, 50 62 73 168 229 232 FIBREBOARD, 110 354 398 445 FIBROUS FILLER, 42 43 119 140 146 150 151 152 159 169 174 184 198 200 250 253 280 332 370 372 395 398 425 441 446 447 449 FILAMENT WINDING, 45 52 57 63 FILLER, 1 3 12 18 35 42 43 44 52 61 68 71 74 75 79 87 90 91 105 112 114 115 117 119 120 122 123 128 136 137 138 140 146 147

138

149 150 151 152 153 157 159 160 161 162 163 169 172 174 176 179 182 184 189 191 195 198 199 200 201 225 226 234 235 241 242 244 250 253 254 258 264 270 280 288 293 307 330 332 345 355 366 370 372 374 378 384 386 395 398 401 404 409 425 428 434 445 449 FILLER CONTENT, 50 62 71 87 90 102 146 157 162 163 270 360 433 434 FILM, 109 141 172 203 204 275 336 381 401 412 434 436 449 FIRE RESISTANCE, 261 266 FLAKEBOARD, 354 FLAME PROOFING, 33 191 FLAME RESISTANCE, 222 FLAME RETARDANCE, 33 191 FLAMMABILITY, 33 110 167 222 246 312 431 FLAX, 9 31 33 40 45 46 53 69 86 94 103 113 117 118 126 167 169 175 186 192 202 209 248 249 253 265 266 320 335 361 379 380 408 414 419 436 448 450 FLAX FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 9 21 22 31 33 40 45 46 49 57 82 84 94 98 113 139 142 147 167 177 183 188 194 208 209 211 212 214 253 257 278 283 295 313 334 339 341 361 362 387 403 FLEECE, 380 FLEXIBILITY, 71 172 175 419 FLEXURAL MODULUS, 1 16 24 45 51 83 94 135 166 199 250 303 325 334 356 371 390 398 425 440 446 FLEXURAL STRENGTH, 1 16 18 24 45 47 58 72 89 94 103 115 135 138 144 150 158 159 166 170 181 182 245 250 269 278 291 303 340 356 362 363 396 415 425 440 447 FLOOR, 124 176 284 FOAM, 52 71 81 115 133 134 137 138 153 157 160 164 179 203 204 228 305 308 328 331 343 373 380 394 414 423 432 435 FOAMING AGENT, 115 133 136 153 157 176 246 343 416 FOOTWEAR, 75 FORMING, 144 175 385 409 FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY, 1 4 5 10 43 70 78 154 184 198

251 267 285 286 326 413 415 419 420 422 441 FRACTOGRAPHY, 182 426 441 FRACTURE, 27 31 58 62 72 154 165 182 218 221 314 340 419 425 FRACTURE MORPHOLOGY, 5 11 17 27 40 54 114 128 131 132 136 147 179 188 205 211 258 261 267 271 274 314 343 349 370 372 373 392 393 400 404 418 419 421 FRACTURE SURFACE, 37 73 128 209 217 307 346 396 425 426 429 430 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS, 2 130 189 258 425 429 447 FRAGMENTATION, 22 48 188 359 FUNCTIONALISATION, 49 114 426 448 FUNCTIONALISED, 16 83 FUNGAL RESISTANCE, 304 FURNITURE, 124 176 222 227 246 254 333

G GLASS FIBRE, 24 31 52 116 272 299 335 356 366 379 414 GLASS FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 20 31 32 45 57 58 63 82 83 94 107 109 113 145 147 164 170 171 175 180 182 186 202 210 211 214 215 220 248 265 271 289 300 303 305 308 313 322 325 335 337 356 363 366 375 380 381 403 411 414 431 446 GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, 66 68 80 83 87 103 105 135 281 360 398 419 428 433 434 GRAFT, 89 130 252 253 285 307 311 443 GRAFT COPOLYMER, 2 150 151 185 199 212 217 253 290 296 356 410 426 436 448 GRAFT COPOLYMERISATION, 38 100 106 170 285 290 348 356 426 438 GRAFT POLYMERISATION, 4 47 141 198 GRAFTING, 89 130 252 253 285 307 311 356 392 443 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 10 23 35 165 269 282 285 286 314 343

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

GROWTH RATE, 45 53 57 111 180 191 196

H HAND LAY-UP, 38 45 52 57 383 HARDNESS, 50 58 73 87 90 128 146 161 162 174 264 280 288 297 306 367 399 402 HEAT AGEING, 104 HEAT DEGRADATION, 27 29 35 55 66 67 69 105 149 152 167 258 290 299 329 351 362 408 HEAT INSULATION, 110 117 224 308 347 HEAT RESISTANCE, 10 31 55 66 76 80 83 104 111 148 281 285 290 312 350 356 361 431 HEAT TREATMENT, 37 88 121 HEATING, 45 49 116 126 146 418 HEMP, 26 31 43 45 53 57 68 86 94 111 117 118 175 186 202 203 209 215 219 226 244 248 265 266 283 303 309 311 320 335 399 402 408 411 414 419 HENEQUEN FIBRE, 13 359 HESSIAN, 427 HIBISCUS CANNABINUS, 383 HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE, 12 16 17 67 70 76 93 115 149 150 151 153 176 187 196 207 233 236 250 258 324 352 359 366 377 386 415 HOT PRESS MOULD, 415 HOT PRESSING, 73 433 HUMIDITY, 304 398 HYBRID, 15 58 107 182 235 246 289 325 337 363 389 HYBRID COMPOSITE, 13 20 82 157 170 171 183 276 HYDROGEN BOND, 105 172 433 434 HYDROGEN BONDING, 4 108 255 HYDROLYSIS, 329 426 HYDROPHILIC, 40 41 67 172 208 217 252 392 HYDROPHOBIC, 40 67 172 217 252 270 422 438 HYGROSCOPIC, 76 HYGROTHERMAL AGEING, 173

I IMMERSION, 3 417 443 IMPACT, 204 263 IMPACT ENERGY, 83 178 425

426 440 IMPACT MODIFIER, 130 134 160 183 200 273 360 404 425 IMPACT RESISTANCE, 8 34 56 118 126 178 200 250 253 265 283 292 335 IMPACT STRENGTH, 1 2 23 26 57 64 65 70 78 81 82 83 85 94 130 150 151 159 166 170 183 185 187 189 199 200 203 214 218 230 240 250 253 278 286 288 299 303 312 319 356 362 372 375 383 391 394 396 398 400 404 423 425 426 440 IMPREGNATION, 13 15 45 57 65 106 121 142 211 214 257 331 359 406 IN-MOULD LAMINATING, 335 IN-SITU POLYMERISATION, 75 369 INFRARED SPECTRA, 1 24 30 41 75 91 148 217 285 311 395 413 INITIATOR, 75 285 356 426 INJECTION COMPRESSION MOULDING, 49 INJECTION MOULD, 440 INJECTION MOULDED, 445 446 INJECTION MOULDING, 11 21 27 31 45 65 83 86 95 98 103 109 110 111 117 135 176 189 197 233 265 266 297 303 312 317 318 355 356 361 362 363 365 396 408 411 418 423 425 426 INJECTION MOULDING MACHINE, 31 109 333 INJECTION PRESSURE, 425 440 INSULATION, 31 110 117 123 224 308 322 347 INTERFACE, 1 70 189 194 276 392 395 INTERFACIAL ADHESION, 5 14 34 51 72 73 78 83 87 88 105 106 147 148 168 177 188 208 212 213 214 218 252 297 326 340 346 350 354 356 387 391 397 400 404 426 430 436 441 442 448 452 453 INTERFACIAL BONDING, 23 218 395 396 429 440 INTERFACIAL DEBONDING, 23 INTERFACIAL INTERACTION, 23 35 37 70 105 430 INTERFACIAL PROPERTIES, 4 22 23 27 35 37 41 47 70 77 105 106 188 217 278 279 287 297 321 384 430 439 INTERFACIAL SHEAR

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

STRENGTH, 14 21 359 387 INTERFACIAL STRENGTH, 68 307 INTERLAMINAR PROPERTIES, 9 177 INTERLAMINAR SHEAR, 9 177 429 INTERPHASE, 40 278 305 441 INTERPHASE PROPERTIES, 35 ISOCYANATE, 94 106 326 327 IZOD, 83 130 189 398 425 426 440

J JOINT VENTURE, 93 109 117 186 201 322 335 JUTE, 43 45 94 103 117 175 186 201 245 251 265 266 282 290 291 299 311 321 340 349 364 370 406 410 412 439 440 443 445 JUTE FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 28 45 60 72 78 88 92 144 148 213 221 231 245 260 269 275 283 286 291 296 304 305 306 321 328 336 338 339 357 364 367 368 369 371 381 396 406 410 412 415 427 440 443

K KAPOK, 43 311 KENAF, 13 53 59 104 115 117 186 203 229 244 265 266 283 335 348 375 383 KUDZU FIBRE, 4

L LAMINATE, 121 194 326 327 341 358 381 LAMINATING, 204 335 LANGIVIN EQUATION, 1 11 25 41 44 58 63 77 132 LATEX, 217 228 308 329 392 424 428 433 434 LAY-UP, 45 57 LEATHER FIBRE, 75 LEGISLATION, 56 122 127 186 347 LICENCE, 93 115 196 246 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS, 36 143 309 LIGHT DEGRADATION, 184 250 LIGHTWEIGHT, 36 45 57 115 117 126 175 247 256 265 335 380 LIGNIN, 29 68 94 101 105 116

139

Subject Index

121 131 141 148 261 443 LIGNIN-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 148 LIGNOCELLULOSE, 83 103 165 208 332 353 356 372 426 441 446 LIGNOCELLULOSE COPOLYMER, 47 285 LINEAR LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE, 151 161 418 LINING, 335 375 380 LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA, 350 LOADING, 1 63 340 372 425 430 LONG FIBRE, 9 56 109 115 145 146 223 LORRY, 31 LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE, 88 120 150 220 382 393 395 400 415 430 444

M MACHINERY, 12 31 42 45 56 57 59 61 95 115 145 146 149 155 176 293 333 385 440 MAIZE, 146 MALEATED, 15 16 26 83 130 150 151 185 294 396 400 413 417 425 440 446 MALEATION, 13 51 185 356 404 426 MALEIC ANHYDRIDE, 4 10 16 23 35 41 51 54 68 70 83 115 141 165 218 252 253 268 270 280 288 307 310 324 338 344 356 361 384 391 392 398 399 402 403 413 426 436 441 MALEIC ANHYDRIDE COPOLYMER, 2 21 35 98 114 130 166 177 189 199 212 213 214 249 332 356 387 410 426 436 448 451 MANUFACTURING, 52 93 96 117 175 MARINE APPLICATION, 52 358 MARKET, 18 45 52 53 57 97 115 118 157 196 201 265 347 MAT, 118 203 322 375 436 MATERIAL REPLACEMENT, 7 15 18 29 31 32 59 82 83 85 94 97 108 115 122 128 137 138 142 143 148 183 222 228 256 257 258 264 308 309 316 318 322 323 345 356 363 374 375 380 381 391 411 414 431

140

MATERIALS SELECTION, 56 59 113 139 175 203 248 MATRIX, 1 5 9 25 29 37 38 49 52 68 100 116 120 165 168 170 175 194 211 215 279 358 391 392 417 426 430 441 443 445 446 447 453 MATTING, 118 203 322 375 MATTRESS, 222 MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 129 147 406 MELT, 103 175 176 201 211 386 MELT COMPOUNDING, 135 141 297 MELT FLOW, 187 207 287 MELT FLOW INDEX, 39 56 83 187 426 430 440 445 MELT MIXING, 51 342 MELT PROCESSING, 76 350 431 440 MELT VISCOSITY, 16 45 54 274 287 430 MELT VISCOSITY INDEX, 39 56 83 187 426 430 MERCERISATION, 38 47 88 198 216 217 321 326 METHYL METHACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 38 198 MICROSCOPY, 10 25 40 54 58 132 141 178 188 193 258 271 274 287 307 340 398 425 430 MICROSTRUCTURE, 38 300 453 MILLING, 174 195 418 MINERAL FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 183 MIXER, 61 103 162 418 440 445 446 MIXING, 51 54 61 83 103 132 149 162 187 189 193 201 208 229 233 300 342 371 393 417 418 425 426 433 440 441 444 MODIFICATION, 1 24 35 39 43 51 67 75 83 90 94 101 123 131 157 165 194 215 251 270 272 285 296 356 378 384 392 404 406 413 420 422 425 426 MOISTURE ABSORPTION, 55 79 116 138 166 169 173 210 272 280 299 323 340 345 379 439 MOISTURE CONTENT, 45 79 142 146 224 246 249 252 253 282 293 317 318 378 MOISTURE DIFFUSION, 330 MOISTURE REGAIN, 251 368 422 MOISTURE REMOVAL, 146 246 MOISTURE RESISTANCE, 18 146 157 191 323 344 345 392

449 MOISTURE SENSITIVE, 36 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE, 26 30 41 272 398 405 419 426 430 443 MORPHOLOGY, 5 8 11 17 25 27 40 43 54 70 83 114 128 131 132 136 147 151 153 179 188 199 205 211 217 238 258 261 267 271 274 300 314 325 343 349 370 372 373 392 393 400 404 416 418 419 421 430 432 438 453 MOULDING, 3 25 31 45 52 56 57 78 85 93 94 117 126 142 145 147 158 159 164 167 180 186 187 203 209 215 219 227 238 247 257 266 312 322 335 341 353 357 358 362 363 380 411 414 434 MOULDING COMPOUND, 94 117 129 142 257 MOULDING PRESSURE, 425 440

N NANOCOMPOSITE, 172 241 255 261 277 329 424 428 433 434 NANOFILLER, 71 172 NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED RUBBER, 50 73 168 229 232 442 NATURAL POLYMER, 7 146 222 261 NATURAL RUBBER, 44 50 62 73 87 104 132 161 163 174 261 264 314 374 392 NEEDLE PUNCHING, 211 335 379 NOISE INSULATION, 31 NOISE REDUCTION, 112 122 308 NON-WOVEN, 156 211 282 335 375 406 NOTCHED IMPACT STRENGTH, 83 166 183 425 426 440 NOVOLAC RESIN, 280 288 399 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE, 19 106 119 140 242 243 415 419 NUCLEATION, 35 153 157 160 271 281 315 352 449 NYLON, 45 109 175 180 NYLON-6, 29

O OIL PALM, 20 217 281 OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

BUNCH FIBRE, 131 263 372 OIL PALM WOOD FLOUR, 44 264 OPTICAL MICROSCOPY, 25 40 54 58 178 188 193 271 274 287 430 449 OPTIMISATION, 14 177 270 342 442 ORIENTATION, 98 214 284 296 370 395 444 ORTHOPHTHALIC POLYESTER RESIN, 158 OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION, 258 OXYGEN PLASMA TREATMENT, 34 OZONE, 386 438

P PACKAGING, 175 PALLET, 386 PALM FIBRE, 158 PANEL, 203 204 265 266 383 445 PAPER, 90 117 123 148 PARCEL SHELF, 155 292 363 375 411 431 PARTICLE BOARD, 254 258 354 445 PATENT, 93 115 308 335 347 PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 20 58 73 148 171 217 239 281 392 406 PHENOLIC RESIN, 85 121 148 175 219 230 280 302 304 312 320 406 PHLOEM, 94 446 PHOTODEGRADATION, 258 427 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 8 29 55 83 95 137 139 174 177 223 260 304 346 382 395 412 442 447 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 422 PHYSICOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 10 13 101 128 229 PINE FLOUR, 398 PINEAPPLE FIBRE, 346 PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE, 47 100 285 382 393 395 397 421 422 430 444 PIPE, 45 57 146 180 366 PLASMA TREATMENT, 14 34 233 PLASTICISER, 68 241 275 416 427 435 PLYWOOD, 445

POLYACRYLONITRILE, 291 348 POLYAMIDE, 45 109 175 180 POLYAMIDE-6, 29 141 POLYBUTYLENE, 39 55 POLYBUTYLENE SUCCINATE, 26 103 135 POLYCAPROLACTAM, 141 POLYCAPROLACTONE, 48 103 206 353 POLYCARBONATE, 99 POLYEPOXIDE, 25 37 60 63 64 66 77 94 99 116 126 154 172 175 216 245 255 260 295 305 306 314 316 320 328 339 340 349 383 392 429 POLYESTER FIBRE, 104 POLYESTER RESIN, 5 38 100 158 170 178 263 299 445 452 453 POLYESTERAMIDE, 89 298 POLYETHER URETHANE, 71 POLYETHYLENE, 12 16 17 18 51 67 70 74 76 88 90 93 102 115 116 119 149 150 151 152 153 159 161 176 187 191 196 200 205 207 220 233 236 246 250 254 258 273 293 303 323 324 327 337 345 352 359 366 377 378 382 386 392 393 395 400 415 418 420 423 430 444 POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE, 8 103 104 183 POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE, 24 103 234 POLYISOBUTYLENE, 39 55 POLYLACTIC ACID, 40 POLYMERIC COMPATIBILISER, 150 151 185 396 426 POLYMERIC COUPLING AGENT, 83 213 249 356 426 440 449 POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE, 75 89 94 126 279 392 POLYPHENYLENE OXIDE, 66 POLYPROPYLENE, 1 2 3 4 6 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 21 22 23 27 29 32 33 34 35 36 39 40 45 49 54 55 56 57 59 65 74 76 77 79 82 83 84 88 92 94 98 102 108 109 113 114 115 116 119 126 130 131 132 139 144 146 150 156 162 163 166 167 173 176 177 179 180 183 185 186 188 189 190 191 196 201 203 204 211 212 213 214 218 236 246 249 252 253 254 261 265

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

266 268 271 283 284 292 293 294 297 300 303 305 307 313 315 322 323 326 332 333 334 335 338 342 345 352 356 357 361 362 366 371 372 375 378 379 380 381 387 390 391 392 396 403 404 408 409 410 415 417 425 426 431 436 440 441 445 446 448 449 450 451 POLYSACCHARIDE, 103 243 261 POLYSTYRENE, 12 26 56 80 146 165 176 199 201 205 274 279 343 378 392 398 402 420 POLYURETHANE, 19 45 52 57 71 81 111 118 124 126 155 156 164 180 186 228 247 275 278 284 308 331 335 336 376 380 412 427 431 POLYURETHANE-ACRYLATE, 275 412 POLYVINYL ACETATE, 320 POLYVINYL ALCOHOL, 320 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE, 12 42 76 90 93 115 116 123 133 134 136 137 138 146 160 176 184 190 191 196 200 201 203 246 247 273 279 293 303 317 323 345 347 360 366 373 378 394 416 432 435 POLYVINYL CYANIDE, 291 348 POLYVINYL ESTER, 28 68 72 221 POLYVINYLBENZENE, 199 402 POROSITY, 57 83 180 408 PREPREG, 45 57 142 180 PRETREATMENT, 37 54 257 320 332 349 406 438 452 PRICE, 116 127 272 347 379 385 PROCESSABILITY, 16 36 88 93 156 162 172 185 187 246 277 356 440 PROCESSING, 8 13 16 18 21 22 45 48 57 59 61 90 93 94 96 97 98 116 117 136 139 147 149 187 189 203 206 241 255 257 277 297 320 326 342 353 372 380 403 416 418 424 434 PRODUCTION COST, 157 272 408 414 PROFILE, 42 59 94 115 146 176 201 246 262 347 437 PROPYLENE COPOLYMER, 2 9 21 32 35 98 114 130 150 151 163 166 177 189 212 213 214 249 332 356 387 410 426 436 448 451 PROTEIN, 208 PULL-OUT, 14 72 359 396 425

141

Subject Index

426 PULP, 117 438 PULTRUSION, 32 45 52 57 94 113 139 289 316

Q QUALITY, 53 94 117 335 362 431

R RAILING, 196 RAILWAY APPLICATION, 31 57 RAMIE, 94 117 405 407 414 431 437 REACTION INJECTION MOULDING, 94 380 REACTIVE EXTRUSION, 141 297 426 RECLAIM, 123 146 207 335 378 RECYCLATE, 90 130 207 250 400 RECYCLING, 18 36 45 53 56 57 83 93 94 116 123 126 127 130 143 146 155 156 162 180 186 202 207 210 236 250 259 265 272 283 317 362 400 414 REINFORCED RUBBER, 62 73 87 104 168 229 232 287 442 443 RENEWABLE RESOURCE, 31 32 56 68 94 96 97 116 123 155 186 209 266 272 363 365 383 411 414 431 446 RESIN IMPREGNATION, 45 121 156 180 RESIN INJECTION, 57 180 RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING, 25 45 57 94 180 209 215 219 238 257 341 363 411 RESOL RESIN, 148 237 REVIEW, 52 106 108 139 276 298 335 347 378 392 408 443 447 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, 27 39 45 54 57 67 83 94 95 104 116 162 172 206 207 229 274 287 307 360 361 409 426 430 440 RICE HUSK, 115 173 207 389 RICE HUSK ASH, 3 128 161 162 163 174 374 RIGID, 71 136 160 164 204 209 273 308 RIGIDITY, 90 252 386 ROTATIONAL MOULDING, 159 RUBBER, 3 39 44 50 55 62 73 87 97 104 112 116 122 128 161 162 163 168 174 198 218 229 232 233 261 264 281 287 302

142

307 333 358 374 407 408 425 428 442 443 RUBBER WOOD, 87

S SANDWICH STRUCTURE, 52 449 SATURATED POLYESTER, 48 103 298 329 353 367 SAWDUST, 130 280 418 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 1 2 4 5 8 14 23 24 25 26 27 37 38 40 43 46 47 54 58 62 67 72 73 75 82 83 85 87 95 100 104 106 107 114 128 130 131 132 147 154 165 170 173 179 182 187 188 193 194 198 205 206 217 229 230 254 267 282 286 299 304 307 311 314 321 326 327 332 350 351 357 368 372 377 382 391 393 395 396 398 400 404 408 410 419 421 423 425 426 429 430 432 435 441 442 444 452 453 SCREW, 29 115 146 149 246 SCREW DESIGN, 152 SEAT, 228 375 SELF-DRYING, 59 103 146 153 177 201 257 293 317 331 SHEAR, 21 149 387 425 429 SHEAR MODULUS, 81 255 277 371 SHEAR PROPERTIES, 14 21 95 206 207 274 289 310 346 359 367 381 387 430 448 SHEAR RATE, 16 54 274 287 430 SHEAR STRESS, 206 274 430 SHEET, 144 176 211 266 280 SHEET MOULDING COMPOUND, 88 94 117 142 257 303 335 414 SHORE HARDNESS, 288 402 SHORT FIBRE, 29 37 54 75 83 103 115 168 214 274 301 337 342 361 371 379 380 397 430 433 442 SHRINKAGE, 85 93 349 370 SIDING, 138 196 293 SILANE, 5 9 37 40 70 78 94 106 115 163 174 233 263 264 267 307 327 340 374 378 395 417 426 439 449 SILANISATION, 10 294 307 SILICA, 3 44 97 128 264 SILICON DIOXIDE, 3 44 97 128 264 SILICONE RUBBER, 128

SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDER, 125 146 196 293 360 372 377 SISAL, 8 11 14 17 23 25 27 34 37 38 41 43 45 47 48 54 57 80 83 103 117 118 135 168 186 193 197 202 206 216 218 220 232 233 235 237 238 240 242 248 267 271 274 276 289 301 311 335 337 342 356 407 414 426 442 450 452 SODIUM HYDROXIDE, 5 26 43 114 121 216 221 251 321 349 370 395 405 415 430 452 453 SOIL BURIAL, 263 427 SOLVENT RESISTANCE, 99 SORPTION, 9 20 39 67 107 160 177 357 SOUND DAMPING, 111 335 SOUND INSULATION, 31 322 SOY POLYMER, 7 209 298 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 115 137 191 381 SPORTS GOODS, 31 52 111 SPRAY DRYING, 59 103 146 153 177 201 257 293 317 331 SPRAYING, 61 308 331 414 STABILISER, 115 184 191 195 STABILITY, 10 55 66 76 80 83 104 148 281 285 290 350 356 STARCH, 48 95 97 105 112 122 146 206 241 298 365 401 428 STATISTICS, 45 52 53 57 111 116 117 180 190 191 196 201 225 246 362 408 STEAM, 280 399 402 STEAM EXPLODED, 332 441 STEAM RESISTANCE, 399 STIFFNESS, 15 25 29 57 59 83 94 98 115 116 126 127 147 150 172 175 186 194 214 238 254 292 295 312 320 335 341 362 381 398 400 403 404 411 425 436 440 STORAGE MODULUS, 23 28 80 135 371 STRAIN, 130 147 171 390 397 425 440 STRAW, 117 303 STRENGTH, 25 32 53 56 68 72 77 101 121 157 166 183 252 307 320 323 335 353 358 361 398 406 408 414 422 425 426 436 441 446 STRESS, 31 83 130 198 235 389 390 417 440 441 STRESS RELAXATION, 83 171 397 STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES,

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

21 22 161 162 163 217 326 327 337 341 367 381 390 391 421 426 440 446 STRESS TRANSFER, 22 88 177 387 440 STYRENE ACRYLONITRILE COPOLYMER, 115 STYRENE COPOLYMER, 27 199 404 424 428 433 434 STYRENE-ETHYLENE BUTYLENE-STYRENE BLOCK COPOLYMER, 151 218 400 STYRENE-MALEIC ANHYDRIDE COPOLYMER, 398 SUGAR CANE, 119 140 254 SURFACE ENERGY, 279 332 354 SURFACE FINISH, 43 45 83 90 104 146 360 SURFACE MODIFICATION, 15 20 26 38 43 47 89 100 163 215 245 286 291 359 395 426 430 SURFACE PROPERTIES, 17 39 43 76 83 166 184 198 267 281 297 354 421 438 451 452 453 SURFACE TREATMENT, 5 9 10 13 14 15 17 20 24 26 31 37 38 40 43 47 54 64 89 100 103 108 111 114 116 135 146 154 163 169 170 171 198 213 215 216 217 233 234 239 245 252 260 267 276 286 291 311 315 320 321 338 340 349 359 372 373 379 395 397 405 410 415 416 417 420 426 429 430 432 435 437 449 452 453 SUSTAINABILITY, 36 96 SWELLING, 1 44 62 101 104 148 161 166 168 174 191 268 280 290 324 339 406 441 442 SYNTHETIC WOOD, 18 31 59 93 115 137 138 146 176 196 323 347 360

T TANDEM EXTRUSION, 153 TAPE WINDING, 45 52 57 63 TEAR STRENGTH, 50 73 87 128 162 174 264 357 374 431 448 TELECOMMUNICATIONS APPLICATION, 52 TELEPHONE, 358 TENACITY, 275 339 369 TENSILE MODULUS, 4 21 24 25 26 44 50 58 73 87 107 135 152 161 163 166 200 208 217 234

239 250 264 269 301 313 325 337 341 356 370 372 378 391 423 425 428 440 446 TENSILE STRAIN, 144 440 TENSILE STRENGTH, 2 4 11 16 18 23 24 25 26 44 50 57 58 64 67 70 78 83 88 89 92 94 99 103 104 107 116 120 128 135 141 142 144 146 150 151 152 166 170 181 182 185 200 206 208 217 218 234 250 252 291 301 319 321 326 327 336 339 355 356 357 372 379 380 381 391 406 423 425 440 445 452 453 TENSION, 98 350 TEST, 8 9 10 11 13 30 32 33 37 38 54 58 60 75 79 82 83 99 100 103 114 128 129 164 168 169 170 171 197 208 209 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 221 224 227 249 251 258 260 268 271 295 301 320 325 328 346 349 356 367 368 373 382 391 393 395 398 400 403 405 406 409 410 417 418 419 420 421 425 426 432 439 440 441 444 445 447 449 452 453 TEST METHOD, 25 29 34 44 67 71 88 94 118 123 125 178 194 206 218 252 254 265 326 381 414 TEST SPECIMEN, 3 63 445 TESTING, 25 29 34 44 67 71 88 91 94 118 123 125 178 194 206 218 252 254 265 326 381 414 425 452 453 TEXTILE, 143 225 TEXTURE, 93 104 THERMAL DEGRADATION, 27 29 35 55 66 67 69 104 105 149 152 167 258 290 299 329 351 362 408 THERMAL EXPANSION, 31 45 60 356 THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT, 60 191 THERMAL INSULATION, 110 117 224 308 347 THERMAL PROPERTIES, 4 11 20 23 27 28 29 31 40 45 59 60 80 83 114 139 179 185 220 224 260 271 281 296 302 315 351 354 356 366 368 371 382 398 401 419 440 441 449 THERMAL STABILITY, 10 31 55 66 76 80 83 104 111 148 281 285 290 312 350 356 361 431 434 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 10 23 27 35 69 75

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

105 148 165 179 269 282 285 286 314 343 356 406 THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMER, 132 199 333 400 THICKNESS, 115 148 166 204 247 406 TOOLING, 115 201 203 TORQUE, 11 23 62 162 264 350 417 TOUGHNESS, 15 18 64 175 183 189 278 312 349 425 426 TOYS, 31 176 TRANSFER MOULDING, 25 45 57 94 180 209 215 219 238 257 341 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 4 5 8 23 24 37 38 40 43 54 58 67 75 82 85 87 100 104 107 114 128 130 131 165 170 173 182 187 194 198 205 206 217 229 230 254 282 286 299 311 314 326 351 357 377 408 423 TRANSPORT APPLICATION, 31 52 157 180 248 TURBINE, 45 57 TWIN-SCREW, 115 176 201 TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER, 102 109 125 146 149 151 152 183 246 262 293 347 355 360 418 TYRE, 36 97 112 122 232

U ULTRAVIOLET CURING, 369 427 ULTRAVIOLET DEGRADATION, 104 184 250 304 ULTRAVIOLET IRRADIATION, 166 184 250 258 260 275 UNDER-THE-BONNET APPLICATION, 31 UNIDIRECTIONAL, 25 37 98 177 381 436 UNSATURATED POLYESTER, 5 38 40 52 68 77 100 116 165 170 178 181 194 215 231 263 269 270 282 299 301 303 330 368 384 388 389 392 411 419 421 443 445 447 452 453 UPHOLSTERY, 222 431 UREA-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 227

V VACUUM FORMING, 144 175 409

143

Subject Index

VEHICLE BOOT, 292 VEHICLE DOOR, 31 57 155 164 180 VEHICLE GRILLE, 408 VEHICLE INTERIOR, 110 127 156 204 283 292 335 380 414 VEHICLE ROOF, 31 VEHICLE SEAT, 228 VEHICLE SHELL, 31 57 256 257 VEHICLE TAILGATE, 109 VEHICLE TRIM, 33 49 155 164 204 228 256 292 312 331 335 375 376 VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY, 24 30 41 75 91 148 217 311 395 413 VINYL CYANIDE COPOLYMER, 38 47 100 217 285 296 348 VINYL ESTER RESIN, 28 72 221 VISCOELASTICITY, 48 409 VISCOSITY, 45 57 67 83 94 95 116 172 206 207 287 VOID CONTENT, 25 160 394 VOLUME FRACTION, 20 36 38 54 57 58 100 140 168 171 173 197 208 213 214 215 254 313 320 337 383 388 440 453 VULCANISATION, 3 162 VULCANISATION TIME, 50 73 87 264

W WAFER, 7 WALL SLIP, 274 WALL THICKNESS, 31 45 146 WARPAGE, 375 WASTE PAPER, 90 123 148 445 WASTE WOOD, 191 445 WATER, 3 20 166 340 343 350 433 WATER ABSORPTION, 1 2 3 16 20 39 62 67 85 101 114 123 132 147 148 150 163 170 209 241 268 269 270 275 280 297 324

144

337 340 344 345 357 372 382 398 399 402 406 412 415 431 WATER CONTENT, 252 317 318 WATER PIPE, 45 57 WATER RESISTANCE, 1 150 163 216 284 304 344 392 406 427 441 WATER UPTAKE, 3 WATER VAPOUR SORPTION, 354 WEAR RESISTANCE, 174 175 WEATHER RESISTANCE, 118 138 166 236 258 269 304 412 427 WEIGHT REDUCTION, 36 45 53 57 94 115 118 155 156 157 180 203 248 252 256 266 283 292 375 408 411 414 WET LAY-UP, 212 WETTABILITY, 10 39 129 216 299 452 453 WETTING, 16 40 94 165 372 WHEAT STARCH, 365 WHEAT STRAW, 124 280 424 434 441 WHISKER, 172 241 329 424 433 434 WHITE RICE HUSK ASH, 3 161 162 163 WIND TURBINE, 45 57 WINDING, 180 WINDOW, 115 201 317 318 WINDOW FRAME, 146 191 246 347 WOOD, 18 29 31 36 55 59 74 76 93 115 137 138 146 175 176 196 201 258 318 323 345 346 347 354 360 378 385 400 WOOD COPOLYMER, 185 400 WOOD FIBRE, 2 42 53 70 132 146 153 159 165 184 185 200 205 208 294 317 318 345 385 392 398 409 417 418 425 435 438 445 449

WOOD FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 2 12 35 39 55 59 66 67 70 101 102 107 111 115 124 125 133 134 146 150 151 152 153 157 159 184 185 187 190 191 196 199 200 246 254 262 273 279 280 284 293 323 332 343 344 345 350 354 373 390 392 398 399 402 409 413 416 418 423 425 449 WOOD FINISH, 360 WOOD FLAKE, 70 258 WOOD FLOUR, 1 16 35 39 53 55 59 61 71 79 95 102 105 114 115 117 120 123 130 134 136 137 138 149 150 151 152 157 160 165 179 189 195 199 235 250 264 270 307 330 335 345 360 366 384 398 400 404 445 WOOD POWDER, 250 307 345 360 WOOD PULP, 208 391 WOOD REPLACEMENT, 345 391 WOOD TREATMENT, 121 400 WOODGRAIN, 284

X X-RAY ANALYSIS, 106 194 437 X-RAY SCATTERING, 27 35 43 75 148 154 188 289 311 405 X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY, 106 429

Y YIELD, 225 375 438 YIELD STRENGTH, 383 391 YIELD STRESS, 130 YOUNG’S MODULUS, 23 25 51 60 67 120 121 132 144 178 212 218 252 254 303 318 319 326 327 340 353 355 356 361 362 381 383 395 440 441

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

DOCUMENTS DIRECT (Document Delivery Service) The Polymer Library (www.polymerlibrary.com) is the world’s most comprehensive collection of information on the rubber, plastics, composites and adhesives industries. The fully searchable database covers approximately 500 regular journals as well as conference proceedings, reports, books, company brochures and data sheets. Almost all the articles selected for the database can be ordered in full text through our document delivery department. Non-patent requests are usually despatched within 24 hours of receipt (Monday to Friday). ●

We have a large collection of literature directly related to the industries we serve and can offer a personal service with minimal bureaucracy, based on detailed knowledge of our stock.

●

Many of the documents held at Rapra are not available via other services. This is particularly the case for our extensive and unique collection of company literature and data sheets.

●

We offer a fast turnaround service (within one working day) combined with a range of delivery options. Some full text documents are available as PDF files which can be downloaded immediately

SPEED OF DELIVERY Non-patent documents are despatched from Rapra within 24 hours of receipt (Monday - Friday) of request using first class mail within the UK, and airmail for the rest of the world. If you request e-mail or fax service, delivery will be within hours anywhere in the world.

HOW TO ORDER Orders can be made by post, fax, telephone, e-mail, on-line via the website database (http://www.polymerlibrary.com), or through an online host. When ordering please include your full company details and which documents you require, quoting one of the following: 1. Accession Number or Copyquest number or, 2. Full Bibliographic Details Please include which payment method you wish to use and how you wish to receive the article (i.e. e-mail, post, fax, etc.) Documents can be ordered from Rapra online using the appropriate command of your online host. In this case we will issue you with an invoice and statement every three months. For further information, please see www.rapra.net/absdocs/copyquest.htm or contact Sheila Cheese or Jackie McCarthy on +44 (0)1939 250383 or e-mail [email protected].

PLEASE TURN OVER FOR PAYMENT METHOD OPTIONS AND ORDER FORM

CREDIT CARD PAYMENTS This is preferable for people who only intend to use our service occasionally. The prices are per copy inclusive of postage and packaging if appropriate. Pre-payment is required by Credit Card payment. Delivery Method

Price

E-mail, Ariel, Fax, First Class / Airmail Post

£10 / Approx. US$15 or €17 (UK & Overseas) + VAT

PDF files

Prices – Please refer to online order form for details (these may vary – each publisher sets price)

ANNUAL DEPOSIT ACCOUNTS A more cost effective way to use our service is to open an annual deposit account. (Web subscribers can use their web subscription for both web access and document delivery) The minimum amount required to open an account is £200 / Approx. US$290 or €330 (UK & Overseas) Delivery Method

Price

E-mail, Ariel, Fax, First Class / Airmail Post

Documents are only priced at £7 / Approx. US$10 or €12 per item

PDF files

Prices – Please refer to online order form for details (these may vary – each publisher sets price)

Please Note: Any money remaining in an annual deposit account after 12 months is void. Patents are charged at a standard price of £10 / Approx. US$15 or €17.

ORDER FORM ❑ ❑

I would like to open/renew a deposit account for the following amount ___________________________________ I would like to order the following documents _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________

PAYMENT Name: ____________________________________________________ Company: _________________________________________________ Address: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Postcode: ______________________ Country: __________________ Telephone: _____________________ Fax: ______________________

❑ Remittance enclosed

(use only for opening or renewing annual deposit accounts)

(If paying by cheque, please make payable to Rapra Technology Ltd. in £ Sterling/US$/Euros via UK banks only or make payment direct to Account No: 05625025, Sortcode: 55-50-05, National Westminster Bank Plc, 8 Mardol Head, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY1 1HE, UK)

❑ Please invoice my company (use only for opening or renewing annual deposit accounts)

❑ Please deduct from my annual deposit account (use this option when ordering documents if you already have a deposit account)

IMPORTANT - Value Added Tax (VAT) The above prices do not include VAT. Customers in EU member countries may be liable to pay VAT if their Registration Number is not supplied. Please enter your EU Registration Number (VAT - BTW - IVA - TVA - MWST - MOMS - FPA) below:

VAT Number: Rapra Technology Limited Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, United Kingdom Tel. +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 E-mail: [email protected]

Account Number _______________________________________

❑ Please charge my credit card American Express / Visa / Mastercard (delete as appropriate) Card Number:

Signature: ______________________ Exp. date: ______________