INTRODUCTIO N TO
Ancient History HERMANN BENGTSON Trllnr/ated trom tbcSixth Edition by R. I. Fnnk imd Fnnk D. Gilliard
University ofCalifornia Press BERKELEY, LOS ANGELES, AND LONDON
Translators' Preface
For
two decades Professor Hennann Bengtson's Einführung in die
alte Geschichte (Munich
1949; cd. 6,
st:lndard imroduction fot GerlO an
Munich 1969) has been rhe nive rsity students of :lIldenr
u
history. No comparable manual has bcen a\'ailable in English. Dur translation is made especially for srudents who have not yer acquired facility in German. Ir depans from Profcssor Bengtson's text mainly in that rhe general bibliographical appendix has bcen rcorganized
ro conform with ehe plan of rhe Comlnidge Ancif'1lt
History and also has bcen rc\'ised with in mind.
Funher,
the English-rcading
student
the system of abbrcviations has bcen changed
throughout to follow the usage of rhe Oxfo-rd Classica/ Dictiotlary and L'annee phi/ojogique. The most common abbteviations uscd in andent srudies, as weil as [hose uscd in this book, havc been listed in rhe appendix.
We wou!d like
to
thank Mr. Ernst-Peter \;Yicckcnbcrg of the
C. H. Deck Verlag fot making available Profcssor Bengrson's manu script of rhe sixth edition, and to acknowledge the invaluable help of Mr. Herben J. Exhnger of New Votk. It. I. FItANK FltANK D. GILLI"aD
September 1969 LIlg1l1JlIllellch, ClllifMnill
Conrenrs
I. The Scope of Ancient History
Bibliography,5
11. The Historyof the Study of Antiquity from rhe Renaissan� to the Present Bibliography, zo
III. The Fundamentals of the Study of Anelent History !.
Chronology, z 3 ßibliography,p
7
13
1. Geography, 36 BibliographY,41 3. Anrhropologyd8
Bibliography,60 65
IV. The Sourees
I. Literature :lnd Doeuments, 65 Bibliography, ,6 2.
l-listoriography,87 Bibliography, 101
3· My th,Saga,Folktales, 117 Bibliography,lll 115
V. The Monuments
Bibliography, 130 VI. Basic Disciplines: Epigraphy, Papyrology, Numismatics
Bibliography, 147 Epigraphy, 147 Papyrology,l$4 Numismatics, I56 vii
1J6
COlltelltr
tJiii
VII. Allied Disciplines
,6,
Bibliography, 164
VIII. Refercnce Works andJournals
,6B
Bibliography,l]2
IX. Seleer Bibliography Abbreviations
192
Index of Names
Z05
Index of Topics
11)
_
1
_
The Scopeof Ancient History
"Ancient history is never anything mher than and never should b e anything mhet chan a pan: of onc, uni\Ocrsal historyj and both an cient :lnd modem historians ought ncver to forget that." These words of Eduard Meyer properly stand ar [he beginning oi [he study of ancicnt history, in spitc of the fact that ie has built for il5elf a special niche in the frame of universal history. Gnly reasans of expedicncy have been decisi\'C: for chis fact. First, human in capaciry to CJ[amine thoroughly and critically in thc course: of a single lifccime thc immense field of human history. Sccond, thc exception:!! narure of andene souree material. Of course, thc bound_ ary hctwecn ancient :lnd modem history is only convcntional; that is, ie has been fonned by taek agreement among those con ccmed wirh invescigating it. Ultimately the tasks of historians of Anciquity are none other than those of historians of the Middlc Ages and of Modern Timest to use historieal analysis and to rethink ehe past in hisrorical tenns must in the same way inspirc all sru� dems of history, regardless of the provinee of universal hisrory with which [hey are coneemed. Thus ancicnt history is not to be considercd detachcd frorn other historic:u developrncnt. A thousand rhreads stretch from Antiquity to the Middlc Ages, and [rom there to the presenf. Onlr he who is al horne in medievaI and modern history will have 01 regard for historie:u continuity and for evaluating past e\·ents based on those of the presenr. Of course, the feelings, thoughts, and aspirations of anciem as opposed TO modern men frequemly were based on other assumptions. Ancicnr man grew up in an imcllcctual environment different from outs, an environment aceessible onlr to one who can visualize that long�lost world in its imellecrual. cconomic, md polit�
The Scope of Ancient History
,
kai aspects. Thc "visualization," thc immersion of ane's scH in an other time so that ie awakcns to life. remains the essential task of historical research, whieh is itsdf a perpetual struggle tO formulate ehe truest pictnee possible of the past. Nevenheless, the study of history (like mac of all the humani ries) is bound up wich implicit assumptions whieh underlie every kind of research, as weil as every kind of cognidon. As a pan of the intellectual life of a people, as weil as of the curire civilizc:d warld, the srudy of the hnmanitics is indissolubly connected with the in tellcctual comtut, wich the political, religious, :md economic trends of its respective time, from whieh the ideas of the observant student are dcveloped. Historical undcrscanding is funhce bound up wirh the intellecrual breadth and the intcUcctual marurity of thc inquirer. The o\'er-all view of the historiea! canvas is derived from a philos- ophy of life that is subjeeted to changes by externa! and internal experienees. An "objeetive scienee," therefore, does not exist in the humanitics; and it cannot exist-least of a11 in the pereeption and explanation of historical evenrs. This insight inta the depcndence of imeUectual cognition obligates the historian to reconsider con stantly the assumptions of bis own research, so that he may rcach a better.founded Imowledge of historica! rclationship:,;. In the finaJ analysis, therefore, caeh view of an hiswrieal event assurnes a standard derived from the knowledgc and judgmcnt of other hiswrica! events, sing!y or in sumo Wbar is the casc. then, for justifying bistorical analogy? Ir was used witb gre2t suceess by B. G. Niebuhr in his Römische Geschichte, although modern resc;lreh is cautious ahout ir. Tbat eaeh epocb-and especially Antiquity-be explained only on its own terms is a basic historical demand. An bistoriea! problem, however, can often be clarified, even if not solved, by rcfercnce to a similar situation in anotber time or con· nection. Tbus analogy, often misused, is not bistotical evidence, but a means of iIIustrating bistoncal events. V/hat is meant by "ancient history" or the "histOlY of An riquiry"? Geographically, the answer is c1ear: ir is tbe history of tbe Mediterranean Sea and of the contiguous territories whicb have becn connected TO i r by historically effective polirical and culrural relations. Tbc underlying uniry of this area is produced not by the national characteristics of its inhabitants, but by an intensive cul rura! exchange, n whieh the Mediternnean itsClf played the role of thc grear mediator. Characterutic of the arca is its enormous i
Tbr Scopr of AlIcirnt History
,
ea5t-west elongation, from the Straits of Gibnltar (the "Pillus of Hcrcules") to the banks of the lndus. The Mediterranean, the grcat travel axis of the ancicnt world, couplcs its northem borderlands ro the north coast of Africa, ineluding Egypt. This cultural sphere also is compriscd of the Near Eastcm regions of the Hcllcspont (Dardanelles) and of the Syro-Phoenieian coaSt tO beyond the Persian descrr-in other words, all Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and thc Iranian areas. In the more than three-thousand-year stretch of andent hisrory, this enonnOU5 territory never grew rogether into a single, lil'ing organism. Even so, its underlying uniry frequcntly was cxpresscd politically in the concept of universal empire. Alexander and Caesar strove to rcalize it; and in thc words imputcd to Tmjan on his Parthian campaign-"If I were young, I would adl'ance el'en to India" (Cass. Dio 68.19)-the vitaliry of rhe nation of one empire embracing all the ancient civilized world shows itself. The idea of the uniry of the ancient world was at least partly rea!ized, not on the political, bur on the culturltl plane. Hdlenism, f05rered by AJexander's vicrorious campaign, decisivdy promoted the unificauon of the ancient world; and Hellenism was the spiritual forcrunner of Christianiry, whieh ar the elose of Antiquity embraet:d a communiry extending from Iet:land ro India. The spiritual uniry of rhe ancient world laid rhe foundarions of Western civilization, which means the coments of life in rhe mod em world. Modern man is indehted tO rhe ancicm world, espedal Iy rhe Greeks, for the eonception and fonn of \Vestern science; and he is indebted to the Roman Empire fOT the creation of Roman law. The idea of a European dvilization first bccame reality in Greece: one ean think of the creations of representational art, of the appear ance oE tragedy and historiography, or of the beginnings of ""est ern philosophy in lon;a. Ir was rcservcd for the impcrialisoc power oE Rome to amalgamate a gre3[ part of modem Europe under its mle and so to Jay the foundatlon of the political conftguration of the West, in whose historical development rhe very idea of Rome represents an important policieal and culrural faeror. The chronological ddimitaoon of Anriquity is a problem de baced ohen and with diverse interpretations. There is no differenee of opinion that the history of Amiquiry reaches hack to the ear1iest eivilization in rhe Neu East and Egypt. The special task of his torical inquiry i s ro determine evcr more exaetly the tower bound-
,
Tht SCOpt 0/ Ancimt HislOry
ary, the "heavy !ine" between history and prehistory, whose field is the investigation oe preliterate societies. llUs delimitation acrually has corne about in recent decades through the successful alliance of Neu Eastem wirh Egyprian atchaeology. For the early history of Greecc: and haly we are also on surer ground than even half a ceurury ago, although many questions, espccially conceming early haUan history, are still strOngly comested. Greek history ar least can be traced in broad oudincs to the start of the second millennium m:fore Christ. Thc point ar issue is the demarcation between Antiquity and the Middlc Agcs. In the face of this much-treatcd controversy, it should be srresse d that historical research does require periodizacion. Tem poral divisions are an indispensable principle of order; in a way of spcaking they are a coordination system in which historical de velopmem allows icself tO he displayed and classified. Thc common earlier divisions which ended Antiquity wich ehe Council of Nicaea (A.D. PS), wich che invasion of the Goths into the 'West (c. A.D. 375), or even with ehe deposition of the last West Rorrum emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by the German 1II1lgirter militll11l Odoaccr (A.D. 476), are hardly satisfactory. All three dates fasten on an irnpornnt eveut of seeular or ecclesi',lStieal h�1:ory and brand it as the ruming point from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. \Vhoever accepts this view fails to see that ehe term "Middle Ages" means, in all aspects, a new beginning. Tbe Middle Ages mean the end of aneient civilization. the end of the andene state, and the end of anciem mought. From the ruins of the anciem world there rise with che Middle Ages new groupings of polirical powers, a new way of thought, a new world outlook, !lnd a new economic system. Such a revolution cannor have raken place in !I single yeae oe even a few years. Thereforc, research has switehed ro elastically demar_ cating the boundaries between Antiquity and the Middle Ages. By this method the end of the sixth and rhe beginning of the sevenrh ccmury after Christ has becn rea.ched. In that period evems took plaee whieh were decisive for ehe development of the medieval world: che conqucst of lraly by the Lombards (the capture of Pavia, A.D. 571) and che invasion of the Arabs into the Western world. The Arab Storm, whieh hroke over the fast two years after Mo hammed's death (d. A.D. 631), is a phenomcnaI event in world history: the appearance of ehe Arabs is the last great rcaction of East against West; it is the response co the advancc of Western,
Tbt SCOpt of Ancit1lt Hirtory
,
Helleniscic culture into the wide spaces of the East. In the con� frontation with the Arnbs on the battldields, a new Europe was bom at the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century. Their invasion began a new er.t; and the grandson of that Charles Mand who vanquished ehern ae Toun; and Poieien; (A.D. 73Z), Charlemagne, founded a new empire in the \Vest, which together wieh the papacy and By;r;antium decided the political history of the Middle Ages.
BIBLIOGRAPHY THE COSCE(>TIOS OF THE UNJ\'ERSAL HISTORY OF
ANTIQUlTY:
\Vhoever holds it impossible to comprehend the world and especial� Iy the men of the ancient East on episternological, anthropological, or orher basts (so H. Berve, "Zur Kulturgf:SChichte des Alten Orients," AKG zs [19341.216 ff.), will not accept the idea of Antiquity within universal history which undcrlies this work. Def inite obstades do stand in the way of penetrating the mind of men of the ancient East, but they are hardly grcater than the dif� ficulties which, for example, exist for Europcans who want [Q understaod the mentaliry of modem fast Asians. The problem is set {onh by B. Landsberger, "Die EigenbegrifHichkeit der babylo� nischen Wdt," lsl1111lica 2 (1926).355 ff., and by W. Wolf, JlI� dividllu1II Imd Gemeinschaft in der ägyptischen KII/tm
( Leipziger
I, 1935), with whieh cf. A. Scharff, DLZ (1935),985 ff. EspcciaJly rccommended is \V. Andrae, Alte Fest� strarsen im N"hnl Qstlm (Snldscbr. d. Dl.'utsch. Orjemges. 10, Leip_ zig 1941); it attempts to approach thc thought of the ancient East
Agyptolog. Studien
[hrough [he meaning of ancienr Oriental archirccrure. In any case, the adherent w the universal hiswry of Antiquity who includes the ancient EaSt in the sphere of his observations may rcfer to Herodorus, who described the great conAict between Gre<:ks and barbarians, and thercby showed his appreciation for the strange national characteristics of Egy tians, Babyionians. Persians, Lydians, - . ßerve are tlu;: argUU1Cnt� of \V. F. and Scythians. Opposcd (0 I Albright. "How \-Vell Gn We Know thc Near wer" JAOS 56 (1936), III ff.. and the rcmarks of W. Ouo, DLZ (1937), 1119 ff., 1161 ff.; HZ 161 (1940),311. Rccemly J. Vogt has championed the idea of universal hisrory: cf. the lecrure "Geschichte des A1ter� rums und Universalgeschichte." Orbis (1960). 362 ff.; aod Wtge zum hiftorischc·1l U"ivers1n1J (Urban-Bücher 51, Stuttgart 1961). Also se<: [he lecNre by H. Beogcson on B. G. Niebuhr, cired bclow. p. 2 [.
r.
6
The Scope of Ancirnt HimJ1y THE EPlnEMOLOGTCAL BASIS OF HIST01UCAL SCIENCE
cannot
be discussed herc, hut see Ed. Spranger, Vom SiTl1J der Vorousset· zungslosigkeit in den Geisteswissenscbllften (SPAW 19�9. Abh. 1). The g encI':Il reader will find mueh wonhwhile in Wilh. Bauer, Einführung in das Studium der Geschichte (cd. 2, Tübingen 1 928 ) ,
in Moriz Ritter, Die Entwicklung der GeschichtS'UJissemcbaft, Im den fiibrenden Werkm betrachtet (Munich and Berlin 19[9), hut above a11 n i J. G. Droysen, Hirtorik, Vorlemngen über Enzyklo pädie und Methodologie der Geschichte (cd. R. Hübner, cd. 2,
Munic h and Berlin 1943). Also, "Geschichte," in the Fischer Leric01l (cd. \V. Besson, Frankfuna. M. 1961) gives numerous new po ints o f view; andem history is Ihere discu ssed by F. G. Maier. V ery ins tru cnve especia lly for those interested in ancient history is M. P. Nilsson's discussion of K. }. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte I (cd. 1) in GGA (1914). Sl3 tf., in which Nilsson has cxccllcntly illuminated the boundar ics of historical kno wled ge in re gud tO early Greek history. AJso worthwhile is W. P er em an, "La critique histori qu c app li quec ;lUX sourccs dc l'am iquite sreco-rornaine," LEe 19 (1 951), 3 ff., in which historical hellristic IS disclIssed. TlIE CIIRONOLOGICAL DELIMITATlO)l o�' ANTIQUITY FROM TUE MIDDLE "CES; A. v. Gmschmid, Kleine Schriftf!11 V (1894), 393 ff.; W. Ouo, Kulturgesch. d. Altertums (i\Iunich 1915), 4; E. Korn ernann, Die röm. Kaiserzeit (in Ger-cke-Norden m.2; cd. 3, 1933), 57; K. F. Stroheker, Saeculu1Il I ( 1 950 ), 433-465; and, frorn fhe standpoint of medieval histori ans, H. Pire nne, Mohtrllnned and Charlemague (tr. Bcmard MiaU, New York 1939). Pr i enn e sees the establishment of C harlcmagne 's empr i e as the decisive event which marks che beginning of che Middle Ages; for another view cf. H. Aubin, HZ 171 (1951), 145 ff. In opp ositi on to [his, E. Mann� Introduzione allo studio della rtor;a greco1 e rOllla1M (ed. 2, Palermo 19.1'8), 191f., rerurns to A.D. 476 as the end of Amiqu iry . Comp ler e Iy different is F. Vittinghoff, Geschichte in Wissenschaft U1uJ U1l tmicht 8 (1958),451 ff., who does n ot re cognize the Middle Ages as a separate historieal �ri od.-F or recent an empts at historical periodi7.:ltion see K.}. Neumann, "Perioden der rörn. Kaiserzeit," HZ "7 (1917),377 ff. and G. Ostrogorsky, "Di e Perioden der byzantinischen Geschichte," HZ 163 (1941),229 ff.-It is custom ary to call the time oE transition from ancient to medieval "Late Antiquity." Although this tenn comes {rom the neid of an history (A. Riegel), historians generally have long used [he con cepti on of i q uiry" to rc:fer to the urne approximately frorn Con "Late Ant stantinc the Great (or Diocletian) to Jusrinian (or Hcraclius I).
__
11
__
The History of the Study of Antiquity from the Renaissance (Q the Present
The science of ancicnt history is a child or, bencr sald, a stcpchild of humanism. Emhusiasm for rediscovering the evidence of cbssical amiquity cngaged the attention of the wholc world of cultiV:ltcd people in thc agc of Lorenzo Valla (14°7-1457) :Iod Dcsidcrius Ensmus (1465-1536). The ancienc amhors were valued as quite unattainable exemplars, :lnd Cicero's saying (Dr Or. l.9.36), {hat history was thc wimc5S of thc nges. thc light of [ruth, thc Iife of memory. the master of life, and the interpreter of amiquity, was the guiding principlc of humanism. F or these mcn classical amiquity was thc great, unattainablc model, :lnd at the same cime the bcst coullsclor in affait'S of (he prcscm. In thc age of humanism each newl)' diseovered andene author was feie to be not only an addi tion to knowledge, but a real enriehmem of life itself. Thus the wodcs of rhe humanis[S, rhe historicaI writings of Petrareh, ßoeeac eio, or Pier Candido Deeembrio, as weil as the parriotie passion for rhe andem Germans of Jaeob Wim pf cling of SchlettStadr and ßeatus Rhenanus, are evidcnec of an uncridcal
attitude toward the
products of ancienr Hrer:lture. Convinced that Antiquity was also politieally the master of his own time, Cola di Rienw ( , 3'3-'354) collected the visible signs of a grcat Roman past, rhe inseriprions, Enthusiastie about rhe ideal of republican governmem and fuH of admiration for rhe politieal eonditions of Antiquity generally, Cola di Ricnzo saw in rhe preoccuparion wirh anciem works a valuable meaTlS to his own utopian political goals; he wanred to establish, in 7
,
Tbe Hinory of the Study 01 Amiquit]
league wirh the exiled papacy in Avignon, a Roman Republic :lS a bulwark against the lust for dominarion of the powerful city nobility of Rome. His political elfter was ephemeral, but his col leerion of inscriprions bad lasting inJluence on his comemporaries, and imroduced the first Rowering of epigraphical research. Rienzo's most famous successor was the leamed mcrch:mt Ciriaco of Aneona (died c. 1455), who. while traveling in the Levam, was the first co colleet Greek inscriptions. In his insatiable appetite for t!'.lvel and thirst for knowledge. he appears to us as an early precur50r of the gifted Mecklenburger, Heinrich Schliemann, the excavator of Troy aod Mycenae. PoliticaJ intcresrs also led Niccolo Machiavelli to occupy him sclf wich problems of Roman history. He was deeply moved by the reasons for the decline of the Roman Empire, and was con vinced rhat he lived in an age of decadence. So the aim of his Discorsi sopra la pr;"Jlol deca di Tito Livio (which appeared in '5]" afrer his dearh) is [Q ascenain, as Friedrich Meinecke said, rhe "causes of the rise and fall of nations and to deteet ways and means to their re· generation." Like Machiavelli, the French thinker Montesquieu !ried to estab. lish general historical mies by his work wirh Roman hiSlOry. The e:o:ample hefe also is the dec1ine of Rome. Montesquieu's essay, Con sideratiolls !Ur Jel causel de Ja grandeur des Romains et de leur deca dN/ce (1734), is not an historical investigarion, but a renewed
attempt, following Polybius and Machia\'clli, to pur obscrvation of the past in scrvice to the prescnt. It is the polirician, the philos opher of civilization-not the histotical inquirer-which guides Momesquieu's argument.' Ir is wirh this work that the Prussian king Frederick II argued (c. 1746) in his commcntaries. The first great historical auempt in which an unusual descriptive power was combined with profound historieal judgment deals agam wirh the decline of the Roman Empire. This is rhe HistOTY of tbe Dcclillc and Fall of thc Romm Empire by Edwatd Gibbon (17371797), who feceived decisive stimuli from the English "poctry of ruins" of the mid'18th cenmry. The transitory namre of all earthly aHairs, portrayed in a grandiose hisrorieal proCes5, was Gibbon's theme; "It was on the fiftcenth of Oerober in the gloom of evening, as l s:lt musing on the Capirol, while the barefooted fxyars were
The History Qf tbe Study of Antiquity
,
ehanting their lit:mies in the temple of Jupiter, that I eoneeived the first dlOughr of my history." Gibhon's work comprises rhe period from [he dearh of Mareus Aurdius (A.O. IBo) to the capture of Constantinople by [he Turks (A.D. 1451). Wich the insight of genius the Bri[On set fonh die reign of che bizarre, degenerate Commodus (A.o. 180-191) as the prologue [0 [he massive tragedy whieh [he sinking empire. grear cvcn )'ct in its irrevocable decline, places bcfoTe [he eyes of posterity. Strongl)' influenced by the Enlightenmcnt, Gibbon like Voltaire also reproaehed Cllristianity for having plnyed a deeisively desrructive role in the gigantic process of disinregration. The cultural und historical penetrarion of [he more-than-thousand-ycar epoch was Gibbon's essential achieve ment; as far as the basic material is concerned, ehe six-volumc work is bascd on rhe diligence of the Frenchman Lenain de Tillemont (16}7-169B), cspccially his Histoire der E1IIpereurs, which goes from the baule of Aetium (31 Re.) to the Emperor Anastasius (d. A.n. 5 [8). Gib!J.on's elose conncction with Freneh eulrure is espc cially meaningful for understanding his artistic achie"cmcnt: the decisive years of his intellectual de"clopment, from 16 to 11, were spenr ar Lake Geneva. In Germany. howe\ler, rhe study of Antiquity receivcd its de cisivc impulse not from Gibbon, but from ,"Vinekelmann (17171768) and Herder (1744-1803). It was not cancern wirh Roman history, rather it was the relation of the late 18th ccmury to Greecc, to ils art and its lilcrary creations, '\vhich !cd to a ncw enCOunter with the classical world. To be surl':. the naturl': of the Gccl':ks was, by the enrhusiastic anists and pocts of [hat dmc, more divined and "feit" than undersrood as an historical phenomenon; ret this en counter gave Gennan literarure and an imperishable works, e\·i dence of thc marriage of Greck classicism wirh thc Gennan spirie' This closencss to thc Grceks, whieh is as manifest in Winekelmann's Geschiclm: der KIl1IJt im Altertum as it is in Goethe's lphigenie. Schiller's Götter Grieche'lllands. and Hölderlin's Hyperion, pro duced an enrhusiasm for the Hellenie world to which [he 19th eentury owcs its great historiC1.1 and philologieal works on the aneiem Greeks-works which prepared the way for a tmly historica1 knowledge of Antiquity. Chiefly, howel'er, it was not emhusi:l.sm �Rehm. GTiuhrotmn Imd Gonhn.�;t: G��ch;cblC eines GI"ubrnl (l)�J E�be d�r Allrn 11.:6. [936). Se� .11'0 E.. Grumach, Goube und die Anlike (:
vols" Bcrlin [949).
Tbe History of tbe Study of Antiquily for the Greeks, but the experience of the Napoleonic era which introduced a new epoch of historical science. In Antiquity, especially in aneient Rome, concern with the weit iog of hiStory was a domaio of practical statesmen, among them Q. Fabius Pictor, the Achaean polirieian Polybius, and the consul Cassius Dio from the Severan period. Modem historiography like wise has e:.ercised an espccial attracrion for statCSmen. After Machia velli and Monresquieu, Banhold Georg Niebuhr (1776-1831) was thc third Statesman who applied himself to historiC1ll observation. Nicbuhr's attitude to history was completdy different from that of Maehiavelli and Montesquieu, who lud seen their own times mir rored in the fate of the dedining Roman Empire. For Niebuhr, the son of thc traveIer in the Orient Carsten Niebuhr (about whom he wrote a remarkable biography), the praetical talent of politician was the primary impulse to the realization of something new-even revolutionary-in the past. 'Virh B. G. Niebuhr, in whom the prac tical statesman wrestJed throughout life with the contemplativc scholar. there appear.; a man who combined the capability for a uniquely consrruetive fonnulation of thc past with a thoroughly criricaI talent. An active scepticism, whieh he derived from his own practical acrivity, is his unique trait. To be sure, even befare Niebuhr the authority of Livy as a soutee for early Roman hisrory had been quesrioned; Nicbuhr, however. did not StOp with negative i che Geschichte, whieh first appcared in criticism. Wirh his Röms 1811 and was repeatedly revised, tbis man from Schleswig-Holstein, who served wirh distinction in the Danish and Prussi:m civil services (most noubly as ::J.SSistan t ro Baron von Stein, and larer. from 1816 to 1823. as covoy to the Vatic:m), set about banning the Livian lcgcnds from thc province of history. In [heir place he set a "hisrory of Rome in broad. dear outlines, free from vexatious divcrsity, de pictc:d with vivid truthfulness," as h e expressed ir in the second edition's dedication to King Frc:derick William 111 of Prussia. üf course Niebuhr. under the influence of the Homeric song theory of the philologist F. A. Wolf, admitted an unfortunate speculation by accepting the hypothesis of the existence of old Roman epic song5 which had found expression in the Roman legends. Neven:heless, the progress signified by his Roman history was enonnous. Tbc earlier Roman h!story, a field which lacked great historical dynam ism, offcrcd in return great reward for methodical analysis. Ir was freed for the first time by Niebuhr from [he Coot of duSt with
Tbc HinoTy of tbc Study of Antiquity
"
which it had been covered by myth and a tradition reaching into the the 19th ccntury. Under the hands of Niebuhr. the politician among scholars. Roman history c:.l.mc llllew to light, in spite of the enonnous time which separated the era of the Tarquinii from that of Napoleon. The influence of Niebunr on 19th-century historiCllI science is characterized by the words of his countryman, Theodor Mommsen: "Withou[ exception, all historians-as Car as they are worthy of the name-are Niebuhr's pupils, and not least those wllo do not profess tO be of his school." After Niebuhr's pioneering work, if one wanted TO rackle a new synthesis of ancient Roman history. thete were only [WO ways tO make advances: by drawing on jutisprudence, which pennits an interpretation of earlier conditions hy inferenccs from later govem mental institutions; and by inquiring into the ditect evidence of the past, especially insctiptions. It is symbolic that one of the stu dents listening to Niebuhr's lectures :Ir the newly established Uni versiry of Betlin was the legal hisrorian Friedrich Karl \'on Savign)', whose advice [he historian ffC{juendy followed in writing his Roman history. The invesngation of Roman law and its signifiCllnce in the life of the Roman sTate, as weil as dIe ediring of Roman inscriprions. werc the grcat tasks which Theodor Mommsen (ISI7-lgoJ) set fot himself. The imposing rise of German classical studies in the 19th ct!ntury is inseparably bO\md up wirh his name. A driving urge to\\-':ttd the vivid rcalization of the past was native to Mommsen as tO Niebuhr. From his experience of the Napoleonie era and from his belief in the tecmergence of the Prussian state. Mommscn's great predeeessor had drawn the strengrh for portraying Roman hismry. So also !\lommsen, although primarily a scholar, remained deep in his hc:art always a politician. a fighter for right and frcedom and the ideals of his youth-even when the foundation of the German em pire by Bismarck seemed to have fulfilled his patriotic yeaming. Thc soil of the Schleswig-Holstcin borderland, the experienee of thc: [848-1849 baede for libeny in tlle norehern frontier distnct, together with the knowledge of foreign eountries gained by exten sive travels in Franee and Ttalr, the gift of speaking and think ing in their languages-all this made Mommsc:n the man as hc: a ll pears to uso He was a prinee in the kingdom of knowledge, an ardenr politician who never fcarcd to swim against the eurrent, a man with an awc:somc: breadth of vision, created like nn one eise
Start of
Tb� Hinory of th� Study of Amiquitl
for [he direction of a scholarly organization on a lar;ge-scale. Mommsen's lifework always shows him as a lawyer, advancing through research in Roman law to a comprehensive conception of Roman anriquiry. Ir was given only tO him to placc in the proper light the Roman aehievemenrs in law and statecraft, and thereby to da justice to the unigue Roman achievemem for human civiliza rion. Among the edueated. the farne of Thcodor Mommsen rests abovc all on his R6111ische Geschichte, which appeared in [hree volumes in 1854-1856. Ir is a genuine document of politically oriemed history, filled wirh sympathy and amiparhy, illusrtated wirh manifold paralleIs {rom his own time, :md written in an un precedemedly modem style. Here for the first time an invcstigator tried to answer the qucstion why the Roman element became sov ereign in Ihlly. Mommsen concluded that Rome had "more suc cessfully, more seriously, and more luckily held fast to a unity of thought than any other Italie district," and that she owed her great ness to this absolute drive toward centralizarion." The nature of his own times explains why Mommsen did not do justice ro the role oE the crearive pcrsonality in construcring the Roman domination oE the world-not c\'en oE so Ilnique a personaliry as Caesar, whose portrait he painted in luminous colors, although in Ihe final analysis he conccived oE Caesar as a product of his environment.t The third volurne of the RÖ1lliube Gcrchichte ends with the batde of Thapsus (46 B.c.); a founh volume never Eollowed. In 1885, thiny years after [he unfinished masterwork, Mommsen puhlished a fiflh volume, a description of the Roman provinces from Caesar to Diocletian. This volume documcnts its author's skill in making ehe inscriptions speak, therehy giving a unified cultural picrure oE a world for whose sciemific explorntion Momt=en's lifelong effort brgely bid the groundwork. Mommsen's significance as a scholar rests main1y on two achieve mems: the R6misches StaatSTecbt5 and fhe Corpus Imcriptionu71l Latinarum (abbr. CIL). Today many of Mommsen's works-the hibliography of Zangemeister and Jacobs lists 151}-migh[ be for gotten, hut the CIL, whose plan Mommsen laid out and carried through against detennined resistance (with hdp from thc Prussian Academy of Sciences), will remam. This monumental corpus oE RömiJche Gescb;chrc T, '00. 1U. 468 • Tbe thrce·volume work /ir:;tappeared ,87,-,888. 3
� I bid.,
•
The HistOTY 0' the Study 0' Amiquity
'3
LaIin inscriprioru from the entire Roman world (in sixteen folio volumes, ro which were added a series of supplemenury fasddcs) prescnrs an enormous amounr of material eonvcnicnrly arranged by provinees and eountries of the R oman Empire. Thc eredir for it is dut in first place tO Theodor Mommscn, wha had eoneei\'ed the plan in 1845 during his meeting with the old master of Roman epigraphy, Count Battolommeo Borghesi, and who remamed tme tO it tO the end of his life. No eodified eonstirutional law exisred in andent Rome. Ir was during rhe disorders of the Gracchan revolution that, for the first time in Rome, the constituuon was discussed in order tO use the results as a weapon in rhe day-tO-day political struggle. Mommscn daringly extracted ftom anciem ttadition-as W. Weber has said, wirh " rhe power of legal creativity of areal Roman"-Roman public law and systematizcd it. This was a d ccisive advance over rhe pre Mommsen prnctice of simply coJlecring and registering legal and political facts of the aneiem world. For the first time wirh legal prccision Theodor j\lornrnsen defined and set forth the significanee of rhe magistracy and of the imperiu1II. The very spirit of Rame seerns here tO have creattd a system of publie law eorresponding closdy to Roman eonstirutional rhinking. The Römischer Strllfrecht supplemenrs the Rümisc/)cs Stalltsrecht. In thi� work, finished very 1ate in his life (IB99),l\lommsen pointed OUt that the basic pilbr of Roman eriminal law was the magistratc's power to intlict pun i lly the famous ishmem (coercitio). Moreover, rhe work, especa seetion on death penalties (pp. 911 ff.), is a significanr eontJibution to cultural history. E.xploration oE the emire aneient Roman world was the goal whieh Theodor Mommsen kept always before his eyes. Besides a Römische ChT01lologie bis auf Girat (1859) and a Geschichte des Tömischen Mümwesens (1860), his caceful editions of later hisrorians and legal sources broke the trail to a better lmowledge of the transirional period from Antiquity tO the !\'liddlc Ages. Jordanes, Cassiodorus, the Chronicil lI1in01(1, the Digest, the Codex Tbeodosiamls (pub lished posthumously in 1904) are documents of this effort. Juris prudence. epigraphy, and numisrnarics were freed frorn their roles as auxiliary seiences and were placcd 3r the cemer of attenrion. Mommsen mastered their techniques as completely as he did those of philologi cal interpretation. Compared wirh his towering figute all other historians or the 19th
C>PY'
xl
'4
Tbe History o{ the Study o{ Amiquity
century pale, wirh the one exception of Leopold von Ranke, whose [0 other .6.elds. Mommsen's wode, however, rem:ains the unconte:ned pinnacle in the srudy of Roman history; alI modem research, including that whieh has dcvcloped beyond hirn, stands on his shoulders. It is primarily duc to Mommsen [hat the study of Roman govemment :and history, sinee thc second half of the previous ccornry, has undergone a decisivc, methodologieal life work was applied
deepening, whieh disringuishes ir even today so favorably from the ohen shakily constructed hypotheses in ather provinces of anciem srudies. especially in that of aneiem ustern hiswry, :and panly in chat of Grcck hisrory. In Mommscn's Jouth, in the tim ha lf of the 19th ccnrury, a sc rions transformation was cffected in ancicnt studies. We see ir today as a break with the classiciscic-aeStheticizing attitude to Anriquity, that is, wirh the auirude characterized hy the intdlecual movement for renewal of neohumanism. The Romanric movement created a new basis espccially for a fruitful concern with [he Orient. Already the 18th century had produced an extensive uavelliternrure; ir was the sign of a new feding for life. The ardent desire. nourished by romantic currems, for the intellecrual world of [he East, [he coo tacu whieh Napolcon's Egypdan expcdidon brought aoom, al1 con tributed to the basic trnnsformation of the one-sided, classical pic rure of Antiquity. The rum toward a oew, history-based picture of the anciem world was proclaimed in rhe euly work of a son oe a Pommernnian pastor, Johann Gustav Droyscn (1808-1884). espc Ci.11[y in his Geschichte Ale:Cll71ders (I 8n). New, even revolutioo ary. was Droysen's appreeiation of Alexander, whorn he viewed as one of the greatest bringers of civilizanon to maokind. Influenced by [he Napoleonic expericnce. B. G. Niebuhr. on [he commy. had marked Alexander aS a Iarge-SC:Ile brigand and poseur. In rhe world movement bcgun by Alex:l.ndcr Droysen 53W rhe embodimene of [he crearive genius (in Hegel's sense), rhe pc:rfccter and enforeer of world Jaw. Never befote had the history of Alexander been seen from his own viewpoint. The judgmem oE [he "'hcedonian kings Philip and Alexander by Demosthenes was and is, in spite of Droy sen, still the amhoritative view for pan of the scholarly world. as is shown by ehe Englishm:l.n George Grote's History of Greece (sec pp. 18 f.), Amold Schader's erudite work Df11/OHbener rmd reme Zeit (cd. z, 1885-1887), and even Wemer Jaegcr's De11l0f thenes: The Origin Il1Id GrQ'Wtb 01 His Poliey (Berkeley 1938).
Tbe History of tbc Study of Amiquily
"
Undeterred, Droyscn continued the same way in his Geschichte des Hellenismus (1 vols., 1836-1843). He did not, however, rcach his goal, to bridge [he cra from Alcxandcr to Cacsar. Nevenheless, [he description of the firstcenrury after Alexander's death-the work breaks off wich 22 I n.C.-is a landmark in [he invcstigaeion of An tiquity. Droyscn deseroyed for ehe first time the framework oE ehe classical age; ehe age oE Hellenism-with which term Droysen, in opposition to the old usage, labcled thc fusion of Greek with Otien tala_was recognized to bc of cqual historical rank and was appre ciated for its world-wide effecr on chssical civilization. The bridge was laid irom ehe world of classical Greece to that oE the Roman Empire. Ic is no accidenc that Droyscn's early work belongs to a time when the bases fot a methodical investigacion of aneien! Eastcm languagcs werc laid. This was aehievcd by the Gennan Georg F. Grotcfend, who prcsented to the Göttinger Gesellschaft der Wis senschaften on September 4, 1801, the first attempt at deeiphering the old Persian cuneiform writing o f the Achaemenids, aod the Frenchman Jean Fran90is Champollion Ie Jeune (1790-1831), who worked out the bases of the system of hieroglyphic writing from a trilinguai stone {rom Rosetta, which contained an Egyptian, priestly decree oE 196 B.C. in hieroglyphics, demorie, and Greek. T Many decades of strenuous work in Babylonian-Assyrian and an cient Egyptian srudics were needed before a sound seicntific basis for these languages could be Iaid. In the smdy of cuneiform writ ing, in addition to the ßriton Sir Henry Rawlinson, the Gennan scholars Eberhard Schrader, Friedrich Dclitzsch, Benno Lands berger, and \Volfram Freiherr von Soden, should be mentioned wirh respeer. The Be;!in schoot, under the direction of Adolf Er man (d. 1937), aehie\'ed dccisive advances in the knowledge of the strucrnre of the Egyptian bnguage arld ils different pcriods. The decisive impulse to overcome neohumanism was furnished by the systematic excavacions. Gradually setting in during the first half of the t9th cenrury, excavarion acrivity received an enonnous scimulus from the extsaordinary success of the outsider Heinrich 8 Dropen's tenn "He!1enism" is b�ed On an erroneous interp�nrio n of Acu 6.1, where the '"Hdlcnim" ('E.v,�"'<>"T";) an: contfllS1:ed with the Hcbrews. The "Hellenim" herr: :Ir<: peopl., of Greek culture and nOt. lS Dro�'scn thnught. Oricnt�l Creeks. T LUlr�,; M. D�ci", Sept. 'i, .8u.
"
Tbt HmOTY
of the Study of A7IIiquity
Schliemann in Troy (Hissarlik), Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orcho menus (frorn 1871), as weil as from the Start of the excavations at Olympia by the Gennan government (from 1875). The monopoly of philology on thc study of Antiquity was thercby brokcn, and archeological invesriglltion taok its place beside thc intcrprerntion of classical texts. All civilized nanons have increasingly taken part in excavations. Thc findings have benefittcd the prehistory and early history of the Mediterranean area (e.g., chis holds true especially for the excavations of [he British under A. Evans, from 1899. in Knossos on Cn:te) and the history of the anciem East, as much as [hey have our knowledge of Greco-Roman antiquity. The Ger man excavations at Boghazköi in the loop of the Halys River (in a:ntral Anatolia)-from 1906, fust under the dirt-crion of Winckler, thcn under Otro Puchsteinj (rom 19P under Manin Schede and Kurt Bittcl-inrroduced a new period to the smdy of the andent Near EaSt; the find of the stare archives at ChattuSa!, the old capital of the Hitrite empire, and the recognition of the Indo-European structurc of the Hittite language by B. Hrozny (1915)' made it possible to recognize the Hittite people and state as Indo-European and to classify their civilization as a ßew component of the Nur E:lStem history of [he Strond millennium B.G. Ir was an especial stroke of luck, in thc decadcs which wcre decisive for transfonning and broadening the picture of the andem world, thar one investiga ror, after his prepar:nory tr2ining and qualification, was ready to as similate the new, amorphous findings aod ro fonnulate them into a composite picrure. This was the young native of Hamburg, Eduard Meyer (1855-[930). The idea of a universal history of Antiquity had already been advocated by others, such as the Tübingen his rorbn, Alfred von Gutsehmid, who WllS much advanced for his time. Bur it was Eduard Meycr, wirh his Guchichu d�! Altertlt1m, which began to appear in [884> who first taekled rhe great task of writing a comprehensive history of the ancienr world, based on uniform, crincal scrutiny of all saurce materials. The self-evident demand for linguistic mastery of the written sources for dassical antiquity, Greek and Roman hisrory. was carried o\'cr by Eduard Mcyer to the wide fic1d of the ancient East. He thus became the I Hroznj' 3chieved 3ß cpoch-making discovcry by thc later famous sen tence; 1Ju·NINDA-.m ("'..AI""; ",,,d,,rmtJ dmll!71;. All th�t was known was NINOA, [he Su,,,erian.Akkadian idoogr:ltll fOT "br<:ad," and the 3Ccus:nivc cnding _.m. The translation iso "And ye cal brcad and yc drink watee."
Th� Hittory of tht Study of Antiqfli:y
'7
real founder of the universal historiography of Antiquity. Admit tedly he abandoned the work uncompleted; he could not ponray, in the frame of his Geschicbte des A/urrmlls, the greae change signified by the Jives of Philip TI of Macedon and his son. Even the leaming of Eduard Aleyer had its limits: the results of n i vestigation of the I-littite language carne too late for hirn, and he never found the elose relation tO Assyriology which he had to Egyptology, the basic study from which his later work proceeded. Nevertheless, the sciemific achievemem of his Gerchichu des A l tertums is staggering. It was Eduard Meyer who laid the foundacion, based on primary 5Ources, for the periodz i ation of Egyptian history, wirh in; high points and its periods of decay; it was Eduard Meyer who was one of the first to recognil.e the significance of the Indo European element in the Near Eastern world; and it was he, more cornpetent than any other due eo his intensive concern wieh ques lions 01 religious history, who pursued the greal rnovements in the sphere of sp iritual lift and showtd their plaet in ancient history. In his last ycars Eduard Meycr rccognil.ed that ie was the in flucnce of B. G. Niebuhr which had pushed hirn toward the con certion of ehe universal history of Antiq uity. The key here was Niebuhr's Vorträge über Alte Gescbichte (published by Nicbuhr's son Marcus, [84 7-[�8). in which the crcatot of elassical Roman history had given a skerchy present:luon of the history of the clas sical world down to the batde of Actiurn (31 Re.) bascd on the Historiae Phi/ippicae of Pompcius Trogus. The [880's were of incisive significance for the dcvelopmem of the separate branches of anciem history. In [886 appcared Julius Beloch's study of the popubtion o( the Greco-Rom:m world, in which lor the first time with the hclp of modern mcthods impor tant basic questions were discussed. such as the questi on of ehe size of population and its significance for the course ol history. In the s�me decade 3ppeared the firsr p<1pyrological works of Ulrich Wilckcn (1862-1944). They were prccursors of many larger srud ies, including his Griechische Ortraka alls ÄgyptC1l lind Nubien (1899). The subtitle, Ein Beitrag zur antiken Wirtscbaftrgescbichre, indicates which field gOI the major benefit of his work. Also in classica! philology, ar [he end of the [9th ccntury, the historical method pcrsonified by the towering figutc of Ulrich von Wibmowirz-Moellendorff ([ 848-[93 [) carried off an uncontested victory over classicisrn. Here, too, the intention is no w obvious: fO
"
Tbe Hinory
of the Study
of Antiquity
explain thc creations of c1assical literature by a balanccd considera tion of the encite trndition, even of the imposing monuments of
Amq i uity.
The anempt tO pierure the :mcient world !Jas occasionally Icd to distortions. Roben von Pöhlmann's Geschichte der antikl!1l Kom '11nm;J7I1U! und Sozialismus (1 vols., 1893-19°1), in the second and third edidons tided Geschichte der sozialen Frage und der Sozialis mus in Altertum, shows how deeply the srudents of that generation were enmeshed in contemporary aspirations and ideas, which they believed to have rediscovered in the ancient world. Thc modcrnizing trend is unmistakable also in thc sometimes exceptionaUy emotiol'!al altcrcarion over ancient cconomic modes which grew up benveen the economist frorn Leipzig, Bücher, :md the hisrorians Eduard Mcyer and Julius Beloch. This time the historians wete modemiz ing, and they were frequently right. A document of the modem (this is not to say "modemizing") conception of ancient history is the Griechische Gercbicbteof K. J. Beloch (first ed. in 3 vols., 189311)04; second ed. in 4 vols., two pans to cach, 19I1-1927). A bril liant product of critical erudirion, ie is still the best foundation for modcrn research-in spite of iu often quite willful Ust of sourees. The constandy incrcas.ing material and the refined sciemific work be ing carried on in all civilized countries have C3used it gradually to become impossible for the single student tO have a full view of all of ancient history, Ot even of only Greek history or Roman history. Not by chance did Beloch's GTitcbiIcht Gtscbicbte, which one must praise for its almost compIete presentarion of source material, c10se wirh the peace of Naupacrus (217 RC), and the circumspect Roman history of his Iralian pupil Gaetano De Sanctis (Storia dei Romani, 4 vok, 1907-1960) with the dcsrruchon of Numanna (133 n.G). Both thetefore are incompIete. But chey are among the most signific:mt results of ancient scholarship in the past half
century. Since the middle of the 19th century non-German scholars have eome fonh more frequently with significant works. The English man George Grote's n-voIume History of Greece (1846-1856) is most nearly comparable to Niebuhr's Roman history. The breadth of vision, the cricical sharpness in discussing historical problems, but above all an incorruptible sense of the realities of life make ie one of the moSt impressive historiographieal documents of the past cen rury, despite some one-sidedness caused by GlOte's panisan political
'9
The His/ory o[ /h� Study of Antiquity
views. The many-sided, exceptionally productive Frenchman, Gas IOn Maspcro
(1846--1916), provided 11 model for the invcstigation
of ancient Eastern civilization. His brilliant Hirtoire ancienne der peuples de rOrient c1asriqlle (3 vols., Paris [895-(899) is now
wrongly rclegated 10 oblivion. A whole series of archeologistll and hislOrians won theit spurs ar rhe Ffench excavarions on Delos and ar Ddphi, among them the excellem hislOtbns and cpigraphers
Mauricc Hollcaux
([86[-[9P) and Pierre Roussd ([88[-[945).
French, Italian, and English science can boast of many names on the field of Roman hislOry; among them are E. Albenini, M. Bcs nicr, ). Carcopino, A. Piganiol of France; G. De Sanccis, E. Pais, P. Fraceato, A. iUomigliano of Iealy; F. E. Adcock, M. P. Charles wonh, H. Last, :lOd R. Syme of England. In the srudy of the Hdlenisric age the works of the American W. S. Fcrguson
([8751954) and the Briton \V. W, Tarn ([ 869-'957) are important mile
SIOncs. Social and economic classical hisIOry owe basic invcsrigations
IO the American Tenney Frank and [he Russian Michael RosIOvneff
(1870--[95:). And n i the history of religion the work of the Swede (1874-1967) and the Bclgian Franz Cumont (1869(947) gave strong impulses, Cumont's especiaJly for its knowledge
M. P. Nilsson
of Iranism :md itll elfeet on the 'Veslern world.
Collcctions havc become characteristic of rcccnt historiography. Of these, first place goes to the CI1111bridge Anciem vols.,
1924-1939),
Hislory (12
the first twO volumes of whieh are now appear
ing fascic!e by fascic!e in a second edition. It covers the enormous pcriod from {he beginnings of anciem Near Eastern civilizations to Consrantine the Great, :tnd hence reaches to the bcginning of the
Cllmbridge Medievl1/ History. Published by English historians, it makes use of a !arge, intemational
stalL
By contrast, almost ex·
dusively French invcstigators wete cmployed fot the Histoire
Gener"le, publishcd by GUStave Glott. In opposition to the investigation of knowable and wonh-knowing facts (embodicd at its purest in Beloch's Griecbirche GefCbichte), an orientation developcd during the general intellectual crisis after
\Vorld 'Var I in Germany which ancmplcd to extraCt the intcllec mal content of the classieal world and to usc it fot constroccing a
new \'iew of the world :tnd a new ideal of personality. Classical Grcece was given new life by this imdlectual expericnce. Such a "neohumanistic orientation'" appcared in 0PIXlsition [Q historicism, 'Cf.
Wemcr Ja0S"r, Hum,mj"jscbt
R�d.... und
Aufr:ir::.c (Borlin '9)7).
Tbe History of tbe Study of Antiquity
hut it also pointtd out new paths to the historieal knowlcdge of Antiquity. All ancient smdies, as weil as andent his[Ory, are in debred to \Verner Jaeger (or works of exceptional intellecrual historical insight, such as his Arinotdes (1913) and Paideia (3 voIs., 1934-1947).
Characteristic of recent scholarship is the cnormous broadening that the picrurc o( the andent world has undergone: the ancient civilizations o( lberia and Gaul, the civilizaliollS of the Scytbs and Sarmatians, thc connections of the classica! world wirh the Far East, wich China and India, ha\'e been brought to the attention of scholars cspedally by the recent excavauons. This larger picrure has rcsulted in new perspecrives and in some new methodologiC31 demamis yef to be mastercd. Now the incorporation of pcripheral pcoples and culrures will lead, jUSt as onee rhe discovery of the an dem East did lead, ro a gradual ttansformation and enIargemcnt of the srudy of anden! history. In contrast tO these clearly apparent universalist tendendes, there olten appears a powerful urge to an intensive spedalization., which has led nearly [0 rendering independent such separate areas of re search as epigraphy, papyrology, and numismarics. General works have beton":: I"3rl:: Gact'::lno Dc Sanctis' Sroria dei Grrci dalle origini alla fine deI ucolo V (1939), Manin P. Nilsson's Gescbicbre det griechischtm Religion" (1 \·ols., 1941-1950), :md Michael Rostov neWs Sodat and Econ011lic HistoTY o( the Hellenirtic World (3 vols., 1941) sum up the Iifework o f these scholars, and will indicate the r�arch of the comjng generation. The rask of today's students of Anriquity is not to lose sight of the forest for the trees and to prc serve the underlying unity of ancient history. BIBLlOGRAPHY
An older, comprehensive survey is K. J. Neumann, EntwicH!mg und Aufgaben det Alttm Geschichu (Strassbu r 19 (0); especially g wonhwhile among reeent work is A. Momigliano, "SuHo St;1to presentc degli srudi di Storia antiC3 (1946-1956)," in Relazioni dei
X CongreSIo Intern. di Scie1lZe Storiche
VI (Rome 1955), 3 ff.;
cf. {unher his "La forma,jone della modema storiografia sull' Impero Romano," in Contriimto alla storia degli smdi dass;ci (Romc 1955), 1°7-1<4 (first pub!. 1936). 101n Müllff. The mird edioon of volume one �ppcned in 10;167, and Ihe sc:cond oi volume rwo in '0;16'.
Tbe WSIOr] of lbe Study
of A1Itiquity
STUDIES OF A:->CIE:-IT
H1STORY 1:-> THE RENAISSANCE: G. Voigt. (ed, 3. 1893; repr.•
Die Wiederbelebung des kloniscben Altertums I
vols.• Ikrlin 1960). \Vorthwhile for the history of the study of ancient history are [he phi l ological histocies, among which are W. Kroll, Gesch. d. klars. Philologie (Sallmdu1lg Göschen, ed. :, 1910), R. Pfeiff�r, Hirtory o{ elassical Scholarship (Oxford 1968), from (he beginnings ro [he end of the Hellenisrie period, and U. v. z
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Gesc/J. d. Philologe (in Gercke-Norden 1.1; cd. :, 1960). Cf. also M. \Vegncr, Altmumtkunde (Orbis Acade1l/iclIs, Freiburg i. Br. and Munich 1951): a coUection of i
documents wirh rclaled reXI, esp<:ciaUy importanr for archeological study. Tntcresting is A. Momlgliano, "Ancient History and the
Antlquarian," in COllrrihuto al/a storia deg/i studi c1assici (Rome 1955), 67-106: note especially the connection of anriquarian srudies with 17th century skcp ticism (Pyrrhonisrn). On Niebuhr: U. Wilcken, Gedächmirrede /tuf B. G. Niebubr (Bann 1931); E. Kornernann, "Niebuhr und der Aufbau der rörn. Gesch.," HZ 145 (1931), 177 ff.; H. Bengrn)O, "B. G. Niebuhr und die Idee der Univers2lgeschichl� des Altenurns," JVi irzherjter Rektoratrrede 1960; and S. Ry[könen, B. G. Niebubr aIr Politiker ulld Historiker (Hclsinki 1968) .-On J. G. Droyscn: F. Meincekc, in Staat und Persönlicbkeit (Berlin (933), 98 ff.j :md H. Berve in [he imroduction to the ncw edition of Droysen's Geschichte Ale:c� tmders (Sa1lnlllung Krö11I!T, Leipz.ig 1 9 3 ' ; new cd. 1941).-On T. Mommscn: L. \Vickcrt, Theodor Monn/Isen ( : \'ols., Frankfurt a. M. 1959-1964). Extraordinary is [he codicil to Mommsen's will, recordcd by hirn on September z, 1899: H. Bengtson, WG 15 (1955), 87 ff.; see also A . \Vucher, Tbeodor Mmlnllsen. Geschicbts� schreihung {md Politik (Göttingen (956). and A. Hcuss, TbeodoT MOImmen und das 19. labrlnmdert (Kiel 1956), and the review of the latter by A. Momigliano, Gnomon (1958), 1 ff. Tmportant for "-Iommsen as a scholar is Mmml11N/s Brie{'UJecbrei mit U. ..... lVila1l10'Wirz (Berlin 1935). For a catalog of Mommscn's corrc� spondence see C. Zangcmeis ter and E. Jacobs, Tb. Mmm1lSe11 alt SclJriftHeller (Berlin 1905).-On Eduard Meyer: H. Marohl, Meyer, Uihlio?,Tapbie (m;r Ahdntck der GedJchmisrede U. lVi/ckf!1ls) (Sruttgart 1941): W. ütto, "Ed. Mcycrund sein Werk." ZDMG N.F. 1 0 ( 1 93 1 ). 1 tL-On Georgc Grote; A. Momgliano, "Geotgc Grote and the SOld)' of Greck History," in COllrri/mto nUa storia deg/i studi c1asrici (1955), Z 1 3-2 3 I .
Ed.
TIIl: Dl:\'EUWMF.NT OF F.GYI'TOI.oGY "ND CUNElt'OR�1 STUDIES:
K. SeIhe, Die Ä.l:yptolo?.ie; Zweck, 11I!Jll/r mut Bedetltll1ljt dieser 1Vissellscbaft rmd Deutschlamts Ameil at/ ihrcr Ellru,icklung (AO
C>py'
xl
Tbe History of the Study of Antiquit y
23.1; Leipzig 19H); B. Meissner, Die Keilschrift (Sal1nllllmg Gös chen 708; ed. 3 by K. Oberhuber, Berlin (967); oldcr studies are nO(ed n i K. Wachsmurh, Einleitung in dM Studium derAlten Gesch. (LeilYdg 1895), 399 ff.; for recent work see E. Linmann, Der deutsche BeitTIIg zur Wissenschaft vom Vorderen Orient (Stun
gart
:md Berlin 1942), especially for rhe results of Semitic srudies, and J. Friedrich, "Deutschlands Ameil an der Erschliessung der Keilschriftsprachen," in Der Orient i7J deutscher Forsclnmg, ed. H. H. Schaeder (Leipzig 1944), 57 ff. THE PEVEWl'.\'ENT 01' ARCHEOLOGY; F. Koepp in Müller I (Munich 1939), 1 I ff., which contains as a supplemem a chrono logical survey of the most important excavalions. For a character sketch of H. Schliemann cf. Erncsr ""eyer's edition of the Briefe von Heinrich Schlif.>1/limn (Berlin and Leipziß' 1936), and his Hein rieb Schlif.>1l1illlT/: Briefwechsel (1 vols., Berhn '953-[958). Worth rcading also isSchliemanp's autobiography (cd. 9, ·Wiesbaden 196[). Thc biography of Thcodor Wiegand by C. Waninger (Munich 1944) givcs an imercsling segmem of the history of modern archeol ogy. A readable summary of chis history by an expert s i A. Rumpf, Archaeologie I-lI (Sal1nnlung Göschen 538, 539; [953). A popular treatment is W. Ceram (psr:udonym for K. Marek), Gods, GTlltler, II1Id ScholaTr, which h�s gone through numerous editions here and abroad. Among scholarly wodes cf. A. Parrot, Dfcollverte des mondes C1/sevelis (Neuchatel-Paris [951; tr. E. Hudson, New York 1955), and, on the aTcheological finds of the past [50 ycars, W. Wolf, Funde in Ägypten (Göningen [966). UC\VATIONS IN MESQPQTAMIA; V. Christian, AlterttnllS Inmde des ZweistromJandes I (Leipzig 1940), I ff., alld J. Jordan, "Leisrungcn und Aufgaben der deutschen Ausgrabungen n i Vor_ deren Orient," in Der Orient i n deutScher Forschung, ed. H. H. Schaeder (Leipzig [944), n8 ff.; A. Parrot, Arcblologie mesopo ta-mienne (1 vols., Paris 1946-1953).
__
III
__
The Fundamental, of the Study of Ancient History
I . C H R O N O t. O G Y
Chronology, thc scießet of reckoning time, has been callcd thc "cye of history." All history takes place in time, aod nothing has the same basic imponance for the judgment :lod the historical classi fication of evcots as cstablishing their temporal �quence. Ooly whcn this is fixed can an el/ent be included in a c:lUsarive association. Whoever takes 00 account of temporal sequence violatcs a basic Iaw of thc seiencc of history. Chronology has {Wo ras}es: TO detennine the tempot'al relation which hisrorical facts bear to cach othcr (rdative chronology) , aod ieal event {rom thc standpoint ro establish thc distancc of an histor of the observer (absolute chronology). In hisrorical judgmcnt, for insrance, it is of basic m i ponancc to know [hat thc batdcs of Plataca lmd Mycale were fought in 479 B.e., and that the foundation of the Delian Lcague occurred only in 478/477-the carlier barrlcs are simply the historical prerequisite, (he basis of rhat union. Their tem poral relation, the rdach'e chronology, is of fundamental signifi
cancc. Anothcr eJ<�mple from Creek history: the: founJing oI rhe
Corinthian Leaguc, {hat great Pan-Hellenic organiution for pcace
effccted by the Macedonian king Philip II in 338/337 B.e., and the beginn ing of [he "P:m-Hellenic war o f revcngc" against Persia bcgun by Philip 11 in 3 3 6 Re., are two events which only are phecd in the right light by their relative temporal positions. In order to dctermine the dist:mcc of individu:al events frorn his own standpoint (thcrcfore, to ascert:lin the absolute chronology), 'J
C>py'
xl
'4
Tb� Fundll11lent�ls
the historian, Hke anyone else, employs the currcnt reckoning of time by yeaI'5, momhs, :tnd days. Thc difficulties begin when ooe transfers these terms of modem chronoJogy to Antiquity. Modern chronology is based on the Grcgorian calendar, intro� duced in 1;81 by Pope Grcgory XIII :tnd gradually accepted almost universally. Its structurc gocs back ta the Julian calendar, namcd after C. Julius Caesar. Both calendars reckan the nonnal yeu at 36; days :tnd add one day, an "intercalary" day, cvcry four years. Thc novc!ty of the Gregorian ca1endar, in COntrast ta thc Juli:m. is that in a space of 400 years [htee of these imercalary days are omined (1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800, :lnd 1900 werc not) . Thercby the modern calendar yeu almost exacrly corresponds to an astronomieal year, whose average length is 365.2410 days. Did Antiquity also posscss a system of ehronology, a "calendar," whieh hall gradually reaehed univeml recognirion, � has [he Greg orian calendar? The quescion can be answered affinnaovely for a part of Antiquity-and only for that part: during the course of the Romm Empire the Caesarian (Julian) calendar refonn pushed OUt all other systems in the Larin \-Vesr and in the Greck Easr. Before Caesar's rdonn (ir beg:m January I , 45 B.C.) we an: faced wirh problems: there were almost as many cakndars and "eras" (chronological systems which began their COUnt from a fued poinr) as there were peoples, states, and eides. The calendars were lunisobr ones detennined empicically; the noteworthy exception is the ancient Egyprian calendar, oriented around rhe bright star Sirius. Only the most important types of chrono!ogy in Anriquity can be mentioned here. The rime-reckoning of the aneient Egyptians had the most far-rcaching effecc; even the Gregorian calendar-via the Julian calendar-goes back to ie. The emire life of the ancient Egyp [jan pcasants was detennined by [he Nile; it gOt irs rhythm from [he aunual summer flooding of the Nile, caused by [he monsoon produced summer rainfall in Abyssinia and Equatorial Africa.' Ac cordiug tO the Gregori:m calendlf the flood occurred in the middle of June. The "Bringer of the Nile" appearcd tu rhe ancienr Egyp tians to bc the bright star Sirius. the star of Sothis, whose first rising in [he dawn (heliacal rising) usually marked the onser of the flood-
'For the theories of Anti'l";ry, see W. Capd!�, NJA
A. Reh",. RE XVII, 57' ff. s.v. "Nilschwe!lc:'
JJ
( '908), }17 ff.;
•
Tbc FliTldamc1ltait
's
ing of the Nile. One or
[WO
generations' observation of the Aood's
appearance couIJ Imve led tO ascertaining the "Nile year,"� whieh on the average amounted to
365 days. One modem sehool of re
search maintains in f3ct th3t at first the measure of time derived from astronomical observation of thc rising of Sirius was sccondary, tO some extcnt
as
a COffcctive,
to
th�t derived from the observation
of the flood.a Acrually, !,!owever, Ihere is scanty differenee between the "eiviI" year of
365 days, based on observation of the Nile's 365 [/4 d�}'s; neverehdess, in the
Aood, and the "Sotruc" year of
course of lengthier periods of time the difference must have h�d a
considerable effeet. The d�y of the rising of Sinus, whieh eor responded ar the beginning of astronomiC:ll observation with the
appear:lI1ce of the flood, passed through all the days of thc year in
a period of [461 eivil years, whieh eorrespond 10
1460 Sorhic years,
whieh equal a Sorhic eyele. Thus. the Sorhic rising fell behind the eivil year ebom one day in every fonr yens, so that on!)' in A.D. 140/143' and [ 3 2 [ / 1 3 [8. 278[/2778, and 424[/4238 RC.,. the be ginning of the civil war coineided with the he1iaca! rising of Sirius.
If onc accepts an offieial introduction for the aneient Egyprian
calendar-which, howe\'er, is not neeessarV-lhen it musr ha\'e taken
plaee at the beginning oE a Sorhie eyele::md speeifically at a time
when one may assume an already special knowlcdge of astronom)' in Egypt. The year 'P4', {ar back in Egyptiao prehistory, is thus
eliminated (in spire of Eduard Mey�r, who to the eod 3dvoeat�d this
early date for the introduetion of the Egyptian calcndar). A. Scharff, above all oth�..., has repeatedly favored '78[ (or '776), rhe be ginning of the next cyde.' This estimate appea... to be the earliest legitimare ooe, espceially beeause we now possess more Sorhic dates
'For doubts abaut the �cceptanee of a Nilc rcor, �e H. E. \Vinlo.:k. "The Origin of the Egyp,ian Colcndar," PAPhS 83-3 ( 1 940), H7 ff. •nd "I. P. Nils son, Act� Orinllnli3 '9 ( 194 ' ) 1 ff. On the mlter .ide see tlte rcply of O. ' ff. Ne"Sch.uer.INE.<> , ('9�')' JQ<\ a O. Ncuscbauer. Acta OrientJlia '7 (T93S), T!i9 ff. • Accordmg to Ccnsorinus. De die lIJMli 1 1.10. howel·er. [39/ '41. I The numbers .ccording [0 Eduud ,'1cyer's "cyclical" recknning, .mong which are [he 1stronomie.l ""tim",,:s (which .tune con be authorintivc), difTcr • linie. Following L. Borchardt, they ore, 4136. 1776. '3 ,B B.C.; foUow· ing}. J\hyer, A
"
Tbe Ftmdtrmentills
from tbc Middle Kingdom, namely for the time after 2100 B.C. One cannot, howevcr, encirelr exclude the beginning of thc neXI So thie erele, I P I1I 3 1 8 RC., thc so-called era a'ITo Mel'o"'p(w�" ThaI thc ancient Egyptians firmly held ro [hei! n i constant yeu, in spite of observing thn it in no way coincided wirh thc seasons the Egyptian priesthood dcfeated a reform proposed by Ptolcmy 1II l tbc te1l3city witb whieh thc peasants in Z38 B.C.-only underines and the protccrors of theie traditions, thc priesthood, prcserved the time-honored arrangemems. This is an impressive example of tbe stfcngth of tradition in the life of a nanon of the ancient world. i scriptions whieh make the calendar of Athens n Ir is mainly n i thc classical and Hdlerustic periods the best known of the manr Grcek calendars. There were ewo merhods of reckoning che ycar in Arhens: one was basc:d on prytanies," rhat is, on the "administr.l. tive year" of 366 days; rhe orher was based on rhe moon, rcsulring in a 354·day civil yeu, whose adjusnnent wirh the rrue seasons, namely with the course of [he sun, was made by intercalaring a sec· ond rnonth Poscideon." Tbc researches of W. K. Pritchett and O. Neugebauer'� ha\'e shown ehat by making rhe prytany year equal [he civil year (i.e., from the end of the fifth cenrury B.C), rhe prytany year was rightly controllcd, while the length. of each lunar momh was set exdusively by observation of lunar phases. As long as Arhens had ren phylae and ren pryt;1nics, down to 307 S.C, the fim through rhe fourth prytany each had )6 days :md the fifth through temh had 3S days each if the year was a regular one; or, if it was a [eap year, they had 39 and 38 days respectively. It is clear that the discrcpancy benveen rhe administrative year and the civil year in Arhens was attcnded by a scries of difficulties which rhe Arhenians "ever really mastercrl-as, for cxample, the eITon in inscriptions demonstrate. Tbc institution of the 1 1th and I zth phylae in 307 B.C. in honoe of the monarchs Antigonos Monophthalmos and Dcmetrius Poliorkctcs brought wirh it the grear advantage that T Cf. \v. Stcm·c, Z�ilscbrifl f. iigYPI. Spr4cbl' 63 (19.8). 4$ !T.
I]n Athens the $o-m.n c",nmittee (of the Coun<:il ()f 500) which w.s in office for a tenth of ,he yeor was <:.lIed • prytony. 'The Anic months were n:uncd Hekat:tmb.ion (c. July-August), Meta. geimion, Boedromion, Pygnepsion. Maimaktcrion, Poscideon, G.mdion, An thesterion, EI'phebolion. Munychion, Thugelion, �nd Skirophorion. 10 Tbe C4kndilrs o( Alh"ns (Cambridg�, .'hu. 1947); cf. G. Kl3lTcnbach, Gnonlon ( ' 949), "9 ff.
Tbe Fundamentals
'7
the administrative: and civil years now ran parallel, and-exeept for a break dunnS' 213-101 Re. when ehere were 13 phylae-did so unci1 the time of the emperor Hadrian. The Roman ealendar or the pre-impcrial epoch is, in its technical incompleteness. a tcsrimony to the scant attention paid to seiencc in andem Rome. The year had 1 1 montrn (Maniu5, I\laius, Quine tilis, and Oetober with 3 1 days; Ianuarius, Aprilis, lunius, Scxtilis, September, November, and December wirh 29 days; and Februarius wich 28) totaling 355 days. In the e\'en years either 23 or H days were imercalated after the festival of rhe Tcrminalia on February 23. The four-year period resulted rherdore in HS + 378 + 355 + 377 = 1465 days, that is, an average of 366 1 /4 days. Sinee, however, thc eorrcetion was often arhitrarily made, the Rom�n Republiean calendar "wem neither wirh the sun nor the moon, but eompletely wi l d," as Mommsen said. \Vhen Cacsar set the ealendar in order in 46 B.G, 90 days had to bc imercalated. Thus, whcn a date is givcn aeeording co the unrevised., pre-Caesarinn ealcndar, it can be equated with Julian dates-as far as it is possible at all-only by using em pirical mcthods. The various relacionships berwccn the ehronologies and ealen dars of Amiquity an: of grelt significance for cultura] history. For examplc, thc adoption of thc so-caUed Octacteris in Greeec, an eight year eyde of imerealation whieh had its origin in Babylonia, was momentous. Tntroduced probauly as carly as the sCI'enth ecntury B.G (hrough (he influenee of (he Delphie priesthood,U this eight year eyde of 99 mondlS had grcar significance for the Greek ealen dar, insofar as through it the eelcbrations of the indil'idual gods' festil'als were fixcd, (berehy :J.dding tO the life of tbc Greek people an imporram element of unity in opposition ro the eentrifugal politieal splimering of aneicnt Grceee. Also notable is rhe adoption of the Babylonian 19-year eyde of jntercalation, ehe so-called Enneadckactcris (of whieh sCllcn of the 19 ycars were lrap yc� rs: viz. 3, 6, 8, 1 1, 14, 17, 19), by Scleucus I. Ahbough the �cceptanec of tbc neo-Babylonian (Chaldaean) ealendar by the Diadochi may halle been :J. question of external rcasons of expediency, the influence of thc East is incontestahlc. Unfortlln�rcly, the relationship of the well-known 19-ycar eyde of the Atbeni:J.n J\lcton (412 B.G) to the neo-Babylonian eyde eannot be determined; in :I.dditiun, deI( M. P. Nilsson, GeJcb. d. griecb. Religioll I
(eu. 3, lIIunich 19(17), 645.
"
The Frmdtmtentals
termination of the pracrical application of the Metome cyele in Athcns is out of the question.'" Bccausc: Caesar based his atlcndar reform on the Egyptian solar yeat, our prcscm chronology gocs back indircctly to the ancient Egyptians. Thc rcason monarchs wert ar pains to establish a gen" erally accepted calendar is easy co understand: the organization of thc roler eule wirh its sacrifices for the king binding equally on 1111 subjecls is pr:lcTicablc only when b�sed on a unified calendar. Furthcrmore, and chis applies especially tO Caesar, the consrruction of a universal stare requires above all a uniform administration, which is possiblc only wich a uniform calcndar. Viewed from these standpoints, the ancicm chronological and calendric systems are exceptionally meaningful for understanding culmral connections, as weil as for understanding the political aims of theu authors. This aspeet of viewing ancicnt ehronology has not been given the imponanee which ie deservcs. We have four main possibilities for detennining the date of his torical events in Amiquity: ([) notices of celescial phenomena, espeeially solar and lunar eclipses, to the e:nent that onc can success fully determine, wirh the help of modern asrronomy. absolute dates; (1) synchronisms, that ist statements of the simu!taneousncss of evcnts which rook pbce ar different placcs; (3) lists of rulers and eponyms; and (4) eras. From the number of famous celestial phenomena noted in ancient sources, we might here mendon two: the total lunar eclipse of August 27, 4 1 3 Re., whieh in the final analysis causcd rhe failure of the Athenians' Sieilian expedition by thwaning rhe deparrore of Nikias from Sicily, and that of September 10, B I Re., 1 I days before the barde of Gaugameb (Üerober I). Here also belong the Egyprian Sorhic dates, for rhey nore on which day of rhe civil year the hcliacal rising of Sirius was observcd. Thc most famous Sotmc date comes from a papyrus of Illahun in the Fayum. The documenr tcstifie.� tu a date of the morning rising of Sirius in the sevemh regnal year of a king of rhe XIIth dynasty. a specification which, aceord ing to Scharff, Winlock, et al., relates to Sesostris IlI. If this is right, the beginning of the XlIth dynasty can be dated-with a minimal margin of two years-to 199t B.C. The cuneifonn chronicles of Mesopotamia 3re rieh in synchro "Cf. kowev�r A. Rchm, "Par.lIX'gmasrudicn," ABAW 19 (19�1 ).'51 NJA (1941). 13°.
"
Tbc Fundamcntals
nisms. For example, dle "Synchronistic History," which comes from the palace library oE King Assurbanipal in Nineveh (Kujundshik),
gi\'es a conneered presentation of the warn: and the condusions of peace bcrween Assur and Bauel. In the "Bauylonian Chronide" we
have, moreover, a history of Babylonia :md Assyria from 745 to 668 B.C. Cuneiform tablets from the French excavations :lt Mari (Tdl-d-Haridi) on the middle Euphrates have shown that King
Hammurabi, the great lawgiver and ruler of the fiI'S[ dynasty of Babd, was n eonremporary of the Assyri�n king Samsiadad I. Thus Hammurabi belangs
IO
a rime e. '700
B.C. and not, as we Ilscd to
[hink, to the 20th eentury B.e. This synehronism also does away
wirh the gap in Near Eastern history which has pbyed such an
important role too in the hinory of [he Hinite e mpire; and [he gap bcnveen the Old :md New Empire of the H:mi, whieh we fonnerly took to bc more than two ecntllTies, has shrunk by now decades (c. 1 530-1480 B.C.).
TU
a few
There also are nllmerous synehronisms in thc historieal litcfllture of the Grecks and Romans. Polybius pbccs the burning of Rome by
the Gauls in the year of the peaee of Antalkidas and the taking of
Rhegillm by Dionysius I, '9 ycars after the baale of Aigospotamoi, 16 ycars before the batde of Leukrra, that iso in 38i-3S6
Re. For
436 Livy mentions the outbreak of a plague at Rome (Livy 4.H
and 4.�5), whieh ean rder only to the fanlOus epidemic of 430 de· scribed by Thllcydidcs. The conc!llsion, that tbis Li\'ian date is abollt six years too early, is compelling. One can view Lil'ian dares
for the fifth ccurury B.C. perhaps only as the earliest possible dates, whieh cau be redueed up tu six years. Finally, wme aneient syn
ehronisms are only apparent, sueh as the noüce that the battles of Salamis and Himera took place on the same day." ,"Ve are faced
here UOt wirh a [rue synchronisrn, bm a myth of coincidenee, of which modern history, roo, has numerous examples.
Lists of rulers and eponyms prodde im porl'll nt chronologieal pcgs. The Tunn papyrus of thc kingsa stands first among thc sourees for
the history of Pharaonic Egypt; it eontains a list, unfortunately only partly preserveJ, of the Egyptian kings with their years of mle from Menes on. This list comes from the reverse of an account bouk from the XIXth dynasty. Modern research, hO\\'eVef, mis trustS the dates for the early period (ISt ro Xlth dynasties). The I3Thc SOUTOXS �rc in H. Bcngtson, G,;ccb. Getch. (cd. .. Ed. G. Farina, fJ p�pjro dci TC rCJ,a"r�to (Turin 1939).
3,
'965), '78 ß. J.
'0
Tbt Frmdamtntau
kinglisc of ChorsabadlJ is fundamental for the chronology of Assy rian mlers, for ie estabishes l the whole series of Assyrian kings from 3 14 0 to the end of the Assyrian empire, including the dates of ruh: of individuaJ kings; for earlier chronology a difficulty remains, be cause the-dearly ooly brief-regnal dates of AssUN1lbi l and Assur nadin-nabbe I (shonly befoTe 1430) have not becn preservcd. FlOm Roman imperial amts we possess the so-called "Ptolemaie" royal canon (...avrilv ßaO"t:\E"�I'), a list for astronomieal purposes of the regnal dates of Babylonian, Persian, and Ptolemaic kings and of Roman cmperors frorn 747 B.e. to A.D. 160. Some manuscripts extend the list to A.D. 1. 453 .11
The custom of designating individual years wirh the name of a personage comes {rom thc ancient Orient, 00 daube horn Assyria. The eponyms, that is, the perwns after whom individual years are namcd, are callcd lil1mm first in the Cllneiform tablets of the Assy rian commercial colony of Kültepe in Cappadocia. Series of such lil1n1m lins have been preserved from the new Assyrian empire. The Greeks adopred this custom from the ancient Orient (dating by archons in Athens, ephors in Sparta, srephanephoroi in Milerus, et nl.), and in Rome we find individual years named for the consuls. Tied up with the eponyrnou5 lists arc numerous chronological and historical problems, whose 5OIutions are being 50ught by scholars. One of these problems is thc reconstmction of the Attic archon ists l of the Hdlenistic era; n i this connection the mle set up by the Amer ican \V. S. Fcrguson'· of the succession of scribcs-the scribes (ypaJ!J!o.rlis njs ßovATjs) in Athens follow one another annually in the oRicial succession of phylac-has proved a valuable hCIJristic principle also for fixing the succession of archons. In Roman history the credibility of traditional namcs in the con slliar fasti, especially before the Licinian-Sextian laws (367/366 RC.), is undcr discussion. At prcsent one can say that the radical sccpticism about the older parts of the Romm consul list has taday yiddcd to a constructive attitude." Wirh tbis basic problem, which 15 A. Poebcl. INES , ('94')' '47 If.; . (''Xl). S6 If. '.C. \V�ehsmU[h, Einleinmg in das Srudium der Altnl Gesch. ('895), 304 If. Cf. E. 1. Bid:erm3nn, Chr01l01ogy of the Ancie711 World ('968), 81 f. lT Tbc Arbe71i.Jn Archons of the Tbird and Second Ce7ItuTirs B.C. (CorneU StIldies of Class;cal Pbilology. 'iI99); Atbenian TriIJ"J CycJts in tbc Htlltn_ iJtic Agc ('91')· 11 Sec e.g. the remarks of Ernst fIIeyer. MH 9 ( '95'), '76 ff.
"
no one can ger around, are intemvined funher problems, such as thc historicity of the live-year solitudo 7IIagiltTiltuulII referred fO by Livy (6.3.5.10) '5 years after rhe burning of Rome by rhe Gauls. Ir is viewed 2S historic:tl by one group of modem srudcnts (0. Lenze) in opposition to B. G. Niebuhr and T. l\'1ommsen. The eras concern a oononuous numbering of series of years which are reckoned (rom a specified poim in time, the "epoch," even though [his "epoch" may refer fO a tme or fictitious cvem. ThU5 the Selcucid era dates from Dias I , 3 1 2 Re. according to r-.13cedonian reckoning, and from Nisan I, 3 1 I B.C. according to the ßabylonian, whcrcas the Arnlcid era is rcckoned from thc spring of 247 B.C. One of the Roman provincial crns was [hat of the province of Maccdonia, whost "epoeh" was 148 Re. In addition [here are the "freedom cras" of numerous PhO<:nician cities, which begin with theu emancir�tion from the Seleucid empire. Our present system was established by the Scythian monk Dionysius Exiguus, who equated the S3lnd year of the era he reckoned sb incsT1lstione Domini wich the 24Bth ye�r of the Diocle tianic era. In so doing he substituted for the era of the persecutor of the Christians a Christian era. 'Vithin juSt a few decades the new system found universal acccprance in thc \Vcst. In modern cimes Dionysius Pera\'ius (IjB3-16p), me opponent of Scaliger (1540-- 1609), appears to have Ileen the first scholar to use Dionysius Exiguus' Christian era also for the time belore Christ's binh; sinee the I Bth eentury we generally reckon wirh B.C. dates. Thereby a unifonn chronology for world history has b�n acquired, whieh has the drawback for the time before Christ that the mo\'e menr of history is eonnected with a reverse chronology. Ancient chronography begins for us with the name of Eratos thenes of Cyrene (third century B.G), and reaehes a high point in late Antiquity wirh the Chnreh f:arher Eusebius (d. A.D. 338? ). Aneient ehronographie literarure. however. is one gre:at sh�mbles. There is nothing leEr of Eratosthenes' CbrMlogrllphier (XpOIlO'Ypo.
"S�om"ttis I.138.1-3 (FGrH ,,,'.I ).
The Fundnne1ltajs
J'
was rcviscd and continucd to A.D. 378 bythe Church farher Jcrome. Ncvenheless, ir is [0 be used with camion (cf. Jerome's saying on thc opus tu1lmltuartu11l). Finally, ancicnt hisrory is not vcry coDcemed wirh the new tcchnique of rndio carbon dating, inasmuch 2S it is hased on oh servation of the decay of the carbon isotope C 14 and has a consid erablc margin of error. Although useful for prehistory, it has te stricted applicarion to hiswrical limes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
There is no description of anciem Eastcm and Greco-Roman chronology which c\'cn comes dose to doing justicc 10 [he present standard of research. L. ldcler. Hilndbuch der Chronologie (1 vo1s., 18ZS-18:6) and Lehrbuch der Chronologie (183 I ) are obsolete. F. K. Ginzel, Handbuch der Chronologie (Leipzig H}o6-19(4) is usefuL A good oricntarion is givcn by thc summary of E. J. Biker mann, Chronology of tbe Ancient 1V0rid (London (968). M. P. Nilsson, Pri1llithJe Time Reckoning (Lund [920) :md Die
Entstehung und religiöse Bedelltllng des griechischen Kalenders (LI/nds UnhJ. Arsskrift, N.F. Avd. J, Vol. 14. Nr. 2 1 , 1918; cd. 2, Lund (962) deal with the significance of ancicm ways of reckon
ing time for cultuI':l1 history. The most recent compilation of all dates oE :lndent history is in the Canlbridge Anciem Hinory ( Il vols., [924-[939) in the tables ar the back oE each volume. Fascicle 1.6 (1962) of the new edition of Volumes l and lI, wirh the chronology of Egypt, western Asia, and the Aegean Bronze Age, is imponant. Modem works with chronologic:J.1 tables: for andent Oriemal history see A. Scharff :lnd A. Moortg:tt, Ägypten und Vorderasien im Altertum (Munich 1950), 490 ff.; (or Greck history see H, ß�ngtson, Griechische Geschichte (in Müller; cd. 4, Munich 1969) 573 H.; for Roman hisrory see E. Kornemann, IVe/tgescb. des Mitte1111eetTlltmles von Philipp I. von Makedonien bis Muhlmnlled (2 vols., Munich 19481949) and H. Bengc:son, Gnl'11drif1 der rii1llisebm Gesebiebte 1IIit Quellenkunde (Munich 1964), 407 H. See also E. l\1ann� Fasti ellelli rtici e r01llalli (J1J-JI a.C.) (Palermo 1961). ANC1E)<;T EASTER)<; CBRONOLOGY: Fundamental for its time was E. Meyer, Die ältere Chronologie Babyloniens, Arryriens und Ägyptens (Su plement to Vol. I of Gtteh. dtr Altertums, ed. 1, p Stuttgan 193 1). The modem arrangement for the chronology of the andent Easr, especially for the third mi llennium bur also for the first half of the sccond millenium Re. is derived from [he new
The Fundammtals
"
asscssmcnt of Hammurabi (c. 1700 RC.) and from the Assyrian kinglist of ChoTSabad published by A. Poebcl. lmportant modern works: For the shorter chronology (hesides W. F. Albright): F. Corndius, KJio 35 (1942), 1 H.; E. F. Weidner, AOF [ 4 ([944), 362 H.; Emst Meyer, PhjJologus 97 (1948), 355 H.; F. Schmidtke, Der Aufbau der IMbyloll. Chronologie (Orbis Amiqulls 7, Munsrer i. W. 1952); F. Corndius, AOF 1 7 (1954-1956), 294 ff. (definitdy idiosyncratic in the usc of the Vcnus dates of Ammusaduqa, which, howevcr, are not unequi\'ocal).-The longer chronology still has its partisans, especia!1y outside Gemlany: A. Goerze (for whom see below), B. Landsberger, TCUN 8 ( 1954) 3 [ H., 106 H. (I'bmmurabi c. 1900); for an imermedi:lte ehronology see Sidney Smith, Alalakh and Chr01lology (London 1940); also M. ß. Rowron, lNES 17 (1958). 97 H. (Hammurabi 179l-[750). For criticism of the As syrian kinglist see F. R. Kraus, Könige, die in Zelten wohntC1J: BetTllclmmgen über den Kem der IIssyrircbe-n Königrliste (Amster dam 1965). This srndy is important, for jr has raised legirimate douht, Oll the basis of the names, of [he historicity of a part of [he list. The determination of ancient Egyptian chronology owes a great deal ro che German scholar A. Scharff; see his essay on rhe so-calied oldest date of wodd hisrory, HZ .61 (1940), 3 H., and his chrono logie:!l dispo�-ition of the obscure intermediate period berwecn the Old and Middle Kingdoms: "Der historische Abschnin der Lehre für König Merikare," SRA W (1936), fase. 8, pp. 39 ff.; also [he more recent work of his student H. Stock, Die erste Z'tI.·ischell'Zeit Ägypte1lS (in Ana/ectll O,ie1lfl1iil1, S17/dia Aeg),ptj'lca 2; Rome 1949 } .-For the se!:ond intermediatc period, the transition from the J\1idd[e to rhe New Empire, see H. Stoek, Studien ::. Gesch. 11.
Archäologie der '3.
-17. DY7lartie Ägyptenr (Ägyptolog. Forrch. 12, Glücksradt 1941), whose estimues, however, shou!d be redueed
about three to four decadcs, n i asmueh as Stod; was not yet aware of the new estimate of Hammurabi. For the XIXth tu XXth dynas ries: J. \'. Beckerath, Tanir lind Tbebl?1l: Hirtorische Grund/agNI der RMllcrrid..,lzeit 71 ; XgYPt<"11 (Xgyptolog. Forrch. ,6, Glüeksmdt 1951), 103 ff.
All the material on {he ancient Egyptian calendar can now be found in R. A. Parker, Tbe Cillendars of A11ciNIt Egypt (Chicago 195 I), whose accepr:ance of an original lunar-based calendar of rhe Egyptians, however, is hardly tenable; see e.g. E. Drioton and J. Vandier, L'Egypte (in the "Clio" series; cd. 3, Paris t952). ' 5 ff.; J. v. ßecl,erath, "Der ligypt. Ursprung unseres Kalenders," Saecu1um4
(1953), 1-12.
CIIRONOLOGY OF TIIE HITI1TES: H. T. Bossen, Altanatolit:n
Tbe Frmthmemals
"
(Berlin '942), 36 ff. The numbers [here given are too hlgh. Thus, the caprure of BabyIon by MuciiliS r should bc placed not at c. 1600 (Bossen), huc 1 5 3 [ . Tclepinus ruled c. 1480, so his binhday as reckoned by Bosserr, c. '570, is at least about a half century too eady. A. Gocne, abovc alJ, advocates a chronology a full hundred ycars carlier (capNre of Babyion 165'. not 1 5 3 1 ) : BASOR I U (1951), 18 ff.; ib ld. 146 (1957), 20 11.; ICUN 1 1 (1957) , 53 ff.• 6] H.; othcrwise, cf. B. H. Orten, MDOG 83 ('95'),47 ff. TIIE
ASSYRlAN
EPONYMS
(UMMU):
Lists n i Reallericon der
Assyriologie TI, 4' z ff. Neo-Babylonian chronology: Parker and Dubherstein, Babylonian ChTollology 626 B.C.-A.D. 75 (Provi. dence 1956). Chronology of anciem Hebrew history: A. Jirku, Gesch. der Volkes lrrael ('93')' 20 ff.; E. R. Thicle, "The Chronol ogy of thc Kings of Judah and Israel," /NES 3 (1944), 137 ff.; Tbe Mysterious NU7llbcrr of Hebrew Kings (cd. 1, Grand Rapids [965)'
-The number of years of the "Judges" is often set much too high at 410. Frcquently one has to reckon here with concurrcnt (umead of successive) rulerships, similar to [he concurrence of two or morc dynasties in andene Babylonia. In an case the number should be y rcduced to barely 100 ye3rs.-For Lydi:m chronology: H. Kaletsch, Hütoria 7 ( [ 958), 1-47·
ECLIPSF.S: F. Boll. RE VI. 2355: A. St",inbrüchel. Tafel der SMmeTI- lind Mondfinuernisrc, der Neu- und Vollmonde von Iz65 v. Chr. bis 1J4$ 1/. Chr. (Zunch '937)'
GREEK CHRONOLOGY: Imponant is the record of Olympic victors which !regins with 776 B.C. The list of Olympic vicrors is contained in the chronicle of Eusebius, including also the Annenian version (ed. Karst, pp. 98 ff.). See L. Moretti, Olyntpionikai, j vinci tori negli antichi agoni olimpici (Rome 1957). The ancient chron ology of the Hellenistic ern is based on the numbenng of Olympiads (see e.g. Ihe datings in Ihc hislOry of Polybius) . A. Bnnkmann, RhM 70 (1915), 622 if., finally dcfcnded (inopposition ro Beloch) the reliability of the list of Olympic victors, espc:cially the older parts; cf. H. Bengtson. Griecb. Gescb. (cd. 3, 1965), 70.-Fot the Attic calendar sec B. D. Meritt, Tbc Athenian Year (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1961). With the hclp of Diodorus {rom thc Augustan period, the Attic archon list from 480--301/1 n.c. can be reconstructed. Fot the later time inscriptions are a valuable help. Ast il for [he classical pcnod can be found in J. Kirchner, Pro!opogTaphia Aztica 11, 631 ff.; for the Hellenistic period. W. K. Pritchett and B. D. Menu. The Chronology 01 Hdle1/irtic Athcm (1940), which s i not yct defini tive; and for the Roman Empire. Herperia 11 (I94Z), 82 ff.
The Ftmdamentl1/s 1I0MAN CO:oiSULS OF nu: REPUBLIC:
Ll1tmtmtm I
" Corpus lmcriptionum
(ed. 1) and lmcriptiones Itlllil1e XIII. I; consuls of ehe Empire are listed in A. Degl";1$i, I fl1sti cOlls01ari dell'lmpero Ro71111no (Jo afJ.-6IJ d. Cr.) (Rome 1951)' T. R. S. Broughton, The Magi1t1'l1teJ of tbe Roman Republic ( 2 \'ols., Philological Mono graphs publ. by the Amcrican Philological Arrocilltirm Ij; 1951'953; Supplement, 1960) is valuable. RULER L1STS: T. C. Skeat. Tbc Reigm of tbc Ptolc1llics (Mün chenr:r BeiLr. z. Papyrusforscb. 39, 1954); also the older work of H. Gauthier, Li'l!re des Rois d'tgypte (5 vok, Giro 19°7-1917), which dates everything according to the Egyptian kings from the fim dynasty to the Emperor Decius, is still usc:ful, a lthoug h a new edition is desirable.-New Selcucid dates: H. ßengtson, Historia 4 (1955), 1 1 3-114. ERAS: For the Seleueid cra and ehe "freedom eTas" see E. j. Bickennann, Chronology of tbc Ancient World (London 1968), 70 ff., and in Berytur 8 (1944), 7 3 ff., where ehefe are also new re marks on [he Arsacid cra. THE RO....l.AN CALENDAR A:oiD RO....IAN CHRONOLQGY: T. Momm sen, Röm. Cbronologie (ed. 1, 1859); O. Leuze, Die rom. lahr..ih i IImg: Ein Versuch, ihre grrcbichtl. EnM.: ,;icklllng Zlt ermitteln (Tü b ingen [909), has imponant conclusions; Agllcs K. Michels, The Calendar of the Roman Rrpublic (Princemn '967). A:>:ctD." CHRO:>:QGRAPHY: C. "V�chsmuth, Einl. in das Stud. d. Alt. Gesch. ( 1 895), 1Z7 H.; E. Kornemann, Die rom. KQ;rer..eit (in Gercke-Norden IlI.:; ed. 3. 1933), 1 57.-For the chronicle of
Eusebius (out-of-datc edition of A. Scnocne, 2 vols., 1875, 1866; Armeniall version by Karst, 1 9 1 1 ) sec R. I-leim, Die Cbronik der HieronY1llus (ed. 2, Berlin 1956); E. Schwanz. RE VI, '376 ff.; H. Lictzmann, Grsch. d. alten Kirche 1II (1938), 155 ff. (rr. B. 'Voolf,
NewYork 1949-19jO). For the conversion of anciem dates (noee ehe advice n i E. J Bickcrmann, CbronQlogy of tbc A7/cic1lt World (London '968), 80 ff.) see P. V. Neugebauer, Hilfrtafeln zur technischen Chrono logie (Kiel '937); for the Rom�n Empire �e H. Liet?m�nn. Zeit rechnung (Snmnlung Goschrm 1085; ed. 3 by K. Aland, Berlin 1956). All dates for Amiquiry are gi vcn as Julian and not Gregodan ones; ehere was no year zero. Rence it follows [hat in calculacing periods of time which extend from B.C. to A.D. dates, one year must alwa}'s be subtracted. For example, Augustus was born Sept. 13, 63 B.C. and died Aug. 19, A.D. '4' His life span amounte d to 75 (not 76!) years, 1 0 months, 27 days.
Tbe Fundament4Js
,6 l .
GEOGRAPHY
In Antiquity history and geography were not clivided. Thus for Herodorus geography and ethnology wen: indissolubly bound up with history, JUS! as "research" (LU'TOPEII') for writers of aneient history expressed itself espccially n i travel and bccoming acquaimed with strange lands and peoples, whose customs were thoroughly described. Belief in the mutual rclationship of �ople and environ ment W:!S 50 strang in aneient man that he could not aUow the geographie factors in an historical portrayal ta be leh aside. It is [rue rhat the undcrlying unity, as Hcrodotcan history prcscnted ir, laler was often dispensed with; at present the geographie com mcnts stand besidc the historieal, and rhefe lead a positive, independ ent life as periods of rest in [he narrarion of evcms. Furthermore, history and geography wen: originally bound up wieh �ach other also in the modern procc::ss of teaching and research, unril in the 19th cenrury geographie scicnce turncd co problems explidtly of natural science, and loosclled its bond to hiscory. In no wise, how evcr, is geography an auxiliary to history; rather it is prcrcquisite to all historieal perception, for all hjstory takes place in spaee, and geography atfeets the historical roles of all nations and individuals. Ir is not enough for ehe historian of Anciquiry ro know the bnds with which his research is coneemed. An ability to visualize his torically the geographie background must accompany the historical imagination which is indispensable to the historian. Th� studellt of hisrory must be abl�, by his knowledge of the eanh's history. to imagine aceurately an event's scene of action. This is not possible withour knowledge of the facts deeisive for topographie ehanges. Helmuth von Moltke onee called locale "the left-over bit of the reality of a long past: evem." The hisrorian must he aware that this assenion holds true only wich qualifications. Natural cvems and artificial altcrations by man are in like manner responsible for eh:mges in the earth's surfaee. Thus C\'cn in An tiquity (as in modem times) dcStrUctivc earthquakcs affecred wide sections of the l\Iediterr:mean world, especially Greece. thc Grcek isbnds, Asia Minor, and Syria. Panicularly well-known is the earth quake of 464 n.e. in Sparta; it caused the Spartans heavy easualties, thus triggering the great helot rcvolt. The notorious destruerion of the Peloponnesian eiries Helike and Bura in 373 B.e. is possibly connected with seismie phenomena: Bllra was swallowed by a
Th� Frmdrnnl1ltals
37
gaping chasm, while Helike reputedly slid into the sea. AJso, [he earthquake of U7 (ot" n6) Re. which afHicted Rhodcs, causing the collapse of ehe city's landmark, the Colossus of Helios, was one of the great namml caeascrophes of Amiquity. In the histo!)' of andent settlement the manifold changcs of river courses :md of coasdines, as weil as volcanic acuvity, are to be con�idered. For example, the change of the landscape at Therrno pylae in central Grcece caused by the alluvial deposits of the Sper cheios River in the l\hlic Gulpo is weil known. Another example is in fhe deep 50uth of modern lraq wllere a new land formation, altcring that of Antiquity, has been creaIed by thc deposits of thc Tigris and Euphraecs Rivers, which now join to form the Shatt-al Arab before entering the Persian Gulf. Coasral changes also havc often affected the fate of panieular seetlements. Thus, when the harbors of Aquileia and Ra\'enna silted up, the eines were robbed of their maritime imponance; other eitics, sueh as Tricste, the an ciem Tergeste, were likcwise changed. Noteworthy also is the progressive, eusfaeic rising of the sea, which has eaused many changes in the Mediterranean Iandseape since Antiquity. To narural changes, whidl 50metimes could be postponed but never-at least in Antiquity-compieeely checked, rnay be added man-made altcrations of whole landscapes or panieular settlements. The fenility of [he Nile valley and of anciem Ihbylonia depended above all on [he maintenance of many canals, through whieh pre eious water in larger or smal1er courses was lcd to the produetive land. Man here constmeted a system of watenlfays whose upkeep was, and even today panly is, of grcatest significance for the wel fare of the inhabit:llltS. TIleir joinr labor on ehe canal nerwork strongly promoted the drive for politieal unific3tion-although it would bc an exaggeration, for example, to label the Nile (he crcator of the andent Egypcian state. OE special significanee for the topographie ehar:lcrer of panicu lar regions are alrerations which human bcings halfe effected. One example is the defores�tion of ancicnt I�ly, whieh, howe\'er, snre Iy also is tied up wirh the dccrease of underground water and wich the drying up of 50urccs in historie time." Apropros here are thc •• S. MarinatO$. Berichtc deI VI. Internat. Kongr. f. Arcbi% gic in Ber/in /919 ( 1 94"), J3) If. .. H. v. Trona·Treyden, "Entwaldung in den Mindmeerliindem," Pcter_
momm
Mim;/. 6. ('9,6), '48 ff� .86 If.
Tbe Frmdamtntals
"
ecanamic changes during the Punic W3rs. in whose course the great larifundia wirh [heir extensive pasture economy wert innoducc:d in place of the native, yeoman Italian population, and finaUy brought abour even physical changes. The culruntl level of cvcry distriet is reflectcd in the construction and number of its settlements, of villages and above all of citics. whose geographie and geopolitica1 setting often gives v31uable dara abolle the political, eeonamie, and culrura1 circumstances dominant 3t (hcir foundation. Formerly, in connection wirh Thucydides' statements (1.7), fit view has been occasioml.lly t3ken [hat wirh· OUt exception Greck settlements came inco being on the heights, tumed away from thc sea; only Iatet did [hey [0 some e:ncnt descend and face the sea.!I Modem srudies have shown, howevcr, that al ready by the middle of the sccond millennium RC., Greck cities may have existed in immediate proximity to the sea.u Cities in such 10caDons probably can be e:"
Tht Fundamentgls this view ;s mirrored
" in
the
tract
JT�p, MPfIJlI, VtiriTOII, T01TflJlI from
the Hippocratie corpus'" and espccially i n the works of the grcat
polymath Poscidonius of Apamea (e. 1 30--;0 B.C.), lIbove all in his
ueati!;!: n�p, wK�alloii." Modem geographic research has raken the
aneicnt suggestions and in ilS
rum
has scrutinizcd the conncetion of
mankind w;th its cnvlronment.11 Undcniable interaetions exist bem'een geographie and politic:.al
configurations. The shape of the land-the territory and its limita� tions by mountains, rivers. and the sea-eomains a profusion of polirical and cuJHlrnl devclopment for mcn. In many cases one can 5.'y that some areas are conducive to the movemen[5 of peoples.
Thus a land [ikc aneient Hellas, by ilS division into many geographie units, separated from one anorher mostly by mountains, secms aI� most predestined for political fragmentation. Historically the cx� tcnsive division of Greeee was a blessing and a curse-a blessing
owing to the intensification of the inner life of the parrieular stares, a eurse beeause ehe geographie diyjsion prcvented the formation of
larger stares. The extensi\'c �-ubdivision of Hellas into dny cancons,
as weil as the ubiquity of the sea, must: be taken into aecount for evcn such a ehameterinie and eomplex phcno menon as Greck co[o�
nizarion at the end of the Myeenaean period (c. 1 100-<)00 B.C.) and in [he eighth to sixth centuries B.c.--c\·en if other factors must be considercd: such as rhe relative ovcrpopulation of rhe homeland and, for the sceond pcriod of colonization, also the internal wars benveen aristocrats and ryrants. Furthermore, the dimare of ehe new lands was dceisive in the cmigrants' choiee of new areas of settlement outside Greece. For only exccpcionally did the Greeks sctde outside rhe zone of the mild l\Icditermnean dimale, like che north and cast shores of the Blaek Sca; in these areas eornrncreiaI interests were at st�ke.1I Geneully. however, the I.Indcrlying connection of Greek
colonization with the special clirnatie eonditions confirms the hy�
pothesis that the aspil'lltion for new land was an import:tnt motive for colonial expansion; indeed, the Greeks settled almose exclusivc1y in
areas whieh allowed culciv3tion of the vine and of olive
rn:cs.
Cer�
I!.I The tre:nise comes from {he last docade!l of rhe fifrh ccnrury Re.; cf. H. Diller, "\Vanderarzt und Aitiologc," PhiJologus Suppl.-Bd. ,6..1 ( ' 934).69. '!8 Fr�gments in FG,H 87.74 ff. 'l1Cf. F. Ranel, A'flthTopogeogr�phie oder Gnmd'Ziige der AII'wendung der Erdkunde Ruf die Geschichtt (ed. J. '909). 21 H. J. Schultze, "Zur Geseh. d. ..ltgriech. Koloni••tion," PtttT","''''' Mi,w·/. ([9of[). 7 ff.
The Frmdarne11t1ds wnly, from the beginning the intention of winning new room for seruement was bound up with orher motives, espeeially commercial anes. Undaubrcdly the cJimate, which in Grc:ece promotes outdoor life, contributed to forming a distinct feeling of cOIllmunity and to promoting participation in affairs of eommon concern to an extent unparallcled in Antiquity. The panieipation of the Grc:ek in the business of his USU31!y tiny stau: is an ou[Standing eharacteristic of Greek history. Under the infiuence of dimatic eonditions differem from those ar horne, the Grecks, who in the HeUcnistic age expanded over all the Near East as {ar as India, took on new forms of life and to some extem adapred themselves to [hose of the natives. In assessing the dedine of the Hcllcnistie stares of the East and ofHelJenisric eulrurc:. this is always too lightly considered. From the time when the Indo-Europcan m i migrants mixed wirh the Mediterrancan population in Hellas (i.e.• from the first half of the second millennium B.c.), the prcsenee of the sea, whieh enticed the daring to new and exotie advenmres. made the Greeks exeellent saiIors. Thosc who live inland are llsually led onto thc sea only by compu!sion. So, for cxample, when the Assyrians and Pcrsians ad· vanced frorn the Iranian highland and from the middle Tigris region to the I\Iediterranean Sea, they tried tO shift the hurden of nava! warfate to the expert searnen inhabiting the Phoenician citics and Cyprus. The Pers.ians chose the Gtceks of Asia Minor, the Canans and others., to man their Aet:ts. The geographie siruarion often deterrnincs the relation of partien. lax nations with thei r neighhors. Thus ancient Egypt, which on the east and west was blocked by an uninhabitable fringe of waste land, appears narurally mueh less open to foreign inAuenees th:m dm:s aneient Mesoporamia, whieh time aod again was exposed [0 the intrusions of nomads from the Iranian plateau and Syria. Like nations and states, the individual is governed by geogf3phie factors. Great political and stratcgie plans, which so ofren have ere· ated a ncw regime for the world, depend on geographie conditiollS; without a satisfactory idea o{ geographie condiciollS one cannat de· vise such plans, mueh lcss pUt rhem into effeet. For example, whocver speaks of [he last plans of Alexander, whieh were aimed at the con· quest of rhe West, or of Caesar's plan for the Parthian expedition, must 1mow that these plans irnply a dear picture of the world. The
The Funditmt1ltals
"
plan of Darius I for the Scythi:m expedition misearried ultimately hcc:l.uSC oi inruffieicnt geographieal knowlcdge.211 Knowlcdgc of thc geographie background. thercfore, is che chief assumption for tbc ju dgmenr oi historical evenrs hy tbe crcative his tonan. He must kllOw that in this connection Alexandcr's expedi* rion was epochal in the hisrory of mm, and that Cacsar's conquest of Gaul :md his passage tO ßritain were exeeption�lly import:lm for broadcning aneicm geographie knowlcdge. Guided by Hugo Berger's Gerchicbte der wimmrchaftlicfJ(!1/ ErdkUllde da Griccht1l, \vc can get a general view oi changcs in the ancient image of the earth. The hL'ltory of the discoverics of Anriquity, which stretch from the voyages 10 Punt of the anciem Egyptians under queen Harshepsut to che periploi (accounts oi coasting \'oyagcs) of Greek and Canhaginian scafarers down to late Antiquity, is significant also for the genera! history of the ancient world. These explorations re "eal differenT, often opposcd motives as Thc driving force: ycarning for unknown, fabulous, far-away plaees; rhirst for gold and treas ures; seicmifie aspiration tO discover; plans for political power; and whatcvcr else sries the heart of man. HeTe t he student cat! demon strate whether he is ahle 10 meet thc demand on him for an c:spe cially sensitive, sympathetic undemanding of the thoughts and intentions of aneient mcn. The geographie scienee of Antiquity sprang from praetieal re quircmcnts. Commcrcial intercourse, whieh lOok plaee earl}' bc ewecn the Far East and the areas setded hy ehe Grccks.'� gave rhc first impulse m describing shipping routes, that is, coastlines, and likewise to the design of maps of the world; apparenrly they were first Imde available 10 the Ionialls uy the Babylonians."' The many sca and bnd dcseriptions and itineraries rypical of [he Romans servcd practical necessities. A good idca of these itineraries is com'cyed by the so-called Tabula Pcutillgeril11lo1. Although OUf surviving copy of it comes from the Middle Agcs (! Hh to 13th cenrurics), ie de riv!'s from the world mal' of M. Vipsanius Agrippa. The foundef oi sei!'ntific geography in Anriquity was Eraros thenes of C)'rene (c. 185-105 RC.), the Creamf of aneient chro.. CL E. Meyer, DJTc;oS d. Gr., in cd•. E. M:lrcks ,nd K. A. von Müller, Meist�r JeT Politik I (ed . • ). I s. "" Cf. H. Sch.a1. Vom TauJcbb.mdel uml Wellbandd ('93')' 56. �' n. Mc;:;sncr, "lhbylonische und grkchische L:mdklln:en," Kljo '9 ('91) . 97 tr.
Thc Fundtmlt1ltals
nography. He was the first tO be concemed wirh geodesy. All larer srudems stand on his shoulders, including Str:lbo of Amasea in Ponrus (rhe Augustan period): Eratosthcnes' geographie work
(rfruypn.ptKa.) summarized n i sevcntccn books, unfortuIUtcly only panly preserved, the seholarly lIchievemems ro his time. In spite of irs wellkncsscs, the work is wonhy of the univecsllI task whieh Str:1bo rook 1IS 1I theme and whieh consisted of describing all the then-known lands of the oikulIIene. Some '50 years aher Strllbo, an Alexandrian Gredc. Prolemy, collected the geographie knowl cdge of his time in his Geography (rfruypn.ptKij v4niY'lc",�) . This work, whieh gave the larirude and longirude of more [han 8000 places, set for centuries thereafter the geographie image of the ean�; ie was 00[ uori! the er.! of exploration that the geographer Mercator (1511-1594) established a new map in place of Ptolemy's. Offshoors of ancient geographie science werc the Topographia Cbriftiana of Kosrms Indikopleustes (from the era of Justinian) and the work of the Ravenna Cosmographer, a huge geographie index of names of the sevemh eenNry A.D. BlRUOGRAPHY The srudy of aneiem geography was founded anew by the leamed Philipp Cluver (Quverius) oi Danzig ( 1 580--[6:1) with his [talia Antiqua (Leiden ,614). Following Cluver was a scries of '9th eemury Guman n i vestig:Jrocs: Heinrich Kiepen (,8,8-,899), Kar! Müllenhoff (1818-1884), Hugo Berger (1836-1 904), and Drl Neumann (,823-1880). The history of the investigation of andenr geography has been deseribed by K. J. Neumann, Entwicklung m r dAflfgabC11 der Alten Gesch. (Strassburg 1910). 70 ff. No eomp rehensive presemation of aneiem geography and of geographie knowlcdge In Antiquity eorresp onds to the presem state of knowledge. A. Forbiger, Handbuch d� Alten Geographie (3 vols., Hamburg 1 8.p-1843; ed. 2 of vol. I , 1877) is out of date. For scientifie �cography: Hugo Berger, Gerch. d. wirrensch. Erd kunde der GTitchen (ed. 2, Leipt.ig 1903); F. Gisinger and F. BolI, "Geographie," in RE Supp!. IV (1914), 52 1--685. s.v. "Geogra phie"; A. Rehm, "E.uere Wissenschaften," in Gercke-Norden 11.5 (1933); J. O. Thomson, History of Ancient Geography (Cam bridge 1 948). THE MOS T IM PORTA. ... -r WORKS ON MAPS: H. and R. Kiepen, Fortllil Orbis Antiqui (Ber!in 1893-1914: maps wirh eritical text :md referenees) : a basic, admirable work, unfinished and long n i
"
need of revision; H. Kiepen. Atlas antiquus (cd. 11, 1901); K. Spruner, \V. Siegjjn, M. Kicssling, Histor. Hmdllt/as (GOtha ,893 ff.; incomplete) . In process is the Tabu/a Jmperij RQmani, of which (0 dare only single pagcs have appeated, among [hem page p (i\hinz). For Gaul: Gallio: Carte arcbeologique de Ja Gaule rtnllame (Paris 1931 ff.). Fot Romain Britain: Map ot R07/11m Britain. publ. hy tbc Ordnance Surocy (cd. 3. Southamp ron 1956). An excellent map (wirh crineal text) of anciem h ly has betn a dnwn ur by P. Fraccaro n i Grat/de At/amt Geografico (ed. 4. Novara 1938).-l\todem small-scale maps may bc {allnd n i rhe
Grosre Historische IVeltatlas des lJllyeriscbr:n ScbuJbllCh-Verlages (cd. 4- i\tunich 1963), Pan I: Prehistory and Amiquiry (wirh "Commentaries" n i German n i the same volume), by H. Bengtson. V. Miloj1':it, and othcrs; Atlame storico, by M. Damna, P. Fraccaro, L. Visimin (repr. Novara 1954); lf'estenm11lns Atlas zur Weltge
schichte (repr. Br.lUnschwcig (968), eds. H. E. Stier and E. Kirsten. spr.cIAL WORKS: Changes of ehe eanh's surface by natural caU5eS: T. Wiegand in Müller 1 (1939), 74 ff.-unhquakcs in An ciquiry: O. \Veismanrcl, De i Erdbeben des vorderen Klcinasien in geschichtlicher Zeit (D iss. I\larburg 1891); A. Sieberg, Untermch ungro über Erdbeben und Bruchschollenbau m i östl. Mitte/meer (jena 1931), 180 ff.; \V. Capelle, ''Erdbeben im Altertum." NTA (1908), 603 tf.; ibid., RE Supp!. IV (1924), 344 ff. s.v. "Erdeben forschung. " Changes of coru.1: line: e.g. S. Casson, Macedollia, Thrace, and I/lyria (1926), 14 ff.: on the change of the Thermaie Gulf in eh e area of the mouth of the Haliakmon and Axios.-De forestation in the Greek and Hellenisric world: TheophrastuS, Hirt. Plant. 3-j', on which M. Rostovtzeff, Sociql and Econcmric History of the Hellenistic World 111 (Oxford 1941), 1613 f.-Eustaeic rise of ehe sea: D. Hafemann, in Detltscher GeogTl2phentag in Herlin 1959, Tagungsberichte u. wils. Abhandlungen (\Viesbadcn 1960),
2 1 8 ff.
IHSTORY OF SElTLEMESTS: (a)
Basic works: E. Komcmann,
"Polis und Urbs," Klio j' (190S), 72 ff.; ibid., "Stadrstan und FlächclIlllaat des Altertums in ihren Wechselbeziehungen." NjA 1I
('908), 233 ff.-On the origin and dcvclopmellt of Grcek eities
lind their precursors: A. von Gerkan, Griechische Städuanlagen (Berlin 19l4); F. TrilSCh, "Die Stadtbildun�cn des Altertu ms und die gricch. Polis," Klio 2l (1929), 1 ff.; E. Kirsten, Die griech. Polis als historisch-geographisches Problem des Mitte}meerr(/U1IIrI (Bonn 1956), with copious bibliography. (b) More impona nt deta.ilcd srudies: F. ßilabcl, Die ionische Kolonisation (Philologus Sllppl.-Bd.
14.1, 1920); V. Tscherikower, Die hellenistischen Stiidtegründun gen von Ale:rll1lder d. Gr. bis auf die Römer.uit (Philologtls SlIppl.-
44
Tbc Fundanlt1ltllß
Bd. 19.1, 1917); A. H. M. Janes, Tbe eities of the Eastern Roman l'rovmces (Oxford 1937) and Tbc Greek City [r01ll Alczander
lustinUm (Oxford 1940)-both works unfonunately ha"c only incomplcte documentadon; E. Komemann, RE IV, 5 1 1 ff. S,v. "Coloniae"; F. Viuinghoff, RÖ1Il. Kolonisation It. Bürgerrecbtspoli.
10
tik mllCT Cl/eraT und Augusms (Abhandlungen d. Ma;1r..eT Akad.,
Wiesbaden 1951)' Cf. in addition the seccion "Special Geographie Srudics," p. 46. LAND A!SD PEOPI.E: R. v. Pöhlmann, Hellenische Ansch:1tllln gf1l über den ZflSlmnllenbang zwirchm Natur und Geschichte
(Leipzig [879), DUC of date but still worth reading; on Poseidonius: K. Reinhardt, Poseid01/;oS (Alunich 1921), 67 ff.-Especially in strUcrive for thc problem in quesrion uc the concludmg chapter of thc history of Herodotus (on which see. F. Egcrmann, NIA ( 1938), 245) and, from Hellenistic literature, [he City PortTaits of Hcraklcides (so-ealled Pscudodikaiarchos): n�p, rwl' (I' 'E,U&öt 7rOAf:WI': F. Pfister, "Die Reisebilder des Herakleides," SAIVW 127.2 ([951), with translation and detailcd commcntary.-In An tiquity [he problem of the influence of a maritime sire on a people's ch:uacrer was often discussed, among othen by Plato, Arismcle. Cicero: see R. v. Pöhlmann, op. cit., 61 ff. GI!.OGRAI'IIY ANO HISTOIIY: the mO!>"t impon:mt modenl litcra rure is norcd in H. Hassingcr, Die geograpbischen Grundlagrn dc-r Geschichte (Geschichte der fiilJrendC'/1 VöJker I1: cd. 2, Freiburg i. Br. 1953). From the geographie side rhe problem is iJluminared by S. Passa �e, "Ägypten, Irak, Turan, eine vcrglcichende geschichts geog raph ische &rl":lchtung," F&F (1954), 41-48. A mrvey: M. Cary, The GeogTaphic BackgrolInd of Grcek tI1Id Roman History (l..ondon 1948), on which see J. Vogt, Gnomon (1951), 108 ff. Among- import:mt works for the ancient historian are: W. j\t R�m say, "The GeogT2phical Conditions Detennining Hisrory 2nd Re ligion in Asia j\'linor," GI 20 ( 1 902), 257 {f., on which also C. Boseh, "Das Anatolische in der Geschichtc," Ve'/"ö!f. des 2. TÜrk. Geschi chtrkongr. (1937); for Greece: V. Ehrent.erg, "Griechisches Land und griechischer Staat," in Polis und Imperium (Zurich 1965), 63 H., on which sec thc Einleitungen der Griech. Gesch. byK. J. Beloch and H. Berve; for half: A. v. Hofmann, Das Ltmd lta/ien und seine Gerchichte (Bcrlin and Sruttgart 1911); J. Vage, "Raumauffassung und Raumordnung in derröm. Politik," Orbis (1960), 17z ff. CLIMATE: In �enel':l.l: K. Sapper, "Ober die Grenzen der Akklimat isationsfähigkcit des Menschen," Geogr. ZeitrcbT. 38 (1931), 385 ff.; Klima, Wetter, Mrmsch. cd. H. \Voltereck (leip zig 1938), with essays by E. Breznia, W. Hellpach, et aJ. The
Tbc FundnnNltllls
theocies of E. Huntingdon aOOm climatic deviation have caused ir in the last dccades cspecially for Antiquity: Civilizatioll lind a st Clim.TU ( [ 92 7 ) ; "Climatic Pulsations." in HyllnillgrrkTift till SVfTl Hedin (Srockholm 1935); and passim. According ro Hunringdon periods of wctness alternated wirh dry ones. To the fonner ostensi bly belong [he years 4So--Z jO B.C., wirh reservation also rhe penod from [ l [ B.C. ro A.D. /l0, and above a11 rhe third eentury A.D.; and these wet periods eoincide wirh periods of political and culmral flowering. \Virh good rcason M. Rostovtzeff, Thc Ecollolllic His tory Revi.....v 1.1 (January [93°), 109 {f., has eontested this theorYi cf. also N. H. Baynes, Byuminl! Studier lind Gth.., Essays (1955), 86 ff. The theory of climatie deviations (for the seeond millennium Re.) has been taken up again by O. Paret, DaslIetie Bild der Vorgi! schichte (Stungart [948). ReCf:ntly Rhys Carpenter, Dircontinuity n i Greel: Civilization (Cambridge [966) has uied ro show that the period 1 :00--8So B.C. was one of droughr and farnine.-For the in fluenee of clirnate on a peoplc's eharaercr with reg:ud ro rhe work Ihp' dip"''', VSaTCtJ", T01T"''' (sec p. 39), cf. A. Philippson, D.1S Klima Griechenlands (Bonn 1948), w3 tf. Fu11 bibliogf3phy in S. Lauffer, G1/01ll011 ( 1 9jO), 107 ff. AI.EXAl'DER'S tDEA 01> TUE WORLD: H. Ber"c, GesMltel/de Kriifte der Antike (cd. z. cds. E. Buchner and P. Franke; Munich 1966), 333 ff., and V. Burr, lViir:.b. Jahrbiicher 1 (1947),91 ff. IlISTORY or Al'CIEST EXPI.ORAT[OS: R. Hcnnig, Terrae /lIcog nitae I (The ancicnt world tu Ptulcmy: cd. 2, Leiden 1944) �nd 11 (A.D. ZOO--1100: 1937) contain translations of ancienr SOllfeL'S with refcrenees tu m i poretm litcramre, to be llscd critically for particll lars bot on thc wholc a usdul aeeomplishmcnt; "I. Gary lind E. H. Warmington, Tbc Anciem Explorers (Loodon 1932; rev. with ad ditional bibliography, Baltimore 1963, Penguin Books}.-For thc gcography of ancicnt !taly: E. \VikCn. Die KU'lIde der He/h"/lC1/ '1-'011 dem Lmde Imd den Völkern der Apellninenhalbi mel (Lund 1937), on whieh see R. Güngerieh, Gn01ll0Tl (1941), 1 I 7 ff. ST�Ano ASV ANCIEST GEOGRAP'''·: R. Honismann. RE IV A (193 1 ) . 7 6 ff.: cdition of Strabo by A. Meincke (LeIpzig 1 851-1 8 n ) . A modern, thorough eomment:uy on Srrabo (wirh maps) is one of rhe most urgent t:lSks of ancient hlstory. For thc ancicnr geography of Greecc, the geographie deseriprion of Pausanias (rr�p'�'}'11(n� Tii� 'Ena.So�. eomposcd e. AD. 150) is n i dispensable; cf. the edi tion wirh eommcntary and rnaps of H. Hittig and H. Blümncr () vols.. Leipzig 1896-1910), and the En�sh il translation and commen rary of J. G. Fr:azer ( 1 9 1 3 ) ; furchcr mfonnarion by E. Pemiee in Miiller 1 (1939), 244 0.3; in addition see Ernst Mcycr, Pawallias:
Tbe FunJlI71Irntals Beschreibung Griechenlands, ntu iJbtTset2t mit Einleitung u. An mtTkungen (Zurich '9H} .-The editions of minot Grcek and Latin geogt'llphers :Ire imporunt: C. Müller, Geograph; Graec; Mmores (l vots., Paris ,881), of which :l new edition is needed; A. Riese, Geographi LaNn; Minores (Heilbronn 1878; repr. Hildes heim 1964). On the periploi see R. Güngerich, Die Küstenbeschrei bung in der griech. Literatur (Orbis Antiq= 4, Münster i. W. 1950).-Ptolcmy of Alexandri:l :lnd his rfClf)'pctq,tlM) VtfnfrIJ(n-;: a modem complere edition is Iacking. A panial ttt3nnem by O. Cuntz, Die Geographie des Ptokmaios (Galliae, Germania, R1:teti4, Noricum, Pannonia, lIlyriCU11l, Italia) (Berlin 1913). Funker litet'll eure in J:lmes O. Thomson, History of Ancient Geography (1948), 230 n. I.-Kosmas Indikopleustes: E. O. Winstedr, The Cbristill1l Topography of COmtlJS Indicopl. (Cambridge 19(9) .-Tbe so_calied Cosmo�pher of Ravenna: edicion in the ItinerllTia Rumana 1I (Leipzig 1940) by J. Schnetz; in addition, ibid., Untersuch. über die Quellen der Kos11l0graphie des 1t11000ymen Geographen von Rnvrona (SB Murnch 1941) and RtWt1l7lilS Anonymus (Uppsala 1951; Gennan tt'lll1s1ation).-The Tabula Peutingerilt11a: Editio princeps b l\hrcus Weiser (Venice 159[; complete, Amsterdam l r imponant is K. Miller, Die Weltkarte der Cartor;U/ 1 598); sti (Ravensburg ,887-1888) and Die Peutingersche Tafel (ed. 2. Srurt gan: 1919), although reservacion is necessary about his hypoth� of the history of the origin of the Tabula Peutingeri .ma. See also James O. Thomson, Hirtory of AlIcient Geography ( [ 948), 379 ff. SPECLU. GEOGRAPHIe STUDIES: Comprehensive works which correspond ro thc prescm state of knowledge are lacking fot Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ir:m, and Asia Minot; the modem literarure is dis cussed in H. Hassinger, Geogr. Gnmdlagen der Ge!chichte (ed. !, Freiburg i. Er. 1953). For Egypt, K. Baedeker, Ägypten und Sudll1l ig 1 91 8) , olfcrs a survey with (ed. 8, rev. by G. Steindorlf, Leipz constant rderence to the conditions ofAntiquity. Syria: R. Dussaud, Topographie Histor;que de lJl Syrie anNque et medievale (Bibi. arcbeol. et hift. 4> Paris 1927), whick today narurally is somewhat out-of-date; more recent is Emma Brunner-Traut and Vern Hell, Ägypten. Studienreisefiibrer mit LtJ1/derkunde (Sruttgan '961); F. M. Abe\, GEographie de la Palirline (1 vols.• Paris 1933-1938). GREECE: A significant ach ievemenr fot its time was Conrad Bursian, Geographie von GriechenltJ1/d (z vols., Leiprig 1862-1872); see also: C. Neumann and J. Partseh, Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland (Breslau 1885); A. Philippson, Das Mittelmeergehiet (ed. 4, Berlin and Leipzig 192%); O. Maull, Griechirches Mittel1IIcergehiet (Breslau 1912); J. Bequignon. Grece (Guides BleII!, Paris
The Ftmdamtntals
47
1935); E. Kirseen and W. Kraiker, Griechtnltmdkunde: Ein Führer zu HaIfischen Stärttn (cd. S' HcideJberg 1967). For particular Greek disrrie[S: F. Srählin, DM hellenische ThtSSalien (Stungart 1914); W. Judeich, Topographie von Athen (ed. 1, in Müller, Munich 1931), of willeh a revised edition is planned; W. Wrcdc, Attika (Athcns '934); H. Lehmann, Ll11Ideskunde der Ebene von Argos lind ihrer RJmdgebiete (Athens 1937); Ernst Meyer, Peloprnmerircbe WI11I drrungen (Zurich 1939), on Arcadia and Aehaea; ibid., Neue pelop07l1lesircbe Wl11Iderungen (Bern '957). H. Schaal, Die Insel det Pelopr (Bremen 1943). Wonh reading also is the book of ehe archeologise Ernst Reisin�er, Griechenland: Schildenmgen deut scher Reisender (cd. 2, Lelpr.ig 1913), wich a survey of the modem rr:J.veJ literarurc from Ciriaco of Ancona on; cf. also M. ,"Vegner,
Land der Griechen: Reimchildmmgen allt 7 Jahrhunderten (cd.
3. Berlin 1955); a dist:inguished work is A. Philippson (d. 1953).
Die griechischen Landrcbüften (4 vols. in 8 parts, Frankfun a. M.
1950-1959), wieh addidons by E. Kirsten in the firn: volumcs.-A rieh source for the hisrorical geogr.aphy of the Greek (and also Roman) world are the volumcs of inscriptions, the lnscriptiones GTaecae (JG) and the COTPUS lnrcript;onum LatinllT11111 (CIL) ; also the relevant articlcs in the RE and the areheologieal exeavation repons, whieh formerly appeared e.g. annual1y in ehe "Arehäol. Anzeiger" of [he JDAI and In the AOF. ITALY: H. Nissen, Italische Landerktmde (1 vok, Bcrlin ,883-1901); O. Richter, Topographie von Rom (in Müller, Munieh 1913); H. Jordan and C. Hülsen, Topographie der Stadt Rom m i Altertum (3 vols., Berlin 1878-1907) ; S. B. Plarner and T. Ashby, A Top0f{Taphical Dictionary of AnaiN1t Rome (Oxford 1919); E. Nash, Bildlrrico11 Zllr Topographie du tl7Itiken Rom (1 vols., Tüb ingen 1961-196:). Modem litcrarure on particular regions of haly is provided by H. Hassinger, Grogr. Gntndlagt!11 (cd. 1, 1953). Especially ou[S[anding is T. Ashby, Tbe Roman Cl1mp3g;na in Clll!tical Times (London 1917). The Istituto di Studi Romani pub lishes the series "Forrna lulia" and "lralia Romana." DIBLIOCIl.APIIiC ...I
des prineipales eites grecquer de rItalie meridionale el dr Ja Sicile darn fantiquid (1941), which is a supplement to Bcrard, La coloni ration grecqtle de rItalie meridionllie et de la SicHe dam fl11ltiquite (1941; cd. 1, 1957); H. Gauthier, Dictionnaire des 110ms geographi quer co1ltt!11US dttnJ ler texteS bihoglyphiques (7 vols., Cairo '915193')' Also, A. H. GaJ"diner, Ancient Egyptian Onomastica (2 vok of re:u. [ of rabies, Oxford 1947) and Tbc lVi/boUT Papyms ( :
vols. oE text, 1 of tables, OrloId 1941-1948); especi:I.lly the latter
Tbc FU'fld�memQ/J
"
comains a wea]rh of toponymic material from the era of Ramescs. i Anciquity, We have on ly begun to study tllstorical geography n for the material is [00 fragmcntary. Thc following works mar be memioned: E. Forrer, Die Provimei7lteilung deIIlllyrischen ReIches (Leipzig 19Z1); U. Kahrstedr, Syr, TerritOrien in hellenistischer Zeit (Berlin '926), to be Ilsed cricically; O. Leuzc, Die Satrapienein.
teilung in Syrien und im Zweistromlande 'tIOf' po bis ;zo (Schriften der KÖ7/igsberger Gelehrt. Gerellscb., Halle 1935), on whieh cf. H. Ben�n, Gno1l/on (1937), 1 1 3 ff.; P. J. Junge, "Sampie und Nation, ' Klio 34 (194 T). I ff., on the hisrorical gcography of the Achaemenid empire. For Asia Minor: W. M. Ramsay, Tbc His torical Geography of Asia MinoT (London 1890) :tnd Tbc Cities and BisbofTriCl of Phrygi/J (! vols., Oxford 1895-1897); Ernst Mey er, Die Gremen dl:T hellenistischen Sra.1Ien n i Kleinasim (Zurich 1925), is oumanding; A. Erlen, Kilikien his ZU711 Ende dl:T Perser berrsclJafl (Diss. Leipzig 1940). on which cf. H. Ben gtson. Gn011l0n (1942), 208 ff.-Egypt: H. Gauthier, Les 7l01lles d'Egypte depliis Hl:Todot jurqu'J la c01Jquete arahe (Cairo 1935); J. Ball, Egypr in tbe C/llJsical Geographm (Afmi my of Fina7lce Survey of Egypt, Cairo '942); H. Kees, Das alte Ägypten: Eine kleine Landeskunde (cd. !, Beflin 1958) .-Republican haly: A. Afzelius, Die rtim, Ero br:nmg Italiens (Hfrz6-f v, ehr.) (Acta ]utl/J7ldica '4,3, Copen hagen '9.p). lmpcrial ltaly: R. Thomscn, Tbe ltalic Regi01Js from AIIKtISmS to the Lombard Invasi01I (Classica el Mediaevalia, Diss. 4; Copcnhagcn '942) .-Iberian Peninsula: A. Schulten. Ibl:Tische Landesku7lde r (Stf:lSSbllrg-Kehl '955).-Byzancium: E. Honig mann, Die Ostgrenu des bYZM1liniscbe1/ Reiches, J6J-1071 ( ' 935); A. Philippson. Das byznntinßche Reich als geographßche Erscbei_ mmg (Leiden 1939). ].
A N T II R O P O L O G Y
Time :md space are ehe precincrs in which the activiry of man deveiops. hhn himsclf, however, is the subject and object of history; and when history is called on to deelarc the ultimate goal of its endeavor, the only answer can be that it aims at men, ar piercing their nature and at discerning, Ilnderstanding, and doubting their feelings, dccisions, and passions. In this sense history is the sciencc of men; it is an open hook which registers thcir dceds amI Olisfor tunes. Modem anthropology, [he "science of man" (stTictly spcaking), 15 an eX3ct science; it works with calipcrs and a tape measurc. In; task consists of investigating the hisrory oE [he developmcnt of b01ll0
Tbc Fundwentals
"
sapiens :md of differentiating from one anolher as separate emities,
�rtain groups of mtn rclated by bodily eharnc[eri�tics. As an cxact science amhropology is a ehild of the 19th. eentury, al though its heginnings are more remote. There was a time whcn the schcmatic grouping of the great Swedish scholar Kar! von Linn� ( 1 707-1778) found much appro\'al;'2 and even roday the nvc races of mankind of the Göttingcn anatomist J. F. Blumenbach ( 1 75Z184o)-Caucasian, Mongoliln, Ethiopian, Americ::m, !\hby::m-form fot many the basis of aU amhropological knowlcuge. Pionccting work in modern anthropology was done by the ethnologist: Felix von Lusehan and the geogrnpher Friedrich RatteL Luschan COt reedy warned against the apparently ineradicab!e confounuing ot blending of the concepts of raee and nation (Volk); natioll5 are socia! groups, racrs are groups of men ried wgether by anatamica! attributes. It must be !cft to natural science, espccially genctics, to deeide to what extent intelJeccual, in COntrast to physical, eharae terisrics are passed on within eenain groups of men. A!though i n Antiquicy no anthropo!ogy like the exae[ scicnee o{ roday exisred, there was no lack of attempts to categorize human bcings inta hornogeneous groups. In Ge1/es;s the differentiation of mankind is based on Noah's sons, Shcm, Harn, and Japhcr. As a general prineiple, however, anaromical (earutes were less decisi\'e for c!assifying ancient man than were other eriteria, such as geo graphie and sodal clI\'ironment, or membcrship in a polirical com muniry or linguislic hmily. Especially the dichommy herween Hd lenes and barbarians comes to mind; it was decisivc in political history, and with the same sharpness also in rhe culrural sphere.:13 There is a conerete basis, howevcr, for the andent awarcness of the difference between Romans and Germans, which found its finest statement in Tacirus' Germania. Although in Antiquity national and a!!ied eulrural differentia :lS r:lCCS,
ao Linne. ehar�c!�ri:utinn is srriking; �Th� American i, r�ddjsh. ehol�rie, upright; the Euro�an white, sanguine, i ndustrious; the Asiatie ydlow, rncl ancholy, ten�do\ls; th� Afric�n bl�ck, phlegmade, sJuggish. The American i. obstinate, cumemed, fr�c; the Europ<:an '·cnatile, intelligent, rewl1(ceful; the A.iotic crue!, osrentlldous, stingy; the AIrican .ly, I:!.Z)", indolent. Thc Amcric:m is co\'cred with ro.ttoos and rulcd by cuso:om; thc European i. co'·crcd w;th weil-fitting cloth�s and r\lled by laws; the Asi3tie is envdoped by loose robes and ruled by opinions; am! the African is smcarcd with grcasc and ruled hy arhitrariness." :13 1- JGthncr, "Hellenen und Borborcn. Aus der GtSChichte des National bewusstseins," Dar Erbt dn Allen 8 ('9'3).
'0
Tbt Fundamtntals
tions werc weU-known and had fouod literary expression, one reallr cannot speak of a conceptioD of anthropologieal, racial differenccs. Thete is 00 reason co believe ehat thc ancient antitheses (ver :lC tained effecrive hisrorical consequence in ehe amagonisms of power politics. Raci:1i antagonisms did not determint� the war between Rome and CanhageM oe the resistance of ehe Jewish Maccabees to the forccd Hellenization under the Syri:!.n king Antiochus IV in the 160's B.C.," and ie is even a matter of dehate how far the amago nisms in Prolemaic Egypt betwccn Hellencs and nach'es were politi cally significanr. Wh:!r aociem mm noted were clearly perceprible differences in nadonal characteristics, customs, beliefs, :lnd worsrup -lactars imporram in warn between Jews and Gred(s in Roman Alexandria.l1li Although ehe trained anthropolog1st is not prevented by chis in sight from invesrig:uing and detennining ancient racial groups, he must remain conscious that he is working with modern categories of thought alien co ancient men. An idea of the unsteady ground on which are based hypotheses aOOm the ancient significance of racial diversity should here be interposcd. We possess ftom Antiquity only a tiny amounr of anthropological material. The stock of tolerably preserved and scientifically analyzed skeletons consists of a few chance finds. Funhermore, the soft parts of the human body are as significant fot anthropologicaI infercnces as are the bony parts. In [he face of [his negative finding the historian will console him self wirh the awareness that pure racial types exist only in theory lind that they are found as rarcly in ancient as they are in modem history. Examinations of the gravcyards of pre-Roman Switzerland, of the so-called Lil Tene period, have shown for example that long i a happy jumble. The Celric Hel skulls lmd shon slrulls occur n vetians (hus were not a dcfinite, physically homogeneous raee; on the contrnry, this pre-Roman population of Swinerland rcsulted from a mixing proeess whieh apparently also found expression in bodily char:lcteristics.�· Analyscs of the extant material from the :H 1\1. G�rzcr, "Der Rasseng<'gcn...tz ars geschichtlicher Faktor beim Aus bruch der rornisch-hrth3gischen Kriege," in Rom und K4ffb�go, ed. 1. VOgT ';g 1943). 1 78 ff.; the tide of the �lUdy i. unfo"unate. (Lei!,," S 3$ ee E. Bic�erm:tno, D�r Gott der Maccahiit"T (lkrlin 1937)' .. H. I. Bell, Juden und Griechen im r{)misch. Alu;-l1Idrei� (B�ihef'e z. /flf. Ori"" 9, '9,6). :rrF. Srahelin. Schwriur Br;ff. 1l.. AI/g. Gefch. 1 (1941), 1 I.
Tbe Fli1Idamentals exeavarions in the Arhenian Keramcikos (Poners' Quarrer)" ha\'e
shown that in Anica (in the period e. 1 1 50-1000
Re.) no pure
"Nordic" population cxiSl:ed. Radler, the ancienr Grceks rcsulted ffom a fusion of the Indo-European immigrants with the earlief,
/Hediterranean (often ca11ed "Grian" or "Asia Minor") population
of Grccce. The degree of blending was perhaps different for eaeh
of the Greek tribes: the condusion from skeleton finds in the Spar tan burials of 403
B.G. n i
the Athenian Kerameikos"
is
that the
Spartans were more purcly "Nordic" than were, for examplc, the loni::ms (tO whom belang the Athenians) .4
piere nbsorption of one population by a superimposed one must be
viewed as a rare historieal oeellrrenec.4I [\'liscegenation has nothing [0 do widl degeneration. The spccifie talent of the Greek people
rcsllhed from a process of fusion, whieh wirh the hdp of areheology and linguisties we can follow in detail. The same holds rrue for the Tralie peoples, and generally for a11 propies who have played a role in
world history." "!l.c historian also IlIU5t take into aceount neial ehangcs even in thc absence of [hose eaused by extcrnal influcnees.
B. G. Niebuhr has eorreetly pointed our tIm the bodily form of a
pcople may not be so constant as is usually assumed. What is true
for a pcople's physieal eharaerer holds trUc also, within limits, for its
imcllcetual eharaeter; the number of possibilities is inexhaustible. Additionally, ie might be noted that portraiture, whieh next tO ske1eral remains is fhe most imponanr anthropologieal evidenee for Antiquity, ofren is strongly sehcmatized. \Ve are not always so forrunare as tO have a represcntation Jike rhat of fhe Syrian prisoners
or e:l":ilcs in the grave of Pharaoh HaTemhab of the XIXth dynasty.
"Nordie" features also appear among [hem;�3 these fearures are often associated with the Indo-European upper dass of the Mitanni. Con versei)' onc may refer to the anthropologieal appcaranee of the Etruscans. In Etruria, modem Tuscany, one now eneounters a type wh"se disringuishing eh�T2ereristie � i. a eonvex nose (cf. the portrait ME. Br�itinl:cr. in K. Kübler. KerJtlleikOJ 1 ('939)."3 ff.; d. K. Kübler ('94'). 3S if. .. E. Drcifinger. AA (1917). wo tf. •• \V. Olm. Amikt Kulmrgcscbicbtc (SDA W 6 [1940J). 16 •, H. Bcng1Son. Gnomon (194')" 1 1. •' �I. P. l\ ·ilswn. " Über Genelik und Geschichte:' 0plIfe. sel�ct.1 l1 (1951). Q6� tf. ., �I. SC11lpcr. "Zur Rasscngc5chichle der I"dogcrm�ocn Irons." in Frn/ehr. f. HcnlJ�1l Hirt I (1936), H' tf. ;'1 Dns Nelle Bild der Antike I, ed. H. ß.erve
•
Tb� F,mdl1T1u:ntals
of Dame}. To condude from chis characTeriscic, however, ch:l.c the andent Etruscans bclonged TO a certain racial type (or even, as E. Fischer would have it, tO a "Nordic," so-called "aquiline" type"), which supposedly h:l.d been superimposed by a thin layer of Neu Eastern, Armenoid immigrants, would bc wrong-as is shown by the f:l.ct ehat the whole culture of anciem Etruria belonged not to the "Nordic" cultural sphere, but to the Mediterranean. Sound arguments of style controven Fischer's hypothcsis of an "aquiline·' raee: anciem portraits show comrex neses, which he con neeted with the "aquiline" type, at the earlicst in the fourth cenrury Re. This means that the represenrarions wete conditioncd by stylistie eonsiderations," and [hus are co be used for anthropological inferenecs only wich caution. The basic qucstion in using such represenrarions as anthropo logical evidenee is to what elrCent can they be considered portraits. For the earlier periods of Pharaoruc Egypt A. Scharff has denied the existence of real ponraiture,<8 :lnd so is opposed to Julius \Volf,·7 who has used the methods of modem physiognomie sdenee to draw amhropological condusions from the relief-portraits of King Narmer :lnd others of the firn dynasry. In Greek an real portraiture bcgins lare: the former consensus on the fourth century B.C. as the beginning of the art of individual portrniture is tOO bte an estimate, n i the light of the newly discovered portrait-herrn of Themiscodcs at Ostia. However valuable the information (abOUT individuals and groups of andent men) which an historian can gct from andene anthropol ogical material, the nation (Volk) as such is the principal objeet of historical research. Regardless of how we may conceive of "nnion," it should be viewed as a group of individual humans who have grown together into a unit of historical significance by a common politieal dcstiny, and often also by a common language.
'0'
ff.
Tht Funda11ltnta/$
H
Pakistan, in whieh the rdigious differenecs above all eontributed to the final political detenninarion. Nevertheless, it would hc an error tO assume a "nation" at the Start of every historieal development. Nations develop and nations pass i thc object of the science of history. away, and cvcn this proeess s whose special rask is to detennine which national elements have contributed to the fonnation of a po[itiea[ union (whieh is not a[· ways idcndeal with a nation). Ir must penetrate the proeess of amalgamation and cxplain in detail how the separate national units grew togcther into a larger politieal organism. for examplc as hap· pened in ancient haly under Roman lcadership uy the formation of thc grcat Italian military parmership, thc shacks of [he Gracehan revolution, and the Social ,"Var of 9[-88 Re. Language played a
part in the formation and prescrv3tion of nationhood, as was recog· nized in Antiquiry; indeed the Assyrians, systematicaUy and irre· speeti\·c of crhnie affiliation. mixed subjugated nations., in order tO "rnakc thern of one mouth'''· as the Assyrians pUl ir. One might here rccall the language poliey of rhe Romans. gramed that to some extent ir has been eontesred."" Latin inereasingly prcvailed in haly under the Roman policical hegcmony of the sccond and the begin. ning of thc first ccmury Re., until by Sulla's time ir had attained uncomested dominanee in haly; this fact of cultur:l[ history is sig nificant for Pan-halian consciousness. Language and nallonaliry do not constirute an indissoluble unity. As Hugo Schucharde said, "Language is a funcrion, the nation is its carrier; the carrier can change the function, not v;cc versa." Changes of language have occurrcd always, e"en in Antiquity. Thus, con· elusions aoout nationa[ity or racc based on language are inadmissible -3 faCt that has ofren been misunderstood. 111e most dissimilar factors can be decisive in forming new languages. For example, the devclopment of Romance languages in ehe late Roman Empire was the rcsult of drastic social and n:ltional ehanges throughour the empire; the fact that the conneerion of the pro\'inces wirh Rome, the imperial eapi[al, gradually sbekened and came undone must have uecn especially significant for [his process. In addition, howevcr, regional variations in nationa[ity, varying dcgrces of Romani7.arion, thc Germanic invasions of the empire, and many oeher factors have 40 B. AldMtlu. König� I1ahylonicm ,md Asryrkllr (L�ipr.ig J. Ciihlcr. Rom Utld "../hm (nr�"SI�u '''J9), '3 tf.
""
'9,6), '69.
Tbe FundlWlttltals
54
to be taken into account. Finally, new nations are not always bom wirh the newly developed Ianguages: thete is a Pro\'en� and a Catalan language, but OD Proven!;31 or Cat2lan nation. For Antiquity it is imporram to dctennine to what c:>.1:cnt language was feit lO be a unifying ;lnd binding force. For ex:.tmple. it is forever surprising that in Greece the existence of a common littr.lry 1ao guage (which is to be distinguished from the manr dialecrs of spaken language) never rook elfect as a dccisivc (actot in politics. Ir was i muck more thc active wiU of Sparta and Athens. thc mostmportant Greck stares, which united the Greeks in a defensive war against the Persian danger of 4fh 1480 RC.; 2nd S0, the idca of the cultural and national unil)' of the Greeks was consciously employcd in the service of politics. Instructive {rom the culturaI 2nd politiC21 viewpoint is thc fonna i Anriquity (jusr as in thc modem tion of peISonal and place names n world). In early rimes the Greeks Iacked a comman name. Their designation as "Ionians" n"fI'(i, 'IaFOI'(�) originated in the East, i the eighth centory Re."' The peaples of where ie appeared first n me Near East named the Greeks after the uihe which was in dosest geographical and cuh:urnl contaet 'with ehern (cf. the Funch name "AJlemands" for the Germalls). In the sevemh cemury H.C. i being as a common name for ehe tenn ''Panhellenes'' first c:ame nto the Greeks. Later chey cal/ed themselves "Hellenes," which pri marily characterizcs the oonera5t with non-Greeks, namdy barbar ians. lnterescing for culrural history is the gradual extension of the signific:ance of "It:llia."u From the deepest south of the Apen nine peninsula the renn traversed the country, finally stopping at the foot of the Alps. The extension of the name kept pace with the poliLical devdopment which tcnninatcd under the Sccond Trium virate in 41 B,C. wich the inoorporntion of Gsalpine Gaul m i o the area of Roman citizenship Ir might be added that from the forma tion of the Lombard empire the tenn "Italia" stuck especially TO uppcr lraly: the "Regnum Langobardorum" was pracrically equatcd .
wirh "halia." One school of modem scholarship (including Eduard Mcycr) fI H. Bengaon, PhilologtlJ 9' ('937), 148 Ir,; E. Schwyzer, GTiuh. GT""', 1I1i:t;�' 1 ('939),77, "Thc ctymologicJJ mC3n;ng of "ltaliJ" as "Cnddand" (ftom "iruIUl). which W3S advoc,ncd by the 2J1ciCnlS, h:lS becn 2cccpted by modern scholzr_ ship.
Tbe Fundamrotals
sr
has distinguished between the tenns Volk and Nation, 2nd has con sidered Nation to embody a higher, ideal political unity (cf. the English term "nation-state") or cultuf:l.l unity. Since the terms Volk and Nation afe synonymous in Gennan usagc, thcy scem unsuited to characterizc different entitics. The infclicicous distincrion should therefore be abandoncd. What abollt thc problem of "national consciousness" in An tiquity? If this term is undcrstood to express a pcople's awareness that it feds itself co be a "national unit" consciously seT apart from other peoples, then only scldom in Antiquity-and even then only for brief pcriods-is an explicit narionalism discernible: in Hellas during the Persian Wars, in Rome and Iraly llnder rhe role of Augustus. V,rirnessts to nationalism art, for txample, the Perra; of Aeschylus and later the history of Herodotus;"' in Rome Vergil's AC1leid, l-lorace's Odes, and Livy's historieal works. There never devcloped an Hellenic or halian nation in rhe sense of a nation-stare or of a cultural unit (KlIlwT".Jolk). Po litical reasons hindered this: n i Grtcce the indcpendence of the poleis, in Rome the oppositio n bc nveen Iraly and the provinces. In Amiquity only the Israelites (in the ings) and the ancient Egyptians Can politically gloriolls days of the k
be !abded genuine nations, national units in the political and cultural sense. In fact, among the Egyptians a devclopment almost without foreign in Auence brought unity tO e very area of imellect\lal lifc: to arr, to literature, to religion. to the way of lifc. This national uniry, which for almost thtee millennia the pcople had preserved in spite of tempornf)' conqucsts by foreigoers (I-Iyksos, Assyrians. Persians), i y by the incorporarion of Egypt ioto was menaced most heavl Alexandet's empire. The underlying unity was gradllally eroded by the social antagonism, btent at first bur bter increasingly ap parent, bctwecn rhe Egyprians and the polirically and cconomically dominant foreigners, both Hellenes and milers. Greek culturc ap peared alongside the Egyptian, and soon bege groups of Egyptians adopted it. To comprehend thc charactcr o f a people. the historian will pur sue the in!lucnces. positive and negative, which hnvc affecrcd lhe fo rmation of a particular, national individllality. For c:l:ample, thc problem of the Hellenisric inAuence on Irnly and the E.1St, or of [he significance of Babylonian civilization for its neighbors, dcsen'cs >3 Cf. c.p�ci�lIy Hcrodotus 8"
4+
,6
Tbl FundamenttJl1
special :mention: the oße problem with reg.ud CO the development of Romano--ltalian civiliz.acion, the ather wirh regard [0 the fonna rion of the intellecrual and spiritual life of the Hittires and lsraelites. The classification of the linguisric families of Anriquiry iota the Indo-Europcan and Semitic groups (thc remaining groups, espe cially the Aegean-Asia Minor and Hamitic. are less involved in the presenr problem) must not diven us from the principle that nations I are the primary objcctS of historical srudy. Tht principle of in i cluding the classific:uion of Indo-Europcan lan guistic division, n guages o i ta Cf!7lt'll1n and satem groups, has 00 practical significance for historical judgmcm. In panicular, the conceprs of "Indo European" or "Semitic cu1rure," which are based on inguist l ic lein ship, arc not very forrunatc. 19th-cenrury scholarship was the first [Q creare the notions of Romanic and Gennan nations. There has never heen a real Romanic or Gennanic feeling of solidarity. �at the spcaker of a pcculiar language senses is l'lI.ther the com plete foreignness of his own tongue to mat of another, whether that tongue belongs to a near relative or a SU'anger in the pedigree of languages. This is not to gainsay that an ideology of solidariry can be constructed by educatcd men based on knowJedge of lin guCitic kinshipi nevenhdess, such an idcology nevcr cllistcd in An tiquiry bccausc the scientific assumptions for it were lacking. The degre:e of linguistic kinship be:twccn two nations plays 110 mle: (or only a very subordinate one) in the development of a feeling of solidarity; more decisive is membership in the same cultul'lI.l sphere. Thus, to \Veste:rn European civilization belong, in addition to the nations of lndo-Europcan speech, the Basques, Magyars, and Finns, who spcak non-Indo-Europc:m languages. Pcrhaps hi�'torically even more instructive is the faCt that nations of basically different bnguages belong to the Islamic culrur:tl sphcre: Arabs, Persians, and Turks. Arab is a Semidc, Persian an Indo-Europcan, and Turk ish a Ural-Altaic wngue. Therefore, one should limit the tenns "lndo-European culrure" :md "Semitic culrure," if one uses them at all, tO the earliest pcriod of the Indo-Europcans and rhe Semites when each gmup must have lived in a restricred area. h-[on.:over, it is char:tcrerisric of Antiquity that nations of different languages be longed fO the same cultur:tl communiry. HcUenism, which ried fhe numerous nations of the :mcient world into a great community, and rhe Babylonian civilizarion, which leEr its stamp on rhe features
Tbe FundiWIencllls
J7
of the whole Near East, are only two cspecially obvious examplcs of this. The uniry of a civilizarion depends as rnueh on a cornmon seript as on a eommon tongue; in the lmpt:rium ROlllanu1Il it was Latin (in addition, n i the eastern Empire Greek was in usc as a seeond offieial language), in [he Helleniscic world the Greek language and seript, and in [he Near East under Hammurabi ßabylonian and eunciform. The inllucnee of a foreign eulmre shows itself by the absorption of foreign words into the national language, a process of great gen eral and eultural historieal signifieanee. Finally, languages arise from a eomplicated intclleetual proeess of amalgamation just as pcoplcs do {rom a corresponding anthro pological process. Some examples from the Greeks illustrate this: it has been established that nouns i n -71I!;OS, -assos, and -issos (e.g. Korinthos, Parn:lSSo� lllissos) and many others belong to a prc Greek stramm." This determination of linguistic history is also significant for eultural history. It demonstrates that the Greek pcople was produeed by the fusion of Mediterranean and Indo European elements. The Greek for "I marry," orrviw, e.xemplifies an amalgamation of different peoples; linguisties eonnects ir wich the Etrusean, therefore probably Aegean, pl/ia, "woman."'" In this word, therefore, the proeess of national and social amalgamation seerns transparent. Ir perhaps would be possible to exp!ain the aneient Mediterranean (Aegean) substrarum in the Greek language only by the adoption of ancient Aegean eultural values, withour at the same time acecpting all extensive echnic fusion; the strong survival of ancicnt i\lediterranean traditions in Grcek religion.1I howevcr, is an unimpcachable testimony for the ethnic fusion oi the immi grants and thc alrcady seuled population. Corresponding proeesses are assumed for the othcr pcoples of the ancient world. FrOIll the eommon Me of immigrants and nativcs was often dcvclopcd a new nationaliry, which for irs pan: cxpcricnccd ehangcs caused by influenccs from withou[ and within, Soeial rc grouping, wars, and �aceful relations with neighboring peoples are some frequent causes of national transfonnations. Thus, [he na""P. Kretschmer. Einl�it. in di� G�lcb. d. Schwyz�r. Griech. Gronlnlwik I ('939),60 ff.
(,896); E.
l J ('911), ZI:: E. Schw\'zer. op. elf., 6,. P. Nih:son. G�Jcb. d. griechiJcbi.'1I Religion 1 (cd. ). '967), z56 ff.
(,SH,mm,rström, Glott� M,\!.
griub. Sprdch�
,8
Tbe fundamrotills
tionality aod advanccd cuhure of the old Babyionians grew irom an amalgamauvc process bctween the Sumerians, whose anthro pologiea] determination is not yet ceruin, and thc Akkadians, Sc mires who immigratcd tO southern Mesopotamia frorn the west. Even so, Babyioniall civiization l first gor its characteristic cast from the addition of a third element, thc Amorites (also called East Canaanites), who, likc the Akkadians, wcre Scmitic. Thc population of andem Asia Minoe aod the Indo-European Hitcites formed the charactcristic Anamlian rype of man; and in northwest India there 3rose a oew breed of fien based on che fusion of Indo-Europcans, who immigratcd there probably about the middlc of the second millennium oe somewhat latcr, wirh thc indigenous elements. In Italy the immigration of lndo-European groups from the nonh in the late second millennium and [heir amalgamation on the peninsula with peoples of i\kditertanean origin again crcated special national und culrural eondicions, which we can srudy in detail with the help of archeology and Iinguistics. Insight into [he complicated questions reb6ng to population wams the invcstigator to be cautious with condusioT15 �bout national charactet or about the bases of specific talents. Many peoples, in theiT uavds, encounter an alien environment. For eX3mple, the Indo-European immigrams who invaded what later was ealled Hellas came sauth into the zone of Mediterranean c iviliza lion, jliSt like the Thracians and Illyrians. The Hittitcs, Iranians, Indians, Phrygians, and Anncnians likcwise appeal as emtie ele ments in what to them was rhe strange world of [he Near E:I5tj and the Tocharians e\'en penetrated rhe Sino-Buddhistic culrural sphere. "hny of these nations moved frorn one culrural complex into anothcr, different one. Thus [he Annenians were pnrtly Hel_ lenized, and later becarne one of [he Chriscian peoplcs of the Near East. An important problem of historical knowledge is the assess mtnt of pcop!es' contacrs with alien culrures. If the rnany overlappings of nations are considered, thc assump fion of a sharp demarc:ltion between the Indo-European and the Near [astern worlds cannot be justified. Historical reseafch bascd on such an antithesis ignorcs historicallifc, which cannot be squeczed into categories, least of all anthropological oncs. Of course the his i justificd who, frorn his standpoint survcying thousands of torian � yea� vicws andent history as a single. gigantic alrcfcarion bcrwecn East and West-an idea which was familiar e1fen to ancient thinkers,
Thl Fundamrotl2ls
as is wimessed by Herodorus' work. The main contrast here, oE course, is not ooc of face, but one of ideals. A sccrion on [he anthropological basts of ancient hisrory should include a few fundamental rem:.trks about [he problem of "the in di\'idual and the multitude," for hisrorical ercnrs are rooted in [he reciprocal relationship betwecn the rwo. h is undeniable that an dene history can be viewed and written from the viewpoinr of a partisan of a personality eult (J. G. Droysco) as weil as from [hat of an advocate of collectivism (K. j. Beloch). Ne"erthelcss, for many, if not for mQ5t, eras of Antiquiry a solution of the problem is im possible, fot the source material does not suffice ro determine rhe role of rhe individual. "Virh wille c:-.:ceptinns this holds ttue for the emire history of the ancicm Easr, in which we pcrceh'e as individuals onlr solitary figures of miefS like lhmmurabi and Darius I, and a few personalities of kings and prophets from Israelite history. Ir is similar with Greek history, in which our first recognizablc personal ities are Hcsiod, Archilochus, and Solon; and [he history of [he individual in Rome begins for us as late as Scipio Africanus I\hior (d. 183 B.C) and Cato the Censor (d. 149 RC). Gnly forCicero. Caesar, and the emperor Julian (rulcd A.D. 361-363) has su(!jeient biographical material survh'ed to allow us a troe picrure of their chamcters. The question of the historical significance of the individual in anciem history can be answercd onlr by c:-.:amining each case. For example: the expedition of the 10,000 Greeks portrayed by Xcno phon permits us to recognize, cspccia!ly in [he march back, a com mon inner detennination of such a kind [hat the cornm3nding o(!jcers recede imo the background; 3nd {he history of the Punic W:lrs teaches that the bulk of the Canhaginian mcrccnary aTmy was given inner unity by the genius of Hamilc�r BaTca and Hannibal. The same is true for the relation of Caesar to his soldiers." TI1C imerrclations berwecn the individual and {he muldrude form a fundamental thcme of historic�l knowledge. \·Vith regard to this, ancienr propaganda should be raken imo accounr, for cvcn the an cicms understood how to inßuence politically the masscs, although with other, slowcr-working methods than those of today; pam phlets, inS(:riprions, :lnd portraits :lnd legends on coins provide pri mary material whieh still awaits intensive working. �T J. Vogt. "Cäsar und ",in� Soldot�n." NIA (19�o),
OrM, ( '9'1<» , 8? If.
110
ff., reprint.d in
The Fundllmllu mt
6,
Tbc srudent of the essence of fit masscs and their assesment s in Anciquiry will find much to ponder panicuJarly n i thc Historie! and the Armal! of Tacitus." Ncvcnheless, his often one-sidcd verdicts show that this "historian of the uppcr 10,000" makes no secrct of a negative attitude roward the profalllffll vulgur. Thc smdy of andent population figures. on which :mthropological research is bascd, is just bcginning. The conclusions of this srudy. howcvcr, will probably never be as cenain for Anriquity as chey are for thc modem world, where adequate staristical material is av:lilable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY COSSEcrJOSS
BETWEEN RACE, NATIQSALtTY, AND SPEECII:
Eduard Meycr, "Elemente der Anthropologie," n i Gesch. d. Altert. I.I (cd. 3. 1910), 73 ff.; also t.g. A. Debrunner, NJA 41 (1918), 433 f.�Discussion abollt thc connections bctween raee and speech has nowhere achieved cerrain rcsults; properly sceptical is the lndo Europeanist H. K1":Ihe, lndogerm. Forsch. 56 (1938), 43 ff.; 58 (1942), 83. Some new�ints of view in V. Pisani, "L'demenro ra= nella e\'oluzione lingmsrica," Re'"J. emd. i1Idoellropeenes 4 (1947), 266 ff. and "Linguistica e antropologia," Paideia 5 (1950), lO ff.-A noted example against assertions of the congruence of race and lan guage is modern India, which has almost 100 principal langua�es lind more than 500 dialects, 50 the languages do not ar all coinClde with [he races. Epoch-making for the srudy of [he races of Antiquiry were [he works of Felix von Luschan; see his Völker, '&usen, Sprachen (19ll). Together with the geographer H. Kiepert, F. von Luschan first rccognized and scientifically established [he exceptional an thropological position of the people of Asia Minor. A nch fund of material is furnished, especially for modern drnes, by E. Frhr. v. Eickstedt. Die Forschung an: Menrchen <3 vols., Stuttgart '9401963). Methodologically imporrant arc B. Lundman, Umriss der Rtlffe/lkunde des Afenschrn in geschichtl. Zeit (Copenl1agen 1951) :md Stlll1nlll?skunde der Völkrr (Upps:lla 1961). ISDIVIDUAL STUDIES: C. U. Ariens Kappers and Leland \V. Parr, An Introductio1J to the Anthropology of the Nur Eilst in Ancirnt and Recent Times (Amsterdam 1934); \\1'. M. Krogmann, Rad,ll Types from Trpe Husllr /rau from Ihe Laie 5th to the EltTly 2nd AliIl.71nimll ( Verhl1l1dl. der Akl1d. d. Wirr., Amsterdam 1940). Also wonh reading is P. E. Newberry, ÄgYPre/1 als Feld für ambro pologisehe Forrcbl/lIg (u. G. Roedcr; AO 17. 1 . Leipzig 1917), alp H. F. S.ikr, Die M�sJe bei T�eiml (Diss. Erlangen '9J6).
6,
The Fundmuntals
though the tic1e does not correspond to the contents. For Cyprus:
C. M. Fürst, Zur Kemlt7lis der Anthropologie der prähistorischen Broölkenmg der Ime1 Cypern (L!mdr UnF,;. Amkrift. N.F. A"d. 1, XXIX Ne. 6; 19H). Early Greck anthropological material is evaluated among others by C. l\l Fürst (Lundr U7Iiv. Amkrift, N.F. Avd. z, XXVI Ne. 8; 1930); by E. Fischer in GeorgKaro, Die Schllchtgriiber 1:on Mykenai (Munich 1930-1933), po ff.; and by E. Breitinger n i Kerll11leikos·Werkes I (Berlin 1929), u3 H. Im· pomnt srudics have been done by thc Ameriean J. L. Angel, e.g. "Skeletal Material from Anica," Hesperia (1945), 179 ff., whieh -
dcals with aU the skcletal material of Attica from the beginning of hisrory to the decline of Antiquity; "A Raeial Analysis of the Anciem Gr«ks, an Essay on the Use of Morphological Types," A1I1er. Jour. of Pbys. Antbropology N.S. 1 (1944), 3%9 ff.; and, on [he human remains in Troy, Troy, Suppl. M01/Ograph I (Prineeton '951 ).-Numcrous more recent works for aneicnt Anatolia are givcn in A. Gocp;e, Kleinasien (ed. 1 , 1957), 8-1 1 . DRO"DER COM PIlEII E. .... SI\'E WORKS: Auhrey Diller, JUce Alix·
tllTe 1171/ong tbe Greeb before Alexander (/J/illois Studier i1l [,17/. guage iT1Id LiterlIture 10. 1-1, 1937). Alexander the Great's "polier of amalgamation" has been often debated, e.g. br \V. Kolbe, Die We1treichsidee Alexandrrs d. Gr. (Freiburger IVm. Ges. z 5, 1936) and by H. Bcrve, Klio 31 (1938). 1)5 ff., whose view, that Alex·
andcr himself was awarc of ehc racial kinship of ehe Maeedonians and Persians, is noe ccnablc.-For the Orbis R07llallus: M. P. Nilsson, "The Race Problem of the Roman Empire," Hereditas (Lund) 2 (1921), 370 ff. (Opusctlla SeIata H, Lund 1952), 940 tf. I have not yee seen A. Shcrwin·'Vhite, Raeial Prejlldiee n i 17/1pC7ial Rome (Cambridge 1967). Intcresting evidence for the intrusion of foreign elements inco Italy at the time of the transition from Republic to Principate has been fumished by inseriptions from j\linrumae: de· tails in F. Zucker, Henner 78 (19i3), 100 ff. The so-callcd "strucrural in"estigation" is imponant for the knowledge of national indi\'idualitics; on this cf. B. Schweincr, NJA (J938). 16l tf. An example of its usc: A. Moo rt.!:'a t Die bildende Kumt des Alten Orients ulId die ßeTJSVölker (Berlin 19P) and .
Bildwerk u1Id Volkstum Vorderasims '1:1Ir Hethirerzeit (Sel/drehr. d. Deutsch. Qrientges. 8, Leipzig 1934).
Detailed works: Tmporcam for the amhropology of Egype in Roman tirnes are ehe mummy portraits; cf. H. Drerup, Die Da/ie. nmg der Mumienporträts (Paderbom t9H); K. ParIasca, Mumien· portriits und vrTWmdre Denkmäler (Wiesbaden 1966). Nevcnhe_ less, they represent withom exception the portraits of urban upper cla5SCS, I.e. of a "saM elite." Furchce, the eonscious stylization of
6,
Tbc FlI1Idlmfentals
the portraits must be take" imo account for anthropologiC:ll use. The same is [tUe fot the Bildnisse der antiken Dichter, Redner und Denker. which K. Schefold has assembled (Basel 1943>. Cf. also K. Schefold, Griechische Dichterbildllisse (Zurich 1965). On the herrn of Themistocles from OSti:! see t.g. H. Sichrennann, GY11l11tumm 7 ' ( 1 964), 348-38 1 , "VOLK" ANO "NATION"; Fot the concept of Vclk, see E. Mey er, Gesch. d. Altert. l.I (cd. 3. 1910) , 77 ff.; opposed H. E. Stier, Gnmdlagrn und Si1l1l der griecb. Geschichte (Stuttgart 1945), 7]. 107, 110, 1 1 3 . tte. Stier's view, that there was generally no Greek peop1c (Volk), but only separate Grcek nations (Natirmro), under cstimates the unifying forces of Creek history in fayor of the divisive ones. Stier (op. cit. p. /00) slights the Hcrodotean passage (8. 144) which spcaks emphaticaUy for a Pan-Greek consciousness at the time of the Persian Wars. Cf. also Herodorus' orinion (8.3) which designates rhe quarrels berween Greeks as (TTae,.... tp..pv"Ao<;, i.e. as "internal discord"; cf. Xenophon, Hellenika 3.2.21 f.. conccming which see H. Bengtson, "Rastloses Schaffen," in Fertschrift für F. Lanl11tert (Stungart 1953). 3 1 ff. Furrher. see H. Bengcson. "Hel lenen und Barbaren." in Umer Geschichtsbild, cd. K. Rüdinger (Munich 1954), 25 ff.; H. Sehaefer. ReLnioni de! X Congr.lmerll. di Scieme JtOT. VI (Rome 1955), 677 tf.-Worth notiee is Hera kleides' eonccpt of I-Iellenes in his City l'orrraits, fr. 3.:; rhey are those who traee their aneestry to Hellen and who speak Greck.-On H. E. Stier sec also F. \:V. Walbank. "The Problem of Greek Na Iionality." Pho(!'Jlix 5 (195'),41 ff. A good survey is E. Lommarzseh, ratTia (Gricfswald 1912); cf. also L. Kratringer. Der Begriff des Vaterlrmder m i repllhlikmischen Rom (Diss. Zurich (944). As yeI Ihere is no hisrory of national consciousness in Ihe ancient world; a preliminary study is the dissertation of A. Heubeck. Das Nationalbcwll11tuin deI Herodot (Erlangen 1936). TUE ROLE OF THE I:SOII'IOUAL PERSO:-öALlTY 1:.1 TUE UlSTORY OF ANT1QUITY: Besides Ihe signifieant general statemems of F. l'<'leineeke in the imroduetion to Ihe compilarion Menscben, die Geubicbte mllcben I (cd. 2, Vicnna 1933). see: Ernst \'on Stern, Stlliltsfor1lJ lind Eiuzelpr!rJiinlicbkeit im KI�1Jiscben Alterwm (Halliscbe Univ. Rrden 20, Halle 1913); on Seipio Africanus Maior, H. Bengtson, "Seipio Afrieanus: Seine Persönlichkeit und seine welrgesehichtl. Bedeutung." HZ 168 (1943),487 ff. The smaU book of\:V. 1'. Soden, HerrscbeT 1l i l Alten Orient (BerEn 1954), is an attempt co com prehend the mIeFS of Ihe aneient Ori�nt as personalities. TIIE SIGNIFlCASCE OF TIIE ?>lASSES IN ANCIF.�' IIlSTORY: The most import�nt sources are the colleetions of inscriptions, inasmueh as Ihe literary material acquaims us as a rule only with rhe sociaUy
Tbt Fundmntntals
6,
elevated dasscs. Ex3ffiples of studies: Hden H. T3nzer, Tbe Com-
Peop/e o[ Pompe; (Tbc Jolmi Hopkim Univf!rsity, Smd;es in Arcbaeology 19; Baltimore 1939). Also cf. A. t\hxey, Occupati01ls of tbe Lower Clastes ;'1 Roman SodelY (Chicago 1938). A colossal 1/1011
amounr of socioeconomic hisrorical mal(�rial is induded in Tenney Frank, EC()TJolllic SI/Tvey of AncieTlt R01fle ('933-1940, repr. 1959) and in Ihe works of M. Rostovt"l.eff, SOC;<1/ /lnd Ecoll(l1llic HirlOTY of Ihe Roml"l7l Empire (1917; ed. z hyPo M. Frascr, Oxford 1957) and Soci<11 and Economic History of Ihe Helleninic World (Oxford '94' ).-The studies of ancient slavery, which were C".lrried out un der the direecion of J. Vogt and with rhe assistance of the t\fainz Acadcmy, are significam for knowledge of the sodal, economic, religious, and humanitarian conditions of Antiquiry. AI'CIEl'.. PROPAGANDA: See as examples of modem studies: Kenneth ScOlt, "Ocravian's Propaganda :md Amony's de sua ebrie tate," ePh z4 (1919), 1 3 3 ff. and "The Polirical Propaganda of 44-30 RC.," MAAR [ [ ('933), 7 ff.; M. P. Charleswonh, The Virmes of a Roman Emperor. Propagallda and tbc Cretlt;on o[ Belief (PBA 13, London 1937). The studiesof rhe idea of the monarch in the Hellenistic period (abo\'c all by W. Schubart, APF I! ('937), 1 ff.) and in thc Late Antique (J. Straub, Vom Herrschcrideal in der Spitantike (Stuttgan 1939» are importam preliminary works for a wide-ranging study of anciem propaganda. Also wonh men tioning are the pcculiar flistoria Augusta, in wnien tne figure of Julian the Apostate is glorified in the person of Sc\"crus Alexander, and rhe so-called eontorniates (from ehe Italian "contorno" = our line; a type of eoin with a groove on the rim), which werc used as a weapon againsr Christianity by tne pagan aristocracy at Romc in the fourtn and fiftn centuries A.D.: A. Alföldi. Die Komorllla/en: Ein vcrkanmcs Propagandamittd der rtadttö11Iischen heidnischen Arirtokratie (Budapest [94J). SIZE OF POPULAT10!'S: K. J. Beloch conccmed himself wirh basic problem. Thc resulrs of his penetrating srudics, howc\'cr, chis are far from eerminl)'; authentie material is available only sincc the
Ren�i�nce. Besitles ßcloch's Die Re'Völkerlmg der griecbirch_
römischen Welt ( , 886), one should know the volumes which ap_ pc3red after his dearh ('919), Be;;ölkcrungsgeschichtc Italiens (Berlin '937-'940; there is 3 new cd. of \'01. 2 , and a third vol. ap peared in [959). For an instructivc cxamplc of Beloch's method, see his inaugural lecture as professor of anciem history at Leipzig, "Die Volbahl als Faktor und Gradmesser der historischen Entwick lung," HZ [ [ I ([913), 3 1 1 ff., which shows this sl1arp-witted hisrorian's undervaluation of historical imponderables and of the irr:l.lional n i history. For conrrast see a \Vork like Errut von Stern,
"
Tbe FundllT1lcrltltls
; Altertum (Halle 1916). Cf. the Volkskraft und Stattsmacbt m notable compilation of dan from Antiquiry by E. Meyer in Hand wörterbuch der Staatrwissemcbaften n (cd. 2 , 1899), 674 tI., s.v. "Bevölkcrungswcscn III," See also ehe so-called "Bevölkerungs Ploetz": E. Kirsten, Rnum find Broölkenmg;7I der Weltgeschichte, Part I: Von der Vor..eit wm Mittelalter (Wfuzburg 1956); natural· Iy ehe numbers given here are hypothctical. An instructive special problem: A. W. Gamme, The Poptllllti01l of Atben! in tbc Vth lind lVtb eeneurie! B.C. (Oxford 193)), [0gecher wirh the criticism of G. Oe Saoctis, RFfe ('937), 288 ff. and Gomme's reply with ehe coumer-rcply of De Saoctis, ibid. ( 1938), 169 ff.-Methodologically intcre5ting is the problem of numbers in the Pcrsian WafS: see the basic tabulations of Hans Dclbrüek, Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege ( 1887) and also the essay of R. v. Fischer, Klio 25 (1931), 289 ff. On the problem of numbers in Caesar's Bellum HelvetiC1ffll: Esnst Jl.leyer, Zeitscbr. f. Schweiz. Geschichte 19 (1949), 65 tf.-The formula togatorum ("list of anned men") of Polybius 2.14- which is given for 225 B.C, is funda ment:d for reekoning the population ot ancienr haly; modern ca! eubtions based on this list, however, are contradictory. Fot ROlrum eensus figures sec e.g. A. H. M. Jones' lecture, "Aneient Economic History" (1948). 3 ff.-Methodologically instnlctive is F. G. Maier, "Römische Bevölkerungsgeschichte und Insehriftenstaristik," His toria 1 (1953/54), 3 1 8 ff., whieh correctly refers to the n i sufficiency of statistical material and of thc conclusions based thcreon.-A. E. R. Boak has tried to pro\·e th�r the scarcity of men may have caused the f�ll of the \Vestcm Roman Empire: MtmpO'Wer Shortage tmd the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West (Ann rubor 1955); on whieh, however, sec e.g. H. Bengtson, BO (1957), 58-59 and M.1. Finley, lRS 48 ([958), 156-164. The great eommon diseases in Antiquiry have SO far received toO liede attention; (hey are significant for iudging the problems of �ncient population and for the intellecruaI devclopment of ancient men. Modern srudies: G. Sticker, Femcbrift Beroh, Nocht (1937), 597 !f., whieh concentrates on the epidemics of Anriquity; B. v. Hagen, "Die sog. Pest des Thukydidcs," Gynmasium 49 (1938), 110 ff., whieh identifies the plague as a eombined spotted-fevC1" and ; Altertum (Jen� 1939)' See smallpox epidemie; ibid., Die Pest 11/ also P. Fracearo, "La mal�ria e la storia dc�li antichi popoli c1assiei," in Opuscula TI (Pavia '951), 331 ff. The ' pathologica l pcrspcetive" of Anriquity is stretched too faf, especially for Lare Antiquity, hy F. Kaph�hn, Zwischen Antike undMittelalter: Das DOl1(1ll1dpenland im Zeitalter Sr. Severim (J\Iunich 1947).
_
IV
_
The Sources
Evcry student of Antiquity must fust concern hirnself wirh the study :lnd criricism of the soueces. The significance of sources, as the ward implics, is that they afe original :lnd genuine. Just as pure water ßows from a spring, so [rue rcstimony (rom the past is drawn Erom ehe soueces. In a widc sense, cl'crything prescrvcd frorn Antiquity is a source fOf the history of Antiquity. These saUfces indude wrirings of bmh litcrary :tnd documenrary chamettr, architccture lmd art, objccts from mtellectual and material pursuits-in short, everything hear ing on the life of pcople in andem Dmes. So regarded, the sources are of cnormous diversity, :tnd nobody can master a pan of ehern, much less all. The pyramids of ehe Old Kingdom, thc buildings of Periclean Athens, [he Ara Pacis of Augusrus-all are sources just i orrnnt as ehe narrao\'cs of the 'Vestcar Papyrus from the as mp Middle Kingdom, [he books of [he Gld Testamenr, the Athenian Tribute ListS, and the C01mllentarier of Caesar. One can easily see, however, [hat there is a fundamental difference hetween two caregories of sonrces. The tim n i cludes bui l dings and works of art, which arc expressions of thdr age and 3.S such are imponant for the historian. The second category includes 3011 writ ten recot&, and it is with this category that we hegin.
I . LITERATURE ANO D O C U M E N T S
Weinen records are of twO rypes: (I) works shaped by the literary tradirion, the most imporrant bdng the andem historians' writings but im:luding aU other forms of literature 3.S weil; (1) primary ma terials such as documents, lenen, and speeches, which give us direct "
"
Tbe SourceJ
testimony aoout events lind an: themselves a part of history, where as liteJ'3ry wodes tral1Sl1Üt the past as interpreted by the writer. Because we have only fngments of the anciem tradition the modern scholar must be prcparcd ro usc whatever is preserved, borh docu ments and histories, as weU as all forms of poctry 2nd prose. Never theless he should alwllYs remember the special importance of primary materials. Unforrun:uely only a small pan of rhe docmnenrary material has been preservcd. That documenrs wccc as important in Antiquity as in medicval 2nd modem rimes has been demonsrratcd by a num ber of finds such as thc Amama Tablets (discovered in Middle Egypt in 1887-1888, including archives of Amenophis III and IV of the 14th cenrury RG.), the Hinitc mtt archive (discovered 2t Doghal.köi. ccmral Anatolia), the rediscovery of the Pabee Library of Assurbanipal (died c. 631 B.e.) in old Nineveh, which indudes many works in classical Babylonian script. and tinally the adminis trative records and documents preserved by aneient inseriptions and by papyri found in [he Egyprian desen:. Yer all of [his is only a ciny fragment of the enonnous mass of material from 3500 years, most of whieh has been lost beeause of Jire, flood, war, and aecidcnt. Therefore we muse eonsider a special gift of fonune [he reeent discovc:ry of many Aramaie documenrs, among them ten lettcrs of ehe Persian satrap Arsames dacing from 4 1 1 to 408 H.C. They are a valuable addition to the Aramaic documcllfs found some years aga in Elephantine. Egypt. Through the discoveties of Hebrew texts in Qumran on the Dead Sea made: since 1947 wc have gained new and surprising insight into the intellectual world in whieh Jesus and the Aposcles lived. Even though rhere is still disagreement on many details, much knowledgt: has been gained conceming the texrual history of the Old Testament (among rhe serolls is a manuscript of Joshua and a commentary on Habalruk) and the thought of Palesrinian Judaism, especially the Jewish seers (from a manual of discipline and an eschatologicaI writ n i g, "The \Var of ehe Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness"). All writings are characrerized by the use of a parcicular seript and a panicular Ianguage. Seripe and language are therefore of basic importance to the historian who surveys severaI millennia. The his torical development of the Egyprian script from hieroglyphic to cursive tO demonc (during which hieroglyphic continued to be used as a monument script until almost the end of Anriquity, down to
Tb/" Souren
'7
Theodosius I).' [he de\"dopment of [he i\ksoporamian seripes from the so-called pietogr:1phieof the early dynastie pcriod to the dassical
cuneifonn of the New Assyrian empire down to the script of the Achaemenid inseriptions, and linally the del'clopmcm of the Grcek
epigraphie script during the areha;<; dassie, and Hellenisde periods all these aspects of the history of wricing are of great historieal sig nificanee. The same is true of [he changcs undcrgone by individual languagcs, such as the transition from the Old Latin of the Lapis Niger found in the Roman Forum or of the Twclve Tables, to the
dassical Ladn of Cicero and Cacsar, the Silver Ladn of Scnee:!. and Tacitus, I'ulgaf Latin, and finally Romanie; or the ch
Byzantine, aud theu to modern Greck. Espeeially significant historieally is the use of a langu
and of Babylonian culrure in gcner:1P Similarly the fact that the Hitritcs also uscd nOt only the so-called Hittite hieroglyphic (de cipherment of whieh h:1S emered a oew stage with the discovery of a bilingual text in Cilieia)· but also U5cd euneiform to write both thei r own language and orher Ianguages of Asia Minor indicates the culrural dominante of Old Babylonia the seeond millennium
s.e.
in rhe Near East during
The appropriation of a foreign seript
and its adaptation for a new language allow conclusions about the
special achievements of boch the originator and the reeipient;
a
well-known e;;:ample is the use of [he Norrh Phoenician consonantlll script by [he Greeks iod its transformation ioto an alphabet suited to the Grcek language.' Gre3t interest-and not only among seholars-was aroused by
the deeiphernlent of the Cretao seript, Linear B,' as a result of whieh
1 The l�st hicroglyphic inscription i5 d�ted A.O. 394 .nd ;s 011 the G.te of H.dri.n .t Phil.e. • B. "'"issn"r. Kiinige 8..b,lo!7iens .md A"YTienr (19.6),81. a Disc.we...,d by H. ßos>:crt; cf. H. Giiterbock. Er""os 47 (1949), 93 ff., .nd P. "'"riggi, Afhen�ro", ns. '9 ('95')' '$ ff. • R. Harder, "Die Mcistcrung der Schrift durch die Griechen" il1 Klene i Sebriftm (1)}60), 89 ff. • i\1. Ventris md J. Ch.dwick, JHS 7J (19H), 14-'0); cf. their Docummts in M,c",",,<1'1'1 Gruk ('9S6).
"
Tb� Sourcer
thc: language used in a number of Greek archives from the Mycen
aean Age has bcen identified as an archaie Achaean waltet. Rc:cent Iy, however, such serions criricisms have been advanced& that the dc:ciphcnnent cannot yet be considered secure. After chis digression, let us take up primary historical materials again, and let us first note cenain categoric divisions which wiU enable us [0 use the material bettel. Documents include aU writings except literary works (history, poetry, novels, etc.), :tnd they can bc divided ineo documenrs of public aod of private life. In the first group are international rrearies, administrative documents and rec ards, magistrates' edictS-in short, all writings connected wirh public life. Let us begin wirh the basic source for the study of diplomacy, treades. Thc: most importaot fot the history of thc ancicnt Near East are those from the Hi[fite archive.' All trearies of Anciquity are to be published in a scries sponsored by (he Munich Commission for Ancient Hisrory and Epigrnphy, and volurne two has already appeared, covering (he period 700-338 RC.' It includes (he docu ment of [he so-called "King's Peacc" (Peace of Amalkidas) of 387/ 386 RC., whieh [he Persian king Artaxerxes II "granted" [Q the G""eks.� From Roman history ir indudes (he treadCll between Rume and Canhage, the dates of whieh are still unscttled, especially (hat of [he first, which Polybius ascribcs to fhe first yearof the Republic.'o Seholars were rceently surprised by (he discovery and publication of a fragment of the treary of 1 1 1 B.e. betwetn Rome and Aetolia." Tbe discussion of this treaty and fhe many new problems it has raisc? among others the question of Polybius' dcpendabiliry, still connnucs. Historical and legal anal)'5is of rrcaties has in many cases illumi-
• f.. Grumach, Orim141i1t. Liter4tU1"-Zeitrmg (19$1), '93 /f.; A. 1. Beattie, Miu. d. /nnitUIJ für Orimtfortchung [Bulin] 6 ('9S8), 3)-'0+. For the omcr !lide see 1. Ch�d",ick, Tbe Decipbrl711mt o( LinC4' B (Cambridge 1958). TA. Göttc, Kulturgclcbicbre deI Allm Orimls: Kltinarien (cd. I, 1957).
91 /f.
I Die Vertriige der griecbitcb-römiscbm Welt 'VOn 700 bit 33' 'V. ehr., eds. H. Bengt5(]n and R. Wemer (Munich ''}'SI). tU. \Vilcken, �Ober Entstehung und Zweck des KönigsfriedclU,� AM.
f'reuSJ.Ak�d.d. Wits. 194I,no, '5. 10 J. Vogt, ROmitch� Gelchichte in Gercke-Nordm IJh (ed. ), 19)3), 40; bur cf. E. Komemann, RÖ7llilCb� Geschicbu I' (Kröner Verbg edition, '964), &t and 96· " G. K1affenbach,SDAW '954, no. I .
6,
Tbe Sources
naIed the characteristics of ancient politics. The work of V. Koro i cspecially import:l.nr; hc has shown that the !-finites cO!lcluded sec s two distinct types of ucary, uearics of alliance and treaties of V35salage, and 50 has provided us with a new basis for ehe analysis of Hittire domcstic and foreign policies.': In Roman studics the view of Theodor Mommsen :md Eugen Täubler, that the Romans re garded any stare not covercd by a ueary as ipso faeto an enemy, !las becn disproved uy A. Heuss," leading to new insights into Roman diplomacy. Only [he student familme wirh these mauers will be able to grasp the memality hehind the policies which enabled Rome to master rhe world. lust as maties illuminate diplomacy, so the legal systems of na tions are revealed by laws, codes, and legal documents, and we have mm}' of these from the andem Near East, Greece, and Rome, These documents tell U5 much ahom the hisrory of law in Antiquity; they also glve more general insight into ancient civilization, socicry, and dass StrUcrurci they show the elose conncction between ideas of justice and divinit)'; and they gi\'e us an undersranding of the minds of grcat lawgivers such as Hammurabi, Draco, and Solon. Espccially imporrant both for comparaove hw and for our knowl edge of Babylonian civilization in the period 1,000-1,500 ß.C. is the Code of Hammnrabi. Ir was disCQyered by French archeologisrs on a diorite block in SU5:1., where it had been brought by Elamites from Babyion." Another code, abour 1700 years more ancient, is the Code of Lipit-Ishfar from Isin.la \Vhereas the legal documents of ancient Mesoporamia, especially those of the Assyrians. rcveal a spirit of pitiless harshness, as exprcsscd in numerous provisions for degrading mutilarions, thc fragments of Hitrire Jaw'· are norable for unumally humane punishmenrs.11 Many Greck legal documents havc becn prcserved, moST of thern in the form of inscriptions, and usually showing no distinction between public and private law. ThU$ :l.n inscription in Tonic di�lecI dating from c. S7S B.C WliS Itv. Korokc, Hcthit;uhe Su,alrJe,"lige: Ein Bci"ag "" ihrer jurist. Wn_ tung (L�itcig. RecblJ'1�isl. Studien 60, '9)')' '3E, T':ubler, Imperium Roma1ll1111 I ('9rJ); A. Heuss, Di� tJö/kerncbl lieben Gnmdl�gro der römischro AUllfflp"lirik in rcpub/iki11liscbcr Zeit, K/ia-Beibeft ) , (''In). "\V. Eilers, "Die Gesenesstele Or�mmurobi.," AO ), (r9p), Dos, 1-4. .. A Falkenstein and i\1. San Nicolo, Orirol�I;� 19 (1950), 10, ff. I! J. Friedrich, Die betbitiscben Gesctze (Leiden 1959) .. A. Goctte, "p. C;I., " 4-' '5' •
7"
Tb� SOUTC�J
faund on a stoße column in Chios." Tbc: inscription is a CQostitu rional law, 2nd in its form 3S a "Jaw column" is clcarly to bc con nc:ct:ed with the slightly carlicr KUpßW; (pyramid tablets) of Athens on wbich extracts from Solon's laws were inscril>ed. Solon laid the foundacions of Attic law, whieh in Hellcnistic times became the model for the whole Grcck world. From Dorian lands comes [he Code of Gonyn, fauod on Cretc; its discovery has betn weU described by E. Fabricius." The rcmains of Roman Jaw begin with the Lapis Niger inscription and the Twclvc Tables. 2nd are vast and diverse. Roman civilization was especially oriemed toward law, 2nd its achievements in this field 2fe unsurpassed. In [he lare medieval period Roman law was rcvived (the "Reception"), 2nd so it5 inHuence has cominued ro [he present. This applics cspccially [0 rhe codes of rhe Larer Empire, rhe Codex Theodorill1/U$ issued in A.D. 438 by Theodosius 11 and Valentinian III,� the Codex hmillia1/l1f of AD. 5'34>" ano the collection of Iaws issued subsegllcnr to .he latter by Empcror jusrinian, the NO'lJellae,= These works, together with the lnstimtioner of jusrini3n, 3 "be ginner's texthook," and the Digerta, a coJlection oi extraC!5 {rom the older juriStS, form a monumental snucture of law unique in history." Administrative documcnts abound; only a few can be memioned here. At the courts of the ancient Near East official record was kepr of the more importanr e\'encs in pahee and empire. These "coUrt journals" (calIed ßa(TI),II((Z� ö"p8ipal by the Greeks) wen: docu* rnents whieh were uscd primarily for eontrol of the bun:aucrncy. We find rhem ar the court of (he Persian king as weil :IS rhe king of Isrnel,2i later at the court of Alexander the Great (rhe so-called Ephemerides). This material is lost, buc we can fonn an idea of whar the "court joumllls" were like from surviving ex[I':!.CCS on papyrus from bureaucratic "administrative journals."'" Roman ad,. i\I. N. Tod. G�uk Historie../ /nlcriptiom I (cd. •• '9..6), no. ,. ,. J. Kahler ..nd E. Zieburh. Difl St..dtTceht wn Gonyn (Gottingen '911); E. F�bridus, "Eine Forschungsreise in Kreta \'Or 60 Jahren." ,vIA ('94'), ,6, ff. :>0 E
7'
Tbe Sourcel
mmlstnlcion had an analogous institution in the C01/lmentarij of magistrates." Administrative lists also played an important role in Amiquiry; for example, we have a documem calJed the "Court and State Calendar" of King Nebllchadnezzar," we have \ists of Anic archons and Roman conSIlls, aod from the beginning of the fifth cenrury A.D. we have a complete manual oI the civil and military dignitarics of che Lm:r Roman Empire, the No/itin Digllitatfllll. A rclated group of documcms afe "administnlrive directives," koown to us mainly from papyri. Thus wc have {rom Tebtunis (P. Tcb. 111.703) the direeti"cs issued at che end of the third cemury B.e. by the Ptolemaic minister oi finances, the dioiketes (310IK1jTlj.,) to a subordinate, probably an oikonomos (OIKOI,0I10.,) . This im· portant dOCllment has bcen comparcd with thc directive issued by the Vizier Rechmire of thc XVIIhh dynasty'" Equally weil known is the extraet from the direetives issued to the Idios Logos, a high imperial finanee official in Roman Egypt, under Antoninus Pius or Marclls Aurelius." Similar documents are known from thc Hinite culture." In the hicratic Wilbollr Papynls published by A. H. Gardincr" we have a priccless document from the age of Ramescs V (c. 1 1 50 B.G) describing the measurement and taxation of Egypt's cultj· vated land. This document is equally imponant for the adminisrra· cive and sm:ial history of ancient Egypt, ;tnd raises the gl1cstion of how far reJated instirutions of the Ptolcmaic period (e.g., thc 8t(l."ypa..p� UtrOpov ) were infil1enccd by those oi the Pharnonic pe. riod. Among the "administrative documents" of the Roman Empire an thc Jettc� of Pliny the Younger to Emperor Trajan and his re· plie:>, published as book ten of Pliny's Letters.� They reveal much "A. v. Premcnrcin, RE IV, 7): ff .,. E. Unger. Tbrotogiubt Literatllr-Ztitlmg $0 ( 191$), 481 Er. 20 K. Sethe, ··Oie Eimelzung des Vezil"'l umu der IH. Dynastie;· Umtr. me/mngl:>! Mr Gt�cbic"tt Ägyptcns V.I «(909). H \V. Schubart, ifg,ptircbt Urklmdrn IlUI dm IIIlil1licbrn MUltrn zu Bcr/i n (BGU), vol. V.I (1919); \V. Graf UxkulJ_GylJenband, ihili., vol. V.J (19H: comment:lry). ME. V. SchuleT, HltbitiICbt Ditntllffl'Uo·c;f/fflgm ',"ir biibru Hof und St.l.lrsbcmlllt (Gr:lZ (951). n A. H. G�rdincr, Tbt WilbcmT P�pyrut (I '·ols. of tur, I \"01. of pbttS, Oxford IQ_P_I94S). � Cf. Plinius "'inor, Opml,ed. M. Scbuster (Leipz.ig 19$8). •
7'
Tbe SOurClS
i ad· about imperiaJ problems and illuminate the spirie oE mperial ministracion in the provinces. The basic decision made by Traj:m on the handling of Christians (Ep. X. 96, 97) was of fundamental historical importance,A Mention of Pliny's Letten brings us to a group of writings whic!! illuminatt: politics and which maybe considered eicher documenrary or literary in character, according as one regards fonn or contem. These writings are "primary materials of official nature" even though cher are not addresscd co rulers or ministries but rachet co priV2tC persons, moscly persons connected wich official life. Included n i these writings are speeches, memoirs, political pamphlers, and ehe like. They all have n i common the fact that they arisc OUt of politica1 scruggles and preserve for us ehe spirit of chose strugglc:s. Usually they have a definite political purpose, such as the self jusrification of a recired sratesman or roe support of a parry's pro gram in :m anonymous pamphlet, so that these wricings are tO some enent political propaganda. In the eategory of speeches, memoirs, and pamphlets we are again eonfronted with a mass of fragments. From the aneient Near East there are many inscriptions whieh one may caJl memoirs in a wider sense. Examples are the Assyrian royal inscriptions and the biog� raphie inscriprions of Later Egypt"; in the autobiographie inscrip lion of King Idrimi of Alalaeh on a statue we have a valuable con temporary document of the 15th cenmry RC. These and similar inscriptioos, however, are only a small fraction of what originally existed. Similarly, the rich memoir literature of the lifth cen� rory RC., whieh begins wirh thc work of Ion of Chios entitled Epide1lliai ("Travcl Diary"),- is represemed only by slight re mains. In the Hellenistic age the genre was espeeially cuh:ivated, and [he memoirs of IGng Pyrrhus and the Aewlian staU$man Ararus are weJl known beeause of their use by Plutarch in his biographies of them. The Romans wok over memoir-wriring, and cxamples were left by Sulla, Cicero, Caesar, and other.;. Military affairs play a major part in memoir liternture because of the charneter of the men who wrote them. In general memoirs follow their own rulcs = W. Weber, �Nec nostri sacculi est," FestgIlbe für K. Müller (Tiibingm '9").'46. .w E. OttO, Biographische Inschriftm des iigyptiscbm Spir:e;t (Leiden '954)· = FGrH, ]9'; and F. J'CQby. CQ ('941)' I ff.
Tbe Sourcer
73
of style; they do not belong ro the grand tr:ldition of historiw wriring. but are rather modcled on official fonns such as the military logbook and the administr:ltive journal. The precision found in slleh doeuments, eombined with the gr:lces of literary style such as one finds in Xenophon's AnabilSis and Cacsar's Cen1nIlCTltllTief, gives memoirs a fresh and genuine clurm usually found only in oral accounts. Classical rhetoric, which lived on in the trial speeches of the Romans, developed along twO main lines: fOfensic oratory and political orarory. Rheroric de\'eloped in Grecce under the influence of Sophism, and ir must be judged as : m art fonn. Thc high aesthccic scnsibility of the Athenian pub!ic of the fourrh cenrury B.C. is in· dicated by the fact thar thc survh'ing speeches of the popular Or:lrors Isocrates and Demosthem:s arc marked by eleganee of st)'le and the subtle usc of rhythm, 2nd remain unsurpasscd c1assieal models of
orarory. The speeches as given were rcvised for publication. Neverthcless the forensic and policical speeches which survivc give us the ke)' tO :1 concrete historical situation, and that is what is of interest ro the historian. The great political speeches of Dcmosthenes, for ex ample. are somewhere on the border berween oratory 2nd policeal propaganda. The theory that many of Demosthenes' speeches werc never dclivered in rhe fonn in which they survive, but instead were issued 3S political pamphlets and n i deed ,;ere neverspeeches, is prob ably correet. The same is true of the political essays of lsocr.ltes, including his Phi/ippos' 346 B.C. and PQ1latbt:1ltrikas (completed
339 B.C.)·
Roman oratory is denved from Grcek. The great opponent of Grcek culrurc, Cato the Ccnsor (234-149 B.C.), was in fact the man who brought Greek orarory to Rome. He was the nrst to indude actual speeches (his own) in his historical work Originer, although this was contrary [0 rraditional rules of style. Wirh M. Tullius Cicero (106-43 H.C.) Roman or:.ltory rcached its acmc, and ie is be cause of Cicero's speeches (and letters) tlut we know more about the last ycars of the Roman Republic than abom most other periods of ancient history. Cicero's speeches indude some whieh were never dclivercd, the most imponant being [he nve books of the actia secundlJ against Verres and rhe Secalld Philippic against !I·lark Anrhony. Ahhough we must assume that all fifty-eight survi\·jng speeches of Cicero have bcen re\'ised, they are neverthcless almost
I
.,
"
Tbe Sources
wirhout exception primary documents of grear importance. For example, wharc\'cr Wc: know 200m the tlIxation of Sicily and pro vincial administration in general under thc Republic is based almost emirely on Cicero's Venmes. The annosphere of the grca( srruggle which erupted at Cacsar's death is prestnt in Cicero's Philippiclle, modcled after thc speeches of that name delivered by Demosthcnes (0 rouse his fellow-Athenians tO resist Philip Ir of Macedon. Ciceros' Philippicae recapNte the political batdes during the monem from September, 44, to April. 43 Re. Thc valuable historical material in Cicero's speeches was recognized in Amiquiry, 2nd a thorough commemary on thcm was written under Nero by Q. Asconius Pedianus. Asconius' work was :l coumerpan [0 the commcntary on Demosthcnes' speeches writren under Augusrus by Didymus of Alexandria, pan of which has been prcservcd on papyrus. The orations of [he Roman Empire, both Latin and Greek, are also valuable sources for the historian, even [he somerimes unattrac rive type of "cercmonial speeches." Imponant examplcs include: Pliny the Younger's Pa1/cgyric, which is addressed to Trajan (with thrusts at [he dead tyram Domitian) ; the orations of [he prominent Bithynian philospher Dio Chtysostom. cspecially the first and third on monarchy, in which Trajan is praised as an exemplar of the Cynic-Stoic trUe ruler, and mar on [he Borysthenitcs of Olbia; and, finally, the prize speech by Aelius Aristides on Rome, which gi\'cs imponant n i sights into social conditions in the Empire c. A.D. I SO. Some of these speeches have only recently been studied for therr historical value, but all are valuable additions to the authentie his torical source materials. Of course [he scholar must use them with careful attention to the comempor:IIY documen[S, and due allow ance must be made for the way in which conditions are seen through the eyes of a rhetorician, 2S has long been done with the Attic ora tors. The manner in which an ontion can be drawn upon 2S an historical source has bcen beamifully demomtrated by M. Rostov [ZeR" and J. H. Oliver in their use of Adius Aristides' prize speech.OlI Another literary genre in Antiquity was the letter. Here it is dif ficult to distinguish official letters from liter:uy oncs-that is, letters wruch ought to be regarded as essentially part of ancient literature. N M. ROSTOVn:df, Soda/ and eCD1UJm;c Hi rfory of th� Rom;m Empiu (ed. •, cd. P. Fr.set. Oxford '957), '30-'14; 1. H. Oliver, Th� Ru/mg f'O'IDn' (TrIImaction Am. Phi/Of. Sode!y, new series vol, 43, no. 4; Phjladclphi� '954· )·
Tbe SorlTl;:et This is partly because even the official letrer was composed accord
ing to panicular mies of style, mies which we are only oow leam n i g [0 recognize through comparison wirh documents on stone (md papyrus. The starus of the letter as a rccognized literary genre hclps explain why many forged letters, both single and colleetions, were circu lated in Anriquity. Just how hard ir is [0 identify what is and what is not genuine is shown by the long debatcs on the letten of Plato, Dcmosthenes, and Isocrarcs; no finn conclusions have yet been reached. Ir was in this field, incidemally, that modem philology won its first triumphs. Thc brillianr proof that the "Ietters of Pha larls" wete fotgerics (as weil as the leiters of Themistocles and the Socratics), which the English scholar Richard Bendey (166:-1742) advanced, was and remains one of the pioneer achiellements of philological ctiticism. His conclusiolls, it is true, have had tO be revised in the case of the Socratic letters; E. Bickermann and J. Sykmris halle demonsuared through thorough linguistic and his rerical analysis that the thirtieth letter of the Socratic Corpus, rhe letter of Speusippos to Philip 11 of Macedon, is genuine and corcc sponds to the political de\'elopmenrs of HZ RC." lt is a veritahle mine of untouched treasurc for the anciem historian, and the fact [hat ir is consrantly being increased ensures that there will always be oew problems to solve. The ancient pamphlets take us imo the world of political con rroversy. They. were often published n i rhe fonn of an "open letter," and were very common in Antiquity, espccially in epochs of political change such as at the end of the Roman Republic and during the struggle between the Roman Empire and Christianity. Often it is difficult in individual cases ro draw the line berwecn pamphlet, letter, and oration. To the category of pamphlets in a wider sense one should add political satires such as those wntten at Rome by Lucilius under [he Republic and by Seneca (Apocolo cyntosis Divi Claudij) under the Empire. They share with pamphlets the object of eriticizing existing political and social conditions and of developing from this viewpoim, on occasion, suggestions for H E. Bickcrmann and J. Sykurris, Sprusipps B,i<1 an König Pbi/ipp dic Verbandlrmgm der Siichriscben Akademie deT IV;SSffl schaftffl, phi/.biJl. K/DSrt, vol. 80. nOt 3; Leip'lig '9.8); cf. R. Huder, Pbi/% g"s Rs ("no), 'so ff., an.! J. Sykutri•. Die B,iefe des Suk,�ttr und
(Be,ichte iib"
der SakutikeT
(Studien wr Gcschichte des A/flmums 18; Padetbom '9Jj).
Tht SOUTcts
7'
m i provcrnent. Works such as the Constimtion ot tbe Athrninm, written by � unknown :lUthor during the first years of the Pelo· ponnesian War, or the two Epittitr to Caesar, supposedly wrinen by Sallust, are wonhy of attention not 50 much because of theil spccific suggestions as for [heir qualiry as documenrs of comem porary history, which chey mirrat din:ctly. FinaJly, thc category of "primary sources" also includes the mass of inscriptions and papyri, which gives us valuable infonnaoon on the population, economy, socia! conditions, religion, and cults of Anriquity. This material will bc discussed below under "basic disci plines." BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES: Theo: exists 00 modern collcction of ancient prirnary SOUfCes. Our knowledge of the history of the an eient Near E.ast rests almost cntirely on such soufces. historiogr:tphy as understood in thc West nC\'cr having dcvcloped there. Basic infoonation is provided in modern narr.ltive works, particularly Eduard Meyer's Geschichte des Alterml1ls, which has extensive discussions of the sources of aneient Neu Eastern history. For Egypti9n sources see E. Drioton nnd 1. Vnndicr. L'figypte (cd. 3. '951: in the "Oio" series) . A use/uL work is the tr:mslated eoUcetion of sources edited by J. ß. Pritehard, Ancient Near EIlStern Texts Re/atmg 10 the Old Testament (ed. 1, Prineeton (955). Egyptian documems are collected and uanslated in 1. H. Breasted, Ancient o 1906-u)o7); this work is usefnl Recordr of Egypt (4 vo\s., Chieag both fOf Egyptologists and for a l ymen, though the original tCXtS muSt be uscd for historieal and phi l ologieal research. FOR MESOPOT,l.r.tI,I. then: is the old eollection of thc cuneifonn textS edited in the 19th ccnrury, Keilinscbriftlichen Bibliothek I-lII (188!)-1891) cd. E. Schrader. IV Cjudicial and commercial texts) cd. Feistr, V (Amarna tab1m, now rc:plaeed by Knndtzon's edition) cd. H. Winekler, VI (mythie and epic texts) cd. P. Jensen. This i brge pan by later research, and work has been rendered obsolete n has been rcplaced by volumes in the serics Vorderasiatischen Biblio i panicular: 1.1 (1907): Die smllerirchen !md akkadischen tbek, n Königrmcbrifren,cd. F. Thureau-Dangin; IV (1911): Die neubaby lonischen Königsmscbriften, ed. S. Lan�don; VI (1914): Babylon ische Briefe (lUS der Hlmmmrapidynilstle, cd. A. Ungmd. Besides, see G. A. Ban:on, The Royal lnscriptions of Sumer Il1Id Akklld (Ncw Havcn 1929). An mportant i publication is thc series Neu-
Tbe Sources
77
babyloniscbe Rechts- und Verwaltungsurkumien, eds. M. San Nicolo and A. Ungruzd (Leipzig, since 1928). Tbe texts from Man have men by now a nly edlted: Archives royales de MllTi I-VIII, p c:ds. G. Dissin, C. F. Jean, J. R. Kuppee, J. Bortero, et al. (Paris
1946-1957). ASSYRIAN SOURCES: Collected and translated by D. D. Luck enbill, Andent Ruords of Assyria (md Baby ion (2 vok, Chicago 1926-1927), but thc work is not cnrirely [cusrwonhy. Imp orranr tc:<{ cditions includc: Die li/schriften deT altassyrischen KÖ1llge [up
Salmanassar I], eds. E. Ebe1ing, B. Meissnee, and E. F. Weidncr (Leipzig 1926); Une relation de la Smc campag;ne de Sargo/I, cd. F. Tbu reau-Dangin (Paris 1 9 I z ) ; Die lnrchriften AssllThaddom, Königs von Assyrien, ed. R. Borger (Arcbiv fiir Orientforschung, Bciheft 9. Graz 1956); Assurhallipal und die letztrn assyrischen Könige (3 "ols., ed. i\l Sm�ck, Vordrrasiatische Bibliothf:k p , 1916). and Th. Bauer. Das 11lscbriftellwf!Tk Assurballipals (A$1yriol. Bibliothek, new serics. val. 2, 1933); e. Gadd, Tbc Fall of Nine'Uf:b (London 1923: end of the Assyrianempire in 612 B.e.) ; D. J. Wise man, ehroT/ieles of Chaldean Kings (626-jJ6 RC.) in the British Museu1Il (1956); R. C. \Vatcnnann, Roya/ Com:spondence of the Assyrilr1l Empire (Ann Arbor 1930-1935); R. H. PfeifTer, StaU Lettrrs of Assyria ( 722-625 B.C.) (Amrricnn Orie1Jt Scrier 6, Phila delp hia 1935)' HITI1TE )\,lATERIALS: Thosc available up [0 1957 are sun'eyed in the e:
.
Tbe Soureer
7'
GREEK HlSTORY: The standard guides [0 thc saUfces :tnd gen eral imroductions da not sufficiencly disringuish between primary sources and omer material. Thus., for exam ple, the chapter "Docu mentary :tnd Monumental Sources" in C. Wacrumuth's Emlf'ittwg in das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895), 24' ff., is unsatisfac rory. A limited selection is given by M. Cary, Tb/! Doc'"lIentary SouTees fOT Greek Hinory (Oxford '927). For a survcy of the available primary materials see thc appendices (0 the CIl1llbridge Ancient HistMY :tnd H. Bc:ngtson, GrIechische Gescbichte in Müller 111.4 (ecl. 3. 1965). A new survey. based on a sharp distinerion betwcen (he different catcgories, would be wel COrne. For funher information see the seetion helow on basic disci plines. ROMAN IUSTORY: We have an excclIcnt manual, A. Rosen berg, Enleimng Imd Que/lmkunde zur römischen Gerchichte (Berlin 1911), in which a clcar distincrion is made benveen primary documents and works of history. E.xcellent surveys are contained in Gercke�Norden m.l (ed. 3. 1933) by Joseph Vogt on the Republic (pp. H-.H) and E. Kornemann on the Empire (pp. 147-149 and 167 ff.); these are tne best summaries avai!able. Another valuable work is A. Piganiol, Hirtoire de R07lle (cd. 5, Paris 1962). EDlTIO�S AND STl]DlF.s, Thc Am
Brooklyn MUlffim Aramaie Papyri: NM.1J DOCll7lle1ltl o[ the 5th Ce1Jtury H.C. [r0'11I tbe Jewisb Colony at Elephamine (New Haven 1953). For older documems see A. E. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of tbe 5tb Century n.C. (Oxford 1923)'
OUt of the b l only a lew rge iter:.trure be noted: H. Bardtke, Die Handschriftenfunde am Toten Meer (Beflin 1951), and O. Eissfcldr, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (ed. 2, Tübingen 1956), 788 ff. Good inuoductions are M. Burrows, Tbc Dead SeaSeroll! (New York 1955). and More Ligbt on tbe Dead Sea Serolls (New York 1958). Other recent li[ erarure is is[ed l in ehr. Burchard, BibliogTaphie zu den HlI'1/dschrit DEAD SEA SCROLLS:
selected items
can
ten vom Toten Meer (1957).
l1IIS
HrrflTE TREATlES: E. F. Weidner, Politische Dokumente Kleinasien: Die Staatwertriige in akkadischer Sprache sm dem
Tht SOUTeeS
"
Archiv '1)011 Boghazkiii (Boghazkiij-Studirn 8--9, 1913); j. Friedrich, StaatS".,;ertTäge du Hattirciehes ;11 hethitischer Spracht I (Mitt. d. Vorderasiatisch-Ägyptischell Gesellschaft 31.1, 1916) amI Jl (ihid.
34.1, 1930). LllJRARY OF ASSURBANIPAL; Ir contains copies of all surviving works of Sumerian and Babyloni3n literawre, induding rnythology, magie, 3suonomy, rnedicine, and hismry. See rhe surveys by O. Weber, Die Literatur der Babyionier und Assyrer (Leipzig 1907), 17 t1, and C. Bczold, p�. 95 ff. in Rab1llNi der Weltgeschic!Jte, cd. j. V. PAugh-Hanung (Berlin 1910). IIlSTORY OF WRlTll'G: The best introduction is by F. \:V. v. Bissing and A. Rehm in H,mdbllcb d. Archäologie I, cd. \:V. Ono, (1939), 147 ff. and 181 ff. See 31so K. Sethe, Vom Bild ZWJl lJuch staben: Die Emuebllngsgescbichre der Schrift (Unters. zur Ge schichte 11. Altertll1l1fkllllde Ägyptens Tl, 1939), cd. S. Schott; S. Schott, Hieroglypbl!11 (Abh. Akad. Maim:: 2'4> 1950); G. R. Driver, SC1IIitic lVritingfr011lPictogmph to Alph.1bet (cd. 2 , London 1954)' Very impressive is the monograph of }. Friedrich, EntzitT(!1'fmg verschol/mer Scbriftell lind Sprachen (Berlin 1954). LAl'GUAGE; On Egyptian see H. Grapow, Vom Hi(!1"oglyphi schrn-De7llotiscben zum Koptiscbm (SB PrelifS. Aklld. 1938, no. 18) ; on Greek see P. Kretschmer, in Gt>rcke-Norden I (cd. 3, 1917), 66 ff.; cd. Schwyzer, Griechische Grannllatik I (1939), 45 ff.; on Lalin see G. Dcvoto, Storia del/a lillgull di Roma (Bologna 1940) and V. Pis3ni, Mlltmille storico lidlll /in!{l111 latiua (\'ok �-4, Turin 1950-1953). An imporr-anr work is E. Norden, Die antike KUlIu prosa (I vols" cd. I, Lcip7.ig and Berlin 1909); ir Slll"\'eys the dc \'clopmenr of literaty langu3ge in Grccce :md Rome {rom ehe be ginning down ro ehe Renaissance. CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGF.: W. von Soden, Zwcisprachigkrit ill der geistigen Kulntr Rllbylolliens (SA IVfV 135, no. I , 1960); L. I'bhn, Rom und d(!1' R011l.Jnimms im griecbisch rii'l1lischcn Orten (1906): L. Hahn, Zlim SprllchNlk.lmpf i1ll röm ische/I Reic!; bis lIuf die Zeit /1I1Iilli311S (rhilologur, Supplement 10, [90]), 675' ff.; H. Zi11i�eus, ZlIm Kllmpf der TVclupr.JCh"., ;'111 ostrii1!liscbcn Reich (Diss. Hclsinki 1935).
Al'CIENT TREATIES; Besidcs rhe works mentioned in the text, see F. Hampl, Die grit-clJische Sfllam'eTtTii}l.e der �. !lIb,bl/1l1f"Tfs 'iJ. Cbr. Grb. (Leipzig 1938), witil review by F. WÜST, Gnomon 1938. 367 ff. An example of a )urisric smdy is A. Hcuss, "Abschluss und Beurkundung des griechischen lind römischen Srnatsvcnragcs," Klio z7 (1934), 14 ff., 118 ff. On Grcek documenrs see A. \.Vilhelm, Beiträge �lIr griechischl!1l 1nschriftenkunde (Vienna 1909), lZ7 ff.,
80
Tbe SOUTen
and G. Klaffenbach, Bemerkungen zum griecbiscben Urkunden wesen (SDAW 1960, 00.6). LAW; For the ancient Neu East these works are particularly important: A. Scharff and E. Seidl, Einführung i11 die ägyptische Rechtsgeschichte bis 2U1II Ende des Nemm Reicher I (Ägyptolog ische Forschungen 10, 1929); E. Seidl, Ägyptische RechtSgeschichte der Saite71- und Perrerzeit (ibid. zo, 1956); E. Seid!, Ptolemäische Rechstgeschicbte (cd. 2, Glückstadt [962); M. San Nicolo, Recbts geschichtliche Beitriige im Bereich der keilscbriftlicben Recbtsquel len (Osla 1931); P. Koschaker. "Kc:ilschriftrtcht," ZDMG, series 2, val. '4 (1935), I ff. Collc:c(ions of legal documents from the ancieot Near East include: A. Falkenstein, Die neusumerischen Gerichtsurkunden (Abh. MImich, phil-bist. KI., sero 1, nos. 39. 40, 44; 1956-1957); G. Driver and J. !\files, Tbe BabylO1lian LrrJJs (1 vols., 1955-19S6), and Assyrill1l Ltr.;.'s (Odord 1915). For Hellenie law see H. v. Prott and L Ziehen, Leges Graecorutll sacrae (1 vols., 1896---1 901); P. Meyer, Juristische Papyri (Berlin 1910), excellent ri in general. \Ve do not yet also as an imroducrion to legal papy have a general survey of Greek law, buc important monographs in clude: K. Lme, Heiliges Recht (Tubingen 1910); E. \Neiss, Grie chircbes Privatrecht I (Leipzig 1923); J. Pansch, Griecb. BiiTg tcbaftsrecbt 1 (Leipzig 19(9); F. Pringsheim, Tbe Greek Law of Sale (Weimar 1950); H. Lipsius, Das attische Recbt lind Rechts_ verfahre1J (3 vok., Leipzig I90S-1915); H. 'Vleber, Attischer i de1J attischen Seebundstaaten (Paderhorn 1908). For ProzesSTecht n the relations berween Greek and Roman law the fundamental work remains L Mineis, ReichSTecbt und VolkSTecht in den östlichen Provinzen des römischen Kaiserreichs (Leipzig 1891); an interesting work is \V. Kunkel, Herkunft ,md soziale Stellllng der römischen Juristen (Weimar 1951). Roman I� sources are available n i severa1 collccrions. C. Brom and O. Gradenwitz, Fontes luris R011ltm; (I vok, cd. 7, Tübingen 19(9) with Additll11lenta (1 vok, 1911); P. Girard, Textes de droi! rOl1um (cd. 6, Paris 1937); G. Baviera, C. Ferrini, G. Furlani, and V. Arangio-Ruiz, F01Ites luris R011lmi Anteiustinia1/i (3 vol5., Flor ence 1940-1943), outsrnnding for bibliography. On the codes of the later Empire (Theodosius 11 and Juscinian) tht best historical account is hy E. Komemann, "Die römische Kaiscrzeir," in Gercke_ Norden m.l (cd. 3, 1933), 166-167. Roman legal sources are surveyed by Th. Kipp, Geschichte der Quellen des rÖlllirchen Rechts (cd. 4- Leipzig 1919), a good intro duerion; L. Wenger, Die Quellen des rÖlIIilchen Rechts (Vienna 19SJ). A useful survey is B. Kühler, Geschichte des römischen
Tbe Sourcet
"
Rechtes (Leipzig 1915). The characteristics oi Roman IIlW are dis cussed by F. Schulz, f'rinciplcs of RQman UW, rr. M. Wolff (0,, ford 1936), reviewed by M. Gelzer, Gnomon ( 193 5), 1 ff.; also by W. Otto, Amike Kfllrtlrgerchichte (SB Mllnich 1 940, 00. 6), 35 H.; P. Koschaker, Ellrop.1 und das rÖI/tische Recht (Munich 1947)' For Roman private law sec Jors, Kunkel, and "Veogcr, Römischcs Prr.Jatrecht, based on the work of P. Jors (cd. 3. Beflin 1949); M. Kasee, Römisches Privatrecht (1 vols., Munich 1955-1959), with extensive rcferences to sources and srudics. Historians will find use ful H. Berger, Encyclopedic Victionary of Roman Law (Tram. Am. Philosophieal Soeiety, n.S., vol. 43, 00. 1; Philadelphia [953>. ADMINlSTRIr.nVE OOCUME�'TS: Court joumals of the Achae menids are cited in E-:,ra 4.15, 6.2; Errher 2.23, 6.1; Diodorus 2.33.4 (Ctesias). Alcxander's Ephemeridcs 3fC discusscd by H. Berve, Das Alexallderreieb auf proropograpbiseher GT/mdlage I (Munich 1916), 50; F. Altheim, TVrltgeschichte Asims im griecbische1l Zeit alter 1 (1947), 1 1 1 5 tf.; L. Pcarson, Hiswria 3 ( 1 954-1955),429 if. The Notitia Diglliratu1ll has been edited by O. Ste ek ( [ B76), dis cussed by A. Piganiol, Histoire de Rome (ed. 5, 1961), 476 aod 590, also by H. Nessclhauf, Die tpäträmisehe VcT'lJ,.'altullg der gll/lisch-geT1Jumisehen Lander (Abh. Berlin, phil-hist. Kl., 193B, No. 2). 37 tf. For the general history of late Antiquiry, not juSt for Church history, the documems of the General Councils are of great importance, lind they should be srudied in the editions of Eduard Schwal1Z. whieh are discussed by A. Rehm, E. Schwanz' wissen sebttft!ich('s Lebros-.:;crk (Sn MlInieh 194:, 110. 4), 74 and 41 if. :
. The older Roman mcmoirs, inc1uding those of Ciccro, havc been lost; �mong the amhors of sueh worl," were ]\.f. Acmilius
Scau nls (consul lo9 B.C.) and P. Rutilius Rufus (consul !05 B.C.). on whom see G. Heodrickson, "Thc I\"lcmoirs of Rucilius Rufus," cr 2B. (1933). [53 if. In the Sull:m age memoirs wert writrcn by
Q. Lutarius C.1tulus (Liber qllcm de eonsulatu er de rebus gestis mit scripsit) ami by Sulla himself; he Ht a work of n hooks (Com memrlTii rerlllll gcstrlrtr1ll) . Cicero composcd a work in Latin :md Crcck aOOm the high point of his life, his consulare of 6J B.C. E-.:Tant are thc military mcmOlfS of Caesar, the COllmlfmlnrii rerulll gestrlru1ll
"
Tbc Saurec!
C7 books) which were oomplercd in 5 1 B.G 10 which Hirrius, his fricnd aod oomrade. !arer added an eighth hook; also Caesar's De bello cwili (3 books), on which see K. Banvick, "Cacsars ßellum Civile," (SB Leitnig 99, no. I, 1951); K. Abcl, MH ' 5 (1958), 56 H.; J. Collins, All' 80 ([959), 1 J 3-IP. Thcir clarity and originality make Caesar's military works a "alu�ble souree. According to Hinius (8. GaU. 8, praef. 5) Caesar wrote the C011l· 11IlmtMij in order to give historians knowledgc of the eventsj that is, Caesar did not regard thc C07mmmturii as examp les of history in thc grear tradition, but ralhet as prelimn i ary war! e s. Ihe comments of Cicero, BrutllS 75.z6; cf. U. Knochc, "C3C See san Commcmarii, ihr Gegenstand und ihre Absicht," Gym1lasium (.1951), '3')-160; F. Bömer, "Der Commcntarius," Herme! 8 1 1953), 1 1 0 tI. O nCaeru's writings sec A .Klotz, Ciirarrtudiro (Leip zig 1910); E. Howald, Vom Geist antiker Geschichtsscbreibtmg (Munich 1944), I I ) tI.; A. Kappelmacher, "Das Wesen der antiken commentarii und der Titel von Cäsars Gallischem Kriege," Wiener l Bliitter I (19IZ), 2 ff. The suecessive publication of the C01ll1lentarij been again has recencly argued, convincingly, by K. ßarwick, Galli/Je
Caesarr C01wnentarii
tmd
dps Corpus CaerarianulIl, (Philologus,
Supp. 3 1 , no. 1, 1938). His view can 3[ least: be regarded as a good working hypothesis, :lßd it also explains ehe introduetion of eThno_ graphie and geographie excursus n i the Bellum Gallicum; cf. F. Beckmann., Geographie tmd Etbnographie in Ciisars Bel/11m Galii cm11 (Donmund 1930), reviewed by H. Fuchs, Gn0111011 (19P), 141 ff. On the reliability of Caesar see G. \Valser, CI/erar und die Germanro (Historia, Eimelrcbrift I, Wiesbaden 1956); M. Ram baud, L'art de la difomuttion historique dans le! C01lnllentaires de Cbar (Paris 1951), is e<:ftlinly roo neg:ttive.-The Corpus Cllesar;a1lU11l ineludes three other works: Bellum AlexPlldri mnl1, Bellum Africum, Bellum Hispanieme; the firn was written by A. Hinius, the other [WO by unknown officers of Caesar. For the editions see Scbanz-Hosius I (ed.
Tbe Sourcer
8,
Augusti (cd. 2, ßcrlin 1883); new discoveries have rendered ir ob solete, and the best editions are those of J. Gage. Res gcuac divi Augusti (Paris '915 and 1950), and of H. Volkmann, Burriam Jahresbericht 276, SIlPP. (19..: ) . See wo Volkmann's edition in Kleille Texte 19130 (1957).-Tiberius' autobiography: its existence was doubrcd by C. Ciehorins, Römische Studien (Leipzig 1921). 38B ff. Further material is gi\'cn in H. Peru, Die geschichtliche Literatllr über die römische Kairerzeit I (Leipzig 1897); ir is dated, but as a sun'cy not yet rcpl�ccd. i the fourth CCntury Re. the ORATOR\': For Greek hiswry n speeches of Isoeratcs, Dcmosthcnes, Aischines, and orhers are a b:u;ic sourcc. j\'lodcm works, espcci�lly the Griechircbe Geschicbte of K. Belach, ha\'e uscd the speeches to reconsrruct the course of evcnrs. Historicaluse in modem times has been funhcred abo\'e all by the work or P. \Vend land, Beiträge zur atheniscben Politik lind Publizistik des 4. Jahrbundem (SB Göttmgen [910); also important are the works of U. Wilckcn , c.g., Phi/ipp 11 V011 Makedollien und die pallbellenirche Idee (SB nerlin 19l9, no. 18); A. Momigliano, Filippo il Mncedone (Florcncc 1934), and the many articles noted rherein; P. Trcvcs, Df.'1110Ste'1le e la liberta greca (Bari 1933); W. Jaegcr, Dm/Osthener (Bcrlin [939). An important study is E. Buch ner. Der Panegyrikos der lrokrnter (Hirtor/n, Eillulschrift 2. 1958). -The older work by F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit (3 vois.• cd. :, Leipzig 1887-1898), is IIseJess for historiC21 studies. On the other hand a mine of n i formation is to be found in A. Schaefer, Dm/Orthene! und seine Zeit (3 vols., cd. 2, Lcip7ig 1885-,887), Much rcmains to ue done. The most imponanr editions: full collee rions include OmteTeS Altici, cd. I. Bekkcr (5 \'ols., Paris 1823-1 824); eds. G. Baiter :tnd H. Sauppc. (2 vols., Zurich 1839-[8.n). Bmh editions afe out dated. Individual editions include: Antipholl, cds. F. Blass and Th. Thalheim (Leipzig 19!.Ü and ed. L. Gernet (Paris [923); Ando kider, cds. Blass and Fuhr (cd. 4, Leipzig 1918), and see F. Ferckel, Lysins und AtbC11 (Diss. \Vünburg 1937); lsokrates, cd. E. Dfernp ( 1 906. bm only vol. I published). and thc older edition of Bensclcr_ B1�ss ( 18S9-1B9B, replinted) , and see K. Münschl'r in RE and P. Trcvl's, Iwcril/I!, il Pnnegirico, COl1 imrod. e 1/Ote (Tmin 1 9P ) ; JJf.'1l1osrbl?lIeS, eds. Fuhr and Sykutris ( incomplcte) , along with the OCT edition of Butcher-Rennie (1903 tf.); also edition with com mcmary of the md :md 3rd Philippics by P. Treves (Napies 1936); Aiscbillcr, cd. Blass (Leipzig 1908), along wirh the edition of Schultz (1856). important for its Scholia, :l1Id the reecnt edition of V. Ahnin and G. de Bude (Paris 1927); Hypereider, cd. Jensen
8,
Tbt SOUTCts
(cd. z, Lcipzig 1917); Demades, cd. Oe Falco (Pavia 1931); Isaios, cd. P. RouSsd (Paris 19U and 1960); Lykurgos, cd. F. Durrbach (Paris '9P)' Thc fragments of the spe«:hcs of Roman orntors ha\'c: been collectcd by E. Malcovaci, Orator/tm Rml1anorum Fragme1lta (Tu rin 1930-'955). Cicefo's speeches havc been edited byA. Clark aod W. Pcrcrson (Oxford I!�OO-I910), aod also in [he Teubner series (1918 ff.). Revision of tbe speeches before publication is discussed by J. Humberr, LeI p/aidoyers cerit! ct leI plaidoiries reelles de Cicbon (Paris 1915); see wo [he remarks ofE. Bickel, Geschichte der römischen Literatur (Heidclberg 1937). 368 ff. on norae Tffoni Imac, [he ancicnt shorthand. Aswnius has bc:c:n edin::d by Giarratano (19�O) ; on rus personaliry see G. \Vissowa, RE 11, '514 ff., Scham Hosms II (cd. 4, '935), 73' ff. Pliny's panegyric of Trajan has been c:dited by M. Durry, Pline le Jelme: Pa7legyrique de Trajau (Paris 1938).
Greek rhewric under the Empire: Dio CJuysostom of Prosa (c. A.D. 40-1lO) has been edited by H. v. Arn!!n ( 1893-1896) and G. de Bude (1916-19). An m i porcam work for the historian is Arnim's Lebm uud Werke der Dio von Prura (Berlin 1898). H. v. Aelius Ariscides (A.D. 1 17-189) from Hadrianutherai in Mysia: edition by B. Keil, bm only vol. 2 (BerHn 1898, repr. 1959), other_ wisc the ourdatcd edition of W. Dindorf (Leipzig 1829), On the prize speech To Rotlle see the older srudies giveo io Scb111id-Stiiblin H.l (cd. 6, 1924), 706; also M. Rostovt'l.clf, Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (ed. 1, 1 95 7) , 130-134; j. Oliver, Thc Ruling Power (Transactionl Am. Phi/os. Soc., n.s., vol. 43, 00. 4; Philadelphia 1954). For general srudies see A. Boulangu, Ae1iuI Arütide er /a ropbiuiqlle dans la province d'Arie alt 11" siede de narre ere (Paris 1923); U. v. Wilamowin-l\loellcndortf, Der rhet01' Aristeidcr (SB Her/in 1925), 313 ff.-Libanius of Antioch (j 14-C. A.D. 394), cd. R. Foemer (1903-1927); important rccent smdies by P. Petit, Libanius er lavie municipale a A1Itioche au IV .... siede apr. '.-C. (1956), and Les etudiants de Libm;lls (1956). Themistius (c. A.D. 3 1 7-388), edited by W. Dn i dorf (1831); on his career see W. Stcgmann in Rc.-On the hiswrical role of laIe Greek orawes see R. Laqueur, "Ober die Beeinflussung der Reden des Themistios durch die Kaiser," Probleme der Spätmtike (Srutt gart 1930), 27 [f., and especially J. Straub, Vum Herrscher-Ideal in der Späramike (Stung:m 19W) .-An incercsting documenr is the speech of Synesius, later bishop of Cyrene, "On Kingship," de livered in A.D. 399 .before Emperor Arcadius in Constantinople, in which among other things much is said �gainst the growing influence
Th� Sourc;u
"
of Germans at COUrt; cf. O. Steck, Geschichte des Unterganger der antiken Welt V, 315 ff.; J. Pando, The Life and Times of Synerius of Cy,ene (Washingron 1940); C. Lacombrade, Le dircouTS sur la royatlle de Synbios de Cyrene (Paris 1951). EPISTOLOGRAPIJY: Surveys: H. Peter, Dcr Brief in der römi sche" Liuratur (58 Leipzig 10, No. 3, '9°1, repr. 1965); O. Seeck, "Der antike Brief," Deutsche RImdscbau (19°1), 110. 1, 5 ff. An excellent synthesis is J. Sykutris, "Epistolographie." RE, Su�p. V (1931), [85 lf. On forged collecrions see F. Dornscilf, Echtheltsf,a gC11 amik-griechirchcr Literatur (Berlin [939), 36: the forgeries aimed [0 portray an individual's personality as seen in his relations with orhers, the fonn is "semi-dramatic."-Editions: an old collec rion of the Greek material is R. Hercher, Epirtolographi Graec; (Paris 1873). Cie<:ro's letters have bcen edjted by L. Purser (0.uord [901-11}O3) :md H. Sjögren (Leipzig 1914 ff.). Chronological ar rangement makcs uscful the edition of R. Tyrrell and L. Purser (7 vols., London 1890-1901, partly in second or third editions), and of L. Constans and J. Bayet, CidrOll: Correspondenc;e <s vols., CB, Paris [934-1964), as yet extending only to March 15. 49 B.e. For discussion see O. Schmidt, Der Brief�,J,!echsei des Cicero 'Von seinem Prok07lmlat in Ci/icien bis 211 CäSllTl Ermordung (Leipzig (893)' E.xcellent historical use of the leuers figures in E. Meyer, Cäsars Monarchie lind das Principat des Pompeiur (ed. 3. 19U); see more rcccntly M. Gelzer, RE VIT A.[, 817 ff. The work of J. Carcopino, Les recrets de la correspondll1lcc de CiCCrOIl (2 \'015.• Paris 1947), is as stimularing as his other works, but his hypothesis-rhat the col· lection was made in H-P B.C. wich Occ3vian in .rund, 3nd was published by Acticus, Tiro, and young M. Cicero--cannot be proved, and is indeed unlikely.-The letters of Pliny thc Younger halle been cdited by M" Schuster (Leip7ig (958). For the chronol ogy see T. Mommsen, Gesatmllelte Schriften. IV ( 1 1}O6, repr. 1966), 366 ff.; W. Otto, SBAJV [919. No. 10; R. Syme, Tacitus 11 ([958), 656 ff.; Orto argucs againsr MommStn, Syme supports him. For lare Amiquity we can only refer to the letters of Symmachus (e. A.D. 34o-40�) in Latin, edited by 0. Steck, MGH, AA 6.1 (1883); and as a documcnr of the Greck East thc letten of Libanius (see above under Oramry). ll!::!<.-rU;Y'S CRIl"ICISM: Boyle's edition of thc leners of Phalaris in 1695 caused Richard Bcmley to write his polemical work, Dis sertati01/ on ,bc Epistles of Phl1laris, Tbcmiswc/es, Socrates, Euripi_ dcs, alld othen, a-nd tbc Fables o{ AesoplIs (London 1697). Boyle rcplied with Dr. BC1Itley's Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha/aris (md tbc Fahles of Aesopus (1698), and to this Bendey then coun-
"
Tbe Sourcrs
tered wirh the work fot which he is best known, A Dissertatioll upon
the Epistles of Phalarir witb an Amwer 10 the Objections of tbe Hon. Ch. Boy/e (1 699), also published in Bendey's OplIscula philo logiea (lA:ipzig 1781). tcansIared by W. Ribbcck (Leipzig (857).
OTHER CONTROVERSIES; Of the many works com:erncd with the !erIers ascribed Ta PlalO we sha!! note only one: G. Pasqual� Le lettere di Platane (Florence 1938), wich full refen:nccs. On the ktteIS attributed to Demosrhenes see U. v. \:Vibmowin, Her/ller r H (1898). 496 /f.t 2nd H. Sachsenweger. De Delllostben;r epirmli (Diss. Leipzig 1935)' An impomnt soutce for Pto1cmaic Egypt 5 i the letter of Aristeas TO Philocrares, whieb gives the legendary story of the translation of the Jewish Torah imo Greek undet Prolcmy 1I Philadelphus. The name of [he author as weil as th�t of the addressee are bo[h false, and the leuer suuly dates from the end of [he seeond cenrury B.e. Ir has been edired by P. Wendland (Leipzig '900), more recendy by Moses Hadas, Aristel1S tO Pbilocratl!s (New York '95 1 ) ; cf. H. L Bell, CU/IS md Creedr in Graeco-Ro1J/an Egypt (Liverpool '9S3), 44-45' ANC1Er-'T PAMPHLETS: The Conrtitution of tbe Athenil1J/s by "Pseudo-Xenophon" has been edited wirh u:mslaeion and com mentary by E. K�link� (Leipzig 1913); more recent literature in dudes K. Gelzer, Die Schrift '1.10711 St/Jate der Athener (Hermes, Einzelscbrift ], 1937), on which see review of H. Diller, Gnomo1l ( 1 939), I 1 3 If.; E. Rupprecht, Die Schrift '1.1011/ Staate der Athener (Klio, Beiheft 44, 1939); H. Frisch, Tbe Constiruti011 cf the AtbC1l ians (Copenhagen 194:), with good bibliography induding Ger man studie&, �mong them M. Volkening, Ddr Bild der l1uitebrm
Staates in dCT pseudorenophomiscbrm Schrift '1.10111 Staate der Athe ner (Diss. Münster 1940)' LUC1LtUS: Edited by F. Marx (19°4-1905); see srudies of C. Cichorius, Untemlcbllngt!71 �l LuciUur (ßerlin 19(8); F. Mün zer, "Lucilius und seine Zeitgenossen," NJA (1909), 180 ff.; N. Zerlaghi, LlIcilio (Turin 1934)' Funher rcferences in Scham Hosiw I (cd. 4, '927), 150 ff.
SALLUST: from the struggles ar ehe end of [he Roman Rc COOle the "open letters co Cacsar" attnbuted co Sallust, edited ublic p by A. Kurfcss, C. Sa/Jlmij Crirpi epirrulae ad Caerarem rrnc1Il (Leip zIg 1955). The question of Sallust's authorshi p has been mueh studicd rcccmly, but t"ere is still no agreement. Th cir authenticity ie �ccep[cd by G. Carlsson, Eine Denkschrift an CiiraT über den Staat (Lund '9]6), W. Steidle, Hirtoria, Einzclschrift 3 (1958), 95 ff.. :tnd K. ßüchner. S/Jlhm (1960), 40 ff.; it is denicd uy E. FT:lcnhl, IRS 4' ('951), '92 ff., in a review of a monogroph by
The Sauren
8,
M. Chouet (Paris 1950), and by R. Syme, MH '5 (1958), 46 ff. Probably counterfeit is the "Invcctive against Cicero" auribmed to Sallust, as arsued by F. Oertel, RhM 94 (1951), 46 tf.; nevertheless its authcndc,ty is maint:J.ined by K. Büchner. Sal/ust (1960), zo ff. SENECA'S Apoeoloeyntosis Divi C/mldii has been edired wilh commcmary by Buecheler, Symbol"e philaiag. BO/wem. ( 1 864). 3 ' ff.; tbc commemary is reprimed in Bucchler's Kleine SehriftNl I (Leipzig [9[5), 439 ff. Otbcr editions are those of O. V\'einrcich (ßcrlin [9Z3), with German translation (see also his Römische SatiTr1I [Zurich [949 D , :md C. Russo (Florence 1948). ' PLlNY S Panegyricus addresscd to Traj�n s i an important source for kingship under tbc Principatc; for the laler Empire we have tbc works of the so·ealled Panegyricisrs. whieh have been cdited by Bachrens ('9" ) and E. Galletier. Pa1lC!gyriqlll:s latines (3 vols., Paris '949-'955), and ha,'e been historically interpreted by J. Straub, Vom Herrsc};er-Ide«1 in der Spiitlrllike (Stungart [939). 2 . 1 I I S T O R I O C; I \ A P H Y
Although valuable infonnation on individual evems and persons of
Antiquity is furnished by tbc primary material, whole periods would
ncvenhelcss remain obscuTe were it not for tbc ancient historians. who give us a continuous view of the aneient world from the Persian Wars to late Antiquity. In HerodOfus we have a valuable
account of the cl'Ilcial strugglcs bcrwcen Grccks and PersiallSj Thucydides and his continuators give us a history of Ihe Pelopon nesian \;';'ar.
FOT ehe Principate we have valuable accoums
n i
the histories of
Tacirus and Cassius Dio, and in the biographie; of Suetoniusj ehey cannot outweigh the inscripdollS and papyri, :md in fact the larter
play a concinually larger part in modern historical study. On thc
",hole, howcver, the ancient historians still providc the basis for cvery modern srudy, and ac many points thcy are our only souree.
Thcreforc the study of anciem historiogr�phy must ncccssarily bc the centcr 01 ehe discipline 01 ancient history. Sinee the modern historian of Antiquity must rely so hcavily on ancicnt historiography hc should bc eonscious of the particular problems connectcd with it. Every sntdent of hisfory must. as Ed
uard Schwartt emphasizcd,l.I bc inRucnced by intdlcetual drives.
Scho1:trly srudy is connected with personal wishes and values. This
.. "Vergangene Gcgenwänigkcilcn," in Gcsa"m,dte Schriften I, 47.
"
Thc SOUTCeS
peculiar mixrure of inteUcctual and emotional elements makes every work of history a personal statement. In shoIT, historiography is not simply :a pan of the SOUrcc5; it is a pan wruch has bcen given arriscic form. \Vhoevcr aims to dcscribe [he past as an organic whale, to describe it in tenns of chronological or topical catcgories, is working within a tradition which reaches back through modem, medieva� :md B)'zancine writers to the bc ginning of Western historiography. Hisroriography is-as its name indicates-a creation of Greck culrure, fot it was among the Grceks that men firn: became conscious of [he imponance :md uniqueness of personalicy. In [he ancient Near E.ast there was DO historiography wonhy of the name. There were auempts to write history-the Hinitc annals., the Hebrew histories but never in the ancient Ncar East was the past describcd fot its own sake. Even the "Chronicle" of the New Babylonian cra did not give rise to a genuine historiography. Nor is there any real connection benveen the annals :lnd chron ic1es of the ancient Near East and the origins of Western historiog raphy. Nevenhcless. the narrath'es of the anciem Sumerians and Dabylonians resemble the first historical works of the Greeks in that neicher makes a sharp dislinction Ixtween myth aud history. i tertwined. In both traditions the human :lnd rhe divine are n Myrh, saga, and historieal rcality are thc elements which come togerher in Homer's J/iad. Here the war between Greeks and Tro jans around the sacred fortress of Ilium is history e1evatcd [0 the world of myth, and yet it has :tn undeniable basis in historical realiry. Thc Grcek word bistoreill (iern.1plrv) means "tO cKplorc, dis cover," lind in fact earlier Greek historiography is simply a rccord of "discoveries," especially about foreign peoples and lands known to rhe writcr [hrough stories and accounts. At the beginning of Greek-:md [herefore of all 'Vestcm-his toriography is the figurc of Hccatacus of Miletlls (e. 500 n.c.). His works concemed traveIs ::md gcnealogics. and rhus embody rwo fundamental aspects of Greek historieal thought; the Jot/mey rOlllld tbe World ( ßEpioooc riJc ) teflccts the outlook of cosmopolitan Ionia, fot ir toUclles on Europe. Asia, Libya, aod eYen the \Vcstcm Mcditerr�nean, whi!c [he Gt:1lcalo�icr (rlVE'1Aoy,at) cover thc pe riod {rom thc heroie agc tO the bcginning of colonization and so give an oudine of "early Greck history" which shows a rcmarkable
Tbc SOUTCCI
8,
grasp of eominuity already presenr in this pioneet historian. The hrter work begins with this bold dcclaration: "l-lceataeus of Milerus sap [his: 'The following is the aeeount of Hecatacus the l\lilesian. \Vhat I write hete is what seen15 true to l11e, for the traditions of the Grccks 3fe contradietory and seern 10 mc foolish.' "SI Nevenhe less I-Iecataeus had no conception of historie:tl eriticisrn, for he still had the naIve belief that he could diSCO\'cr the truth sirnply through the use of logic and common sense. 111e first real historian of the ,.yen, therdore, is nm Heearaeus bot rather HcrodoIUS of Haliearnassus (e. 48,5"--1:. 414 RC). In his work ethnography is eombincd wirh a (rue historieal interpretation whieh shapes and ul1ifies his aeeoullt of the grear eonfliet hctween Greeks lind barbarians. Hcrodmus dcvelo]led his interpretation un der the influenee of Perielean Arhens, for it was political e\'ems there that spulTcd hirn on to his studics. lonia had declined in im ponanee a(rcr the ill-htcd Ionian Rcmluuon (50()-,t94 n.C), :md lcadership in politics and eulture had rassed to Athens. At the basis of Herodotus' aCCOllnt was information whieh he gained personally or received from tradition. Although Herodotus made use of I-Teeataeus' works,·· the tradition on whieh he relied was primarily an oral one, thc memories still alive in Grcece of rhe hcroic age of the Persian �'ar5. Herodotus used this tradition ac eording to his own tastes, aod so drew from it mueh that is essen tially anccdota1. Therc are undeniable weakncsscs in his work. the rcsult of the intelleetual limitations of his �ge. but nc\'ertheles..� Olle muse adl11ire Herodotus' grasp of his subjeec and the mastcrly way in which he organizcs his material. He reeogni7.ed the central signif ieanee of the Persian 'Vars and the Greck vietories at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea, aod he indicates \Vhy they were ruming points in world history. His eonception of the strugglc as a dash between Persian imperialism and Greek frcedom reveals the dominant fOTees of the age �nd is the found:ttion for deeper underst�nding of the historical devc!opment. Herodotus and Thucydides had as eontempories those historians who used to be grouped under the uns3tisfaetory term Ulogogra_ phers" (which means simply "prose writers"); among them werc Dionysius of J\'liletus, Hellanieus of Lesbos. and Charon of Lalllp sacus. None of their works are e.xtanr, but we do have fragments UFGrH 1.1 . ••
H. DiehIs. H.... n. ..n ('887), 'I" ff.
Tbe SOurUI and these relleal much about these historians' premises and methods. They wrote genealogies and ethnographies., and also loeal histories (Charon) :.tod chronides (Hellanicus). Although concern with a general interpretation of Greek history is not entirely abscnt, their works lack, so far as we ean judge from the fragments, the eemral coneepts whieh eharaeterize the historics of both Hetodorus and Thucydides. Of the loeal histories we should menrion ooe, the Atrhis ('ArO,8(�); it recounts Arhcnian history, and was wrincn by a senes of historians ("Atrhidographers") beginning with HeUanicus (c. 50o-c. 4'5 H.C.) and cnding with Philochorus (c. 34o-! 63/l B.C). Thucydides of Athens (c. 46o-c. 400 RC.) is the historian of the Pe1oponncsian \Var and thercfore the creator of the hjstorical mono graph. Comparcd with Herodorus his analysis is deeper and is concerned wirh the underlying forces n i history. Thucydidcs lilled through the war between Athens and [he Peloponnesians and ellen had a part in it himsclf; he gradually came to sec its various stages as parts of one grear struggle. In his accounr of the great Greek eivil war we have the first work of \Vcstern historiography in whieh :>rtcm;on ;s directcd TO the undcrlying forccs which share the dellelopment oE peoplcs and states. His distinction between the im mediate occasion and fhe fundamental causes of the war, his descrip rion of the interrclation between military and diplomatie dellelop ment.�, his e,nphasis on the role of chance in history, his rcfusal to rely on supernarural explanations, and his deseript;on oi historical development in fenns of the logical eonditions-all these wen new and eontributcd to thc decpening of historieal interpretation. Be c,mse hc sh�ped his subject so eompletely, Thucydides aehicvcd what he had set OUt [0 da, to leave for posterit)' "an evcdasting posscssion" (KTTjp.a d� ti�O ; ;t is addresscd to every person desir ing to undersr:and the basic direction of historical developmcnt whieh lies bchind individual hiswrical cvents. From this point of view we are justified in rcgarding Thucydidcs as fhe man who raised history from a suhjectille study and made it a schobrly disci pline. Thucydides' "disco\·cries" concern military hiswr)" arranged by winters and summers; the international politics of the period are diseussed onl}' whcre they are essential for undeTSfanding the course of events. Nevcnhele�'S Thucydidcs was influeneed by the inteIleenlai devdopmcnrs of the age, especially [he Sophistic mOlle-
Tb/! SOUTCe!
9'
menT. This is panicularly evident in the speechcs; fomlal analysis re"eals that they are neicher historien! nor authentie, but are r;!.ther mcans uy which the historian cxamincs situations from different points of view :lnd on the basis of different values. Thucydides' history cnded abrupdy at .:p [ RC, and was con tinued by three suceessors: Xenophon, 1lleopompus, and Cratip pus, Of These Xcnophon of Athens (e, 430-<:, 354 B.C) owes a somewhat unjustified farne [Q fomme, for only his cominuation, Hellellica ('EhA17"'Ka), has sUr1:il'cu. It covcrs en:nts down TO the baule of Mantinea (362 B.C), which marked the cullapse of the brief Thcban hegemony (371-362) and the end of Creek hisrory in the eycs of Xenophon and his contemporaries, Like fhe Allabaris the Hellellica is a Iivcly :lnd vigorous account, bur as an historieal work it has serious faults. Xenophon's preference for Sparta :lnd Spartan values hindercd hirn from doing jusrice to the Thcbans and even his fellow-coumrymen, the Athenians, Form and content were unified uy Thueydides wirh a mastery not achieved again umil Sallust and Taeitus, and military and poliri cal evenrs are the core of his work. In borh respeers Greek his toriography of the fourth cenmry differed, and it turned away more and more from politics, its origin. i\-Iorcover Grcek historialls were cunfromed with a difficult situadon, for as the polis system of the Grecks declined the Mac<:donbn monarch}' under Philip JJ and then Alcxandcr gained grcat power and glo!)'; both Philip :lnd Alcxandcr were Macedonians T�theT than Grccks. c\'cn Ihough IOcy adoptcd Grcek culture and furthcred irs expansion, Neirher Philip 1\OT Alexal1der found an historian equal to Ihe challenge of describ_ ing his dceds. Thoopompus of Chios (b. c, 380 ß.c') did weite a Philippika in whieh hc described Philip 11 as [he gre:J.TcsT m:J.n in Europe�n history,'1 hut no Greek was as yet ahle to ev:lluate oh jeclivdy [he great king and his still grcater son, DUTing the reign of Alcxanoer :InO !hen rhe �tn1ggles of fhe Diadochi (which lasted more than 40 years, PJ-:!l1 ß.c,) war
was the dominant concern, and it was then that military history arase. Ir was raised tO a recognized literary genre by a king, Prolemy I (d. 238 ß,C), founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Military history was char:lclerized by a pbin, circumstamial style. uased on the !raditional "military journal," ('T1TQP""';paTa.); ;\s a form of his toriography it rcprcsenred a reaction against both the increasingly 41fGrH 115.17.
Tbe Sourcu
"
dominant trend to r hetorie :lnd also the legends whleh began to devclop 3round Alcxander's figure when hc was still alive and even
rnally took shape as thc Alexander romance.
Alexander's expedition and the Macedonian conquest of opened up a oew worid to
Asia Greek ethnography. The works of
NeardlUs of erere, Onesicritus of Asrypalaea (both contemporaries of AJex::mder), and J\'legasthenes of Olynthus (who visited India under Seleucus
I), are connected in form with the earlier travel litcrature of thc lonians. These early Hellenistic ethnographers pro vide the basis for the wide_ranging srudies of Poseidonius of Apamea (c.
!3O--C. 50 RC); his work in rurn inRuenced Cacsar and Tacitus.
and through them the historians of 1atc Antiquity, Cassiodoros (c. A.O.
48o--S75)'
the historian of the Ostrogorhs, and Procopius of
Cacsarca, who wrotc under Justinian colorful aecounts of barbarian peoples.
Hellenistic historiography has been lost, including the work of Hieronymus of Cardia, friend of Eumenes, on the Diado Most of
chi. This is largely due
to
the grear change n i literary standards
under the Roman Empire caused by the "Atticism" of the Second
Sophistic. Apart from a largc number of fragments which have beC'1\ recemly collected by FeliJl; jacoby in his FGrH we have only one important Hellenistic historian's work, that of Polybius of Megalopolis (c. lOCH:. 1:0 B.G), and indeed ooly a part of that. Polybius was himself an active politician, a leader of the Achaean League, aod after the subjC'ction of Grecce in 167 Re. he was depon:ed 10 lraly. There he was reccived imo the circle of Scipio Aemilianus, and in his history he set himself the task of deseribing Rome's rue 10 dominance during the years 210-168 Re., a rise which he had himsdf witnesscd in part. Polybius was convinced that srudy of history teaches lessons aboue polidcal life, and so he became the founder of "pragtnatic historiography."" Indeed the work of Polybius is conccrned with i this period the "universal history," justified by the argument that n Romans had by their conquests made the tnrire Medirerraoean world imo a single Orbis R01ll1l7lUS. He begins in his introducrion ar the point where TImaeus of Tauromenium (c: 345-c. 250 B.e.) had endcd: 264 Re. Timaeus had already wrintn a general history of the western Mediterranean, covering Sicily, haly, and Carthage. �. From "P�YI'4T"'�<, "concemiog sratesmaolike 2crion�; cr. 1\1. F�mcbrift fiir c. W�jckert (Bertin '955), 87 tf.
Geher,
Tbe Sources
This universal approach was then adopted by Polybius, wirh the difference timt he made Rome [he center of his accoum. Later Polybius cominued his hisl:Ory down to 145/44 Re., and this in turn W:.I.S continued by Poseidonius of Apamea in his I-lirwrier, which extendcd co rhe age of SuJla. Poseidonius' history is known ro us primarily through the quotes n i Diodoms, who wrote a JVorld Hirtory under Augustus. 111is uni\'ersal hiscory was essentially a
rompilation.
Hellenistie urut'el'S:ll history, to some extent foreshadowed by the Hirtorics of Ephorus of Cyme who wrote under Alexandcr, is the expression of a ncw attitu de towards world hisrory. Rome's mi l i tary and diplomatie suceesses marked the end of the HelJenistic state system, and Hellen15tic culture began gradually tO give way to Roman culrure and mOr:llity. Yet Roman culrurc was itself deeply indebted to I-lellenism, and rhis applies co Roman histOriography. The Romans aimed tO impose their laws on the world, and for rhem historiography was nor a scllOlarly discipline but rather a rominuarion and a wcapon of rheir policies. Ir is therefore not a coincidence that the first Roman historians were acrive politicians, mensueh as Q. Fabius Picror, L. Cincius A limentus, M. Porcius Cato.
Fabius' Historics wcrc written c. 100 Re.; and like those of his younger contemporary Cincius (praetor HO Re.) they were in Grcck. TIleir form, bascd on the annalisric aecoum of evems year by year, mkes us [0 the origin of Roman historiography, the oflieial rec ord of events drawn up each year. 'Iltis form cominued to be fol lowed ro the end of the Repub!ic, aod "WaS followcd by Lit'y in the great work he composed under Augusrus and larer by Tacitus in his last work, Ab exceuu divi AngllSti lihri, which he himsc!f abo called ATlnnlcs. Ne\'cnhcless, dcspire its formal reliancc on rhe Roman annals, Fabius Pictor's work 15 a genuine product of cosmopolitan Hellcn i5m. Like the works of the Egyprian Manetho of Scbennytus (c. 300-15"0 RC.) and the ßabylonian pricst of Bel ßerossus (c. !8o s.e.), bOlh also "\vritten in Greek, Fabius' history tcstifics to the dominaring i nfluence of Hellcnistic culture which not e�'en the Romans cOllld resisr. The first hiscorical work in Larin is the Origincs by M. Porcius Cato (z 34-[49 B.C.) of Tusculum, and indced it is the beginning of Latin prosc literature. It coo, howe\'er, is shapcd by Hd!enistie tra ditions, unmistakable even in its tide, for origillCf is the equivalem
"
Tb� SOllTees
of Hellenistic "foundation seones." um brokc wirh thc annalistic form, and as a Larin he directed his anention not only [0 Rome it self but also to a11 of Italy. This Italian approach n:prcscntcd a distinc[ break wich the Rome-cemered viewpoint, which in fact-as the work of Tacitus shows-was never really overcome. R07114 capllt nnmdi-that is espccially trUC of Roman historiography. In thc last ccnrury of thc Republic another form besides the an nalistic appeared, the historical monograph. Ir was introduced into Roman Ijtcrarure by L. Codius Antipater wirh his Bellu1II Punicu11l, an account of the Sccond Punic War wfircen someomc after 1%1 B.C. But the finest examples or the monograph were the works of Sallust: Conillfat;o Catilillae, Bellum lUgtlrthinu7II, and. especially, Hisror;lIe. Sallust was influenced by the theories of Poseidornus, the l-Iellenistic histori:m and po!ymath; his monographs give an im� pressive picrure of the Roman Rcpublic in declinc. a pierure painted in dark colors and yet not without an element of pride and admira� don. All works of chis gifred anist retlecr a biner resignation, and rheir impact is increased by thc techniques which Sa!1USt leamed frorn Thucydides. Just as Sallusr's works are closely connected wirh rhe declining Rcpublic, so Livy's history is an expression of the Augusran restora� rion of Roman traditions. Livy of Patavium (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) was as litde likc a modern scholar in his research methods as Sallus! or Tacirus, for he ne\'er consulted archi\'cs. His huge work, which e\'okcd astonishmcnr in Antiquiry, was simply the compilation of i rhetoric who wok his material whercver a lirerary man uained n jt was ready 10 hand. Thus his account of e-ar!y Roman history is dcrivcd from thc annalists, then beginning wirh book lO he drew on rhe work of the Greek historian Polybius. Livy's ncreasingly i work (141 books!) became the "standard" Roman hisrory, long not the least reason being bis fine st:yle and his wann patriotic feeling for the uni<Jucness of the Roman tradition. During the following cc:oruries it was rcgarded as an unsurpasscd aod unsurpassablc: model, aod io; reliabi!ity-which was simply that of io; sources-was not <Jucstioned umil modem times, when Louis de Beaufot't published his Disrertat;on mT rincertjtud� d� cinq premiers .ri�cles d� rhirtoir� TotlIam (Utrecht 1738). Livy is pan of the Augustln age, and stands at a tuming point in history. for the principate of Augusrus marks, among other things, [he beginning of a oew epoch. The period is characlerized by io; use
Tbe SOllTees
of tWO languages and by (he eonfliet between monarehial and re publican traditions. Nevenhelcss thc Augustan age was on the whole not favorable tO historiograpby, for tbe genuine study of his tory eannot flourisb in tbe shadow of a eoun. That bad been demon str:lted in tbc HeUenistic age, when not a single bistorian of note appcared in the kingdoms (Polybius eame from (he world of the Achae�n Lcague, and Poscidonius spcnt his formative ycars in Rhodes). A eontemporary of Livy is the Greek rhetorieian Dionysius of I-Ialicamassus; his ROlll1TT1 Archaeology was published in 7 B.C. Ir deseribcs Rome's history to �64 s.c., but of ir:; zo books only the first ren are extant, although we have most of book I [ and fragments of the others. For the historian thc work is a disappointment, sinee Dionysius Ilsed unrdiable Roman annalists as sources. Two universal historians appearcd in the Augustan age, an indica tion that men realized a new age was dawning. One is Pompcius Trogus, a Romanized Cclt (Vocontian) who stili pm Hellcnistie history ar the center of his work The OIher is a Hellenized Syrian, Nicholas oi Damaseus, iriend oi King Herod of Judaca. His vo !uminous World Hiftory in [44 books reached from earliest times to the dearh of Herod in 4 RC Only fragments of the work survive, :md ir eannot be considercd an independent souree e"eepr for [he author's own time; el'en here one must be camious, sincc Nieholas showed himsclf unre!iab!e at times in his other writings (which inv cluded a biography of Empcror Augustus). In general the hismriogrnphy of the Principate is characterized by emphasis on rhe dynastie principle and by predominanee of the biographie element, especially in conneetion wirh the personalities of the Roman emperors. A documcm of this rendeney is the Hirwria R01l/tma of the officer Velleius Paterculus, published A.D. 30; in it Caesar AugustUS and above a11 the reigning emperor, Tiberius. figure prominendy. The reviv21 of the Alexander myth in the early Empire 15 indicated by the Hirtorifle Ale:randri Magni of [he rhetorician Q. Currius Rufus. However, the most important aehieveml:nt 15 the work of Corne· !ius Tacirus (A. D. .rs-c. 110) , the hisrorun who is for us thc purest embodiment of tradition:!! Roman arismeratie values. His Historine ("eontemporary history") covers the years from AD. 69 to the death of Domiti2n in A.D. 96; of this only the aceount of the first l or, [0 usc its officia! title, Ab ercesJU rwo years is extam. His A111Illel,
"
Tbc SOUTet!
divi Augusti /ilnj (from the dcath of Augusrus [0 the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty), survives ooly in part: books 1-5 (begin ning), 6 (end), 1 1 (end) , 16 (end incomplerc), so that we lack the accounts of most of A.D. 19-31 and all of A.D. 37-47 and 66 (end)--68. One can apprec;ate these works only if one understands ehern as thc political credo of a man who ncver fully accepted the Principate. Although he applauds Tnljan, the optimus prmceps, and the adoptive monarchy, as is shown by thc speech which hc has Galba deliver 3t the adoption of Piso (Hist. I : 15-16), he remains a dC\'otee of the lost libertat which could flourish ooly under the TCS plIblica, not the principawt. Although the authoritics on which T:le ims relied gavc hirn (:Iod Suetonius too, sec below) fuUy fonned in terpretations of (he individual emperors :lIld their reigns, Tactius himsclf made these interpretations more sweeping and wove them a single splendid tapestry. That is his great achievemeot. at oto i tained through his rdlecti"e and psychological style, unsurpasscd in its impressionistic power, albeit at rimes a detriment to historical truth. Pessimism sh3pcd Tacirus' world view, and becaust of that his works do not do justice to the Empire and its values. Livy displaeed the annalists, and Tacirus did ehe same to the imperial historiaos who were his predecessors. For this rcason we know hardly anything but thc namts of the works of Anfidius Bas- sus, Pliny the Eider, Cluvius Rufus, aod Fabius Rusticus. Only a few works escaped Tacirus' competition, among them the histories written in Grcek by Flavius Josephus (c. AD. 37-100). These works were the hiswry of his people, doughty focs of Rome: Jewish AntiquiticI, a hiswry of the Jews {rom earlicst rimes to the beginning of the great levolt in AD. 66; and an earlies work, The Jewith IV1fT, abom the grtat revo[t in the reigns of Nero and Vespasi3n. \.Vhile Tacirus remaincd silent under the Iuted Domitian, Josephns the renegade published his Antiqllities n i AD. 91 and dedicated it to an imperial {recdman. In the seeond century Greek culturt enjoyed a grcat revival. 'Wit nesses to the re"ival arc: the historical works of Arrian of Nicomedia (c. A.D. 95-175), a Bithynian consular, especially his A1lI1basis of AJexander as weil as his Indiea, along wich the more thoughtful work of Appian of Alexandria (born c. A.D. 160), Roman Histmy, arranged according to where Rome's wars were fought. No wode, bowever, indicates the superiority of the Greeks n i historiography so clearly :as the Roman Histmy of Cassius Dio
Tbc 50urcc$
97
Coccei3nus (c. A.D. 1 55-Z35), also a native of Bithynia. He chose Livy. not Tacitus, as his model. and in eigh[)' books rraced Rome's history from its beginnings to A.D. ::9; the pans about his own times are a valuable primary souree. For the ßyzancines, Dio was a link betwccn the new and the old Rome, and thereby pcrformcd a service in cultural history. His hisrorical role may be compared ro that of Polybius in the Hellenistic age. Another Greek historian, although not the equal of Dio, was his younger contemporary Herodian, 3 Hdlenized Syrian. His history of the Empire horn the death of Marcus Aurclius to A.D. 138 is in eight books, and lacks any distinct point of view; ne\'ertheless rhe 1055 of othee COntemporary works renders it of same import:mee. ßesidcs biography and chronography, which rcachcd their high point in the early fourth century with the work of Eusebius of Cacsarca, a new historieal genre appcared after COlmamine set Christianiry on a par wirh orhcr rcligions-church history. It taok its plaee wirh the publicacion of Eusebius' Ecclesiilsticill History, which covcred the subjcct to A.D. P4 in tell books. Eusehius ignored the classical rules of style :md n i dudcd in his work the original texts of documenrs, some complere, and so prcscrvcd valuable prima!")' ma terials for posterity. His work is rhe c1assic apologia of the Unil'crsal Church, formerly perseeured and IlO,," triumpham. It has had many imitators. Other works of ehurch history are Lact:mtius' De 1IIortibllf persr cl/torum (published c. A.D. 3 (8), :lnd the worJd history of the Spanish presbyter Pau!us Orosius callcd Ar/versuf pagll110f (pnb Iishcd shorcly after A.D. 4(7). Orosius wrote his work at the sug gestion of St. Augustine and depcnded he3\'ily on Livy's hisrory. Sr. Augustinc (AD. 3H-430) exercised a remarkable-one might :lImost say epoch-making-inßuenee, especially through the philo sophie history he wrote late in life, De civitttte Dei. This work, com poscd :tfter the shoek c�used by AJaric's sack of Rome (A.D. 410), c:st:tblishcd the Christian eoncept of two cocxisting worlds, the City of God and the Earthly City, and tr:lusmitted ir to rhe Middle Agcs. Ammianus Mareellinus (c. A.D. 3p--c. 400), a p�gan from Syrian Antioch, wrote a secular history at the end of the fourth eenrury. It is onc of the masrerpieces of L.atin historiography, and indeed the last important historical work of classical cu[rurc, by then in its dccline. The use of Ladn by a Grcck rcvcals thc eomplcxity of rhe age. Ammianus beg�n his work as a continuation of Tacirus' Hil_
,8
Tbe Sourus
but thc first part has becn lost, and we havc only his descrip of non the troubled quaner century A.D. 353-378 (books 14-3 1 ) ; Ammianus was, in face, an activc participant in the events of these years. At the cemer of his work stands the figur<: of thc last pagan on the throne of the Caesars. Emperor Julian. for whom Ammi:mus had high rcgard. None of the Greek histories wrinen in the fiIeh :md early sixth ccnturics can begin {O campare wich Arnmianus', Not unri l the reigo genuine historian ap of Empcror Juscinian (A.D. 527-565) does a pear, Procopius of Caesarea. He described Juscinian's wars in his History (eight books, like Appian's arranged according [0 where the wars were fought). Thcn he wrote his Sccret History, in which he revealed his dis[jke of the "erranc" Justinian; he could da chis without fear since Justinian had died by then. With Procopius thc historiography of Antiquity came to an end. The IVarld Cbr(J11icles of John J\b.lal:1S (sixth cenrury) frorn Syrian Antioch and of another writer from that city, john Amiochenus (seventh cenrury). lead n i to the Middle Ages, when chis form of history becarne dominant. In general, ancient historiography shows one characteristic. 'tVhcthcr one rhinks of Herodotu� or Thucydides, of the historians of the fourth eenrury B.C. or of Xenophon., Theopompus, Ephorus, Polybius, or Livy-all wrote either ahoU[ their own times or, if [hey artempted universal history, ar greater length wirh more detail as soon as they eame to their own nmes. Thus ahout a thild of He rodoms' history deseribes the invasion of Xerxes n i 480179 B.c.; Ephorus. who wrote a univelOal history in Greek from the Dorian inv:1Sion on., used ren of his thirty books to describe the hsr 50 ye-ars., from the King's Peace of 387/86 ro 340 B.C. The same is [rue of [he Roman annalists and even of Livy. Aneiem historiography is there fore in large part de"oted to eontemporary history, raken in a broad sense. "Men did not study the past in order to disco"er how things acrually happ<:ned, but rather to leam how the existing sr3te of affairs had come aOOm" (F. Münzer). Biography was sharply distinguished in hoth theory and praerice from aneient historiography. History was concemed with 'lrpaen�, res gestae, deeds; biography aimed to portray the ethos, the physical and mental eharacteristics of irs subjects, that they might appeat as heroes and models. As to the origins of ancient biography. irs tOTiae,
The SOUTCer
"
roOlS Jay panly in the del'c1opment of fhe "literary ponrait" (see, for examplc, Xenophon's Agerilaus and Isocrates' Evagorar), partly n i the study of man's psychology, cultivated especially in the Peri� patecic School or Aristode (e.g., Theophrastus' Characurs). Biography was fully devcloped by the mid-Hcllcnistic age, bur thc first ext:l.nt \Vorks in rhe genre were written by a contemporary of Cicero, [he De viril il/ustTibul of Comelius Nepos. This shore work clearly derives horn the Hcllenistie genre of biography, "About Famous l\Ien." The high point of ancien[ biography was rcached in Plutarch of Ch�cronea (c. .I\.D. 45-c. 125). In his work, Parallel Biographirs ( Blut "/TapaA�:IJAol), he arnmgcd his subjec[S in pairs., a Grcek and a Roman in each, in order to compare them. The points of reference are generally superficial, and are emphasized n i a concluding comparison ("synkrisis") of eaeh pair. His collee tion n i cluded twency-three pairs and four single biographies. The learned P]urafch collccted a great mass of material, much or it !rom fifS[-f3tc sources. Since wc havc lost SO much of Hellcnistie litera ture ir is impossible for us to identify his sources. In the introducrjon to his Alexander (ch. 1 ) Plutatch tdls us that he COll5idcred anec dora.! infonnarion more important for his purposes rhan fac[S abour deeds. howe\'er imponant they might he in world history. This genuine biographie cmphasis in Plurarch explains why he is rather indifferent ro the underlying forces of history, and in fact he [Quches on rhem only on T:l.re occasions. V/hat has been said abant Plurarch's Parallel Lives applies also to the imperial biogT:l.phies of C. Sueronius Tranquillus (c. A.O. 75c. ,60), pri\':lte secretary (ab epirtulis) 10 Hadrian. Suetonius made [he first attempt to describe [he lives of the cmpcrors (from luHus Caesar ro Domitian) within the traditions of dynastic history. Nevenhdess he rem�ins on the superficial level, mixing valuable historiea! information with trivial coun gossip, and as :I result his work leaves an ambiguous general impression. NevenhcIess Sueton ios as biographer of the Roman emperors staned a tT:l.didon, and n i the age of the Severi he was folJowed by Marius Maximus; his work is not extanr, bot we can esrimate its character from the cita� tions in later historians. He is the connecting link with the Scriptores Histonae Aug1lstae, a work which claims to be written by six dif� ferent writers of the age of Diocletian :md Consrantine. but is in ruJity a forgery by some writer under Julian or Theodosius I. ![S
Tbt Sources veiled anti-Chrisrian attitude along with in; idealizarion of Julian (hiddcn in the praise of the Syri�n Severus Alexander, actu�lIy an insignificant emperor) revcals the forgcl)' as a producc of pagan propaganda in the period A.D. 350-400. The biographies cover the period from Hadrian to ums and his sons (A.D. 117-285). The work poses many still unsolved problems, whieh will require the e/fons of philologists, historians, numismatists, historians oE religion, :.tnd others to solve. In any case, scholars rightly regard the work as a "popular work," not a produet of historieal thoughr. Jaeob Burek lurdt's judgmem on the authors of the His/oria AlIgrma sums up the matter: "They an: fools, but interesting." In the Coeures of ScxtuS Aurelius Victor (\vritten c. A.D. 360) the content has !Jeen abbreviated to the length of a eompendium, in accordanee wirh the taste of the time. It is in the lives of the s�ints that we find the link with the biographic literature of the Middle Ages. Of these �n imponant example is the L;fe of St. Sroer;mls by Eugippus (written c. A.D. 5 1 1); the Life givcs a colorful pictnre of conditians in the Danubian provinees in the period A.D. 450-500. In the Vita Caro/i Magni by Einhard the spirit of Antiquity is tCvived in the fonn shaped by Suetonius. Thus it became for future agcs thc d�ic model of imperial biograph)'. This summary has been tao brief to da more than uace the main lines of anciem historiography from in; beginnings to the end of Amiquity. Distincrions and nuances have Ileen ignored, and indeed it is here that the work of the individual student must begin. The student who wishcs to grasp the essenee of the ancient historians must set himsclf the task of understanding the individuals within [he fnmework of [he general denlopment of which they were a part, and must then judge what they aimed to do and how far they succceded. He who wishes w comprehend historians such as Thucy didcs or Saltust must be able tO understand their lives as weil as their books, and he must be conscious of the inner connection betwcen life and work Above alt, howc\'er, the studcnt must anc:mpt to un decsrand the principles of historical research ancient historians fol lowed. Finally, no study of the anciem historians can ever be fruitful unless the srudent uses scholarly commenraries. For this rcason the following bibliography is m i portam.
Tbe Sourus
'"
BlBLlOGRAPHY
No ade<]uate survey of ancient historiography exists. A valuable summary of infonnation in the anciem literary tradition is givcn by A. Schacfer and B. Nissen. Abrisr der Quellen kUl/de der griecbiscbrm ulId römischen Gescbichte I (ed.4, 1889) and n (1881); also useful are the sections on the historians in C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der Alten Gescbichte (Lcip zig 1895). For orienmion see first thc histories of literarure-of Greek by Schmid and Stählin, and of Roman by Schanz :md Hosius, born in Müller. Admirable also is the Griechische Literittllrge schichte (2 \'ols., Heidelbcrg 1926-1934), unforrunately incom pIere. Valuable rurveys are includcd in the work cdited by P. Hinncberg, Kultur der Gegenwart 1.8 (cd. 3, [91Z), in which U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorif writes on Grcek literature, F. Lco on Roman lircrarure. Leo also published a Ge$chichte der römischen Literatur (Bcrlin ! 91 3), rcgrcttably not complcted. The bcginning srudent will find espcei:lily helpful the oudines of Greek literature (E. Bethe and M. Pohlenz) and Roman lirerature (E. Norden) n i Gercke-Nordell 1.3-4 (ed. 3, 1923-1924); Norden's essay was sup plemented by bibliographie essays by E. Koestcrmann (1933) and H. Fuchs (1951). There have becn gteat advances in parricular fields, noted in the sun'ey of Roman studics by H. Fuchs, MN 4 (1947), 147-198. Valuable also are A. Lesky, A Hisrary of Greek Litcrmure, u. J. Willis and C. de Heer (London and New York 1966); G. De Sanctis, Swdi di rtoria deI/li storiogm{ill greell (Flor encc [951); F. Jncoby, Abb'l1Idlllngell zur griecbiscbell Gescbichts_ rchreibung (Leiden [956); 1\1 Laistner, Thc Greater R07J/an Historimr (ßerkeley and Los Angeles [947 ) ; Hirtoire er historiens dalls fmtiquite: Fondation Hardt Entretjens 4 (Vandoevres-Geneva 1958), with essays on Herodotus, Thllcydides, T2Citlls, ete. Briefet surveys of ancient historiography are given in the his torical worb of E. l\leyer. Gescbichtr: der Altertums; K. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte; G. Oe Sancris, Storia d"i Romani; and these \"olumcs in Müller: H. ßcngtsoll. Gricc"ircbc Gescbicbrc (cd. 3, 1965), :md B. Niese and E. Hohl, Grtmdriu dlT römischen Ge schichte (1913). For the Roman Empire see the run'ey by E. Kome mann in Gerckc-Norden m.l (cd. 2, 1933), [49 tf. COLLECTIONS 0.' FRAGMESTIi: The senous student of ancient historiography will consult the grent collecrions of [he extant frag ments of othen\lise lost worb: C. and T. i\'lüller, Fraglllenta His toricoru11l Graecot1JtII, abbre\liared FHG (5 \lols., Paris 1 841-187°); GENERAL;
'"
The SourceJ
F. Jacoby, Die Frllgntrnte der griechischen Historiker, abbrcviated FGrH (Berli" aod then Leiden 1913-). The laner work has an outstanding commentary; it is to take the plaCt of Müller's old work, but ;$ not yet complcted. For [he Roman historians: H. Peter, Hil toricomm Romanomm reliquiae I (cd. I, 1914) aod 11 (1906). EDITIOSS OF H1STORIANS: Beside the standard texts of the Teubner aod Oxford series (BT, OCT), [hefe are also the editions of the Loch Classical Library (LCL) of most works, generally wirh useful texts and wirh Engish l rranslarious; similarly a few bis· torians appear in the CollecDon Bude (CB) wirh French transla tion. See below for individual hlsmrians. tlJSfORIOORAPHY I N niE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: Survey by R. Laqueur, NIA 7 {193 1), 489 ff.j also H. Guterbock, "Die histotlSche Tradition und ihre literarische Gest:llrung bei ßabylonern und Hethitern," ZA N.F. 8 (1934); "V. v. Soden, "Lcisrung und Grcnze sumerischer und babylonischer \Vissensch�ft," WG l (1936), 4 1 1 fr., 45 I . HITfITE "N"N"ALS: A. Goctzc, Kulturgeschichte des Alten Orients, Klemasien, in Müller (ed. I , 1957), 174-175; A. Kammen huber, Saeculum 9 (1958), 136-155. H1STORIOGR"PHY OF THE ISR...EUTF..S: E. Meyer, Geschichte d�r Altertu7lls lI.1 (ed. 2 . 1931). 198 tr.; G. Holseher, "Die Anf�nge der hebräischen Geschichtsschreibun ," SHA IV 1941/42, No. 3. g CHnOAEAN CIIRONICLES: D. Wiseman. Cbronicles 01 Chal daean Kings (626-556 H.C.) in the British Musel1m (London 1956); on this see �Iso H. ßengtson. Historia 6 ('957), 499-5°1. For:l gen eral view sce B. Landsbcrger and T. Bauer, ZA 37 (1917), 61 ff.; W. v. Soden, !VG 2 (1936), 455. In the same c:ltegory are the 50caUed Diadochi Chronidcs, ahaut wars in Babylonia after the death of Alexander the Grcat: S. Smith, BabylO1iian Histotical Texts (London '92+), '40 fr., 'Si tr.; see on this W. Ono, SBA W 1925. Schlusshcft, p. l . ' HOMER S ILI...D: For (he hisrory of the Homene Question see so , Homer and Mycetlae (London '933). New n M. Nls i terpreta i n dons of Homer's relation 10 his sociery were suggested by W. Schadewaldt, "Horner und sein Jahrhunden," Das Neue Bild der Antike (1942), 5 ' ff., and Von Homers Welt lind Werk (ed. I, Snmgart '95 I ) . More recem bibliography is given in H. Bengrson. i ponant: Griechische Geschichte, (cd. ), 1965), 61, note 2. Also m H. Lorirner, Homer Ifnd thr: Momnnentl (London '950). Survey: A Lesky, Die Humerl01'1chung in der Gegenwart (Vienna '951)' Most recent review arride: A. Hcubcck, Gym1wium 7' (196j), 43-72•
Tbe SourCfS
"J
Sun'eys by J. Bury, Tbe AlIcirnt (London 1907, rc!'r. 1958); F. Jacoby, Klio 9 ( 1909), 80 ff.; U. v. \:Vilamowiez-Moellendorff, Grffk Historical Wrirmg, tr. G. l\Iurray (Oxford 1908). An individual but imerest ing work is E. Howald, Vcml Geist ilntiker Gesehiehmc!m:ibfl1lg (Munich 19#), with discussions of He:rodotus, Thucydides, and . Polybius. ßEGtNI'INGS OF CREEK IUSTORIOGRAPIIY; W. Schadewaldt, Die Antike 10 ( 1914), 144 ff.; L. Pearson, Early lonirm Hirtorians (Oxford 1939). On (he concept 'UTOpt" . see B. Snell, "Die Aus drücke für den Begriff des \Vissens in der vorplatonischen Philo sophie," Philologische Umerruchu7Igen 29 ( 1 924), 59 ff., and in the: Festschrift für K. Reinhardt (1952), Hec;ltaeus' fragments are in FGrH I ; on his rationalism sec A. Momigliano, Ate7/(� e ROll/li, n.s. 1 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 1 3 3 ff.; G. Oe Sanetis, Swdi di storia dellif storiogra{ill grec,} ( 1 9 5 1 ) , 3 ff. HERODOTUS; Edition by Hude in the OCT (1909), by P. Lcgrand (Paris 1912-1955); editions with commemary by 1-1. Stein (first pub!. 1856 ff., there:after often fepr.) and by W. How and J. \:Vells (cd. 2 , Oxford 1928). Report on more recent editions, comment1lries, and translations by G. Grosskinsky, GlIo1l/Qn ('95 I), 265 ff.-Special edirion with commenrary: Herodotm 1-111, by A. Saycc (London 1883: out oE date ) ; Hcrodorus IV-VI, VlI-IX by R. Macan (1 vols., ,895-19°8: basic); Herodotus I. Buch (on Egypr) by \Viedmann (Leipzig 1 890), with which see W. Spiege1berg, Die Glaubwürdigkeit 'Von Herodotf Bericht über Agypten illl Lichte der ägyptisehl!1l Denkmäler (Orie1/t /llId Amike 3, Heidcl berg '926); J. Vogt, "Herodot n i Ägyptcn," Fewebr;ft W. Schl/lid (Tübinger Beiträge S, 19!9)' 9S ff.; H. de Meulcnacre, Herodotlls over de :!6. dynastie (11.147-/11./5). in Flemish (Louvain ' 9 5 1 ) ; :md a n essential work: E. Powell, A Lerieon to Hcrodorm (Cam bridge 1938). Still fundamental for Herodorns' life and work is the arricle by F. Jacoby, RE Su pp. n ( 1 9 1 3 ) , 105 ff, See also W. Aly, Volks GREEK HlSTORIOGRAPHY:
Creek Historii11lf
l/IiirchC'J1, Sage ..nd No"elle
bl'i Herodot und seinen Zdtge"offen
(Göninscn 1911); J. WeHs, Studiet in Herodotur (Oxford 1913), though ltl part strongly hypotherical; F. Focke, Herodot II/S Histo riker (Tiibinger Beiträge I , 1917); K. v. Fritz, "Herodotus and rhe Growth of Greck Historiography," TAPA 67 (1936), 3 ' 5 tf.; M. Pohlen7., "Herodot, der crste Geschichtsschreiber des Abendlandes," Neue Wege zur Antike 2 (1937), Nos. 7-8; F. Eggermann, " Das Geschichtswerk des Herodot," NJA (1938), 191 ff.. 1}9 ff. (wirh ncw interpretations, espccially on [he conclusion of Hcrodotus' his-
Tm SaUTU!
104
tory) ; E. Powell, Tbc History of Herodotus (Cambridge 1939);
J. Myres, Herodotm, Farber of Histor] (Oxford 1953). A useful work is Herodot: Eine Auswahl aus dernellerrn Forschung, cd. \V. Marg (Munich 196%). LOGOGRAPHERS: TIlUcydides (1.11.1) uses the term for prose wrin�l'S, HerodotuS included. Modem scholars usc it in the sense proposed by F. Crcuzcr in Die historische Kunst der Griccbrn (,803), to rder to thc: earlier Greek historians befaTe Herodotus, though this is contrary to Thucydides' usagc; cf. Bux, RE XIII, 1011 ff.-Their fragments arc in FGrH l and III. The fragments of the Atthidognphers ne in FGrH III, p p ff.; cf. Jacoby's funda memal work, Attbis: Thc Loeal Chr07licles of Ancirnt Atbem (Ox ford 1949). THUCYDlDES: Edit ion by C. Hude (Leiprig 1898-19°8, 19081913); new edition based on Hude's by 0. Luschnat, so far only books 1-1 (cd. l, Leipzig 1960). Other editions by H. Jones and E. Powell in the OCT (1942); with commentaly by]. Classen and Steupp (eds. 3-5, Berlin IC}OO- I 922); commentary alone by A. Gomme, A Hirtoric:al Comment<1TY on Thllc:ydides (3 vols., Ox ford 1945-[956), going up co P4.-Personality and work are dis ClIsscd by E. Meyer, Forschungen zur Alten Geschichu: II (Halle 1899), ziSQ ff.; A. Gomme, Essays in Gruk Hiswry and Literamre (Oxford 1937), 156 ff.; H. Berve, Thllkydides (Frankfun/Main 1938); G. De Sanctis, Storia dei Greci II (1939), 40<} ff.; F. Egger mann, "Die Geschichtsbetrachtung des Thukydides," Das Neue Bild der Antike I (1942), 27l ff. (with bibliography alp. 272, note I); G. Grundy, Tbucydides and the HistOTY of His Age (2 vols., Oxford 1948); F. Adcock. Thucydides and His Hinory (London 196}). Very suggestive are the reeent publications of H. Strasburger "Die Entdeckung der politischen Geschichte durch Thukydides," Saeculu711 5 (1954), 395 H., and "Thukydides und die politische Selbstdarstcllung dcr Athener," Her'l11el 86 (1958), [ 7 H. (espc:eial ly on thc speeches). More than a eCflffiry aga F. UUrieh raiscd thcq uestionof Thuey dides' original intcnt; he argued that at first Thueydides planned to deseribe [he Archidamian War alone, and only later came co sec the Pcloponnesian \Var as a uniry. Followers of this hypothesis ("analysrs") receive [heir strongest suppon from the co-called Stc ond preface ar p6.[; cf. F. Ullrich, B eiträge zur Erk/iinmg des Tbukydider (Hamburg 1846), and E. Schwam, Das Geschichts werk der Thukydider (Bann 1919-1919). W. Schadewaldt, Die Gtrcbichtsschreibtmg des Thukydider (Berlin 1929), J. de Romilly,
Thllcydides
ef
fimpbialimre atbenien: La pensee de rhistorien et
Tbe SOUTCeS
'"
la gentre de foeuvre (Paris 19'1}-19S I), a11 of which suppon the
"anaJysts ' " view. Their opponcms, the "uniurians," maimain that Thucydides from the tim imended to describe the whole war, and includc, besidcs E, Meyer: H. Parzer, Das Problem der Gescbichts rcbrcibulIg der Thukydides lind die rbukydidische Frage (Bcrlin '937); J. Finley, Jr., "The Unity oE Thucydides' History," Atben iall Studies Prerented to W.S. Fergusoll (HSCP, supp. I ; Cambridge, Mass. 1940) , H5 ff., and his Tbucydides (Cambridge, !\Iass. 194Z ) ' On the speeches sec F. Eggermann, DLZ ('937) '47' ff., 1503 ff., :md in Das lletle Bild der Antike 1 (194:), :85 ff.i also O. Lu schnat, Die Fe1JherT11Tede71 fm Geschichtswerk des Thukydides (PhiJologus, supp. 34, no. lj Leipzig 194:) ; F. Adcock, "Thucvdides " in Book I, JHS 7 1 ('951), u «. (conscrvative view).-Ön the documcnts sec C. Meycr, Die Urkunden im GeIChichtswcrk des Tbukydides (Zete1l1.1ta 10, Munich 1955). Xf,;SOI'II0:-O: Editions by Marchant in OCT (1900 tr.), by C. Hude in BT (1930 /T.), by J. Hanfcld, HellC'l/iqucs (I voIs., Paris '949, J94S), wirh inrroduction and notcs.-Historical criti cism: E. Schwanz, RhM 44 (1889), 104 ff., 169 ff.; A. Banderct, Untersuchungcn Z1I Xenophons Hellrnika (Diss. Berlin 1919) ; H. Breiten!nch, f1isroriographiscbe AllJchalllmgsfonJ/en Xe//Opho1lJ ( Diss. Base!, freiburg in SwitzerIand '950); E. Delebecq ue, Essai S1l7 la vic de Xenopholl (Paris 1957).-Thcre is still much dispute rcgarding Xenophon's prcmiscs and purposcs in the A1/llbasis, and the e:-;tent to which it is derivati\·e. THEOPOMPUS OF CHlOS: The fragments are in FGrH 1 1 5 i he is discussed by H . Berve, Ddr Alex,lIIderreicb auf prosopograpb_ isc!)('1' Gnmdlage IT (1916), no. 365i R. Laqueur, RE VA, 1 1 76 ff. CRATll'PUS: FGrH 64. An additiom! Hellenica was dis covercJ in rhe Oxyrh)'nchus papyri, eds. Grcnfell and Hunt (1909), reprinted in FGrH 66j new fragments have been published in Papiri Je/la Societa !Mliana 1 3 ( 1 949), no. 1 304. Edition by V. Bartoletti, Hellenica Oxyrhynchia (Leipzig 1959), wirh bibliography. � especially H. Bloch in Arhmi.m Smdies . . . Fergrlson ( HSCP, sUpp. I ; Cambridge, Mass. 1940), 303 ff. PTOT.EMY; The attcstcd fragments are given in /'GrH 138; cf. H. Str35burger, Pto/ell/aios find Alexo111der (Leipzig 1934); E. Kornemann, Die Alexallderfl,erchichte der KihJigr PtokmaioJ I von Agyptt'1/ (Leip7ig 1935), which however gocs too Car J[ rimcs n i its reconstruction. ALEXANDER T.EGENDS: On eheir origin see E. Medcrcr, Die
Alexanderlegenden bei den ältesten Alexanderbistorikern (lVii,-..... blirgerSmdien zur Alterwmswirrenschaft S, 1936). The Ale:'i:ander
..
,,'
Tb/! SOUTces
Romance (atrributed to pscudo-Callisthenes) has been edited by W. Kroll, Histona Alextmdri Magni I: Recrmio Vetustll (Berlin 1916); cf. A. Ausfe1d, Dw griechische Alexl11Iderrolnlln (Leipzig 19°7); F. Pfister. "Srudicn zum Alexanderroman," Wirz i burger Jahrbuch (i rr Altl?Ttll1I/S'U);ssrmchllft I (1946), 29 ff., ;lnd his many ather publicatioßS; R. Merkelhach, Die Quellen des griechischen Aler,t/ldcrromans (Zetemata 9. Munich 1954). ETHNOGRAPHERS OF ...GE O�· ALElCANDER: Nearchus: fragments in FGrH ' 3 ] i cf. W. Berve and W. Cape11e. RE XVI, 1131 ff. Onesicrirus: FGrH 134; ci. H. Strasburgcr, RE XVIII,I, 460 ff., T. Brown, Onericritttr (Berkeley 1949). Megasthenes: fragments collecrcd by Schwanbeck (1846); cf. T. Brown, AlP 76 (1955), 18-33. and Phoro;x [ [ (1957), 11 ff. EPHORUS OF CY;\IE: FGrH 70. His work was in rhirty books, began with [he "Rerum of thc Hcnclids" (i.e.. the Dorian invasion), and continued to HO RC, book 30 bcing added by Ephorus' son Dcmophilus. Basic srudy is E. Schwanz, RE VI ('907), ! ff.; on time of composirion see B. Niese, Hmnes 44 ( 19(9), 170 ff., who es for age of Alcxandcr vs. Schwanz; see also G. Barber, The a l]U Hmorian Ephoms (Cambridge (935). TI/"tUEUS OF TAURO:-'fENIUM: Fngments in FGrH 566. On his work see J. Beloch, Fleckeisens Jahrbuch für Philologie (,88!), ('97 fT.; E. Schwarrl-, Gnalllllldte Scbriften 11 (1956), 175 fT.; R. Laqueur, RE VI A, 1076 ff.; J. Gdfcken, Ti1llaior' Geographie des Westens (Philologische Untersuchungen 13, Berlin ,891); K. Suo heker. "Timaios und Philistos," in Satura: Festschrift O. Wtilm�icb (f 9S:), 139 ff.; G. De Sanctis, Ricercbe suUa storiogrlffilf siceliota (Palermo 1958), published posthumously; T. Brown, Tnllilros of Taur01lleniu1ll (Berkelev 1958). POLYBIUS: BookS 1-5, concerning [he yeus 164-Z f 6 RC, are extant, plus fngments of books �o. Edition by Th. Biittner Wohst (r889 ff.). An essential rool is F. W. Walbank. A Hirtorical C01mnentlrty on Polybiur I (OJdord 1957), covering books 1-6. A Polybius-Lexikon, cd. A. Mauersberger, is appearing; � {ar rwo fascicJes havc been published, covering a lpha through zeta (Berlin 1956-1961). Import:tnt monographs inclu de R. v. Scala, Die Studien des Polybios I (1890), not continued; O. Cuntt, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig '90�)j C. \-Vunderer, Polybios: Lehens- und Wel tanschauung aus dem 2. vorchristlichen Jahrhundert (Leip zig (927) ; W. Siegfried, Stttdien zur geuhichtlichen Auffassung des Polybios (Leipzig 1928); K. Lorenz, UnteTSucbungen <mr Geschicht1'Werk :efaces des Polybios (Stungart 193'). conccming espccially thc pr to books , and 3.-The theory of R. Laqucur, Polybios (Leipzig
Tbe SOUTCer
"'7
1913), rh:l[ oue can find in ehe exr:mt work five successive editions is hype�ccicical �nd unconvincing; for an opposite view se� E. Mey er, Kieme Schri ften 11 (1924), 334 11. ; K. Lorcn� op. m., 69 11.; more recently M. Geb;er, "Die hellenistische 1TpOKanUYKEtn! im z. Buche des Polybios," HenJles 70 (1940), 27 ff.; "Die AchaiCll im Geschichtswerk des Polybios," SB Derlin 1940, no. 2 ; "Ober die Arbeitsweise des Polybios," SHA W 1956, no. ) ; aU these works are now available in Gclzer's Kleine Scbriften (3 vok, 'Wiesbaden 196z-1963). The unitarian view, as expresscd in extreme fashion rc:cemly by H. Erbse, "Zur Entstehung des polybianischen Ge schichtswerkes," RhM 94 (1951), 157 ff. (see also Pbilologur 101 [1957], 169 11.), is as unacceptable a.� Laqueur's extreme analytic hypothesis. A middie way mllSt be found.-A brief orienmion is gl.\'en by A. Rosenberg, Einlrinmg und Quellenkunde zur römi scht:11 Geschichte (19Z I), 188 11., and by Glover, CAH VIII ( 1 930)' 1 ff. A valuable sun'ey is the long article by K. Ziegler, "Polybios," RE XXI (1951), 1440 11. See too K. v. Frin, The Throry of the
Mixed Constitfltion in Antiquity: A Critical Analysis of l'olybius' Politicalldeas (New York 1954). POSEIOONIUS OF APAMEA: Fragments in FGrH 87. On his life and thought see K. Reinhardt, J'oreidonios (Munich 19!1), Kosmos und Sympathie (Munich 19Z6), and "Poseidonios," RE XXII (1953); E. SchwartZ, Charakterköpfe tmS der Amike, ed. J. Srroux (Leipzig 1943), 89 If., with bibliography of recent studics on pp. 288-289. DJOOORlJS SICULlJS: Of the forey books of his Univers41 His tory only books [-5 on the ancicnt Ne�r East and the mythiCllI age. and [ 1-20 on rhe period 480-301 n.c. are eXlant. Edition by Vogel and Fischer (repr. Sruttgan [9�) is n i com lete. For dis cussions see E. Schwarv. RE V, 663 If.; W. Schmid, Geschichte der griechirchro Literatur 11.1 (ed. 6, [920), 4°3 ff.; A. v. Mess, "Unter suchungen über die Arbeitsweise Diodors," RhM 61 (1906), 244 ff. On his SOUtCes see C. Volquardsen, Untersuchungen über die Quel len der griecbisbchen und sizil. Geschichte bei Diodor 11-1 S (Kiel 1868); G. De Sanet:is. Ricerchc StIlla stor;ogra/ia s;cd;ota (Palcnno [958), 78 ff.; R. L2qucur, Hermes 86 (1958), lS6 1f.; J. Palm, Ober Sprache find Stil des Diodoros 'Von Sizilien (Lund 1955). BECIS'S[NCS 01' RO:\tAN HISTORIQCRAPHY: See the literary
p
histories of Schanz-Hosius :md Leo; also rhe survey by F. Klingner, Die Antike [ 3 (1937). 1 11. ANNALISTS:
Survey wirh indicarion of import:mt problems
in Rosenberg. 1 [ 3 ff., and in J. Vogt, "Römische Geschichte,"
Gercke-Norden m.l (ed. 3, 1933),45 ff. A new synthcsis based on
,,'
Tbe Sourers
formal :lod historical analysis is needed.-Annual lists of pricsts are noted by Servius. adAeneid 1.373 and by Cicero, De oratore 2.12.p. Q. FABIUS PICTOR: His work is discussed in RoseT/berg, 123. who considers it a tool of thc Greck poiicies of T. Quinccius Fla mininus; cf. M. GeizeT, "Römische Politik bei Fabius Pictor." Henne! 68 (1933), [29 ff. Gelzer has 00[ provcd his Iheory that Fabius did 00[ write annals but ramer "pragmacic" history. 115 argucd in Herme! 69 (1934), 46 ff. New aspeCts discussed by F. Hörner, SO 29 (1925), 34 ff., opposed by Geb:er, Hermes 82 (1954), 342 ff.-MANETIIO: fragments in LCL, cd. W. \Vaddell ([ 940) aod in FGrH 609. Sec study by R. Laqueur, RE XIV, 1060 ff.-BEIIOSSUS; see study by P. Schnabel, Berorsor rmd die babylonircb_bdlenirtische Literatur (1923), 115 weil 115 C. Lchm:mn-Haupt, Klio H (1929), 125 ff., and in Reallexikon der Asryriologie I, s.v. M. PORCIUS CATO: Fragmcnts of Originer are primcd in H. Peter, Histoncorum R0111i11lorum reliquiae I (ed. 2), 55 ff. Srudy: F. Klingner, "Gto Ccnsorius und die Krisis des römischen Volkes," Die Amike 10 (1934), 239 ff., reprintcd in Römircbe Geisteswelt (cd. 4- 1961), 36 ff. ROMAN III!ffi)RICAI. MOI'OGR.�PHS: Fragments of L. Coclius Amip:uer in H. Peter, op. eil., 158 ff.; cl. Rorenb"g, 167 H., and \.V. i·lolTm:lnn, Uv;us ,md der zweite Punirchc
Einl.clseh. 8; Berlin 1942).
Krieg (Ht!T"/llCS,
c. SALI.USTIUS CRISPUS: Editions of the shon works by \". Ahlberg (Leipzig 1919); A. Kurfess (ed. 3, 1957); of the fragments of the Histoner by B. MaurcDbrcehcr (Leipzig 1891-189}); lmd of all works by A. Emout (Paris 1947). Srudics: K. Bauhofcr, Die Komposition der Historien SaUI/rlS (Diss. Munich 1935); the older srudy of E. Schwanz, "Die Bcrichte über die catilinarische Ver schwörung," Hermes JZ (1897), 554 ff.. now rcprinted in his Ge Sl/1Im/elte Schriften II (1956), 275 ff.; O. Sccl, Von den Briefen ad Cl/m:re11l zur C01Iiuratio Cati/inl/e (Diss. Erlangen 1930); F. Eg ennann, "Dic Proömien zu den \"ccken des Sallust," SAWIV 114 (1932), 00. }; \". Schur, SalIust IIls Historiker (Sruugart 1934), wirh addition in Klio 19 (1936), 60 H. J. Vogt, Cicero und SIll11m üb" die cl/tilinllTiscbr Verschwör/mg (Frankfun/Maio 1938); sug gestive is E. Howald, Vom Geist antiker GeschichlSrcbreibrmg (Munich 1944), 140 ff. On the !Ilgurthine JVar we have rhc rccenr work of K. Büchner, Der Aufhl1l1 von SlIllusts Bellum lllgurthinum (Her/ller, Einz.el�chrift 9; 1953), and \V. Stcidle, SQllusts hirtorirche Monographien (HistMII, Einzclschrift 3; 1958).-tnrerpretil'e srudy : K. Büchner, Sill/list (Heidelberg 1960); R. Syme, SI/l/mt (Berkcley 1964) is an important work.
Tb� SOurC�1
w,
L1VY: Edition wich comment:lry hy W. 'Veissenbom and H. Müller Üep r. Bcrlin 196�); for the text. comult the edition of Conway and Walcers in OCT (1914-1935); an edition in the eB
by J. Bayer has heen pubished l since 194o.-0f Livy's work rema;n books [-10 (co 293 RC). 1I-45 (1 I9-[67 RC); m shon, about a founh of ehe enorrnous work s i cxt:lnt. The contents of the lost books can he reconstrucred from [he Periochae (summaries) and also from [he collection of prodigies made by JuHus Obscqucns. beginning with 190 B.C In addirion, a summary of books 37-55 (189-137 B.e.) was recently discovered; cL E. Komemann, Die tlerle Livills.Epito1lle (Klio, Beiheft 2 ; 19°4), and F. Münzer, K/io 5
(1905), ' 3 5 1f·
On Livy's sources a basic work s i H. Nissen, Kritische Unter· J1Ichlmgen fiber die Qllellm deT 4. tmd j. Dekifde des Liviu! (Ber. lin 1863); see also A. Klotz, LivillS tmd seine Vorgänger (Berlin 194C>---4 l ) , wirh review hy M. Gelzer, Gnomon (1941), HO ff., �nd his mide, "Livius," RE XIII (19:7), 816 ff. Li")' a.� artist and scholar: E. Burck, Die Erz.iblungrku1ISt des T. Lr.;ill! (Problelll.1f1/ 1 1 , Berlin 1934), and "Livius als augusteischer Historiker," WG 1 ([935). 446 ff.; W. Hoffmann. Antike um! Abrndland 4 (1954). 170 ff.; H. Bruckmann, Die römischl!1l Niedcrl,rgl:lI im Gercbichw !crk des T. Livitlr (Diss. i\-1iinster 1936); .. . W. Wiehemeyer. Probe-n bistor. Kritik aur Li-viur XXI-XLV (Diss. Münster 1938). Very suggesrive, alehough at rimes hi� conclusions have beeil disputed. is K. Pet'wld, Die EröIJmmg der zweiteIl RÖm. Makedrmirchm Krieger (Bcrlin 1940). D10:-''YSIUS OF HALlC.�RNASSUS: Editcd by C. Jacoby, (4 vols., 1885-19°5); recent studics by E. Gabba, Athm:U!1tm, n.s. 38 (1960), 115 ff.• 39 (1961 ), 98 ff.; H. Hili, JRS (1961), 88 ff., on Dionysius and the origins of Rome. NICHOLAS OF DA.\IASCUS: Fragmems in FÜTH 90. HlSTORIQGRAPllY OF PRI:-:CIPATE: Suevey with bibliography of sourccs in Rorenbcrg, 74: ff.; Scham·Horius 11 (ed. 4. 1935), 644 ff.; F. Klingner, "Tacitus . . . ," AU/ 15 (1958), 194 ff. l'OMPEIUS Tf!OClUS: Of his Hirtoriae Philippicae in 44 0001.5 only {he Prologi (tables of contcnts) are extant. hut we da have selcclions from the remaindcr made by M. Junianus (or Junianius) n )' A.D.). A good edition of Justin was Justinus (c. third cenn ipzig 1935), who also published the frag· puhlished by O. Scd (le ments of Trogus (19SS). Thc basic work on ehe sourccs is by A. v. Gutschmid, reprinted in his KleiT/e SchrifteT/ V ( 1 894) , 1 1 8 ff.• hut a new study is needcd. hlare rccent work is re\'iewed by J. Pendarf, Bllrritms JahrerbeT. 173 (1941). 104 {f.
'"
The SOUTf;U
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS: Edition of the Historia R01Ita1IiJ by C. Stegmann von Pritzwald (Leipzig 1935). Tbc wdl-known pas sag e on Arminius ( l.IS.: ) has betn newly interpreted by E. Hohl, " Zur Lebensgeschichte des Siegers im Tc u toburger ',Valdc," HZ 167 ([943), 457 ff.; Hohl argues for Armenius as thc: couect form, hut see W. Ensslin, GYl1masium ( 1 943/44), 64 ff.-A general smdy is I. Laua, Velltio PateTcofo 0 ddla 'PTopaganda (Turin 1952). Q. CURTIUS RUFUS: Of his Historia Alexandri Magni n i ten books we havc lost books I aud 1 entirely and S, 6, and 10 in pan:. New manuscript collations c:mich thc: edition of K. Müller and H Schönfeld, (J. Curtills lUtfm: Geschichte Alerallders des Gromm (Munich 19H), wirh Geman translation. Other editions are those of H. Bardon (Paris 1947-[948), and J. Rolfe (LCL: 1947). Stin valuable is che otd commentary by J. Müt7.ell (Berlin 1841 ).-When the work was written is still an unsolved problem, though one can say that it was sometime between the time of Augusrus (fot which W. Tarn argues, Alt.'xlf11dl!r tbe Grt.'tlt II [Cambridge, 1948), 91 ff.) and that 01 Vespasian (for which sec J. Stroux, Philologur 84 [1919], 133 «.); the lalter is more probable, as indicated in an artide by G. Scheda, Historia 1 8 (1969). Whether Curnus is to be idemified with the Currius Rufus menrioned by Tacirus, Alm. 1 1 . : ' , is an unsotved problem. AUFIDIUS BASSUS: He began his history with the death of Caesar, but the point at which he stopped is unknown; cf. F. Marx, Klio 19 ( 1 936),94 ff. PLiNY THE EWER (AD. 13-79) : His historical work, A fine Bani, continued the history of Bassus; cf. A. Alomigliano, "Osserva� zioni sul1e fonti per la storia di Caligola, Oaudio, Nerone," RAL ser, 6, vol. 8 (1931), 193 ff. Pliny also wrote an accoum of [he Gcrman wars, besides of course hlS Historia naturalir. Ct.UVlUS RUFUS: His history CQ\'ered the reign of Nero and the re\'olutions of A.D. 69, but as a whole it remains unknown to uso Cluvius has, however, gained a somcwhat uneamed prominence be� cause Mommsen believed his work W3S the common source behind Tacirus' Historier and Plutarch's Liver of Galba and Orho; cf. Th. Mommsen, "Comclius Tacitus und CluvillS Rufus," Hermes 4 ( 1870), 195 !f., reprinted in Gerammelte Schriften VTI, H4 ff. Neverthelcss the verbal paral1els must be otherwise explained, for TacituS undoubtedly consulted a number of sourcts, and evidently one of them was used by Plurareh, mo; cf. G. Townsend, AlP 85 (1964) , 3 3 7-3 77. FABIUS RUSTlCUS: Sec: Tacirus, Ami. 1 3 .10; 14.2; 15.6(. CORNE:UUS TACITUS: Editions: Historiae and Allnl11er by
Tb!! SOUTUI
'"
Halm, Andrcscn, Koestermann (Leipzig .934-1936; ed. 8, .957'960); Allnalu by H. Fuchs (Frauenfeld 10),,"6-'949), Klei/Je S�brifun by E. Koestermann (cd. 8, Leipzig 1957); edition with notes of Hinoriae by Woltr, Andrcscn (cd. 2, /914-1926; com mentary on books 1-2 by H. Heubner, ( 3 vols., 196}-.967); edition with notes of A'/1101es by Nipperdcy, Andrcsen, books 1-6 (ed. 1 [, 1 9 1 5 ) and books 1 1 - 1 6 (cd. 6, 19°8); commcntary on Amiales by E. KoesTermann (4 \'015., Hcidclbcrg 1963-1968); Ger1llania wirh commentary by Reeb ( 1 930), Much ( 1 937), Anderson (Oxford 1938), Fehde (cd. 4, 1944). Agricoln has been edired by H. Fur neaux and J. G. Anderson (ed. 1, Oxford 19u)-Full bibliogl':lphy in Schallz-Hosills 11, 603 ff.; see also CAH X (1934), 96} tr., and a later rc\·iew by E. Kocstermann, Bursians !abresber. 282 (1943), 78 tr. For a general synrhcsis important articlcs are R. Reinen.�tein, "Taeirus und sein \Verk," Neue Wege zur Antike 4 (1926); F. Klingncr, "Taeirus," Amike 8 (1931), 1 5 1 ff., and also his "Die Geschichte des Kaisers Otho bei Tacitus," SB Leipzig 1940, no. I, lmd "Tacitus über Augustll5 und Tiberius," SBA lV 1953, no. 7 (published [954); H. Drexler. Tacitlls, Grundzüge einer politischen Pathologie (Frankfurt/llhin 1939), but this requin:s crincal judg ment; E. Howald, Vom Geilt amiker Geschichmchreilnmg (Mu nieh 1944) . [93 tr.; E. Koesrermann, Tacims (Wiesbaden 1946), vith good bib!iography of reeent srudies. A srudy based on in .. tensive originnl research, es�cially in prosopography, is R. Syme, Tacims (2 vols., O:dord 1958).-On E. Paratore, Tacito (cd. 2, Rome 1962) see review of R. Güngerich. GlI01l/01l ( 1 954). 85 If. and ([965),421 If. Uscful studics are in lViirz/mrger Studien Zlif Alterrll1/tS1JJimmschllft 9 (1936) (Festsc!;rift Hosius), including [he important srudy by J. Vogt, "Tacitus und die Unparteilichkeit des Hiswrike�," reprinred in Orbis ( 1 960), 1 [0 tr., which also eontains his "Die GeschichtsSchreibung des Tacirus," 128 tr.-On Ann. 15.44 see H. Fuchs, "Tacitll5 u. die Christen," VChr 4 ( 195°), 65 If.; on Tacitll5' psychology see H. Nesselhauf, "Tacitus u. Domitian," Hermes 80 (1952), 2U tr. Numcrous studies by E. Kocstermnnn are i? eorpor:lted in his comf""mary on A.nlutf<·s. Also valuahle is . . V. Pdschi, WG (.96�), [ ff.-O!d�r SrudLCS won:h consulnng 10cludc L. v. Ranke, IVeltgeschichu 1ft. [, 286 tr.• and R. v. Pöhlmann, "Die 'Veltanschauung des T.... SBA W 1910, 3 If.-On the saurees of Historwe and Annales see P. Fabia, Les sOllrces cfe Tacite dll1lS Jer hist. er let anno (Paris 1893), and C. QUCSTa, Smdi fIIlle fomi degli Annalcs di Tllcito (cd. 2, Rome 1963), and summary by S. ßonsak, RE Supp. XI ([968), 373-511. An important, though unfinished srudy IS Mommsen's "Das Verhälmis des T. zu den Akten des
Thc SOUTetS SeIUts," SPA W 1904, 1 146 ff., reprimed in Gesnmllelte Schriften
VII, 253 ff.-On the Germania rwo fundamental works arc a speech
by T. Mommsen, SPA W 1886, 39 ff., reprimed n i Reden 1/. Auf säne (Berlin H)05), 144 ff., and E. Norden. Die germanische Urge schichte in Tacitus' Germania (ed. 3. Leipzig, 1913).
FLAVIVS J05EPHlJS; A com 1ete and e)templary edition by B. r Niese (8 vols., 1885-[895). St ud les include B. Niese, HZ, nJ. 40 (1896), 193 ff.; G. Hölscher, RE IX (1916). 19H ff.; R. Laqueur, Der jüdische Hirtoriker Flavius }Osephl1S (Giessen 1920), peiletrat ing but not always convincing; M. Charleswonh. Five Men: Charoc ter Studie! [rom tbe Roman Empire (Cambridge, 1\1ass. 1936), 67 ff.-Useful also are W. Ono, Herades (Stuttgart 1 9 [ 3 ) , a r eprint with minor changes of his article ill RE Supp. H, 1 ff., and W. hou gh at firnes very hypothetical /osephus und Weber's useful alt Vesp:uian (Stuttgart 1921). ARRIAN o�' NIOlM.EDIA; Editcd by A. G. Roos (2 \'ols., 19071918, repr. 1967-1968 with additions by G. Winh), exemplary. A fundamental srudy is E. Schwartt, RE H, El30 H.; good orienta tion by Scblllid-Stählin 11 (cd. 6, 1924), 746 H.; ,md most recently G. Wirth, Hirtaria 1 3 (1964), 20<) ff. APPMN OF ALEXA:-;DRIA; Edited by L. Mendelssohn, A. Roos, :md P. Viereck (z vok, '90.1'-'939; \'01. , cerr. hy E. Gahba in '961). Bella cr..Jilia 1 edited by E. Gabba (Florence 1958; cd. 1, 1967). For his sources, begin with E. Schwartt, RE n, 2 16 ff.; more recent srudies indude E. Kornemann, Klio '7 (1910), 33 ff., and A. K1orz., Appians Darstellullgen des 2. Pun. Krieges (Paderborn 1936); but thcir condusions arc not proved. Sec above all E. Gabba, Appia110 e la rtorill delle guerre croili (Florence 1956). C\.SSIUS DlO COCCEIANlJS: Edited e"cellemly by U. Boissevain (5 vols., Beflin 1895-1931; vols. 1-4 rcpr. 1955). Extant are books 36-60, covering 68 ß.C.-A.D. 47, book 36 lacking part of i[S be ginning, book 60 pan of its condusion. E.'
Tbe Souren 0/ Carrills Dio
469 ff.
'"
(Oxford 1964), re\'. G. Bowersock, Gnomon (196$),
HERODlAN; Edited by Stavenhagen (Leipzig 1921, repr. 1967). \Ve still bck a critical study of Herodian which takes into accoum srudies of the Historia Augusta. He is judged favorably by F. Ahheim, Literatur u. Gesellschaft 111 ; ausgehenden AltertUm 1 (1948), 165 ff., unfavor.lbly by E. Hohl, "Kaiser Commodus und Herodian," SDA W 1954, no. I. Later bibliognphy is given by E. Gabba, RSf 71 (1959), 381, note 95. W. Widmet, Kaisertum, Rom und Welt in Hcrodians . . . historia (Zurich (967). EUSEBIlJS OF CAESAREA: Historill ecclesisticil edited by E. Schwam ( J \'ols., Leipzig 19°3-1909); editia minar was publishcd in 1914 (rcpr. 1951). Good introductions an:: E. Schwartz's " Pro legomena" to his large edition :and also RE VI, 1395 ff.; Schlllid Stäblhl lI.2 (cd. 6, 19:4). 1)5 I ff.; E. Komemann. Gercke-Norden m.l (ed. 3, 1933) . 1 $8.-0n the dispute over authenticity (ar. rather, degree of forgerv) o( the Vita Conrra1lf;'1; (ed. I-Icckc1. 1902) see F. Vittinghotf, RhM 96 (1953), 330 ff., and ). Vogt, Historia 2 (1954), 463 If., both of whom argue weil for authenticity againsl H. Gregoin: and his followers n i Brussels. Tmponant evidence is a papyrus discussed by A. Jones, "Notes on the Genuine ness of the Constantinian Documents in Euscbius' Life of Constan dne," fEH 5 (1954), 196 If. UcrASTIlIS: Edited by S. Brandt (CSEL 27.2, Vienn� 1897), and by ). j\,loreau. Dc la mart dcs persecwcllrs (: \'ols., Paris 1954), with a eomprchensive commenrary.-nlc idea that God punishes his enemies is ancient: \V. Nestle, A R W 33 (1936), 246 If.-On L.'s sourccs see K. Roller, Die Kllist:rgescbichte in Laktam;' De 11tortilJIIs perrecutarum (Diss. Giessen 1917). An important criti cal srudy is M. Geh:er, "Der Urheber der Christenverfolgung von 303," Kleine Schriften III (1964), 378 If. OROSIUS: Edited by C. Z1ngcmcister, CSEL $. Vienna 1882, editio 1/Iil101 (Leipzig 1889). A philological srudy is). Svennung, Orosiallll (Uppsala 19!1). ST. AUGUSTINE: De civitate Dei ha.� b�n edired by ß. Dom hut (Leipzig 1918-1929). A fund�mental S1udy is H. Fuchs, A!lg7ls_ t:r antike Friedensgedallke (Berlin 1926), as is H. Marrou, tin und d A1lg1lrtin er la {in de la cultllre it7ltiqlle (Paris 1938). See also Mar rou's Retractatio (1949), and F. G. i\Iaier, Augurtin u. das Il7Itike Rom (Smttgarr 1955). AMi\IIA:-OUS MARCELUNlIS: Edited by C. U. Clark (Beflin 1910-1915), and by J. C. Rolfe, with English translation (3 \'ols., LCL: repr. 195O-1952) .-Good bib!iography given by Komem�nn,
'"
Tbc Souras
Gercke-Norden m.l (cd. ], 1933), 161. More rccem works are: J. StNuh, Vom HCTTrcbeTideal in der Spiitamike (Stutt�art 1939); E. A. Thompson, Tbc Hiuor;cal Work ofA. M. (Cambndge 1947); ]. Vogt, "A. M. als erzählender GeschichtsSchreiber der Sp:irLdt," Abb. Akad. Mamz 1963. no. 8. A critical srudy is W. Ensslin, Zur Geschichmchreiblmg und Weltanschauung des A. M. (Klio, Iki hefr 16; 1913). More recen[ conrribucions include W. Hanke, Gnomon (1939), 261 ff.; A. Demandt. Zeitkritik lind Geschiebts kritik m ; Werk Al1ml;an( (Bonn 1965); H. T. Rowe1l, "A. I\t, Soldier Hist-orian of the Latcr Roman Empire," LecmTrs in Mem ory of L Taft Sempie (Princeron [967), z61�313.-A campTehcn sive commemary is needed. I'ROCOPIUS 0" CAESARF.A: Eclited by Haury (3 \·ols., fepr. Leipzig [962-1963 by G. Winh) . A general stud)' is F. Dahn, Procopiul von Caesarea (Berlin 1865); later studlcs include E. Schwam., "Zu C-assiodor u. Prokop," SBAlV 1939, no. 2 ; 0. Veh, Zur Geschichtsschreibung und We1ta1lSchmmng des Prokop von Ciisarea (Bayreuth 1950-195 1 ) . Every student musr now consult the article "Prokopios" by B. Rubin, RE XXIII (1957), 173-599. CASSIOOORUS: Of [he twclve books of his Histori a Gothonl7ll only an euraet remains, in Jordanes' GeticlI, published A.D. 55 I, cd. T. Mommsen (MGH, AA 5.1' 1881). C. W:lS minister under Thcod_ crich, king of [he Oscrogorhs, and \vc have [he collcction he m:lde from his official correspondeoce, Variae, ed. T. Mommscn (MGfl, AA Il: Berlin I'}O-J).-A v:lluable study is A. Momigliano, "c. and Itwan Culture of His Time," in his Secondo contributo alla stor;a deg/i studi c1assici (Rome 1960), 191 ff. JOHN MALALAS: edition in the Bonn Corpus of Byzantille HistorUms. For his imperial history sec A. Schenk v. Srauffcnbcrg, Di" römische KaisCTgerchichte bei II-Iala/as (Stuttgart 193 I) . JOHN m· "NTlOCH: Fragments in Müller, FHG IV, 5 3 5 and
V, li.
ßlOGRAPHY: F. Leo, Die griech.-rö1ll. Biographie (Leipzig
1(01); M. Pohlen1. in Gercke-Nordt1l 1.] (cd. 3, 1 924), 171 ff.;
D. E. Stuart, Epochs of Greck and Roman Biography (Berkelcy 19z8). Sec also \V. Srcidlc, SuetQn u. die antike Biographie (Zete7IIata [ , Munieh [950); A. DiMe, Studien Ztlr gricch. Biographie (Ahh. Akad. GÖtlillgen, phil.-hist. Klo, no. 37; 1956). CORNELIUS NEPOS: De viris i/lurtribus ed. Halm (Leipzig [871); cdir.ion wirh commenrary by K. Nippcrdey and K. \:Virte (cd. I I , Berlin 1 Q 1 3); edition wirh Gcrman translation by H. Fär ber, Cornelills Nepor: Kllrzhiogrllphit1l und Fragmente (Munieh
1951).
Tbe SOUTces
u,
eds. Lindskog and Ziegler (Leip zig 1914-1939; vols. 1 . 1 , 1.2 :md 1 . 1 , repr. 1957-196..).-On his rnerhods sec F. Leo, Die griecb.-rö7Il. Biographie (Leipzig U}OI), 146 ff.; on his publication see J. Mewaldr, Herlllf!$ 42 (1907), 564 ff. Gdler studies include: U. \'. \Vilamowiez, "PI. als Biogrnph," in Reden Imd VOrtriige 11 (cd. 4, 1926), 247 ff.; C. Theandcr, "PI. und die Geschichte," Jabresbericbte LUlld (1950/5 1), I ; R. llarrow. Plmarch (l1Id His Time1 (London 1967), which I have not seen. Little was established by scholars' effons, especially in the 19th cenmry, to idcntify Plutareh's sourccs, amI recenr studies in rhar \'cin h:1\'e also been unsatisfactory; cf. the authoritative srudy of E. Meyer, Forsch. z. Alten Geschicb/(' 11 ( 1899), I ff., on rheCimon biogra�hy. Bur a valuable and methodologieally imcresting study is B. Niese, Her11les 3 I (1896), 48 [ tL, on rhe Pyrrhus biography; likcwisc E. Gabba's study of the biographies of Agis and Kleomcnes. AthclIaeulII, n.s. 35 ([957), 3 ff. and 193 tL-Durch schobrs have publishcd a scries of editions of individual biographies with e"ccllcnr comment:l.ries: PYTTlms, cd. A. B. Nederlof (Amsterdam [940); Aratos, cd. \V. P. Theunissen (Nimwegen 1935) and later by A. L. Koster (Lc:iden 1937); Aemilills rau/IIS. ed. C. Liedmeier (Utrecht 1935), etc. SIJETO:"'IUS: Edited by Ihm, editio mi1/or 1908, cd. 1IIajor 1921, now being reprintcd; good edition also hy J. C. Rolfc (LCL: 1914). There is no general commenrary. For bibliography on the individual biographics sec Scba1lZ-Horill1 vm (cd. 3. 19H). 48 ff.; CAH XI, 866. Studits illclude: G. Funaiola, "c. Suetonius Tran quillus," RE IV A, 593 ff.; F. deUa Cortc, 51/el01lio eqUf!1 R(»!wlO (ed. z. Florcnce 1967); F. Grosso, RAL ([959), �6J-:96. On date of composition of thc Lwl'1 sec G. Townscnd, CQ 9 (1959), :85293. An import:J nt work is W. Steidle, 511et011 117/11 die a1llike ßiog_ rapbie (ZeTe1l1iWl [ , Munich 1950); Steidlc rehabilitatcs Suctonius as an hisrorian, and his wurk replaecs Lc:o's:ls fundamental. .\I,\RtuS MAXIMUS: General study: AI. Rosto\'lzeff, "Das Militiirarchiv \'on Dura," MiinclmIT Beiträge :.::. PapymsforscbllTlg '9 ('9304)' 373 «. Ma"imus was poplllar in rhe fonnh eemury A.D., as attested by A11lll1ianus 18+'4; cf. E. Kornemann, Die römische K,1is�'jt ([933), [H; F. MitIßer, RE XIV. 1830 f. SCR\PTOR[S IitSTQRIAE AUGUSTA!>: Editcd by E. Hohl ( : \'015., Ldp;dg 1927; ed. 2, (965). 1\ general cOTllll1cmary. considered neccssary by Mommscn. is STill laeking, bur a gren many mono graphs have bcrn produced. including: J. Schwclldemantl, /)er hÜtor. Wert der Vif
",
Tbc Sourcu
Geschichte deI Kairm Scptimiur SeveTUJ (Heidclberg '9! r ) ; W. Reuseh, Der historircbe Wert der Cllracalla-Vita in den S.b.A. (KliQ, Beiheft Z4; '93 I); E. Hohl, "Vopiscus und die Biogr:aphie des ers Tacitus," Klio 1 1 ([9 [ J ) , '78 tf. Further bibliography is given in E. Hohl, Bursiam Jahresbt!Tichte ' 7 ' (1915), '5 If.; ihid. zoo ( 1 914), 167 ff.; ibid. 156 ( ' 937), 1 1 7 II., as weU as article in Klio 17 (1934), 149 ff., and " Ober die Glaubwürdigkeitder Historia Augusta," SDA W [95'3. 00. z. Study of the SHA really began wirh the fundamenral arcicle of H. Dessau, Herme! I4 ([ 889), 337 H., also ibid. 17 ([ 89%), 561 tf., in whieh he a�ed [hat the work was written by a single person uoder TheodoslUs 11 and rcvcaled its six supposed authors as "swin dlers"; cf. Rorenbcrg, z 3 ' ff. N. Baynes. Tbe HirtOTill Augllsta (O:t ford 19Z6), argued persuasively for a date of composieion under Emperor Julian. He was opposed n i a clever but unconvincing study by W. Hanke, "Geschichtsschreibung und Politik im Rom," Klio, Beiheft 45 ( 1 940), arguing for ehe aUlhorship of ehe younger Nicomachus; see also his leamed book Römische Kinder kaiser (Berlin 1951). Nevertheless. the alternative, "Julian" or "Theodosian," has not been decided yet, though the evidence n i clines to rhe latter and ie has been accepred by A. Alföldi, Kon turnwten (Budapest 1941):]. Strnuh. Studien 'Zur Histari" AT/gtlSt.f (Din. Bem. 1.4, 19P), and Heidnircbe Geschic:htsapologetik in der cbristl. Spätantike (Bonn 1963), with new arguments for a date of i the e:lrly fifth cenrury. An imponant summary of composition n the problem is A . l\lomigliano. "An Unsolved Problem of Hislorical Forg<:ry: the Scriptores Hisroriae Augustae," n i Sec:ondo Contrihuto (Rome 1960), 144 ff., reprinred n i Studies in Historiography (New ished in: York 1966). 143-1 So. Valuable srudies have becn pub l Atti deI Colloqrdo PatQ'tlino mlla Historia Augusta (Rome 1963); Historia-AugtJrta Colloquium, Bonn 1963. e
Kais
his
spätantiken
Tbe SOurcef
"7
i
period being ue3ted as simply a succcssion of biographies of rulers. A similar work is Epitome de Cllcrariblls, ed. F. Pichlmayr and primed with his Aurelius Vieror; it was published in A.D. 395. On all ehese works see W. Hanke, De slleculi IV exeunris bistori11rU1/1 quaestiones (Diss. Berlin 1932). LlFE o�' sr. SEVERINUS (d. A.D. 48l): Ed. T. Mommsen (MGH, AA 1.1, ed. 1, I!'98), M. Schuster (Vienna 1946), and R. NoH (Lim 1947).-This biog-raphy attracred special attention from ehe grc:at culrural historian Jakob Durckhardt ( 1 8 1 8-1897); d. ,. BUTckhardt: Briefe 2. Erkennwis seiner geirrigen Gestalt, ed. F. Kaphahn (Leipzig 1935). 58 and 1 1 7 of the Introducrion, and see also F. Kaphahn, Zwirebt11 Antike und Mittelalter.' Dar Donallal penlalld i111 Zeitalter St. Severilll U.'lunich 1947). For more recent studies sec H. Dicsncr. Wirr. Zeiucbr. d. Martin-Luther-Unrol. Hallc-lVittenberg (GesellsehaflS'Wisr. u. spt""cbwiss. Abt. 7 .6, 1958), 1 1 6 5 ff. mperial
3.
"' Y T B ,
SAGA, FOLKTA L E S
A third branch of tradition is ehe myehic and folk fonns. In
An
tiquiey as in bter periods they contributed to shape the record left by indi\·iduals and cvcnts. Scholars have judged this branch very differemly, dependn i g on their individual thcore[ical premiscs. In general earlier scholars were sceprical, but myth and folkrales h:1\'e l been given more rcspeC[ since [he studies of U. v. Wiamowi tz. and Eduard J\leyer. Rccent research has inparticular directed much interest toward myth. \V. Otto, R. Pettazoni, and G. van der Leeuw have concemed themsclvcs with the relation between myth and hiscory, though horn different points of view. Of course the tendcncy toequate myth and history has dangcTS; hence the oppositc point of view represented by Rudolph Bultmann's insisrence on "de-mythologizing." His work is import:mt, not only for New Testament slUdics. A'lyrh. 5�g:t. and legends �rc fOllnd in [he tnditions of 311 peoplcs. bcginning wich ancient Egyptians and ßabylonians down tO the end of Antiquity, not to mention other epochs and areas. Everyone knows the stones in Gt1/csi$ (eh. 1 1 JT.) about [he "p;nriarchs" Abnham, Isaac, and Jacob. Formerly ehese storics were treated scepcically under the influence of Julius \Vellhauscn and his school, Luc now a midd!e view prevails. Scho!ars reml fO "iew fhe sruries not as ficr;on, but rarhet :lS works \\'fittCll under the influcoce of
,,'
Tbe Sourus
genuine historical mditions, which are in many respects accurate. Thus, for example, the appearance of Hittites in Genesis (23.3 ff.; 16'34; 27_46) corresponds weH with the historical situation, for the prescnce of Hinite groups in Syria c. 1600-IZOO B.C. has bccn coo firmcd, e.g., by the Amarna Tablers of the [4th cenrury; cf. A. Jirku, Geschichte d. Volkes Isrllels ( J 931), 54 ff. Modem schoJars do not, howcvcr, agrec in theie evaluation of the smry of the E.xodus of the Childrcn of Israel from Egypt to the Promiscd Land. J. V. Bekke rath, TI/nis lind Tbcben (Ägyptologische Forsucbungell [6, [95 I), argues that thc saga is bascd on 11 Canaanite tradition horn the Hy !<sos period, and [hat this was adopted by the Isradites. On the mller hand M. Noth, Gerchichte Israels (cd. 4, Gättingcn (959), believes thar in fact some uibes did leave Egype for Palesrine, and ehae ehey later contribmed (Q the fonnauon of the nation of Israel; he idemi fies ehe oppressive Pharaoh as Rameses Ir ( 1 190-1 U 3 B.C.). Posieive views are also maintained by H. H. Rowley, Frolll Joseph to Joshua: SclYweich Lectures /948 (London 1950), 1 1 6 ff., and also in Fest schrift H. Nyb�g (Uppsala 1954), '95 ff. Mythie tradition is espeeially m i portane for the study of early Hellenie history. The Greeks themsdves thought that their earliest history w:u; reflecred in their myths ubout the gods und heroes, and it was because of this that in the 6fth century ß.C. the "logographcrs" collecred the rnyths and cvaluated thern as historical resources. To day 110 one would still deny that the lIiad or ehe saga of the Seven against Thehes has an historical core. The latter records an expedi tion against Thebes hy an Argive king. The lliad is bascd on the W:l.rs oE the Grecks in the Twad in the age oE Hellenie expansion in west ern Asia Minor. Historieal elements include the prcdomin.:mce of Aeolian and Thessalian groups, exemplified in ehe heroic figure of Achilles, and also the hegernony of Argive i\'lycenae, as evidenced i Tray in the position of Agamemnon. Schlicmann's cxcavations n and Mycenae provided the proof that ehe heroie saga, taken as a whole, preserves a rceord of historieal events and conditions, though of course not all details are accurate. In general there is a elose eonnection between ehe centers of Myccnaean culture and the cemers of the heroie sagas of the Grceks, as was csC1lblishcd by the rescarches of M. P. Nilsson. Today no one doubt:S that Greek saga is based on an histOrical tradition, alehough this cannor be demonstr.ned in all insrances. Howevcr, one rnust
Tbe SOUTetS
u,
beware oE uncritically accepting myth and sa� in reconsItucting historjc�l events, a fault in the work of some archeoJogiscs. Ever sinec thc discovcry oE thc Hittitc eric of Cml/Olrbi, and the reeognition that ics mythology paralle!s in some respects that oE Hcsiod's Tbeogony, links between Greck and Oriental mythology ha"c been discussed.43 This is not only a literary problem ; je is of grear historieal importanee, for it concerns the e."tent to which Hc!Jas and thc Orient were in contace. In early Greek historiography :lnd in Ephorus as weil much space
is raken up with elaborate gcneaologics. Thcy are not hascd on genu�
int tradition, hut werc rather thc product of ancient scholarly
conjecrurc; however, thcy are still oE intcrcst, for they tell us how
thc Grceks picrured thcir own past. These genealogies do not repre sem real history, hut a form oE myth, often of markcdly subjecti\'e character. Another. pcculiarity of Greek mythography deserves note
here:
juS[ as the myths often re"eal historieal connections between differ�
ent pcoples and s[:J.tes, as for instance thc saga of Thcseus indicates an early connection between Athens and Crete;" so myth and saga were used continually by the Greeks to suPPOrt polirical claims, and werc even shaped for such purpose. E."amples are found from earliest times to the end of Hellenic independence, and even under Roman domination. The letter oE Speusippus to Philip 11 of Macedonia shows that the political propaganda of that time tendcd to use myrhs to support terrirorial claimsY In general one may say that the critical evaluation of myth and saga is a difficult but valuable srudy which has illuminated important aspecrs of political and culrural history. Thus the immigration of the E1ymi from Asia Alinor to Sicily in the period after the great Aegean migrations (I ZOo-llOO H.C.) has been confirmed by the Acneas saga,"" 3nd similarly the Odyssey seems to give the hisrorical background of the historicaI j ou meys of the Chalcidians c. HO Re. t3H. Gtitcrbock, "Kumarbi: Mythos "om Churritischen Kronos," 1S1�n Imin- Schriflnl ,6 ('946); id"". AJA ('948), ") ff.; A. u,sky. "Gri�chiso::h�r Mythos u. Vord�rcr Orient," S�eculum 6 ('9H), 35 fl. "H. HCrler. �Th=us dcr Ionier," RhM 8s ('936). '77 ff T9! ff.; id�7II. "Gri�chische Gesch. m i Spiegel der Thescu�gc," Antike '7 ('94')' 1"9 ff. 0$ E. Bickemllnn Ind J. S)'kurris. "Spcusipps Brief 3n König Philipp," Ber. Siichnlche Ahd. d. Wiu. So, no. 3 ('918), 10 and 44. .. L. Malten, ARIV 19 (19JI), 13 ff. . •
Tbt Sourr:u to the western Mediterranean-those joumeys which marked the beginniog of the seeond great c:poch of Greek colonization.'· Thc: heroie sagas of thc: Greeks are known to us only from literary SOnrces-the Horneric epies, the dramas, lyrie poecry, and the stories reponed by historians. Bm besides saga, theee existed in Geeece as well as in Rome and the aneient Near East "populae SIories" whieh are pan of tradition, although not the historical tradition in its narrower sense. Popular stories preserve foe us historieal facts, char� acteristics of leading pcrsonalities.. infonnation about historical siru3� tions and events-all enlivened and mixed with anecdoral and fahulous elements. This is especially true in Greek history foe the bmous tyrants aod "aristocrarie lords" of the sevemh and sixth centuries B.C. Men forgot their political significance, hut memory preservcd a rccord of their charactcristics in anecdotal form. Some� times the stodes are transfetred from one person co another, so that historical figures such as Cypselus, Periander, Polyerates, even Peisistratus, and forcigners like Gyges and Croesus, all appeat to us in a historieal twilight in which history and saga are so imennixed that often they cannot be separated. Popular tradition supplied many Storics to Hcrodorus and his eomcmporaries. As a cesult, Ihe hi5lOrian musl srrive 10 avoid rejccting popular tradition as wonhless or, eonverscly, to use it as thc basis for an historieal aecoum; either course would be mistaken. Ir is useful for the scholar to know what people said ahoue Pausanias, the vietor at Plataea, or ahout Miltiades and Themistocles. 1l1e5e tales reveal, as it were, the impression which these grut men Icft in the memories of their fellow counrrymen. Similarly the caricarurc of Socrates which Aristophanes gives in his Clouds is not only funny hut also revealing, for ie shows how a contemporary poet regarded Socrares, and the historian must set this beside the idealized portrait left us by Plato and Xenophon. Sinee the invention of the printing press modem man has not i general tO Trust wrinen re\ied mueh on his memory, and we tend n rarher than oral tradition. Ir was different in Antiquity. For that reason the traditions concerning early Roman history are not tO be suspeeted simply bccause thcy are "only" oral, as was argued hyper crirically by E. Pais, E. Kornemann, and others. Examples frorn the world of the Scandinavian peasantry have been cited by Manin •• \V. Sch,dew,ldr, "Homer und sein J,hrhundcrr," Das l1nle Bild 41fT
Antike ,
("l41),4' ff.
Tbe Sourcu
Nilsson to show an extraordinary tenaciry in prescrving memory of historical events. FurtherOlDre, many storics have Ix:en passed on from gr:mdfather to grandson, so d1at ohen a generation is skipped and the chain of transmission is shoner than might at fin;t appear. In panicular the traditions of the great Roman families preserved a great number of facts, although of course they were not studied as historical records unril after they had becn rejecTed for a long time as "mere" anecdotcs. That is ttue, for example, of the story 300ut the strict Roman dictator, A. Postumius Tubertus, who supposedly sentenced his own son to be executed beca,use he had disregarded an order and engaged n i single comhat. This story, told hy Diodorus (1 1.64) :md Livy (4.29), has ofren been referred to as a legendary example of tradi tional Roman !eveT"itaJ, and its core is in fact a kind of saga. Its back ground is the fundamental change in Roman military institutions which cestllted from the introduction of hoplite tactics: in place of the reckless wamor fighting in single combat carne rhe Stricrly disciplined pha[aIL"t in which every memlx:r had his appointed place. Thus the Story :1hout PostumiU5 Tubenus and his son gives valuable hislDrical information aOOm the transition period when hoplite rac ties had been inrroduced but werc still on occasion ignorcd. As a final example we may eite an illuminating "family legend" from archaie Rome. Tradition recounts dut after the Romans suffered a dcfcat ar the Cremen River (c. 477 B.C.) the gens Fabill assumcd the burden of tbe war on its own, :md then lost all its able bodi�d men, 306 in all, in a batde: with the: EtnI5cans. Man)' have labcle:d [his as nothing more than a saga, but ir has been righdy ar gued that this Story is nothing less than a sag�! The: batde: of Cremera River took place a time when the Roman army was recruited from the great clans and their dients. The Story of the Fabii iIluminarcs Roman military institutions as they were before th� introduction of cc:nturia organizarion and hoplite tactics. This example indicates how advisable it is to study the tradition of earli�r Roman history with an open mind, even those stories which rest: only on oral tradition. Our knowledge of [he earlier pe riods of Greek and Roman history fC5ts in !arge pan on the archc ological monuments, and only in rare cases docs this allow us to control the literary tradition. Be:cause of [his situation it is berrer to approach the: tradition with a positive attitude rather than with scc:pricism:Uld destrucnve: criticism.
TIM SOUTces
BIBLIOGRAPHY For Egypt see, among recent wocks., S. Schott, "Mythe und Geschiclue," lahTb. d. Ak4d. M4im (1954), l43-166; tor Meso i der potamia see F. de Liagre Böht, "Mythos u. Geschichte n altbabylonischen Dichrung," Opera Minora (Groningen 1953), 217
ff.
Historical srudy of Greek mythology began wich C. 0. Müller, Orcholllenos und die Min]er ( 1 810), Die Dorier (1814), and Prolegomena ztj einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie ( 1 815). Ro man myths were first evaluated by B. G. Niebuhr, Rihniscbe Ge schichte (1 \'ols., 1 8 1 1-1812). MüUes's worlu served a valuable funccion in [heir time, but they are in mmy respeers vitiated by a subjective approach. More reccndy research methods in the field have betn furthcred by the work of admirable scholars like H, Usener, U. v. Wilamowitz, earl Robert, Ed, Meyer, and M. P. Nilsson. Today two schoois prevail: the ethnological, most cmi nenrly represented by Nilsson; and the theological, represemed by \V. Ouo and K. Kerenyi. See, for example, Ouo's Die Götter Griecbenlands ([919), Dionysor (1933); also R. Pettazoni, Miti e Jeggende (Turin 1948), and Mytbe, Merucb lind UlIM.I.'elt (ßam berS '950); G. v,m der Leeuw, "Die Bedeurung der Mythen," in Festrchrift , . . Bertbo]"t (Tübingen 1950), 189 {f, For R. Bult mann's [heories see his Nellcs Teftalllent ulld Mythologie (cd. 1, Tübingen 1958) .-An historical survey of the older research is gillen by 0, Gruppe, "Gesch. d. Klass. Mythologie während des l\Iittelaltcrs in Abendland und während der Neuzeit," Roschers Mytbolog.-Lexikon, Erg.-Band (Leipzig 1 9 1 1 ) . All srudy of Greek mythology requires use of ehe relevant articlcs in Roscher and RE and also the indispensable handbook oE L. Preller, GTiecbi$cbe Mythologie I (cd. 4 by C. Roben, 1894) and 11, rewrirren by Carl Roocrt and published under the tide Die griechiscbe Heldensnge (Berlin 19:0-1916: the index still is lacking) . A useful work is the brief surlley by H. J. Rose, Haudbook of Grel!k Mythology (Lon don [928); also valuable, cspecially for nsc of modem folklore ma terial, is L. Radennacher, Mythol 1lnd Sage bei den Griechen (ed. 2, Vienna 1943). See also J. Bayet, "L'etude des legendes dans b methodologie Je l'histoire ancienne" in his Ate/anges de la litrerature latillc (Rome 1967), 319-150, OTHER GUIDF.s:
Römer,"
JATV n9
F. Pfister, "Die Religion der Griechen und
(1930), especially pp. [46 /I., ncludes i an ntro i
duction on compararive religion and a bibliognphy of srudies during 1918-1930•
Tbc SOUTCeJ Archi-", für Religio1/.Swisse7Ischaft (1898 ff.) is an important Also suggestive for thc historian is thc series Religionsge schichtliche Versuche und Vorarbcite71, founded by A. Dieterich and R. Wünsch (Giessen '903 tI.). ;\IYTH, 5AO ..., AND H1STORY: Of older srudies Sagwirremchaft liche Studien by v. Hahn (Jena 1876) ShODld be menrioned and, aoove alJ, U. v. Wilamowin's works: Euripides' Heral.!lel (cd. 2, 1909); "Die griech ische Heldensage," SPA W 1915, 41 ff., 1 1 4 ff.; Der Gll1:ube der Hellenen (Berlin 193 [-[932). Valuable too are the works of Manin Nilsson: Tbe Mycentteall Orignls of Greek Mytb ology (Berkeley [932); Homer tmd Mycenae (London 1933); and his discussions n i Geschichte der griechischen Religion I (cd. 3. Munich 1961), 14 tI., and in Clllu, Myths, Grades, /lud Politiet in A71ciem Greece (Lund [95 [ ) ; also wocks by bis students: S. Solden;. Die mIJSerstiidtischen Killte und die Ei7ligrmg Attikas (Lund [93'); K. Hanell, Megtrrircbe SlIIdie71 (Lund 1934). Imeresting hut very Thc
journal.
hypmhetical is A. W. Pen;son, "Legende und i\Iythos n i ihrem Vcrhältni.� zu Bild und Gleichnis im vorgeschichtlichen Griechen land," Ferzrchrift . . . Nilsson (Lund 1939), 379 ff. Italian schobn; pcn;istemly foUow the srrongly negativc attitude of K. J. Beloch toward the historical element in Greek myth, as in A. Gitri, Mythos:
La rradizio7le pTl'sforiogr>1jiea de/la Grecia (Smdi Bllresi I, Ban 1949) ·
Still fundamcntal for all mntters rclating to ancicnr reli�on and mythology is 0. Gruppe, Grieeh. Alytbologie fI. Rellgiomge
schichte (in Müller [�Iunich 1906 ] ) ; it has bcen replaced only n i part by thc new standard work of M. Nilsson, Gerehiehfe d. 81. Religion (1 \·ols., in Miiller).
Compared with Greek myth and saga that of the Romans is much less devcloped anti also less studied. From the first it was influenced by Greek trndition and thercfore was much infiltrated by foreign clements. Niebuhr's negative verdict on the trndicion of early Ro man history was long dominant, until at last historical criticism of Roman S:lga was dcveloped. The way was opcncd by A. Schweglcr. Rämirche Geschic/Jle (3 vok, ,8S1-.8SS). Rcc<"ntly outsnmding work among Germall scholars has becn done by F. Altheirn, Rö mircbe Religio7lsgesebiebte (3 vols. in Satlmdung Gösc/)ell, [9,[ [933), and Italien find Rom (z vols., Amsterdam [94[)' For laIe Antiquity see N. Lukman, "Der historische \Volfdietrich (llICodo rieh d. Grosse)," elassiea Cf MediaC'lla/ia 3 (1940) z5 3 tI.; 4 ([94[ ) ,
, ff.
!'OPULAR TRAOIT10l": Sec 1\1 Nilsson, "Ober die Glaubwür digkcit dcr Volksüberlieferung, mit besonderem Bezug auf die Alte
".
Tbc Sourus
Geschichte," Opuscula stlecta rr (I9P), 8r6 1f. On anciem stories sec B. Erdmannsdörfer, "Das Zeitalter der Novelle n i Griechen� land," PrNw;scbe JahrbiicbtT 15 (1870), 111 H., 18) tI., published sepmtely (Berlin 1870) and repr. in Kleinere birtor. Schriften II, ed. H. Lilienfein; W. My, Volkwlircbrn, SI/ge und Novelle bei Herodot und semen Zeitgenossen (Göttingen 1911); E. Berhe, Märchen, Sage, Mythos (Leiprig (911), reviewed by W. Otto, DLZ (1914), 3 15 ff.
__
v
__
The Monuments
By "monuments" wc mean a11 thc material rcmains oi Anriquiry,
all that is 00[ pan 01 the written cradition. Today that indudes an
enormous nJ2SS of information, c\'cn though thc careful srudy of ancicnt sires has been pursucd fot less than a cenrury. Individual bwldings and the sires of emire citics, works of an, originals as weil :as copies, lnd objccrs used in daily life-they can an tell thc historian something, dcpending on the quescions he has in miod whcn srudy ing chern. Ho\Vc\'cr, not even archcologists can maSter aU thc remains of Antiquity or keep up wirh thc additions ro knowledge canstandy being made. For [his reason it is thc more imponant for hisrorians [0 realize the extem of the material avaiJable :md to know the im porrant aids fot thcir study. Most notewonhy of the monumems are rhose created co glorify historical evenrs or pel1ionalirics. Examplcs are the reliefs of the temples in Der-el-Bahari and Karnak frorn the age of the XVIIIth dynasty, the accoum of the expedition of Queen Hacshepsut tO (he Land of Pum with pierures of forcign animals and plants in Der-el Bahari,' and the picrur<:S in Karnak of the booty won by Thutmose 111, the great conqueror, in his Syrian campaigns. Historical monu ments in the narrower sense are the baule reliefs of Scti l and IUmeses TI; there are five represemarions of the batde of Kadesh berween Egypti::ms and Hittites, c. 1 194 B.C! 111c strugglcs con ncC{ed with the migration of thc Sea Peoples reaehed the coases of Egypt, and are rcAccted in thc pierure of a sca bank betwecn Egyptians and Philistines on thc temple walls of Medinet Habu, 1 H,mdbuch der Archäologie I, Tafdband, figure 88, J. I\V. 'Vresrinski, At/ar z. allägyptirchc Kulmrgetch
phtes '6-1$,96-'<.>6.
'"
11 (Leipzig '915).
Tht Monumt71ts
,
"
a picrure which no written descripcion, however colorful, could eqt1�I." Valuablc insights into thc culture and life of ancicm Mcsoporamia may be drawn from its monuments. Thc vicrory monument of Na ramsin of Akkad (c. 2300 a.C)· is an impressive pierure of a tri umpham king 2r thc hcad of his forces pursuing thc dcfeated foe. despite the ncomplete i stare of the monumem-or, perhaps, because of it. Assyria has lefr no rt'presentations more impressive than its pierures of battlcs and hunts; thefe is nothing comparable in ancient art, except in S�nian. Evcryone who srudies these pierures will undetstand thc frighdul dread which the Assyrians inspired in thc peoplcs of thc Near L1st. The relief of the Assyrian king Sanherib, showing the expulsion of thc inhabitants of Lachis in Judaea," shows more clearly than oould words the miscry of innocent pcople (ef. l Kingr 18.14) on whom war has burst n i a11 its fury; compare the impressive description in lfl1iab 1.7 tr. An example of historical pierures from the Greek world is the bmous Alexander Mosaic, found in the House of the Faun in Pom peii and now in [he National Museum of Naples. Ir is based on an original by Philoxenus, an artist from Eretria of the age of the Diadoehi, and it portrays-almost eertain!y-a turning point in world history, the eonfronration of Darius III und AIexander at the batde of Issus (333 B.C.); the Persian king gazes wirh terror at Alexander charging ar hirn with lan� in hand. Kar1 justi eompared this pierure with Velasque--t.:'s SIITTr11der of Breda; in boch, he says, an historical event is humani7.:cd by focusing on its eentral emotion. Goethe saw a picture of the mosaie after its discovery n i 18)1 at Pompeii and admired it gready, and it is in facc an outstanding example of Hel lenistie historieal 3rt. Nothing sinuhr to this wonderful mosaie is known tO us from Roman art, even though great deeds were often glorified in Rome in metal or stone. Aemilius Paulus erected a monument to commemo� flIte his defeat of Pen;eus at Pydna (168 B.e), and fragments of it are preserved ar Delphi with scenes of [he hartle, but they would mcan nothing to us were ir not for lirerary sources. The same is true for the eolumns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius in Romc, though 3 Ne!!iOn, Mrdinrt Habu (Chicago 193<» , plues H ff
•
Handbucb dn- Arcbiolog;e I, Tafelbond. plate '+•. I A. Jirku, Dir Welt drr Bibd (1957), pbcc 9'.
•
Tbe Monumenu they are valuable archcological commcntarics on the Dacian and Marcom:mni wars and give us much infonnation on the weapons, tactics, and sicgecraft of thc Romans in the Antonine agc. Similarly the many Roman rriumphal arches crected in Ttaly and the prov n i ces' with thcir historical figures are m i porrant sanrces. The great suugglc uctwccn the Roman and Sassanid empires is represented for us in the relief of Naqsh-i-Rustam which Sapor I set up tO mark his victory over Valerian in A.D. 160.7 These notcs must suffice as a suggestion oE the importancc oE monuments. Ir is regreuable that we do not YCf have an illustratcd atlas for hisrorians which would gi\'c a survey of the most important monuments. Howcver, the monuments providc more than lilustrations. Adolf Schulten's excavations in Numantia in northern Spain, for example, have greatly increased our knowledge of Roman military institutions during the Republic. Twd\'c Roman legionary camps were un cO\'ered, seven of them from the campaign of Scipio Aemi!ianus' siege of Numancia in !34-!33 H.C. Hc surrounded the city with a nmpart eight kilometers long which connected the camps and i5O lated the city. The mher livc camps were found on a hili cast of Numantia, and one of them is thc two-legion camp layed out by Fulvius Nobilior in I n Re and dcscrihcd by Polybius as a typical examplc. Study of the Roman Empire's border policies is primarily based on analysis of the limiter (plural of limes, "fromier"). The limes be nvecn the Rhine and Danube has been the subject oE a most thor ough examination, the rcsults of which arc gi\'en in a monumental work edited by E. Fabricius, Der Obergl?Tm,misch-riitische Limes der Römerreiches. This work is fundamcma! fOT our knowlcdge of colonizarion :lnd cultural relations between Romans :tnd Gennans In general the monuments are most important as historical sources for thosc cpoch� for whieh a cohcrent lircr�'Y trndition is not exunt. aud this is tnle ahave a11 for the early hisrory of the �lediterrancan :lrea. Since Cretan :md Cypriote cannot yet be read, we are primarily ucpendem on the monuments. Of the worb which use specialized srudies to fonn an hisrorical picrure of the epoch, one in particular deserves mention: Diedrich Fimmel!, Die CTetiich-1IIykmische Klll_ .
• H. KäMet. RE VII A, 173 ff. fF. Sarre, Dir Krmsr dtr altrn Persim (Bcrlin 1911), figures 74-'}5.
Tb� Momnnmll
1924). 1t shows the ways in which archeology uses darable foreign objects, especi211y Egyptian, tO fix the chronology of the levels of native culmres in Crete and Hel las. The history of these areas is still subject to debate, and the euly history of Italy is even more unsetrled at this time. Ir is thetefore important tbat the student of Antiquity form a general pieture of these periods as a basis for evaluaring the conclusions of currem research. One can also regard ancient eiries 3S historical monuments, and m:my sites have been brought tO light by modem excavations.1 For a long time the Campanian town of Pompeii was a unique example of an early imperial city, and even today it has a special imponance because its ruins give us a view of 600 years of life n i ancient haly. However, since 1875 systematic excavarions have rcvealed a series of eiues: Osoa in Latium, Thugga and Timgad in Africa, Leptis Magna n i Tripolitania, Cyrene in Cyrenaica, and Ephesus, Milerus, Pergamum, Priene, Cnidos, and many others n i Asia Minor. Since 1950 French excavaoons under Louis Roben in the sacred area of Clarus near Colophon have greatly enlarged our knowledge about the famons orade. Also of great intercst are the excavarions at the great nccropolis of Spina in the Po valley, the numerous discoveries, of which only a part cauld be published, have revealed the inrer relation of Greek and Etrusc:m culrures. On the Euphrates excava dons wert undertaken jointly by the Academie des Inscriptions er Beiles Lettrcs of Paris and Yale University at Dura-Europus. a Hellenistic city founded in the age of thc Diadochi, which reached its grcatest prosperity under the Roman and Panhian empires. These few examples. chosen from hundreds, n i dicate that arche ology is juSt beginning to uncover hidden ue3sures. Moreover tbere are still only a lew definitive publications of a panicular sire. Rarely is the extem of a city so forrunarely limited as in the C:ISe ol Assur, the history of which can be traced to thc third cenrury AD. At one ume archeologists thought it beneath rhili digniry to cancern themsdves with simple objects of the so-called "material culrure." They conceived their mission as J'2ther excavation of tem pies and shrines like the Mausoleum of Halicamassus or the Didy maion of Miletus, of royal palaces, baths, gymnasia, theaters, and palaestrae. This atrirude. however, has long been discarded. Every tur, ed. 1 by G. Karo (Leipzig,
I
A. v. Gerkan, Gritch;$cbc Städrtm/Ggtn (Berin l '9'4).
Tbe Monuments
'"
student of ancient economic history, for example, muse concern himself with the rcmains of ancienr harbors, \'illas, and farms, and muse bc able tO evaluate graveSIQneS, wor1es of applied an, eanhen Wart: (terra sigillara), day bmps, the wall paincings in Crimean gt'lIves, the floor mosaics of Nonh African cities, and many orher objects of similar historical significance, Michael Roseovtzeff made use of a massive amount of such archeological material in his studies of I-Icllenistic and Roman civiJizations, and as a resulr his works g1ve us thc fullest and mos t immediate picture of Antiquiry c\'er aehieved by scholarship. In Heinrich Schliemann's time archeologisrs hastily plowed through the upper strata as "worthless" in order to reach the oldest, but this has long ceased. Now archeologists methodically study elch stratum and gi\'e each cpoch the :memion ir desen'es; the leading German represemarives of this approach are W, Dörpfc!d and Th, "Viegand. Thus whilc the 19th-cenrury excavations in J'I'lesoporamia were primarily concemed ,�ith the older strata, the recent excava dons in Hatra, Ctesiphon, Seleucia on the Tigris, and the Caliph's residence of Samara, nonh of Babyion, have been pursued to illumi nate more reeem periods, from Helleniscic w Arabian times. In general, no other study has contnbured as much as archeology to expand thc horizon of :mcient h15wnans, Excavations and research are being pursucd from one end of the oecum�ne to the mher, from Spain and Briuin to Chorasmien (Toprak Kaie), Turkcstan, and India (Begum, Taxila, Arikamcdu ncar Pondicherry). Mcthodol ogy has been refined rhrough careful attention tO srratigrophy, and for more than twenty years air photography has been uscd to 3id research, as for example in rhc study of the Syrian 1i1ll1!$ and the FQSSaNl111 Af,.icae,� Another ne\\' field has ueen opened up by ullder� water archeology, pursued wich succcss espccially off the coasts of southem F1'lInce and ltaly. 1t 15 therefore not surprising thar sysrem :nie srudy :md historie�l interpretation eannot keep pace with the r:tpidly increasing m:lSS of material. Nevenhdess, no student of Antiquity will content himself wirh srudy of the written sources; no poet or historian can tell of the greamess of the Roman Empire as eloquently or impressh'dy as the amphitheaters, barhs, aqueduccs, highways, and {rontier walls,
'R. Che"allicr, in t/Uda arcbiologiq!ln (&:olc pratique des H3Utes trudes: P:uis 1963)' 1) ff., with good illustrations.
The Monumenu
" 0
Similarly the Acropolis of Athcns and the S3cred precincIS of Delphi and Olympia bear wimess tO the essence of classical Grccce, as da the pyramids :tnd ttmples for the ancicnt Ncar East. "Whatevcr eise may bc changed there will always rcmain cerrain memorials, the foundations and fragments of the immortal citits and (herr monu ments." (8. G. Nicbuhr, letter of July 18, 1797.) B/BL/OGRAPHY GENERAL: There is 110 guide to :mcient monuments for the historian. \V. Duo stan:ed a "Handbook of Archeology" within thc scries Hll1ldbuch d�r AltCTtu11lPWissenrchaft. Befare lUs dearh in '94' only t he fiffi[ volume ('939) had appearecl. gi\'ing a good in troduction TO thc monuments of ancient Egypt and the Near East; its aurhon include A. Scharif, W. Andrac, :tnd C. Wattinger. Publi cation of this h:mdbook is [0 be continued. In accord:mce with the format of the HaT/dbuch the material is an discussed, covering archi reerute, fine ans, and dccorativc arts; the objeetive is to give a com p lete picrure of each eulmre, and this is achieved panieularly well by \V. Andrae for Mesoporamia on the basis of a new system of classifying the material. At presem a new edition is in press, edited
by U. Hausmann. Also v:l.luable is G. Comenau, Manuel d'archeologie orientale (4 vols., Paris 1911-1947), and the review oi research by K. Schefold,
11. Rom n i der IfT'chiiol. FOTIchuT/g seit /939 (Bern 1949). Much material s i available in J. Pritehard, The Ancie1lt Near East in Picmres Relating to the Old Tertalllem (Prineeton 1954); and, wirh recent bibliogl'Jphy, ET/cicloprdia delf arte antica, cllmica e oriemale, cd. F. Bäum (Rome 1958-1966) .-On methodology
Orient, Hellas
see. e.g., Sir I'\Iornmer 'Vheeler, Moderne Archäologie: Methoden, Technik der Allfgrabrmg (Hamburg 1960). y pt: His MOl'OGRAPHS ox A'SCIEXT MOl<.'UMEl'.'TS: (I) Eg torians will find useful aud accessible the collection of illustrations added as a supplement to J. Breasted, Gerch. Ägyptens, 0'. H. Ranke (Vicnna 1936). Other excellent works are: W. Wolf, Die Kumt Ägyptens; Gestalt 1/. Geschichte (Srun�IT 1957); K. Lange aud
1'\'1. Hicmcr, Ägypten: Arcbitekt1lr, Plllrtlk, Malerei in drei Jahrtau senden (Munieh 1967); J. Vandier, Ma111ld d'archeologie egypti enne, not yet completed (Paris 1952-).
i formative are the works of Andre ( 2 ) Mesopotamia: Especially n Parrot, SU11Ier (Munich 1960) and Assur (Munich 1961) in [he 5( ries UT/iversum der Kumt; also the work of Eva Strommenger and
The Momnnrnts
,"
M. Hirmcr, 5 Jahrtausende Mesopotl11/1im (Munich 196:), with many fine illustrations. (3) Asia Minor: T. Bossen, AnaM/ien: Kumt 11. Handwerk in
Kleinasim V01I de71 Anfängm bis �11ll t."ölligen aufgeben in die griech. KulNtT (Beelin 1941); E. Akurgal, Die Kunrt Anlltoli('1/s von Homcr bis Ale:ttmdcr (Berlin 196[). (4) Iran: H. v. d. Osten, Die Welt der Perrcr (Stuttgarr [957); E. F. Schmidr, Persepo/is I: SmlCturcs, Reliefs, Imcript;om (Chica
go 1953) ; " (Chieago 1957) deals with monumental eonstruerions; K. Erdmann, Die K1l11ft Iran; 'ZM Zeit der Sasaniden (i\'lainz 1943). <s) Crctc: Sir Arthur Evans, Tbe l'alace o( Müws at Knorsos (4 vols. and index, London 1911-1936); T. Bossert, Altkreta: Kunst u.
Handwerk in Griecben/and, Kreta 11. in der Aegäis von den A1/fän� gen bis Zllr EisC1l':.eit (ed. 3, Berlin 1937), with referenccs to writ� tcn sources; F. Matz, Kreta, Mykene, Trojol (ed. 1, Stuttgart (956). (6) Greeec and Romc: A. v. Salis, Die KII1IJt der Griechen (cd. 1, Leipzig '922); A. Springer, Die Kfl1llt der Altertu1lls, cd. P. \Nol tcrs (cd. I Z , Leipzig 1923); G. Rodcnwaldt, Die Kumt des Alter� tu1/lS, in Propy/iie1J-Kf/1wgeschicbu TJJ (cd. 4, 1917); E. Strong, Ar t in Ancient R01Jlc (1 vols., ed. 1, London 1930); A. Rumpf, "Griechische u. rum. Kunst," in Gercke-Nordm 11.3 (cd. 3. Le[P zig [93 [ ) ; \V. Schuchhardt and \-\1. Technau, Gesebicbte der KUllst: Altert1l1fl (Berlin [940); G. Lippold, Die gril.'cb. Plastik, in Ndb. er A;rcbäologie, fase. 5 (1950); A. Rumpf, Malerei u. Zeic�ung, . In rbrd., fase. 6 (1953); H. Berve, G. Gruben, and M. Hlrmcr, Griechische Tcmpe1 u. Heiligtiimer (Munich [961); H. Kähler, Rom u. seine Welt (1 vols., Munich 1958-1960), with ffi3ny illll'l
�
tration� and comments (hucon, but without referenccs [0 studies. (7) Etruscans: P. Ducati, Storia deli' arte emlscrl (2 vols., Flor enee 1917); B. Nogara, Gli EtrUSci dorn civilta (Milan 1933); G. Q. Giglioli, L'arte etTIIsca (Milan [935); K. Pfister, Die Etrwker (Mu nich [940), wich admirable illustrations, but che text is OUt of d3te; P. J. Riis, An lntroduction 10 Etr1llcan Art (Copenhagen 1953). (8) Eastem Frontier Regions: A. v. LeCoq, AUf He/lasSpllren in Of/l1Irkelfll1l ('913)' ::md n ildcrlfflns zur Kunst 11. Kf/1turgerchichfC Mittel<1fiens (1915); A. Ippel, "\Verkungcn griechischer Kuntt in Asien," Alte Orient 39, nos. 1-1 (Leipzig 1940). REVIEW o�' ARCHF.oWGICAL DISCO\'ERIES: A. Michaelis, Die trrchiiologischen Emdeckllngen der '9. Jahrhunderts (cd. 1, Leip ug 1908); F. v. O ppcln-Bronikowski, Archäolog. Emdeckllngen im 20. JnbTbtmdert (Bcrlin 1931); Neue deutsche Awgra[nmgen ;m Mittelmurgebiet und im Vordf!Tm Orient, cd. E. Boehringer (ßer lin 1959-), continuing. Of monographs on individual arcas the fol-
Thc Monuments
lowing dcscrvc nore: R. G. Collingwood, Tht Archae% gy of RoBritain (London 1930), and Roman Britain (cd. 3, Oxford 19H); A. Greniu, Manucl d'rrrchl% gic gl7l1o-roml7me (3 vols., Paris 1931-1958); F. Stählin, Die Schweiz in der rÖm. Zeit (cd. 3, Basel 1948); A. Schober, Die Römerzeit in Österreich (cd. 1, Badcn [Austrial 1953); A. W. Byvanck, Nederland ill den rumeinsehen tijd (2 vols., Leiden 1943); A. Garcia y Bellido, Hispania Graeca (3 vols., Barcelona 1950); C. \Vatzinger, Denkmäler Palästinas (1 vols., 1933-1935); A. Jirku, Die Ausgrl7bungen in Palästina u. Sy rien ( Halle 1956). Among thc many cxcavation rcports the follow ing are especially useful for thc historian: E. Unger, Baby/on: Die heilige Stadt (Berlin 193 I ) ; M. Schcde, Die Ruinen von Priene (Ber lin and Leipzig [934); K. Bitte� Die Ruinen von Bogazköy, der Hauptstadt der Hethiterreichel (Berlin and Leipzig (937); L. Vin cent and M. Src\'c, lerllSalem de fAnden Testament (4 vols., Paris 71um
1954-1956). ARCHEOLOGY
ANO HISTORY: G. Körte, Archäologie 11. Ge schichtS"Wissenschaft (Göningen 191 I ); G. Rodenwaldt, "Das Erleb nis der Geschichte in der griechischen Kunst," Forschungen '1. Fortschritte (1943), 90 Ir. MO:-;'OGRAl'HS: EGYl'T: E. Na\'illc. The Temple of Dcir-cl Baho1Ti (vols. J-4, London 1898-19(1); Jcquicr, L'architecmre et la decoration dans fanden Bgypte: Les temples melllphites er the haines I (Paris (910), plate 47 (Karnak). ALEXA!'OER MOSAIC: F. \Vinter, Das Alexll1Idermosaik aus Pompeji (Strasburg 1909); 1. Curnus, Die Wandmalerei Pompejis ( 1 91 9) : p. 313: "the most royal pierure in the world." See also H. Fuhnnann, Philoxenos von Eretria (Göttingcn 1931), reviewcd by A. Ippel, Gnomon (1934), 79lf. COLUMS 01" TRAJAS: C. Cichorius, Die Reliefr der Trajans riiule (Berlin 1896--1(00); E. Petersen, Trajanf dakischer Krieg (Leipz-ig r899-190t); A. v. Domaszewski., "Die Dakerkriege Tra jans 3ufden Reliefs der Säule," Philologlls 6S (1906), p i lf.; K. Lehmann-Hartleben, Die TrajanHiiule (Berlin 1916). COLUMS 01" MARCUS AURELlUS: E. Pctcrscn, A. v. Domaszew ski and G. Calderini, Die Markussiillle auf PiilZz.tJ Colom/II in R011l (Munich 1896); W. Zwikker, Studien :1;. MarkuHäule I (Amstcr dam 1941); C. Caprino, M. Colin� et al., La colO1ma di MllTco Au relio (Rome 1955). NUMAlItTlA: Fundamental work: Adolf Schulten, Numantia (4 vols., Munich 1914-1919), and his brief synthesis, Geschichte v. Numantia (Munich 1933). LIMES STUDIES: The outstanding Gennan work is Der ober-
Tbt Momrmtnts
'"
gtrm.miscb-rätiscbt Limes des RömerTtic!Jes,
noted in the text; its hsr fascidc (No. 56.�) appcarcd in '918; thc work W:lS cdi ted by F. Hctmcr, 0, v, Sarwey, and thcn E. Fabricius alonc, and indudes fourreen volumes ( ,894-'938). For sUfveys of the field see E. Fabricius, Die Entstebung der rÖ1IIiscbe11 Limes-anlagen (Trier 1902 ) ; his comprchensive articlc "Lim�" RE XIII (19�6), 571 fr., which discusses other fronriers; and \V. Schleiermacher, "Der ober germanische Limes u, s pätrömische 'Vehranlagen 3m Rhein," 33. Be riebt d, RÖ1II,-Genll. X.ollmtission 1943-195° (195'), 133-184. Syria and Mesopollf7llia: A. Poidebard, La trace de Rome da1lS le dbm de Syrie: Le li1llel de Trajan d la conqucte arabe: Rechercbcs l1erie1mes (/915-1931) (Paris '934); wich chis sec ,:V. Ensslin, SBA W '94', no. ,, 66 ff., on Diocledan's Eastern policies. Africa: J. Baradez, FOHatu11l Africae: Recbercher abiennes SUT fOTga7lira tion deI confins sabllTiens d Npoque romaine (Paris [949).-On srudy of Roman frontiers, see: eougress of Romall Studies /949 (Oucham '952), cd. E. Birley; Cr1T1JUntitta (Rö1II. ForscbungeTI in NiederöstITTeich 3, ed. E. Swoboda (Gr.l7. 1956). EARLY IIISTORY OF nn� MEDITERRANEAN AREA: A new com prehcnsive accounr is givcn by fascidc 4 of thc Hdb. der Arcbäo logie ( ' 950), with articles by O. Menghin, F, Matz, and G. v. Kaschnitz-Weinberg. A useful introduction is J. Wiesner, Vor- tl.
Frühzeit der Mittclm�eTländeT (Sallnlllll1lg Göschen , 149-1 'So, Bcrlin 1943). For European implications a fundamental although one-sided work is C. Schuchhardt, Alteuropa (ed, 3, Berlin and
Leipzig [935). Admirable wo are F. i\tan, "Griechische Vorge schichte," Neue Bild. d. Antike 1 ('941). ' 3 tr., and Kreta, Mykene, Troja (ed. I, Srungart 19S6), wich excdlent illustrations. LASTERN MEDITERRANEAN: ':Vorks useful to the historian in dude: G. Karo, Die Scbachtgriiber 'Von Mykenai (Munich '9301933), and "Mykenische Kulrur," RE, Supp. VI ( 1 935), 584 tr. Karo's artide "Kreta," RE XI ('9U), '743 ff.t has been rendcrcd partly out of date by subsequent research, J. Pendlebury, Tbe Ar chac10gy of CUle (London 1939), gi\'cs a useful synthcsis of archeo IogicaI discovcrics on thc ;sland. Scc also F. Sch"chcrmcyr. Dj" ä/ter_ ten Kulturen Griecbenl.mds (Sruttgart 1955); and "Prähistorische Kulruren Griechenlands," RE XXII (1954), 1350--1548, wirh full rcferences to the sources.-For Troy the reference work is now the largc new eXC3vaclon seport of the Amcricans under C. W. Biegen, Troy (4 vols., Princeton and Oxford 1950--1959}.-French CXC3V3clons since 1919 at Ras Shamra, rhe ancient Ugarit, of cuneifonn texts, 1 I km. north of Laodicea in northern Syria, have revealed a new ceurer of culrure and commercc in the eastern Mediterranean
'J4
Tbe
Momrmrntr
which was in dose roman wirh Crere :md Greece. Fo� this see especially C. F. SchacHer, "Oie Stellung Ras-Schamra-Ugarits zur kretischen u. mykenischen Kultur," }DAl 51 (1937), 1]9 fr" and Ugaritica (3 vak, Paris 1939-1956); C. Gordon. Ugttriric MamtltJ, (3 vols.• AlIaJrctQ Orientalin. 35; Rome 1955). Excavation repom; have been published in the journal Syria (Paris) sinee 19I9. Cf. O. Eissfcldt, " Die Bedeutung der Funde von Ras Schamra für die Gcsch. des Altertums," HZ 168 (1943),457 tL-On Asia Minor see the excellent work of K. Bittei, Gnmd'Ziige der VOT- 11. Friibge schichte Kleinasiem (cd. z, Tübingen 1950)' WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN: Ttaly's tarl y hisrory, much dis cussed recemly, is surveyed by F. Man, NJA (1938), )67 ff" )85 ff., and (1939), F ff. Italian scholars have 50ught tO minimize the signincance of "Nordic" migrations; cf. G. Patroni, La Preistoria (Mi l an 1937; cd. z, 1951). The fundamental work in this theory ridden ncld was F. v. Duhn, Italische Gräberkundr, 1 vols., vo!. 1 edited by F. I\Ies:serschmidr (HeiJelberg 1924-1939). See now F. Messerschmidt, Br01l"..ezeit 1/. friihr Eisr7lzcit in Italien (Berlin 1935); G. SäRund, LI! teTrl!marl! delle provincie di Modenlt, Rl!ggio Emilia, Parma, rillcemtl (Land and Leipzig 1939). Further bibliogr:lphy is given by A. Piganiol, Hist. dl! Rome (cd. 5, 1962), 1 5 ff., 528 ff. Rcccnt exc:tv:ttions of the Fonlm Rom:mum :tre reported on by E. Gjerstad, Early Rome (4 vols. and concinuing. Lund 1953-1966). Gjerstad follo\vs Handl in dating the regal period c. 575-450 B.e., but ehe last date is 100 late. Pompeii: A. I\bu, Pompeji in Leben 11. K,wst (cd. 1, Leipzig 1908), and with a supplemem by F. Drexd (1913); A. l\hu and A. Ippd, Führer durch Pompeji (cd. 6, Leipzig 1918). Additions 10 our knowledge have been realizcd through Ihe reeent e."<eavations di recled by A. Maiuri, for which sec his Pompeji, Ir. V. Prieslley (ed. 7. Rome 1954). and Rtlccolta di rrudiper il secondo CC111e71llTio degli scavi di Pompei (Naplcs 1955). Useful [00 is R. Edenne, La vii! quotidienne J Pompe; (Paris 1966). Spina: So far the best work is N. Alfieri, P. Aria.... and M. I-lirmer, Spina (Munich 1958). See also Spi1la e fEmlTia padtma (Stud; emlSchi �5, supplement (959); and S. Aurigcmma, Scavi di Spina 1., and 1.2: La necropoli di Spina in Valle Trebbia (Rome 1960(965). EXCAVAT10:S- �EPORTS: A bibliogr:lphy of classical archcology cannot be given here. The student should consult Ihe survey of ex cavations in the Hdb. d. Arcbaologie I (1939). 851 H. Same OUt standin!! works follow. On DUr:l-Europus: F. Cumont, FOllilles de Dllra-Elffopor 1gU-/9l3 (Paris 1916), supplemenred by The Exca_
Tbe Monuments vatiollJ ar DUTa-EuTopor: PTeliminary ReporfS
(9 vols. ro date, New Haven 1929-1946). On Nonh Afric�: A. Lantier, Les grandn cb:mlpr de fouilln de rAfrique du Nord 191J-1930 (Paris 1931). A valuable rool is the generous bibliography in the two grcar works of M. Rostovtzeff, Tbc SOCio1/ and Ecotlo1l1ic History of tbc Roman Empire (Oxford 1926; ed. 1, revised by P. AI. Fr:lScr, 1957), and Tbc Sodal alld ECOTloll/ic HirtoTY of tbc Hellenirtic World (3 vols., Oxford 1941). Much of [he literature is citcd by Andme, Fabricius, and Lehm�nn-Hanlcbcn, "Städtebau," RE III A (1929), 19-17 ff., and by A. Pig1lniol, Hirtoirc d(' Rome (cd. 5, Paris 196.), 354 ff., 381 ff.-Buc ehe nudent who wishcs ro inforrn himsclf regarding eurtent archeologieal research in a patticular ciry or area will pcrusc, afeer i AA, which first consulring rhe relevant artieles in RE, [he repons n has been published as a supplement co the JDAl since 1889; and the student will also profit frorn rhe German Archrological Institute's annual Bibliographie 21111/ Archiiologischen !ab,hucb (1923/!4 ff.). E..'c3vations in Ihe Near East are reported in Ihe ATcbiv für Oriel/t forscbullg, cd. E. F. ':Veidner ( 1 916 ff.). For the Romano-Gcrman field the essential rool is the Jabrr:sbericbte der römisch-germanischen
K01Jnllirsion. SELECfED ARCHEOLOGtCAl JOURNALS: ( I ) Gcrmany: Jahr bucb der DeutschC11 ATchiiologirchcn hl$litl/tr (1886 ff.); Mittei IUllgen der Deutscben Archiiologiscben lllrtitflts: Atbeniscbe Abtei lung (1876 ff.); Mitteihmgen . . . Römische Abteilung ( t 886 ff.); GC1'1IIall;.1: Korrespondell'Zblntt deT Röm.-Ger1l1. Kotmllisrion d. DI:utYcbr:n ATch:iologiscben Instituts ( 1 9 1 7 ff.) (2) France: Bul/etin de Correspondllllce hc/Unique (1877 tJ.)j R(.""Jlle IIrcbJologiqlle ( 1844 ff.).
(3) Grcece: 'Etf>1/f1fpt<; apxato>"oYlKl) (1837 ff.)
(4) ßritain:
A7IlIual of the Dritisb Scbool 11/ A/hellJ ( 1 895 Ji.); lOI/NM! of Roman Studies (/91 1 ff.). es) ltal)': No/iue degli fClroi di IInticbitii (Rome 1876 Ji.); MOllll l/Icmi amid;i 11 Cl/ra deU' Accadcmia dei Lincel (i\'libn 1892 ff.); Fas/i archeologici (Florcnce 1946 ff.). The btter is an imponant sourec for bibliography. (6) Ausma: ATchäologisch-epigrolpbiYcbe Mitteilllngen aUf örter. scbm ATcbiiologi reich (1 878-1898); },lbTesbefte dcr Östrrreicbi lcbell Instituts ( 1 898 ff.). (7) USA: A1IIerican louN/al of ATcbaeoJogy ( 1 885 ff.; serics 2, 1897 ff.); flesperia (19P ff.).
__
VI
__
Basic Disciplines: Epigraphy, Papyrology, Numismatics
Within the grear II13SS of primary materials some C'ltegories deserve special :mentlon, namely inscriptions. papyri, 2nd coins. During the 19th century special disciplines developed around the intensive study of these sourccs, 3nd these disciplines have a partieu!ar im ponancc: for anciem historians because they deal wirh the kinds of material still being discovered. Onee these disciplines were caUed "auxiliary," but that tenn gives an crroneous impression and should be dropped fromthe vocabulary of scholars. Thc immense varieer and dispersion of n i scriptions. papyri. and coins make it difficu[t for the hiswrian co inttgrate and synthesize the evidence [hey provide. As a rcsult they are ofren not regarded seriously as sources, a fact which is a discrcdit to scholarship in Gerrnany. For jr was aher all a group of Gennan scholars, n i cluding August Böckh, Theodor Mommsen, and Ulrich von Wilamowitz Moellendorff, who organized the great collections of inscriptions and so made them avai l able to scholars. On the other hand those scholars who devote themselves to editing and interpreting ancient inscriptions, papyri, and coins should never forget that their objective is [Q illuminate and deepen our knowJedge of Antiquity. Beginning smdents of epigraphy forget easily that every docu ment on stone is a refleccion of andent life. Therdore it is necessary [Q use a photographic facsimile [Q fonn an idea of the original. Ar rangement, fonn, and position of inscripcions., especially those con nected wirh a monument, are ofren as important as the content of the inscripcioo itself. Thus, 00 orher monument illusrrra es so weil "
,
Basic Disciplines
'"
the collapse of the Macedonian monarchy and the great victory of Rome ar Pydna (168 B.C.) as the arrow.shaped monument, 26 feet high, which honors L. Aemilius Paulus ar Dc!phi. Originally thc monument had been erected foe King Perseus of !\Iacedon; now ir bears thc cqucstrian statue of the Roman victor with this inscription:
L. Aemilills L. f, mperlltor i de rege Perse Mllcedo7/ilnuque aper.'
Ir is regrcnable rhat publieations of inscriprions. incJuding rccent ones, include few illustrations. This failing should be correeted. J\hny ancient inseriptions survive only io fragments, but epi graphcrs havc disco\'ered mcthods of rcmedying chis, and cven whac scem hopc!essly tiny remains have often been expanded TO give a message. Nevenheless, "restorations"-thaT is, those words reeon srructed by the epigrapher and printed in bl'llckets [ )-arc in m:my cascs nee<:ssarily no more than gucsses. Thercforc, whcnevcr onc uses inscriptions wirh restorations onc should usc brackets whcre ap propriatc, a precaurion which is often negleeted. Restoration of inscripdons requires an exaet knowlcdge of relevant formulas, such as those uscd for laws, honorary inscripdons, and [rcades; it also re quires thorough knowledge of thc diction and style of thc pcriod. Thus, onl)' the student conversant with Polybius, Oiodorus, and joscphlls can feel equipped tO resrore Hellenistic inscriptions. Geographie distribution dcserves aucntion. i\luch the largest por tion of Greek inscriptions has been found in Attica; the wealth of cpigraphic material frorn this area, cspecially that dating from the Hellenistic and. Roman periods, is ovcrwhelming. All ather areas are far bchind Attiea: the Peloponncsus, ccntral and northem Grcece. Macedonia. The only competitors are thc small communi ties of Asia Minor which flourished in Hellenistic and, to some e:o:tcnt, in Roman times, including Miletus, Ephesus, Pergamum, Priene, Magnesia on [he Meander, and Sardis. The same applies tO [he great religions centers of Greece: Delphi, Oelos, and Olympia. Litde has been found in inland Anato!ia, though this may bc duc to the want of exploration in that area; on the Ofher hand Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica havc yiclded a number of inscriptions im portant for the hisrory of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Latin inscripriolls are distributed othcrwise. TI1CY are not conI For an i11ustClition of thc monument, see 1\1. Rostovm:ff, Social md Econom;c HiJtory of the Hel/mislie World 11 (Oxfocd '9+'). 7+0, pl�[e a,. See also FOllilfer de Ddpbes 1114. 30, figure +. The imcriprion its.elf is primed in eiL I (cd. ,), no. 10;" .
" s
Basic Disciplinu
ccntrated in any single locality, bur racher art fallnd scartcred from Britain to ehe Euphrates. from [he Rhine :md Danube 10 ehe Sudan. Howevcr, ehe western provinces have yielded far more than h3S the Greek East, for ehere Lacin was the language of the anny and ad� ministration only. Ir is because of ehe greae m2SS of Larin inscriptions that scholars ha\'c been ahle tO free thcmselves from the Rome ccotered viewpoint of ehe andem historians and, il1S[cad, describe ehe Imperium Romanum as a greae organism within which the Vat
ious regions developed their individuality. i volved. the Greck inscriptions begin wich As for ehe time span n a text on an Athcnian jug in ehe so-called Dipylon style datcd 800750 Re. (lG I, cd. z , no. 919), 2nd continuc on to che Byzantine perio d, wich the largest part falling in ehe Hellenistic 2nd Roman pcriods. The distribution of Lann inscriptions is different, for they do not begin to appear in numbers unril the Sullan epoch; what we have horn earlier years is in the narure of precursors, like the earliest
inscription, Manios 1Iled fbefbaked NU7IIaUoi (Mani14f 1Ile fecit Nu
merioj eIL T, ed. 1, no. 3 )
on a fibula from Pracncstc dating from c. 600 Re. The golden age of Laun epigraphy s i the Roman Empire, especially the first twO cenruries A.D. The decrease of inscriprions n i the third cenrury reftects the political, economic, and intdlecrual crisis of the Empire. Under Dioderian and Constantine a temporary revival in the USt of inscriprions occurred, but by the sixth cenrury they gradually disappeared as ancient civilization dedined and gave way to a new spiritand a new age. A few examples must suffice to indicate the imponance of epig raphy for ancient history. All we know ahout the organization of the Delian League, founded in 478/477 Re., \Ve owe to inscrip i pmicnlar to the so-ca[[ed Athenian Trib clons, not to historians, n ute Lists (they shonld be called "tribute quot:1 lists"), in "\\'hich is given a part (1/60) of the toral amaunt each ally was required [0 pa}' Athena as protector of the League.z From variations in the num ber of ames and n i the amounts of uibute levied one can fann a rea sonably accurate pierure of this gtt:lt Hellenic organization wruch . funhered Athcnian power and so dccisively affected the polincaJ history of the fifth century. Sometimes inscriptions reveal imporunt events. For example, the founding of the Secand Corinthian League in 301 B.e. by the
IB. Meritt, H. \V�de-Gery. and M. McGregor, Tbe Atbroim Tribute Lim (4 voJs., Cambridge. Mus. '939-'9I3)·
Banc Discip!inu
'"
Diadoehi Antigonus I and Demetrius Poliorketes is known to us through an inscription [rom the Asclepion in Epidaurus (IG IV.I, ed. 2, no. 68; cf. U. 'Vileken, SPAlV I92Z, p. I n ff., and 1917,
p. 2 7 7
fL).
This document, in fact, tim made it possible
stand a passage (eh. 25)
in Plutareh's Life Qf DemetTillr.
tO
under
An impartam historieal sourcc arc the royal leners sem by Helle
nisric kings
[0
eities and govemors. They date from Alexandcr
[0
Mithridatcs VI Eupa[Or, and provide a valuable addition to the sourees for this still obscure period; cf.
C. B. Welles, Royal COT
Terpondmcc in thc Hcllenirtic Period (New Haven
1934). Another
i scriptions found at [he marketplaee of important documem is the n Cyrene, whieh gi\'e us mueh information on the rdation of Augustus (Q the senatorial provinees and also on the position of Greek eulrurc in Cyrcnaiea (SEG
IX,
no. 8).'
Dur knowlcdge of Greek civie and federni eonstirurions similarly rests primarily on the evidence of inscriptions. Ir is almost emirely to epigrnphie documents that we owe our knowledge of offieials and of how rhe eouneils and asscmblics functioned, how votes were taken, and what honors were given to eitizens and foreigners.
Fur
thermoee the inscriptions tell us about temple roles, sacrificial proee dures, and the ehametef, regulations, and membership of clubs, about private and publie foundarions, and so
i this way give us a n
glimpse imo aceas of ancient life mherwise hidden from uso A good example of this is the doeuments of manumission, which give us impoClant dau on social eonditions espeeially in fhe Hellenistie pcriod. Among the btin inscriptions which concern political life three groups afe paClicularly important: resolutions of the Senate (1l!1tatul
constt!ta). laws passed by the papular assemblies (leger TQgatae), and ediets of magistrates (legel daMe, edicta, decreta). These together with imperial deerces (co1lstitutionel) afford a mass of evidenee for the srudy of Roman govcrnmcnt during the Republie and Principate. An omstanding cxample of sueh extant doeumenrs is the U1Ii/rut COllstt!trmt de Bacc/)allalibus of 186 Re. (eIL I, cd. 2 , no. 581),
whieh eonecrns the measures vored ro cheek the spread of the orgiastie cult of Dionysus late1y imported from the Hellenistie Easr.
a Gre�r inreresr ha. been uoused by �n inscriplion discovcred in Troaen, publi.hed by M. H. J�meson, Huprriil 19 ('Q60), 198 ff. Its authcnlicity i. di.put�d; c. H�bi�ht, Hrrmes 89 (,�,), , ff., ugue. ��nsr it, H. Ikrve, S8AW '\16'. no. 3. for it.
'4'
Basic Disciplines
Oi the leges Togatae extant we can eire the so-callcd Enabling Act passed for Emperor Vcspasian (lex de i111pe7io Vcspasiani; eiL VI.I, no. 930); this gave the new princeps a number of poitica1 ! powers and so assimilated his position to [he model created by Au gustus. Tiberius, aod Claudius; in general jr is of fundamental im ponanee for understanding the emperors' constitutional position. Important inseriptians ha\'c been discovered recently, amang them the Gcrmanicus inscription fallod in the South Ecrurian town of Heba (today Magliano). This s i a bronze plaque on which is in scribed a rogatio, [hat is. a law submined tO and passed by the popu lar asscmbly in Rome (comitia).· Ir concems the hanots paid the memory of Gcnnanicus, who clicd in A.D. 19. :tod ir gives valuable information on [he dcstmatio of consuls and practors and in general on eleerion procedure under Tiberius. Two categories of utin inscriptions are peculi21'ly Roman: mili tary diplomas and milestones. The tim: consist nonnally of rwo bronze tablelS punehed and titted so as tO fold [Ogether; they are documents [0 record that their possessors, veterans who had eom pleted theu sen,jee, had been granted citizenship (civit41 ROlllll1Ja) or else the right [0 marry a forcigner (jus c071flbii). By now more th:m 1 So military diplomas have been found. dating from Claudius to Dioeletian, a period of 2S0 years. They give yaluable information on the nadonal rccruitmem of the Roman Empire's army and on ehe hisrory of individual unilS. Roman milestones, similarly, have no coumerpart in Greek epig raphy. They documem the building acrivities of the Repnblic2n magisttates, the emperors, and the orits; somerimes they even give infonnation about the planning and prepararions made for military C2mp:.tigns, as has been shown with regard to the Raetian roads built by Septimius Severus; see H. Instinsky. Klio 3 1 (1938), 3 3 ff. However, the primary value of [he gren mass of urin inscrip rions is that [hey help us [0 understand the life of the average man the anisan. the freedman, the slave; that is. they take us into the kind of soeial groups whieh hardly ever appear in the litera!"}' tradi tion, the only exeepclons bcing the Cena Trimalcbibnis of Petronius and the poems oE Mamal and Juvenal. It is only through the inscrip clons that we can fonn a picrure of the social and economic condit Tm: given by H. Nessclhauf, Hisroria I (1950), 105 ff., cf. pp '4 (1950), which gives [he text and �Iso 5Chobrly studies, moscly by Ia.Li:l.llS; also AlP
75 (1954),1'5ff•
Basic DiscipUl1tS
. ,.
nons whieh e:msed the internll devclopment of the Roman Empire, thc fatcful tnmsition from a wdfare-state system to [hat of a garri son state, l development in whieh eventually the individual was de gradcd to the role of slave to an omnipotem Stllte. Priee statiscics are provided by Grcek inscriptions of thc Helle nistic period, though the evidence is still fragmentary.' For the economy of the Roman Empire we have valuable evidenee in the material collected in Imcript;ones imtru1IIenti dQ11lest;c; (sec he low), mostly short inscriprions on artieies of daily use such as eanhenware dishes (terra sigillata), wine jugs, and bricks. Finally, through the inscriprions (and eoins as weil) we ger in formation on the geographie e:
see F. Heichclheirn, Wim�haflli"hr S�bw41lbmgro dn
Zdll/On Alex;rndn- bis AugusI'"
(Jena '9)O).
B4Iic DiIciplintl
the publication and historical criticism of papyri are associared with Ulrich Wilcken ( 1861-1944). He enjoyed [he help of m:lny col leagues from Germany and other countries, among them the "Ox ford Dioscuri" B. P. Grcnfell and A. S. Hunt, along with Sir Frederic Kenyon and H. 1. Bell, the Italians G. Vitdli and Medea Norsa, the Frenchmen J. Lesquicr and P. Jouguer, :lnd the German W. .Schubarr. Egypt's dry sand has preserved a mass of papyri from a period of more chan a thousand years, from the conquest of Alexander the i A.D. 641. Great (331 B.C.) to the Arab period, which began n The last Greek-Arabic bilingual text is dated A.D. 996 by Wilcken. Most oE [he papyri are in Greek, but some are in Demotic, Aramaic, Coptic, Latin. and Middle Persian. Besides ehe papyri mere are also the inscriptions on sherds (ostraca) and on wax :md wooden tablets tO bc studied by the papyrologist. Reccntly papyri have also been discovered outside Egypt, in Palestine, and before that parchmcnt documents from the Parthian period had becn found in far-off Kurdistan (Media Atroparene) and in the Hellenistic City of Dura Europus on the Euphraces.' Using content as the criterion, papyri fall into twO groups: literary papyri and documenlS. The literary papyri have preserved for us many fngments of ancient authors and are [herefore important for texruaJ criticism. Most imponanr are papyri with hitherto unknown l ochus, A1caeus, Sappho, Bacchy tcxlS, some of poets such as Atchi lides, Menander (whose plays Dyskolor and Sicyollior were dis covered on papyri a few yeats ago), and othets; buc papyri have also preserved fragments of historical works. Among these by far the most important is Aristotle'swork Thc C01/ftitutto1l of the Athcniam CA8'l..at",.. ';l'o).
Basic Disciplinet
'43
But the majoricy of papyri are documents, :md they are more m i portant for the rustorian. They have a peculinr value in that their writcrs did not expect thern to be preserved, indeed in many caSts they probably did not want thern to be prescrved. Thercfore these papyri surpass e"en the inscriptions as direet :md uncensored wit ncsses tO their age, for often inseriptions were set up for rcasons of propaganda or pride. In using papyri for historieal purposes the loeal origin of e�ch in dividual document must bc remembered. Thc damp carth of thc Nile delta and also the site of ancient Alexandria have not prcserved any documenrs, but occasionally documcnts of Alexandrine origin are found in the himerland, as for examples the well-1mown Diclli mata. Bur by far the largest portion of p�pyri have been diseovered in Middle Egypt, n i particular in the Fayum wirh i[5 villages of Medinet-cI-Fayum, Absusir-cl-Mcleq, Harit (anciem Theadel pheia), and-above all-Tebtunis. Outside the Fayum the most im poftam findspots 3re Memphis and Oxyrhynchos. Disco\'etics in Upper Egypt have been relatively fewer; findspots hete include Siut, Hermopolis Magna, 3nd Thebcs. ünly a few papyri have eome tO light in the southern fronrier area, the so-ealled Dodekaschoinos, wrueh includes Ombos, Syene, and Elephanrine. Most of the documcms date from the Roman Empire, cspceiaI!y from the first and seeond eenturies A.D. Many documenrs also eome from the Ptolemaie period, mueh fewer from the Byzantine (be ginning with Constantine I). Of rhe many documenrs prcserved the most important for the his torian are the official regulations issued by various bute:lueratie agencies. From these one can fom} an �eeuratc idea of the strengths and weaknesses of thc bureaueraey fashioned by the Ptolemies and maintaincd by the Romans. It is difficult to seleet a few examplcs tO discuss, but certa inly among the most importllßt for every stu dent of Antiquity are the law of Prolemy II on the oil monopoly,? the Gnomon ofthc ldiol LogOI (a scction of the regulations govern ing the operations 01 the chief financial offieer of Roman Egypt), and the extanr fragments of the Comtitutio Antonmia1lfl of A.D. 111 (preserved on a papyrus in the Giessen collection). Howevcr, '8. P. Grenfdl. Th� Rt:VfflU� L""". of Pro/rn,), Philad�/phl/S (IIl'}6); U. Wilcken, Chresromathie dff Pap)'ruslnmdr ('9" )' nO$. >f8 and '99. A new edition of the text is gi"en by J. Bingen, Smmnrlbueh griteh. UrlnmdC1l, Beiheft 1 (Göttingen 195')'
BIUi& Dilciplmes are doomed to Ws appointment; the report of Ptolemy 111 on bis Syrian campaign of 146 B.C., a semiliter:uy document, is unique.' 50mething similar exists from the Roman Empire in the edictS of Germanicus in Egypt, a valuable supplement ro Tacitus, Annals 1.59.$ And during rcceDt ycars a nnmber of Hebrew and Greek documems found in 50mh Palestine have cast light on the pcriod of the BarKochba insurrecrion under Hadrian, an e\'ent of guat significance in culrural history. However, the mosr imponanr additions tO our knowledge have not been in the field of polirical history, bur rarher n i that of adminis trative history. For cxamplc, Ptolcmaic Egypt greatly influenced the organization of taxation in the Roman Empire, for it was the Egyp nan institution of the lirurgy which was evenrually extendcd to all Roman provinccs and so laid the foundation for creation of the authoritarian statt of Iate Antiquity. Above all, the papyri provide a great m:m of information for rhe economic hiswrian, infonnarion which is ooly now beginning [0 be exploited. For example, Egypt was the major grain-producing land of Antiquity, and SO the papyri tell us about ancicnt agriculture, abaut uansportation of the grain from the farms to the gnoarics of Alexandria, and about the grain monopoly of the Ptoiemics., whieh provided the foundation of their state economy, a system eompanble [0 the mercamilism of early modem Europe. During the Hellerustie period Egypt was part of the Maeedonian politieal system in the East; after me fall of Alexandria and the death of Cleopatra in 30 s.e. it became the private domain of the Roman empcror. Therefore a1though the papyri came mainly from Egypt [hey tell os much about the history and culture of Hellcnism and the Roman Empire. This concerns, of course, only a pan of [he picturc, and theref�re the historian must look beyond to the brger comexts, to the general hiswry of HeJlenism and the Roman Empire. Numismatics, the study of coins, is the [hird basic discipline. Our knowledge of Antiquity's political institutions depends greatly on thc coins because their inscriprions., fonns of dating, language used, and the pierures and attributes of [he gods :md rulers picrured refleet onty those institurions recognized and sanctioned by the STare.'" For thc same re3S0n much cao be learned about political and religious
expectations of revelations about foreign policy
• u. 'Wilcl<m, Cbre"omDlbi�
.
.
.
, nn. ' .
'9" , 79� ff. 10 B. Pick, Aufsitu zur Nrnnismmik u. Arcbii"l"gi� (Jen. '93'), '44.
·U. v. Wil.mowitz .nd F. Zuder,SPAW
'4f
B.uic Disciplines
hismry; and of course much also about anciem money and cconomy in general, for "jUst as a doctar measures the general health of a patient by listening to his hcartbeat, so we can estimate the hcalth of a state by checking thc purity and weight of its coinS."" Antiquity's coinage begins wirh Lydian coios minted c. 700 B.C. our of electrum, an alloy of gold aod silver; it cnds with thc solidus of Co�t1lntinc I in latc Antiquity. Under the Roman Empire the coinage provides what is almost a running commcntary on the his tory of emperors and the Empire; in earlicr periods it is not so rich, but still the coinage of the lifth cenrury B.C. and of the Helleniscic period illustrares the history of rhose times. In general the historian will find the coinage infonnuivc on live general topics: on who had the right to miint coins; on the represen tation of hismrical events on coins and medals; on questions of reli gions history, especially the existence of state-sanctioned cults; on the character of ancient propaganda; and on ancient chronology, based on rulers and eras. In Antiquity the exercise of minting power was equivalem tu political independcnce or at least ro a degree of autonomy, whether this was possesscd by custom or allowed by a ruler's decree. In this connection the use of a mler's portrait on ancient eoins has a spe cial imponance, for it fXpresses symbolically the possesis on of sov ereignty. Thus the appeannce of Hellenistic monarchs on their coins marks a dccisive change n i the position or the mler, who now is raised inm the sphere oE "divine right." Historical evenes are represemed on coins in the design. in the legend, and in special issues. There have also ileen genuine "historical eoins" issued on occasion, sueh as the coin minted by Demeaius Poliorkctes whieh shows a Nike standing on thc prow of a ship, a design whieh commemorates Demetrius' naval vicrory oller Ptolemy I at Cyprian Salamis in 306 B.c.1I Many similar coins were issued by the Roman emperors, for eX:l.mple, the FI:l.vian s i sue inscnbed IUDAEA CAPTA. Religions history in panicular is iIIuminated by coins, especialJy in the period of thc Roman Empire. In the designs and legends of Roman coins we sec the proteetivc deicies of thc Greek city states, and also Dca Roma and the many typical Roman personifications such as Spes, Concordi3, and Fides. From the evidence of the coins u
L. Sch�be.KU1m u. Gncbicbrt "ur mtikm MÜ1lzt71 (Tübingen 19O5), 9-
13 K. Regling. Dil! mtikm Mürn:m {cd.
}. Bcrlin and Leipzig
'9'9), So.
Bllsic Disciplints
we can judge the extem of worship accorded individual gods, espe cially those of the Orient, by the emperors aod their court. Thus ie is no coincidence that the temple of Isis first appcars on the coins of Vcspasian, and the tcmples of Sarapis and Cybelc first on those of Domitbn. Coins rccord the bizarre devotion of Commodus to Herculcs, the lcanings of Scptimius Severos toward Africa and its gods, and those of thc Syrian Elegabalus toward thc sun god of Emessa. Aurdian announces thc primacy of Sol invictus on his ooins, and Coostantinc rccords his changes of religious allegiance, first IO Herculcs, then to Sol-Apollo, finally to the monogram of Christ (which his soldiers had on their shiclds before the batde ar Mulvian Bridge in A.D. 311). Use of coins for propaganda in the narrower sense is illustrated by the "Contomiates." whose significance was first revealed in a mastcrly work by Andreas Alföldi. They were lokens distributed in Rome ar the New Year's garnes. The;r pagan symbols and designs from Roman history indica[e [hat [hey were an important means of propaganda used by the pagan aristocracy of Rome during the lauer fourth aod early fifth centuries A.D. D:tting by rcgnal years and eras on ooins is an imporrant topic which can only be noted briefly hcn:. Thc chronology of thc Roman Empire benefits grcatly from the evidence of the coinage issued by the sccond mint of the Empire, Alexandria; [here regnal years were not nd i icatcd, as elsewhere. by the number of tribtmicia poUStllS held by the cmperor, but rather in accord with the civi! calendar of i which the rcgnal year was figurcd (as in Ptolemaic timcs) Egypr, n as the time from accession [Q the nex[ fim of Thoth, the Egyprian New Year (which in Augusrus' time was August 19). The Alcx andrine coinagc is a soufee of [he first importancc for the third ccnrury, marked by frequent usurpations and coups. As in modem times so in Antiquiry coins were above all a p�rt of thc cconomic system. Therefore coin discoveries provide evidcnce which, used cautiously, allows conclusions as to the intensity :md extension of ttade. Thus the appcarancc of Athenian rrapOl.vQ< (also called 'Yha';I(l�) in lands Slich as Arabia and India during ehe fifth and fourth ccnturics ß.C. indicatcs thc wide range of Anic com mercc. Staristics bascd on ancient coin hoards are therdore valuable for economic hiscory. ßritish numismatists (H. Mattingly, E. S. Robinson) h:tvc scachcd radical conclusions as [Q the older Roman coinage, revising the date
Btuic Dirciplines
'47
of the Romano-Campanian silver issue from HO to 269 Re., and of the first denarius !rom z69 Re. to [87 B.e. Many schohrs havc accepted their arguments, but others have not (G. De Sancris, Laur:l Bregl.ia), and the controversy is nOt yet cnded. The dispute is not simply a matter of numism:uics but r:lther of general history, for ie concems our evaluation of Roman economic life in the later founh century Re., and our determination of when Rome sought and fOllnd entry into the Hellenistic economic system. In Grcece during the sixth and fifth ccnturies B.e. a number of competing money systems existed, which would have led [0 ac cOllnting difficu!cies had there not been agreement on a single stand ard as a common point of refercnce. This SCl:nlS to have been found in a weight measure borrowcd Irom the Near E:Jst, ehe Bahylonian pound of abollt tJ6 grams, [he mana, called in Greek �v/i. l1\is unit sccms [0 be the basis of most Greek money sysrems, and in panicular the most imponane ones. Thus ehe Athenian drach ma was [//00, the heavier Aeginetan drachma [/70 of a I'-v/i. The coins of that pcriod cvidcncly did not possess one qualiry we take i our own coins: an exacr weighr. As a result all the for gr:lnted n relarionships betwcen monctary systems must be rcgardcd as only approxirnate, but this approximation was evident!}' sufficient for practical purposes.
BJBLlOGRAPHY EPIGRAPHY H1STORY OF EPIGRAPHY:
S. Chabert, Histoire S07lnJlah-e des
emder d'epigraphie grecque (Paris (906); W. Larfcld, Griech. Epigraphik in Müller 1.5 (ed. 3, 19\;1-), 7-/05; H. Dess�u, "tat. Epigraphik," Gi.'T"cke-NordCII 1.10 (1925), [-7j L. Roben:, L'epi gr,lphie grecql/e all College de Frollce (Limogcs [939).
INTROllUCT10NS Ta TF.CUNiQUE: F. Hiller v. Gacrtringen, "Griechische Epigraphik," Gerckc-Nordcn 1.9 (1924), 3 tf.; A. Rehm. in Hdbk. d. Archäologie I ( 1 939), 185 fT.: L. Roberr, "Ep ig raphie," EncyclopMie de 1" Plr!iade (Paris 1961), giving a modt:rn \'icw wirh attention co new 3SpCCts. IUNOIIOOKS: For Grcck epigraphy see S. Reinach, Tr,rit.! d'Jpigraphic grecql/e (P:His 1885); \V. Larfcld. see :l!HWCj but both works are no\\' much Ollt of datc. BriefeT, but giving all eSSenti:lls, is G. KlafTcnbach. Grkcbische Epigr.,pbik (cd. 2, eöttingcn 1966); also 1\ 1. Guarducei, Epigr.1fia gr.'ca I (Rome 1967); for Larin cl'ig-
'4'
Batie DiJciplines
raphy see R. Cagnat, Cuurs d'lpigrapbie utine (cd. 'h Paris 1914); Sandys, Liltin Epigraphy, cd. 2 by S. Campbcll (Camhridge 1917). For Christian epigraphy see C. M. Kaufmann, Hdbk. der Illtchristlichen Epigraphik (Freiburg i. Er. [9[7); fot Semitic see M. Lidzbarsk� Hdbk. der lIordsemit. Epigraphik (1898); for Etrus can, G. Buonamici, Epigrafia etTflSCiI (Florence 19P)' lLLUSTRATlO:SS OF I!'SCIUPnONS: J. Kirchner, Imagines 171-
J. E.
scriptionum Atticl7rU11I: Ein Bilderl1tlas epigr. Denkmäler Attik.u, cd. 1 by G. Klaffenbach (Berlin 1948). Laun nscriptions: i DOlos Gradenwitz, Sinnt/acta (1911: a supplement tO Bruns., Fontes rum Romani) .
DISTRIBUTlOX OF GREEK IXSCRIPTIO:':S: bcsr survey in J. J. Hondius, Saxl1 /OqUuntUT (Leiden 1938), 65 ff.; good, though brief, is A. Rehm. Hdbk. d. Archäologie 1 ( 1 939), 183. COLLEcrlOSS O�- GREEK ISSCRIPTIOSS, A. Böckh and colle�gues pubJished under the auspices of the Prussian Academy of Sciences thc Corpus Jmcriptionum GrlleCIlTUm (CJG); it appearcd during 18!S-18S9 (but thc n i dices wcrc not publishcd until I8n!), and by now is largely out of date. Its placc has becn taken by the lmcrip� tiOll�S Grlltcil� (/G), also sponsorcd by thc Pmssian Acadcmy, and n i process of publicarion since 1873. Following is a sumnury of the published and planned volumes of the lG; same are themselves mperseded by a second edition ("edirio minor"). JG I (cd. !): lmcriptirmes Atticfle Ellclidil llrmo 1l1lteriorer," ed. F. Hilier v. Gacnringen (1924). JG n, In (cd. 1): lnrcripti01les Atticfle Euclidis fl7J1/0 posteriores, ed. J. Kirchner (191 3-1940) : only pan of the indices has ap peared. IG IV: 111scriptirmes Argolidis, ed. M. Franke!. A pan of chis has been published separately as a second edition: IV.1 (ed, 1): lnscriptiones EpidllUTi, ed. F. Hiller v. Gaenringen (19l9). JG V.I: Inrcriptiones Lilconiae et Messrniae, cd. \V. Kolbe
(1913). lG V.!: Inscripciones Arcadiae, ed. F. Biller v. Gaenringen ([9[3)· lG VI, Inscriptirmcs Elidir et Acbfliae: not publishcd. lG VII: lnscriptiones Megtnidir et Bocotille, cd. W. Dittenberger ( [ 892).
11 The rur in whieh Eucl�ides was archon (40)/. BC) i$ t dividing point
in Attie epigTllp hy. sinte thereafter Ihe Tonian alphabet was usc:d in inscrip tions inslead of the Old Athroian 3lphabet previowly used.
Basie Diseiplints
'49
IG VIII: 11ISCTiptio7ll:s Delphorum: not publishcd; sec bclow for
commems.
IG LX.I: Imcriptioner Phocidis, Locridis, Anoliae, ACar1Jllniae" inSfllarum maris lonii, cd. W. Dittcnbcrger ( 1 897). A part has been rcedited as IG IX.I (ed. 1 ) . 1 : Imcriptioner Aetoliae (193 J ) and IG lX.1 (cd. J ).J: lnsCTiptiones Acarmmiae (1957), and JG IX.I (cd. J)'3: Jnseriptiones Locridis (1968), all ed. G. Khffenbach. JG IX.I: Inscriptiones Thwa/iae, cd. O. Kern (1908). JG X: ImCTiptiones Epiri, Macedoniae, Thraeiae, Scythiae: not publishcd. IG XI: Jmcriptiones Deli: only [Wo rarts have bccn publishcd: JG XL2 and Xl.f, Inseriptiones Deli liherae (nos. 105-:89 and 510-1349), cds. F. Durrbach ( 1 9 1 2 ) and P. Rousscl (1914), respc:ctivcly. Sec commems bc!ow. JG XII: InsCTiptiones inrularum 11/aris Aegaci praeter Velum: XII. I : I1lseriptioncs R};odi, Cbalees, Carpathi cum SITTO Casi, ed. F. Hiller v. Gaertringcn ( 1 895). XItt: Jmcriptiones Leshi, Nesi, Tenedi, cd. G. R. P:lton ( 1 899). XII.3: lnseriptiones SY1l1es, Tellt/msae, Te/i, Nisy,i, AJtypalae
ae, Anaphes. Therae er Therasiae. Pholegmdri, Meli, Cimol;, ed. F. Hiller v. Gaertringen ( 1 898), with Supplement ( 1 9°4) · XII.4: Inscript;ones Coi et Ca/ynmi: not published. Xll.r Imcriptio7l1?r Cycladtl1J/, ed. F. Hiller v. Gacrtringen (1903 and 1909). XIT.6; Jnseriptiones Chii et Sam;: not publishcd. XI!.?, Inseript;ones Amorgi ct inmlanl1ll vieinanml, ed. J, De lamarrc ([908). XIL8: Imeript;ol1el insu/antm maris Thracici, cd. C. Fredrich ( np9)· XII.9: lnseripriones Euboeae
inm/t1e, cd. E. Ziebarth (1915). JG XII: Suppleml?1lttl11l. cd. F. HiIlcr v. Gacrtringcn (1939). IG XIII, InrCT;pt;olleS er"t"", not puhlish"d, hut se" COmments bclow. IG XIV: lnlcriptionrs Siciliae er Italiae additis Graec;s Galliae, Hispaniae, Brittaniae, Ger1llaniar inseriptionibus, eds. G. Kaibel :lnd A. Lebegue ( 1 890), JG XV; Inscripti07lrS Cypri; not published, but sce bdow, Special publicarions musr bc used for rhose arcas noe rCf pub lishcd in the IG. These indude ehe following: Di<' Inschriften von
'5'
Basic Discip/illts
Olympia, cds. W. Dinenberger :md K. Pu rgold (Beriin 1896), n i place of JG VI; Fouilles de Delphes lIl: tpigraphie, cds. Bourget, eolin, Daux, Sala�, Valmin, Flaceliere (6 fascides, 19°9-1954), in i lnscriptioncs an place of JG VIII; 50mh Russia's inscripcions n tiquac orae septentriollalis Pom; Euzini Grafen/: el Ln/mal! (abbn: viarcd !PE; 3 \'ols., Sr. Peter;sburg, \885-1901; vol. [ n i cd. J, 1916) ; now in publication are the inscriprions of Bulgaria, Inscriptioner Graecae in Bulgaria repertae, cd. G. Mihailov (4 vols., Sofia 19561966), in plaCt of JG X; the main pan of Ddos' inscript ions has heen by the Acadcmie des Inscripdons er Beiles Lettrcs in l pubished Paris, as Inscriptionf de Delos (nos. [-88, 190-509, 1400(2879), eds. Plassan, Durrbach, Roussel, Launey (6 fascicles, 1926-1950), in i scriptions placc of rhe missing scctions of JG XI.-Imporr:mt new n from Rhodes (/G XII. I ) havc been rcponcd by the Italian Journal CllITlt Rhodos (10 vols., Rhodcs 1928 ff.), also b'l Blinkenberg, Lindos: Fouiltes de fAcropole 1902-1914: vol. 2, es inlcriptio1lt (1 vols., 1941 ).-For Cos (lG XII.4) sec R. Herzog and G. Klaffcn bach, Asylieurkullden (nu Kor, ADAW 1951, no. I.-Cretan in scriptions havc heen published as an n i dependent collectio"n by Marghcrira GuarducCl, 11Itcriptiones Creticlle (4 volumcs so far, Romc 1919-1950), in place of JG XIII.-A collection of Cypriot inscriptions is planned by T. B. Midord of Sr. Andrew's University. No collcctions exist of [he Greek inscriprions of Asia MinoT, Syria, and Egypt, exCe pt for these: Jmcripuonr grecquer et latiner de 10 S,rfe, cds. L. Jab bcn :md R. Moutcrdc (6 vols., 1929-1967); LII Carie TI (so far thc only volumc), eds. L. and J. Roben (1954). Many special publicarions eJl:ist; for a survey sec Hondius, Saxil 10qlJUnNtT (Leiden 1938),82 ff., or (better) G. Pfoh!, Griechische Inschriften (Munich. n.d. [19651), 18S ff.-A fcw of rhe most important are: Tituli Asiae Minoris I-IU.1 (abbreviated TAM, published by the Vienna Academy of Scicnccs, 1901-1944); Monu menta Asiae Minoris Antiqua I-VIII {abbreviared MAMA, Man i found up IO chester 1928-196z).-The most imponant nscriprions his time werc collccrcd and cxcellcntly commcntcd upon by \V. Dittcnbcrger, Orientir Graecae Inscript;01/es Selectae (abbreviated OGI, 2 vols., Leipzig 1903-1905); see also C. B. Wellcs., Royltl Correrpondence in tbe Hellrnirtic Period (New Haven 1914). SELECllONS OF GREEK INSCRIPTIONS: W. Dittcnberger. Sylloge Imcriptiomrm Graecarum (4 vo1s., cd. 1, Leipzig 1915-1924), ab breviated SyIP; this has a thorough commentary in utin. and is essential for every student of Greek hisrory. See also Ch. Michel. Receuil des imcriptiom grecquel (Brussels 1900) with Supp lements (1912, 1927); R. Cagrnlt et 01., lnrcriptiones Graecae aa rts Ro_
Basic Disciplines
'J'
?nauaS perrinemes (4 vols., Paris 191 1-1927: abbreviated IGR) j these last two collections do not have commcntary.-Almost 6,000 Grcck inscriptions are included in the Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschriften, eds. H. Collitz and F. Bcchtel (Göttingen 18841915: abbrcviated GOI). A briefer but exccllenr sclection is given by E. Schwyzer, Dia/ector/ml GTaecart/1/1 e:ulIIpla epigraphiea potiora (Leipzig 1913). Historians wLiI find useful the work of M. N. Tod, A Selection of Greek Historieal 11IseTipt;01ls I: To the End of the Vth Century B.G. (ed. l, o.dord 1946); II: FT0111 403 to 313 B.C. (o.�ford 1948). Newly discovered inscriptions are published in thc SupplcmemulII Epigraphicu1J1 Graecum (Leiden 1923 ff.: abbreviated SEG), of which : 3 voJumes have appeared so far. Also importam is the journal H published by the Amcriean School in Athens, esperia (1923 ff.). Regular re om on new publications appear in the Re'".tUe des Emder p greeques (hy Jeanne and Louis RobeH), in the Journal of Hellroie Srudics (hy M. N. Tod. [he !aST having appcared in [955), and n i the Italian journ�1 Epigraphiea (i\'lilan 1939 ff.). SI'UDIES: Among the many studies those of Adolf Wilhe!m (Vicnna) and Louis Robert (Paris) are outstanding. Wilhe!m (1864-195°) wrore, among many other studies, Urkunden drtl1l1ll_ tischer Auffühnmgetl n i Athen (Sonderscbrift 6 of the ÖSterr. Arch. Institut, Vienna 1906) i Beiträge zur griecbischell blschriften kunde (ibid. 7. Vienna 19°9): Neue Beiträge Z1lr griecbischm in schriftenlmnde. 6 vok in SA lVTV 1911-19P; Attische Urkunden, 5 \'ols. in SAJVW 1911-194Z.-Louis Robert has published many works, among Ihem Vil/ef d'Asie Mineure (cd. z, Paris 1962), Emdes tITIarolietlllef (Paris 1937), t.mdes epigraphiqller et philol ogiques (Paris [938), and Hellf!1lica ( 1 3 vols., '940-1965), the laner a documenr of extraordinary industry and unsurpassed knowledge. LATI!'J INSCRIPTI0NS: Their geogr.tphic dIStribution is ilIus trated by the work which Thcodor J\lommsen planned 3nd the Prussian Academy of Sciences publishcd, the Corptlf lnscriptionum LatinaTUlII (CIL)." Ir s i now alrnost completed. :md thanks to this great colleetion the Latin inscriptions are much Icss scanered than ,he Greek. The individual \'olumes of the eiL divide the various are:ts 3-� folIows: eIL I (cd. 2 ) : Fasri and inscriprions of the Republic up to Caesar's death, eds. Th. Mommscn. \V. Henzen, Chr. Hülsen, E. Lom mat1.5ch, 4 fascicles (, 893-1943), eiL 11; Spain, ed. E. Hübner (1896). wiTh Supplement (189Z). eiL 111: Danubc Provinces and Eastem Provinces of The Roman "Cf. O. Hirscbfcld.SPAIV 19'7,45 ff.
Blsic Disdplints Empire, including Egypt :md Cyrenaica, eds. Th Momtmen, O. Hirschfeld, A. v. Domaszewski (1873), wich Supplements
(1 88g-1901).
eIL IV: Grafitti from Pompeii and Herculaneum, ecls. C. Lange meister, R. Schöne, A. Mau (1871), wich live Supplements
(1898-1955).
eIL v; Gallia Cisalpina, cd. Th. Mommsen ( 1 871-1877). eIL VI: Rome, cds. W. Hemen, I. B. De Rossi, E. Bormann, ehr. Hülsen, M. Bang (1 876-1933). eIL VII: Britllin, ed. E. Hübner (,873). eIL VIII: Roman Africa, eds. G. Wilmans, Th. Mommsen, R. ugnllt, J. Schmidr, H. Dessllu (1881), wich live Supplements
(189[-1941).
eIL IX and x; Southem lraly, cd. Th. Mommsen ([883)' eIL XI: Cemral ltaly, cd. E. Barmann (1 888-1916). eIL XII: Gallia Narbonesis, cd. O. Hirschfeld (1888). eIL XIII: Tres Galliae :and Gennany, eds. Q. Hirschfeld. C. Zangemeister, A. v. Domaszewski, O. Rohn, E. Stein (1 899-
1943)'
eIL XIV: Latium, ed. H. Dessau (1887), with [he Sltpplemen rum Ostiense, cd. L. Wicken (1930-1933). CIL XV: Imcriptiolles mstromenti dommici of the city of Rome, cd. H. Dressel (189[-1 899). C/t XVI: Miliury Diplomas, cd. H. Ncssc:lhauf, wich Supple ment (1955). The ambitious plans fot a. new edicion of the !.atin n i scriptions of haly (lmcripttolles Ita/iae) by Julian scho13rs ha\'e as yet not progressed beyond a beginning.-As sup lement tO CIL 111 see The Imcripri01l1 of Roman Tripolitl11lia, eds. . M. Reynolds :md J. Ward Perkins (Rome and Landon n d. [19S'l ] ) .-As supplement [0 CIL VIII see 11Iscriptions 11I1;7Ies d'Afrique. eds. R. Cagnar. A. Merlin. L. Chatdain (Paris 19z 3), and bm:ripti011s latines de 111 Tll1Iisie, cd. A. Merlin (Paris 1944), and Imc. lllt. de Algme I: Imcripti01ls de 111 Proc01Isulaire, ed. S. Gsdl (Paris, 1931); 11.1; (Rusicade, Circa, and Surroundings) cd. H. G. Pflaum (Paris 1957); InJc. Lat. du Maroc I, ed. L. Chare13in (Paris (941).-As supplement to CIL XII see Imcr. lat. de Gaule, ed. E. EspeI'3ndicu (2 vols., Paris 1928-1929). -As supplement to CIL 111, IG X, and IG XIV see Antiken In schriften in lugoslavien, eds. V. Hofillet and B. Saria (Zagreb 1938). New material was published and problems discussed in the journal Ephemeris Epigraph/cil (9 vols.• 187:-1913). Reports on publica rion of new !.arin inscriprions are given by the Revue arcbeologique (Paris) in a special section called L'annee epigraphique.
r
.
B,nc Discip/in�s
'53
For the historian one work besides the CIL itself is of basic im portance: H. Dessau, Imcriptiollrs Lalmac sdecr,r (3 vok., Berlin 1891-1916: llbbreviated nS). This "Ladn Dimnbergcr" indu dcs almost ren [housand inscriptions wirh a thorough romment:lry. A i selecton from Christian inscriptions is given br E. Dichl, IllScrip tiones Latiuae (Jeterer Cbrisria11ae (3 vols.. Ber li n 1925-(93 1). lTAUC D1ALECT l)o;SCRIPTIONS: R. S. Conway, Th.. IMlic Dia leCfs (2 \'015., Cambridge (897); R. S. Conway, J. Whatmough, S. E. Johnson, Tbe Pre_ltalic Dia/eCH of Ital] (3 vols.• London 1 9 3 3 ) ; E. Veuer, Hdb. der italirchC1/ Dialekte (Heidclbcrg 1953)' An exedlent selcction with commcmary is givcn br V. Pis:mi, Le lingu� ddr I/alla ,mica ol/re il LatiTlo (cd. 2, Turin (964).-Valu able review anicles were published ur E. Vetter in the journal Glotur.
SE;\IITIC Il'SCRIPTlO:-;S:
Most importam collcction is Corpus
Imcriptio1ll/7/1 Selllitict1T1ll11 (Paris 188[ ff.: abbrcviarcd CIS). It is supplcmcmcd by Rlpertoire d'epigrapbie sblliriquc (6 \'ols., Paris
19 °0-1935), cd. J. B. Chabot.
MONOGItAPIIS: ( [ ) On the Athenian tribute ls i rs [WO basic srudies are H. Nessdhauf, UmersuchuIIgm z. Geschicbte der ddiu;h-lUIircben S]1II11l.1chie (Klio, Ikihde JO; [933), :md also \'01. 3 (1950) of che citcd work The A/benit11l Tribllte Lim. (l) Grcek Constirutions: \V. Schönfclder, Die städtischen 11. Bllndesbeamlen der [{'iecb. Festlandei vom 4. JMh. v. ehr. Geh. bis hl die römische Kaiurzeit (Diss. Leipzig 1917); F. Bleekmann,
Griccb. Inschriften zur griechischen Sta(fte1lJ.'unde (KI. Tex/e f. Vorlenl1l1!,t'n 11. übungen 115, Bonn [ 9 ( 3 ) . I\·!any monographs are cited by Hondius, Saxa Joqflltntur (Leiden [938), 139 tf., 144 ff.
(3) Roman Law: Thc most imporram Roman historical docu menrs arc discmsed, with careful attention to genres by Rosl!1lbetg 6 Ir.. 25 If., :9 ff. Also essential, as a rollection of texts, is Fontes Iuris R01l1aui Anteiurtiniani, Pars I: Leges. cd. S. Riccobono (cd. :, Florcncc (941). (4) Roman I\lilitary Diplomas: CIL XVI (1936) wich Supple ment: sec also Rieeohono, op. ch.. T, U 3 ff.-In rcecnl ycaI"S the fact that diplomas ccascd to bc issued has hccn much discusscd, cspccbl Iy in cnnncction with the Tablet of Brigctio; of the many studics nvo are noceworthy: K. Kraft, Gen/ml/ilt :8 ( 1 944-1950), �42 Ir.; D. van Berchcm. L'ar11lee de Dioc/hit11l er la rtfforme C01/ftIl1ltil/i enne (Paris 19P). 75 ff. (5) Roman 1\·lilesroncs: O. Hirsehfe1d. KleiTle Scbriften (19'1), 703 ff.; K. Schneider, " M iliarium," RE Supp. VI (1935), 395 ff. A ncw and thorough stud)' of the subjcet is now being planned, undcr
Balic Dildplintl
'H
the leadership of Gcrold Walser; see his work Die römischen Stras sen m der Schweiz (Bem 1967). (6) Inscripriones instrumenti domestici: eIL XIII. 3 (Rhincland); eIL xv (Rom) . A sc:lection is given in ILS 11, nos. 8561 ff. (7) Early Christianity: W. M. Ramsay, Tbe Cit;erand Bisbopricr of Phrygill (Oxford 1895-1897)i and A Historical Commentary ()'1l St. rauPt Epiule to tbe GalatUms (cd. 2, London 1900); and many ather works.-Epigraphic collections relating ro Christianity art notcd by Hondius, Sua loquuntur (Leiden 1938), 109 H. PAPYROLOGY
K. Prcisendanz, Papyrnrkunde und Papyrusforr cbtmg (Leipzig 1933), and his anide in Hdb. der Bibliotbehwimm schaft T, cd. Milkau (cd. 2, Srutt�rr 1 9 50), 163-148. 1l'<'TROOUcnoss: L. !\IiuclS and U. Wilcken, Gnmdzi ige und Cbrrrtomathie der Papyrurklmde (4 \'ols., Leipzig and Berlin 1 9 1 2 ) : HISTORY:
part I , by \Vilcken, contains the historical texts; part 2, by Mitreis, thc jurisric. Also valuable arc:: \V. Schubart, Einfiilmmg i1/ die Papynuktmde (Berlin 1 9 18), and "Papyruskunde," Gercke-Norden 1.10 (Leipzig 19:4). willen is very brief; W. Pcrcmans aod J. Ver gote, Papyrologisch Handhoek (Louvain 1942) in Flemish; P. M. Meycr, I"ristische Pap,,.; (Berlin 1910) ; E. G. Turner, Greek Papy ,.i: A11 11ltToJuction (o.�ford 1968). AIDS: F. Preisigke, Wörterbuch der griechischen PapyrumT_ kunden US'W. aus Ägypten I-IV.I, cd. E. Kicssling (Bcrlin [9151958), and FachwÖTter des öffentlichen Verwalttmgsdiemter Ägyp um (Görtingen 1915); F. Preisigkc, F. Bilabcl, E. Kiessling, S
Basic DiIciplinet
'55
T3ubensehl�g. Papyrological reporrs are also given by Journal o{ Egyptian Archaeology (London 1914 tf.), and Cbronique d'Egypte (Brussels). In 1967 a new journal appearcd, Zeitscbrift für Papy rologie und Epigrapbik, eds. L. Koenen and R. Merkelbach.
SERIES: Mmchener i Beiträge zÜr Papyrustorschung und anti knl Rechtsgeschichte, 53 vols. so far, founded by L. Wenger; also
publications of the Papyrus Institute of Hcidelberg and the Scuola di Papirologia of Milan; Emdes de Papyrologie (Giro) and Re cherchet de papyrologie (Paris). PARTHIAN DOCUMENTS: E. H. Minns, JNS 3 5 (1915), 11 tf.; M. ROStQVlZCtf and C. B. Welles, JVCeS 1 ([93 [ ) I tf.; C. B. WeHes in Münchner Reiträge 19 (1934), 379 tf. LITERARY PAPYIII: most recent caralog is R. A. Pack, The Greek and utin LiteraTY Texts trom GTaec()-Rcrman Egypt (Ann Arbor (951). UlSTORICAL PAPYRI: Aristode's COlluittltion of the Atbenians: cditio prince by F. G. Kenyon (London 1891); more rccent edition by I· . Oppennann (Leipzig 1918), with bibliography. A useful \\"ork is J. E. Sandys, Ariftot/e's Constiturion 01 Athl!7lf (ed. 1, london 1912), with commentary. A fundamental work for its time was U. v. ,"Vilamowitz, AristotdCl ltlld Athen (1 \'015., Bcrlin 1893). Keen but controversial is C. Hignett. A History ot tbe Atbl!7lill1l Constimtion to the End 01 the 5th Century (cd. I , Ox ford 1958) .-Other textS are printed in F. Bilabcl, Kleineren Hir
r
torikertragmNlte aut Papyrus (Kleine Texte ffir Vorlemngen und ObI/ngen 149, Bonn (921).
DOCUMENTIl: A good survey of the historical documents on papyri is P. Jouguet. "L'hisroire politique ct la papyrologie," Papyri 1/. Altcrtrnlwwirse1lfChaft (Miinchencr Beiträge [9, [934), 6z tf. Very useful is E. Komernann, "Die tÖrn. KaiseI7.eit," Gercke Norden lIb (ed. 3, 193Ü, 170. I\-tonographic publications are surveyed by H. I. Bell, Egypt trom AJexandcr tbc Great to the Ar,lb Conquest (Oxford (948), 1 5 3 tf. It is unfonunace that publication of a "Corpus papyrorum" is not possible, for the p�pyri h�ve been publishcd in :l SC:lttcrcd rn:ln ner according to origin, 0\11T1er, and collection. and usually docu mcms and lirerary texts of all cras have been primed together. It is almost impossihle to master the field. ,"Vhat is essemi:tl for the caust of research is at least a general guide to the doeumcnts. A unique producr of cardul schohrship is U. \Vilcken, UrkulIden der Ptolemäerz.eit (Ältere Funde) I-II.3 (Berlin 19l1-1957: ab breviated UPZ ) . Ou["Standing publiC3tions outside Germany in cJude: Tbe Tebtunis Papyri, cds. GrenfeH, Hunt, Smyly, et al. (3
"
Basic Dirciplincs
,
vols., 190!-r938)i Tbc Oxyrbyncbu! Papyri, cds. Grenfell, Hunt, Bell, et 11/. (33 vols., 1898-1968: abbreviated P. O.1"y.), which in� c1udes many lircrary texts: Ptlbblicl12ioni della Societa iralianll per Ja ricerca dd Papiri grec; e lari,,; in Egitto, eds. G. Vitelli, M. Norsa, er al. ([4 vols. so far, Florence 19' z-19S7: abbreviated PSI). Grellt importance borh fot poli6cal and for cultural hiswry is innerent in the 'leno Papyri. a group of documems scan:ered n i mu seums throughout the world; rhey date from tarly Ptolemaic tirnes, and come from the archive of one Zeno, who was estare manager for Apollonius. /inanee minister undcr Ptolemy II (185-146 n.c.). The most important havc been published by C C. Edgar ce al., 2e7101l Papyri, 4 \'ols. in [he Catalogut Generale des Antiquites egypt. du MIttel' du Ca"e (1915-194°: abbrelliated P. Cairo Zm.). OfflCIAL REGULATIOSS: U. Wilcken, "Ober antike Urkun denlehre," Papyri und Alterm7llrwissenschaft (MüncbmeT BritTäge ' 9, '934), ,p ff. GSOMOS OF THE IDIOS LOGOS: edited by W. Schubart. Ägyp tische Urkllndm lltls den Staatlichen Museen Zlt Bl!Tlin
V.I (1919:
abbrelliated BGU). with German translation. A commemary was written by W. Uxkun-Gynenband. BGU V.1 (1934); cf. relliew by M. Rosrovncff. Gn01l10n (1935), pl ff.; see also S. Riccobono, Jr., 11 O,/01/lOn drll 'Idios Logos (Pale:nno (950). FRAGMENT OF OOSSTITUTIO ANTOSISIANA: E. Kornemann i Museum dn Oberhess. Ge :md P. M. "--Ierer, Grirch. Papyri 11l scbichtroercm zu Giessen (abbre:viated P. Giss.) I, no. 40 (Leipzig 1910-1911); for more: recent studies see ehr. Sasse, Die Constitutio Anwn;lIiana (Wiesbaden 1958), 1Z9 ff. LITURGlA: F. Oenc!, Die Limrgie: Smdien zur Ptole11läi schen lind kaiserlichm VeT'U),l/tung Ägypums (Leipzig 1917). AGRICULTURE: 1\01. Schnebc:l, Die Lmdwirtrchaft im helle lIisticbC11 Ägypte7l 1 (Miincbencr Beitriige 7. (1915), uncomplctcd). PTOLEMAIC MONOPOLlE5: F. Heichc!heim, "Monopole," RE XVI (19P), 147 ff.; Cl. Prcaux. L'econ01llie roya/e der Lagides (Brussels (939); 1\1. Rostovtz.cff, Social and Econ011lic History of thc Hdknistic World (Oxford 1941). NUMISMATICS THE DISCIPUSE: /\-lodern numismaric srudic:s begin with [he work of a learned Jesuit. J. Eckhel, Docrrina 7l11'llnIlOnl71l veterrml (8 vols., Vicnna 1791-1798); a ninth lIolume aprred posthu mously in 1816. Still uscful is E. Babclon, Trairr des lIIonnairs grecques et romainer (4 IIOIs. and 4 lIols. of plates, P:l.fis 1901-1931),
Basic Disciplines
' 57
which discusses Greek coinage to the fourth cenrury B.C. For Roman numismacics there is ehe greae work, fundamental in irs time, of Th. Mommsen, Gescbicbte det römiscben Mümwesells (Berlin 1860); a Freneh translation was published in four volumes (Paris 1865-1875). SURVEYS OF GREEIt COISAGE: B. V. Head, Hirtoria lIlnltmo rum; A Manual of Greek Num;municr (cd. z, Oxford [ 9 [ 1 ) . This work givcs illustrations and descriptions of the historieally impor cant eoins of Amiquity; it is a fundamental work whieh should be consulred first in connection wirh evety research projecr, 31though oE course other numism3tic srudies will be u$Cd as wclL-Excellent illustrations are given in P. R. Fnnke and M. Hirmcr, Die grie chische Mii1l"--t (i\ Iunich 1964). GENERAL SURIlEYS: K. Regling, Die 1l1ltike Münze als Kunrt 'Werk (Berlin 1914), and "Die antiken Münzen," in Handbiicber der zig 1919), 3nd Sutatlichen Mt/seell zu Berlin (cd. 3, Beflin and Leip "Das antike Münzwescn," Gerckc-Norden 11.2 (ccl. 4. 1930), and "Münzwescn," RE XVI (1931), 457 ff. A thoughcful work is the lecrure of B. Pick, Die Münzkunde il/ der AltetNW/S'wirsMlscbJft (Sruttg:.tft and Gotha 19U). Sec also R. Gobl, Einffihnmg in die Miimhwde der römischen Kaiserzeit (cd. 1, Vienna 1960), and [he superb survey by K. Christ, Antike Nlltllimtatik: Eillfiihnmg und Bibliographie (Darmstadt 1967). SOURa: PUBLICATIONS; i\Iaterial is published in articles sca[ tered among many journals. Tbe most importanr journals include these: Nlt1Ilimwic Chrollicle (London 1837 fL); RC'"J1le beige de la 11lnllmllJtique (ßrusscls 1842 ff.); Numis"/lllltisclJe Zeitschrift (Vi enna 1869 ff., 1949 ff.); Zeiuchrift für Nl/miNllati/.! (Berlin 18741935) ; Rn.me numislllatique franfais (Paris 1936 ff.) ; Rit,ista italian.1 di nU7llimmtica ("'libn 1888 ff.); Jahrbuch für N,mt;mMlik und Geldgescbichte (Munich 1949 ff.). An essential tool is NU7llimmic LitITaturc, published by [he American Numismatic Society (New Vork [947 ff.), which givcs regular bibliographie repons. Bibliography is also a concern of Schweizer Afümbliitrer (Basel 1949 ff.). Theodor Mommscn planned a Corpus 7lImnllorum, and a fcw volumcs were publishcd by [he Prussian Academy, but ir then ceased. Published volumes include: Antiken Mihl'un Nord-Griech enlands, e
,,8
Basic Dirciplinel
Greek Coins (29 vols. SO far, London 1873 ff.); eilt, der 1l101i1laier grecquer de Ja Bibliotheque Nati07Ulle (2 vo1s., Paris 1890-1893), cd. E. Babdon; ;;md also from the Bibliotbeque, LeI Perses tlchbnen ides, etc. and LeI rois de Syrie, ete. Smaller collcccions in Britain publish their holdings in Sylloge NU1mll{JTftm. Other publicarions
are those of the Danish National Museum in Copenhagen and the coUection of H. v. Aulock, a German, in course of publication since '957, GREEK COiNS; A survey is given by the cited work of B. v. Head; also sec G. F. Hili, Historical Greek Coins (London 1906); P. Gardner, A History of Ancient Coinage 70Q-300 Be (Oxford 1918); B. V. Head, A Gllide to the Prmcipal Coins o( tbe Greekr from CIl. 700 Re. tQ A.D. :17° (London [931); eh. Selrman, Greek
Coins: A History of Metallic Cummcy and Coinllge dO'UJ1l to the Fall of the Hellenistic Kingdollls (ed. 2, London 1955). Following is a seleerion of m i portanr monographs: Ch. Seltman,
Athenr: Itr Hirtory and itr Coinage Before the Perrian Invasion (Cambridge 1924); E. Boehringer, Die Mümen 'Von Syrakm (Berlin 1929); also the older and in same respects hisrorically unsatisfactory work of J. N. Svoronos, Ta vop.'up.a'Ta 'TOV I(p,hovS' 'TWV IlTo�,,_
(4 "ols., Arhens 1904-19°8). The monographsof [he Ameri c�n scholar E. T. Newell are fundamental, among them: Tbe Coin age of Delllctriuf Poliorettes (1927), The Coinllge of tbe Eastern Se/eI/eid Mintr (New York 1938), Tbe Coinage of tbe Western Se/eucid Mi1lfs (1941). A bibliography of Newell's works was published in AJPb (1947), 427 ff. Historians will find useful the bibliographies of Greek numismatics published regularly n i Jahr p.alcuv
buch fur NlImimllltik und Grldgescbicbu.
ROMAN C(IISS: For the Re ublic rhe standard work is E. A. p Sydenham, Tbe Coinage of tbc R01l1im Repllblic (London 1951), re rhe material is given in H. hhtting[y and E. A. for rhe Empi Sydenham, The Roman ImpCTUlJ Coinage, 7 vols. (London '923196r abbreviated RlC), which cover coin�ge from Augusrus to Constanrine, and vol. 9 (1951), which covers from Valenrinian I ro Theodosius I. See also H. Marcingly, Roman CO;1/S from the Earl;r!t Tillll!s to thr Fall of the Western Empire (3 \'o[s., ed. 3, London 1967 ). Still usdul is G. F. Hili, Historicill Roman Coins fr01/t Ihr Ellrliest Ti11les to the Reign of AugllStl/J (London 1909). -An important work of historical srudy is P. Strack, Umerrochu7Ig_ en 2m römischen Rrichr/'Tiigung der <1. Jahrh. ( } vols., Sruttgart 1931-1937). Imponant results should come from the Numismatische Kommission der Länder in der Bundcsrepublik DeUtsChland, which is planning a "eritical reeva[uation of Roman coins fouod in Ger-
B.uic DiscipUlltl
'"
many." A survey of i15 work is given by K. Christ, Antike NfI1llis11Iatik (1967), 95. For lare Antiquity see: J. Sabaricr, Description generale des 11I0nnaies hyzontines (3 vo[s., Paris 1867; fepr. 1930); J. Maurice, Numis7IIatique comtantinienne (2 "O[S., Paris 1906-19I3); ,v. Wroth. British Museum Catlogue: Imperial Byzamine Coinr (1 \'ols., London (908); idem, Catalogue 01 tbe Coim 01 tbc VIl1ldals . . . (London ( 9 1 1 ) . RULERS ON ANCIENT COINS; K. Rcgling "Münzkunde," Gercke-Norden Ib (ed. 4, 193°), 98. On coins as iconograph.ic sources see F. Imhoof-Blumer, Porträtkäpfe auf antiken Münzen hellenischer u. hellenisierter Völker (Leipzig 1885), and Porträt köPfe allf rÖ11l. MÜ1Izen (cd. 2, Leipzig 1892); R. Delbrück, Die Miillzbild1lisu von Man1llrmls bis CarillllS (A.D. 2H-28r) (Berlin i Mii1lwild (Munich 1940); P. R. Frnnke, Röm. Kaiserporträts m 1961). HlSTORICAL EVENTS ON ,o\XCIENT COINS; Th. Reinach, L'hir toire par ler 7I/fJ1maies (Paris 1902), is a collecrion of srudies on Pom:us, Paphlygonia, ßithynia, Commagene, and other topics, and ie discusses the problems of using (he coins :lS bistorical saurces. See also H. Marnngly, CAH XII (1939), 7 1 ] ff., and. above all, the works of Andrcas Alfö[di, same of which are noted in the bibliog raphy of CAN XII ( 1 939), 746 ff.; more reeent works by him in clude h.is srudies on the origins of the Principate, emirled "Die Geburt der kaiserlichen Bildsymbolik," MN 7 (1950). I ff.• MH 8 (1951). t90 ff.,AfH 9 (1951), 204 ff.,MH 10 (1953). 103 ff., :rnd his Sttldie'1/ übCT CaeJars M01larchie (Lund (953), and an essay in Schweizer Münzblatter 18 (1968), 57 ff. K. Kraft has also pub lished a serics of imponant srudics in Roman history whieh dcpend on numismatic sources, most of them in lNG. Also valuable are: H. Suthcrland, Comage and Roman Imperial Policy (;JI B.C.-68 AD.) (London 1951); M. Grant, From Im perium to Auctoritas: A Hirtorical Study of Aes Coinage in the Roman Empire 49 B.C.-A.D. 14 (Cambridge 1946, now being rc fnr the ml1nicip�l policics of C�cs�r print..d), An import<\nt �nd August; see review by F. Virtinghoff. Gn01ll01l (1950), 150 ff. A good survey of Roman coinage and history is K. Christ, "Antike Siegcsprägungen," Gy17marilrm 64 (1957), 5°4 ff.; also suggestive on :rnother topie is h.is "Die antiken Münzen als Quelle der west fälischen Geschichte," Westfalen 35 (19f7), 1 ff. Coins are especially imporunr as sources for srudy of tbe other wise doeumem-poor Hcllenistic states in Bactria and India, fot which see: P. Gardner, Tbe Coins of the Greek and Scythic Kmgs
:ttudy
"
.
BQJic Disriplints
of Bactria and [ndia (London 1886), now much out of date; W. Tarn, Thc GTeekr in BaclTia and lndia (cd. I, Cambridge 1951); the note of N. Debevoise, A Political History 01 PllTtbia (Chicago 1938). 6}; and, most reetnt, K. Christ, Antike NU11Iirmatik (1967). 41. For the hiswry of Epirus see P. Franke, Die antikro Mf inun von EpirusI (Wiesbaden 1961). lmporcant for methodology is Louis Robert, lituder de mmris matique grecque (Paris 1951), a collection of outstanding srudies on
numismacic, epigraphic., and geographie subjects. RELiGIOUS HlSTORY ",ND (PINS; Outstanding examplcs of his torieal USt oi coins n i the srudy of rdigious history 3rC A. D. Nock, CAH XII (1939), 41l ff., lmd [hc lecture of\V. \Veber, "Die Ver einheitlichung der religiösen Welt," Probleme de-r Spiitantike (Stutt gart 1930), 67 ff. PR.OPAGANDA "ND COiNS: A Alföldi, "The Main Aspeets of Political Propaganda on the Coinage of the Roman Republie," Essays . . . Harold Afattingly ([956), 63-95; and A Frstival o[ his in
Rome under tbe Cbristian E1IIprrors o[ tbe TVrb Century (Diss. rann. 1.7, Budapest [937), and Die Kontorniaten: Ein '1JeTkanntes Propaganda1llitte1 der heidnischl!1l stadtTömiscben Aristokratie (ßu dapcst 1943); see also O. Th. Schutz, Die Recbtstitel u. Regierungs progral1mte nur. rÖlll. Kaisermütr-C1l (von Oifar bis Sf!'IJt!TU$) (Stu dien z. Geschichte u. Kultur des Altertums 13.4, Paderbom. 1915), to be
userl, however. with caution. D"TING: J. Vogt. Die alexandrinischen Mii7lU7l: Grundle gung einer alexandrinischen Kailergeschichte (2 vols., Sruttgan [914); supplementary material in J. Milne, Catillogue of Alexll1ldrian Coim in the AsmnoJell1l Museum (Oxford 19P). ECONOMIC HISTORY "NO coms: Starisrics on coin hoards are of fundamental imponance. For the evidence and methods used see S. P. Noe, A Bibliography of Greek Com Hoards (cd. z, Ncw York [937), and his "Hoard Evidcnce and Irs Imporrance.," Hes peria, Supplement 8 (1949). 235 ff. See also F. Heichelheim, "Die Ausbreitung der Münzgeldwirnchafr u. der Wirtschaftsstil im archäischen Griechenland," Schmollers Jahrbuch 55 (1931). H9 fr., and his "Wirtschaftshistorische Beiträge z. klassisch-griechisch u. hellenistischen Münzhormatiscik," TransllctjO'lJS of ImemationaJ
NU11Iis11llltic Congrell 1938.
Especially valuahle. in view of the connections between pre Roman Britain and the Mediterranean world, is J. G. Milne, Fn i ds i thc British Tslet (London 1948), showing coins of Greek Corns n present there from Greek cines reaching from Aradus n i Phoenicia to G:tdes n i Spainj see also M. Wheeler, Rome beyond tbe Imperial
Basic Disciplints
, ',
(1954), based on Roman coin hoards fOllnd as far as the /'\'lekong delta. On Greek money see the symhesis of K. Christ, "Die Gricchcn ll. das Geld," Saeculum I ; (1964), : 1 4 ff. Instructive is the essay of M. Rostovtzeff, "Some Rcmarks on the hIonenr)' and Com mereial Poliey of thc Selellcids and Attalids," Anlltolitm Studies . . . W. H. BI/ckler (Manchester 1939), 177 ff. See also on this ropic G. K. Jcnkins, "Thc Monemry Systcms in thc Early Hellcnistic Timc, with Special Rcgard to the Economic Policy of the Ptolemaic Kings," Proceedings of the International Nllmis1llatic C071Vemi01J IIt !erusa/em 196; (Tel Aviv aod Jerusalem 1967), 53 ff. The CJuescion of when the Roman denarius was first minted is examined by H. Mattingly, "The First Age of the Roman Coinage," !RS 19 (19:9), 19 ff., and, with E. S. Robinson, "Tbc Date of the Roman Denarius (which he places ar 187 B.C.] and Othcr Laod marks in Early Roman Coinage," PRA 1 8 ( 1 93 2 ) , 1 1 1 ff., and "The Romano-Campanian Coinagc: An Old Problcm from a New Anglc," !lVI I (1938), '97 ff. Also valuabic arc R. Thomsen, Early Rom,m Coinilge (3 \'015., Copcnha co 1957-'96,), 30d, most reccmly, K. g Christ, Antike Nfnl/Jmmik ( 1 967), 57, and R. E. l'\Iitchcll, Ne
Frontiers
(1966), 66 ff.
__
VII
__
Allied Disciplines
The closc connection of lare Amiquity wirh the e:.uly Middle Ages has heen repearedly stressed by scholars in recent years. as in Henri Pirenne's MQbtmnned and Cbarlemagne, Ernst Kornemann's accoum of the Roman Empire in Gercke-Norden and in his Weltgw;hicbte des Mittelmeemnnles, l and-above all-in the socioeconomic studies of Alfons Dopsch and H. Aubin on thc: tr.msicion from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. In particular these scholars have refuted the tnldirional "catasrrophe rheory," and insread have demonsU'llted that medieval society wok fann n i an evolutionllty mannet, lind that its origins rcachcd far back into Antiquity. For these rC3SCll1S 00 one cao insist any longer on a sha'l' division bctween andem and medieval history. On thissee H. Aubin, HZ 168 (1942), 119 ff. Gassical phi l ology is narurally allied [0 ancient history because an imponant part of the sources is used by both disciplines and thesc twO disciplines have for centuries been pursued together by individual scholars. Nevertheless, the separation of ancient his torical and philological studies which is now usual in univcrsities is justified, particularly because thc historian and the philologist havc different objectives. The fI"2gmentuy stlte of the ancient tI"2dition compels the historian. in addition to studying thc aneienr historians, [0 analyzc the poCts and evcn thc rechnical writers to SC(: what in formation they can give. The student oE thc Augusran age, for example, cannot confine himself to the primary SQurces and thc historiaos; he must pay atten60n to the contemporarypoets (Hornce, Vergil, Ovid, Propenius, and others), scholars (Verrius Flaccus, Hyginus), and scientists (the architect Vitruvius, the geogI"2pher Strabo, the astronomer Manilius). The historian must have learncd not only to read the ancient saurces, but also to imcrprtt them, and to do [hat hc must luve a thorough training in the methods oE dassi cal philology. ."
Al/ied Disciplines
'"
Generally the historian will lealle the ediring of texts to phi l olo gists, despite exceprions such as Mommsen's editions. ß. Niese's Josephur, and E. Hohl's Historia Augutta. In matters of interpreta tion, howeller, the historian will have w depend on his own judg ment. In this way the tWO disciplines will continue in the future [0 aid each othet. Henee thete is no real teason for the opposition stressed by Karl Beloch wirh his phrase "philology or hiswry," which he used w justify anacks on philologists because he thought they were "inllading" the sphere of history. Srudents of Antiguity also depend on classical archeology. Lit erally "archcology" means "science of prehistory," bur in faCt rhe term has been extended to n i clude the excavation and interpretation of ancient monuments. Fot the historian of Antiquity the important thing will not be a formal analysis of the monuments, hur rather the question of how far the monuments rcflcct rhe historical expe rience of peoples and cuhures. Ancient Near Eastcm history muse conccrn ellery srudent who takes scriously thc concept of a general history of Antiquity, as formulated by Eduard IHeyer. The advaneed eivilizations of Egypt, Mcsopotamia, Asia hhnor, and Perna a11 provide the background against which the achiellements of the Greeks and Romans must be plaeed TO be fully appreciated. Furthermore, it s i only through srudy of the languagcs rhat the Student ean grasp the essence of Near Eastern history, because language is the key rhat unlocks a culrure's sectets. Research in thc history of thc aneiem Ncar E:ast requires Egyptology, euneifoIlTl, and lranian srudies. Even masrery of a single languagc will lead tO a significant c:>:pansion of a scholar's viewpoint, whieh will then in rum cnrieh his undcmanding of othcr hiswrical pcriods. Ir would be a mistake however, tO think that study of the Near Eastern languages will lead immediarcly tO im ponant historical conc1usions; that comes only after long and pa tienr work. This is the place [0 warn the student against using rranslations of Near Eastc:m teXtS or inrerpreting them philologically as if they were original texts. Just as the aneicnt Ncar East marks the beginning of Antiguiry, so Byzantium is its finale. The so-ealled early B)'UIntine pcriod, usually dcfincd by the names of Constantine l and Hcraclius (A.D. JZ4--641), is studied by both Romanists and B)'UIntinisrs., though the Romanist is inreresred more in the period's link wich the past, [he Byzantinist in its connections with the Middle Agcs. Thc central
A/lied Ducip/ines
'"
organ of Byzantine studics is thc Genua" journal Byzantinische Zdtrchrifr, founded in 1892 by K. Krumbacher ( 1 856--1909), later cditcd by F. Dölger and, at present by H. G. Beck. Its [howugh and critical bibliogrnphics provide the historian with a [001 to keep up wirh eurrent research and so seleer whlt he can use for his own work. Comparative linguistics and Etruscology are essential TO every student interested in I-Ielladic and halic history, JUS! lIS is archeology. The methods of linguistics can be srudicd in Wilhe1m Schulze's Zur Geschichte lateinischer Eigennamen (Berlin 1904) lmd Eduard Schwyzer's Griechische Gr.mrmatik (� vok. 1939-1950), as well as in Ferdinand Sommer's works. Study of nonliterate culeures must depend on the djscipline con ccmed with primitive peoples. cultllral anthropology, which deals wich the history of humanity from Paleolithic emes to rhe bcgin nings of written bistory. The distinetion between prehistory and ancient history is vague, henee the use of a new tenn, "early his tory," diseussed above. Aneiem history and amhropology are nee ess:arily eonneeted, (or it would be absurd i( the srudem of ancient history ignored the Helladie and Tralie periods simply beeause they have eicher lefe no written records or have lefr reconh which, as is true o( Minoan, are as yet undeciphered. Finally, the student of anciem history will bc interested in the e!forts of scholars to ereate a eoneeprual framework for the analysis of aneiem legal systems. In parricular the question whether rccipro eal inllucnce or independent discovery lies behind [he deveiopment of law is of great interest to the historian. This is especially true for the evalu:ltion of Roman hw, whieh Fritz Schulz has eallcd "rne purest expression of Roman civilization and the most authoritarive wimess to Roman greamess." BIBLIOGRAPHY H1STORY "'�o PHILOLOGY: H. Usencr, "Philologie u. Ge schichtswissenschafc," Vorträge und Aufsiitze (,88l), f ff.; Ed. Meyer, Kleine Schriften I (1910), 65 ff; for a differem view see Werner Jaeger, NJA 3 7 (1916), 81 ff., reprinted in Humanistische RedenulId Aufsiitze (1937), 1 ff. CLASSlCAL AReHEOLOGY: For its imponance see eh. 5, which also lisrs the more imponant journals in the field. ",NCIRNT NUR EAST: Reseuch in its languages and culrures is
Al/ied Disciplines
,6,
covered in these journals: Arcbw fiir Orirntforrchung (Berlin, later Groz, '916 ff.); Mitteilungen der Dr:tmcben Orientgcscllscbaft (Berlin 1899 fF.); TVicner Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgen landes (Vienna 1887 tf.); Zeitschrift der D(!Iftschl!'ll Morgenlälldi_ schen Gesellrchaft (Leipzig [846 tf.); Zeitschrift der deutschen Pa l ästinavcreins (Leipzig 1878 tf.); Orientalische Literaturzeitu.ng ([898 1f.). Non-German journals indude: AmllIal of thc American School of Oriental Research (New Havcn [920 tT.); Bullethz o{ the Ameri can Schools of Oriental Reuarch (South Hadley, later New Haven, '920 fF.); Journal of the Amcricl111 Oriental Sodety (New Haven 1851 H.); AlIIerican Journal of Semitic La7/guages {lnd Lit('1'atures, from 1942 The Journal of Near Eastern Smdics (Chieago 18g8 tf.); Archw Orientalni (Prague 1929 tf.); Le Monde Orie1lfal (Uppsala 1906 H.); Orientalia: new series (Rome [931 fr); Bihliotheca Qrierltalis (Leiden 1944 tf.). Two series useful to the hisrorian are: Der Alte Oriellt (Leip7.ig 1903-1945), which indudcs many brief monographs, and the serics Dar /Horge1lIand. EGYPTOLOOY: Introductions ro language and wriling: A. Er man, Ägyptische Grl11lmlJtik mit Schriftta{el, Paradig1llen, etc. (ed. 4> Leipzig 1928); H. Brunner, Abriss d. mitte/agyprischen Grallnllll tik (cd. ! , Graz [967); with which use the Wärm'buch da ägJ'p tischen Sprache publishccl by the Prussi�n Ae�clcmy (6 \'ols., Leipzig and Berlin 1926-195°), also the Brlegstellm. On this venrure see A. Ennan and H. Grapow, Das IVärterbllch der ägypti$chell Sprache: Zur Geschichte eines grosren 'Wissemchaftlichen Umernehmens der Akademie (Berlin 1953). Speeial journal� include: Zeitschrift fiir ÄKyptische Sprache (Leipzig 1863 Jl ) ; Journal of Egyptitm Ar ehseology (London I 914 fr.). An imporram series is Ägyptologische Forschungen (Glücksradt [936 lf.), foum:!ed by A. Scharff, now edited by H. W. Müller. ASSYRIOLOGY: Imroduction: A. Un!!llad, Bab)"lollircb-arsyr ircbe Grammatik, with cunciform render (�I\lnich [9!7; cd. 4 by A. Matous, '96..) ; R. Borget, ßabyloniscb_<1ssyrischc Lcscbiichcr (3 voI5., Rome 1963). Basic work: \V. " . Soden, Grundriss der akkadiscbl!'ll Gr.mnnatik (Romc 1952). Sinct! 1956 a targe dictionary has been appearing in pans, The Assyrian Dietionary of the Griental Imtimte of tbe Universit} of Chicago. For the history of Assyrian le;'(icography see R. Borget. BQ (1957), 1 1 4 lf. Also in process of publicacion 15 'V. v. Soden, Akkadisches Hsnd�JJörterblich (Wies baden I 959-present; eight fascicles pllbl15hcd by 19(7)' Special journals include: Zeitschrift fÜT Assyriologie (Leipzig 1886 tf.);
,"
Al/ied Dirciplines
Revue d'Arsyriologie et d'Arcbeologie Orientale (Paris 1884 ff.); Journal of CuneifOTtn Studiel (Ncw Haven 1947 ff.). HlITITE STUDIES: Pioneer work toward decipherment of Ihr
Hittite documcnts was done by B. Hrozny; sec his preliminary report, "Die Lösung des hethitischen Problems," MDOG S6 (De cemher 1915), aod Die Sprache der Hethilber: Ihr Bau und ihre Zugehörigkeit 'ZUm indogmmmircbenSpracbstatmll (Leipzig 1917). There:1fter the outstanding contributions wtre the works of Ferdi naod Sommer: "Die Al:tbijava-Urkunden," ABAlV nJ. 6 (1931); "Abbijavafrage und Sprachwissenschaft," ABAW nJ. 9 (1934); "Die akkadisch_hethitische Bilingue des Ij'atusilis 1. (Labarna 11.)," ABAW nJ. 1 6 (1938), written wich A. Falkenstdn; Hethiter ". Hethitisch (Stuttgart '947). See also Johann Friedrich, Hethitiscber ElemrntltTbuch (2 vols., ed. 2, Heidelberg 1960-1967), and his Wörterbuch (Heidelberg 195Z-1954) with supplements (1957, 1961). For information on journals lind monogrnphs in the field see A. Goetze, Kulturgeschichte des Alten Orients: Kleinasirn, in Müller (ed. 2, 1957), 83. For recent research see G. Walser, Neuere HethiterfoTlchung (Historia, Emulschrift 7, Wiesbaden 1964). IRANIAN STUDIES: \V. Brnndenstein and M. Mayrhofcr, Hdb. des Altpersischrn (Wiesb:.lden 1964). Also useful: W. Hinz, Altper fischer lVartuh.1TZ (Abh. für die Kunde du M01'81mltmdes '7'"
Leipzig 1941).-An older ide to Achaemenid documents is F. H. � Weissbach, Die Keilmrch n ften der Achiimeniden (Vorderluiatische Bibliothek 3, Le ipzig 1 9 1 1 ) ; documcnts discovered there-after are print ed by E. Herzfeld, Altpersische Imchriften (Bedin 1938). See also R. G. Keßt, ora Persian; GrllmmtIT, Texts, Le:ricon (New Haven 1950; cd. 2, 1953). Journa1s: Zeitschrift für Indologie und lrl11listik (Leipzig 1921-1936); Archäologische Mitteilungen aus lrl11l, cd. E. Hcrzfeld (Berlin 1929130 ff., 1968 ff.). BYZA)
Das Studium der bYZ471ti llischen Geschichte 'lJ1J'I11 Hll7mmimms bis zur JetZtzeit (Athens 1934); G. Ostrogorsky, HistOTY of tbe ByZ471tine Stau, tr. J. Husscy (Oxford 1956, and Rutgcrs, N. J. 1957). Recen! researches of scholars in alJ countries are reviewcd thor oughly by F. Dölgcr and A. M. Schneider, Byzanz (Bem 1951). A thoughtful comribution is F. Dölger, "Aufgaben der byzantini schen Philologie von heute," A ltertum 1 (1955), 41 H. Journals: Byuntinircbe Zeitschrift (Leipzig 1892 ff.); Byzantion, ed. H. Grcgoire (BrusseIs 1914 H.). COMPARATIVE L1NGUISTIC'l: For an im:roduct ion see H. Krahe, Indogermanische Sprllcbwissenschllft (Sammlung Göschen 59 and 6+. ed. 3, Berlin 1958-1959); a1so these older wodes: A. Meillet,
C>py'
xl
Alikd Disciplinn lntToduction
" 7
Neude comparalive des la1/gue! indo-europrennes (ed. 8, Paris '937; repr. 1953); J. Schrijnen, Einführung n i das Studium der indogeT11lJmischen Sprachwissenschaft (Heiddberg 1921), and Stand und Aufgaben der Spracbu.!issmschaft: Ferncbri't für W. Strcitberg (Heidelberg [924)' HistOrians will find uscful the excellent book of \V. Porz.ig, Das Wunder der Sprache (Sal1nniU11g Dalp 7 I, Bern [950), wirh a full bibliography, pp. 395-397. Journals: Kuhnt ZeitIchrift für Vergleichende SprachWissenschaft (Berlin, Iarer Göttingen, 1852 fL); Indogermanische Forscbu7Igt71 (Stras: bourg, later Berlin and Leip zig 1891 ff.); Gloua (Göttingen 1909
a
ff.). An cxcellent survey of rhe enrire field with allied disciplines is gi\'en by Indogmmmische Jahrbuch (1914 ff.). ETRUSCOLOGY: Iruroduction tO its problems is given by Eva FieseI, Geschicbte der indogermanischen Spraclr.JJisre7Jschaft V. 4 (193'); but now the best guide is i\I. PaJlottino, Emlscologia (ed. 5, M:ilan 1963; n i English: The Etrumms, tr. J. Cremona, Harmonds wonh, England 1956) .-Currcnt research is indicated by rhe con tributions of various scholars co the special Etruscan issue of Historia 6 (1957). See also M. Pallortino, "Nuovi srudi sul pcoblema delle origini etrusche (Bilancio critico)," SE 29 (196,), 3 tf.-The Etrus can inscriptions were col!ectcd in the Corpus lmcriptionum Emu cmmt (Leipzig 1893 ff.); and a selecrion is printed in M. PallQ[rino, Testimollia linguae ElTUScae (Florcnce 1954). The outstanding joum:al is Seudj Etmschi (Florcnce 1927 ff.). PREHISTORY: Scill indispensable. rhough in part outdated, is Reallexikon der Vorgeschicbte, cd. Max Ebert (15 \'ols., Berlln 1924-19P); there is no brief survcy for the beginner. A useful subsrirute is rhe text of the Grosser Hiuoriscber Weltatlas des Bayerircben Schulbucbverlages I: Vorgeschicbte und Altertum (ed. 3, 1958); the section on prehistory is b V. Milojcic, who also prepared the m:aps. Presemly in course 0 publicarion is Hdb. der Vorgeschichte, cd H. !\'Iüller-Karpe; so far publishcd is vol. 1 (Mu nich 1966), covering paleolithic nmes. LEGAL IIlSTORY: Survey of the field: L. \Venger, Der heutige
r
.
Stand der römirchC'1l Rechrswirunrchpft: Erreichter rmd Ernrebtef (Alüncbener Beiträge 1 I, Munich 1927); see :also the S3me scholar's bibliographie reviews of legal srudies in the Archr"l fÜT Papyms forscblmg VII ff., :lOd his essay, "Wesen und Ziele der ann1cen Rechtsgeschichte," Studi . . . P. Bonfante 1I (1929), 465 «.-The leading journal in [he fjeld is Zeitschrift der Savignystiftlmg fiiT Rechtsgeschichte: R011lanistische Abteilll1lK (\Veim:u 1880 ff.); the
inscirutc's other journili on canonicaI and Gennanic law ase Jcss useful to the student of ancient history.
__
VIII
__
Reference Works and Journals
Scholars of anciem hisrory, like therr coUeagues n i classical philol ogy, archeology, and ather aUied disciplines, depend on many warks of reference. They may be divided among these categorics: die rionaries., encyclopedias, manuals, and bibliogI'2phies. Interpretation of ancient wtts depends on dictionaries. For Latin tbete is the Grosser Georges (2 vols., cd. 8, 1913-1918, ohen re· primed); for teSe2rch on Roman political and sacral law there is the work begun by E. \VÖlfilin. Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (1900 ff.), a splendid rool hut not yet completed; so far the "olumes on A-I (to iugum), M (ta myzon), and its onomasticon to D ha"c heen published. The best Greek dictionary is the Greek-English Lericon, cd. Liddell-Scotr-Jones (cd. 9. Oxford '940), with Supplement, ed. E. A. Barber (Oxford 1968). A modem thesaurus of aneieot Greek is lacking; the old ane by Stephanus is lang out oE date, but as yet there is no replaeement. The major referenee work on the aneient world is the Real Encycbpadie der classischen Altertu11ls'Wirunschaft. It was begun in 1839 by A. Pauly. then in 1893 Geotg Wissowa began pubishing l an enrirdy new edition, and his work was continued by \V. Krol� K. Mittelhaus, and (the present editor) K. Ziegler. The monumental work (abbreviated RE) is now almost completed, volumes having been issued for A-Q and R-Z (Z is incomplere); in addition there are 1 1 supplements, which deal wirh subjecrs overlooked or requir ing revision. Its 60-odd thick volumes make the RE :I. mine of in formation on absolurely all aspeclS of Antiquity. Dictionariesof biography are called prosopographies; they collect, evaluate. and render accessible the basic infonnation on individu:w ,68
Rcfercnce Works and Journals
,6,
of :l panieular period or n i a partieular aeuvity. Two of these are espeeially important: the Prosopographia Attica of Johanncs Kirch ner, and the l'rosopogrflphia lmprrii R01llfllli, sponsored by the Prus sian Academy, of which four \'olumcs have been published so far. Among the manuals the most imponant is the Handbuch der klas siscbf1/ Alremnmwinenschaft, begun n i 1886 by the philologist Ivao von Müller. Its sphtre was eolarged and its tide changed co HlflIdbuch der A/rertu1l1f'WisSNlscbaft by the hislOrian \-"alter Quo ( 1 878-1941), and it now con:rs the culture, literJture, and hisrory of not only the classical Mediterranean world but also its neighbor ing areas-the ancient Near East and northern Europc:. The core of the serics are the vo[umes devoted to historieal, eonstitutional, and literary synthcses, of whieh twO are unequaled in their fields: W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen ti/eTa/ur, and M. Schanz and C. Hosius, Geschichte der römischen Literatur. Lcss ambitious in scope is the Eillleilllllg ill die AlrerIll1J/S'Wisse1I sch.lft, eds. A. Gercke aod E. Norden. The complete work is no longer in print, but individual volumes are. More important as a guide to the current development oE ancienr hisroriC21 studics are the journals, for they make possible the publica tion of shoncr works. Thc number of journals imporraot for re search in [he field is brge, and [he most imponam in a11 eountries are surveyed here: Gennan journals which are panicularly imponant are: Hit/ar· ische Zeitschrift, founded in 1859 by H. v. Sybel, aod devmed pri marily to srudics in medieval and modem hisrory, but IIcverthcless important ro the student of ancient hisrory bccause of its eacholie viewpoint and bibliographie repons; Klio, eonraining anicles on anciem history, and onee again being pubished l since 1959; aod Histor;1l (1950 tf.), (he intern:nional journal of historians of An riquiry. Of philological journals the most notewonhy is Hemter, a journal of dassiC2l philology which was founded n i 1866 by 'lllcodor Mommsen. Also imponant is Gnomon (1915 if.), whieh i is devoted exclusively ro eritical evaluation of new publications n all fields of dassical srudics. Valuable work in the aneient studics is published by the various lcarned academies. In Gennany thcse ineludc ehe German Aeademy (fonnerly the Prussian Academy) in Berlin, the Bavarian AC2demy in Munieh, and the Aeademics of Göningeo, Heidelberg, Leipzig, and Mainz. Importam non-Gcrman organizarions inc1ude [he British
'70
Rq"mce Works lI1Id Journals
Academy of London. Acadernie des Inscriptions et BeIles Lettres of Paris, Accademia dei Lineei of Rome, Accademia di Torino of Turin. and the Akademie der Wissenschaften of Vienna. Great scholars published by the Berlin Academy include Thcodor Momm sen. U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Eduard Meyer, O. Hirsch feld, E. Norden, U. Wilcken, W. Jaeger, M. Gelzer, and E. Hohl; the Bavarian Academy published among others works by R. v. Pöhlmann, E. Schwanz, W. Oua, A. v. Premersrein, W. Ensslin. and H. Berve. Attention should also be given to series, that is, those collections of monographs which are published separately :md without any neces sary connection. Same are published as Beihefte by journals, among thern Historische Zeitschrift, Klio-, Hermes, Pbilologus. Other note wonhy series nclude i in Germany Mii.n cbmer Beiträge zur Papyms fOTscbung und aTltiken Rechtsgeschichte (191.5 ff.), and in the United St:J.tes HllMJard Studies in C/artical Phi/ology (Cambridge, Mass. 18(}O ff.) and Yale Classical Studies (New Haven 19z8 ff., so far 10 volumes). Equally valuable are thebooks which contain the collected articles of important scholm. Ohen the n i dividual srudies are scattered and difficult to lind, and eheir colleccion �enders ehern aeccssib!e
Co
scholars. The most importaot example of this is the Gesat/mlefte Schriftt!71 of Theodor Mommsen (8 vols., Berlin 1905-19' J). With his Reden und Aufsiitze (Berlin 190.5) these volumes cOnsUnue tbe great scholar's most precious bequCSl: [Q future generations. Also worth noting are the following; Kieme Schriftt!71 of the eritie and historian Alfred von Gutschmid (s vols., ed. Fr. Rühl, 1889-1894) ; FOTfcbungm zur Alten Gerchichte of Eduard Meyer (1 vols., 18911899), also bis Kleine Scbrifte7l (1 vols., Halle 1910-1914); Gesam melte Schriften of U. v. WiI�mowirz-Moellendortf (so far volumes 1, 1, S. Berlin 1933 ff.). It would be a great aid [0 scholarship [0 have mus collecred the scattered works of such scholars as Ulrich Wilcken, Adolf Wilhe1m, and AnIon von Premerstein. Outside Gennany thete are excellent examples of such publications, among them the works of the distinguished French scholar Mauriee Hol leaux, Emdes d'lpigrapbie er d'bistoire grecques, ed. L Roben (s vols. so far, Paris 1938 tf.), and the articles of the Swedish scholar Manin P. Nilsson, Opuscula selecta (3 vols., Lond 19S I-1960). Bibliographies and review anic1es are indispensable for the stu-
Reference Worb rnd JoUl7/41s
'7'
dent to keep abreast of the wealrh of research pubshed in boob il and articlcs throughout the world. Philologists and hisrorians will profit equally from srudy of Bursiam Jahresberichte über die Fortrchriue der klaJs. AlurtumPWimmchaft, which published criti cal review articlcs on all ficlds-history, literature, language, and re ligion. In pnctice this resultcd n i review anicles on a great variel)' of topics, e.g., Herodotus. Cacsac and the Caesarian Corpus, the Scriptores Hisroriae Augusrae, Guck hisrory, Greek constiturional law, the history of the Roman Empire, etc. The latu volumcs of Burrim cach have a summary of previous issues, allowing one ro find the last report on any ropic, :md from this in rum one can learn the earlier ones. In 1944 Burs;an ceased publication, and its place has been taken by Lumum (Göttingen 1956 ff.); its editors include scholars from Germany and other coumries.-Valuable bibliog raphies of Greek and Roman hislOry are published in the Re'".JlIe bistorique. Recemly ir published a review by A. Piganiol of work on Roman history during 1956-1964; cf. RH 134 (1965), 119-158. The last repon on Greek hislOry, by EJuard 'ViII, appcared in RH 138 ( 1 967), 377-·Hl.
Full bibliographies, giving titles of all books and journal articlcs, were published annually by the Bibliotbeca Pbi/ologica Clasrica ( 1 874-1938); its precision eamed the admiration of scholars. For the years stnce 1938 one must dcpcnd on Klas;ieke Bibliographie (Utrecht 1919 ff.) and on France's L'Annee philologique, cd. }. Marouzeau (Paris 1918 ff.), wruch covers the years from 1914 on, and is supplcmemed by }. Marouzcau, Dix Il1lTlCe; de bibliographique clasrique, '9'4-' 924 (z vols., Paris 1917-1918). Another imponanr tool is the bibliographie supplement (Bibliog raphie) published with the Jahrbuch des DeutsChen Arcbiiofogi ;chen I1mituts (1923/14 ff.); it is conccmed primarily with the monuments and their n i terpretation. Finally (here are imponam specialized bibliognphies. An example is Die PaliirtillaliteratuT, cd. P. Thomscn (6 vols.; voL 6, covcring 1935-1939, was published n i Leipzig, 1953-1956), which covers all studics on all aspects of Palcscine published during the years 18951939; a supplement covering [he years 1878-1894 is in prepanuon; the first fascicle appeared 1957 in Berlin. Also notewonhy are the bibliography of the Archiv fÜT OrientfoTSchllng, cd. E. F. Wcidner, and of the Indogenmmirchr; Jahrbuch.
R�erence Works and Journals
'7'
BIBLIOGRAPHY ENCYCLOPEDIAS: The Real-Encyclopädie der clarsirchen Altertumswissenschaft, c:ds. Pau[y and Wissowa (abbreviated RE)
includes (as of [968) \'ols. 1-2+.[ in the first scric:s, :lnd in [he: sec ond (lettcrs R-Z) volumes IA-9A, plus I [ supplementary volumes. A new edition in abbrcviated form is now appearing, Der Kleine Pauly: Lexikon der Antike. eds. K. Zieglcr and V. W. Somheimerj so far 3 vo\umcs (Sruttgan: 1963-1968) have appeared, up to ehe aniclc "Lyseis." Also an imporrant wal is ehe Dictiormaire der antiqllitis grecqller ef T01nllmer, eds. C. Daremberg aod E. Saglio ([0 vols., Paris 18771918); it is a va\llable guide tO the material culture of Antiquity. For ancient art: Encielopedia ddr arte ant;ca, classica ed orientale (Rome 1956 ff.), Useful brief manuals include: Fr. Lübker's Reallerikon des klas siscbtm Altertums, eds, ) Geffckcn and E. Zicbnrh (Leipzig 1914), which has gaps; Tbe Oxford CIIIHiclI1 Dicti011l1ry (cd. 1, 1970); :md Lexikon der Alten Wclt (Zürich and Sruttgart 1965), unforrunately prinred n i a single, bulky volumc. For Roman hisrory and constirutional law see Dhiollar;o epi grllfien di IIntichita rfmlllne, cd. E. Dc Ruggiero (Rome 189S 10. not yet compleced. Also still in course of publication is Reallerikon für Antike und ChristenttIm (Leipzig 1941 ff.). E.\:cellem articles on Antiquity by the best ltalian scholars are n i the Enciclopediil ltalana i (35 vok, Milan and Rome [9%9-1937). For fhe prehisrory and carly hisrory of the Meditcrranean see, though it is partly OUt of date, thc Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte. cd. Max Ebcrt ( 1 5 vok, Bcrlin 1924-19P).-Mythology is covercd by thc Ausführliches Lerikon der griechischen und römiscben Mythologie, cd. W. H. Roscher (6 vols., Leip zig 1884-1937). For lndo-European studies see the Reallerikon der lndogcrmanirchcn Altern m uk ll1lde. eds. Q. Schrader and A. Nehring (2 vols., cd. z, 19[7-1919). Not YCt completed is thc Realle:dkon der Assyriologie und dervordcrilsilltischen Altertumskunde, eds. E. Ebding, B. Meiss ner, and E. Weidner (Berlin 1931-1967); je has r eachecfthe :mide "Girsu." PROSOPOORAPHlES; Although nobody raday questions the im results gained by the prosopographic method, which n i dct:d om nt p h as been adopred by arher d1Sciplines, it is m i porrant tO teame its limitations. No matter how many careers and hves we know abour., l l the thoughts and values of the n i dividuals concerned generally sri remain hidden-and these are essential for an understanding of the ,
Reference WorkS4nd lourt/.1/s
spirit of an
age. On this topie see A.
Momigliano, Re/moni de! X
C01IgTCfru Intern. di SciNlZI.' srorichc VI (Romc 1955), 15-�6.
Important prosopographics include: F. Jusri, Iranischer Namen buch (Marburg 1895), which now requircs additions; J. Kirchner, Prosopographia Attica (2 vols., Berlin 1901-1903), "the Athenian address book"; supplements tO ie have been published by J. Sund
wall, Oe'Uersigt af Fhuka Vetenskaps Societetem Foerhandlingar 52 (1909-1910), voL I ; a new edition with coneord:mce was issucd
in 1966 by S. Lauffer. Also importam for Grcck prosopogr.t phy are: the index volume to (he journal Hespcria (1946); P. Pora lla, Pro
sopograpbie der LakedämOlIiet bis auf die Zeit Alexandets des
Grosren (Diss. Breslau 1 9 1 3 ) ; H. Berve, Das Alexmderreicb auf prosopographircbet Grundlage, voL 2 (Munich 1926), voL 1 being
an account of the administration and military system of Alexander's empire, a supcrb example of the historical usc of prosopographic materiaL For the Hellenistic period see P. Schoch, Proropographie det
militärischen und politiscIJen Funktionäre ;11/ hellenistischen tHake dm/ien (;Z3-i68 v. ebr.), in typescript (Diss. Basel (919); F. Hei chelheim, Die alw..värtige BevölkerulIg im Ptolemäerreicb (Klio, Beiheft 18, 1925), with su ple m ents in Archiv für Papyrusforsebung p 9, pp. 47 ff.; 1 1 , pp. 54 Ir.; H. Henne, Liste des strateges de nomes egyptiem a Npoque greco-romaine (Cairo 1935). Funher material in Hondius, Saxa /oquuntur (1938), 187. Presencly appearing is l'rosopograplJia PtolN/laiea by \V. Peremans and E. van't Dack (5
vols. so far, Louvain 1950 Ir.). For Roman ·studics see Prosopographia Imperi i Romani sarculi J, ll, lll, eds. E. Klebs, H. Dcssau, P. v. Rohden (3 vols., 18971898: abbreviared PlR) . A new edition by E. Groag, Leiva Perer sen. and A. Stein has been in publication sincc 1933; voL 3 appcared in 1958, voL 4 (up to Zales) in 1966.�Roman proso?,,?graphy also includes a number of srodics devoted 10 Ihe Impert31 officials of particular provinces, among them: A. Stein, RÖ1IIirchr Reichsbl!/111lte dcr PrO'Virrz Thracia (Sarajevo T9ZO), and Dir f-egatel1 von Moesiell (Dirr. r:1l1111onicae 1.1 I. Bud�pest 1<)4°). anrl Die Reichlhemntel1 von Dazien (Disr. Pa1l1lonieae I . n , Budapest 1944), and Die Prii fekten von Ägypten in det rirm. Kaiserzeit (Dirs. Betl1. t.1. Eem 1950); E. Groag, Die römischen Reichsbea7/lten von Acbai.1 bis auf
Diokletian (Schrifte1l d. Balkan-Konml. det Adad. d. Wirs. Wie1l, Amiqu. Abt. 9. Vicnna and Leipzig 1939), and Die Reiebsbeamten i sPätTo11lisehet Zeit (Diss. Pa1l1l. 1.1+ Budapest von Achain m 1946); W. Kunkel, HeTkul1ft 1/. soziale Stellung det röm. luristen
(ed. 2 , 1967).
Rq"roct Works and Journalr
'H
Ivan v. Müller founded the Handbuch der Alter he was succeeded as editor by \V. Ono (who died in 1941), and in 1953 by Hennann Bengrson. Thc Hand huch Is lanned w cover I z divisions, as folIows: ( I ) introductory p and auxlliary disciplines; (2) languagej (J) history and geography; (4) politics and law; (s) philosophy, science, :md rcligion; (6) ar cheology; (7) Greck literarure; (8) Roman literarucc; (9) Laein Jiterature of the Middle Ages; (10) legal history of Anciquityj ( 1 1 ) Gennanic anriquiriesj (11) Byzantine studies. The other major HlTlldbuch is rhat editcd by A. Gcrcke and E. Norden, thc Einleitung in die AltemmlS'Wissemchaft. Ir was pub shed iI in [hree volumes, which Weft issued n i third editions and parts in a fourth. The firn: volume incJudes Iiterary histories. Janguage, and metricsj volume two includcs rivate life, numismatics, art, re p' ligion, the exact sciences, and philosophy; volume three n i cludcs hisrory, consritutional law, and chronology. JOURNALS: In the following list some journals are marked with an astcrisk; this n i dicates that besides the regular issues the journal aIso publishes a separate series (variously called Beihefte, S01Iderscbriften, Supplemente, cte.). Journals mainly dc:votcd co criticism are marked wirh two asterisks, and those which have not begun publishing sincc World War TI are marked wirh a d�gger. AUSTRIA: (I) lViener Studien (Vienna 1879 ff.) .- ( 1 ) Anzei ger für die Altertu7ItJwisrenlchaft·· (lrmsbruck 1948 ff.). BELGIUM: (I) L'Antiquite cfalSique (Louvain 1931 ff.). (1) Le Mutee belge (Liege [897-1931 ).-(3) Revue belge de Phil ologie et d'HistoiTe (Brussels 1911 ff.).-(4) Let etudet clasriquer (Namur 1931 ff.)-(5) Lat01l1!1s: Revue tNtudet latiner (Brussels MANUALS:
nmlJ'wisrenrchaft;
'937 ff.).
BRlTAIN: ( I ) JournQI of Hellenic Studies (London ,880 ff.). -(2) JournQI of Roman SrudieJ (London 1911 ff.).-(3) ClasricQI Qumerly (London 1907 ff.).-(4) Clarsical Review·· (London 1887 ff.). FRANCl:: (I) Revue der itudes tmcienner (Bordeaux 1899 ff.)-(l) Rewe des etudes grecquet (Paris 1888 ff.).-(J) Revue des erudes IQtiner (Paris 1913 ff.).-(4) Revue historique (Paris 1876 ff.).-C5) Rewe de philolo!{ie, de litterQture, et d'histoire an_ ciennes (Paris 'BiS-I847, I8n ff.). GERMANY: (, ) DM Altertum (Berlin 1 955 ff.).-(1) Die Anriket (Berlin 1915 ff.).-(J) Archiv für Religiomwisse1/Schaft-t (Leipzig ,898 ff.).-(4) Gnomon·· (Berlin, then Munich, 1915 ff.).-(5) Gb"ttingiscbe Gelehrte Anzeigen (Göttingen and Berlin 1739 ff.).-(6) Hermes: Zeitschrift für klassische Philologie- (Leip-
zig, now Wiesbaden, 1866 ff.)-(7) Neue Jahrbücher fiir Wissen schaft find Jugmdbi/dtmg, then frorn 1938: Neue Jahrbücher
für Antike und deutsche Bi/dungt (Leipzig 1898 ff.).-(8) Klio: Beiträge zur Alten Geschichte· (Leipzig [902 ff.; 1959 ff.).-(9) Deutsche Literaturzeitung·· (Bcrlin [880 ff.).-(IQ) Rheinischer Mureu1II für Philologie (Bonn 1827 ff.) .-( I I) Philologlls· (Leipzig, now ·Wiesbaden. 1846 ff.).-(Il) Die Welt air Gerchichte (Sm]t gart 1935-19151).-(13) [Berliner] Philologische lVochenschriftt (Berlin and Leipzig 1881 ff.).-(14) Historia: Zeitrchrift für alte GelChicbte* (Baden-Baden, theo Wiesbaden, 1950, [953 ff.).-(15) Historische Zeitschrift· (Munich 1846 ff.). lTALY; ( [ ) Athenaeu7Il: StIld; periodici di lettrratura e ltoria ddr antichita (nuova serie, Pavia 1923 ff.).-{l) Rj..,irla di filologia e d'istruzione classica (Rome, then Turin, 1873 ff.).-(3) Studi italiani di jilologia cIassica (Florenee and Rome 1893 ff.).-(4) Pai dria (Mi l an 1946 ff.).-(s) 1'aroll1 dei 1'asrato (NapIes 1946 ff.). (6) Kok.llor (Palermo 1955 ff.). NETHERLANDS: Mnemorync· (Leiden 1851 ff.). NORWAY: Symbolae Or/omser (originally Symbolae Arctoae: Oslo '921 ff.). SWEDEN: Ermos (Uppsala 1896 ff.). SW1T".l:ERLANO: Muselml Helveticu11l (Basel '944 ff.). UNITED STATES: ( I ) A1IIeTicl111 JOl/rnal of Pbi/ology (BaItimare 1880 ff.).-(l) Classical Philology (1906 ff.).-{J) Classical WorM (originaUy Class;cal Weekl,: New York 1917 H.).
__
IX
__
Select Bibliography
Usefulsurveys and reference works are listed in Pan One. Part Two follows thc organiz.ation of thc Camhridge AT/cient Hilfory ( 1 1 vols., Cambridge 19l4-1939), and is therefore arranged in twelve seerions corresponding co che volumes of mat work. A thineenth secrion adels a few important wades on !ace Antiquity. PART ONE, GENERAL WORKS
I. REFEftENCE "NO BlIlLiOGRAPHY
A. BrcC(:ia, A'lNimllento e guida a/lv studio deli" ftoria e delle anticbita cllZIs1cbe (Pisa 1950). M. C"ry, er 111., eds., O;rford Clllnic,,1 Dict;onllTY (Oxford 1949)· E. Manni, Imroduzione alla nudio deI/li storia greea e r011lllM (cd. :, Palermo 1958). P. Petit, Guide de Ntudiant ro bisto;,e ancimne (Paris 1959). H. Scullard and A. v. d. Heyden. ShOTter Atlas of tbe Clasrical World (NcwYork 1967). O. SeyIfen, Dictionary of ClassicaJ Antiqllities, rev. Nenleship and Sandys (1891; repr. Oeveland 1966). W. Smith, Smaller Class;cal Dictionary, rev. Blakeney and Warrington (NewYork 1960) . C. Wachsmmh, Ei1l1ciwllg in das Studium der Alten Geschichte (Leipzig 1895).
11. SORVEYS
A. Genf!1'al A. ßmeman, Politicl and Culture in Imet1llltiolllll HiJtOTY (Princcton 1960). N. Fustel de Coulangcs, The Allcient City, tr. W. Small (1 864; repr. Ncw York 1955). F. Heichelheim, An Ancient Economic History (1 vok, Leiden 1958). '7'
Seleet Bibliography Heidand, AgricoJa: A SfUdy in AgrielllfUre and Rustie Life ;n the Greeo-Rolllim 1VOTId (Cambridge '921). M. Finley, ed., SllrVery in Cilluieal Antiqllity: Views and Confroversies (Cambridge 1960). H. Marroll, A History of EdflcMion;1/ Antiquity, Ir. George
W.
Lamb (New York 1956). O. Ncugcbaucr, Tbc Exaet Seiet/ces in Amiqlliry (ed. 1, Prollidence 1957). R. Taron, cd., Aneient and Mediet!31 Scir1U:e (New York
196) .
L. Thorndike, A HirtoTY of Magie and Experimental SeiMIce (\'ols, 1 and 1: the first 1 3 centurics A.D.; New York 19l), repr. 1958). VV. Vlestermann, Tbe SIII·ve SYSIM//S of Greek IIrld Romlln Antiquity (Philadelphia 1955).
B. The Andent Nrllr Eilst W. A!bright, Fr01/l the StOlle Age 10 ChTittianity (ed. 1, Bal timote [946). H. Frankfort, Tbe Birtb of CrJilizat;on in the Near East (London '95[, rcpr. New Vork 1968). Also, Killgsbip
and thr Gods: A Smdy of Al/dem Near Eastern Religion ar Ihe lmcgrlltion of Soeiety (md Nl/l1ITe (Chicago 1948). H. H:lll, Tbc Aneient Hittory of tbc Near EaH fr01ll tbc ElITliest Time! to tbr Battle of Salamis (cd. 1 1, London
1952)·
G. Maspero, Tbr DitwlI ofCivi/izalioll (Ne\\' York [968).
C. Greece C. Bowra, Tbe Gruk Experienee (Clc"clanJ '958). J. Buty, A Hirtory of tbc Grcck WorId to tbc Dcarb of Alex ander tbe Grellt (cd. 3 by R. Meiggs, London '95'), M. C:lrY, A Hittory of tbc GTcck World from 323 to 146 B. C. (Nc\\' Vork 1963). E. Dodds, Tbc Grceks and tbc Irrational (Betkdcy '951). W. Guthrie. Tbe Grceks aud thc" God! (Boston 1950)' V. Ehrcnbcrg, Tbe Greek Stale (Oxford '960) . M. Finley, A History of Sici/y (\'01. " Anciem Sicily [0 che Arnb Conqucst; London 1968). 1\t Hammond, City SlI/tc trl/d IVoTId Stale ;11 Grcel' lind R01ll111l PolitiCll1 Thl!OTY umilAugustt/s (Cambridgc, Mass.
'95' ).
N. Hammond, A Hiuory of Grtecc to 322 B.C. (ed. 2 . Ox ford '967).
"
Stltet BibliogTllphy
,
W. Jaeger. Paideia. Tbc Ideals of Grtek Culture (3 vak,
tr. G. Highet. Oxford 1944-1945). M. Laismer. A History of tbc Greek Warld trom 479 to JZJ B,C. (cd. ]. New York 1961). M. Rostovtteff, Social anti Economic History of tbc Helle nirtie World (3 vors., Oxford 1941). B. Snell, Tbc Discovery o{ tbc Mind; Tbe Greek Origins cf Europcl11I Tbought (Oxford 1953).
D. Rome M. Cary. A History of Rome down to tbe Rdgn ofCorntan tine (cd. 1, London 1961). M. Charleswortb, Tbc R01l1iJ11 Empire (Oxford 1954).
C. Cochrane, Cbristianity md Clasrical Cu/tuTe: A Study of Thougbt and Action fronl AuguS11l$ 10 Augustine (cd. 1, Oxford 1944; repr. 19,n). G. GianeUi and S. M azzarino. Trattatc di Itoria ramana (val. I, cd. ]. Rome [965; val. 1, cd. 1, Rome 1961). W. HeitIand, Tbe Romm Republic (cd. 1, 3 vak, um bridge 191]). W. Kunkel, An lntrodt/ttion 10 Roman Legal and Conrtitu� tional History, rr. J. Kelly (Oxford 1966). N. Lew;" "nd M. Reinhold, Rom= Civili=tion (� vnk, New
Vork '951; repr. 1966); SO\lrces and bibliography. A. Piganiol, HistoiTe de Rome (cd. 3. Paris 1949); outline and bibliogrnphy. H. Parker, History of the Roman World AD 138-337 (cd. 2, London '958; rcpr. '963). M. Rosoovncff, The Sodal and Economic History of the Roman Empire (1 vols., cd. 2 by P. Fraser, O:dord 1957): to A.D. 124. E. Salmon, HistOTY of tbe Romtm World 31 RC-A D. /38 (cd. 6, Landon 1968). H. Scullard, From the Graccbi 10 Nero (cd. 2, London 1964). -�, History of the Roman Worid 753-146 Re. (cd. 3. London 1961; rcpr. (968).
PART n:vo; STUDIES J. and H. EGYPT AND
BABYLONlA TO
1580 B.C., and THE EGYPTIAN
.AND HITTITE EMPIRES TO C. 1000 B.C.
A. Egypt C. Blecker, Egyptian Festivals: Enactments of Religious Re� ne<Wal (Leiden 1967).
Select Bibliograph)'
."
}. Breasced, A Hirtory of Egypt fr(mt tbe Earlim Timer 10 tbe Persftm Conqueu (cd. 1, NcwYork 1937). F. Branon, A History of Egyptian Arcbaeology (Ncw York
1968). }. Cerny, Anciem Egyptian Religion (London 19P, repr. 1957)· W. Emery, Arcbaic Egypt (Baltimorc 1961). A. Erman, Tbe Literature of tbe Ancient Egyptianr, tr. A.
Bbckman (London 1917). H. Frankfort, Anciem Egyptian Religion; tm Interpretation (Ncw York 1948, repr. '96,). A. Gardiner, Egypt of tbe Pharaohr, an IntToduction (Ox ford 1961). S. Glanvil!c, cd., The Legacy of Egypt (Oxford 1942, repr. 1957)·
W. Hayes, Tbe Sccpter of Egypt ( 1 vols., Ncw York 1953-
1959)·
I. Edwards, The PYTa11lidr of Egypt (West Drayton 1947). A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials (md InduttTics (cd. 4, London 1962). P. Elgood, LateT DY11astier of Egypt (Oxford 1951). F. Petrie, The Am and Cratts of Ancient Egypt (London
1913). B. Rothcnbctg, et al., Gotfs Wilderners, Discoveries in tbc Sinai (London 1961). J. Seters, Tbc Hyksos (New Havcn and Loodon 1966). J. Smith. Tombr, Templer and Ancient Art (Norman 1956). W. Smirh, TheArttmd ATchitectuTe of Anciem Egypt (Bal
ornore 1958). --, A History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting ;n tbc Old Kingdom (ed. 2 , ÜXford 1949). G. Srcindorff and K. Seele, JVben Egypt lUiled the East (Chicago 1957). }. \Vilson, Tbe Burden of Egypt; an Interpretation of An dem Egyptia11 Culture (ChiC2g0 '95 I ; repr. '963 as Tbe Culture of Ancient EgYPI). H. Winlock. Tbe Rise tmd Fall of tbc Middle Kingdo'1ll in Tbeber (NewYork 1947). B. Tbe Near Ean S. Ahmed. Sourbern Mesopotlf1/1ia in tbe Time of Asbur banipal (Paris 1968). G. Camcron, History of Early [rrn (Chicago t936).
Sel�CI Bibliograph]
,',
S. Fiare, Voicel fTom tbe eilt]: tbc Developmcm of Assyro Babylonian Literaturc (Nonnan, Okla. 1965). J. Finegan, Light tram tbc Ancirnt PaH (Princeton 1959). H. Frnnkfon, Tbc Art .md Archiuctllrc of thc Ancient Orient (Hannondswonh 1954). H. Frankfort, et al., Tbc lntelll:ctual Adve1/tUTe of Ancient IHm (Chicago 1946; fepr. 1951 as BetoTe Philosoph]). C. Gadd, IdeM of Divine !WIe in tbc Ancient Eilst (London 1948). I. Gelb, Hurrims and Suhltritrm (Chicago 1944). O. Gumey, Tbc Hittiur (Hannondsworth 1954). S. Hooke, Babylcm;lIl1 lind Auyrian Religio71 (London [953)' E. James, Myth and Ritual in tbc A1U:ient Near Earl (London 1 958). S. Kramet, Tbc SU1IIerians: Their History, CultuTe, (md Cbaracur (Chicago 1963). \V. Leemans, Foreign Trade in tbc Old Bilbylonil11l Period (Leiden 1960). S. Lloyd, Tbc Art of rbe Ancirot Netrr Easr (London [96[). I. Mende1sohn, SlavCTy in rbe Ancient Near East (New York [948). S. 1\'loscati, Andcut Scmiric Civi!;z..r;om (New York 1960). --, Tbe World of tbe Pbocnicians (London 1968). D. Dates, Studie! in tbe Ancien! History of Nortbern Iraq (London 1968). i (Chicago 1964). A. Oppenheim, Ancient Mcropotit11la A. Parrot, Sll11ler: Tbe Da'W"1l of Art (New Vork and London 1960). K. Polanyi, C. Arensberg, and H. Pearson, eds., Trade and ,uiTTker in Ihe Early Empires (Glencoe [957). G. Roux, Ancirot !ralf (1964; repr. Hannondswonh 1966). H. Saggs, The Greatllesr Thai was BabyIon (London and NcwYork [962). S. Smith. Tbe Early History of Arryria to 1000 B.C. (London [928). J. Wilson, et al., Authority Q1/d LlI'W in tbe Ancient Orient (Baitimore 1954). C. Woolley, Tbc Art of the Middlc Efl!t inchtding hrsia, Mesopotamia Q1/d Palestine (New Vork 1961). C. ßronzc Age Grecce C. BIegen, Troy II11d Ihe Trojans (New Vork [963). J. Chadwick, Tbe Decipberml'1lt of Linear n (Cambridgc 19S8).
,g,
Seket Bibliograpb]
V. Desborough, Tbe Last Mycrnaeam and tbeir Suceessors (Oxford 1964). G. Glotz, Tbe Aegean Civiljzation (1915, repr. New York
1968). j. Graham, Tbc Pa/aces of Crete (Princeton '96:).
S. Hood, Tbe Home of tbe Huoes: tbe Aegem befoTe the
Greekr (New York 1967). R. Hurchinson, Prehirtoric Crete (Harrnondsworrh and Bos [On 1961). G. Huxley, Acb�e�ns �nd Hitriter ( Oxford 1960). F. Man. Tbe Art of Crete and Eatly Greece (New York
[961).
G. J\'lylonas, Mycenae and tbe Mycenaean Age (Princcton
1966).
M. Nilsson, Tbe Minoan-Mycenaean Religi071 and its S"r-.;iv al in Greek Religion (ed. 1, Lund 1950). D. Page, Hinor}' and tbe Homf!Tic Wad (Berkelcy 1959). L Palmer, M}'cenaeam and Minoam: Aegean Prebistory in tbe Ligbt or tbe Linear B. Tab/ers (ed. :, New York 1965). J. Pendlebury, Tbe Arcbaeology of Cwe (London 1939). G. Thomson, Tbe Prebistorie Aegean (ed. 3, London 1961). E. Venneule, Greeee in thr.' Bronze Age (Chicago 1964). R. Willetts, Evuyday Life in Ancient Crete (New York
1969)· Ir!. TIIE ASSYRlAN E:.tP1RE c. 1 00D-C. 600 B.C. A. Assyria
t;
G. Comenau, EVf!Tyday Life in Baby/on a71d Ars}'ria (Lon don 1959). J. Lacsse, Pcople of Ancient Assyria (London 1963). A. Olmstead, A History of Arryria (New York 195fj repr. Clucago I 960). Palestine �V. AJbright, Tbc Arcbaeology of Palestine (Harrnonds
worrh
1949).
E. An�ti. P..}nt;nil !>efore the J-lebrCWJ (Ne'W York '96,). A. Bum, Min(}lIns, Pbi/istines, ..nd Gruh, H.C. '4oa-!JO(}
(London
1968).
Tbe Legae}' of Cllnaan (Leiden 1957). T. Meek, Hebrew Originr (New York 1960). W. Oesterlcy and T. Robinson, A History of ISTIul
J. Gray,
(1 vols., Oxford 19]1). A. Olmstead, A History of PIIlc:stine lind Syrill (New York 1931).
C>py'
xl
Stlect Bibliograph]
,"
H. Rowley, Tbc Old Testament Il'IId Modem Study (Oxford '961 ). G. Wrighr, cd., Tbc Bibit and tbc Ancient Near Eart (Gar� den City 1961).
Y. Yadkin, Tbc Art of Warfart in BiblicaJ Lmdr in the Ligbt of Arcbaeological Study (New York 196) ,
C.
Grtece
L. Brea, Siei/] betoTe tbe Greekr (London 1957). A. Bum, Tbc Lyrie Age of Greeee (New York 1960).
--, Tbc World of Hesiod; a Study of tbe Greek Middle Ages c. 900-700 B.e. (cd. 1, New York 1966). R. Carpemer, Folk Tale, Fielion, tmd Sdga n i tbe Homeric Epicr (Berkdey 1946). T. Dunbabin. Tbc Western Greeks: Tbe History of Sieil] aud SOlltb fraly (rom the Formdation of thc Greek Colonier to 480 B.C. (O:dord 1948). M. Finley, Thc War/d of Odyrmlf (Londan 1956). G. Kirk, Tbc SOllgs of Homer (Cambridgc 196z). H. Lorimcr, Homer und the Moml17lt1lts (l..ondon 1950). J. Morrison and R. Williams, Greek Ottred Ships, 900--;22 B.C. (London 1968).
J. Myres, Horner and His Critic;r (London 1958). H. Parke, Greek Oracfes (London !967). G. Richter, Arcbaic Gretk Art agai1m its Historica/ Back ground (New York 1949).
C. Sr:trr, Tbe Origim of Greek Civili2l1tion 1 100-650 B.C.
IV.
(New York 1961). B. Vlarmington, Cil1"tbage (Harmondsworth 19�). T. Webster, From Mycenae to H01ller (London 1958). THE PERSIAN E�1PJRE ASD TUE WESTe.
A. Persia
600--478 B.e.
H. Bengtson, tt al., Tbt Gretks and tht Persian! frl'"l11 (be Sirth to the Fonrth CenturjeJ
(London 1969).
A. Bum, Perna and tbe Gree!:s: the Deftnct of tbe Wm, c. 546-478 B.C.
(London 1962).
R. Ghirshman, Iran (Harmondsworth
G. Grundy, Tbe Great (London 1901).
1954).
Persian War tmd its Prtlintinaries
W. Henning, Zoroaster, Politicitm or Witch-doctor? (Ox
ford 1951).
E. Herzfeld, Zoroarter tmd His World (1 vols., Prim�eton
19·47)·
C. Hignett, Xrrxd Invasi071 of Gruct (Oxford 1963).
Sele&t Bibliography
B.
" 3
A. Olms[ead, A History of tbe Persiall Empire (Chieago 1948 ; repr. 1959).
üreeu
A. Andrewes. Tbe Greek Tyrl111tJ (cd.
2,
London 1958).
Tbe Negro in Grcek and Romm Civilization: A Study of tbe Etbiopia11 Type (1929; rcpr. New York
G. Beards[ey,
1967). \V. den Boer, Laconian Studics (Amstcrdam 1954). V. Ehrenberg, From Solon 10 Socrates; Greek Hirtory
and Cwilization During tbc Sixth and Fifth Centurier (London
1968). \V. Forresr, Tbe Emergcncc of Greck Democracy (London 1966). C. Hi g ne n, A History of tbe Atbenian Constitution to tbe
Endof tbe Fiftb Crntury H.C. (Oxford (958).
G. Hmdey, Early Sp,TTta (London 196:). J. Larsen, Greck Federal Stares: Tbeir 17l1titutirms
tmd His tory (Oxford 1968). H. Miehell, Sparta (Cambridge 19Pi rcpr. 1964) . M. Poh!enz, Frced07ll in Greek Life (l7ld Thr.mght: Tbe His tory of an Ideal (New York 1966). M. Rostovtzeff, [,anians and Greeks in Sourh Russia (Ox ford 19u).
C. Seltman, Athens: lts History and its Coinage befaTe tbe Persian hr.JM;on (Cambridge 19/4). C. Smr, Tbc Aw,1kening of the Greek Historical Spirit (New York 1968). \:V. \OVoodhouse. Solon the LiberlJtor (Oxford 1938). C. Tbc TVCltern MeditCTTlJncan J. Boardman, Tbe Greeks Owrseas (Bzltimore (964). H. Heneken, TlJrquinilJ and EtnlScan Origim (London 1968).
--, Tarquinia, ViIIl111CJVanf, and Early Emucans (Cam-
bridge, Mass. 1968). J. Heu rgon, Tbe D.zily Life of tbc EtTllSCa11s (London 1964). Z. Mayani, Thc Etruscam ßegin toSpcilk (New York (96/). M . Pallonino. Thc Etruscam (Harmondsworth 1955). E. Rich3rdson, Thc EtnlfClJlIS: Tbeir Art /lnd Civilization (Chicago 1964). I-T. Scullard, Tbe EtrWCll11 Citier {md Rome (lthaca 1967). V. ATHESS 478-401 II.C. F. Adcoek, Thc Greek lind M.zcedoniall Art of IVar (Berkeley 1957).
"
Sekct Bibliogrllpby
.
A. Andreades, A Hmor] of Greek Pub/ie Finll7lces (um. bridge, Mass. 1913). E. Barket, Greek Politieal Tbcory: Plato and His Predecessors (cd. 4. London 1951). H. Bolkesrein. EC07Iomic Life in Greece'r Goldm Age (Leiden (958).
A. Bonnard, Greek CivilizAtion (Glasgow 1961). C. Cochrane, Thucydides fl1Id tbe Seience of Bistor, (London
1919). W. Connor, Theopompus I11Id Fiftb-Century Athens (Cam bridge 1968). V. Ehrenberg, Tbe People o(ArirtophMler: A Sociology of Dld Attic C011ledy (cd. 2 , Oxford 1951). --, Sophocles Il7Id Pericles (ÜXford 1954). ]. Finley, Three Essays on Tbucydides (Cambridge. Mass. 1967). --, Thucydider (Cambridge, Mass. 1941).
M. Finley. Studies in Lll1Id and Credit in Ancient Atbem (New Brunswiek 1951). R. Fhcelierc:, Daily Life m Greece at tbe Time o{ Perules (New York 1965). A. French, The Growtb of tbe Atbenian EC()1Iomy (London 1964).
A. Gomme, Historical Ctmtmenttrry Oxford 1945-1953).
()11
Tbucydider (3
vols.,
--, Population of Athf!1ls in tbe Fifth tmd Fourtb Cf!1Ituries B.C. (Oxford 1933). G. Grundy, Thucydides tmd tbe Hirtory of Hk Age (1 vols.,
Oxford 191 1-1948). J. Hasebroek, Trade md Politics in Al1cient Greece (London 1933) ·
Tbe Attic GrllVe Reliefs of the Clilssicill Period.. An EffllY in Interpretation (Copenhagen 1951). A. H. 1\1 Jones, Athf!1litm DenlO&racy (Oxford 1951). }. W. Jones. The Law tmd Legal Theory of the Greeks: An Introduction (Oxford 1956). ß. Knox, Oedipur at Theber (New Haven 1957). M. Lang and C. EliOt, Tbe Atbenitm Agora (Athens 1954)' A. Lawrence, Greek Arcbitecture (Harmondswonh 1951). H. MicheIl, Tbe Economics of A71cient Greece (ed. 1, um
K. Johansen,
bridge 1956). }. Milne, Greek and Rom:m Coins iJ1Jd the Study of History (London 1939).
.,
Selut Bibliography
'"
J. Myres, Herodotlts, Fatber of History (Oxford 1953)' M. Nilsson, Cults, Myths, Orades alld Po/ities i" Anciem Greeee (Lund 1951). G. Sarton, A History o[ Seienee througb tbe Golden Age of Greeee (London 1953). R. Scalcy, EssllYs in Greek Poliries (New Yock 1965). T. Sinclair, A History of Greek Politieal Tbougbt (London
1951).
T. Wcbstcr, Everyday Life in Classical Atbnls (New York
196<})·
W. Woodhouse, Ki11g Agis of Sparta /IIld bis Campaign in Arkadia in41S B.C. (Oxford 1933). A. Zimmern, Tbe Greek C01Jnllollwealtb (cd. 5, Oxford 1961). G. Zumz, Tbe Politielll Plays of Euripides (M:,mchCSlcr [955) '
VI.
MACEDO� 401-]01 B.C.
J. F. Oobson, Tbc Greek Orators (London 1919). \V. Ferguson, Greek 17llperilllism (Ncw York 19[]; rcpr. 1963). --, Hrlknistie Athens (London [ 9 [ 1 ) . G. Griffith, Tbe Mercenaries of the Hel/ellistie World (1935; repr. Groningen 1968). F. jacoby, Allhis: The Loca/ Cbr01licles of Ancinlt Atbern (Oxford 1949). \V. Jacger, Demosthcnes: Tbe Origin Ilud Growtb of His Po/iey (1938; rcpr. New York 196]). A. H. i\1. Jones, Tbe Greek City tr01ll AlcXllllder to Justinian (Oxford [940) . P. Jouguet, Maccdonilln 1111peritt/isnt and tbe Helleui'TAtion of the East (Ncw York [928). J. Larscn, Represenrative Govern1l1el/t in Greek and Roman History (ßcrkdey and Los Angdcs 1955)' H. Parke, Greek Mereenary Soldiers (r01ll tbe Earliesl Tm/es 10 the Bartle of Ipsos (Oxford 1933). C. Robinson, Jr., Tbc Hürory of Alex{l1Ider tbe Great (z \"015., Pruvidcnce 1953-1963). \V. Tarn, Alexander the Grellt (2 vols., Cambridge [948). --, Hellenislie Military and Naval Devefopments ( 1 9]0; rcpr. Ncw York 1966). T. \Vebstcr, Art md Liierature in FOllrlb Cn/tllry Atbens (Bristol [9SI'5). M. Whcclcr, Flrrmes over PerscpoJis: Tumingpoint in Hirtory (Landon 1968).
U. Wilcken,Alexomder tbeGreat (NewYork 1931).
,
SeIeer BibliogT.Jpby
,. VII.
THE HELLENlSTIC MONARCHIES AND THE RISE OF ltOl\.1E
A. Celts and Gauls N. Chadwick, Cdtic Bntam (New York 1964). H. Huben, Tbe Rist of tbe Celt! ( 1 934, repf. New York 1966).
--, Les Celts deftuis Npoque de La Tene I!t la ci1Jilization celtique (cd. 1, Paris 1950). T. Kendtick, Tbe Druidr (London 1927). R. Pc:moud, Les GlWloir (Paris '957). T. Powell, Tbe Celts (New York 1958). A. Ross, Pagm Celtje; Britain (London 1967). B. Hellenirtic States F. Adcock, Tbe Greek and Macedonian Artot War (Bcrke.
ley 1957). --, "Greek and Macedonian Kingship," rBA
39 (1953),
163-[80.
H. Bell, Egypt {rum Akrander tbc Greal 10 the Arab Con" quest (O)[ford 1956), E. Budge, A Hirtory cfEgypt {rom tbe End of tbe Neo/itbic Period ro tbe Deatb of CleopalTa Vll (8 vols., 1902; repr. Oosterhout 1968). G. Downey, A H'rror, of Am'och in S,rÜl (Princcaon 1961):
eh. 1-6.
S. Eddy, Tbe King is Dead: Studies in tbe Near Eattern Re. sistance 10 Hellenirm 334-;1 Re. (Lineoln, Ncbraska 1961).
P. Hitt� Hirtory of Syria, including Lebtm01l tmd Palmine (London 1951): eh. 17-20. --. Leban01l in History (cd. 3. London 1967): eh. 11-12. A. Jirku, Tbc World of tbc Dible, tr. A. Keep (New Vork 1967).
W. Tarn, TbeGreeks in Bactria and Indio (cd. !, Cambridge 195' ).
W. Tarn, Antigonos Gonatas (Oxford 1913).
F. Walbank, Aratos of Sicyon (Cambridgc 1933). C. He/lenistic CWilization E. Barber, et al., Tbe Hellenistic Age (Cambridge 1923). B. Farrington, Science and Politier in tbc Ancient World (London 1946). B. Farringcon. Greek SciC1lCC: lu Memmg for Us (cd. l, Baltimore 1961). M. Hadas, Hellmistic Cu/ture (New Vork 1959). T. Hcath. Aristarcbus of Sa11l01, tbe Ancient Copernicus: A
S�l�ct Bibliography
" 7
History o( Greek Aston01l1Y tO AristarcJms (Oxford [913; repr. 1959)· T. Hcath, A Hiuory o( Greek Matbf!t1l1l1ics (1 vols.,O:tford 1911;repr . ( 960). A. Körre, Hellenistic PoetTy, [r. J. Hammer and M. Hadas (New Vork [919). C. Kraeling, Ambropos aud Sem of Man: A Study in tbe ReligioflJ SYllcretism of the Hellenis-tic Orient (New York 1917). W. Tarn and G. Griffith, Helleninic Civiliultion (cd. 3. London [959). F. Wright, A His-tory of Later Greek Literature (London 1932)· D. Early Rome: Politics and Sodety F. Adcock, Roman Political ldeas I11Id Practice (Ann Arbor [959, repr. 1964). R. Bloch, The Origins of Rome (New York 1960). G. Bornford, Tbc Roman Asre7l1blics (rom tbeir Origin to tbe E1/d of the Republic (New York 190'], fepr. 1968). T. Frank, Roman bllperio/irm (New Vork 1914). E. Gjerstad, Early Rome (Acta Imt. Romani Regni Sueciae, set. 4, vol. 17.1; Lund 1953). L. Holland, 107ms and tbe Bridge (Papers . . . Am. Ac. Rome 1 1 , Romc 1961). L. Homo, Roman Politica/ lmtituriom, [r. M. DolJie (New Vork 1961). A. McDonald, Republican Rome (New Vork 19(6). H. Rose, Primitive Culture hl ltaly (London [926). J. Thie!, A History ot R01mn Sea-Power betore tbc Second PU1lic War (Amstcrdam [954)' C. 'Vestrop. Introd7lclion 10 Early Roman Lrol.!: Compara th:e Sociologicol Studies (5 vols., Copenhagen 1934-1954). E.
Early Rome: Expansion A. Alföldi, Early Rtmll! "lid ,he L",itIY (Ann Arbor '96J).
L. Homo, Primitive 110ly olld Ihe BegimlilIgs of Roman 1111pl:rialism, tr. V, G. Childe (Ncw York 19:6). A. Piganiol, LI1 Conquete romame (cd. 5. Paris 1967). J, Th..iel, A Hisrory ot Roma11 Sea-PO'Wer beton! the Sccol1d Punic War (Amsrerdam 1954). VIII. ROME ,\NO THE MEOITERIU.:":E,\N ! 18-1 33 II.C. A. Polybius
K. v. Fria., The TbeOTY of the Mixed Conuimtion in An-
,8a
Seim Bibliograph, tiquity: A Critical ArM/,m of Polybiur' Palit;clll Ideas (New Vork 19H). Polybius. Tbe Histones, tr. E. S huckburg h (1889; repr., 1 vak, Bloomington 1962); also LeL, rr. W. Paton (6 vols., London 1911-1917). F. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius (1 vak, {)xford [957-[967). B. Roman Expmsion H. Scullard, Scipio AfTU;a1lUJ in the Second Pun;c War (Cambridge 1930). R. Smith, Rome and Cmbage: Tbc 1'un;e Wars (New York ( 923). F. Walbank, Pbilip V of Macedon (1940; repr. Hamden, Conn. 1967)· B. Warmington, Cartbage (New Vork 1960). A. Wilson, Emigration tr07l1 /taly in tbe Republican Age of R07llc (Manchester 1966). C. ROl1Ul1J Polit;,! and Society A. Alleroft, Rome finder tbc Oligarchs: A HistoTY of Rome 201-133 B.C. (London 1891). R. Haywood. Studie! on Scipio Afric
C>py'
xl
'"
Sclect Bibliography
S. Dubnov, HiuOTY o( the lews I: Fr01ll the Beginllmgs 10 Early Christitm;ty. tr. M. Spiegel (South Brunswick, 1967. based on 1938 Russian edition). \V. Farmer, Maccabeer, Zealotr, I11ld lorephus (New York 1956).
W. Oesterley, A
History of lrrael II; From the Fall of lern sa/em, 586 B.C. to the BI11-Kokhva Revolt, A.D. ';5 (Ox ford 1932; repr. 1957). H. Rowley, Dl1rius the Alede I1nd the Four JVorld Empirer in the Book of Dl11Iiel (Cardiff 1935). D. RusselI, The lews (rom Alexander to Herod (Oxford 1967). A. Tcherikovev, Hellenirtic Civilization I11ld tbe lews, tr. S. Appelbaum (Philadelphia 1959).
IX.
THE ROMAN REl'UßLlC
1 33-44 ß.C.
A. The Grl1ccbi, Mar;lIs, SulliJ A . .Astin. Scipio Ae71li/il11llls (Oxford 1967). J. Balsdon, "Sulla Fdix," IRS 41 (1951), 1 H. T. Camey, A Biograph} of C. Mari us (PA CA, supp. no. q 1961).
D. Earl, Tiberius GTacclms: A 5mdy in Poli/in (ßrussells 1963).
P. Kildahl, Caiur Mari//S (New York 1968). C. Oman, Se'lJen R011/an Stl1teS1Jum of the Laler Repub/ic:
The Gracchi, Sulla, Crasst/s, Cf/to, Pompey, CaeSaT (1'}O2, rcpr. London 1957). B. Cicero, Prn11pey, Caesar J. Carcopino, CiceTo: Tbe 5ecrNI of His Correlpondt!7lce, tr. E. Lorimer (l vols., Landon (951). Cicero, Letters to Atricur, cd. D. Shackleton-ßailcy, wich translation and commcntary (6 vols., Cambridge 1965(968). F. Cowcll, Cicero I11ld Ihe R01llan Republic (London 1948). H. Frisch, Cicero's Fight fOT Ihe Republic: Tbe Hiltorical Bifckground o( Ciccro's Pbilippics (Copenh:.gen [9..6). M. Gelzer, Caesl1r: Politic;l1n fInd StateS11l1ln. tr. P. Needham (Cambridge, Mass. (968). H. HaskeJl, Thir was Cicero: Modern Politics in a Rot/ll111 Toga (New York 1942). E. i\Ieyer, Cl1esarl MonaTchie find das Principat der Pompejtl1 (ed. 3, Sruugan 1911; repr. 1963). P. Jal. La guerr� civil a Rom�: Btude litt�rairc et mOTal (Paris 1963).
Se/eu
'9<'
Bibliograph)'
]. Strachan-Davidson, Cicero lind thr Fall of tbe Komm Re pub/ie (NewYork 1894). C. Politie; and Soeiety D. Earl, Tbc Political Tbought of Sol/urt (Cambridge 1961). T. Frank, cd., An Econo11l;c Survey of Ancient Rel1nt I: Rome and luly, thc Republic (Baltimore 1913). E. Gruen. Ramm PolitieI (J1Jd tbc C,;m;7UJl Courts 14!r78 B,C. (Cambridge, Mass. 1968). J. Heaton, Mob Violence in tbc Late Romm Republic f'JJ49 B C (1939, repr. Ann Arbar 1968). L. Homo, Roman Political lnJtitutiom, cc. M. Dobie (New .
York
.
1961).
1. Taylor,
Party Politiel in thr Agt of Caesar (Bcrkdey
'949; rept. 1961).
--, Rrnmm Voting AssNIlblies trom tbc Hanniba!ic War to tbc Dictatorship of CaeltlT (Ann Arbar 1966). A. Toynhee, Hannibnrs Legae)': Tbe Hannibalic War's Ef feets on R07ll1111 Litt (1 vo1s., O:
19). 1-15·
P. Brum, "The Army and the Land iu the Roman Revolu tion," TRS S! (196:), 69-86. J. Cobb3n, Sennte nnd PrO'i.'incer 78-49 B.C. (C�mbridge
1935)·
E. Jonkers, Soeial nnd Eeono1llic C01lmlentary
071 Cieero's De ;mptrrio CtI. I'ompei (Leiden 1959). R. Smith, Service in tbe POlt-Marian R07ll111l Arm] (Man
chester [958). G. Stevenson, Roman Provincinl Administration till the Age of the Amoll;nes (Oxford 1939).
E. lVaTf (l1Jd Cot/querts
E. Badian, RO'/llan Imperia/islIl in the ure Republie (cd.
I,
Tth2C:l [968). S. Bl'3dy, Caerar's Gallie Call1paignr (Harrisburg 1947). G. Anderson, "Pompey 's Camp�ign against Mithridates,"
THS I Z (J9��). 99
If.
T. Holmes, Cllertrr'r COllqllesl of Gaul (Oxford J 9°7). j\,1. Rostovtzeff, Iranillns If1Id Greeks (Oxford 19�7).
" ,
Sdect Bibliograpby
P. S:mds, Tbc Clic1lt PTinces of tbc Roman Empire under tbc Republic (Camhridge 190B; rerr. Ann Achot 196B). F. Romll71 CivilizatioTi
F. Brown, R01J/1I71 ATcbitecttlte (New Vork 1961): eh. 1-3. D. Daube, Romll71 UW (Ediugburgh 1969). W. Fowler, Roman ldeas of Deity i1/ tbc Last CentuTY betoTe tbc Cbristian Era (l..onclon 19(4). T. Frank, Life and LiteratlIre in tbc Roman Republic (Becke
ley 1930)' A. Jiua, AncestTal PortTa;ture in Rome and tbe An of tbe Last Century of tbe Republic (Amsterdam 1932). H. Jolowicz, Historical lntroducti01l to R01llan Law (ed. 1, Oxford 1951). J. Romm Litigation (Oxford (966). K. Qumn, Tbc Catullan Revolution (Me1boume 1959). F. Sehulz, CJassicaJ Roman LIl'W (Oxford 1954). R. Syme, Sallust (Ikrkeley 1964).
Kdly,
X. THE AUGUSTA.. .. EMPIRE: 44 B.C.-A.D. 70
A. Tbe Augwtan Settlement Augusms, Res geuae, eds. P. Brnnt and J. Moore (Oxford 1967). G. Bowersoek, Augurtus and tbc Greek World (OKford 1965). T. Holmes, Tbc Arcbitect of tbe Roman Empire (1 vols., Oxford 191 8--1 931). F. Marsh, The Founding of tbe Roman Empire (ed. 1, 191J; cepc. Cambridgc 1959). K. Seott, "The Polirical Propaganda of 44-30 BC," MAAR " (1933), 7-49· R. Syme, The Roman Revoluti01l (Oxfocd 1939; repc. 1960). B. Tbc /ulio-Claudiam 1- Balsdon, Tbe Emperor Gams (Cttligula) (O;o.:(ord 1934). M. Charlesworth, "lOe Tntdilion ahout Caligula," Ctrm bridge Hiff. Jo,_,,1 4
('933),
'oS
ff.
M. Hammond, Tbe Augustatl Principau in Tbeory and Practice during tbc /ulio-Claudian Period (cd. :, New Vork 19118). M. Lev� Nerone e i suoi tempi (Milan 1949). F. Marsh, The Reign of Tiberius (Landon 19,1). A. Momigliano, CJaudiur: The Emperor and His Achieve ment, tr. W. Hoganh (Oxford 1934; repr. with new bib.. 1961).
Seim BibliogTaphy
" ,
R. Rosborou�h, An Epigrtlphic Commentary on Suetonius' Life of Gatur Cilligula (Philadelphia 1920).
C. Bureaucracy, Army, Ptorinces
F. Abbott and A. Johnson, Municiplll Administration in tbe
Ramm Empire (Princcton 1916): with texts. W. Arnold, Studies 0/ RD11l111J Imperialism (Manchester 1906). P. BaiUic Reynolds, "The Troops Quattercd in tbe Castra Peregrinorum," IRS ' } (1923), 168-189.
F. Baume, The Publie Worb of tbe Julio-Claudims and
FlavUms (Princcton (946). M. Charlesworth, ''The Vinues of a Roman Empc:ror: Prop aganda and the Creacion of BeJief," PBA 23 (1937), 1°5
ff. G. Cheesman. Tbc Auzilia of tbe R07llan Imperial Arm]
(Oxford 1914). A. Jones, Studies in Roman GO'lJcm7llrot md La'W (Oxford 1960). M. Lewis, Tbc Officilll PrieSlS of Rome under tbc 'ulio elal/diam (Papers Imd M07Iographs 01 Am. AClldemy 16, Rome 1955). H. Mattingly. Tbc
Imperial CiviJ S.,.,.,,;ce of Rrnne (Com
bridge 1910). W. Oldf3ther and H. Canter, Tbe Defeat of Vil7US and the
German FronNer Poliey of AugtlStus (Unr.J, IIlinoir Studies in Socil11 Sciences ,p, Urbana 1915). D. Roman Ci'Vilization J. Carcopino, Dl1ily Life in Ancient Rome, cd. H. RoweU and
tr. E. Lorimer (New Haven 1940). E. Frncnkel, Horace (Oxfcrd (951).
L. Fricdlandcr, ROml1.11 Life and Mt11l1Iers ,mder tbe Early Empire (cd, 7, tr. L. Magnus et al.; 4 vok, New York
1908-1913).
0. Kiefer, Se1:l111.1 Lf i e in Ancient Rcmle, tr. G. and H. Highet (London 1938; cepr. 1956). B. Otis, Ovid ac an Epic POet (Cambridge 1966).
W. J. Knight, Vergil: Epic and Antbropology, cd. J. Chris tie (London 1967). B. Ons, Virgil: A Study in Civilized Pomy (Odord 1964). H. Rowell, Rome in tbe Augustan Age (Nonnan 1961).
E. Politicl and Civil War B. Hendcrson, Civil War mdRebellion m tbe Rtmtl1.n Empire A.D, 69-70 (London 1908).
C>py'
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'"
R. /l.h.cMullen, Enemin of tbc Roman Order (Cambridge, Mass. 1966). C. Starr, Civilization and the Caerars; Tbc Intdlectual Revo lutio71 in the RtnJ/lln Empire (Irhaca 1954). J. Toynbee, "DictatoIS and PhilosophcIS in the First Cenrury A.D.," G&R 13 (1944), 43-58. XI. THE IMPERI",L PEACE: A.D. 70--191 A. Tbe Flavians
R. Gepharr,
Sllrtonius' Life of Domitian, 'With Notes and Parallel PaJfagcs (Philadelphia 1911). S. GseU, Essai tur le regt/c de fe1l1pet'euT D011litien (Paris
1893).
B. I-Ienderson, Fi·ve Roman Emperors: VcspaJian, TiwJ, Do
B.
mitian, NeT'".;a, Trajan, A.D. 6Y-1/7 (Cambridge 1917). C. Sutherland, "The Stare of the Imperial Trcasury at the Dearh ofDomitian," JRS 15 (1935), 150ff. R. Syme, "Thc Imperial Finances undcr Domitian, Nerva and Trajan," IRS 10 (1930) , 55 ff. The Antoll;ncs
A. Birley, MarcuJ Aurelius (London 1966).
E. Bryant, Thc Reign o( A1Iton;nus Piffs (Cambridge 1895)' F. Gregorovius, The Emperor Hadrian; A Pieture of tbe
araeco-R01llan lVorld m His Time, tr. M. Robinson (Lon
don and New York 1898). B. I-Ienderson, Tbe Life a1ld Principate 0' tbe Empf!T"OT Ha
drian A.D. 76-138 (London 1913). T. Lcpper, Trajan'r Parthian War (Oxford 1948). C. Bureaucracy ITIIdArmy W. Arnold, TheRoman System o( PrO'l.lincial Administration to the Accersion of COnflantme the areal (ed. 3. Oxford E.
1914).
Bidey,
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Roman Rritain and the Roman Army
(Kendal
P. Brunt, "Pay and Supcrannuarion n i [he Roman Anny," PDSR , 8 ('950), 5<>-7" J. Crook, C01llil;U7I/ Principis (Cambridge 1955). M. I-Iammond, The Antonillc Monarchy (Papers Imd Mono grapbs of the American Acadenty in ROllle '9, Rome 1959).
--, "Pliny [he Younger's Views on Govemment," HSCP 49 (1938), 1 1 ; ff. M. Nilsson, Imperial Rome (New York 196z); put 2, "The Empire and Its Inhabirants."
"
'
5elut Bibliograph,
J. Oliver, Tbc R.uJing POW": A Study o{ tbe Roman Empire
in thr Second Cnltury after Christ tbrougb thr Roman Orllti01l of Aelim Arntides (Philaddphia 1953>. H. PRaum, US proCUTateUrI equtftres sous le HlfUt-EmpiTt: romam (Paris 1950). A. Shecwin-White, Tbe Letters of Pliny: A Historical md Soci41 C071nne1ltllTY (Oxford 1966); cf. rev. F. Miliar, JRS
58 (1968) , 1 1 8-114A. Sherwin-White, Tbc Roman Citizenrbip (Oxford 1939). W. Sinnigen, "The Origins of the Frumentarii," MAAR 17 (1961), 1 1 ] H. C. Starr, Tbc Roman Imperial Nwy, 31 B.C.-AD. 31'1 (Ithaca 1941). Tacitus. De vitll Agricolae, eds. R. Ogilvie and I. Richmond (Oxford 1967). S. W211ace, Ta:rllt;07J in Egypt trom Augustur to Diocletian (Princeton 1938). W. Wannemacher, Tbe Devrlopment of Imperial Civil O{ {icia during tbc Prmcipate (Diss. Univ. Mich., 1940). G. Wehster, Tbc Roman fmptTial Army of tbe First Il1Id Sec07ld Centuries AD. (London 1969). D. ProWnces and Economy J. Wacher, ed., Tbe CivitltJ ClJpitlJu of RomMJ Britain (Le.i cester 1966). W. Ramsay, Tbe Social Basis of Roman Power in Aria Minor (Aberdeen 1941). ]. Broußhton, The Romanization of Afriea Proeonndaris (Balwnore 19!9). T. Mommsen, Tbe Pruvineer of tbe Roman Empire from ClJesar to Diocletian, u. W. Dickson (z vols., New York 1887 andLondon 1909). D. Magie, Roman Rule n i Asia Minor (Princeton 1950). Ri\'ct, Town Il1Id Caun"y in Roman Britain (London A. 1958). P. Louis, Ancient Rome Ilt Work: An Economie History of Rome from tbe Origim to tbe Empire, tr. E. Warcing (New York 19Z7; repr. 1965). T. Frank, cd., An Eeon071lic Survey of Ancient Rome; vols. 2-5 (Baitimore '936-194°) cover the Empire; vol. 6 is a general index. M. Charleswonh, Trade-routes tmd COllmlerCe of tbe Romm Empire (Cambridge '914i repr. Hildesheim 1961).
Select Bibliography
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B. Levick, Ruman C% nier in Soutbern Aria Minor (Oxford
1967).
C. Starr, Tbc Roman Imperial Navy ]I B.C.-A.D. ]24 (cd.
2, Cambridgc 1960).
G. Boissier, Roman Africa: Arcbae% gical lValkr in Aigeria
and Tunir, tr. A. Ward (Ncw York and London (899). C. Thomas, cd., Rural Settlement in Roman Britain (London 1966).
E. WarmiDgton, Tbc Counm:rce bct'Ween tbe Roman Empire
and India (Cambridge (928).
E. Roman Civiization l F. Altheim, A Hirtory of Roman Religion, tr. H. Matringly (New York (938). T. Dorey, ed., Latm Hi!tor;anr (London 1966).
T. Glo'ler, Tbe Confi;cf of Religions in tbe Early Roman
Empire (ed. 9, London 1910).
A. Grenier, Tbe RomanSpirir in Religion, Tbaugbt, and Art, 1'1'.
M. Dobie (New York 1926).
P. Hambcrg, Studies n i Roml11l Imperial Art: wirb Special
Reference to tbe State Rcliefr of tbc Sccond Century (Uppsala 1945). G. Higher. luvet/al tbe Satirirt (Oxford 1954; repr. 1961). H. Rose, Tbe Roman Questions of Plutarcb: A New Trans lation witb IntToductory Essays and a Running C07lt1llen tary (Oxford 1924). I. Rybcrg, Pmel Reliefs of Marcur Aurelius (Monogropbr on Arcboeology tmd Fine Am, Arcbaeologiclll Institute of Ammeo 14- New York 1967). R. Syrne. Tacitus (2 vols., Oxford 1958). F. Earl] Christitmity S. Brandon, Tbe FaU of lernralem and tbc Chrinitm Churcb (ed. 1, London 1957). S. Brandon, Jesus and tbe Zealoff (New York 1969). P. Carrington, Tbc Earl] ChristUm CbUTcb (2 vols., Cam bridge 1957).
G. Dix, lew ond Greek: A Study in tbe Primitive Cburcb
(Wesnninster 1953). M. Goguc� Tbc 8irtb of Cbrirrian;ty, tr. C. Snape (London
1953>·
A. Hamack, The Mission and Expansion of Cbrirtianity in
tbe First Tbree Centutiel, tr. J. Moffatt (London and New York 1908; rept. 1961).
.
Stkct BibliogrtJph]
,'
H. Lietzmann, A History of the EtJTly Church, tt. B. Woolf (4 vols., London 1960): vals. I-J. e. Richardson, Tbe Chrirtian;ty of 19natius of Antiocb (NewYork 1935)' A. Sherwin-White, Ramm Society tmd Roman Law in tbe New Testament (Oxford 1963). XII. THE IMPERIAL CRISIS "NOilEO)VERY: A.D. '93-314 A. The Severi M. Hammond, "Septimius Severus. Roman Bureaucrat," HSCP S I ( 1940) , 1}7 ff. M. Platnauer, Tbe Life and Reign of the EmperOT Ludus Septi1llius Severm (London 19l5). W. Westerman and A. Schulter, Apokri1llflta: Decisioll of S. Severm 011 Legal Malters (New York 1954). B. ImpeTial Crjris (A.D. 249-27°) A. Alföldi, "La grande crise du monde romain au IU" siede,"
AC7 ([938), 5-18. A. Boak, Manpower Sbortage tmd the Fall of tbe Ruman Empire in tbe West (Ann Aroor 1955). S. Bolin, Stare and Currency in tbe Roman Empire to ;00 AD. (Stockholm '958); cf. rev. T. Pekary, Hiuoria 9 ( ' 960), }80 ff. P. Oliva, PaT/nonia and the Onset of Cruis in the R011l1m Em pire, tr. I. Ure"in (Prague 1961). C. Oman, "The Decline and Fan of the Denarius in the Third Cemury," NC ('9,6), 37 H. S. Dost, "The Death of the Emperor Gordian 111," CP 53 ( 1 958), 106 H. M. Rostovneff, Social and EC01Irnnic History of thr Roman Empire (ed. 1, Oxford 1957): eh. 1)-12.
C. Frontier Peoples N. Debevoisc, A Political History of Ptrrthia (Chicago 193 8). F. Miliar, ed., Tbe Roman Empire i11ld its Neigbbors (Lon don 1967): eh. 14-17. D. Saddington, "Roman Atrirudes tO the 'Externae Gentes' of the Nonh," AC 4 (196,), 90 H. E. Thompson, Tbe Early Germans (Oxford 1965). J. Ward-Perkins, "The Roman West and the Panhian East," PBA 5 ' (1967), '15-'99·
D. BureauCTacy, Army, Prwinces A. Alföldi, "A Teutonic Comingent in the Service of Con stancine the Grellt," DOP I J (1959), I� ff.
Stlee! BibliogriJphy
'97
H. BeU, et al., Tbe Abinnew Arcbive (Oxford 1962). A. Boak :md H. Youtie, "Flight and Oppression in IVch Cenrury Egypt," Studi . . . Calderini (Mi lan 1957), P5 ff. P. Bronn, "Roman Imperial Administration as Mirrorcd in the Early Founh Cenmry Coinagc," Acres Xl Cong. Im. Sc. Hisr. (Uppsala 1960), 87 ff. G. Downey, A Stlldy of tbe Comites Oriemis and tbc Con wlllTes SyriiJe (Princeton 1939). C. Keyes, Tbe Rise of tbe Equites nl the Tbird Century of tbe Roman Empire (Princeton 1915). R. MacMullen, Soldier alld Civilia1l i1J tbc Later Roman Em pire (Cambridge, M;tSS. 1963). W. Sinnigen, Tbe Offieiu1I1 of tbe Urban Prefectllre during
tbe Later RomiJ1I Empire (piJpers iJnd A-fo1logriJpbs of tbe Am. Aeademy in R07lle '7, Rome 1957). L. West and A. Johnson, ClIm:lIey in Roman and BYZ41Jtine Egypt (Princeton ! 944) . E. Imperial Recovery A. Alföldi, The C01lverrion of Constantine and Pagan Rome,
Tr. H. Mmingly (Oxford 1948). N. Haynes, C01lstantine the Great and the Chrisr;tm Cbllreb (London 1929). J. Burckhardt, Tbe Age o( C01lUtmt;lIe tbe Great, tr. M. I-Jadas (New York 1949, 1956; from 1853 edition). L. Homo, Enai 1111' le regne de J'e11lperetlr Aurelien (�7()�75) (Paris [904). A. Janes, "Capitatio and Jugatio." IRS47 ('957), 88 ff. W. &Ston, DlOclhien et liJ TetTiJrcbie (Paris 1946). C. Sutherland, "Diocletian's Reform of the Coinage," JRS S I (1961), 94 ff. F. Pagmis71l al/d CbristiiJlIity T. Harnes, "Legislation againsI the Christians," JRS 58 (1968), 31-5°. P. Brown, "Aspects of the Christianiz:ttion of the Roman Ariswcracy," INS 5 1 (1961), I tf. V. Corwin, St. 19natius a1Jd Cbristia1lity i1l Antiocb (Ncw Haven 1960). F. Cumom, AtteT Life in Roman Paganiml (New Haven 1923). , Tbe Myrteriel o( Mitbra, tr. T. hkCormack (Chicago 1903)· , Tbc Oricntal Religiom ill Romm Pagtl1lis1n (New York J9J 1 j n:pr. 1956). --
--
Seleet Bibliograph]
."
L Duchcsnc, Early History of the CbriItjlJ7l CbUTCh, tr. C. Jenkins (3 vols., New York 191 1-1914). W. Frcnd. M(lrtyrdom and Pmecution in tbc Earl} CbuTcb (Oxford 196,., New York 1967).
A. Momigliano, cd., Paganism and Christimity in tbc Fourtb Centllr} (London 1961). J. Fest, Plorimlf: Tbc Road tO Reality (Cambridge 1967). E. Swift, R01/lan Souren of Chrirtifl1l An (New York
195 ' ) .
XIII.
LAU ANTIQUITY
A. Alföldi, A Conflict of /deas in tbe Late Roman Empire, tr. H. Mattingly (O:dord 1951). A. Jones, Tbc DecJine of tbe Ancient Warld (London and New York 1966): a summary of the following work. --, Tbc Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social, Eco nomic, find Administrative Survey (l vols., Oxlord 1963). F. Lot, Tbc End of thc Ancient "IVorld (md the Beginning of thc Midile Agts, tr. P. Leon (Landon 1931; repr. 1953). A. Piganio� L'empi,e Chritien (32S-395) (Paris 1947). E. Thompson, The Hirtoricill Work of A11TInianus Mar cellinus (Cambridgc 1947). J. Vogt. Tbe Decineof l Rome, tr. J. Sondhcimer (NewYork
1967).
Abbreviations
The fo!lowing fut is in m·o partS. First are abbreviations oe books and col1oxtions of booksj some of these are uscd only in the prescnt work, but most :tre in genenl usc. Second are standard abbreviations of perl odic:.ds JikcIy to bc cited in studies of ancicnt history. PART I: BOOJO:S
BT BiblioteCIl Scriptonmz Grlleconnn er Romanorum Tetlbnenllna CAH Cilmbridge Ancrent Hinory CB Col/ection Bucle CIG Corpm Imcripriomnn Graecarutn CIL Corpus Imcriptiomnn Latin.mpn
CIS Corpus Imcriptiommz SemiticaTUm CSEL Corptu Scriptonnn Ecclrsisticonnn Latinorum CVA Corpus V/lSorum AmiquoTUm FGrN FHG
Jacoby,Die Frllgmente der griechischen Hinoriker Müller, Fragmentll Hiftoricol-wn Grllccorum
Gereke-Norden A. Gcrcke and E. Norden, Eillieitung in die Altertumpwissemcbllft
(cd. J,Berlin l917)
IG lmcriptiones Grllecae ILS Dess:,:m Imcriprioncs Latinaf Selectllf LCL Loeb C/assic,,/ Libr"ry
MGH Alonumenta GermIWille Historica Müller I. v. Müller, cl 111., eels., HamJbuch der Altertzrmpwissenschaft
OCD O;r;ford ClIlSsical Dictionary OCT O;r;ford ClIlSsical Te;r;ts = SCTiptorum CIIIssicorum Bibliotheca O;r;oniemis prR PrOJopogrllphilllmperii Ramm; PW
See RE '99
Abbrt'lJÜltionr
RE A. Pauly and G. Wissowa, eds., Real-Encyclopidie d� cLurischtm AltntU11lS'Wisstmfchll{t A. Rosenberg, Einleitung und Qlltlltmktmde zur TömischmGeschicbre (Berlin '911) SB SitZllngsbtricbre Schllm-Horius M. SChan.... Gescbicbte du römiscben LitUlltur, rc viscd by C. Hosius (4 vok: vol. I, cd. 4> '917; vol l, RosenbeTg
cd. 4> '935; vol. 3, cd. 3. 1911; vol. 4, 1 parts, 1914 and
Schmid-Stfihlin
19�O): pan of Müller
W. Schmid and O. Stiihlin, Guchichtc du griechisch
n i 4 parts: vol. 1.1, '929; 1.1, '934; 1.1, ed. 6, 1920; 2.2, cd. 6, 1914): pan of Müllu
en LiteTatur (1 voJs.
SEG Suppleme1ltum Epigraphicum Grllecum SIG Dittenbcrgcr, Sylloge lnscriptionum Grllwmnn
PART 11: PEIlIODICALS
AA Archiiologischu Anuigu (Supplement to 'DA/) ABA W Abhmdlungen du Bilytrischtm Akildrmie du Wissen Jcbizfun, Phi/os.-Hist. Klasse ABSA AooUit/ of the British Schoolilt Athens ABult The Art Bulletin AC L'Antiquitl ClIlssiqra ADAW /Jbhundlungen d� Dtutscbm AkAdemie deT Wissen scbizfte1J zu Btrlin, KLrsse für Sprachen, LituatuT und K=" AHAW Abbandlungen der Hride/b�gu Akadrmie du Wis senschaften, Phi/os.-Hist. KhJse AHR American Historicl:l R.nIiew AI The Archaeological Joumal AIA AmeTiclln Journal of Arcbaeology AIPh Amtr;clln 'OUrtlill of Phililogy Al{ Antike Kunst AKG Archiv für Kulturgeschichu Aa D� Alte Orient AOF Archiv für Orientforrclnmg APF Archiv für Papyrusforrclnmg und tIlMlJllndu Gebiete APh L'A.""it Philologique ARW Archiv für Religi07lS'Wissenrchll{t Al: Zritschrift für figyptische Sprache AlttTtUm Das Altertum Amiquity Amiquity ArcbCLrss Archeologia CLrsrica Arcbaeofogy Archaeology Arion Arion
Abbrl1li4tions
JOt
Atbroi/e1mI Athrnaeum A&R Aune e R01ll"BtlSO Bullt,in of tbt tlmtricltn Schools of Orirollt! ReultTcb in IC'WIt!em It1Id Bltgbdltd BCH Bullttin dt COrTtspondanct HelfhJiqut
BO Bib/iotheca Orirota/i, Btrytus BtrytUl DyzZ Byuminischt Zriucrift Byumion By':Jlmion CJ Tbc Clmicallournal CPh C!Duical Phi/ology CQ Cl.uncal Qu-UttTJy CR Cl.uncltl Rt'llin!J CT Ltl Cabitrs dt Tunhit CIV Tbt CIMt;cal World DLZ Dtll/Jcbe Uuraturuitung EHR Engli1h Historical Rt'lliMO Eranos EraJ/ot F&F Farschungm U1Id FDT'tScbrilu GGA Göttingilcbe Grlebrte Anuigm GI Tbc GeograpbicallouT7UlI
GRBS artel!, Ram.m and By':Jlmine Studiel Ouma Glottlt Gnomon OnDmon Gymn.uium. ay11t1lillium GoR GrtcctandRume HSPb Hlltlmrd Studiel in Clatrical fbilD!ogy HT History To-day
HTbR Harvn'd TbtDfogiclt1 Rtt,;tw HZ HistDriscbe Zeitscbrift Htmlatbena HeTmiltbena Hermtt Hermel Hesperia Httptria Hin"",, HillDria HiSlory Hist01Y IF IndoKenmmiscbe Forschungen [raq lr,,-q Iris Iris JA /Dum.J1 AIUttiq� lAOS lounul o( tbt tlmtrican OrimtQl SDCitty
lAS
IDU17lfJ.l o( tbc Asilltic Society 0' Greltt Brilltin tmd Ire!Dnd
TAlV Burlian's labmbtticbt
Abbreviatiom
JOJ
JCUN Jounul of Cundform Studirs JDAI Jahrbuch drs Dffluchrn Archiiofogiscbrn fmtitms JEA Journal of Egyption. Archaeology JEH J0UT1U11 of EcclesiItical History JHf Jot/rnal of the Hiswry of !deas JHS Journal of Hellene i Srudies JNES JNG JRH JRS JlVI JbAC Klio LEC
Journal of NeilT &Stern Studies Jahrbuch für Numismatik II1/d Geldgmbichte J0UT1U11 of RrUgiout Hino,y Journal of Roman Studies JoumIl of the lVarbu'g and Courtauld Institute Jahrbuch für Antikr und Christrntum Klio Les t.rudes Clarriques
Latomus Latonms MAAR Memoirr of the AmericanAcademy in Rome MAL Memorie de/Ia Clasre di Scienze morali r swriche dell_ 'lIccademia dei Lincei MOOG Mitteilungrn der Deutschen Orirnt-Geullsch.* MH Muteum Hel'IIClicum Mnemosyne MlIemosyne Ne Numismatic Chronicle md Journal of tlUt Numimutie Sodery NCUo La NouwUe Clio NJII Nroe Jahrbücher NSA Notizie degliScavi di IIntichitd NT Novum. Testamentum NTS New Tmament Studies NZ Numismatische Zdtscbrift OLZ Oriemaliniscbe Literaturuitung PIlPhS Proctedmgs of the IImerican PhilosophieaI Society PBII Proceedmgs of the Britirh IIcadet/ly PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome PCII I'roctedings of the CkmicalllrtocUition PCPhS l'roceedings of the Cambridge Philological Socirty PP Paideia Philologur Phoeniz Phrenetis P&P RA
La l'aro/4 dei Passato Paideia I'hil% gus Phoenb: Pbrollesis Past ll1Id Present Ret;ue IIrcblologique
203
Abbrtviarioru
RAt Remlicomi della Claue di Scienze 11I0rali, storiebe e fi/ologiche delfAccademia dei REA Revue des l:tudes Ancimnes
tincei
REHy: Revue des t.wdes Byumines REG Revue des f:tudes Grecques REL Revue des f:tudes Latints RH Revue Historique RLAC Real/erikon für Antike und Christentum RN Revue NU11Iismatique RSI Rivista Swrica Ita/ima RhM Rheiniscbes Museum SA JVJV Sit=gsbericbtt der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien SBAW SilzungsbeTichte der Hayerisehen Akademie der lI'is semchllften, Phi/os.-Hist. Kkuu SDAJV SirzungsbeTichu der Deutsche11 Akademie der Wiss enschaften zu Berlin, Klasse fÜT Philosophie, Ge schichte, StiUts-, lUchts- rmd WirtschllftswisJtn sCbafttn SE StIld; EtTUschi SHA W Sitzungsberichte der Heide/bergeT Akademie der IVis semcbaften, Philos.-Hist. Klasse SO SymboJae Os/oemes Saeculrml Saeculmll SPA W Situmgesberichte deT PTeuuischen Akademie der lI'is semcbafttn StudRom Stud; Rcmumi Syria' Syria TAPhA
Tra1/Sactio1/S and Proceedings of the Americall Phi/ologicil/ Associ ation
VCbr Vigili4e Cbristianlle VT Vaus Testamenitmt WG Die Welt als Geschichte YCIS Ya/e Classica/ Studies ZA Zeitschrift für AssyrioloJ{ie ZATW Zeiucbrift fÜT die Alttestamentliche Wissemchaft ZDMG Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesell_ schaft ZII Zeitschrift für Indologie und IranistiI: ZNTW Zeitschrift für die Neuustlf11/entliche WissemchJft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche ZRG Zeitschrift der Savigny-$tiftung fÜT RechtJgeschichte (Rommistische Abteilung)
Index of Names
Abra/l2.m, 111 Abyssinia. !i Aehaem Lngue. iL !U
Anrus, mcmoi,., of, Et 8J Ar<:hilochU$, 1.2:t !!!
Aristeu. 86 Aristoph.nes.
Achxmenids, � Aehilles. histoncity of, u.8
Aeropolu. � Actium, ba n:r.: of, .2I" Z Adcock, F. E., !.i Adius Ansridcs. H Acmilius PauluJ, L., � � Aemilius Scaurus. M., I!J Aencas, historicity 0(, !.!.2 Aeschylus· ll
Agamenon, hisloricity of, ,,8: Agripp;>. M. Vi�niUJ, ,,",arid m.p ur. i,! Aigospol'moi. battlc ur. !2 Akhdians, I! Albcrtini, E.. !..2 Alc:atus, !..!! Alt1l.ndtt "ihe Gte
ulI
Amc:nophis 111 and IV, d6 AmmiamlS "brctllinm:. 'U f., � f. Amorilcs, I! An'lolia, t6 Anulkidu. pHa of, �68 Anrigonos I Monophth� � !l2 Antiochus IV. 12 Appian of Alt:.nndria, 9§.. 9!. 11� Aquiltia· ll Anbs.! f.• �
Ull
Ar�otlt, 22> !.J!:. � also Ctmsritu_ mm or l� AMn I /61l f Arn.ccni:ans. l! Mri.n of NH:omedia. � Lll Al'S:lmes, 66 Anoxcrxcs 11, 68 A$clcpion, in EpidJ.uN$, !ll. Asconius PedillllllS, Q., � Assur, uB Assurb�nir:'I, !2.i libr:try of, � 22 Assur.nbl L � Assur.nadin-nabbc L �
Assyrims, l!!! U. �1!.. lli law of, � AssyrioloJty, � Athenian Tribute Lists, !l! Atthis, AUbin, w Aufidius Busu$, � IlfI Augu.stinc, 51:.. 22z !.!.l AugllStuS, 21t !.l.2. !.4!!i mcmoirs of, " r. Aurdian. � Aurdiw Vlct oc, Se:nus, � 1I.6 f. Avuis, l! Avignon, a
R.
Babylonian Ouoniclc,!9 BabyIonians, i! Ba�hylidcs, !..t! BarKoch� !M
Buqucs. � Beauforr, Louis dc, 9:t Bcc:k, H.. G., � Bckhcath, J. r.; uJ
"!
Index
Bell,K l., !.i!: Belach, Kar! Julios, !], !i. � !2,. �
Bemler, Richard, Z.ll � Berget,Hugo, §..!
Berlin, Univcrsity of, 11 Berossus, 2JJ. LI>lI Berve, I::b I� Besnier, M., !.2
Bickenmnn, E., U Bismuck, 1I B ittcl, Kurt, l6 Blumenbach, J. F.• �
Boccaccio, 1 Böckh, August. � Boghazkäi, L6 Borghesi. Count B:molommeo, ') BorySlhenites, M
Bosporus. .i!I
B�glia, Laun, !11 Bücher, Karl., .8 Bultmann, Rudolph, 1I1 Bura, �f. Burckbardt,Jacob, UlD Bursiam ]aMcJbericbu. !.7.! Byumtine Studios. J..6!i Byumrmiscbc Zci/Scbrift, � Byuntium, h 1!
Denr, Gaius Julius, 1.. !.!. � f., i21 2.h B.J f., 2!t !.l.!..i cakndar ccfnnn
of, � � !.fu mcmoin uf, � Cacsarian Corpus, � !.1! Clf1nbridge A1Ici<m1 History, !.9. l.! Clfmbridge Medieval Hi srtw'j, !.2 Carcnpino, }., !.9
Carillns, �
Cartlu.ge, � Cassiodorus, !J.. 2!. !.!.! Cusius Dia Coc<:eianus, !.!>:t hi his torical woxk of, l!§ f.; bibliography o� = GaIO Censor. M. Porcius, 12:. Zli his torical wozk 01, 21 f.; bibUognphy o� ... Catulus, Q. Luutill5, 8J Chalcidians, l!.Sl f. Chaldaean chroniclc:s, LQ1 ChampoUion, Jean Fran�is le Jeune,
.,
OIarlemagne, f Ch;lJles Mutd, 5 Charlesworth, M. P', !2
Charon of Lampsacw, � E. Ch�ttuW, 1.6
� !.Ei
'"
eDr","Inscriptionum u.tinarum, !A..'.....!i! f. CorfT/lsInscriptionum Smliti�arum, 'B
Corpus lInis Civilis, Z!! Corpus nummorum, 111 Corpus PIIP,rorum, W Council ofNicaea,4 Cntippus, 9..L !5 Crement River,battle oE, ente, i.6
0.-. =
Ctesiphon, !.;..2 Crmt.7rb;, q"';: of, I !.2
UJ
"'7 Cumonr. Fn.u, !.i Curnus Rufus, Q.. 9J., IUI
Ebg1In1US. �
Cyprus, � Cypselus, Ull Cyrene, u..t !.l2
Enlightenmcnt. 9: Ennculckoercris, � Ensslin. W., �
Cybele. �
uius Lib 12
D DariuslJl. u(j
D.::ad Sea Serolls, � � Deeembrio. Pier Candldo. 1 Ddian uague. � !.l!! �litz.S(:h. Friednch. !1 �los, !.2. !.l1 lklphi. !.2. !.L !l1
Oe�rrius Poli'u'kcres. � � � Dcmosthcn«. !!l. U. Z:b � ktten of. u,M D.::r-el-Bahui. !.!I Oe !».nctis, Gacrano. !!. 1..2:. � � Desnu. tL. w Di�dochi. 2.!....2! D;,,,im�,�. !Jl
f)idyrnaion of Milcrus.• u8 DidymllJ of Alexandria. M, !..i!.
Vi,,". !..l
Dio Chrysostom. H.!cl Diocl.man. l! Diodorus Slculus, H. U. !.!!.o !..W bibJiognph)' on. � DiolWsiul h 19 Dion}·siul E>:iguu., ]' Diooysiul of H�licamassus. 9.L !..!!2 Dioo)"Siul of Mllerus. � f. Dion)"SiuJ PCl;lIvius. �I Dion)'lus, !..l2 Dip)'lon 51)'le. 1]8 Dincnbergc�. \V., ill Dodckaschomol. !.!.l Dölger. F.. � Uomirian. M. � oll•• '"""' Dop>ch, I\[ f f)örpfdd. W.• !.!'l Dnco. � Dro)'$Cn. Jnlnnn GUSllV. !.:I f·. !.!. 1 2 Dura-Europul. !..!!.. !.:I! Egyptians, U )'plolog)'. !.!. !§. Emhud, UlII Ehmilts. �
�
E1eplunrine. 66 EI)'mi, '!.2
Ephcmerid� of Alexmder the Great. 2!! Ephc.suJ. !.1l..!.U . Ephorus or L ymc. 9:h � '..'.2.i bIbliograph)' 00. 106 Erasmus, Dcsidcnus, 1 Eratosthenes of Cyrenc:, l!.ri! f. Ern....n. Adolf, !.1 EtnlScology. �.� . Eugippus, and Lif' o{ SI. Stwrmus. !.2!!0 !.!l
Eummcs. 9.! Euscbi.., of C'�. l!.t 2l.r. 1I J Enns,Sir ""hur. L6 Etn.ucans, I' f. Fauii. u.1 FahiuJ Pktor, Q., !Q. 9:h LaB Fabiul Ru�ticus, � tu! Fabricius, E., � !.!l Fa)'um. � FC'"iuson, W. S.. !.2z � f'v,lII, Durlmllm, !.:I! n.
Fimmen, Diedrich, � Finns. � Fischer, E... u.
FosJ.JtumAfric�,. �
FraCClro,P !.i Frank, Tenncy, !.9: F«dcrick 11 of Pnl5Si� ,!l. Fredcrick WiJlj�", 111 of Pruuia, Fu!viU1; N"obilior, !.!1 .•
10.
GIJba, � Gardiner, A. a l!
G'''S.nI�I •• b...l� "r. .t..II
Gau!, t.O Gault, $:lek Rome' !9: Geb.cr, M., !l!' G",'sis, i2! !..!.l! u.8 Gcrckc. A-:, �
Gcnnanic;..,. � '.±i Gibbon, EdwlrIl. 8f. Gi�n e<>1te<:lion, '..il Glol7., GUSl2\"C, !.9: Gn07ll0n o{ IIx Idios Logos. � !..1§:
..B Goethe, 2. u.6 Gonyn, Code of, � GO[ht, �
Giittingcr Gesellschaft der Wissenf
�hltcn, � Gracchi. nvolution of, lJi i! Grcgory XIII, calendar nforrn of. !.4G...,nfdl, B. P" !.E. Grale, Geo�, !!. � II Grotdcnd, Grorg F., I I Glltschmid, Alfred von, !.§. !.E Gyges, UD
Index
Hohl,E., � � Höldcrin l ,2 Holleaux, o\hurice, !.2. !1.'! Homer, � !..!..2i as historian, � bibliography on, uu
Horace, u, w Hosius,C., � Hrozny, B., 16 Hunt, A. S., !..!! Huntingdon, E., ii Hyginus, w Hyksos, J!, .u
Habalruk, book oC, 66 Hadriln, U Hamilcar Barca, 12
Idins Logos, I!
H:mnibal, 12 Harernhab. SI
Tndo-Europc�ns,
Hammurabi, i2. !&; dating of, !.2>. il
Hatn, � HalShcp5Ut, ß lli Hcba. and thc Tllbu/" Hebimll, � Hcbrcws. See lsl'llclites. Heell.cus of Milerus, RB f. Helikc. � f. Hellanicus of Lesbos, !!2 f.
Hclw' i2> �
Idrimi, 1!.t li..1. II1yriam, � Indians. �
dossitic�tion of, InscriplicmtJ GrDtCIJt, � f. Imcr;pt;onrsl.minIJt St/reUt, W
Instinsky, H.. � lonian Revolutlon, !!2
Ionians, " name for Creeks, H
Ton of Chios, 1..!
Trani�ns, 1! Irani�n Studies. 166
I...c, !!Z
Herculos, � Hcrod.2i Hegcl, � Hellenes, as namcQf Gnt:b, � HcUcnism, L i5 defincd, !i
lsoentes. u... 22.i 1etters of, ll Isradites, iL � !..Q!, u.8
Hcrakleidcs, *'- 6.t
Jacob, !.!1 J2coby, Fex, il � Jaegt"r, Wemer, !.J, � !.l!! Jerome,Sr., E Je.". Chritt.Su Christ Jirku, A., u.8: John Antiochenu"' 2t '±l Jordan"" !J Joscph.... FLovi.... @. !.!.!.. !..l1 Joshu�. book of, tI6 Jougue!, P', !..i!
Hdveti,..",. �
Herder·2 Herodian, 2z.. ul
Hcrodotus, � U. f2, � '.8 2!. � � ,.. fllher of hirtory, !!2.; bil>
liognphy on. � f.
Hesiod, 12! !!2
Hcu .., A., �
Hieronymus of Garde., 'll
Himcr:I, barne of, �
Hipp""r:u.ic corpus, 12 Hirschfeld, 0" !.E
Hirtius, A.• S:
Hirro;u Gfnbllle, '.2
Hittircs, !1.!.L � l!.l!:. '!2i, dacing of, !.2i chronology of, 11 f.; uchives oi, � writing systems of, � l�w oi, � �fm�ls of, I!t l,Il.I
Hittite Studie$, uS6
lssus, blIttle of, u.6
Inly, U
"lt21i2," H
Ju1i�n the Apostate, 12.2t t..OO
Justi, Karl, wi Justinian, � 2!! Juven:u, �
Kadesh, bmle of, !..!i K�mak, � Karo, G., u.8:
1§:
Index
K�nyon, Sir Frederie, � K.romci�os, I' Kirchner,Joh:mnes. !:i!.> !1!l Knossos, u\ Komem�nn, Ernst, � 1.6.. Korokc, V.. !i2 Kosmos lndicopleunq, ß� Kroll, \V., IM Krumbacher, K., !§. KurdiM.n, !±'c l.3chis, wi Lactantius, '2.L !..!.1 Landsberger, Bcnno, I I
L'II'rofe phi/% giqut, !.l!
LapisNiger, � � wr, Hngh, !.2 L� Tt!n� pcriod, � I...,�uw, G. van der" 'z Lepds r.bsn., uJI Lcsquicr, j., � Leuktn. hanle of, � Leuze, Lib.nius 0 Anrioch, � I!!: Licinian-Scxtian Jaws, � Linear B, � f. Linne. Kar! von, i2 Upit_lshfar. Cod� of. !i2 Livy, !.Q., !2, !!.> li, 2J., 2ll 2§. '2.L � Wo !.i!..i hlStorlcal work of, !Mi bibliogr.phy on, !..!!2 Lombards, 'b H Lucilius, lli 8li Lu schan, Fdix "on, i2t 60. Lydi., !..ll
0"1'
Macc.bc••, � IIlachi.velli, Niccolo, !!.. Ul r.hgncs.ia on the Mc.nder, � Magyus, i§. J\Ia13l.s. john. � ,� Malic Gulf. li "'lancrho. lli wB M.nilius. 1.6.. "'brathon. banle of, l!2 Marcu. Aurdius, 2. !..!Q. � Marius Muimus. 22t '....'..1 Mark Amonr , U ""awuzuu.J" !J..! Muri.!. !..4!! M....pero, Ga'ton, '-2
M1rtingly, H" � Mausoleum of Halicama.. uo, u.II Medioet Habu, !.!S f. Mepasthenes of Olymhus, 2! "Iemecke, Friedrich, 8 Memphis, ß !..ß Menander, !..:E. Menes, !.2. Mere.ror ,i-' Metonic cyde, � f. Merer, Eduard, !... � U, u. � !!l... ' 25 2nd Gtrcbicbtt des Alt�tlnm, 111f. ; .nd Egyptian calendar, ;J Middle Ages.! f.• 1.6.. Milctus, uJl. � ""iltiades, lllI Mitanni. i! Mi,hr�ism. !.i! r.lictclhaus, K" � Mohammed. :I: Moltke, Helmuch voo, � Momm>en, Thcodor, U, ;..z.. l!.! !i2.. � !..'l.! f., � � major romri buno"" of, '-'=!..:I: Momigliano, A., !.2 Momesquieu, !!" 1.0 Müller, Ivan von, � Mulvian Bridge. batde at, � Munich CommiSlrion for AnciCIU HistOI")' and Epigftlphy, 68 Münzer, F., � 111}'cale. halde of, !3 "" yccnae, 11I
N''1sh-i-Ru,t:om, !!1. Nanmsin. u6 Namlcr, s..; N.up.ct\lS' eacc of, .8 Nurcllus 0 Cre!e, 2! Nebuchadnezzar, 1.! N�ug�bauer, Ono, l.!i
r
New Testameot, IIZ
NichnI:IS oE D.m"-'Cus, 2ll !..!!2 NicllInedi•• 1!! Niclluhr, Danhold Gcorg, :.. U, l.!. i!.J
!i> �
!..l.$. .nd Römi
tchichtr. Ulf.
Nicbuhr.Camcn, 1.O ?\icbuhr, Morcm, IZ Niese. B., � Niki.s. 11I Nilc Ri,·cr. � �
'"
Index
Nibson, Martin p.. !'1.. ;!I,. u!. lllI f.,
Pliny thc Younger. Mo � letten of,
N""h, � Norden, E., !§2, !l!! Norno. Mcdea, '.!! Noth, M.. u..8
Pluurch of ehaemn"a, 1..!." � biag_ I'lIphic:s of, 22i bibliography on, !..!J Pöhlmann, Roben von, � 1� Poirien, b:lttle of, 1 Polybius, t !..Q, !2. � 2h 'lli 2!!. !!Zt � hiSiorical work oe, 2! f.; Iiin:: liography on, l.QCi f. Polycr:ltes, UD. Pompeii, u..a Pom�ius Trogus, !l! 2L !.S!2
'"
Noriti� Dignirlltum' l! Numlntis, siege of' !.!l.! !E
Octaeteris, !1 OdOliccr. 'i OldTestament, 66 QLiver,j· !:b M Olymp;a, !§. !.l1 Onesicriros 01 Astypalca, 2! Orchomenus, Ui Orosius, Paulus, 21>..!..!l Ostil, u.8. Quo, WIller, u..z.. � !l!!
Ovid, t6.I
Oxyrhynchos, � OxyrbYPlchOI Hdlenikll, �
P:lis, E., !'1.. lllI Paul, Sr., !.i! P2uLy. A., � Pausanios, i5 f., lllI P:aYi:a., � Peisistr:ltus. lllI PclopOlUlcsian War, 2Q Perptr!um. !.!!!. !.l1
Pettandu, lllI Pcrseus, � !.l1 Pcrsia, !1 Persi2ru. � ffi f§ Pem"" War, I.i Pctruch. z Peuonius, � Pena:r.oni, R.. I lZ Phalaris. lemn of, u.1h Philip 11 of Macedon, !..4. !b !1. 'MI 9.!.....!..!.2
PhiJochorns, 2Q
PhiJoxenus, u.6
Phrygians, � Pig:miol, A., !.2.. !.l..! Pinnn", Henri, � L6.J
Pioo,2§. Platllea, battle of, !lt �
PIlro, !1!!; leuen of, 11l !!!i Plinr thc Elder,� ILO
1.!l:..!.i
Pose,deon, 1.6
Poseidoniu5 of Apamea. l2tti. 2!J'1;b 2.ii historical work of, 2li bibliog_ r:lphyon, � PosrumiusTuberrus, A., '" Prcmcrstcin, A. von, � Priene, !.!t � Principate, hiSioriogr:lphy of, 2i ff.,
�
P ntchett, \V. K.. 1.6
Procopiu! of c.eurca, 2!J 2!!. !..!.4 Propc:nius, Wo
ProfopagrapbiD AttiCD, !.!!> � ProsopogTllpbiD /mpmi Romani. !f!.,.
�� Pcussian Acadcmy of Scicnccs, u Ptolemaic royal canon, � Ptolemy !.. !..iii "" military historian, 2.! f.; fr:lgments of, � Ptolemy 11, !..i] Ptolemy 111, � � Ptolemy, Claudius, i:J � PuchSicin, Qno, 16 Pydna, ban!e of, u§.. � Pyrchu., mcmoin of, E! IU Ram= 11, !.!t. !!.i Ram"'y,SirWiIliam, !.i! Ranke, Leopold von, !.4
Rat:l:eJ, Friedrich, i2 Ravenna, harbor of, 11
Ravenna Cosmngr:lpher, 4!..t � Rawlinson, Sir Henry, '1
RCDI-ElIcyclop5dic dtT CIDSriJcbm
AlltTIImIJ'Il.�JJemcbafl. !.@.. !.l..!
" Re«ption," � Rechmite, I! Rhegium, caprure of, '-2 Rhenanus, BcatuS, Z Rhodes, lL..2.S
11ldo: Rienw, Cola d;, z f. Roben, L, ill Robinson, E. 5., � Romulus Augustulus, i Rosena stom:, 'f Rostovtzeff, Michael, !.'lo Roussel, Pierre, !!l Rowlcy, H.!:h llB Rühl,F., � Rutiliu. Ruf us, P., 8J
12. 7J, !!2
Salamis, bmlc of, � � Salamis, in Cyprus, battle of, !..il Sa!lust, B 2.'.. � historical work of, m bibliography on, 86 f., l.ll8. Sam.ra, !!.9: Samtiadad !. !.2 Sanhcrib, uti Sapor L !.!1 Sappho, � S.....pis, � Sardis, .u.z Sarman.n., Ul S.vigoy, Friedrich Kar! .-on, 1 1 Scaliger, J. J" l! Schanl., M., � Schoefer, Amold, !.i Schorf!", A., !.it ll.t i!. Schede, Manin, L6 SchiUer, 2 Schllemann, Heinrich, !!. � !!.. !..!.!!, ""
Schmid, W., !.!!2 Schr.der, Eberh.rd, 11 SchulY.ln, \V., !.i! Schuchardt, Hugo, U Schuhen, Adolf, !..!1 Schulz, Fritz. !.y Schulze, \Vilhdm, !.!i; Schwanz, Eduard, � !..Z!:! Schwyzer, Edu3rd, ,� Sdp'o Ae",;l;�""•. 'l!> !..!.I Scipio Afric.nus Maior, f2, 6.z
ScripwreJ HiJlori.u Allgusr"f, �
� h;storical work of, 22 f.; biJi:: liography on, I '1 f. Sc}'ths, III &cond Corimhion League, � f. &cond Sophistic. 2..'. Seleucia on thc Tigris, !!2 Seleucus 1...!.z &miles, �
&neca, 1J.., � Septimius Severus, !AQ,!.4§: Se.oscris 111, 1.8 Seti, !. u� Seven agamst Thebcs, 1111 Se,-erus Alexander, 100 Sharr.al-Arab, 11 Sirius, !.i. ll: 1.8 $oeiol War, U $oeratQ, UA Socmic Corpus, 1..S Soden, \ Vol f ra m Freiherr von, '1 Solon, i!1!!2, 1:! Sommer,Fcrdmand, !.!i; Sophism, U, 2'?: f. Sothis, u.. u f. Spart., � Spcrcheios River, 11 Spcusippus, "lli !..!.2 Spina, u.8 Srihlin, 0., !.!!2 Stein, Baron von, In Str:lho of Amosea, i!.! lli w. Suctonius Tranqu illus, C, 2!b J.!22, 1 !1 Sulb, Z!. 8.1 Sumcrians, � Sybel, H. von, !.!!2 Sykutris, J., 11 Sylloge JmCTipri01lIlt>/ GriUcanmr, !.i!!
Syme, R., !'l Symmachus, � Synchtonistic Hi,tory. !.2 Synesius of Cyrene, �f. T�b"IQ Pe",ingeri",,�, i!.z � T'cirus, 'l2.. � � 2.'.. 'lli 'lli !Mo 2z. '-4ii historlcal wor\,; of, 2S I.; bib_ Ilography on, ILQ f!". Tarn, \V. \V', !'l T�ublu, Eugen,� TeL.uni.. !"U Tcrminoli., !.l Thopsus, bude of, 11 Thebes, � Thcmistius, !1i Themistode., !..!2i portrait-herrn 01, i.!.; forr:d letters 01, 11 Theodoltu$lI, Z!': Thcophrosrus. 22 Thcopompus of Chios, 2!.> !l!. !!:!S Therrnopyl.e, 11
Indcx Th..s..u'fflS U"gua� u./inae, lti8 Theseu., !..!.9: Thomscn, P.• !.l! Thoth. �
Ve5p...ian, '.ß � Vitelli, G., !i.': VitrUvius, ull Voltaire, 2
Thucydides. !2.l!. � l!2..2!. � � main hiororica] wurk of, � f.; bib_ ljagr.phy on, �f. Thugga, u8 Thmmose 111, lli Tiberius, 21> � .utobiogr:lphy of,
Weber, W., ') Wcidncr, E. F', !1! WeHes, C. B., !.l9. Wcllhauscn, Julius, !..!1 Wiegand. T., !!.t � Wilamowitl.-Modlcndorff, utrkh von, !l f•• !.!L u§, !.1!': Wilbour Pa yru s, Z! Wilckcn, Urich, � !..!!..t !.l5! Wilhdm,Adolf, l� Wi!!, Eduard, !1! Wimpfeling, Jacob, Z Winde1mann, 1. j., '1 Winckler, uS \Vissowa, Grorg. L6lI Wolf, F. A., LQ Wolf, Julius, i!. Wölfllin, E., L6lI
Thro.d�l1$, 51
S,
Tillemont. Lenain de, I! Tim.c"" of Tauromenium, 2!. LO!I Timpd, uJI Tiryns. lli Tocharians. s! Tours. barne of, S Trojan, l.t 2:b 2§.. !..!§ .nd Plioy'. lcncrs, Z! f.; column of, � Tri..st.. (Tcrgc:;tc). l'. Troy, uS Turks, 2.� Tunn papyr us of the kings, !2 Twdvc Tables, � V.kntini.n IJI, � Volenan, !.!2 v.n., Lllreruo. 1 Vdnqucz, u.6 Vclleius Patuculus, !lL " Vcrgil, i.5. uiz Verriu. Flac<:"", lli1
0
r.
Xcnophon. � 73. � 22! � his. to..�.l 'WOrk ;;r, 2!J biblioS....phy on. � Xerxes. � Yak Unjvcrsity, u8 Ziegler, K., L6lI
Index ofTopics
Ac�dcmies, � f. Anthropology. [� u. � Archeology, !J An.histom:al: [.6-['7
Lmguag., iLiiJ U bw, � � Roman, '--'..t !!.. !1, ß i'.!. E. !J1i Greek, � Egyp
Biognphy,98-JOO, !.12 f.
Linguisdcs,
r.
Cdendars, z1i::::.lJI C il)'-plans, uR Climare, ß H f. Commcrce.±! Coin., sNdy or. ill f.; Gr«k, !iL !i!; Roman, � f.,
�
'" Dictionnies, u:ilI Disease. � Docum"nts.� tI. Enc)'dopedias. !M. !oE
Fm;. ,J2. f.
I'ronners, � Gwgraphy. J tI.
Hi.lor;:I11, J
Historiography: of Rome, B f., W of G�l'<:e, '1 f., !..:i f., LlI. f.; of 's, '.'li of �neient Hellenisti" Age, . Neor wt. !.2i ofl'i:: \Jgmn, '-21 an den" � ff.; ]OC)], � uni,·.rsal, V
cian, 11
Loners, M=lli 85-87
� J66-IISZ
Manuals, � ill
"hps. 40-.1'
1'11 :155.5, 6,...(i1
Memoirs, � 8,-8, Miliu.ry D[plon l :L5, !JJ
N'Qtion, � Creek, Ih
COiiSciousness, il NationalNeohumanism, !.i=.!..L 19:1Jl Onton, n=:zi, 81-85 Pamphlets. � Panegyri., � Papyri: sNdy of, ':1'-'41; litcruy, $ documentary, �
PenO
Philology,
''!li-,1 61
lOn, l l..lI::.I H Population, !l! � Propaganda, � t.OO Prosopograpny� !..i.!..J ,68-,6Q, '7'
PopularTra
'73
Ra.e, � in Attica, 50-51; and language, 60.
Individual, Inscripti )[1s: ��m, u. !.b � � ff., � . !J..' ff., Gre<:k, � !1l. � ff.i [m_ pan.nec of, I� rcsm!':uion of, !.lZ..i distribution of, '17-'18.
Script, 0 Series, !.l2 Synchron[sm. ,8-'9
Journals, scholarly: � !.H=.'.ll
Trealies, � z!! f., 15! f.
� tu
"3
,
